[RE]SEARCH [DIA]LOGUES
RE-CENTERING DELHI UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
ENERGY, WASTE+AIR
ENERGY CRISIS // WASTE MANAGEMENT // AIR POLLUTION J. BARALT
The topics of energy, waste, and air share the overarching concern of pollution that plagues New Delhi. These three issues are driven by infrastructural operations that are at once systematic and inefficient. The Master Plan of Delhi for 2021 identifies the problems associated with energy, waste, and air pollution as central focuses, but it seems that very little has been accomplished to meet the benchmarks established by the government agencies dedicated to these systems. For example, a study found that Delhi was the worst performer in renewable energy, achieving less than 1% of its renewable energy target, amongst 22 states – despite being the wealthiest. Solar energy has become the buzzword; it’s being promoted as a way of bridging the increased demand for electricity in the summer is founded on its feasibility, considering the radial (as opposed to vertical) building strategy in New Delhi and the fact that there are about 300 sunny days a year. Unfortunately, the solutions for problems faced by larger infrastructural conflicts of interest (such as shifting all industry out of Delhi by 2021) are often faced with the challenge of innumerable, unregulated operations, making the realization of initiatives slow-going.
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COMPOSITE MAPPING OF ENERGY, WASTE + AIR The overlaying of these systems identifies the primary areas of pollution in New Delhi along the floodplain of the Yamuna River.
METRO VIHAR STP
GEETA COLONY SS
LAXMI NAGAR SS
CIVIL MILL DRAIN
DELHI GATE DRAIN RAJGHAT PS DELHI GATE STP CONNAUGHT PLACE SS
SEN N HOME DRAIN SEN N HOME STP
CWG VILLAGE STP PATPARGANJ SS INDERPARSHTA PS PRAGATI THERMAL PS
DRAIN NO. 14
VA EN
MILLENIUM PARK
BARAPULLA DRAIN PRAGATI VIHAR SS MAHARANI BAGH SS
MADHU LIMAYE MARG SS
MAHARANI BAGH DRAIN
KALKAJI DRAIN
NETAJI NAGAR SS
MALVIYA NAGAR SS TEKHAND DRAIN
SARITA V
OKHLA STP
MALVIYA NAGAR SS
OKHLA LA
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POWER ALONG THE RIVER This photograph situates the Indraprastha Power Station and looming power lines along the bank opposite from this man, who is interacting with the river.
[“Delhi Plans Tate Modern-style Gallery in Old Power Station,� The Guardian, 28 Dec 2010, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
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POWER STATIONS + TRANSMISSION LINES The banks of the Yamuna host three power stations and are visually polluted by towers that hold up power lines.
GEETA COLONY SS
LAXMI NAGAR SS
RAJGHAT PS CONNAUGHT PLACE SS
PATPARGANJ SS INDERPARSHTA PS PRAGATI THERMAL PS
VASUND ENCLAV
PRAGATI VIHAR SS MAHARANI BAGH SS
MADHU LIMAYE MARG SS
NETAJI NAGAR SS
MALVIYA NAGAR SS
MALVIYA NAGAR SS
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ENERGY + ECONOMY The vulnerability of coal shortages is directly related to economic activity, and the consequences of the energy crisis, particularly blackouts affect everyone.
[“India Blackouts Widen as Coal Stocks Drop at Power Plants,� Bloomberg, 30 Aug 2014, accessed 17 Sept 2014]
“A surge in economic activity has led to higher demand for the fuel, exacerbating supply bottlenecks caused by heavy rains at some mines and slow railway transport in places... Slow economic activity had caused coal stocks at power plants to swell last year.�
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INDIA’S POWER PLANTS The concentration of power plants across many states of India provide three-quarters of the energy consumed by Delhi, which is double the national average. A key issue of the energy crisis is the inequity of power distribution between the rural and urban.
[Map of Power Plants in India, Greenpeace, 15 Mar 2013, accessed 14 Sept 2014]
ENERGY GENERATION BY POWER PLANT >2000 MW 1000-2000 MW <1000 MW
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DELHI’S ENERGY DEPENDENCE The “cosseted status” of the National Capital Region of Delhi sets the city up for failure to explore alternative energy solutions because the majority of its energy demand is met by other states with coal power plants.
