ENIAC
A Secret War Initiative Becomes An Engineering Marvel
IXDS5503: Media History and Theory Lindsey Wilson College Professor, Jason Occhipinti May 1, 2015 By: Venus M. Popplewell
ENIAC
A Secret War Initiative Becomes An Engineering Marvel
Victory at any cost
Government bureaucracy was tabled on December 7, 1941 when Japan
was the primary
attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor and America officially entered
motivation for the explosion
World War II. The government turned to the intellectual forces in the mathematics and science departments at American universities to employ the forefront concepts in engineering. Shipbuilding, aircraft production,
of engineering
bomb and weapon development needed to be efficient and revolution-
innovation
ary to unsettle the Germans. Scientists were given a full portfolio of re-
during the 1940s.
sources and money to accomplish the objectives of the wartime effort. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, known as the ENIAC, was the world’s first programmable, all electronic, general-purpose digital computer. It was commissioned by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. “The ENIAC ushered in a new era of startling scientific innovation” (Weik, 1961). ENIAC was heralded in the press as a “giant brain” and could calculate 5000 operations per second, faster than any device yet invented. ENIAC was the prototype from which most other modern computers evolved (Weik, 1961). However, the ENIAC is shrouded in controversy due to patent
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disputes at the hand of its inventor.
Conception and Development The idea of a huge computing machine was in the air long before the bombing of Pearl Harbor. “In late 1939, Harvard professor Howard Aiken was building the Mark I, a giant calculator. At Bletchley Park in England, cryptographers would oversee the construction of a special-purpose, code-breaking machine called Colossus” (Levy, no date). Several years before Colossus in the U.K., a German scientist named, Konrad Zuse, built a giant, programmable, computer called the Z3 – it was destroyed during WWII. In the late 1930s, an Iowa State professor by the name of John V. Atanasoff began work on his own calculating machine. With the help of a graduate student named Clifford Berry, they built “ABC” (Atanasoff-Berry Computer). ABC was single purpose, not totally electronic, and slower than a rotary calculator. It never completely worked as envisioned (Martino, 2009). The Army Ordnance Department had the responsibility for the design, development, procurement, storage and issue of all combat material and munitions for the
J. Presper Eckert Jr.
Dr. John W. Mauchly
Army. Upon the outbreak of the
fessor J.G. Brainerd brought to
war in Europe, one of the first
the Ordnance committee an out-
tasks of the Ordnance Depart-
line of the technical concepts un-
ment was to seek improvement in
derlying the development of a
mechanical aids to computation
fully electronic, digital computing
(Weik, 1961). It was known the
machine. The outline had been
Moore School of Engineering at
prepared by professor Dr. John
the University of Pennsylvania
W. Mauchly and a graduate stu-
had a differential analyzer that
dent named J. Presper Eckert. It
could calculate ballistic computa-
detailed the technical and mathe-
tions that was larger than any-
matical specifications of the
thing the Army had at its
ENIAC (Weik, 1961).
disposal. “Therefore one of the first steps taken was to award the
Like others whose work required
University of Pennsylvania with a
tedious calculations, John
contract by the Ordnance Depart-
Mauchly wanted to invent a ma-
ment for the utilization of this de-
chine to do them for him. Ac-
vice” (Weik, 1961).
cording to Isaacson (2014) in late 1940, he confided in some
Lieutenant Herman H. Goldstine,
friends that he hoped to pull to-
a Reserve Officer of the Ord-
gether enough information to
nance Department was assigned
make a digital electronic com-
to duty at the Moore School as a
puter. “We are now considering
supervisor of computational and
construction of an electrical com-
training activities. In the early
puting machine,” he wrote (p.
part of 1943, Goldstine and pro-
65). In December of that same
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is there any objection, from your point of view, to my building some sort of computer which incorporates some of the features of your machine?” (Isaacson, 2014, p. 70). The ‘computer’ in which Mauchly was referring, would eventually become the ENIAC.
The ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer)
“The issue of what inspirations Mauchly gleaned during his visit with Atanasoff in Iowa” would turn into a legal dispute that would last for more than ten years (p. 82). J. Presper Eckert Jr. was the instructor of Mauchly’s electronics
John Atanasoff
Clifford Berry
sylvania. Eckert was a 24-year-
year, “Mauchly happened to
involving rotating commutators for
old engineering genius and
meet John Atanasoff, setting off a
switching, it was not by any
graduate assistant. He was de-
series of events followed by years
means what I had in mind,”
scribed as “undoubtedly the best
of disputes over Mauchly’s
Mauchly remembered (Isaacson,
electronics engineer in the Moore
propensity to gather information
2014, p. 67).
School” (Winegrad and Akera,
from different sources” (Isaacson,
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course at the University of Penn-
1996).
2014, p. 65). In June 1941,
As Mauchly was preparing to
Mauchly visited Atanasoff’s home
leave Iowa, he received news
By the end of 1941, Mauchly
in Iowa to inspect the ABC calcu-
that he had been accepted into
was teaching physics at Penn and
lation machine he was develop-
an electronics development
sharing his vision of a computing
ing. Atanasoff had developed a
course at the University of Penn-
machine with Eckert. Mauchly
partly operational machine that
sylvania. During the summer of
convinced Eckert to join him in his
could be constructed inexpen-
1941, Mauchly got the chance to
quest to develop a fully inte-
sively. Mauchly was impressed
work with the differential ana-
grated, all electronic computing
but uninspired. “I thought his ma-
lyzer at the Moore School of Engi-
machine that could be applied to
chine was very ingenious, but
neering and wrote to Atanasoff,
any mathematical problem. On
since it was in part mechanical,
“The question in my mind is this:
June 5, 1943, the military com-
The Women of ENIAC
mission on the new computer
electrons and not on paper tape
for the ENIAC. They were called
began (Weik, 1961).
or punch cards as its predeces-
“computers” and their jobs ini-
sors. According to Martino
tially entailed switching around,
“The proposed work was to
(2009) the ENIAC worked at an
by hand, the cables and switches
last six months and cost
electronic speed of 5000 opera-
of the ENIAC. Because these jobs
$61,700--a vast underestima-
tions per second. It had no mov-
were considered an extension of
tion, it would turn out, of both
ing parts and most importantly,
clerical work, they were filled by
time and money. ENIAC
the next operation could proceed
women, as was the practice of
wouldn't be tested internally
immediately without waiting for
the day. According to Isaacson
for two and a half years at a
paper tapes or human interven-
(2014), “at first the programming
final cost of $487,000. De-
tion. Its first programs included a
seemed to be routine, perhaps
spite the overruns, however, it
study of the feasibility of the hy-
even menial. But what the women
was an engineering marvel”
drogen bomb.
of ENIAC soon showed, and the
(Kanellos, 2006). “The ENIAC contained 17,468
Programming and the Public Demonstration
vacuum tubes, along with 70,000
Six technicians were largely re-
resistors, 10,000 capacitors,
sponsible for working the mathe-
1,500 relays, 6,000 manual
matical equations and
switches and 5 million soldered
programming functions of the ma-
joints. It covered 1,800-square-
chine. Jean Jennings, Marlyn
feet of floor space, weighed 30
Wescoff, Ruth Lichterman, Betty
tons and consumed 160 kilowatts
Snyder, Frances Bilas and Kay
of electrical power” (Bellis, no
McNulty were female mathemati-
date). Numbers were “stored” in
cians recruited to run calculations
men later came to understand,
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J. Presper Eckert Jr. (front, left) and Dr. John Mauchly (middle) working in the ENIAC room with unidentified programmers.
was that the programming of a
missile trajectory calculations
number studies, wind tunnel de-
computer could be as significant
within 15 seconds – a task that
sign and continued work on the
as the design of its hardware.”
would have taken human ‘com-
design of the hydrogen bomb.
