Ženske na poti, ženske napoti

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat (ur./Ed.)

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat is professor of sociology of culture at the Faculty of Arts at University of Ljubljana. Her research interests include questions of cultural identity, globalization, gender and media, lately also memory and postsocialism. She is the author and editor of several books and member of the ediotorial boards of three international journals.

ISBN 978-961-237-699-4

ISBN 978-961-237-699-4

9 789612 376994

Ženske na poti, ženske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji Women Away, Women on the Way: Female Migrants in the Slovene National Imagination

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat je redna profesorica za sociologijo kulture na Oddelku za sociologijo Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani. Njeni raziskovalni interesi povezujejo vprašanja kulturne identitete, globalizacije, spola in medijev, v zadnjem času se intenzivneje posveča raziskovanju spomina in postsocializma. Je avtorica in urednica več znanstvenih monografij in članica uredniških odborov treh mednarodnih revij.

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat (ur./Ed.)

Ženske na poti, ženske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji Women Away, Women on the Way: Female Migrants in the Slovene National Imagination

Moderna družbena pogodba je v zadevah nacije in nacionalne države odvisna od spolne pogodbe, kjer ženskam, ki in kolikor skrbijo za reprodukcijo družinskega in zasebnega življenja, pripade nosilno mesto celotne kompozicije nacije. Kaj v tem pogledu pomeni feminizacija globalne migracije?

Je migrantka – kot mejni subjekt – motnja v moderni nacionalni arhitekturi nacionalne pogodbe, ali pa nemara napoved rekonstrukcije pripadanja nacionalnemu telesu; in začetek redefinicije same pogodbe? In kaj nam to pove o migrantkah v preteklosti?

The modern social contract is, in the matters of nation and nation state, dependant on the gender contract in which women, insofar as they are responsible for the reproduction of family and private life, represent the foundation of the entire composition of the nation.

How, in this context, to explain the phenomenon of the feminization of global migration?

Is the female migrant – as a border subject – an interference in the modern national architecture of a national contract, or perhaps a forecast of a reconstruction of the belonging to a national entity; a beginning of a redefinition of the contract itself? And what does this tell us about the women migrants in the past?

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat (ur./Ed.)

Ženske na poti, Şenske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji Women Away, Women on the Way: Female Migrants in the Slovene National Imagination

Ženske na poti, ženske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji / Women Away, Women on the Way: Female Migrants in the Slovene National Imagination (zbornik biografsko-humanističnih razprav) Zbirka/Series: Razprave FF (ISSN 2335-3333) Urednica/Editor: Ksenija Vidmar Horvat Recenzenta/Reviewers: Rudi Rizman, Mojca Pajnik Lektorica slovenskega dela/Proofreading (Slovenian): Polona Krajnc Lektorja angleškega dela/Proofreading (English): Matic Večko, Mary Catherine Lawler Prevajalci/Translators: Matic Večko, Ksenija Vidmar Horvat, Valerija Vendramin, Sandra Kraljić, Julija Sardelić, Polona Petek, Tjaša Učakar Tehnično urejanje in prelom/Technical Editor and layout: Jure Preglau Slika na naslovnici/Cover painting by: http://www.rhodesjewishmuseum.org © Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, 2014/University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts, 2014 Vse pravice pridržane./All rights reserved.

Založila/Published by: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani (Ljubljana University Press, Faculty of Arts) Izdal/Issued by: Znanstvenoraziskovalni inštitut Filozofske fakultete/The Scientific Research institute of the Faculty of Arts Za založbo/For the publisher: Branka Kalenić Ramšak, dekan Filozofske fakultete/Branka Kalenić Ramšak, the dean of the Faculty of Arts Oblikovna zasnova zbirke/Design: Lavoslava Benčić Tisk/Printed by: Birografika Bori d.o.o.