[“Delhi Created its Own Energy Crisis,” The Guardian, 7 June 2013, accessed 12 Sept 2014]
â&#x20AC;&#x153;As the capital, Delhi gets 75% of its energy from coal plants in other states. This has made the city complacent, and slow to consider other alternatives. The DERC [Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission] does not even have a proper policy for renewable energy.â&#x20AC;? - Abhishek Pratap, Greenpeace India Senior Campaigner
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NOT MEETING THE DEMAND The graph of the peak demand for electricity, and how much is met, shows how the deficit in power has changed in the last few years. The demand is increasing at a greater rate than how much is met, which explains the 5% deficit in 2013.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Electricity Scenario of National Capital Territory of Delhi,â&#x20AC;? Green Clean Guide, 1 Aug 2013, accessed 12 Sept 2014]
PEAK DEMAND AND PEAK MET IN NEW DELHI 7,000 6,000
7%
4,000
5%
3,000
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
5,942 5,642
1% 5,031 5,028
2%
4,810 4,408
4,036 4,034
4,075 4,030
1%
4;502 4,408
2% 4,000 3,736
1,000
3,772 3,600
2,000
3%
3,558 3.490
MW
5,000
2012
2013
PEAK DEMAND PEAK MET % DEFICIT
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BLACKOUT: BUSINESS AS USUAL The overburdened electric system in New Delhi often experiences power outages, but with generators as back-up power systems, many businesses continue to operate without disruption.
[“India’s Blackout: In the Dark about Being in the Dark,” NPR, 1 Aug 2012, accessed 18 Sept 2014]
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ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT The average household consumption of energy in Delhi is comparable to that of Milan, and is almost exactly halfway between the energy consumption of Beijing and New York City.
[“Energy Consumption per Household,” DELHI 2050, 11 Apr 2013, accessed 11 Sept 2014]
ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER HOUSEHOLD DELHI
2300 KWH/YEAR
MILAN
2469 KWH/YEAR
BEIJING
1358 KWH/YEAR
NEW YORK
3600 KWH/YEAR
TOKYO
5546 KWH/YEAR
EQUIVALENT NUMBER OF 60 W BULBS LIT IN A HOUSE PER DAY
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CONSUMPTION ANALYSIS 10 ENERGY The two-part methodology for analyzing household energy
consumption requires an understanding for the demographics of the city as well as the access to electric utlities and appliances.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Energy -Related Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities from the Household Sector in Delhi,â&#x20AC;? Energy Policy, 5 Sept 2007]
ENERGY CONSUMPTION ANALYSIS Key Variables
Population
Income
No. of Households Urban
LPG Kerosene
Household Size
Rural Kerosene
Energy Consumption
Electricity
Lighting
Electricity
LPG
Dung Cake
Wood
Wood
Electricity
Biogas
Electricity
Air Condition
Crop Residue
Electricity
Air Cooler
Coal / Ignite
Electricity
Electric Fan
Coal / Ignite
Electricity
Heater
Refrigeration
Electricity
Electricity
Radio
Washing
Electricity
Electricity
Television
Dryer
Electricity
Electricity
Computer
Cooking
Emissions
Water Heater
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POWER RATES 11 SOARING The energy crisis in the summers of 2012 and 2013 resulted in
power rates hiking multiple times, with access to energy often shut down in blackouts that stressed the overburdening of Delhi’s power grid.
[“Delhi Created its Own Energy Crisis,” The Guardian, 7 June 2013, accessed 12 Sept 2014]
“In the past two years, the Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commission (DERC) has hiked power rates 4 times, by a whopping 26%, and another hike is expected, despite the fury of consumers. Meanwhile, many beleaguered Delhi residents suffer 8-hour long power cuts in 45 degree [113ºF] summer heat.”