puters’ several weeks to accomThe war ended in August of
plish (Isaacson, 2014). The men
Acclaimed scientist and engineer
1945. The ENIAC wasn’t com-
celebrated their success and were
Dr. John Von Neumann, who was
pleted until November of that
lauded by the press. Neither the
instrumental in the Manhattan
same year. Because the ENIAC
Army, nor the University of Penn-
Project, made several modifica-
was being used for atom bomb
sylvania recognized the female
tions to the ENIAC in 1948. He
calculations and other classified
programmers. It would be
added a converter code to en-
tasks, it was kept secret until Feb-
decades before their pioneering
able serial operations. This hard-
ruary 15, 1946 when the Army
contributions to the discipline of
ware alteration would improve
and Penn scheduled a gala un-
computer programming and soft-
the programming difficulties
veiling for the public and press
ware would be brought to public
ENIAC would encounter when it
(Isaacson, 2014). The unveiling
awareness.
would run programs concurrently
of the ENIAC made the front
Computer Flashes Answers, May
The Influence of the ENIAC and the Patent Dispute
Speed Engineering’ (Isaacson,
Although the war was over, the
through 1952 when it served
2014). Using instructions written
ENIAC was still put to work by
as the main computation work-
by the female programmers, the
the military doing calculations for
horse for the solution of the
ENIAC demonstration impressed
weather predications, cosmic-ray
scientific problems of the na-
onlookers by computing a set of
studies, thermal ignition, random-
tion. It surpassed all other ex-
page of the New York Times under the headline ‘Electronic
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(Bellis, no date). “The ENIAC led the computer field during the period 1949
isting computers put together whenever it came to problems involving a large number of arithmetic operations. It was the major instrument for the computation of all ballistic tables for the U.S. Army and Air Force” (Weik, 1961). The ENIAC embodied almost all the components and concepts of today’s high-speed, electronic digital computers. Its designers conceived what has now become standard circuitry. Historians acknowledge that other computers came earlier – the Z3, Colossus and controversially, the AtanasoffBerry (ABC) Computer. But ENIAC arguably accomplished something more important. “It sparked the imagination of scientists and industrialists” (Kanellos, 2006). Regrettably, the dispute over the ENIAC patent soured the memories of many people associated with the ENIAC project and other efforts. Patents were a fickle topic during those days with many inventors scrambling to legitimize their ideas. Eckert and Mauchly applied for a patent in 1947 for their work on ENIAC. The patent system is a slow process and it wasn’t granted until 1964. By that
Female programmers of the ENIAC
time, the patent rights had been
ing to Isaacson (2014) “the case
sold to Sperry Rand Corporation.
did not determine, even legally,
Due to pressure by large compa-
who should get what proportion of
nies to enforce licensing fees, a
the credit for the invention of the
legal investigation began into the
modern computer” (p. 82). It sim-
concept development of the
ply gave Atanasoff credit on the
ENIAC. The mission was to upend
basis of technicalities.
the Eckert-Mauchly patent by showing that their ideas were not
“Atanasoff may have won a
original (Isaacson, 2014, p. 82).
point in court, but he went
The issue went to trial in 1971.
back to teaching and we went
Mauchly proved ineffective as a
on to build the first real elec-
witness for the ENIAC defense,
tronic programmable comput-
pleading poor memory. By con-
ers,” Eckert later pointed out
trast, Atanasoff was very convinc-
(Isaacson, 2014, p. 85).
