Bullies

subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

[ bullies] [

[

[objects] lifestyle] ≤ culture

[lifestyle] us] ≤

dependence ≥ [over] consumption

meaning identity +]us

obj. ¬ prod.ct

¬ use

verb. ¬

subj. [+] us

BULLIES

helvetica

neue ,

avenir ,

Ø ¬

meta .

bindery :

455 usa ; phone :

address :

+1 415 896 0500 . printer : epson st ylus photo r 1800 . camer a : canon digital powershot sd 500 . soft ware : adobe creative suite cs 3 . unit cost : us $75.00

94105 ,

copymat ;

market street suite 180 , san fr ancisco , california

professor :

tex t

san

paper

sterling .

title :

entr ada

book stock :

fr ancisco .

jennifer

© 2008 .

r ag

190

size

of

art

universit y

of moab

paper

company

8.0" x 9.5". book cover & by

academy book natur al

bullies .

name : yoana wiman ; e - mail : y wiman @ g mail . com ; phone : +1 415 810 2578

Ø ¬

BULLIES

fonts :

¬ 0_2855437_0 ¬ cl.phon ¬

contents subj. [+] us

01/02 our objects and us

03 04 05 06

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paper cups

23 24 25 26

verb. ¬ use

plastic bottles

51 52 53 54

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light bulbs

81 82 83 84

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electricity

93 94 95 96

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need_/want end

99

103

¬

obj. ¬ prod.ct

BULLIES Ø ¬

our [obj.]+]us ¬

subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. Ø ¬

¬ p r o d.c t

our culture & lifestyle ÂŹ

03/04

Our objects help define who we are, our culture and lifestyle. They make our most basic, every day activities much easier and more comfortable.

So much so that we tend to not pay attention when we are using them and take them for granted. Some objects may be less necessary than others.

However, through many changes in technology and standards of living they have become a big part of our lives. These everyday objects have become such an integral part of our lifestyle and culture that despite their negative impacts on our environment we cannot imagine our lives without them. Hence the term: bullies.

BULLIES subj. [+] us

our [obj.] +]us

¬

O B J E C T S & C U LT U R E S ¬ The term: culture is not only applicable to the consumption goods, but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For them, culture includes art, science, as well as moral systems and social values.

General anthropologists have oftentimes define culture as a collection of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, that encompasses lifestyles, art and literature, value systems, ways of living together, traditions and beliefs.

Since the beginning of the post-modern era, consumption has been highly regarded as a root determinant in the formation of meaning, implying that once basic needs have been met, the secondary motivations for consumption activities, both conscious and unconscious, are the establishments of our standards of living, including social status. The objects we consume or purchase, and their characteristics, serve as codes that can be read and interpreted by the outside world as indications of our lifestyles.

The car we drive, the clothes we wear, and the food we eat have become important components in the constructions of our lifestyles and expressions of our identities. Whereby previously people thought of themselves as simply being defined by their occupational positions, we are now encouraged to define ourselves by our consumption choices, our possessions.

As such, some objects may acquire several different and contrasting meanings, as well as, purposes throughout their life spans, depending on how they are being used and displayed. For instance, for a normal college student to own, use and display a 1970's airline bag is more likely to be an ironic statement about how cool he is, rather than that he is a seasoned air traveller. In this case, the meaning of the bag is dramatically changed by the context within which it is presented and hence, perceived.

Attached to these objects or products are commercial entities, often large corporations that have extensive history, some even dated back to the original conception of the project, some were founded by the inventors of the products, while others were the results of financial mergers of multiple companies. Some of these corporations play an important role in our cultures as some of them are brands that we have grown very familiar with and their branding and identities have even helped shaped our current lifestyle.

Ø ¬

our cultures & lifestyles ¬

P R O D U C T T R E N D S & L I F E S T Y L E S ¬ Bullies is dedicated to everyday objects, to highlighting the origins of some of these everyday products, the steps and struggles throughout their conception, how their purposes and meanings in our society have evolved over the years and the brands that we are familiar in our current cultures because of them. These objects are important because they are especially related to everyday actions that we cannot live without.

This includes seeing, communicating, walking, eating, and cleaning, some of the most essential activities for all of our survival.

These actions often are commonly overlooked verbs, such as carrying, storing and wearing, all of which involve interactions with a large variety of products, forms the majority of our daily routines, interactions and convenience. For example, products related to eating and drinking are very much dictated by the food and beverages that we consumed. They are very much a part of our popular culture, a culture that is constantly changing. The beliefs, practices, and trends in a culture affect the eating habits of the people. Popular culture includes the ideas and objects generated by a society, such as commerce, arts, politics, media, and other systems, as well as the impact of these ideas and objects on society.

05/06 Ø ¬

verb. ¬ use

Over the past decades, there has been an increasing trend toward consumerism, a trend that is reflected in several lifestyle changes, such as more people eating away from home, the use of dietary and herbal supplements, and the use of convenient and functional items. As the mind sets and preferences of the consumers change, so do the products related to these activities.

Another action that is often overlooked is seeing. The product strongly related to this would be the light bulbs. Every room in every building in the modern era will most probably have a lighting system. Tracing back, we would realize the importance and our dependence, or over-dependence, on electricity.

The everyday products related to this would be the power cords, plugs and switches. Again, these items are always present in almost every rooms or buildings, even if their locations are usually inconspicuous.

These products are specifically designed to be practical, portable and so easy to use that we do not have to think about them. They are also very easy to dispose of, but not necessarily gentle for our environment or even our health.

However, due to their high availability and convenience factor, we have grown reliant on them nonetheless.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

touched .

an

idea

or

concept

that

is

intangible

and

is

an abstr ac t noun or noun phr ase governed by an ac tive

[ ob . jec t ] and

a three dimensional noun or noun phr ase governed by an ac tive

[ ob . jec t ] seen

tr ansitive verb or by a preposition . an immaterial thing that cannot

only thought of or not expl ained visually. a motive , goal or purpose

be

tr ansitive verb or by a preposition . a material thing that can be seen and touched . a thing , both living and non - living , to which a specified ac tion

Ø ¬

or feeling is direc ted . smaller particles that make up a bigger quantit y

subj. [+] us

our [obj.] +]us BULLIES

[ bul . lies] ¬ used in this book as an anology of objec ts that we have ourselves , created through research , to help us solve our everyday problems ; unknowingly, we grew reliant on them , allowing their func tions to dic tate our daily ac tions , making us do certain things in specific ways

based on the dic tionary, it is a noun , in plur al of bully, of a

intimidate other people , t ypically to do what he or she wants them to do

weaker ; it is also a verb meaning to use superior strength or influence to

person who uses strength or power to harm or intimidate those who are

[ bul . lies] ¬

our cultures & lifestyles ¬

07/08 ¬ Ø

obj. ¬ prod.ct

verb. ¬ use

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

our [obj.] +]us ¬

o u r m e m o r y, o u r o b j e c t s & t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ¬

09/10

objects by t h e nu m ber ¬ There are an amazing number of everyday things, perhaps twenty thousand of them. Are there really that many? Start by looking about our space. There are light fixtures, bulbs and sockets; wall plates and screws; clocks, watches and watchbands. There are writing devices, each different in functions, color or style. There are clothes, with different functions, openings and flaps. Notice the variety of materials and pieces. Notice the variety of fasteners we have: buttons, zippers, snaps, laces.

Look at all the furniture and food utensils. All those details on the form, each serving some function for manufacturability, usage or appearance.

Consider the work/office area: paper clips, scissors, pads of paper, magazines, books, bookmarks. In a particular room alone, we can easily count more than a hundred specialized objects before we tire. Each is simple, but each requires its own method of operation, each has to be learned and each perform its own specialized task and each has to be designed separately.

¬ Ø

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obj. des.gn functions

Furthermore, many of the objects are made of many parts. A desk stapler has sixteen parts, a household iron fifteen, the simple bathtub-shower combination has twenty-three. It is hard to believe that these simple object has so many parts. Another example is the sink. Here is a breakdown of the sink: drain, flange, pop-up stopper, basin, soap dish, overflow vent, spout, lift rod, fittings, hot water handle and cold water handle. We can count even more parts if we take the faucets, fittings and lift rods apart.

The book "What's What: A Visual Glossary of the Physical World" has more than fifteen hundred drawings and pictures illustrating twentythree thousand items or parts of items. Irving Biederman, a psychologist who studies visual perception, estimated that there are probably "thirty thousand readily discriminable objects for the adult." Whatever the exact number, it is clear that the many difficulties of our everyday life are amplified by the sheer profusion of items that we encounter everyday.

Suppose that each everyday thing takes one minute to learn how to use, learning twenty thousand of them will occupy a total of 333 hours or about eight forty-hour work weeks. Furthermore, we often encounter new objects unexpectedly, when we are really concerned with something else, causing us to be confused and distracted, causing what ought to be a simple and effortless everyday thing interferes with the important task of the moment.

How do people cope? Part of the answer lies in the way the mind works: in the psychology of the human cognition and thought and memory. Some part lies in the information available from the appearance of the objects; the psychology of everyday things. And other part comes from the ability of the designer to make operation clear, to project a good image of the operation and to take advantage of other things people might be expected to know. This stage is where the designer's knowledge of the psychology of people, coupled with the knowledge of how things work becomes crucial.

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BULLIES

Ø ¬

verb. ¬ use

our [obj.] +]us ¬

There are easily about 30,000 readily discriminable objects that we come across every day. Each one is simple yet each has its own specific task for which each will require its own methods of operation. Every one of these operations has to be learned separately, sometimes in sequences of steps. Every one operation, form and construction has to be designed separately and specifically.

obj.s by number

o u r m e m o r y, o u r o b j e c t s & t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ¬

11/12

Most of everyday products require practices before we can use them seamlessly and efficiently. Many of them we have learned by rote. Some are actually more difficult than they seem or we think they are, but since we use them so often and routinely, our thought process of using these products becomes almost irrelevant, regardless of their complexities. We owe this ability to our memory.

our memory [+]

us

Ø ¬

verb. ¬ use

BULLIES box. ¬prod.ct

Ø ¬

our [obj.] +]us ¬

walls. steps to use

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o u r m e m o r y, o u r o b j e c t s & t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s walls parts & materials

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13/14 steps ¬function

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BULLIES subj. [+] us

our [obj.] +]us

¬

copin g t h rou g h m e m ory ¬ Considering the large number of everyday things we need to learn and operate for our day to function efficiently, our memory becomes a crucial part of this process. Our ability to retain the learning experience of using a product, and out ability to follow a specific routine after only a few repetitions becomes a large part in making our lives easier, faster and less stressful, allowing us to focus on the more important tasks, or tasks that are not routine.

There are three major categories on how people use their memories and how they retrieve information: memory through explanation, memory of arbitrary things, and memory for meaningful relationships. learningby_memory

m e m o r y t h r o u g h e x pl a n at i o n ¬ The first is memory through explanation, though this is the most powerful type of memory we have, it is not as important as the next two, when pertaining to everyday objects and actions. Memory through explanation allow us an understanding of how things work, the details and thus, gives us the flexibility to fix things should an operation goes wrong, or should the desired goal not be achieved. It is therefore very powerful for our lives in general because it relates directly to our thinking.

¬ The second is memory for arbitrary things.

Arbitrary knowledge can be classified as the simple remembering of what is to be done, without reliance on an understanding of why or internal structures.

This is how we learn the alphabets and numbers, how to tie a shoelace. This is even how we learn the multiplication tables, although for that we could refer to an external structure. This is how we are expected to learn arbitrary codes to operate the modern, misbegotten telephone system. It is also how we are forced to learn many procedures required of modern technology. This is rote learning, the bane of modern existence.

m e m o r y f o r a r b i t r a r y t h i n gs

Rote learning creates problems. Firstly, because what is being learned is arbitrary, the learning is difficult as it can take considerable time and effort.

Secondly, when a problem arises, the memorized sequence of actions give no hint of what has gone wrong, no suggestion of what might be done to fix the problem. Although most things are appropriate to learn by rote, such as the alphabets and multiplication tables, however, most things are not.

This also applies to how we use many of our everyday products. Some products take a few uses or practices for us to be able to use them smoothly, after which we can then use it more effortlessly, while others were designed to be self explanatory or designed to be used instinctively. The more often we use them, the more familiar we are with the process.

Ø ¬

o u r m e m o r y, o u r o b j e c t s & t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ¬

We were not born with the knowledge to hold the pens and pencils, we learn how to do this when we were very young, during which we acquire our own style of holding the pen, one most comfortable for us. Since writing is one of the most common everyday actions, this process of holding the pen becomes more natural over the years. Similar case can be made with the writing of alphabets and numbers.

Another example is the chopsticks, it is a very simple product with regards to its form and function—two identical thin sticks used to pick up food from the plates and to the mouth. However, its operation is anything but. We first learn this operation by following examples, or by reading instruction, but whatever the means, it is not a process we achieved naturally on a first try, we get better only after more tries. And after sufficient regular attempts, its operation becomes so easy that whenever we see a pair of chopsticks at a restaurant, the way we use them is almost instinctive.

15/16 ¬ Ø

verb. ¬ use

¬ Most things in the world have sensible structures, which tremendously simplifies the memory tasks.

Whenever things make sense, they correspond to knowledge that we already have, so the new material can be understood, interpreted and integrated with previously acquired material. Now, we can use rules and constraints to help understand what things go together. Meaningful structures can help us organize apparent chaos and arbitrariness into useful, relatable knowledge.

m e m o r y t h r o u g h m e a n i n g fu l r el at i o n s h i p s

For instance, upon seeing the pair of chopsticks for the first time, we may see it as two separate objects, only identical, and when relating it to food items, one of the first few interpretations we may have is to use each stick individually, and poking them into the food in order to pick it up, similar to how we use the skewers. This interpretation comes upon our prior knowledge of using the skewers for food picking.

However, upon seeing the two chopsticks used together, in the proper way, our interpretation is very likely similar to that of a pair of ice tongs or forceps, this is due to our prior knowledge of these items. This system of relating new products to those we have previously known through their methods of operation and purposes is enabled by our memory.

These memory types help us organize the different functions of objects and also in connecting them to specific activities and goals to prevent confusion and facilitate learning of new knowledge and actions. They can be considered part of our intellect since they not only help us with object knowledge but also conceptual and abstract knowledge.

