Essay 03 Design Document

ENIAC

A Secret War Initiative Becomes An Engineering Marvel

IXDS5503: Media History and Theory Lindsey Wilson College Professor, Jason Occhipinti May 1, 2015 By: Venus M. Popplewell

ENIAC

A Secret War Initiative Becomes An Engineering Marvel

Victory at any cost

Government bureaucracy was tabled on December 7, 1941 when Japan

was the primary

attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor and America officially entered

motivation for the explosion

World War II. The government turned to the intellectual forces in the mathematics and science departments at American universities to employ the forefront concepts in engineering. Shipbuilding, aircraft production,

of engineering

bomb and weapon development needed to be efficient and revolution-

innovation

ary to unsettle the Germans. Scientists were given a full portfolio of re-

during the 1940s.

sources and money to accomplish the objectives of the wartime effort.

The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, known as the ENIAC, was the world’s first programmable, all electronic, general-purpose digital computer. It was commissioned by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. “The ENIAC ushered in a new era of startling scientific innovation” (Weik, 1961). ENIAC was heralded in the press as a “giant brain” and could calculate 5000 operations per second, faster than any device yet invented. ENIAC was the prototype from which most other modern computers evolved (Weik, 1961). However, the ENIAC is shrouded in controversy due to patent

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disputes at the hand of its inventor.

Conception and Development The idea of a huge computing machine was in the air long before the bombing of Pearl Harbor.

“In late 1939, Harvard professor Howard Aiken was building the Mark I, a giant calculator. At Bletchley Park in England, cryptographers would oversee the construction of a special-purpose, code-breaking machine called Colossus” (Levy, no date).

Several years before Colossus in the U.K., a German scientist named, Konrad Zuse, built a giant, programmable, computer called the Z3 – it was destroyed during WWII. In the late 1930s, an Iowa State professor by the name of John V. Atanasoff began work on his own calculating machine. With the help of a graduate student named Clifford Berry, they built “ABC” (Atanasoff-Berry Computer). ABC was single purpose, not totally electronic, and slower than a rotary calculator. It never completely worked as envisioned (Martino, 2009).

The Army Ordnance Department had the responsibility for the design, development, procurement, storage and issue of all combat material and munitions for the

J. Presper Eckert Jr.

Dr. John W. Mauchly

Army. Upon the outbreak of the

fessor J.G. Brainerd brought to

war in Europe, one of the first

the Ordnance committee an out-

tasks of the Ordnance Depart-

line of the technical concepts un-

ment was to seek improvement in

derlying the development of a

mechanical aids to computation

fully electronic, digital computing

(Weik, 1961). It was known the

machine. The outline had been

Moore School of Engineering at

prepared by professor Dr. John

the University of Pennsylvania

W. Mauchly and a graduate stu-

had a differential analyzer that

dent named J. Presper Eckert. It

could calculate ballistic computa-

detailed the technical and mathe-

tions that was larger than any-

matical specifications of the

thing the Army had at its

ENIAC (Weik, 1961).

disposal. “Therefore one of the first steps taken was to award the

Like others whose work required

University of Pennsylvania with a

tedious calculations, John

contract by the Ordnance Depart-

Mauchly wanted to invent a ma-

ment for the utilization of this de-

chine to do them for him. Ac-

vice” (Weik, 1961).

cording to Isaacson (2014) in late 1940, he confided in some

Lieutenant Herman H. Goldstine,

friends that he hoped to pull to-

a Reserve Officer of the Ord-

gether enough information to

nance Department was assigned

make a digital electronic com-

to duty at the Moore School as a

puter. “We are now considering

supervisor of computational and

construction of an electrical com-

training activities. In the early

puting machine,” he wrote (p.

part of 1943, Goldstine and pro-

65). In December of that same

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is there any objection, from your point of view, to my building some sort of computer which incorporates some of the features of your machine?” (Isaacson, 2014, p. 70). The ‘computer’ in which Mauchly was referring, would eventually become the ENIAC.

The ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)

“The issue of what inspirations Mauchly gleaned during his visit with Atanasoff in Iowa” would turn into a legal dispute that would last for more than ten years (p. 82).

J. Presper Eckert Jr. was the instructor of Mauchly’s electronics

John Atanasoff

Clifford Berry

sylvania. Eckert was a 24-year-

year, “Mauchly happened to

involving rotating commutators for

old engineering genius and

meet John Atanasoff, setting off a

switching, it was not by any

graduate assistant. He was de-

series of events followed by years

means what I had in mind,”

scribed as “undoubtedly the best

of disputes over Mauchly’s

Mauchly remembered (Isaacson,

electronics engineer in the Moore

propensity to gather information

2014, p. 67).

School” (Winegrad and Akera,

from different sources” (Isaacson,

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course at the University of Penn-

1996).

2014, p. 65). In June 1941,

As Mauchly was preparing to

Mauchly visited Atanasoff’s home

leave Iowa, he received news

By the end of 1941, Mauchly

in Iowa to inspect the ABC calcu-

that he had been accepted into

was teaching physics at Penn and

lation machine he was develop-

an electronics development

sharing his vision of a computing

ing. Atanasoff had developed a

course at the University of Penn-

machine with Eckert. Mauchly

partly operational machine that

sylvania. During the summer of

convinced Eckert to join him in his

could be constructed inexpen-

1941, Mauchly got the chance to

quest to develop a fully inte-

sively. Mauchly was impressed

work with the differential ana-

grated, all electronic computing

but uninspired. “I thought his ma-

lyzer at the Moore School of Engi-

machine that could be applied to

chine was very ingenious, but

neering and wrote to Atanasoff,

any mathematical problem. On

since it was in part mechanical,

“The question in my mind is this:

June 5, 1943, the military com-

The Women of ENIAC

mission on the new computer

electrons and not on paper tape

for the ENIAC. They were called

began (Weik, 1961).

or punch cards as its predeces-

“computers” and their jobs ini-

sors. According to Martino

tially entailed switching around,

“The proposed work was to

(2009) the ENIAC worked at an

by hand, the cables and switches

last six months and cost

electronic speed of 5000 opera-

of the ENIAC. Because these jobs

$61,700--a vast underestima-

tions per second. It had no mov-

were considered an extension of

tion, it would turn out, of both

ing parts and most importantly,

clerical work, they were filled by

time and money. ENIAC

the next operation could proceed

women, as was the practice of

wouldn't be tested internally

immediately without waiting for

the day. According to Isaacson

for two and a half years at a

paper tapes or human interven-

(2014), “at first the programming

final cost of $487,000. De-

tion. Its first programs included a

seemed to be routine, perhaps

spite the overruns, however, it

study of the feasibility of the hy-

even menial. But what the women

was an engineering marvel”

drogen bomb.

of ENIAC soon showed, and the

(Kanellos, 2006).

“The ENIAC contained 17,468

Programming and the Public Demonstration

vacuum tubes, along with 70,000

Six technicians were largely re-

resistors, 10,000 capacitors,

sponsible for working the mathe-

1,500 relays, 6,000 manual

matical equations and

switches and 5 million soldered

programming functions of the ma-

joints. It covered 1,800-square-

chine. Jean Jennings, Marlyn

feet of floor space, weighed 30

Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman, Betty

tons and consumed 160 kilowatts

Snyder, Frances Bilas and Kay

of electrical power” (Bellis, no

McNulty were female mathemati-

date). Numbers were “stored” in

cians recruited to run calculations

men later came to understand,

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J. Presper Eckert Jr. (front, left) and Dr. John Mauchly (middle) working in the ENIAC room with unidentified programmers.

was that the programming of a

missile trajectory calculations

number studies, wind tunnel de-

computer could be as significant

within 15 seconds – a task that

sign and continued work on the

as the design of its hardware.”