Ljubljana, 2014 Prva izdaja/First Edition Naklada/Number of copies printed: 200 Cena/Price: 24,90 EUR

CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 141.72:314.15(082) 314.151.3-054.72-055.2(497.4)(082) ŽENSKE na poti, ženske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji = Women away, women on the way: female migrants in the Slovene national Imagination / Ksenija Vidmar Horvat (ur., ed.) ; [prevajalci Matic Večko ... et al.]. - 1. izd. = 1st ed. - Ljubljana : Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2014. - (Zbirka Razprave FF, ISSN 2335-3333) ISBN 978-961-237-699-4 1. Vzp. stv. nasl. 2. Vidmar, Ksenija H. 275575552

Kazalo vsebine Predgovor: Ženskam naproti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Preface: Towards Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1 Ospoljenje mej in teorija nacionalizma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Ksenija Vidmar Horvat 1.1 Uvod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.2

Nacija, teritorij, meja, spol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.3

Spolni subjekt meje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.4

K sklepu: meja kot postkolonialna metoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 The Engendering of Borders and the Theory of Nationalism . . . . . . 27 Ksenija Vidmar Horvat 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.2

The Gender Subject of the Border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.3

Towards Conclusion: Border as a Postcolonial Method . . . . . . . 32

3 Feministično raziskovanje in kurikularne reprezentacije migracij . . 37 Valerija Vendramin 3.1

Uvodne besede . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.2

Teoretski okvir: epistemološki položaji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.3

Vzgoja in izobraževanje ter kurikularne dimenzije . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.4

Nekaj zaključnih besed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Feminist Research and Curricular Representations of Migrations . . 47 Valerija Vendramin 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.2

Theoretical Framework: Epistemological Positions . . . . . . . . . 48

4.3

Educational and Curricular Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

4.4

Some Concluding Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 Ivana Kobilca: z migracijami do preboja v javnost . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Sandra Kraljić 5.1

Obrisi izvornega okolja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5.2

Fenomen prostorske zamejenosti identitete . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.3

Večplastna marginalizacija . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.4

Preboj v javnost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3

5.5

Slikarkin nomadizem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

5.6

Sklepne misli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6 Ivana Kobilca: With Migration to Public Presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Sandra Kraljić 6.1

The Outlines of the Source Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.2

The Phenomenon of Spatial Limitations of Identity . . . . . . . . . 87

6.3

Multiple Marginalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6.4

Breakthrough into the Public Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.5

The Painter’s Nomadism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

6.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 7 Popotnica par excellence: mobilnost, migracije in prečkanje meja v filmskem opusu Maje Weiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Polona Petek 8 A Traveller par excellence: Mobility, Migration, and Border-Crossing in Maja Weiss’s Filmic Opus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Polona Petek 9 Migracije skozi izbrane (doku)filmske podobe migrantk . . . . . . . 125 Miro Samardžija 9.1 Uvod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 9.2 Analiza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 9.2.1 Estrellita – pesem za domov (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 9.2.2 Rezervni deli (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 9.2.3 Porno film (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 9.2.4 Trdnjava Evropa (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 9.2.5 Predmestje (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9.3

Zaključne ugotovitve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

10 Migrations Depicted in (Documentary) Filmic Representations

of Migrant Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Miro Samardžija 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 10.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 10.2.1 Estrellita (2007) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 10.2.2 Spare Parts (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

10.2.3 Porno Film (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 10.2.4 Fortress Europe (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 10.2.5 Suburbs (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 10.3

Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

11 Dom, domovina in identiteta: priseljenke v slovenskem prostoru . 169 Tjaša Učakar 11.1 Uvod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 11.2

Ženske v migracijskih študijah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

11.3

Dosedanje raziskave imigrantk v Sloveniji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

11.4

Metodologija raziskave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

11.5

Dom in odločitev za migracijo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

11.6

Prek meje v drugo življenje . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

11.7

Prečkanje statusnih mej . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

11.8

Dom v novem okolju . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

11.9

Dom in identiteta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

11.10 Sklep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 12 Home, Homeland, and Identity: Immigrant Women in Slovenia . . 197 Tjaša Učakar 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 12.2

Women in Migration Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

12.3

Previous Research on Female Immigrants in Slovenia . . . . . . . 200

12.4

Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

12.5

Home and the Decision to Migrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

12.6

Across the Border to Another Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

12.7

Crossing the Borders of Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

12.8

Home in a New Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

12.9

Home and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

12.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 13 Španske prostovoljke: historično-sociološka študija primera solidarnosti v transnacionalnem kontekstu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Avgust Lešnik in Ksenija Vidmar Horvat 13.1 Uvod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 13.2

Preobrazba koncepta solidarnosti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

5

13.3

Moderna tradicija . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

13.4

Ironični subjekt poznomoderne solidarnosti . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

13.5

Kolaps ideje svetovnega nazora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