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BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

our [obj.] +]us

¬

Some actions, visuals, audio or aesthetics can automatically make us think of specific objects, abstract or physical, or specific events that we have already encountered previously. For instance, we relate colors to many specific things, this is reflected when we are drawing or illustrating, or writing and imagining a written description. This allows us to connect things previously unthought of to be related, such as metaphors.

The color yellow is often associated with the sun, which later relates to brightness or light and oftentimes this overall, would lead to the emotion of joy. The color green on the other hand is very much associted with trees and thus is often used to represent nature and sometimes to impy neutrality or peace. Besides color, other visual cues can lead us to specific things as well.

Upon seeing a pair of pliers, it is easy to relate the object to a pair of scissors.

This is because, first of all, both objects come in a pair of same-shaped objects connected at the centre, at a pivot. The overall forms of both objects are very similar, making us think automatically to use them in similar manner. This will help us in learning how to use the pliers: to move the handles in order to make use of the "cutting" tip, just like that of a scissors. Similarly, When looking at a pair of chopsticks being used by other people, we can see the similarities of the chopsticks with that of a forceps.

Both consist of two identical-shaped objects that are used by moving both simultaneously at a pivot located at the end. The direction of hand movement is the same as the objects. Moreover, the purposes are also very similar as both involves picking up objects.

Another example would be the form and movements of parts between a traditional clothes peg and a modern paperclip. The way both objects work are also alike, in the sense that the hand motion that the user conduct result in movements in object parts in the opposite directions. Such relations of visual observations with specific functions help us learn more similar and more complex objects and concepts as we go along.

Ø ¬

o u r m e m o r y, o u r o b j e c t s & t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ¬

Some observations of objects and concepts that are retained in our memory that help us relate to new objects and thus help us in learning new knowledge.

For instance, the way the clock is read, how the hands on the clock moves only in one direction, this direction is called clockwise. The direction awy from this would then be called anti-clockwise. As the name suggests, this method of indicating turning direction originated from clock reading.

However, this also translate to other things that we do every day. This would then be applied to other motion that are circular and directionally specific.

One example is the opening and closing of a bottle cap. To open the cap, meaning to loosen the cap's hold on the bottle mouth is done by turning anticlockwise. To tighten the cap is then done in clockwise direction. To make the workings of everyday things even easier, most fuctional actions that involves tightening and loosening objects are done in the same manner: anti clockwise motion to loosen and clockwise to tighten.

17/18 ¬ Ø

obj. ¬ prod.ct

Besides clockwise directions, simpler way of instructions would be turning right and left for which some are taught the catch phrase: righty, tighty; lefty loosey. This way of learning relates the directions, the purpose with the pronunciations of the words. This is especially done in the workings of tools and mechanics such as the screwdrivers and drills.

The motion of the clocks are also used to learn concepts, especially in mathematics: the concepts of degrees and angles. when measurements are taken in the clockwise direction the value is positive, this corresponds to the way we read time, as time passes, it digitally increases and this happens during clockwise motion. Any value measured in anti clockwise direction, is then a negative.

The idea of a positive and negative also relates to the left and right directions.

In a number lines that were taught in mathematics, any number or value positioned to the right of "0" is a positive value, while any values placed on the left of "0" is a negative value.

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[ illustr ation ] p.13 _ /14 ¬

simil ar analogy can be used to represent the make -

up of a produc t, that they are made up of parts and materials ; each produc t

[ illustr ation ] p.

13 _ /14

¬

to illustr ate the process of using and learning

to use a produc t ; each complete box represents a complete task where

each side or line that makes the box represents the steps to use the

produc t. for some produc ts , the steps are to be done in a specific order

Ø ¬

has a struc ture that makes up its func tions and over all form , a missing

obj. ¬ prod.ct

link to this struc ture or wrong materials can alter its look and usabilit y

subj. [+] us

our [obj.] +]us BULLIES

_ /dependence

cycle

¬

upon learning about the convenience of

repeating them into our memory, making this process a less bothersome task

the more familiar we are with the steps in using it, since we are essentially

a certai produc t, we tend to use it more frequently. the more we use it,

learning

use them on a routine basis to begin with . the whole process is like a cycle

of our daily lives ; the reason we are familiar with them is that we tend to

we become on them , making them even more important in the func tionings

the more familiar we are with our everyday produc ts , the more dependant

o u r m e m o r y, o u r o b j e c t s & t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ¬

19/20 ¬ Ø

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

our [obj.] +]us

¬

m ateri a ls ¬ Objects are essentially made up of parts, each of which are a combinations of all sorts of materials. Hence, we live in a world of materials; it is materials that give substance to everything we see and touch. To design, therefore, can be said as the ability to make things out of materials; and choosing materials to be used is to see more in the material than merely its external form. Objects can have meaning, carry associations or be symbols of more abstract ideas. Designed objects, symbolic as well as utilitarian, predate any recorded language — they provide the earliest evidence of a cultural society and of symbolic reasoning.

On a small scale, designers seek to blend the technical with the aesthetic, combining practical utility with emotional delight. Think of Wedgewood china, Tiffany glass, these are initially made to fulfil a functional purpose, but survive and are treasured today as much for their appeal as objects of beauty. Think, too of musical instruments: the inlaid violin; of weapons of war: the decorative shields; or of the weapons of the mind: the gilded pen, the manuscript. All of these tools are made in forms that express aspects of their creators' imaginations and desire to make objects of delight and utility.

Consumers buy things because they like them, or even love them. To succeed, a product must of course, function properly, but that is not enough: it must be easy and convenient to use, and it must have a personality that satisfies. The last category depends on the design of the product. When many technically equivalent products compete, market share is won or lost through its visual and tactile appeal, the associations it carries, the way it is perceived and the emotions it generates. Consumers now expect delight as well as function in everything they purchase. Creating it is a central part of design. m at er i a l s & i n n ovat i o n s ¬ Advances in material enable advances in industrial design, just as they do for technical design. And here we need a word that requires definition: "inspirations". It can be defined as the ability to stimulate creative thinking. New development in materials and processes are sources of inspiration for product designers, suggesting novel visual, tactile, sculptural and spatial solutions to design.

Examples drawn from previous years are the ability to color and mold polymers to provide bright and translucent shapes. Examples drawn from recent past are the ability to color, and mold polymers to make bright, translucent shapes; the co-molding of elastomers to give soft, tactile surfaces; toughened and textured glass to create transparent walls and flooring; and there are many more. In each of these examples, innovative products have been inspired by the creative use of materials and processes. Thus, materials have two major overlapping roles: that of providing technical functionality and that of creating product personality.

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product, parts and materials ¬

& m at er i a l s ¬ Materials exert a profound influence on the form of products. Nowhere is this more visible than in architecture. The Parthanon, the Eiffel Tower, the Golden Gate Bridge, all great symbols of their time are unique expressions of what is possible with a particular material. An Eiffel Tower made from stone is as inconceivable as a Parthanon made from wrought iron, or a Golden Gate Bridge made of reinforced concrete. The material has constrained each design, but within these constraints the designer has created a form that subsequent generations see as structural art.

forms

The most direct links between materials and form arise through the forces that the material can carry. Some forms are designed or even forced into the design by the nature of the material of the primary structures. For instance, wood is strong in tension, compression and bending, allowing triangulated space such as frames and trusses.

21/22 ¬ Ø

obj. ¬ prod.ct

In most cases, materials have been formed into elements capable of carrying certain forces; the elements are integrated into forms designed to convert the loads on the structures into forces compatible with the materials of which it is made. Referring to the famous quote about design, that "form follows function," in this case, it is also safe to say that form follows materials. m at er i a l sel ec t i o n ¬ There are a variety of ways of choosing materials, depending on the individual designers and engineers. Some select materials by analysis, this is the case for most engineers. In this method, the majority of inputs placed into considerations are the technical requirements of the products and their specific parts. This method provides scientific reasoning for all choices and is very systematic.

The second method is through synthesis, which is choices made based on previous experience and analogy. In this case, the major inputs are design requirements expressed as a set of intentions, aesthetics and perceptions.

This method exploits knowledge of previously solved design problems that are similar. The choices are then tested based on and against these previous designs solutions. However, one possible drawback is the possibility of repetitions and thus lack, of innovations in the materials choices, not pushing the boundaries of science enough. But some may argue that this method allows for cross pollination of ideas, which is another version of innovation.

Other methods are choices made by similarity and inspiration. The former are choices made to replace similar materials that no longer existed, improving them in some way to make them work. The latter is least technical as it is based on the designers' environment and thoughts explorations, sometimes it can even happen by accident or at random. This is , Therefore, indirectly based on the designers' knowledge outside the field of materials itself.

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BULLIES

subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

papercup ¬

the produc t started out as a hygiene solution to shared public

drinking but over the years , it has become a necessary item for convenience

[ ob . jec t ] ÂŹ

a disposable produc t ; made for drinking on -the - go that comes

in standard sizes and is usually paired with a pl astic lid & cardboard sleeve

[ ob . jec t ] ÂŹ

the paper cups, the users, the consumption ÂŹ

23/24

[ .cup] paper

BULLIES Ø ¬

Ø ¬

papercup

¬

It is Monday and there is nothing like a hot cup of coffee, milk or tea to help us kick start our day in the morning. This is applicable to majority of the 90 millions in-office workers, in the United States alone. Most of them frequent the coffee shops just around the corner from the office building where we work, where the baristas know them by name because they visit them at least twice every working day. To keep the drink warm and prevent from spilling on the way back to the office, they put a cap on. In addition, some would indulge in the cardboard sleeves to protect our hands. With the morning papers under one arm and the paper cup in the other, they then walk back to the office, ready for work. This cup of hot drink would then stay on the desks at the office until lunch break or until the end of the day, during which it will be thrown away on the way out of the building. Similar scenarios are repeated for the following weekdays.

the paper cups, the users, the consumption ¬

subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

25/26

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

papercup ¬

The exact origin of the paper cup seems to be unknown. In the U.S., in 1908, the same year the article by Alvin Davidson was published, Lawrence W. Luellen, inventor and entrepreneur, came up with a design that had a flange around the top edge of a cup to stiffen it, making it easier to dispense one at a time from a stack of nested cups in a machine. The product would later undergo several name changes but eventually it was named the Dixie Cup. The paper cup industry would later expand, especially in Northern America, resulting in the rise of several companies, and eventually, the giants in disposables products industry that we are familiar with today.

ori g in ¬

t h en ¬ The next step in the paper cup development was catering the cups more specifically for the drinks they contained. Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard. Whereas, cups for cold drinks could not be treated in the same way, as condensation forms on the outside, then soaks into the board, making the cup unstable. To remedy this, cup manufacturers developed the technique of spraying both the inside and outside of the cup with wax.

In 1950s, both clay-coated and wax-coated cups disappeared with the invention of polyethylene (PE) coated cups; this process coverers the surface of the board with a very thin layer of PE, not only waterproofing the cup, but also welding it together. This resulted in the development of special grades for cup stock by major paper companies. Again, the paper cup was ready to take advantage of increasing public demand, this time due to the development and rapid expansion of the fast food industry. Numerous paper companies dedicated their research to establish the best possible industry standards for quality cup stock.

Leading paper companies like International Paper Co. and Enso spent more than 40 years providing a variety of cup stock with basic weights from 105 to 150 lbs. for the industry's major cup producers.

prod.ct the cup ¬

the paper cups, the users, the consumption ¬

In the century since, paper cup has evolved from simply a health and hygiene solution into an everyday object of convenience and eventually, necessity.

Each day, millions of paper cups are used so that people can take their sodas, coffees and other beverages on-the-run. This is due to the increase in fast-food, convenience food and of people simply eating out instead of cooking their own meals. As the global food service industry improves, there will be a high demand for paper material disposables, especially in the United States and in Europe.

Hence, we mostly associate paper cups with sodas and hot beverages. no w ¬

27/28 ¬ Ø

Along with these paper cups, the plastic lid was later invented, for use with the paper cups, to prevent beverage from spilling while travelling and to easily and slowly sip on hot beverages. Also, as demand increases, consumers became even more indulgent, requiring a sleeve for these paper cups to enable them to hold onto the cup more comfortably, without feeling the heat of the drinks.

These sleeves are currently made of heavy weight or cardboard papers.

Although a lot of people now drink water from the plastic bottles, the paper cups are still very widely used. They are also used at social gatherings for ease of clean up when the gathering ends. As the global food service industry improves, there will be a high demand for paper material disposables, especially in the United States and. Instead of having a multitude of glasses and mugs to wash and dry at the end of an event, paper cups can simply be thrown into the trash.

Paper cups are also still widely used in hospitals and medical centres, especially in dentistry. This is for practical and hygiene reasons during dental checkups, when there is the need to rinse the patients' mouths. Paper cups are also used in waiting rooms of hospitals, partly to separate the cups used for patients from visitors. However, within the hospital itself, the use of paper cups is slowly declining, as more hospitals opt for washable plastic mugs and ceramic cups for their over night patients. This is mainly due to environmental reasons and financial reasons are some belief washable items are generally more economical than their disposables counterparts. This theory is still highly arguable.

subj. then ¬ now

BULLIES Ø ¬

papercup ¬

the paper cups, the users, the consumption ¬

29/30 ¬ Ø

papercup BULLIES subj. [+] us

Ø ¬

There are an average of 220 billion paper cups consumed worldwide in the past year.

The North America region, which includes the United States, consumed the highest number of paper cups despite having merely 4.2% of the total world population. This can be explained by the cultures and lifestyles in the region's countries. Meanwhile, the consumption of paper cups in all of Asia is only 59 billion, compared to the 130 billion consumed by the North America region. The number is much less in Asia despite Asia having some of the highest population in countries like China, India and Indonesia.

In fact, the paper cup consumption in all of Asia is only 26.9% of the total consumption despite having almost 60% of the world population. This helps us understand the lifestyles, cultures or, to some degree, the levels of development of countries in Asia.

the paper cups, the users, the consumption ¬

This number is steadily growing as the countries developed and become financially stronger. One reason is due to the export of western culture into Asian countries as they develop and as multi-cultural companies increases. As more large corporations set up more branches in Asian regions there will be an increase in expatriates from the Northern America regions working in Asia.

This will inevitably lead to an even steeper increase in the demands for convenience or disposable items, such as paper cups.