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RATES INCREASE 12 POWER Power rates will be hiked again following the record-breaking demand of 5,925 MW of power in New Delhi. For domestic consumers, the percent increase correlates with the units of electricity used, while the unit price for non-domestic consumers increased by 12% regardless of the usage.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Power Rates in Delhi to Rise by 2.5% to 25% for Various Levels of Consumption,â&#x20AC;? Economic Times, 18 July 2014, accessed 17 Sept 2014]
POWER RATES INCREASE 10
PRICE PER UNIT(Rs)
9 8 7 6
25%
5 4
15%
3 7%
2 1
2%
2%
0 0-200
200-400
400-800
800-1200
UNIT CONSUMPTION SUMMER 2014
FALL 2014
% INCREASE
1200+
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OF FUEL 13 TYPES The Energy Ladder charts how income, availability, and convenience are factors in the decision to choose one form of fuel over another.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Energy -Related Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities from the Household Sector in Delhi,â&#x20AC;? Energy Policy, 5 Sept 2007]
ENERGY LADDER
PNG LPG Kerosene Coal
Income, Availability, Convenience
Crop Residue Dung Cake
Wood
Biogas
Fuel Choice
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IS THE NEW BUZZWORD 14 SOLAR The new regulation by DERC [Delhi Electricity Regulatory Commision] allows enterprises and residents to sell the excess solar energy generated back to the grid is the most recent incentive to invest in solar energy, with the goal of bridging the demand-supply gap.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;A Rooftop Revolution,â&#x20AC;? Khaleej Times, 17 Sept 2014, accessed 17 Sept 2014]
“The New Delhi Municipal Council — the city’s administrative arm — has been granted approval by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy this year to develop New Delhi as a ‘Solar City’. On the completion of the project, the national capital city will become the second solar city in the country after Chandigarh.”
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POWER BRIDGES THE DEFICIT 15 SOLAR The hike in demand for electricity in the summer can be met by
installing 24 sq. km. of solar panels, which amounts to only 30% of the residential building footprint in Delhi.
[“Delhi’s Solar Potential,” Delhi 2050, 13 Apr 2013, accessed 12 Sept 2014]
SOLAR PANEL FOOTPRINT 34 BILLION UNIT DEMAND INCREASE IN SUMMER = 240 SQ. KM. OF SOLAR PANELS 20% HIKE OF PEAK DEMAND = 30% OF RESIDENTIAL FOOTPRINT
82% 300 SUNNY DAYS A YEAR
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POWER: YESTERDAY AND TODAY 16 SOLAR Solar power has become an appealing solution for the energy crisis
in the last few years, as the capacity of generating electricity has increased and the solar tariff has been reduced by almost two-thirds since 2010.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;300 Sunny Days a Year and India Fails to Harness Solar Power,â&#x20AC;? The Hindu, 7 Sept 2014, accessed 17 Sept
SOLAR CAPACITY AND TARIFF 2500
SOLAR CAPACITY (MW)
2250 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 250 0 2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
20
SOLAR TARIFF (Rs)
18 16
17
14 12 10 8 6.5
6 4 2 0 2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
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POWER PLANTS AROUND THE CITY 17 SOLAR There are a handful of buildings in New Delhi that have incorporated
solar panels into their roof design, large enough to generate between 15 and 20 kW of electricity.
[“Cities Lead for Climate Solutions,” WWF, 18 Feb 2014, accessed 17 Sept 2014]
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TO GREEN POWER SOLUTIONS 18 COMMITMENT This article covers the dedication of a 345 kW solar energy project in
Delhi on World Environment Day. Stakeholders in the project, including the Chief Minister and Power Minister, promoted solar power as an alternative to the excessive use of scarce natural resources like coal.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;New Solar Power Initiatives Yielding Results,â&#x20AC;? The Hindu, 16 June 2013, accessed 10 Sept 2014]
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Roof-top solar power installations will help BYPL meet its Renewable Power Obligation (RPO) targets. In the coming months, we plan to install solar panels atop all our 50 grids in East and Central Delhi. We are committed to finding and encouraging green power solutions.â&#x20AC;?
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OF GARBAGE ON THE YAMUNA 19 ISLANDS A child jumps over piles of garbage in the river at Kalindi Kunj in New Delhi.
[“In Pictures: India’s Toxic Yamuna River.” Al Jazeera, 06 July 2014, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
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LOCATIONS + DISCHARGE 20 DRAIN The stretch of the Yamuna that runs through New Delhi is the most
polluted, and the drains which discharge much of these pollutants contribute between 0.37 and 1.01 cubic meters per second into the river.