13.6

Solidarnost kot kolateralna škoda zgodovinskega revizionizma 232

13.7

Metodologija raziskovanja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

13.8

Španske prostovoljke iz Jugoslavije: naratologija portretov . . . 236

13.9

Sklepne misli: čustvena etika solidarnosti in postjugoslovanski spomin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

14 Female Volunteers in Spain: A Historio-Sociological Case Study of Solidarity in a Transnational Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Avgust Lešnik and Ksenija Vidmar Horvat 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 14.2

The Transformation of the Concept of Solidarity . . . . . . . . . . 252

14.3

The Modern Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

14.4

The Ironic Subject of Late Modern Solidarity . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

14.5

The Collapse of the Idea of ‘World View’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

14.6

Solidarity as the Collateral Damage of Historical Revisionism . . 256

14.7

Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

14.8

The Spanish Female Volunteers from Yugoslavia: The Narratology of Biographical Portraits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

14.9

Conclusion: The Emotional Ethics of Solidarity and Post-Yugoslav Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

O avtorjih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 About the authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Stvarno kazalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Imensko kazalo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

6

Predgovor: Ženskam naproti Ženske na poti, ženske napoti je zbornik prispevkov, s katerim zaključujemo projekt »Vloga migracije in migrantk v konstrukciji slovenske nacionalne identitete od nacionalne do postnacionalne dobe«.1 Projekt, ki ga je financirala agencija ARRS, je potekal med leti 2011 in 2014. Pri njem so sodelovali raziskovalke in raziskovalci iz štirih partnerskih ustanov: Filozofske fakultete UL, ZRC SAZU, Pedagoškega inštituta in Univerze v Novi Gorici. Izhodiščna naloga projekta je bila proučiti dediščine modernih politik oblikovanja nacije z vključevanjem perspektive spola.

Najbolj nas je zanimalo, kako razmerje med nacijo in spolom določa družbeni položaj ženske v moderni dobi in kako se to prenaša na oblikovanje politik in javnih imaginarijev v postmoderni in postnacionalni dobi. Pričujoča knjiga povzema del rezultatov, ki smo jih pridobili tekom raziskave.

Glavni mejnik raziskave je bila mednarodna konferenca Dis-membered and Dis-remembered: Migrant Women in National Imagination, ki smo jo organizirale v Ljubljani v začetku maja 2013.2 Na tej konferenci smo z ugledno mednarodno udeležbo ključnih avtoritet na več-disciplinarnem področju raziskovanja migracij prvič pridobile bolj jasen vpogled v humanistično-družboslovno raziskovanje ženske migracije in se približale problemskim sklopom, ki so skupni različnim disciplinam. Obenem je več-disciplinarnost konference pripomogla k temu, da smo lahko tudi neposredno dojemale teoretske in raziskovalne omejitve, do katerih prihaja zaradi disciplinarnih zamejevanj. Prispevki, zbrani v tem zborniku, čeprav napisani v glavnem kot sociološke študije, poskušajo ponuditi most na poti k povezovanju med topikami, disciplinami in metodologijami, in sicer na način, ki bi lahko postal uporabna platforma za druge raziskovalke migracij, nacionalizma, državljanstva, spola in kulture – tako v slovenskih kot drugih nacionalnih ali transnacionalnih kontekstih. Čeprav smo se pri formuliranju raziskovalnih vprašanj ves čas opirali na sodobne teoretske vire v mednarodnem intelektualnem prostoru, je naša raziskava (z izjemo zadnjega poglavja) vendarle zamejena z izkušnjami slovenskih migrantk in migrantk v Slovenijo. Slovensko zgodovino nacije namerno izpostavljamo kot specifično študijo primera: izkušnje, ki so si jih med seboj delile emigrantke Slovenke, so v mnogočem oblikovale kulturno specifično migrantsko biografijo, torej biografijo, ki jo opredeljujejo določene partikularne kulturne, duhovne in fizične geografije (prisilnega in prostovoljnega) potovanja prek meja zgodovinsko konkretnega nacionalnega kolektiva. Obenem je ta biografija zamrežena s širšo globalno izkušnjo migrantke, ko ta ob nacionalnih (ali hkrati z njimi) s svojim gibanjem po prostoru 1 Več o projektu na http://projektmini.wordpress.com.

2 http://projektmini.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/mini_symposium_booklet-02.pdf.