However, the same cannot be said about Europe. Although most European countries are highly developed, if not more developed, than countries in North America, the paper cup consumption percentage there is still somewhat proportionate to their population total, if not a little lower than average when compared to the North America region.

31/32 ¬ Ø

¬ Ø

BULLIES

papercup ¬

the paper cups, the making, the companies subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

¬ Ø

33/34

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

papercup ¬

t h e di x ie br a nd outline ¬ One of the leading paper cup brands and manufacturers in the U.S is the Dixie brand company. The history of the Dixie Cup began when Lawrence Luellen, of Boston, Massachusetts, first became interested in an individual paper drinking cup in 1907. The object was to dispense a pure drink of water in a new, clean, and individual drinking cup. In the years leading up to the 20th century, everyone drank at the public water barrels, wells, pumps, or spigots with communal tin cups or common dippers.

This sharing of drinking vessels by both healthy and sick alike was often the source for spreading germs and disease.

However, due to lack of public education and awareness, the paper cups was not very popular initially. The disposable paper cup started to become a popular commercial success only after the public learned that shared water glasses could carry germs through the publications of scientific research reports. But it took years, an abundance of business panache, and many discarded designs, from cups that opened like paper bags to those that came with pleats like a fan, for the inventor of the paper cup to arrive at what we now use and toss away so conveniently, without so much as a thought for its fascinating history.

Lawrence Luellen later developed a water-vending machine with the water served in disposable cups, and with another Bostonian, Hugh Moore, embarked on a public-education campaign about the health benefits of the disposable drinking cup. By 1912 the Individual Drinking Cup Company's product was called the Health Kup and the company had developed its first semi-automatic machine to produce them. The breakthrough came when the devices became standard equipment on trains.

The flu epidemic after World War I put paper cups in even higher demand.

Faced with the growing number of companies entering the cup-making business each year, Hugh Moore changed the name of his product in an effort to set it apart from the competition. In 1919 the Health Kup became the Dixie Cup, named for a line of dolls made by Alfred Schindler's Dixie Doll Company in New York. Success led the company, which had existed under a variety of names, to change its name to Dixie Cup Corporation and move to Easton, Pennsylvania. A few names later, it is now known simply as the Dixie brand.

Business expanded again when Moore and Luellen discovered that the drinking cups were ideal for individual servings of ice cream and the Dixie Cup took on another new meaning.

Ø ¬

the paper cups, the making, the companies ¬

About this time Luellen assigned his patents to the new company allowing it to manufacture cups. In turn, he received substantial stock in the company and cash. Hugh Moore was secretary, treasurer, general manager and finally president of the new company. In 1957 American Can Company purchased the Dixie Cup Company. American Can was acquired by the James River Corporation of Virginia, which in 1997 changed its name to Fort James Corporation. Georgia-Pacific Corporation acquired Fort James in 2000 and is now the owner of the "Dixie" brand.

35/36 ¬ Ø

While most people now drink water from their own plastic bottles, the Dixie cup remains widely in use, especially in dispensers and food related events. co m petition ¬ After World War II, the constantly increasing demand for paper cups led to the creation of more specialized and specific companies, which concentrated mostly on designing and building more efficient commercial paper cup machines. This mean an increased competitive market, less market monopoly for the Dixie brand and more widespread availability of the products and at cheaper price range.

companies outline

Currently, a few dozen such companies, located across the globe, are building cup machines and related equipment; but there are only two leading companies that manufacture state-of-the-art paper cup machines that can produce all sizes and shapes of quality cups and containers at high production speed: privately held Paper Machinery Corp. (PMC) and German manufacturer Michael Horauf GmbH. Most of these companies later expanded their product range to include other eating and drinking disposable products.

Another major global brand of disposable food service products is the Solo home and later sold to bottled-water companies. He later came up with other products like wax-coated cups and the plastic Cozy Cup, later known as the Solo Red Cup. Solo Cup Company has grown organically and through prudent acquisitions – most recently acquiring SF Holdings, the parent company of Sweetheart Cup and the Hoffmaster Tissue.

These companies also saw opportunities for partnerships with food and Così, Wal-Mart and Whole Foods, as well as many universities in the U.S. Such relationships are not restricted to financial gains but they also give these companies the outlets to take part in causes and charities, for social and environmental benefits, such as Earthwatch, the African Wildlife Foundation, Save The Children Organization and Conservation International.

¬ Ø

BULLIES Ø ¬

papercup ¬

the paper cups, the making, the companies ¬

37/38 ¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

papercup ¬

Paper cup got its name from its material. The cup is made of paper, almost, if not 100% of the cup is made of paper, different types of paper depending on the parts and function of the parts. Just like the design of the paper cup to best perform its function, the material choices are also planned to best fit the function of the part, which contributes to the overall performance of the product.

m ateri a ls & pa rts ¬

For instance, the base of the cup would be made of a very sturdy paper, with heavier weight, or higher ply count, that does not bend easily and does not give way when exposed to heat. Also, it should be water resistant. The sides or the wall of the cup should also be water resistant and have high tolerance to hot temperatures, however, it does not be as thick or sturdy as the base since the wall material has to be rolled into a cone to create the tapered form of the cup. A highly stiff material would mean excess energy needed, or even a separate technique/step or machine in the manufacturing process, which would consequently add to the production costs of things. pa per ori g in [ _ b r i ef ] ¬ The Chinese government official and scholar is grinding up plants - Mulberry bark, linen and hemp. He makes a big wet mush of separate fibers, then spreads it all out in a mat made of coarse cloth and a bamboo frame. It looks like he's got a mess on his hands, and chances are his family, friends and neighbors are making fun of him. But when he's done, and the sun has dried the matted material, he's made something really remarkable.

Ts'ai Lun, 2,000 years ago, has made paper, and it will become one of the most important inventions ever. Even though archaeological evidence shows that paper may have been made even a little earlier, Ts'ai Lun was the first to have his efforts recorded. Like many inventors through the centuries, he built upon the work of previous inventors.

People had written even before paper was invented. They scratched on cave walls, painted too, and drew characters on wet clay. They even wrote on papyrus made from thinly-sliced papyrus reed which they glued together to make a sheet. But it was paper, not papyrus, which has come to touch just about every aspect of our lives, from term papers and books, to money and personal care products. There's never a day, and hardly a waking hour, that isn't made better by paper.

We did the weaving to make papyrus. What Ts'ai Lun and others discovered was that plant fibers, separated and suspended in water, would form their own woven mats: paper. The invention credited to Ts'ai Lun was so elegantly simple that you can re-create it at home, making your own paper by following the directions on the back of this brochure. Chinese paper making spread slowly but steadily all over the world, from Asia into Africa and Europe. Soon just about everyone knew how to make paper. Still, there wasn't a lot of paper around, since making it gobbled up a lot of material.

Ø ¬

the paper cups & the materials ¬

Early paper was made of rags, and rags were hard to come by. Ironically, when the disease called the Plague or Black Death killed millions of people in Europe, tons of clothing and rags became available, this occurred at just about the time the printing press was invented. At this period, all of a sudden, more books were printed, people became better educated, and these people challenged themselves, trying to figure out a substance that might provide even more paper-making material.

39/40 ¬ Ø

One of those people was a man named Rene de Réaumur who, in the 1700s, watched a species of wasp we now call the paper wasp. These insects were munching on wood. Not eating it, exactly, but chewing it up, spitting the mush back out and forming nests with it. It seemed to him that the wasps were making paper out of wood.

Somehow, Réaumur never got around to trying to imitate the wasps by making paper himself, but had stumbled upon the secret of practical paper making: wood could be broken apart, like the other organic materials, and crafted into paper. We still follow Réaumur's advice and the wasps' example, although paper making has become a more complex and efficient process, and its products incredibly varied and advanced.

materials paper_fiber

People picked up the paper challenge. One person, a man named Kellar, learned how to grind wood efficiently. Others invented new ways to separate wood fibers. If Réaumur had written down his paper recipe, or more accurately, the wasps' recipe, it might have looked like this: wood fiber plus water, plus energy equal paper. We still make paper using that same basic formula. We just vary the kinds of wood fiber and energy, and the techniques of bringing it all together, to get just the kinds of paper we want.

There are certainly many types of paper: newspapers, school books and writing stationery; envelopes, boxes, packing and wrapping paper, paper toweling, tissue, and personal hygiene products. Not a day goes by that we don't use paper in dozens of ways, most of which utterly necessary to our survival. And it all goes back to Ts'ai Lun's innovation and Réaumur's industrious wasps.

Overall, paper was once made one sheet at a time by artists, and many people still enjoy making their own special papers. There are a variety of ingredients that can be used to create a variety of paper types. Especially in paper making today, creating all the kinds of paper we use in such huge quantities, is a science, as well as an art. Engineers and technicians speed things up, using computers to help guide factory machines that can produce huge rolls of paper at more than 45miles/hr.

That would have confounded Ts'ai Lun and Réaumur's wasps could not have kept up. But every day, paper making companies around the world turn wood from trees into pulp, and pulp into paper and paper into everyday products.

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

papercup ¬

[ _ br i ef ] ¬ To fully know about paper and paper making, we have got to get to know trees. Trees are all around us. But it is one of the many objects of nature that we rarely asks about with regards to their making and make-ups. For example, a big part of a tree is the tree trunk. The bark protects the inner wood from weather, insects and other dangers. Just inside the bark is a thin layer called the cambium, whose cells become both bark and inner wood. Next is sapwood, which carries nourishing sap throughout the tree the same way our blood flows through our bodies to nourish us. Heartwood is the innermost part of the trunk, and even though it isn't alive, it provides the tree with strength and structure.

pa per m a k in g

All that wood material is formed of fibers, tiny cellulose strands stuck together with a natural adhesive material called lignin. It's by separating and reorganizing those fibers that we make paper. Some paper is made brand-new from trees, either small trees harvested just for that purpose, or from sawmill scraps left over when larger trees are made into lumber. A second source of paper making material is recycled fiber. Each year, more and more paper is recycled, its fibers used a second, third or fourth time. Every year, about 50% of the paper Americans use is recovered for recycling and other uses.

Almost all of the paper we use today is made of wood fibers. Some specialty papers, like stationery and money, are made from linen, cotton, or other plants. While other papers contain a combination of cellulose fibers and synthetics such as latex. Still, some others are made completely from synthetic materials such as polyolefine. We might find latex in a waterproof mariner's chart, or polyolefine in a rugged courier envelope. But we will find natural fiber paper almost everywhere, in larger variety of stationery.

Wood makes up a lot of our daily products, whether we are aware of them or not. As such, we tend to take it for granted as a material, thinking that they are, bottom line, all the same.

However it is not that way at all. Foresters divide trees into two categories: hardwood and softwood species. Hardwood trees such as oaks and maples have wood with very short fibers. Paper made from these species is weaker than that made from softwoods, but its surface is smoother, and therefore better to write and print on. Softwood trees such as pine and spruce have wood with long fibers, and paper made from this type of wood is much stronger. This paper is ideal for making products like shipping containers that require superior strength.

Fortunately, with the development in our technology, through the hard work of our researchers and paper enthusiasts, we can now blend fiber from hardwoods and softwoods into a single paper, getting just the combination of strength, whiteness, writing surface and other characteristics that we want. This concept of blending the different types are consistently used in paper manufacturing now. Most of the paper we see today is made from both hardwoods and softwoods, a special blend and composition for each purpose.

Ø ¬

the paper cups & the materials ¬

We make newsprint to be opaque, not transparent, we make grocery bag paper strong, tissue soft, fine writing paper smooth. Even within the same category, there is quite a range. Among printing papers, for example, compare the thin sheets of a Bible to the thick, tough pages of a kid's picture book or the medium weight glossy pages of fashion magazines. The basic recipe of wood, water and energy is adjusted to make just the paper that is suitable and appropriate for the different functions, environment and users.

41/42 ¬ Ø

First, trees are harvested from tree farms. After the trees are removed, more trees are planted in their place, they can a provide great habitat for wildlife.

The logs are transported to the paper company where they get a bath to rinse away dirt and other impurities before being turned into small chips of wood. The chips are then sorted according to size, and moved to the pulping operation, where they will be turned into pulp for making paper.

In the pulping stage, the individual wood fibers in the chips must be separated from one another. This can be accomplished using one or more pulping techniques. The type of paper that's being made determines the pulping process that is used. The finished pulp looks like a mushy, watery solution, but the individual wood fibers have actually all been separated. When the pulp is ready to be made into paper, that mainly implies the process of getting the water out of the wood-fiber soup, since this paper making stock is about ninety-nine percent water.

the cup ¬ material

The first area in which this takes place is called the wet end of the paper making machine. First, paper makers spray the stock onto a long, wide screen, called a wire. Immediately, water begins to drain out the bottom of the wire. This water is collected so that it can be reused over and over again. Meanwhile, the pulp fibers are caught on the top side of the wire, and begin to bond together in a very thin mat. The fiber mat remaining on the wire is then squeezed between felt-covered press rollers to absorb more of the water.

Even when this wet end work is over, the pulp fibers caught on the wire is still about 60% water. The following stage is the dry end period. In the dry end, huge metal cylinders are heated by filling them with steam. The wet paper, which can be up to thirty feet wide, passes through these hot rollers, sometimes there are dozens of them, and often in three to five groups. Heating and drying the wet sheet seals the fibers closer and closer together, turning them gradually from pulp into paper.

When looking at a piece of paper, it is often difficult to find irregularities across the sheet. This is due to a part of the paper machine called the calender. They are big, heavy cast iron rollers that press the drying paper smooth and evenly, resulting in uniform thickness on the paper. Sometimes the paper is coated, often with fine clay, to make it glossier and easier to print on. A bit more drying, then rolled onto a big spool or reel, the pulp, a miraculous mat of fibers from trees, has become paper, ready for a thousand uses. ¬ Ø

BULLIES

papercup ¬

the cups manufacturing

subj. [+] us

Ø ¬

s tage s

machine

_

1_

2_ 3_ 4_ 5_

Ø ¬

43/44

the paper cups & the materials ¬

verb. ¬ use

_ ¬

fan-shaped cup walls are cut out from rolled

1_

one

¬ Ø

paper that are bendable of medium thickness by die cutting method;

_

the exterior is left blank or painted with graphic images or company logos.

_

the interior is coated with pe wa x for water-proofing.

_

the circular cup base is cut out by die cut method out of thick, non-bendable paper.