CIVIL MILL DRAIN
DELHI GATE DRAIN
SEN N HOME DRAIN
DRAIN NO. 14
BARAPULLA DRAIN
MAHARANI BAGH DRAIN
KALKAJI DRAIN
TEKHAND DRAIN SARITA VIHAR DRAIN
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TREATMENT PLANTS (STP) 21 SEWAGE Many of New Delhiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sewage treatment plants are located along the Yamuna River, and Millenium Park was built on top of an existing landfill.
METRO VIHAR STP
DELHI GATE STP
SEN N HOME STP
CWG VILLAGE STP
MILLENIUM PARK
OKHLA STP
OKHLA LANDFILL
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22 UNDER-ACHIEVING The Master Plan Delhi 2021 has set a high benchmark for moving
pollution away from the city, but not enough is being done to realize this goal. One of the difficulties is the large number of small, unauthorized operations spread throughout the state.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Polluting Industrial Sites Putting Delhites at Health Risk,â&#x20AC;? India Tribune, 12 Aug 2014, accessed 20 Sept 2014 ]
â&#x20AC;&#x153;As per the Master Plan Delhi (MPD) 2021, all polluting industries need to be shifted out of Delhi by 2021... In 2011, MCD (Municipal Corporation of Delhi) was supposed to close down around 22,000 industrial units, but not much seems to have been done... Thousands of small and medium polluting enterprises, recycling units, unorganized markets exist in the state.â&#x20AC;? - Satish Sinha, Associate Director of Toxics Link
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MARKET 23 E-WASTE Stocking up e-waste and other radioactive materials poses a hazard not only to the environment, but also to the people working in the e-waste industry.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Effective Implimentation Against Hazardous E-Waste in Delhi,â&#x20AC;? Striipes, 9 May 2013, accessed 20 Sept 2014]
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OF KEY POLLUTANTS 24 LOCATIONS The concentrations of pollution hotspots are to the East, across
the Yamuna, and West of New Delhi, but computer scraps are a significant form of pollution that the city is dealing with as a hub for technology.
[“Delhi’s Industrial Areas are Toxic Hot Spots, Finds Survey,” Down to Earth, 18 Aug 2014, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
POLLUTION HOTSPOTS
LANDFILL DYEING PICKLING RECYCLING FURNACE OPERATION
E-WASTE LEAD ACID BATTERIES METAL SCRAP AUTOMOBILE SCRAP CRT
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THE PROBLEM 25 TACKLING The initiatives outlined in the comprehensive plan work to clearly
identify the sources of the problem posed by sewage treatment and implement a large-scale infrastructural operation to ameliorate the pollution caused by the problem.
[“Delhi Government’s Project to Clean up Yamuna River,” Times Now, 24 Jun 2014, accessed 20 Sept 2014]
â&#x20AC;&#x153;To address the issues of pollution in the Yamuna, Delhi government has undertaken a comprehensive project through which all the polluting drains shall be cleaned before they merge into the river. The DJB will set up an interceptor sewer with a length of 59 kms along the three major drains to intercept sewerage from around 190 subsidiary small drains and transport it to the nearest Sewage Treatment Plant to ensure only treated effluent is discharged.â&#x20AC;?
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[DRAIN] YAMUNA 26 RIVER This photograph of a young boy scavenging for recyclables in a Hindu
bathing site on the Yamuna River was taken after India’s Supreme Court urged authorities to take measures about its pollution because the water quality of the river is comparable to a drain.
[“Mud Bath,” Global Times, 9 Sept 2012, accessed 18 Sept 2014]
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+ RIVER YAMUNA 27 SEWAGE The location of sewage treatment plants, online treatment and
proposed treatment facilities create a network on the Yamuna.
[“Sewage Canal: How to Clean the Yamuna,” Centre for Science and Environment, 2007]
SEWAGE TREATMENT ON THE YAMUNA NARELA
Supplement ary Drain 1 ROHINI PHASE-III
CORONATION PILLAR
RITHALA
WAZIRABAD BARRAGE
YAMUNA VIHAR
TIMARPUR 3 4 2
1
5 6
8
r
DELHI GATE 11
n
do
Hin
I P BARRAGE
SEN N 12 HOME
KESHOPUR
Ya
KONDLI
River na mu
N aj a f ga
rai hD
2
9
10
nC
ut
7
NILOTHI
NAJAFGARH 13
ah Sh
14
d a ra O u
3 15
tf a
PAPPANKALAN
ra ll D
16
in
OKHLA
21
17 18 MEHRAULI
4
19 20
VASANT KUNJ
OKHLA BARRAGE
GHITORNI
ONLINE TREATMENT PROPOSED TREATMENT FACILITY AT DRAIN OUTFALL SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT (STP) DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE WATERWAYS
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OF EXPANSION 28 LIMITATIONS Jung points out that one of the key issues in providing adequate sewage treatment to the city is being able to tie in all of the informal settlements so that stormwater drains are no longer used for untreated sewage that ends up in the Yamuna.
