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Δημήτρης Αντωνίου PhD(Hon), FRCS,Γενικός Χειρουργός, Ογκολόγος

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Απαγορεύεται η

αναδημοσίευση και γενικά η αναπαραγωγή του παρόντος έργου (πλήρους

έκδοσης) με οποιοδήποτε τρόπο, τμηματικά ή περιληπτικά, στο πρωτότυπο ή σε μετάφραση, ή άλλη διασκευή, χωρίς γραπτή άδεια του εκδότη και συγγραφέα, σύμφωνα με τον ν. 2121/1993 και την Διεθνή Σύμβαση της Βέρνης (που κυρώθηκε με τον ν. 100/1975).

Contents

Essays on Architecture……………………………………………………...8 Garden Cities…………………………………………………………………….63 Ideal Cities…………………………………………………………………………99 A Concise Panorama of Architectural Styles…………………..110 Great Buildings…………………………………………………………………154 Historic Maps…………………………………………………………………….284 Greek Traditional Architecture………………………………………..332 Curriculum Vitae……………………………………………………………….338 Links…………………………………………………………………………………..340 Glossary of Western and Islamic Architecture………..(see in my book: «Islam, History, Art and Architecture”).

Essays on Architecture

Classicism-Part-I Throughout this course we`ll encounter numerous times the term “classicism” and therefore I think it`d be useful to try to define this term in words.

Classic is a late (I think it was introduced in 18th ce.) to include terms such as: harmony, symmetry, modesty, mathematical precision, order, all measured and valued in respect to human magnitude. Classic makes human more thoughtful, not scared, amazed or impressed. It makes the human to think of its earthly mortal origin and destiny (whereas Gothic leads the human mind upwards to the sky). “Measurment of all is human” (Aristotele). Classic in modern times is a subjective, or property, or universal, i.e. it is a predicate of a substantive and refers mainly to a specific kind of art-works.

On contrary the term “classic” was linguistically unknown in ancient Greece and its constituents (harmony, symmetry, modesty, mathematical precision, order) were NOT properties (predicates of a substantive) but they were instead EXISTENTIAL ESSENTIALS, namely they defined the essentials of the very human existence, which is not a predicate, bur rather a substantive. Albeit being heard awkward, ancient Greeks did not have the essence of the aesthetic value we do today and their “art works” were considered rather as “crafts” and bore a religious rather aesthetic content. F.e. ancient Greeks would never decorated their houses with sculptures, but rather they offered them to their Gods as an act of respect (non fear) and they knee….in front of them as we do in front of our holly ikons, which we do not either consider as an art work (especially in the east Orthodox tradition). The crafts and the artists are assigned the intellectual value and respect since Michelangelo in the Rainnance era. Thus, in conclusion, “classic” in ancient Greek was identified with the “existence” and “mode of life”. They could not think life without these essentials….We do! And as we have identified beauty with classic, we have at the same time dissociate beauty from life!

But yet, the classic being identified in antiquity with life, puts ontologically itself outside of everything else in the world, sine it is the source and the “mother” of everything else. As such “classic” in antiquity has a metaphysical abstract existence, i.e. it is self-defined, it had no meaning (unknown use in the world), it was unconceivable, unknown, but still, because of these, it is the source of the meanings of all other things in the world. Any attempt to describe and conceive classic by earthy linguistically terms leads to antimonies and paralogisms (Kant, Parmenides, Heraklitos, Pythagoras, Plato, Heissenberg).

Classicism-Part-II Classic understood and used in Modern times as an aesthetic value, should be conceived in three different cascading levels in the Realistic heriarchy, according to its materialistic content: i) As a metaphysical Idea (Pythagoras, Parmenides, Plato). In this context classic is a spaceless and timeless, non-existable metaphysical abstract existence, which cannot be conceived by logic or described linguistically with worlds, but it can only be enlived instead through enorasis (instinct). It therefore has not any meaning, i.e it has no any relation or use in our world, but it instead gives the meaning to all other earthly things.

It is a self-determine (self-exemplified) abstract existence, with no reference to anything else outside itself. It is a metaphysical unknowable reality.

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destroyed the preexisting Mykenaic (in Pelopponese) and Kretean world and executed the war against the city of Troa in the North-West part of Turkey (magnificently immortalized by Homer). After this, Greece entered a “dark period” spanned over 4 ce. until the 8th ce. b.c., when the sunrise of philosophy in Ionia emerged, giving start to the amazing Greek civilization which reached its collofon in 5th ce. b.c, in Athens and which eventually died out due to its “strict”, unelastic and rigid Platonic Realism, which could not hear and accommodate itself to the juice of the real vivid life. An example of the “lethal” Realism, is Classicism itself (as we call it nowdays).

PS: The Corinthian style was a late architectual style developed in Corinthos, a city which still exists in the Pelloponese place, in south Greece, 60 Kn south of Athens.

Parthenon in Athens and the Apollo temple in Delfi are of Doric style.