would have taken human ‘com-

design of the hydrogen bomb.

puters’ several weeks to accomThe war ended in August of

plish (Isaacson, 2014). The men

Acclaimed scientist and engineer

1945. The ENIAC wasn’t com-

celebrated their success and were

Dr. John Von Neumann, who was

pleted until November of that

lauded by the press. Neither the

instrumental in the Manhattan

same year. Because the ENIAC

Army, nor the University of Penn-

Project, made several modifica-

was being used for atom bomb

sylvania recognized the female

tions to the ENIAC in 1948. He

calculations and other classified

programmers. It would be

added a converter code to en-

tasks, it was kept secret until Feb-

decades before their pioneering

able serial operations. This hard-

ruary 15, 1946 when the Army

contributions to the discipline of

ware alteration would improve

and Penn scheduled a gala un-

computer programming and soft-

the programming difficulties

veiling for the public and press

ware would be brought to public

ENIAC would encounter when it

(Isaacson, 2014). The unveiling

awareness.

would run programs concurrently

of the ENIAC made the front

Computer Flashes Answers, May

The Influence of the ENIAC and the Patent Dispute

Speed Engineering’ (Isaacson,

Although the war was over, the

through 1952 when it served

2014). Using instructions written

ENIAC was still put to work by

as the main computation work-

by the female programmers, the

the military doing calculations for

horse for the solution of the

ENIAC demonstration impressed

weather predications, cosmic-ray

scientific problems of the na-

onlookers by computing a set of

studies, thermal ignition, random-

tion. It surpassed all other ex-

page of the New York Times under the headline ‘Electronic

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(Bellis, no date).

“The ENIAC led the computer field during the period 1949

isting computers put together whenever it came to problems involving a large number of arithmetic operations. It was the major instrument for the computation of all ballistic tables for the U.S. Army and Air Force” (Weik, 1961).

The ENIAC embodied almost all the components and concepts of today’s high-speed, electronic digital computers. Its designers conceived what has now become standard circuitry. Historians acknowledge that other computers came earlier – the Z3, Colossus and controversially, the AtanasoffBerry (ABC) Computer. But ENIAC arguably accomplished something more important. “It sparked the imagination of scientists and industrialists” (Kanellos, 2006).

Regrettably, the dispute over the ENIAC patent soured the memories of many people associated with the ENIAC project and other efforts. Patents were a fickle topic during those days with many inventors scrambling to legitimize their ideas. Eckert and Mauchly applied for a patent in 1947 for their work on ENIAC. The patent system is a slow process and it wasn’t granted until 1964. By that

Female programmers of the ENIAC

time, the patent rights had been

ing to Isaacson (2014) “the case

sold to Sperry Rand Corporation.

did not determine, even legally,

Due to pressure by large compa-

who should get what proportion of

nies to enforce licensing fees, a

the credit for the invention of the

legal investigation began into the

modern computer” (p. 82). It sim-

concept development of the

ply gave Atanasoff credit on the

ENIAC. The mission was to upend

basis of technicalities.

the Eckert-Mauchly patent by showing that their ideas were not

“Atanasoff may have won a

original (Isaacson, 2014, p. 82).

point in court, but he went

The issue went to trial in 1971.

back to teaching and we went

Mauchly proved ineffective as a

on to build the first real elec-

witness for the ENIAC defense,

tronic programmable comput-

pleading poor memory. By con-

ers,” Eckert later pointed out

trast, Atanasoff was very convinc-

(Isaacson, 2014, p. 85).