7

prestopa, moti in izziva še druge družbene geografije, od spolnih, generacijskih do čustvenih, ekonomskih, socialnih, etnično-rasnih itn. Tu se oblikuje biografija imigrantk, ki jo bolj kot nacionalni določajo transnacionalni položaji v strukturah moči in pripadanja; in bolj kot moralistični diskurzi domače javnosti opredeljujejo orientalistični in ekonomistični diskurzi globaliziranih tujih nacij.

Kmalu po začetku raziskave smo ugotovili, da spol v našem hipotetičnem okviru odnosa do nacije in nacionalizma ne more nastopati kot samostojna kategorija. V domovini je ženska stigmatizirana, ker je postala emigrantka, ker je odšla, zapustila svoj dom; v tujini, ker je imigrantka, ker je prišla, vstopila k nam. Ti dve vladajoči paradigmi javne podobe imigrantke se občasno lahko tudi pomešata in prepleteta v asimetrično strukturo obsojanja in odobravanja. Kot pokaže naše raziskovanje, so predvidevanja, v katero smer bodo šla javna razpravljanja, negotova, zagotovo pa lahko rečemo, da so v tesni odvisnosti od drugih družbenih predstav, predvsem razreda in ekonomskega položaja, ki se vežejo na podobo migrirajoče ženske. Zato smo v nadaljevanju dodali intersekcionalno analitsko oporo v razredu in etnično-rasni pripadnosti. Ključna ugotovitev, ki je sledila, je bila, da migrantka kot homogen družbeni subjekt ne obstaja: obstajajo samo heterogene, raznolike in spreminjajoče se individualne biografije migrantk, ki se občasno srečajo na skupnem pristanu spola. Ta jih bodisi poveže v solidarnostno skupnost ali pa, ko nastopi v poznokapitalistični dramaturgiji izkoriščanja ženske po ženski, dodatno odtuji.

S to ugotovitvijo se pridružujemo tisti struji v postkolonialni feministični teoriji, ki že dlje časa opozarja na etnocentrizem zahodnega feminizma; v tem zborniku to kritično držo ilustriramo s konkretnimi primeri iz ženske migrantske izkustvene zapuščine v slovenskem prostoru. Konferenca Dis-Membered and Dis-Remembered se je opirala na spominsko komponento proučevanja migracij. Kot smo zapisali v spremljevalni brošuri, je bil naš cilj dekonstruirati kulturne repertoarje za kolektivno identifikacijo, ki temeljijo na popularnem mitologiziranju ali pa institucionalni amneziji, ko gre za javno vidnost migrantk. Z objavo rezultatov projekta želimo nadaljevati v tej smeri, da bi pokazali na pomen razumevanja konkretnih mest, vlog in položajev, ki so jih migrantke zasedale v konstruiranju nacionalne identitete v preteklosti in jih še naprej določajo tudi danes. Najsi bo v kontekstih nacionaliziranja skupnosti v 19. stoletju ali v sodobnih kontekstih globalizacije in transnacionalizacije, ekonomske, politične, kulturne, intelektualne in vse druge imigrantke po izbiri ali prisili prestavljajo okvire modernega zamišljanja meja, članstva in pripadanja in prispevajo k pluraliziranju javnega (samo)razumevanja nacionalnih družb. Njihova izkušnja »s tujega« prinaša v domače okolje »pogled od zunaj«, ki je lahko obremenilen zanje in obremenjujoč za domačo, »stacionarno« skupnost.

8

Zaradi svojega modernega »poslanstva« varuhinj tradicije so v trenutku, ko zapustijo domače ognjišče, lažja tarča stigmatiziranja, kot to velja za moško migracijo. Medtem ko je slednja opremljena z atributi junaštva, nalaganja prekomernega bremena dolžnosti in žrtvovanja (za družino, nacijo), je za ženske vselej obdana s sumničavo avro izdaje, lahkomiselnosti in opuščanja dolžnosti. V krajih, ki so jih zapustile, ostanejo v spominu kot ženske, ki so opustile svojo žensko vlogo; tam, kjer se ustalijo, so najbolj družbeno sprejemljive, kadar prevzamejo feminizirano vlogo skrbstva za druge.