[“Delhi Government’s Project to Clean up Yamuna River,” Times Now, 24 Jun 2014, accessed 20 Sept 2014]
â&#x20AC;&#x153;Due to the major expansion of the city, with its more than 1600 unauthorized and regularized colonies, 189 rural villages and its extension, more than 1000 JJ clusters, sewerage facilities could not be provided in many areas due to legal and institutional constraints. Consequently, untreated sewage is being discharged into storm water drains and through them into the river Yamuna, thereby, polluting it.â&#x20AC;? - Najeeb Jung, Delhiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lt. Governor
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INFRASTRUCTURE 29 INSPECTING Irrigation department officials inspect areas near the Okhla Dam on the river. Note how the water has turned black due to pollution.
[“In Pictures: India’s Toxic Yamuna River.” Al Jazeera, 06 July 2014, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
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DISCHARGE INTO YAMUNA 30 DRAIN The rate of discharge into the Yamuna River by the drains that carry pollutants from the city of New Delhi is significantly higher than the drains closest to the Wazirabad Barrage.
[Environmental Monitoring and Assessment (2012) 184: 1490]
SCHEMATIC DISCHARGE OF DRAINS Discharge in m3/sec
Wazirabad Barrage // 0 km Discharge: 1.5 m3/sec 20.68
Najafgarh Drain // 0.3 km
0.07
Magazine Road Drain // 1.5 km
0.13
Sweeper Colony Drain // 1.8 km
0.13
Khyber Pass Drain // 3.6 km
0.09
Methalf House Drain // 4.2 km
0.39
Qudsia Bagh Drain // 5.7 km
0.09
Tonga Stand Drain // 6.3 km
0.001
Moat Drain // 6.6 km
0.52
Civil Mill Drain // 7.2 km
0.56
Delhi Gate Drain // 9.0 km
1.01
S.N. Home Drain // 12.0 km
0.04
Drain No-12 // 13.5 km
0.37
Drain No-14 // 14.1 km
0.74
a gr
Barapulla Drain // 15.6 km
Maharani Bagh Drain // 18.0 km
l
na
Ca
30.00
A
Okhla Barrage // 22.0 km Discharge: 55.67 m3/sec
Hindon Cut
1.35
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CITY 31 BLANKETED Smog pollutes the skies of Delhi as the sun sets at Connaught Place.
[“Top 20 World’s Largest Cities Proper by Population.” Rare Delights Magazine, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
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QUALITY INDEX READINGS 32 AIR Out of the five locations in New Delhi, including the US Embassy,
that have air quality readings, only one was below 100, placing it on the limit of moderate pollution, and the other four were split between readings that are unhealthy for sensitive groups and unhealthy for everyone.
163
99
179
137
146
127
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AIR QUALITY INDEX READINGS 33 SCHEMATIC The opacity of each circle corresponds with an air quality index reading that was moderate, unhealthy for sensitive groups, or unhealthy for everyone. The diameters of the circle represent the amount of PM-2.5 in the air at the location.
[SOURCE: Chicago Manual Style]
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TO “MOST POLLUTED” TITLE 34 REACTIONS The lack of awareness about just how dangerous the air pollution levels explains why there has been little public outcry, and fewer programs by the government to ameliorate the situation.
[“Cities in India Among the Most Polluted, W.H.O Says,” New York Times, 8 May 2014, accessed 20 Sept 2014]
“At a recent embassy party here, several people expressed astonishment that New Delhi’s air was considered dangerous. One of the guests, a marathon runner who jogs through Delhi’s streets daily, said she had never noticed any problem with the air.”