1 _

_ ¬

oiling for top

2_

two tr ansfer into m achine, stage

edge curling l ater on; bot tom punching, reel bottom piece inserted.

2 _

_ ¬

knurling or he ating

bot tom edge s for at tachment l ater; pre-he ating

3_

three tr ansfer to stage

of top edge for l ater knurling.

_ ¬

3 _ knurling or he ating of top

4_

four tr anfer to stage

edge of cup wall to cre ate rounded edge for safety drinking.

¬ Ø

1 _

_ ¬

finished cups are

auto-discharged from the machine through autom atic tr ansfer s ystem.

5_

five tr ansfer back to stage

BULLIES Ø ¬

Ø ¬

papercup ¬

the paper cups & the materials ¬

45/46 subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

illust.n ¬ cup cap

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

Ø ¬

papercup ¬

dispos a ble e q ua ls wa ste ¬ Every material talks always leads to talks about wastes and sustainability. In this case, since paper's utmost root source is the trees, a direct component of our natural environment, many discussions have taken place with regards to the use of paper in paper cup.

Aspects, such as how it is obtained, processed, how the product is used and the afterlife of the product, parts and materials, even transportations, are constantly under tough scrutiny, especially by environmentalists.

With the increase in coffee trade and fast food, the use of paper cups has increased dramatically over the past decades.

This leads to increase in paper waste, which is a serious issue since paper waste is one of the highest type of waste that we produced on a daily basis.

In an effort to reduce this consumption, new suggestions have been made to frequent consumers, especially those of coffee joints, such as, bringing in our own mugs. New products such as ceramic "paper cups", most well-known as "I'm not a Paper cup" mug, have been developed to lure consumers away from the old paper cups.

There have been debates over the use of paper cups being more wasteful than the plastic disposable cups and the foam cups. One of the findings regarding ceramic cups, in relation to foam cups is that: a ceramic cup takes 1,000 uses to break even with foam cups. There are also research being conducted to manufacture better materials, especially by paper manufacturing companies, and also research on new alternative materials for a longer, multiple used cups or simply for a saver and environmentally friendly alternatives. However, despite all these possible negative impacts and the variety of discussions and statistics surrounding the pros and cons of paper cups usage, the popularity of paper cups remains. This is unlike the case of other similar products, such as the plastic bags and paper bags, which are gradually being replaced by more durable and reusable products.

the paper cups, the materials & the competitions ¬

Diagram presented on the following pages ¬ reus a ble e q ua ls wa ste A classic life-cycle energy analysis, performed by University of Victoria professor of chemistry Martin B. Hocking, of different types of cups, classified by materials. In this analysis, Hocking compared three types of reusable drinking cups: ceramic, glass and reusable plastic to two types of disposable cups: paper and PVC foam. The energy to manufacture re-usable cups is vastly larger than the energy to manufacture disposable cups. In order for a reusable cup to be an improvement and investment over a disposable one on an energy basis, it has to be used multiple times. Hence, if a cup lasts for a fifty uses, then each use gets charged for only one-fiftieth of the manufacturing energy. But in order to reuse a cup, it has to be washed. The efficiency of the dishwasher and the energy system that powers it, determine how much energy is required for each wash. From this analysis, it is quite safe to conclude that how economically efficient and how environmentally friendly our usage of drinking cups are depending on what we use them for, such as the type of drinks, the occasion, which will then determine the number of uses and our personal habits and preferences with regards to beverage consumption. This analysis, of course, does not regard our other personal habits. Personal habits outside of drinking, are also important, such as how much soap and water we use to wash a cup in average.

Also, factors, such as manufacturing resources, the time needed for these components to biodegrade, if they can biodegrade at all, and the transportation expenses of all the related products both before and after production. To consider all of these factors all at once would be really confusing and tedious, and to a certain degree, would definitely yield some very inaccurate results. The more important issue is that the bottom line in conserving our natural resources is our collective effort in reducing overall consumption, regardless of the materials, through adjustments in our lifestyles.

47/48 ¬ Ø

the cup nownext

¬ Ø

papercup ¬

BULLIES

[Energy/use][MJ]

_paper 0.55

0.30

1.10 1.0

0.8

0.6

1.55 1.41

0.4

_PVC

[Energy/use][MJ]

_ /use

0.2

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

25

200

75

100

125

150

175

200

[no. of uses of glass cups]

1.10

[Energy/use][MJ]

[Energy/use][MJ]

[no. of disposable cups]

50

1.0

0.8

0.6

1.09 1.0 1.85 0.8

0.6

1.49 0.4

0.2

0.2

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

[no. of uses of plastic cups ]

obj. mterials

1.41

0.4

1.38

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

[no. of uses of ceramic cups ]

right

¬

energy used up for different cup t ypes by materials , for

0.55

6.3

5.5

energy used up for different cup t ypes by materials , for

14.0

paper

ceramic

plastic

glass

foam

[Energy/use, after (x) uses]

side by material t ypes . energy used up for one use only of each material

0.4

paper

0.2

¬

0.6

ceramic

plastic

glass

foam

left

different number of uses , from 12 to 200 , presented and compared side by

[ diagr am ]

[Energy/use, after 1 use only][MJ_/use]

that is spent during manufac turing , tr ansportations & cleaning process

increasing number of uses ; the energy amount includes the over all amount

[ diagr am ]

the paper cups, the materials & the competitions ¬

49/50 ¬ Ø

1.0

0.8 x = 12

x = 50

x = 100

0.2 x = 200

15.0

10.0

5.0

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

Ø ¬

plastic bottles ¬

now it carries a wide variet y of drinks for consumption and easy disposal

[ ob . jec t ] ÂŹ it has a pl astic cap to prevent spilling and keep bever ages away from pollutants and contaminats ; started out for storing water for tr avelling

for commercial purposes to displ ay company l abels and advertisements

[ ob . jec t ] ÂŹ pl astic bot tle , a device made for storing water for tr avelling supplies ; they come in variet y of sizes ; bot tle surface is now commonly used

the drink, the bottle, the consumers ÂŹ

51/52

[ .bottle] plastic

BULLIES Ø ¬

Ø ¬

plastic bottles ¬

Variety of plastic bottles lined the shelves of an isle at almost every supermarket.

There is a special isle for these products.

They come in almost every colors and their shapes are beginning to vary, from what was originally a simple tube. Now they are available in variety of contours, with more details added without changing the standard capacities. Not only has the shape vary, the drinks they contain have as well. From the traditional mineral water, they now carry an array of beverages, from milk, coffee and tea, carbonated water, energy drinks and sodas; especially sodas. There are many of them because there are a large demands for them, by us, or most of us. Vending machines selling these bottled drinks at almost every school cafeteria, shopping malls, gyms and offices, make them very convenient commodities and an effective refreshment,

the drink, the bottle, the consumers ¬

especially on humid and hot days. Many of us would purchase a carton of them, then consume at least one bottle each day.

Some of us would do this religiously: every morning, before work, we would grab a bottle from the carton, usually a bottled mineral water and place it in our bags. This bottle would last at least half a day at the office. After which it would be conveniently thrown out, hopefully into the recycling bin, at the end of work. Then, we would use up another bottle during the gym session afterwards. Some of us would stack up cartons of these bottles at home or in the car for emergency or for mere convenience when commuting. Although reusing these bottles are not recommended for health reasons, some of us still do it, for lack of better knowledge or in our effort to conserve the environment and preserve the resources.

53/54 ¬ Ø

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

The name "SODA" was coined in the early nineteenth century, but the product's true beginnings go back several centuries to biblical times when bubbling waters from natural springs were a much sought after delight.

t h e be g innin g , m iner a l waters ¬

The first recorded history leading up to our modern soft drinks began with the discovery of natural mineral waters created by the flow of water through rocks and soil where mineral salts are dissolved. The exact date of the discovery by man is unknown, but as early as 400 B C, the Greek physician Hyprocrites wrote a book enticed, "Airs Waters, and Places".

verb. ¬ use

As the Roman Empire expanded, many of the renowned springs of England, Germany, Belgium, and Italy were touted for their miracle medicinal cures, and promotion of good health. t h e g l a ss bottles ¬ The universal container we take for granted, the glass bottle probably had its humble beginnings in Syria about 100 years before Christ when the art of blowing air through a hollow tube into a blob of molten glass forming a hollow vessel was discovered .Glass is made from a mixture of sand and lime which is slowly heated to a temperature of 2500 degrees Fahrenheit where the ingredients fuse.

The early glass blowers would then let the molten glass cool to about 1800 degrees Fahrenheit to achieve the right consistency for blowing into bottles.

Conditions were harsh in the early bottle factories. Heat and grime were always present and production in the typical shop was limited to about 1500 bottles per day due to crews of only three blowers and three helpers.

Many of the blown bottles produced were varying shades of green and blue (sometimes referred to as aqua). These colors were most prominent because of the iron impurities found in the raw materials. By purposely adding certain impurities to the raw glass mixture, many bottle color combinations became available to the early bottle makers.

¬ In Europe, beginning in the late 1700s, it became fashionable to visit the natural mineral springs to either drink of the "healthful" waters or to bathe in them. The wealthy promoted and gathered at these "watering places" or spas which catered to their needs and their pocketbooks. Spas were also becoming popular in the New World, and as early as 1767, the waters of Jackson's Spa in Boston were bottled and sold to satisfy a rapidly growing demand for its therapeutic miracles.

co m m er ci a l e x plo i tat i o n s

obj. ¬ prod.ct

About 1800, the waters of a mineral spring near Albany, NY were bottled commercially, and in 1820, the first Saratoga Springs bottled water was sold. The bottling of natural mineral waters peaked in the late 1 800's, and by 1900 was being phased out by the increasing use of "Soda Waters". The chronological separation between the bottling of "natural spring waters", and artificially produced "soda waters" is vague at best, and the bottling of each proceeded together for a number of years in the early 1900's.

t h e i n v e n t o r, t h e b o t t l e & t h e c o n c e p t i o n ¬

Commercial development of soda water was hastened by several technological breakthroughs such as keeping bottles airtight, safe transportations of glass bottles. In 1767, an English scientist named Joseph Priestly began experiments to "stimulate the fixed air found in natural waters". In one of his attempts, he used a primitive apparatus to pour water from one vessel to another held near fermenting vats at a local brewery. He found that the water easily absorbed gas later identified as carbon dioxide. Priestly published his findings in a paper titled "Directions for Impregnating Water with Fixed Air".

55/56 ¬ Ø

As early as 1806, a Professor at Yale University, Benjamin Sillman was reported to have produced small quantities of artificially carbonated water in New Haven, CT. It is believed that the first carbonated soft drink was made in Philadelphia in 1807, when Dr. Philip Syng Physick, the father of American Surgery, asked a chemist to prepare carbonated water for a patient. Flavor was added to make the drink more palatable. The main problem at the dawn of soda pop was finding a way to add natural juices to carbonated water without fermentation ruining the drink, changing taste and textures.

Carbonated beverages did not achieve widespread popularity until 1832, when John Mathews invented an apparatus for charging water with carbon dioxide gas, making the production easier and the quality more consistent. t h e b ot t l e r e vo lu t i o n ¬ Thus far, the development of mineral and soda waters has been traced to the beginnings of our modern day flavored sodas.

This is a good point in the discussion to outline the evolution of containers used for the rapidly growing soda industry.

In the early days of mineral waters, the closure of choice was the cork stopper.

In order to maintain a proper seal, it was necessary to keep the cork stopper moist. One of the methods used most commonly in Europe was to invert the bottle to keep the liquid in continuous contact with the cork. The bottoms of the bottles were rounded to prevent them from standing upright.

As noted, the early bottles were hand blown and rather crude compared with later machine made bottles The first bottles used for mineral and soda waters were called blob tops, named for the mass of glass used to form the lip on the bottle. Tops were applied in a separate operation during manufacture.

In 1857, Henry Putman of Cleveland, Oh, invented a wire clamp retainer for cork stoppered bottles. Putman's "better way" was closely followed by John Matthews, Jr's "gravitating stopper. In 1873, the ball stoppered bottle closure referred to as the "Coda stopper", was patented in the U.S. by Hiram Cold of England.

In 1874, Charles de Quillfeldt of New York, patented the "Lightning Stopper".

Finally in 1879, Charles G. Hutchinson, the son of a prominent Chicago bottler invented a spring-type internal bottle closure known as the "Hutchinson Stopper" whose popularity during the period made it almost a standard. In fact, so many were used chat the bottles produced during the years to follow are referred to as "Hutchinson Bottles". ¬ Ø

plastic bottles BULLIES Ø ¬

Ø ¬

t h e i n v e n t o r, t h e b o t t l e & t h e c o n c e p t i o n ¬

57/58 ¬ Ø

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

Stoppered bottles were still being used by some small American companies as late as the 1920's, but laws restricting their use because they were unsanitary, brought an end to an exciting era in bottling. The demise of stoppered bottles was brought about at the turn of the century by two historic innovations in the bottling industry.

co m m erci a l D R I N K B O T T L E S ¬

In 1892, William Painter, a Baltimore machine shop operator was awarded a patent on the crown-cork bottle seal, an invention chat quickly became a standard for the industry and replaced over a thousand different types of bottle sealing devices in use at the time.

The second major change in bottling occurred in 1903 when the first successful automatic bottle blowing machine was put in operation by its inventor, Michael J. Owens, an employee of Libby Glass Company. By 1910, the new machines were producing over 57,000 bottles a day, a dramatic improvement over the 1500 bottles per day produced by hand a few years earlier. These automatic bottle machine bottles are sometimes referred to as ABM bottles by collectors to separate them from the "blob-top" and Hutchinson bottle era One of the primary features of a soda bottle that makes it a collectable of interest is the labeling on the face and bottom of the bottle. The earliest form of labeling was embossing where raised glass letters and decoration was created as part of the bottle mold. This label was used primarily as a means of getting the bottle returned for refills.

As labeling machines, better glues, and improved printing techniques evolved more bottlers began to use paper labels to identify their soda brands. Not only did this technique reduce cost, but it made the use of bottles more flexible as flavored soda demands increased. Many bottles of this era contained both embossing and paper labels.

In 1934, the bottling industry made first use of Applied Color Label referred to by collectors as acl or Painted Label Soda Bottles. This baked on coloring on the face of the bottle eventually made bottle embossing and paper labels almost obsolete on glass soda bottles, and created an outstanding collectable commodity as well as the added possibility for future marketing and trends.