Zbornik ima tri tematske dele. V prvem se avtorici posvetita teoretskim izzivom, ki jih ženska migracija prinaša na področju izobraževanja (Valerija Vendramin) in v sodobnih teorijah nacije (Ksenija Vidmar Horvat). V drugem delu se Sandra Kraljić in Polona Petek osredotočita na raziskovanje dveh kulturnih migrantk, slikarke Ivane Kobilce in režiserke Maje Weiss. Sandra Kraljić migrantsko izkušnjo slikarke umesti v specifične zgodovinske kontekste njenega časa, Polona Petek pa režiserko obravnava glede na ustvarjalni opus in filmski nomadizem. Bralki pa je omogočeno, da s primerjavo študij migrantk iz dveh različnih zgodovinskih okolij presoja o napredku, ki ga je glede na potovanje ženske po prostoru nacije in izven nje napravila družba v 20. stoletju.

Tretji tematski sklop je namenjen migrantkam brez teže imen, ki bi nosila kolektivni simbolni pomen, a kljub temu sooblikujejo nacionalni kulturni in imaginarni prostor. Miro Samardžija predstavi podobo migrantk v slovenskem filmu iz jugoslovanskega obdobja in po osamosvojitvi. Tu je migrantka vstavljena v fiktivne like, ki črpajo iz splošnih stereotipov, a ustvarjajo tudi alternativne portrete migrantske ženske izkušnje. Tjaša Učakar migrantke zadrži v anonimnosti sociološke študije, a s kvalitativno metodologijo raziskovanja uspe de-anonimizirati biografske zgodbe do te mere, da lahko prepoznavamo splošnejše parametre ženske migrantske izkušnje doma, domovine, meje in pripadanja.

Nenazadnje, zadnje poglavje v tem sklopu se vrne v zgodovino in k spominskemu portretu migrantk, ki so se na pot podale v imenu ideje, idealov in prepričanja. Španske borke, ki se jim v kontekstu proučevanja španskih borcev šele v zadnjem času spet odpira pot v kolektivni spomin, so ženske, ki so svojo individualnost, ime in identiteto, kot to v prispevku demonstrira historično-sociološki popis Avgusta Lešnika, oddale v varstvo kolektivni skupnosti prostovoljcev in prostovoljk, ki so priskočili na pomoč ljudem drugje, v drugi naciji, a so z njimi delili identične ideale pravičnosti in humane družbe. V soavtorskem delu (Ksenija Vidmar Horvat) je ta migrantska politična biografija žensk s področja nekdanje Jugoslavije osvetljena s perspektive sodobnih razprav o zatonu solidarnosti.

9

Tekom raziskovanja so se ideje, predstavljene v tem zborniku, krojile na različnih krajih in pod različnimi lučmi disciplin; predstavljene so bile na več konferencah, v medsebojnem dialogu in prek anonimnih in kolegialnih korespondenc z drugimi raziskovalkami. Na tem mestu se zahvaljujem kolegicam raziskovalkam Marini Lukšič-Hacin, Mirjam Milharčič Hladnik in Katji Mihurko Poniž. S svojim raziskovanjem aleksandrink so k projektu prispevale vzporedno, a vplivno zgodbo o ženskah, ki zapustijo dom, in o raziskovalkah, ki za njimi preiskujejo sledi, ki so jih zapustile v spominu – medtem ko so bile na poti ali takrat ko so jih za moteče, na poti drugim, v spomin klesali pisci nacionalnih stereotipov o čustveni vezi med žensko in nacijo.

Hvala tudi vsem ostalim, ki so nam na naši poti stali ob strani.

Ksenija H. Vidmar

10

Preface: Towards Women Women Away/Women on the Way is a collection of papers with which we conclude the project ”The Role of Migration and Female Migrants in the Construction of Slovene National Identity from the National to the Post-National Era.”1 The project ran from 2011 to 2014 and was financially supported by the national research agency ARRS. The consortium included partners from Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, the ZRC SAZU, the Pedagogical Institute, and the University of Nova Gorica. The central task of the project was to study the legacies of modern politics of nation formation with a special emphasis on gender. Our primary concern has been how the relationship between nation and gender determines the actual social positions of women in modern era, and how this relates to politics and the public imagination in postmodern and postnational history. This book presents part of the results gathered during the project.