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35 AIR QUALITY COMPARISON
The inverse results of the air quality during the four month period for Beijing and Delhi reveal how much worse the pollution is in Delhi, compared to another city known for its poor air quality.
[[“Six Years of Beijing Air Pollution Summed Up in One Scary Chart,” Quartz, 10 Apr 2014, accessed 14 Sept 2014
AIR QUALITY COMPARISON BEIJING
NUMBER OF DAYS IN PAST FOUR MONTHS
EXCELLENT 0-35 µg/m³
GOOD
35-75 µg/m³
SLIGHTLY POLLUTED 75-115 µg/m³
MODERATELY POLLUTED 115-150 µg/m³
HEAVILY POLLUTED
150-250 µg/m³
SEVERELY POLLUTED
250-500 µg/m³
BEYOND THE INDEX >500 µg/m³
DELHI
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+ NEW DELHI 36 BEIJING While Beijing and New Delhi have undergone similar transformations, the policies that Beijing has in place for controlling air pollution have yet to be instituded in New Delhi.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Wide Gap Between New Delhi, Beijing Smog Policies as India Lags on Curbing Pollution,â&#x20AC;? Huffington Post, 5 Feb 2014, accessed 19 Sept 2014]
“One thing is clear: China’s capital is taking steps to improve air quality but New Delhi hasn’t done much in recent years to tackle the problem, largely because there’s been little public outcry... They both have gone through breakneck economic development that has transformed their landscapes within a generation, raising living standards but also spewing out loads of pollution.”
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IS KEY 37 AWARENESS Even though air pollution is the world’s biggest environmental health risk, there is a lack of awareness about the threat it poses in New Delhi.
[“Cities in India Among the Most Polluted, W.H.O Says,” New York Times, 8 May 2014, accessed 20 Sept 2014]
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PLANTS + BRICK KILNS 38 POWER Power plants and brick kilns contribute to the pollution problem in
Delhi, and the density of brick kilns in the outskirts of New Delhi is a significant source of emissions.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,â&#x20AC;? Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
LOCATION OF POWER PLANTS AND BRICK KILNS 29.0
28.9
ROHINI 28.7
GHAZIABAD 28.6
DWARKA
NOIDA
28.5
SOUTH DELHI
28.4 GURGAON
GREATER NOIDA
FARIDABAD
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
28.3 POWER PLANTS BRICK KILNS 28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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KILNS EMISSIONS 39 BRICK The mapping of emissions from brick kilsn is concentrated to the North-East of New Delhi.
[“A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,” Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
EMISSIONS FROM BRICK KILNS 29.0
28.9
PM 35%
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
30% 25%
28.7
20% 15%
28.6
10% 5%
28.5
0%
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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EXHAUST EMISSIONS 40 VEHICLE Vehicle exhaust emissions are concentrated around New Delhi and South-West of the city.
[“A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,” Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
EMISSIONS FROM VEHICLE EXHAUST 29.0
28.9
PM 35%
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
30% 25%
28.7
20% 15%
28.6
10% 5%
28.5
0%
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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CONCENTRATIONS 41 PM Readings of PM are typical indicators of air quality, and the 2.5
2.5
concentration of highest readings surround the city of New Delhi.
[“A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,” Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
2010 ANNUAL AVERAGE OF PM 29.0
PM
28.9
µg/m 160
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
140 120
28.7
100 80
28.6
60 30
28.5
0
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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CONCENTRATION 42 PM Similarly to the mapping of PM 10
2.5
of PM10 in and around New Delhi.
there is a significant concentration
[“A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,” Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
2010 ANNUAL AVERAGE OF PM 29.0
PM
28.9
µg/m 250
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
200 150
28.7
100 50
28.6
0
28.5
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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IN SMOG 43 ENVELOPED New Delhi’s pollution problem gives the term “congested” another
meaning, as evidenced in this photograph of the Presidential Palace.
[“Wide Gap Between New Delhi, Beijing Smog Policies as India Lags on Curbing Pollution,” Huffington Post, 5 Feb 2014, accessed 19 Sept 2014]
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POLLUTION IN DECEMBER 44 AIR The level of particulate matter is highest and most widespread during the month of December.