¬ Nathaniel Wyeth's most famous invention, one of the most convenient and readily recyclable items available for sale today, is the plastic soda bottle, also used for bottled mineral water.

pl a s t i c b ot t l e s i n v en t i o n

Nathaniel Wyeth was born near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, into America's foremost family of artists: both of his sisters and most notably his brother, Andrew, followed in the footsteps of their father, artist and illustrator Newell Convers (N.C.) Wyeth.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

By the young age of 3, Nat, then named N.C. Wyeth, Jr. already showed such a fascination for the workings of things, such as the wheels and brakes of his baby carriage. Indeed, young Nat went on to show the typical budding inventor's interest in gadgets.

t h e i n v e n t o r, t h e b o t t l e & t h e c o n c e p t i o n ¬

Wyeth started disassembling clocks and using their parts to make model speedboats, cutting up tin cans and soldering them into joints, and so on. By the time he was ready for college, Nat followed another uncle's advice and chose the University of Pennsylvania for its engineering program.

59/60 ¬ Ø

One of the successes of Wyeth's college years was perfecting a 20-foot long hydroplane boat that could reach speeds of 50 m.p.h., powered by a Ford V-8 engine. After graduating from Penn, Wyeth joined his namesake uncle at General Motors, in their Delco division. But soon thereafter, Wyeth jumped at the chance to work for Du Pont Corporation in Wilmington, Delaware.

Prior to working on the plastic soda bottle, Wyeth worked and succeeded in a few very useful inventions, one of them is a plug-proof valve for a certain production machine. His next invention after a job transfer was an elaborate machine that manufactured dynamite cartridges automatically, meaning that workers were no longer exposed to poisonous nitroglycerin powder. Another invention was a machine with magnetized rollers, used to manufacture Typar®, a non-woven polypropylene fabric used in textiles manufacturing and construction works. Wyeth began work on his best known invention in 1967.

verb. ¬ use

After wondering out loud at work why plastic was not used for carbonated beverage bottles, Wyeth was told that they would explode. He promptly went to a store, bought a plastic bottle of detergent, returned home, replaced the detergent with ginger ale, sealed the bottle, and put it in the refrigerator. The next morning, the bottle had swollen up so much that it was wedged solidly between the refrigerator shelves. Wyeth intuited that there was a way to make a stronger plastic container, which he eventually achieved.

Wyeth knew that stretching out nylon thread strengthened it by forcing its molecules to align. The challenge he faced was stretching plastic so that its molecules would align in two dimensions, rather than just one. He managed this by creating a "preform" mold for the bottle, which resembled a test tube with screw threads running, not in a single spiral, but in a diamond crisscross pattern. When the plastic was pressed, or "extruded," through this mold, the molecules aligned in the "biaxial" fashion Wyeth intended. His final improvement was to replace the polypropylene material he had been using with polyethylene terephthalate or pe t, which has superior elastic properties.

The final product was light, clear, resilient, and safe: a complete success. is also eminently recyclable. Though recycling was not a major concern to Wyeth at the time he patented his process in 1973, pe t soda bottles were first recycled in 1977, and are now perhaps the most commonly recycled household products. Recycled pe t, s pi no.1, is used mainly as "fiberfill" or as synthetic fabric. For example, about half of the polyester carpet made in the US today comes from recycled pe t bottles.

pe t

So Nathaniel Wyeth, whose many patents and inventions cover a broad range of mechanical processes, never enjoyed professional fame during his career, but he has become, if inadvertently, a hero of the recycling movement.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

BULLIES

plastic bottles ¬

subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

the bottle, the design & the polymers ¬

There are a lot of expenses involved in the disposal of waste, especially those made of plastic, such as the plastic containers and bottles. Most households produce around 2000 lbs of waste each year. Because of the vast quantities involved, the typical way of dumping them into landfills is not a sustainable solution at all. Recycling would be a healthier choice. In order to facilitate recycling, there are numbers or symbols printed onto products made of plastic and onto the corresponding recycling bins. Each of this number represents a type of plastic and, thus, its recyclability. These recycle symbols help indicate which containers are widely reusable. For the most part, almost all plastic containers bearing these symbols may be mixed and brought to the recycling station without separating them by numbers or types. Manufacturers are obliged by law to print these numbers on their products.

61/62 ¬ Ø

SPI

¬

codes

minimal

recycl abilit y,

used

for

longer -term ,

l arger

scale

[ _ 3]

produc ts : most el astomers , such as acrylic and silicone . [ _ 4] unrecycl able

very

[ _ 1] pure thermopl astics , such as pete and hdpe . [ _ 2 ] less recycl able

pl astics includes those from thermosets category, such as polyurethane

recommended use

pl astics , mostly used in appliances : most composites , mainly composites or blends of thermopl astics , such as epox y carbon or el astomers blends .

Ă˜ ÂŹ

plastic bottles ÂŹ BULLIES

amt. of products with the plastic type less

more biodegradable

biodegradable

63/64

the bottle, the design & the polymers ¬

non-recomm only

on select product categories

_1 _2 _3 _4

¬ Ø

plastic bottles ¬

BULLIES

Ø ¬

one

_

_ ¬

p o ly e t h y l ene t erep h t h a l at e

_

pet or pete

_

is one of the most common t ypes of pl astic and i s co m m o nly f o u nd in b o t t l e s o f s o da , j u i c e , water and cough s y rup and jar s of pe anut butter

_1

_

the bot toms of the se conta iner s a re

usua l ly s ta m p ed w i t h t he c h a sin g a r ro w s symbol and the number

_ _ high-densit y

1,

t he co d e f o r p e t.

two

_2

p o ly e t h y l ene

_

hdpe

_

is used in shampoo and detergent bottles, milk jugs, cosmetics, motor oil, toys and sturdy shopping bags, and is considered one of the safer pl astics. hdpe is often opaque or cloudy

_

s o m e r ec yc l in g c en t r e s c a n o nly handle clear no.

2

plastics, such as milk

jugs, but not the colored bottles. four

_

_ ¬

l o w - d en si t y p o ly e t h y l ene

_

ldpe

_

is used in shopping b ags, si x-pack rings, hard drive casings, cd and dvd cases and some bottles. a

"b a d"

_

unlike pvc, ldpe is not regarded as

pl a s tic by mos t eco watchdo gs. but,

p o t en t i a l ly tox i c c he m i c a l s in vo lv ed in i t s

_4

manufacturing include five

_5

_

buta ne

_

benzene

_

vin y l ace tate.

_

_ ¬

_ pp _ is used in products such a s n a ppie s, pa il s, dishe s, c a ndy conta iner s a nd l a b eq u i pm en t. s o m e p ro d u c t s a r e m a d e f ro m _ r ec yc l ed p o ly p ro p y l ene f ro m _ r ec yc l ine _ makers of electronics pack aging, including m i c ro s o f t, a r e in c r e a sin g ly usin g t he r ec yc l ed m aterial inste ad of toxic p vc . p o ly p ro p y l ene

¬ Ø ¬ Ø

obj. ¬ prod.ct

Ø ¬

65/66

the bottle, the design & the polymers subj. spi code

¬ Ø

three

_

_ wrappers,

p o ly v in y l c hl o r id e curta ins, me at

_

pvc

_ ¬

is found in shower ring binders, some

bot tle s, plumbing pipe s and building m aterial s.

_

co m m o nly c a l l ed v in y l , p vc a nd p v d c d if f er from other vinyls, which lack the toxic

chloride

_

pvc continues to be used in many toys. six

_

p o ly s t y r ene

_

styrofoam

_

3_

_ ¬

is used in

disp osa ble cup s a nd ta ke- out food conta iner s,

6_

packing pe anuts, tr ays and egg c artons. most fa s t f o o d c h a i n s , i n c l u d i n g m c d o n a l d’s , p h a s e d o u t p o ly s t y r ene f o r s a ndw i c h co n ta iner s m o r e than

20

years ago due to the use of ozone

l ayer-depleting cfc s in its m anufac turing

_

c f c s h av e n o t b een used to m a k e p o ly s t y r ene/ st y rofoa m since the l ate

1980s. _ ¬

seven

_

wild card

_

m a rking pl a s tic s th at do not fa ll

within an y of the other six c ategorie s, e.g.

_

p o lyc a r b o n at e b o t t l e s

_

which are understood by scientists to wreak havoc on human hormones by leaching b i s p h e n o l- a i n t o h o t b e v e r a g e s

_

p o lyc a r b o n at e b a by b o t t l e s a r e l o sin g

favour with the public , a nd re ta iler s a re s ta rting to sell more bpa-free bot tle s. no number

Ø ¬

_

Ø ¬

_

running arrow without any spi number code

wild c ard or no.7

_

7_

_ ¬

the chemic a l s conta ined in

?_

the plastics used to make the bottles are either very harmful, non-biodegradable or still unknown by researches thus the bl a nk repre sentations.

¬

non-bio

degrada

ble

_

subj. [+] us

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

P L A S T I C S ¬ Scientifically or technically, plastics are referred to as polymers.

Although nature's polymers, such as wood, wool and leather are the oldest of the world's materials, the commodity polymers of today have little that is natural about them; they are the chemists' contribution to the materials world.

Almost all are synthesized from oil ( Although they do not have to be) and are made from the simplest of atoms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine and an occasional whiff of nitrogen or fluorine. They are then categorized into 3 major classes: thermoplastics, thermoset polymers and elastomers.

¬ Attitudes towards polymers, or plastics, have changed over the last 70 years. In the 1930s, when Bakelite was already established and cellophane, PVC, polystyrene, Plexiglas and nylons were first introduced, their freedom of form and color inspired young designers. By the 1950s they were plentiful and cheap, and the low cost of both the materials and of their processing led to an era of cheap, poorly designed disposable products that gave plastics a bad name. p o ly m e r s

verb. ¬ use

Since 1970s, however, the use of polymers in high quality clothing, footwear, household products and transportations systems has created a market served by innovative designers exploiting the immense range of forms, colors, surface finish, translucency, transparency, toughness and flexibility of modern polymers. Their combinations with fillers and fibers has given a range of light materials with characteristics comparable to that of metals, if not better and more economical, making them more prominent materials in the automobile and aerospace sectors.

Polymers are also familiar as fibers (nylon and polyester thread, polypropylene rope), as film (clinging film, polyethylene bags), as bulk moldings (plastic garden furniture, computer housings) and as foam (polystyrene packaging, bicycle helmets). Polymer fibers are much stronger and stiffer than their equivalent in bulk form because the drawing process by which they are made orients the polymer chains along the fiber axis; meaning that drawn polymers such as polypropylene, polyethylene have strengths relative to their weight, which exceed that of steel. Polymer fibers are rarely used on their own. They are used as reinforcement in polymer resin woven into fabrics or bundled up for ropes.

Ease of molding allows shapes that, in other materials, could only be built up by expensive assembly methods. Their excellent workability allows the molding of complex forms, allowing cheap manufacture of integrated components that previously were made by assembling many parts. The process of blending allows properties to be "tuned" to meet specific design requirements of stiffness, strength and processability.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

the bottle, the design & the polymers ¬

Smaller additions allow other adjustments of properties: plasticizing additives give leathery behavior; flame retardants reduce flammability. Some polymers, like PPO, are used almost exclusively in blends; others are used in "pure" forms.

Many polymers are cheap and easy to buy and to shape. Most resist water, acids and alkalis well, though organic solvents attack some. All are light and many are flexible. Their color and freedom of shape allows innovative design.

Thermoplastics can be recycled, and most are non-toxic, though their monomers are not. The properties of polymers change rapidly with temperature. Even at room temperatures, many creep, slowly changing their shape under load; and when cooled they may become brittle. Polymers generally are sensitive to UV radiation and to strongly oxidized environments, requiring special protection.

They have exceptionally good electrical resistance and dielectric strength.

When foamed, they provide insulation materials with thermal conductivity almost as low as that of still air.

67/68 ¬ Ø

material plastic

There are 6 polymers that we most commonly used in our products: PET or PETE, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS. The most commonly used in beverage packaging are PETE and HDPE, though with recent efforts and discovery, recycled versions of these are used, and LDPE, which is a lower density alternative of HDPE are also increasingly being used. These polymers fall under the category of thermoplastics. t h e r m o p l a s t i c s ¬ This category of polymers are plastics that soften when heated up and harden again to their original state when cooled. This allows them to be molded into complex shapes. Most accept coloring agents and fillers, and many can be blended to give a wide range of physical, visual and tactile effects. Their sensitivity to sunlight is decreased by adding UV filters, and their flammability is decreased by adding flame retardants. Thermoplastics are either in crystalline form, amorphous, or a mixture of both.

The properties of thermoplastics can be controlled by adjusting the chain length or the molecular weight, by crystallinity and by blending and plasticizing.

For instance, for thin-walls, choose a low molecular weight resin; for high performance choose one with higher weight; for transparency the polymer must be amorphous; for translucency choose a partial crystallinity. The most transparent polymers are acrylics, PET, PC and PS. Amorphous polymers have greater impact strength and relatively low mold shrinkage.

These advantages makes thermoplastic one of the most commonly used polymers. However, the most useful characteristics or advantage that thermoplastic could very well be that most of them can be recycled easily.

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

The basis of polymers in oil, which is a non-renewable natural resource, and the difficulty of disposing them at the end of their life because they don't degrade easily, has led to a view that polymers, or plastic in general, are environmentally unfriendly. There is some truth in this, but the current problems can still be solved.

C U R R E N T C HA L L E N G E S ¬

Firstly, using oil to make polymers is a better primary use than just burning it for heat; the heat can still be recovered from polymer at the end of its life.

There are alternatives to oil: polymer feed stocks can be synthesized from agricultural priducts, notably starch and sugar, via methanol and ethanol.

And thermoplastics, prvided that they are not contaminated, can be and are currently being recycled. subj. concerns

Polymers and their composites are the most rapidly growing sector of the market for structural and decorative material. Research on biodegradable polymers and polymers synthesized from agricultural bi-products such as lignin are leading the new genertions of eco-friendly products. Polymers with greater thermal stability, higher stiffness, strenght and toughnes are all under development. Most exciting is the increasing ability to build fuctionality into polymers. Making them even more cost-effective and sustainable.