A key milestone of the project no doubt was the international symposium DisMembered and Dis-Remembered: Migrant Women in the National Imagination, which we organized in May 2013.2 At the symposium, with the participation of key authorities in the interdisciplinary field of migration studies, we gained an insight into the social science and humanities research perspective on women’s migration and advanced our understanding of the common topics shared across the disciplines. At the same time, the multidisciplinarity of the symposium also helped us to recognise theoretical and research limitations imposed by disciplinary boundaries. The contributions, collected in this volume, although written mainly in sociological terms, try to bridge the gaps among topics, disciplines, and methodologies in a way that could be useful to other researchers of migrations, nationalism, citizenship, gender and culture – within the Slovene realm as well as within other national and transnational contexts.

While formulating the research questions in correspondence with contemporary theoretical sources in the international intellectual arena, our research is nonetheless specified in scope by experiences of migrants living from and travelling to Slovenia. Slovene national history provides us with a specific case study: experiences shared by Slovene, female migrants in many ways formed a culturally specific migrant biography, i.e., a biography that is defined by specific and a particular cultural, mental, and physical geography of (forced and voluntary) travel across the border of a historically concrete national collective. At the same time, this biography entwines with a broader global experience of women as migrants 1 More about the project http://projektmini.eng.wordpress.com.

2 http://projektmini.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/mini_symposium_booklet-02.pdf.

11

who, in addition to (or in trajectory with) the national, also challenge, disturb and destabilize also other social geographies, such as those of gender, generation, emotions, economy, ethno-racial categories etc. Here we witness the formation of a biography of a female migrant, whose fate is determined less by national, and more by transnational positioning within structures of power and belonging; and who is more than by moralistic discourses of her home society affected by Orientalist and economic (neoliberal) discourses of globalised host, foreign nations.

Soon after the start of the project, we realized that gender in our hypothetical framing of nationalism cannot stand as a singular category. In her homeland, a woman is stigmatised because she has gone away, left her home; in the foreign country, she experiences the same stigma because she has come to ours. These two governing public images of the female migrant can occasionally intermix and appear in an asymmetrical structure of disapproval. As our research shows, predictions as to in which directions public argumentation will turn are inconclusive, but we can definitely state that public opinion is greatly influenced by other social perceptions, especially of those of class and economic situation, both of which contribute to the image of the travelling woman. Therefore, in the next phases of the project, we added intersectionality as enmeshed in subject positions of class, ethnicity and race. A key conclusion that followed was that the female migrant does not exist; what does have an existence, are the heterogeneous, diverse and changing individual biographies of women who migrate and who occasionally meet at the shared port of gender. Gender may connect these women, moving them into a community of solidarity; in the late capitalist dramaturgy of exploitation of women by women, however, it is more likely that it will further alienate them. With this conclusion, we align ourselves with postcolonial feminist theory that cautions against the ethnocentrism of Western feminism. In this volume, the critical stance is illustrated by concrete cases of female migrant experiences on the territory that today comprises Slovenia.

The conference Dis-Membered and Dis-Remembered was based on memory as an aspect of migration studies. Our goal was that of deconstructing cultural repertoires for collective identification that rely on popular myth-making or institutional amnesia as concerns the public visibility of women migrants. With this book we want to continue in this direction by pointing out concrete sites, roles and positions occupied by female migrants with a range from past constructions of national identity and up to the present. Whether in the contexts of nationalisation of communities in the 19th century, or within the contemporary frame of globalisation and transnationalisation, the economic, political, cultural, intellectual and all

12

other female migrants, moving around by choice or force, represent boundaries of modern imagination of borders, membership and belonging, and also contribute to pluralisation of (self )understanding of national societies. These women’s experience from ‘abroad’ brings to the domestic environment the ‘view from outside’ – which can be detrimental to them, turning them into a burden and disturbance for the home, ‘stationary’ community. Because of the women’s modern mission of safeguarding tradition, the moment they cross the threshold of their home, they become much easier targets for stigmatisation than men. Whereas the latter, while breadwinning abroad, are credited with heroism, for women, the same sacrifice is always tainted with a negative aura of deceit, light-mindedness, and a neglect of duties. In places left behind, they are remembered as women who abandoned their feminine role; in places where they settle, they become most acceptable when taking over the feminized role of care for others.

The book is divided into three thematic sections. In the first, the authors address theoretical challenges that female migrants bring to the field of education (Valerija Vendramin); and in theories of nationalism (Ksenija Vidmar Horvat). In the second part, Sandra Kraljić and Polona Petek focus on two cultural migrants, painter Ivana Kobilca and film director Maja Weiss. Sandra Kraljić places Kobilca’s migrant experience into specific historical contexts of her time while Polona Petek contextualizes Weiss in relation to her artistic opus and filmic nomadism. The reader thus has a chance to make comparisons between two female migrants from different historical milieus, while contemplating the social progress made by female travellers in spaces within the nation and beyond.