ing – with confidence and documentation he described how

When the historic contributions of

he had conceived and built the

the ENIAC are considered, it may

ABC (Isaacson, 2014, p. 82). The be less important that it is classitrial lasted nine months. The

fied as the world’s “first” all elec-

Atanasoff-Berry Computer was

tronic, general-purpose and fully

judged to be “prior art” by the

programmable computer. What

court in 1973, thereby rendering

may be more important is what the

invalid the ENIAC patent as filed

patent dispute revealed – a culture

by Eckert and Mauchly” (Wine-

of collaboration in innovation, fos-

grad and Akera, 1996). Accord-

tered by John Mauchly. From the

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Dr. John Mauchly with programmer, Jean Jennings

beginning, his plan was to pull to-

yond those developed by earlier

gether the ingenious ideas of his

researchers and inventors. The ma- puter Company). The objective of

start EMCC (Eckert-Mauchly Com-

colleagues to develop a new inno- chine was eventually transferred to the company was to design, build vation of his own. The influence of Aberdeen Proving Ground in

and market commercial comput-

the Mauchly’s approach and ulti-

Maryland on July 29, 1947. It

ers. Their first true commercial

mately the ENIAC, can be found

was in continuous operation at Ab- computer was called the UNIVAC

at the heart of almost every major

erdeen until 11:45 p.m. on Octo-

innovation of the digital revolution. ber 2, 1955 when a lightening

puter). Ultimately, 46 UNIVAC

Life altering inventions like the per- strike shut the machine down for-

machines were built and delivered

sonal computer, the microchip, the ever. For a decade, ENIAC may

to the ARMY, Navy and Air Force.

transistor and the Internet began

have run more calculations than

The fundamental design of the

as creative work, ultimately draw-

all mankind had done up to that

UNIVAC was largely attributed to

ing from many sources to become

point.

the revolutionary technological

the indispensable tools we use

contributions of the ENIAC – of

today. Isaacson (2014) qualifies

ENIAC was dismantled piece-by-

this ideology by saying, “Only in

piece and at the encouragement

storybooks do inventions come like of John Von Neumann, parts of a thunderbolt, or a light bulb pop-

the machine are preserved at the

ping out of the head of a lone in-

Smithsonian Institution in Washing-

dividual in a basement or garret

ton, D.C. (Weik, 1961). Today,

or garage” (p. 85).

only about 10 panels of the total 40 from the ENIAC still exist.

ENIAC's design pointed boldly to

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(for UNIversal Automatic Com-

the future, incorporating concepts

Eckert and Mauchly eventually left

and innovations that went well be-

the University of Pennsylvania to

which, there was only one.

ENIAC

A Secret War Initiative Becomes An Engineering Marvel

Bibliography Bellis, M. (no date) Ever Read the History of the ENIAC Computer?. Available at: http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinventions/a/Eniac.htm (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Isaacson, W. (2014) The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster Issacson, W. (2014) ‘The Women of ENIAC’, FORTUNE.COM (October), pp. 160–165 Kanellos, M. (2006) ENIAC: First computer makes history. Available at: http://www.zdnet.com/article/eniacfirst-computer-makes-history/ (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Levy, S. (no date) The Brief History of the ENIAC Computer. Available at: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-brief-history-of-the-eniac-computer-3889120/?no-ist (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Martino, R. L. (2009) Innovation and Economic Growth: Lessons from the Story of ENIAC. Available at: http://www.fpri.org/articles/2009/04/innovation-and-economic-growth-lessons-story-eniac (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Weik, M. H. (1961) The ENIAC Story. Available at: http://ftp.arl.mil/mike/comphist/eniac-story.html (Accessed: 30 April 2015) Ordnance Ballistic Research Laboratories Winegrad, D. and Akera, A. (1996) ENIAC’s 50th Anniversary: The Birth of the Information Age -- A Short History of the Second American Revolution. Available at: http://www.upenn.edu/almanac/v42/n18/eniac.html (Accessed: 1 May 2015)

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Photography Compliments: http://www.computerhistory.org -- (pp. 4, 5, 6, 7) http://www.history-computer.com -- (p. 2) http://www.maximumpc.com -- (p. 4, The Women of ENIAC) http://pilgrimgram.com -- (cover photo) http://teaching.msa.maryland.gov -- (p. 1, WWII image)

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