RECYCLING ¬ Besides rethinking the make ups and developing more sustainable polymers or plastics, the process of recycling them is also an important issue. Some argued that the pocess itself takes up more energy that it is probably not worth it. While some other argued that recycling is not done sufficiently and collectively enough. But all in all, The latter is obviously the way to go, at least for now, otherwise the problem of landfills would continue at a steeper rate than before.

Recycling plastics is essentially an easy process. However, the more difficult part of it is making sure that all consumers understand the process and what steps need to be taken before recyclers can carry out the process or so that the recycled plastics are actually of value. Learning the types of plastics are, thus important on the consumers' part.

Resist the temptation to slip plastics that recyclers don’t want into the recycling bin. Plastics have different formulations and should be sorted before they are recycled to make new products. Mixed plastics can be recycled, but they are not as valuable as sorted plastics because the recycled plastic’s physical properties, such as strength, may vary with each batch. The next step is the wash and squash rule—rinse the container and squash it. Paper labels may be left on the container, but the plstic caps should be thrown away separately.

Plastic caps are usually made from a different type of plastic than the container and cannot be easily recycled.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

the bottle, the plastic & its recycling ¬

P L A S T I C S R E C YC L I N G [ in the u . s ] ¬ Today, Americans recycle only 5 percent of all the plastics produced in this country. Why aren’t we recycling more?

There is no simple answer. Part of the issue in recycling plastics is the cost. To remain competitive in the global marketplace, manufacturers usually choose the cheapest option for making products. New plastic resin, or virgin resin, often costs less than recycled plastic. Until recently, when the U.S, experienced massive hurricanes, virgin resin was cheaper than recycled plastic. After the hurricanes in 2005, supplies of oil and natural gas—the building blocks of virgin resins—became limited and more expensive. Prices for virgin resin soared, and the demand for recycled plastics increased.

Another important consideration is human behavior. Surveys conducted by Proctor & Gamble and other companies show that while most people expect their plastic to be recycled, they won't go out of their way or pay a few cents more to buy products made of recycled plastic.

69/70 ¬ Ø

verb. ¬ use

There are success stories in plastics recycling, nonetheless. Soft-drink bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be melted down and made into carpet, t-shirts, stuffing for ski jackets, or molded into bottles again. In 1999, Ford Motor Company used more than 60 million 2-liter plastic soda bottles (7.5 million pounds) to make grille reinforcements, window frames, engine covers and trunk carpets for its new vehicles.

In recent years, several plastics recycling companies have closed their doors.

They claimed they could not sell their products at a price that would allow them to stay in business. Thanks to the relatively low cost of petroleum today, the price of virgin plastic is so inexpensive that recycled plastic cannot compete.

The price of virgin resin is about 40 percent lower than that of recycled resin.

Because recycled plastic is more expensive, people aren’t exactly lining up to buy it. Surveys conducted by Procter & Gamble and others show that while most people expect their plastic to be recycled, they won’t go out of their way or pay a few cents more to buy a bottle made of recycled plastic. Recyclers say plastics recycling won’t be profitable until we close the loop by creating more demand for recycled plastics.

Soft-drink bottles, however, can be considered as one success story in plastics recycling. Made of polyethylene terephthalate (PETE), they can be melted down and made into carpet, t-shirts, stuffing for ski jackets, or molded into bottles again. When a soft-drink bottle is recycled into another soft-drink bottle, the loop is closed. Even so, this has yet to reach maximum potential as the loop is only applicable to recycling of "pure" PETE. Separating the different types of plastics before recycling is a step consumers has to pay more effort into.

concerns. ¬ inconclusive

plastic bottles ¬

BULLIES

2001 ¬

verb. ¬ use ¬

¬

¬

22

¬

500

43

7 ¬

¬

5 ¬

x ¬ [thousands of tons] ¬ PET _all beverages

05

¬

¬

x ¬ [thousands of tons] ¬ PET _soft drinks only

2001 ¬

20

2002 ¬

03

¬

¬

20

04

¬

¬

20

1175 ¬

¬

¬

06

wasted

¬

20

sold recycled

344 ¬

162

¬

¬

e year lin

2000

1500

1000

00

¬

¬

87

¬

0 ¬

¬ 1000 ¬

¬ 500

525 ¬

¬

¬

¬

¬

03

05

¬

20

20

0

0 ¬

2001 ¬

61

30

¬

Ø ¬

¬

¬

0 57

wasted

¬ 750

¬

e year lin

sold recycled ¬

pet

in

manufac turing

that

are

sold ,

wasted ,

recycled .

year by year amount, in units , of bot tled bever ages

their

¬

¬

¬ 60

¬ 30 ¬ 45

¬

x ¬ [billions of units] ¬ PET _bottled packaging only

¬

27 ¬

14.

2001 ¬

05

¬

20

03

e year lin

¬

47

20

36 ¬

of pet container resources and the container recycling institute , cri

statistics from : the american pl astic council , the national association

using

[ diagr am ] [ 3 ] ¬

2001 ¬

¬

¬

[ diagr am ] anti - clock wise from top left [1] ¬ year by year amount , in tons , of pet t ype pl astic that are used in all t ypes of bever ages pack aging that are sold , wasted , recycled [ diagr am ] [ 2 ] ¬ year by year amount, in tons , of pet pl astic used in soft drinks pack aging only

the bottle, the plastic & recycling ¬

71/72 ¬ Ø

¬

¬

sold recycled wasted ¬

4 ¬

¬

subj. [+] us

BULLIES subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

Two of the most used plastic or polymer types used in beverages are PET or PETE (polyethylene terephthalate) and HDPE (High-Density Polyethylene). PET are used more specifically in carbonated drinks and mineral water bottles.

While HDPE is mostly used in milk jugs and fruit juice containers and cartons.

The general term used for these polymer is polyester. They are thermoplastic polymer that are saturated; they have good mechanical properties to temperatures as high as 160°C. PET is crystal clear, impervious to water and carbon dioxide, but a little oxygen does get through. It is tough, strong, easy to shape, join and sterilize—allowing reuse of the material. When its first life comes to an end, it can be recycled to give fibers and fleece materials for clothing and carpets. Their elastomers are resilient and stretch up to 45% in length; they have good fatigue resistance and retain flexibility at low temperatures. pete _ / pet_ / polyet h ylene terep h t h a l ate ¬

obj. ¬ prod.ct

There are four grades of thermoplastic polyester: unmodified, flame retardant, glass-fiber reinforced and mineral filled. Glass-fiber reinforced are some of the toughest polymers but there are problems with dimensional stability and mineral-filled glass are used to counter warping and shrinkage, although some strength is lost. The PET used in carbonated drink bottles is able to withstand pressure from within, it is recyclable and lighter than glass. The permeability of oxygen is overcome by sandwiching a layer of poly-ethyl-vinylidene-alcohol between two layers of PET giving a multi-layer material that can still be blow molded. Polyester can be optically transparent, clear, translucent, white or opaque; the resin is easily colored. bottles take less energy to make than glass bottles of the same volume and they are also much lighter, hence saving fuel during delivery. Thick-walled bottles can be reused up to a few number of times, although this factor is still debatable, while thin-walled bottles can be recycled.

PET

Ø ¬

the bottle, the plastic & its recycling ¬

73/74

h dpe _ / h i g h - density polyet h ylene ¬ Polyethylene or PE is first synthesized in 1933. Then, it looks like the simplest of molecules but has the ability to form a large variety of linkages or compositions, with variety of characteristics, is large. PE is the most widely used out of all the thermoplastics polymers, because of its large variety of strengths. PE is inert and extremely resistant to fresh and salt water, food and most water-based solutions. Because of this, it is widely used in household product and food containers.

is commercially produced as films, sheet, rod, foam and fiber. Drawn PE has exceptional mechanical strength and stiffness, which is exploited in the geotextile and structural fields. It is also cheap and particularly easy to mold and fabricate. It accepts a wide range of colors, can be transparent, translucent or opaque, has a pleasant, slightly waxy feel, can be textured or metal coated, but it is difficult to print on. PE is a good electrical insulator with low electric loss, so suitable for containers for microwave cooking.

PE

verb. ¬ use

or high density polyethylene is used for containers and pipes because they are stiffer and stronger. LDPE or lower-density polyethylene is used in films. It is also used in packaging but on lighter and smaller scale products because it does not pack well which makes them less dense than water.

HDPE

is FDA compliant, in actuality, it is so non-toxic that it can be embedded into the human body, such as heart valves, hip-joint cups and artificial artery.

It is made by processes that are relatively energy-efficient, making them least energy- intensive of commodity polymers. PE can also be produced from renewable resources, from alcohol derived from agriculture, such as fermentation of sugar and starch. Its utility per kg. exceed that of gasoline or fuel oil, so that production from oil will not disadvantage it in near future. PE is readily recyclable if it has not been coated with other materials; if contaminated, it can be incinerated to recover some of the energy it contains.

PE

PETE. ¬HDPE

BULLIES

plastic bottles ¬

concerns. ¬ recycling

obj. ¬ prod.ct

Ø ¬

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the bottle, the plastic & its recycling ¬

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steps to turn plastic trash into recycled plastic

_/

plastic recycling plant

_

one

_

inspection

workers inspect the plastic tr a sh for conta minants like rock and glass, and for plastics that the pl ant c annot rec ycle.

_

two

_

chopping and washing

the plastic is then washed and chopped into small plastic flakes.

_

three

_

flotation tank

if mixed plastics are being

verb. ¬ use

recycled, they are sorted in a flotation tank , where some types of p l a s t i c sink a nd ot her s f loat.

_

_

four

drying

the small plastic flakes are then dried in a tumble dryer.

_

five

_

melting

the dried flakes are fed into an e x truder, where he at and pre ssure melt the pl a s tic . since different types of plastics melt at different temper ature s, this stage help s separ ate the different types of plastics for the ne x t, filtering s tage.

_

six

_

filtering

the molten pl a s tic is forced through a fine screen to remove an y conta minants that slipped through the washing process. the molten pl a s tic is then formed into strands.

_

seven

_

pelletizing

the strands are cooled in water, then chopped into uniform pellets. manufacturing companies buy the plastic pellets from recyclers to make new products. and the cycle continues.

¬ Ø

subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

BULLIES

2001 ¬

subj. [+] us ¬

¬

46

0

¬

¬

59

¬

150

¬

¬

x ¬ [thousands of tons] ¬ HDPE _all beverages

0 ¬

310 ¬

05

¬

¬

x ¬ [billions of units] ¬ HDPE _all beverages

2001 ¬

20

2002 ¬

03

¬

¬

20

04

¬

¬

20

¬

06

¬

¬

20

wasted

120 ¬

42

sold d recycle

¬

180

e year lin

600

450

300

0 ¬

¬

¬

9.7

¬

¬

sold ¬

¬ 10.0 ¬

¬ 5.0

¬ 2.5

7.0

¬

¬

obj. ¬ HDPE

¬

3.0

e year lin

¬ 7.5

5.

1

¬

¬

2001 ¬

¬

03 20

05

¬

20

recycled wasted

[3 ]

¬

yearly percentages of pet and hdpe t ypes pl astics that

¬ [ sour ces] ¬

the

04

¬

20

¬

07

06

20

20

¬

¬

¬ 75%

¬

¬ 70%

2003

50% ¬

¬

¬

2001 ¬

¬

2000 ¬

2 5 00

1998 ¬

american pl astic council , apc , and the container recycling institute , cri

pl astics that are sold are being wasted each year

¬

[ diagr am ] anti clock wise from top left [1] ¬ year by year amount , in tons , of hdpe t ype pl astic used in all t ypes of pack aging that are sold , wasted , recycled . [ diagr am ] [ 2 ] ¬ amount, in units , of bot tled bever ages using hdpe t ype pl astic in their manufac turing that are sold , wasted , recycled

e year lin

¬

are recycled after sold ; main observation : an aver age of 70% of the

¬

¬ 25% wasted

¬ 0% ¬

x ¬ [percentage of units] _PET and HDPE combined

¬

¬

[ d . agr am ]

the bottle, the plastic & recycling ¬

77/78 ¬ Ø

verb. & use waste

¬

¬ 80%

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

plastic bottles ¬

Despite its already widespread use, there has been another concerrn, in this case, question that lingers in most minds, especially scientists, activists and parents: is the plastic bottles safe for our health?

BISPHENOL-A ¬

This is further heightened by reports on harmful chemicals leaking out of plastic bottles, such as soda bottles and even baby bottles. However, the answer to whether a chemical, reportedly bisphnol-A that leaks out of plastic baby and sports bottles and from the lining of tin cans is a serious threat to human health remains murky. Just a week after a group of thirty-eight scientists concluded in a peer-reviewed journal that the chemical, called bisphenol A, poses a significant risk, a government-appointed panel Wednesday disagreed. obj. ¬ prod.ct

After reviewing hundreds of studies on bisphenol A, the panel expressed "some concern" that the chemical could cause behavioral and neurological problems in the developing fetus and young children.However, further research regarding effects on other stages of birth and body parts does not show any concerns, yet.

That contrasts with the group of scientists, who were chosen for their expertise on bisphenol- A, who last week concluded that a wide range of health problems caused by small doses of the chemical in lab animals is a great cause for concern with regard to the potential for similar adverse effects in humans. In 95 percent of the people tested, bisphenol A is detected at levels that could be harmful.

Consequently, there were conflicting and confused reactions among the users and public. When experts disagree, it's hard for people to know what to do.

Do you toss the clear plastic Nalgene bottle for a metal one? Is it OK to eat canned soup or microwaved leftovers in a plastic container? It depends on how cautious you are. This is beacuse, when it comes to the results from the government panel, the important aspect of that is even though they're not saying as a group this is high risk, they're indicating there's a risk.

¬ Ø

the bottle, the plastic & recycling ¬

Environmentalists and scientists, including vom Saal, criticized the review released by the government's chosen 12-scientist panel. This spring, it was revealed that a contractor with ties to the chemical industry was involved with the government panel's analysis, raising the possibility of a pro-industry bias.

79/80 ¬ Ø

The contractors were fired in April 2008, and a government audit concluded the review was fair. Critics also said that in some cases, important peerreviewed research showing harm to lab animals exposed to small amounts of the chemical was not given the weight it deserved. Still, scientists such as vom Saal, insisted that the concerns are valid.