The third part of the book deals with the women migrants who carry no burden of concrete names, yet who nonetheless shape the national cultural and imaginary space of the country in which they reside. Miro Samardžija analyses the image of migrant women in Slovene film production from the Yugoslav period up to the present. In his chapter, the concept of the migrant is inserted into fictional characters derived from general stereotypes, which also, however, construct alternative portraits of the female migrant experience. Tjaša Učakar, within the scope of a sociological study, maintains the anonymity of female migrants, yet also manages to reveal the anonymous life stories with the means of qualitative methodology so that more general aspects of women’s experience of home, homeland, border, and belonging can be detected.

Last but not least, the final chapter returns to the history and memorial portrait of migrants who hit the road in the name of ideals, ideas and convictions. Female Spanish volunteers, whose experience has only recently onces again become a part of 13

collective memory, are women who, as Avgust Lešnik demonstrates in his historicalsociological account, sacrificed their individual lives, names and identities in order to help women and men of another nation fighting for just causes and ideals. In the co-authored section, this political biography of women from ex-Yugoslavia is illuminated from the perspective of current debates on the decline of solidarity.

During our project, the ideas presented in this book have been tailored in many places and under different disciplinary lenses. They have been presented at several conferences, in dialogues with anonymous colleagues and friends. I want to express special gratitude to Marina Lukšič-Hacin, Mirjam Milharčič Hladnik and Katja Mihurko Poniž. With their own research on Aleksandrinke, they contributed to this project a strong, parallel narrative about the women who left their families and homes; as well as a narrative about women researchers who followed female migrants’ steps in order to investigate traces which they left in memory – when they were away; or, when, as they turned to have become (by the writers of national stereotypes about emotional bond between women and nation), on the way.

Thanks also to all the others who have stood by the side of the road which we travelled during this research.

Ksenija H. Vidmar

14

Raziskovalni izzivi/ Research Challenges

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat (ur./Ed.)

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat is professor of sociology of culture at the Faculty of Arts at University of Ljubljana. Her research interests include questions of cultural identity, globalization, gender and media, lately also memory and postsocialism. She is the author and editor of several books and member of the ediotorial boards of three international journals.

ISBN 978-961-237-699-4

ISBN 978-961-237-699-4

9 789612 376994

Ženske na poti, ženske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji Women Away, Women on the Way: Female Migrants in the Slovene National Imagination

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat je redna profesorica za sociologijo kulture na Oddelku za sociologijo Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani. Njeni raziskovalni interesi povezujejo vprašanja kulturne identitete, globalizacije, spola in medijev, v zadnjem času se intenzivneje posveča raziskovanju spomina in postsocializma. Je avtorica in urednica več znanstvenih monografij in članica uredniških odborov treh mednarodnih revij.

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat (ur./Ed.)

Ženske na poti, ženske napoti: migrantke v slovenski nacionalni imaginaciji Women Away, Women on the Way: Female Migrants in the Slovene National Imagination

Moderna družbena pogodba je v zadevah nacije in nacionalne države odvisna od spolne pogodbe, kjer ženskam, ki in kolikor skrbijo za reprodukcijo družinskega in zasebnega življenja, pripade nosilno mesto celotne kompozicije nacije. Kaj v tem pogledu pomeni feminizacija globalne migracije?

Je migrantka – kot mejni subjekt – motnja v moderni nacionalni arhitekturi nacionalne pogodbe, ali pa nemara napoved rekonstrukcije pripadanja nacionalnemu telesu; in začetek redefinicije same pogodbe? In kaj nam to pove o migrantkah v preteklosti?

The modern social contract is, in the matters of nation and nation state, dependant on the gender contract in which women, insofar as they are responsible for the reproduction of family and private life, represent the foundation of the entire composition of the nation.

How, in this context, to explain the phenomenon of the feminization of global migration?

Is the female migrant – as a border subject – an interference in the modern national architecture of a national contract, or perhaps a forecast of a reconstruction of the belonging to a national entity; a beginning of a redefinition of the contract itself? And what does this tell us about the women migrants in the past?