ing – with confidence and documentation he described how
When the historic contributions of
he had conceived and built the
the ENIAC are considered, it may
ABC (Isaacson, 2014, p. 82). The be less important that it is classitrial lasted nine months. The
fied as the world’s “first” all elec-
Atanasoff-Berry Computer was
tronic, general-purpose and fully
judged to be “prior art” by the
programmable computer. What
court in 1973, thereby rendering
may be more important is what the
invalid the ENIAC patent as filed
patent dispute revealed – a culture
by Eckert and Mauchly” (Wine-
of collaboration in innovation, fos-
grad and Akera, 1996). Accord-
tered by John Mauchly. From the
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Dr. John Mauchly with programmer, Jean Jennings
beginning, his plan was to pull to-
yond those developed by earlier
gether the ingenious ideas of his
researchers and inventors. The ma- puter Company). The objective of
start EMCC (Eckert-Mauchly Com-
colleagues to develop a new inno- chine was eventually transferred to the company was to design, build vation of his own. The influence of Aberdeen Proving Ground in
and market commercial comput-
the Mauchly’s approach and ulti-
Maryland on July 29, 1947. It
ers. Their first true commercial
mately the ENIAC, can be found
was in continuous operation at Ab- computer was called the UNIVAC
at the heart of almost every major
erdeen until 11:45 p.m. on Octo-
innovation of the digital revolution. ber 2, 1955 when a lightening
puter). Ultimately, 46 UNIVAC
Life altering inventions like the per- strike shut the machine down for-
machines were built and delivered
sonal computer, the microchip, the ever. For a decade, ENIAC may
to the ARMY, Navy and Air Force.
transistor and the Internet began
have run more calculations than
The fundamental design of the
as creative work, ultimately draw-
all mankind had done up to that
UNIVAC was largely attributed to
ing from many sources to become
point.
the revolutionary technological
the indispensable tools we use
contributions of the ENIAC – of
today. Isaacson (2014) qualifies
ENIAC was dismantled piece-by-
this ideology by saying, “Only in
piece and at the encouragement
storybooks do inventions come like of John Von Neumann, parts of a thunderbolt, or a light bulb pop-
the machine are preserved at the
ping out of the head of a lone in-
Smithsonian Institution in Washing-
dividual in a basement or garret
ton, D.C. (Weik, 1961). Today,
or garage” (p. 85).
only about 10 panels of the total 40 from the ENIAC still exist.
ENIAC's design pointed boldly to
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(for UNIversal Automatic Com-
the future, incorporating concepts
Eckert and Mauchly eventually left
and innovations that went well be-
the University of Pennsylvania to
which, there was only one.
ENIAC
A Secret War Initiative Becomes An Engineering Marvel
Bibliography Bellis, M. (no date) Ever Read the History of the ENIAC Computer?. Available at: http://inventors.about.com/od/estartinventions/a/Eniac.htm (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Isaacson, W. (2014) The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and Geeks Created the Digital Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster Issacson, W. (2014) ‘The Women of ENIAC’, FORTUNE.COM (October), pp. 160–165 Kanellos, M. (2006) ENIAC: First computer makes history. Available at: http://www.zdnet.com/article/eniacfirst-computer-makes-history/ (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Levy, S. (no date) The Brief History of the ENIAC Computer. Available at: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-brief-history-of-the-eniac-computer-3889120/?no-ist (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Martino, R. L. (2009) Innovation and Economic Growth: Lessons from the Story of ENIAC. Available at: http://www.fpri.org/articles/2009/04/innovation-and-economic-growth-lessons-story-eniac (Accessed: 1 May 2015) Weik, M. H. (1961) The ENIAC Story. Available at: http://ftp.arl.mil/mike/comphist/eniac-story.html (Accessed: 30 April 2015) Ordnance Ballistic Research Laboratories Winegrad, D. and Akera, A. (1996) ENIAC’s 50th Anniversary: The Birth of the Information Age -- A Short History of the Second American Revolution. Available at: http://www.upenn.edu/almanac/v42/n18/eniac.html (Accessed: 1 May 2015)
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Photography Compliments: http://www.computerhistory.org -- (pp. 4, 5, 6, 7) http://www.history-computer.com -- (p. 2) http://www.maximumpc.com -- (p. 4, The Women of ENIAC) http://pilgrimgram.com -- (cover photo) http://teaching.msa.maryland.gov -- (p. 1, WWII image)
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