The government panel was convened by the Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction, an organization that's part of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the National Toxicology Program. After the reports from government's scientists were released, some experts felt reassured as they find that it is generally consistent with other governmental scientific bodies and that they're not finding any high concerns with the bisphenol-A at all.

People worried about the chemical will find it hard to avoid entirely beacuse Bisphenol-A is an ingredient in hard, glass-like polycarbonate plastic that's used for some kinds of baby and sports bottles. It's used in the plastic resin that lines tin cans. It's also found in plastic food containers, CDs, dental sealants and toys.

The chemical does not stick around long in the body, which suggests that people are exposed regularly through food, air, dust and by touching any items that contain bisphenol-A. Researchers know the chemical is in people, and they've worked out some of the ways it causes the problems seen in animals, but links between exposure and harm in people are lacking. In short, there has not been enough research done on the chemical, overall. Human studies are just now being undertaken.

concern. health

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

Ø ¬

light bulbs ¬

[ ob . jec t ] ÂŹ light bulb , an elec trical appliance used to provide brightness , by method of incandescence to repl ace the tr aditional candles , match sticks and oil l amps that were used before elc tricit y became widely avail able

incandescence , however , gives off more heat than light, hence

gr adually being repl aced by the more energy efficient fluorescent bulbs

wasting a lot of the energy it uses . for environmental purposes , they are

[ ob . jec t ] ÂŹ

the light, the filament, the bulbs ÂŹ

81/82

[light. ] bulb

BULLIES

lightbulbs ¬

subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

the light ' the filament ' the bulbs ÂŹ

ÂŹ Ă˜

As the day progresses, our day gets darker, during which, most of us who are indoor would instinctively flip the switch to turn on the alternative light source in the room: the light bulb. And the room is bright again, if not brighter. When we reach home from work, one of the first few things we do upon opening the front door is to reach for the light switch, whose placement is designed to be right next to the door, and turn the light on. Only then would we enter the house. We would do the same thing when opening any room or house. Being able to see, gives us an added feeling of security and direction. An illuminated room gives us more confidence to enter the area. Without the light bulb, half the time we usually spend working would be rendered ineffective, making us inactive.

We can always fall back on candles or light matches. However, these alternatives lack the quality, convenience and efficiency of the light bulb, not mentioning the safety.

83/84

BULLIES

subj. [+] us

light bulbs ¬

C O N C E P T I O N ¬ By the time of Edison's 1879 lamp invention, gas lighting was a mature, well-established industry. The gas infrastructure was in place, franchises had been granted, and manufacturing facilities for both gas and equipment were in profitable operation. Perhaps as important, people had grown accustomed to the idea of lighting with gas.

However, the very first inventor of the lght bulbs is still arguable, although the more well-known candidate is obviously Thomas A. Edison, another inventor often mentioned is Joseph W. Swan, a British engineer. Moreover, during the development or the conception of the light bulb, both the designs and engineering, there are quite a group of people involved in making the light bulb what they are and the useful, essential products we use today. o v e r v i e w ¬ Incandescent lamps make light by using electricity to heat a thin strip of material (a filament) until it gets hot enough to glow. Many inventors had tried to perfect incandescent lamps to "sub-divide" electric light or make it smaller and weaker than it was in the existing electric arc lamps, which were too bright to be used for small spaces such as the rooms of a house.

Edison was neither the first nor the only person trying to invent an incandescent electric lamp. Many inventors had tried and failed some were discouraged and went on to invent other devices. Among those inventors who made a step forward in understanding the eclectic light were Sir Humphrey Davy, Warren De la Rue, James Bowman Lindsay, James Prescott Joule, Frederick de Moleyns and Heinrich Göbel.

Between the years 1878 and 1892 the electric light industry was growing in terms of installed lights but shrinking in terms of company competition as both Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse determined to control the industry and its advancement. They even formed the Board of Patent Control, a joint arrangement between General Electric and the Westinghouse Company to defend the patents of the two companies in litigation. This proved to be a wise decision as over 600 lawsuits for patent infringement were filed.

The easiest way to understand those turbulent times in the early lighting industry is to follow the company's involved. Of the hundreds of companies in the business, we only cover the major players. We show the flow of inventor's patents and inventor's companies and how the industry ended up monopolized

by GE and Westinghouse. Company names listed in GREEN ultimately became part of General Electric. Company names listed in RED ultimately became part of Westinghouse.

Ø ¬

the development ' the invention ¬

85/86

Alongside development of the lightbulbs are the rise of electrical companies, they specialized in multiple types of services related to electricity and lighting, from providing power to households, reserach and development sevices, to manufacturing light bulbs parts. These companies are important because changes throughout these organizations lead to the electrical companies that we have now, especially in the U.S and the UK. T H E C O M PA N I E S ¬

a m e r i c a n e l e c t r i c c o m pa n y ¬ In the late 1870's high school teachers Elihu Thomson and Edwin Houston began experimenting with and patenting improvements on existing arc lamp and dynamo designs. In 1880 after being approached by a group of businessmen from New Britain CT, They all agreed to the formation of a company that would engage in the commercial manufacture of lighting systems (both arc and incandescent) based on their own patents.

This was the American Electric Company which existed until 1883 when it was reorganized and was renamed the Thomson-Houston Electric Company.

verb. ¬ use

b r u s h e l e c t r i c c o m pa n y ¬ In 1880, Charles F. Brush forms the Brush Electric Company. That same year he installs the first complete eclectic arc-lighting system in Wabash, Indiana. Wabash was the first American city to be lit solely by electricity and to own its own municipal power plant. The installation in Cleveland the year before had been a demonstration, but Cleveland would soon begin lighting its streets with arc lamps as well. In 1876 Charles F. Brush invented a new type of simple, reliable, self-regulating arc lamp, as well as a new dynamo designed to power it. Earlier attempts at self regulation had often depended on complex clockwork mechanisms that could not automatically re-strike an arc if there were an interruption in power.

The simpler Brush design for a lamp/dynamo system made central station lighting a possibility for the first time. Joseph Swan sold his United States patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882. In 1889, Brush Electric Company merged into the Thomson-Houston Electric Company.

Edison Electric Light Company ¬ In the period from 1878 to 1880 Edison and his associates worked on at least 3000 different theories to develop an efficient incandescent lamp. Edison’s lamp would consist of a filament housed in a glass vacuum bulb. He had his own glass blowing shed for his experiments.

Edison was trying to come up with a high resistance system that would require far less electrical power, such as those for home use. By January 1879, Edison had built his first high resistance, incandescent electric light. It worked by passing electricity through a thin platinum filament in the glass vacuum bulb, which delayed the filament from melting. Although, the lamp only burned for a few short hours, this is quite a huge development.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

BULLIES Ø ¬

Ø ¬

plasticbottles ¬

the light, the filament, the bulbs ÂŹ

87/88

BULLIES Ø ¬

subj. [+] us

light bulbs ¬

[cont.d] In order to improve the bulb, Edison needed all the persistence he had learned years before in his basement laboratory. He tested thousands and thousands of other materials to use for the filament. He even thought about using tungsten, which is the metal used for light bulb filaments now, but he couldn’t work with it given the tools available at that period of time.

He tested the carbonized filaments of every plant imaginable, including bay wood, boxwood, hickory, cedar, flax, and bamboo. He even contacted biologists who sent him plant fibers from places in the tropics. Edison acknowledged that the work was tedious and very demanding, especially on his workers helping with the experiments. He always recognized the importance of hard work and determination: "Before I got through, I tested no fewer than 6,000 vegetable growths, and ransacked the world for the most suitable filament material."

Edison decided to try a carbonized cotton thread filament. When voltage was applied to the completed bulb, it began to radiate a soft orange glow. Just about fifteen hours later, the filament finally burned out. Further experimentation produced filaments that could burn longer and longer with each test. By the end of 1880, he had produced a 16-watt bulb that could last for 1500 hours and he began to market his new invention.

In Britain, Swan took Edison to court for patent infringement. Edison lost and as part of the settlement, Edison was forced to take Swan in as a partner in his British electric works. The company was called the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as Ediswan which was then incorporated into Thorn Lighting Ltd). Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his United States patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882.

In 1903 Willis Whitnew invented a filament that would not blacken the inside of a light bulb. It was a metal-coated carbon filament. In 1906, the General Electric Company was the first to patent a method of making tungsten filaments for use in incandescent light bulbs. The filaments were costly, but by 1910 William David Coolidge had invented an improved method of making tungsten filaments. The tungsten filament outlasted all other types of filaments and Coolidge made the costs more practical. e d i s o n & s wa n u n i t e d el ec t r i c co m pa n y ¬ In Britain, Joseph Swan took Edison to court for patent infringement. Edison lost and as part of the settlement, Edison was forced to take Swan in as a partner in his British electric works. The merged company was called the Edison and Swan United Electric Company. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company.

¬ In 1892, a merger of Edison General Electric Company and Thomson-Houston Electric Company created General Electric Company. General Electric, GE is the only company listed in the Dow Jones Industrial Index today that was also included in the original index in 1896.

g e n e r a l e l e c t r i c co m pa n y

¬ Ø

the energy & the companies ¬

s aw y e r

&

man el e c t r i c c o m pa n y

89/90

¬ William Sawyer and Albon Man are

issued their patent on June 18, 1878 for Improvements in Electric Lamps. In 1884, Albon Man formed the Sawyer & Man Electric Co. for the purpose of protecting the Sawyer-Man electric lamp patent as William Sawyer had died the year before. In 1886, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company purchased the Sawyer & Man Electric Company and began making incandescent lamps under the Sawyer-Man patents.

¬ Joseph Wilson Swan was a physicist and a chemist born in Sunderland, England. Swan was the first to construct an electric light bulb, but had trouble maintaining a vacuum in his bulb. In 1850, he began work on a light bulb using carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860 he was able to demonstrate a working device, and obtained a UK patent covering a partial vacuum, carbon filament incandescent lamp.

However, the lack of good vacuum and adequate electric source resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient light.

s wa n e l e c t r i c l i g h t c o m pa n y

verb. ¬ use

Fifteen years later, in 1875, Swan returned to consider the problem of the light bulb and, with the aid of a better vacuum and a carbonized thread as a filament. The most significant feature of Swan's lamp was that there was little residual oxygen in the vacuum tube to ignite the filament, thus allowing the filament to glow almost white-hot without catching fire. Swan received a British patent for his device in 1878.

Swan had reported success to the Newcastle Chemical Society and at a lecture in Newcastle in February 1879 he demonstrated a working lamp. Starting that year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. In 1880, Swan gave the world's first large-scale public exhibition of electric lamps at Newcastle upon Tyne England. In 1881 he had started his own company, The Swan Electric Light Company, and started commercial production. t h o m s o n - h o us to n el ec t r i c co m pa n y In the late 1870's, two high school teachers Elihu Thomson, a teacher of physics and chemistry, and Edwin Houston, a science teacher, began experimenting with and patenting improvements on existing arc lamp and dynamo designs. In 1880 after being approached by a group of businessmen from New Britain, CT, Thomson & Houston agreed to the formation of a company that would engage in the commercial manufacture of lighting systems based on their own patents. The company is called the American Electric Company.

The company became quite successful and diversified into other electrical markets. In 1886 they purchased the Sawyer & Man Electric Co. and began making incandescent lamps under the Sawyer-Man patents. In an attempt to avoid patent disputes over a double-carbon arc lamp design, ThomsonHouston negotiated the purchase of a controlling interest in the Brush company. In 1892, they merged with Edison companies to form the larger, more extensive General Electric Company. obj. ¬ prod.ct

light bulbs BULLIES Ø t he in c a nde s c ent bul b/

_

is a source of elec tric light that works by incandescence o r h e at- d r i v en l i g h t e m i s si o n s . an electric current passes through a thin fil a ment, he ating it unt il it pro duce s l i ght. the enclosing glass bulb prevents the oxygen in air from re aching the hot fil a ment, which otherwise would be destroyed r a p idly by ox idat i o n .

_ /a d v a n t a g e s _ they require no external regul ating equipment, have a low m anufac turing cost, and work well on either a ltern ating current o r direc t current. a s a re sult the inc a nde scent l a mp is w idely used in h o useh o l d and commercial lighting and for p ortable lighting some applic ations of inc ande scent bulb m ake use of the he at gener ated, such a s incubators

(for

h atching eggs), bro oding box e s for young p oult ry, he at lights for rep tile tank s, infr ared he ating for industrial he ating and drying processes, and the e a s y- b a k e o v en toy.

_ /d i s a d v a n ta g e s _ in cold we ather the he at shed by incandescent lamps contributes to building he ating, but in hot clim ate s l a mp losse s incre a se the energy used by the air conditioning systems.

Ø ¬

incandescent & fluorescent ÂŹ

91/92 _ /a

fluorescent lamp

_

is a ga s-discharge l a mp that use s electricit y to excite mercury vapor. the e xcited mercury atoms p ro d u c e sh o r t- wav e u lt r av i o l e t l i g h t that then c ause s a phosphor to fluoresce, producing v isibl e l i ght. fluorescent l amps always require a ball a st to regul ate the f l o w o f p o w e r t h r o u g h t h e l a m p.

_

a dva n ta g e s/

_

a fluorescent lamp convertselectrical power into usef ul l i gh t mo re ef f i c ien t ly a nd eco n omi c a l ly t h a n a n i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p. lower energy costs offsets the higher i n i t i a l c o s t o f t h e l a m p. the compact fluorescent lamp is now being used as an energy-saving a ltern ati v e to inc a nde scent lamps in homes. fluorescent lamps use less power for the same amount of light; gener a l ly l a s t lo n ger , but are bulkier, more complex, and more expensive than a c o m p a r a b l e i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p.

_

d i s a dva n tag e s/

_

if a fluorescent lamp is broken, mercury c an conta minate the s u r r o u n d ing en vironment, c ausing possible mecury poisoning. fluorescent lamps can trigger problems a mong individual s with pathologic al sensit i v it y to ult r av iole t light

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

obj. ¬ prod.ct

lightbulbs ¬

the energy & the electricity ¬

If the light bulb is an important part of our lifestyle, then the electricity that powers it would be even more important. Although it is not as tangible a product as the bulb, it is a very important discovery of our time as it enables the functioning of a great many other appliances we use on a daily basis.