[“A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,” Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
EMISSIONS IN DECEMBER 29.0
PM
28.9
µg/m 150
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
120 90
28.7
60 30
28.6
0
28.5
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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POLLUTION IN JANUARY 45 AIR Although the level of pollution is slightly lower in January than in December, there is still a very widespread area of concentrated particulate matter.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,â&#x20AC;? Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
EMISSIONS IN JANUARY 29.0
PM
28.9
µg/m 150
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
120 90
28.7
60 30
28.6
0
28.5
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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POLLUTION IN JUNE 46 AIR Between the months of January and June, there is a significant
decrease in the level of particulate matter, but air pollution is still widespread.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,â&#x20AC;? Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
EMISSIONS IN JUNE 29.0
PM
28.9
µg/m 150
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
120 90
28.7
60 30
28.6
0
28.5
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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POLLUTION IN JULY 47 AIR The month of July has the best air quality, with lower levels of particulate matter in the air and the areas where the level is high enough for potential health risks are contained.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,â&#x20AC;? Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
EMISSIONS IN JULY 29.0
PM
28.9
µg/m 150
LONGITUDE (DEGREES)
28.8
120 90
28.7
60 30
28.6
0
28.5
28.4
28.3
28.2 76.9
77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
LATITUDE (DEGREES)
77.5
77.6
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THE LIMIT 48 OVER Putting the average level of particulate matter in New Delhi be-
side metrics established by the city and the recommended level by international organizations helps put the air pollution problem into perspective.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;Wide Gap Between New Delhi, Beijing Smog Policies as India Lags on Curbing Pollution,â&#x20AC;? Huffington Post, 5 Feb 2014, accessed 19 Sept 2014]
“In New Delhi, levels of PM 10 - particulate matter that is 10 micrometers in size - have routinely bounced around 400 micrograms per cubic meter the past several months. That’s four times the city’s legal limit of 100, and well above the World Health Organization’s recommended limit of 20. In 2011, the average level rose to about 280.”
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IN TONS PER YEAR, PER SECTOR 49 EMISSIONS The different sectors that produce emissions contribute thousands of tons per year of particulate matter, posing serious health risks.
[“A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,” Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
12000 10000 8000
POWER PLANTS
ROAD DUST
WASTE BURNING
CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRIES
0
BRICK KILNS
2000
DIESEL
4000
DOMESTIC
6000
TRANSPORT
EMISSION OF PM2.5 (TONS/YEAR)
EMISSIONS BY SECTOR
SECTOR
TRANSPORT | 17% DOMESTIC | 12% DIESEL | 6% BRICK KILNS | 15% INDUSTRIES | 14% CONSTRUCTION | 5% WASTE BURNING | 8% ROAD DUST | 6% POWER PLANTS | 16%
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OF EMISSIONS BY SECTOR 50 PERCENT The sectors that each contribute between 14% and 17% of emissions, in order from highest to lowest contribution, are transport, power plants, construction, brick kilns, and industries.
[â&#x20AC;&#x153;A GIS-based Emissions Inventory at 1 km x 1 km Spatial Resolution for Air Pollution Analysis in Delhi, India,â&#x20AC;? Atmospheric Environment, March 2013, accessed 15 Sept 2014]
10000 8000
POWER PLANTS
ROAD DUST
WASTE BURNING
CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRIES
0
BRICK KILNS
2000
DIESEL
4000
DOMESTIC
6000
TRANSPORT
EMISSION OF PM2.5 (TONS/YEAR)
12000
SECTOR
12000 TRANSPORT | 17% 10000
DOMESTIC | 12% DIESEL | 6%
8000
BRICK KILNS | 15%
SECTOR
WASTE BURNING
ROAD DUST
CONSTRUCTION | 5% CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRIES
BRICK KILNS
0
DIESEL
2000
DOMESTIC
INDUSTRIES | 14% 4000
WASTE BURNING | 8% ROAD DUST | 6%
POWER PLANTS
6000
TRANSPORT
EMISSION OF PM2.5 (TONS/YEAR)
EMISSIONS BY SECTOR
POWER PLANTS | 16%
TRANSPORT | 17% DOMESTIC | 12% DIESEL | 6% BRICK KILNS | 15% INDUSTRIES | 14% CONSTRUCTION | 5% WASTE BURNING | 8% ROAD DUST | 6% POWER PLANTS | 16%