Along with electricity, came products that enable us to tap into this power source and use it safely: power socket, the power plug and the switch. These products are designed to be small and are placed in inconspicuous places within an object or in a room, such as at the back, the base of a product or at the lower part of the wall. They are usually painted white to match or blend in with the wall colors. This is done perhaps because there are a lot of them around the house, and the fact that there are a lot of them built into every house shows just how much we use and need them, all for the electricity.

93/94 ¬ Ø

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

electricity ¬

Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can be renewable or non-renewable, but electricity itself is neither renewable or non-renewable.

ELEC TRICIT Y ¬

Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls (a primary source of mechanical energy) that turned water wheels to perform work.

Before electricity generation began over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Beginning with Benjamin Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in Philadelphia, the principles of electricity gradually became understood. Thomas Edison helped change everyone's life—he perfected his invention—the electric light bulb. Prior to 1879, direct current (DC) electricity had been used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. In the late-1800s, Nikola Tesla pioneered the generation, transmission, and use of alternating current (AC) electricity, which can be transmitted over much greater distances than direct current. Tesla's inventions used electricity to bring indoor lighting to our homes and to power industrial machines.

Despite its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think what life would be like without electricity. Yet like air and water, we tend to take electricity for granted. Everyday, we use electricity to do many jobs for us — from lighting and heating/cooling our homes, to powering our televisions and computers. Electricity is a controllable and convenient form of energy used in the applications of heat, light and power. t h e s c i e n c e ¬ In order to understand how electric charge moves from one atom to another, we need to know something about atoms. Everything in the universe is made of atoms. The human body is made of atoms. Air and water are, too. Atoms are the building blocks of the universe. Atoms are so small that millions of them would fit on the head of a pin.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

Atoms are made of even smaller particles. The center of an atom is called the nucleus. It is made of particles called protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are very small, but electrons are much, smaller. Electrons spin around the nucleus in shells a great distance from the nucleus. If the nucleus were the size of a tennis ball, the atom would be the size of the Empire State Building. Atoms are mostly empty space. If atom could be seen by the naked eye, it would look a little like a tiny center of balls surrounded by giant invisible bubbles (or shells). The electrons would be on the surface of the bubbles, constantly spinning and moving to stay as far away from each other as possible.

Electrons are held in their shells by an electrical force. The shell closest to the nucleus can hold two electrons. The next shell can hold up to eight. The outer shells can hold even more. Some atoms with many protons can have as many as seven shells with electrons in them.

the energy & the electricity ¬

The protons and electrons of an atom are attracted to each other. They both carry an electrical charge. An electrical charge is a force within the particle.

Protons have a positive charge (+) and electrons have a negative charge (-).

The positive charge of the protons is equal to the negative charge of the electrons. Opposite charges attract each other. When an atom is in balance, it has an equal number of protons and electrons. The neutrons carry no charge and their number can vary.

95/96 ¬ Ø

The number of protons in an atom determines the kind of atom, or element, it is. An element is a substance in which all of the atoms are identical (the Periodic Table shows all the known elements). Every atom of hydrogen, for example, has one proton and one electron, with no neutrons. Every atom of carbon has six protons, six electrons, and six neutrons.

Electrons usually remain a constant distance from the nucleus in precise shells.

The shell closest to the nucleus can hold two electrons. The next shell can hold up to eight. The outer shells cans hold even more. Some atoms with many protons can have as many as seven shells with electrons in them. The electrons in the shells closest to the nucleus have a strong force of attraction to the protons. Sometimes, the electrons in the outermost shells do not. These electrons can be pushed out of their orbits. Applying a force can make them move from one atom to another. These moving electrons are electricity. b at t e r i e s ¬ A battery produces electricity using two different metals in a chemical solution. A chemical reaction between the metals and the chemicals frees more electrons in one metal than in the other. One end of the battery is attached to one of the metals; the other end is attached to the other metal.

The end that frees more electrons develops a positive charge and the other end develops a negative charge. If a wire is attached from one end of the battery to the other, electrons flow through the wire to balance the electrical charge. A load is a device that does work or performs a job. If a load––such as a lightbulb––is placed along the wire, the electricity can do work as it flows through the wire. In the picture above, electrons flow from the negative end of the battery through the wire to the lightbulb. The electricity flows through the wire in the lightbulb and back to the battery.

¬ Electricity travels in closed loops, or circuits. It must have a complete path before the electrons can move. If a circuit is open, the electrons cannot flow. When we flip on a light switch, we close a circuit. The electricity flows from the electric wire through the light and back into the wire. When we flip the switch off, we open the circuit. No electricity flows to the light. When we turn a light switch on, electricity flows through a tiny wire in the bulb. The wire gets very hot. It makes the gas in the bulb glow. When the bulb burns out, the tiny wire has broken. The path through the bulb is gone. When we turn on the TV, electricity flows through wires inside the set, producing pictures and sound. Sometimes electricity runs motors—in washers or mixers. Electricity does a lot of work for us. We use it many times each day.

circuits

¬ Ø

BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

electricity ¬

E N E R G Y ¬ A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and electricity. In 1831, Faraday discovered that when a magnet is moved inside a coil of wire, electrical current flows in the wire.

A typical generator at a power plant uses an electromagnet—a magnet produced by electricity—not a traditional magnet. The generator has a series of insulated coils of wire that form a stationary cylinder. This cylinder surrounds a rotary electromagnetic shaft. When the electromagnetic shaft rotates, it induces a small electric current in each section of the wire coil.

Each section of the wire becomes a small, separate electric conductor. The small currents of individual sections are added together to form one large current. This current is the electric power that is transmitted from the power company to the consumer.

An electric utility power station uses either a turbine, engine, water wheel, or other similar machine to drive an electric generator or a device that converts mechanical or chemical energy to generate electricity. Steam turbines, internal-combustion engines, gas combustion turbines, water turbines, and wind turbines are the most common methods to generate electricity. Most power plants are about 35 percent efficient. That means that for every 100 units of energy that go into a plant, only 35 units are converted to usable electrical energy.

Most of the electricity in the United States is produced in steam turbines. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid to mechanical energy.

Steam turbines have a series of blades mounted on a shaft against which steam is forced, rotating the shaft connected to the generator. In a fossilfueled steam turbine, the fuel is burned in a furnace to heat water in a boiler to produce steam. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are burned in large furnaces to heat water to make steam that in turn pushes on the blades of a turbine.

Most of the electricity generated in the United State comes from burning coal.

In 2006, nearly half of the country's 4.1 trillion kilowatthours of electricity used coal as its source of energy. n at u r a l g a s , in addition to being burned to heat water for steam, can also be burned to produce hot combustion gases that pass directly through a turbine, spinning the blades of the turbine to generate electricity.

Gas turbines are commonly used when electricity utility usage is in high demand. In 2006, 20% of the nation's electricity was fueled by natural gas. pe t r o l eu m can also be used to create steam to turn a turbine. Residual fuel oil, a product refined from crude oil, is often the petroleum used in electric plants to make steam. Petroleum was used to generate about two percent (2%) of all electricity generated in electricity plants in the United States in 2006.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

the energy & the electricity ¬

is a method in which steam is produced by heating water through a process called nuclear fission. In a nuclear power plant, a reactor contains a core of nuclear fuel, primarily enriched uranium. When atoms of uranium fuel are hit by neutrons they fission (split), releasing heat and more neutrons. Under controlled conditions, these other neutrons can strike more uranium atoms, splitting more atoms, and so on. Thereby, continuous fission can take place, forming a chain reaction releasing heat. The heat is used to turn water into steam, that, in turn, spins a turbine that generates electricity. In the year 2006, nuclear power was used to generate 19% of all the of country's electricity. nuclear power

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h y d r o p ow er ,

the source for almost 7% of U.S. electricity generation in 2006, is a process in which flowing water is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. There are two basic types of hydroelectric systems that produce electricity. In the first system, flowing water accumulates in reservoirs created by the use of dams. The water falls through a pipe called a penstock and applies pressure against the turbine blades to drive the generator to produce electricity.

In the second system, called run-of-river, the force of the river current (rather than falling water) applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce electricity. comes from heat energy buried beneath the surface of the earth. In some areas of the country, enough heat rises close to the surface of the earth to heat underground water into steam, which can be tapped for use at steam-turbine plants. This energy source generated less than 1% of the electricity in the country in 2006.

g eot h er m a l p ow er

is derived from the energy of the sun. However, the sun's energy is not available full-time and it is widely scattered. The processes used to produce electricity using the sun's energy have historically been more expensive than using conventional fossil fuels. Photovoltaic conversion generates electric power directly from the light of the sun in a photovoltaic (solar) cell. Solar-thermal electric generators use the radiant energy from the sun to produce steam to drive turbines. In 2006, less than 1% of the nation's electricity was based on solar power.

s o l a r p ow er

w i n d p ow er is derived from the conversion of the energy contained in wind into electricity. Wind power, which was used for less than 1% of the nation's electricity in 2006, is a rapidly growing source of electricity. A wind turbine is similar to a typical wind mill. b i o m a s s includes wood, municipal solid waste or garbage, and agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and wheat straw. These are some other energy sources for producing electricity. These sources replace fossil fuels in the boiler. The combustion of wood and waste creates steam that is typically used in conventional steam-electric plants. Biomass accounts for about 1% of the electricity generated in the United States.

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need

_ /noun ¬

circumstances in which something is

_ / verb ¬

necessary, or that ( something)

require

need

_ / a want that has become so important, psychologically or emtionally

or even financially that it is now an essential part of our lives ; a want

that over time has turned into a need because of our lifest yle changes

obj. ¬ prod.ct

require some course of ac tion ; a necessit y ;

verb. ¬ use

because it is essential or very important ; expressing necessit y or importance

subj. [+] us

BULLIES

_/

a wish for an objec t that initially started out as a need , or a

variet y, has turned into an indulgence and then into over - consumption

solution to an important problem , but due to its current abundance and

want

_ /noun ¬

a

l ack

or

deficiency

of

possess or do

( something);

a

desire ,

wish

have a desire to

something ;

_ / verb ¬

wish for ; to l ack or be short of something

for something regardless of importance ;

want

need & want ¬

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BULLIES subj. [+] us

verb. ¬ use

need _ / w a nt ¬ New products are constantly being imagined, designed and developed to help us do our chores more efficiently, with less hassle, effort and time consumed. As our population progresses and improves, our needs increases and so does the need to do things faster or to do more things in less time. This is part of the reason that new products are constantly being introduced, each one aimed to supposedly better our lives. Another reason is for profits. More consumer needs open up opportunities for new products, ventures or services, and consequently marketing opportunities.

Design for products often focuses on making the chores into a very easy and simple task, hence the operations or steps into using the product is consistently being redesigned and simplified, the more minimal it is the better.

Also, the more obvious the task is the better, because this reduces learning time and makes the users feel that the products belong in their lives even more. Simplifying chores through products is mostly taking considerations of all constraints, exploit them so that the users feel as if there is only one possible thing to do and that is the right one; this inherently dictates users into performing a certain chores a specific way, the way the designers want them to be done or feels is the best way to do the tasks.

Every product begins with a need, however, not every need is as essential as others, some started out as a want on the consumers' part. The former usually involves everyday actions, tasks that we learned since young, such as drinking, eating, walking, wearing clothes, bathing and brushing teeth. These tasks are important as they form the basics of our daily lives, other things we do, for instance, in the working environment or for leisure/entertainment are secondary to these tasks. Also these actions involves products that are specific for this purposes—we wear clothes, we eat food with utensils, we walk with shoes on, etc.—they are tasks that involves products, otherwise they cannot be done, unlike talking and thinking.

These acts are so basic that there are a large variety of the products relating to them in the market, since the consumer base is large and profits are easier to come by. The large variety allows us to choose, at this stage the lines between wanting and needing is blurred. For instance, with the case of clothing, once the basic components are covered and functions are present, the different features then provide the variety. These features are geared to make consumers choose based on their preferences, their want. The more variety they see, the more of their preferences that they want, the more they will purchase. This can very well lead to over-consumption. With products such as this, where the competitions are steep, targeting people's wants are the best way to go for profits.

obj. ¬ prod.ct

need & want ¬

There are also products that are introduced as a branch out of these basic actions and their corresponding products. For instance, with drinking, there are constantly new variety of drinks that are being introduced to the market; they vary from purpose, contents, tastes even as simple as brandings. Some are for medical purposes, some are health supplements while others are present for the mere joy of drinking drinks that tastes good. While the first two examples are still within our needs category, the last option is a variety based on want, because essentially we do not need them, but we want, or claim that we need them, because we like or enjoy drinking them. While some of these drinks are of no health hazard, there are those that are actually unhealthy for both our heaths and the environment. But they are still around because we enjoy them and want them.

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Hence, in most cases, when needs are satisfied, consumers will choose based on want. And when the needs are so well provided, the want becomes a more important factor; sometimes we are so spoiled with how much is available for us to the point that our wants become needs, and usually emotional needs. This is the case for some of us with regards to trends, especially for lifestyle products, fashion and electronics. With fashion, there is the aspect of personal style, using it as a means to express our identities, or even social status. With electronics, For gadgets lovers, being the first to have the latest products is key, as gadgets, such as cellphone are no longer simply a means of communication but also a product of display.

There are also products that we consumed that we have unconsciously integrated into our lifestyles, so much so that lack of them or their absence can cause disruptions to our days. Most consumers have routines, certain things they do every day without fail. These are usually the simplest things, but these routines provide a stability to their day, both psychologically and emotionally. For instance, there are consumers who starts their day with a cup of coffee daily, and should they missed it, there will be consequences, such as fatigue or moodiness for at least the beginning of the day. In some of these cases, the consequences is due to a disruption in routine, more so than the missing effect of caffeine from the coffee.

Whatever the reason, some products that we do not need have developed into a need because we make them so, whether we realize it or not. These examples of need and want crossovers are usually the reason for overconsumption and definitely the reason for the flood of products we have on the market now.

Being aware of these factors are thus important if we are to reduce our overall consumption, so that products that are essentially meant to be helpful to us do not end up being a negative contribution to our health that environment.

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103/_ subj. [+] us

BULLIES

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verb. ¬ use

for more information ¬ [e]: y w i m a n @ g m ail.com

obj. ¬ prod.ct

obj. ¬prod.ct

¬ use

verb. ¬

us

subj. [+]

Ø ¬