The Erechtheion on the Acropolis of Athens, late 5th century BCE. 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/AteneEretteoDaSW.jpg/ 640px-AteneEretteoDaSW.jpg

Links:  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Apollo_at_Delphi_from_below_with_ivy.JP G: Temple of Apollo in Delfi  http://ufffff.pblogs.gr/files/68574-parthenonas.jpg : Parthenon temle: Doric style  http://www.finkle.org/P5150090s%20%20Erecthion,%20Acropolis,%20Athens,%20Greece.JPG : Doric style: Karyatides in Parthenon, in the one side of Erechtion)

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aqueducts, theaters and public civil buildings (colosseum, the triumphal of Tiberius in Rome- 1st ce. ad, the Pantheon in Rome (130 ac). Later and in the Christian era, in the early Byzantine Empire (3d-5th ce ad) a distinct style evolved in the construction of churches and cathedrals under the name of ‘basilicas” (hall of kings), which in fact was a revival of the old Greek temples, like Parthenon, consisting of a long nave separated from the two side-aisles by rows of Greek columns (orders) interconnected with round arches and which (nave) ended in the choir, i.e. in a semicircular niche or apse which are used for he high altar. On the column raws and their arches of the nave, are resting straight entablatures and on them an horizontal timber roof. The nave ended eastwards as the high altar, which consists of a deep semiround apse covered by semidomes, which projects its concave (or polygonal) part eastwards to various extent form the general longitudinal form of the nave and adopting various heights to the extent of forming high cylindrical, octagonal or vertical orthogonal towers. Cathedrals of this kind is f.e. the “basilica of S. Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna in 530 ac. Later on –still in middle Byzantine era and especially under the Emperor Justinian in 6th ce -another distinct style emerged under the name of “Byzantine style”, which is characterized by complex architectural compounds, consisting of a combination of the elements of a longitudinal basilica with circular stone domes been rested on octagonam sturctures and squinches and pendentives, giving thus rise to centralized buildings. We can say that the Byzantine compounds were the circular transformation of the old Greek temples and/or basilicas. The high altar maintainde the semi-doomed apse structure of the above described altar of the old basilicas. Such buildings were (and are): the Agia Sophia in Constantinopole (6th ce. ac), the church of St Vitale in Ravenna (by Justinian). 6 the ce.), the Cathedral of Aachen (by Carlomagnus in 800 ad) and the Cathedral of Monreale in Cicilly (c.1190) and the Palatine Chapel of the Norman Kings in Sicily (c.1190). The dark ages in the West ended around the 11th ce., when a new style emerged in the form of Romanesque-Norman style (term introduced in the 19th ce. ad) which was spread across Europe and England after the invasion of the last by the Normans in 1066 a.d. The Early Romanesque style (11th ce.) was indeed an evolution of the old basilicas and remotely from the circular form of the Eastern Byzantine style.

But the big difference between them, was the fact that in the Romanesque cathedrals the sides of the nave were consisted of robust classical pillars and onblog walls supporting enormously heavy “tunnel” (barrel) groin vaulted masonry roofs. Later (early 12th ce. ad) the early Romanesque style was evolved into the late Romanesque style in which the tunnel-groin- vaulted roof was replaced by ribbed-vaulted roof consisting of transverse semicircular arches along with diagonally crosswise arranged ribs connecting the opposing slender classic rows of columns and circular arches, alternating with strong piers, reminiscent of the entablatures of the old basilicas. The rib-vaulted roof the circular-arched column rows were spanning the whole distance of the nave up to choir, or ended up in a semicircular domed choir. The triangular sections between the crosswise vaulting ribs are filled up with lighter material (like limestone or brick). The high altar maintainde the semi-doomed apse structure of the above described altar of the old basikicas and Byzantine style cathedrals. The whole building was supported against the side-outward driven weight of the lofty nave and side-aisles by oblique-triangular buttresses. Romanesque style cathedrals are: the Benedictine church of Murbach, Alsace, 1160 ad, the Tournai Cathedral in Belgium, 1171 ad, the St. Trophine church, Arles, 1180 ad and Durham Cathedral 1100 ad, which manifests and elements of the late Romanesque style and of the emerging Gothic style. The Romanesque-Norman style was succeeded by the Gothic style, which first was emerged in North France in 12th ce., signaling the greatest revolution in architecture of all times.

The Gothic Style: An Expressionistic Architecture

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orthogonal parts exhibit the same structural and decorative pattern of the main central part.

The interior: From the triforium-sprandels are originating upwards running transverse and oblique crosswise masonry pointed ribs-arches forming the nave`s rib-vaulting roof, which spans all the distance from the West-Front to high altar`s roof. The triangular spaces between the ribs are filled with lighter material. The lower roofs of side-aisles and of Lady`s Chapel are also rib-pointed. The clerestory consists of lancet windows, assembled in groups of three, which constitute the main source of the interior lighting.

On the basement and in the walls of the sides-aisles there are a number of lesstraceried lanced windows assembled in groups of two. The clerestory is exteriorly supported by huge flying buttresses attached to high vertical piers anchored in the ground, and the side-aisles by oblique buttresses and gargoyles. The whole compound is completed by a left-sited rib-vaulted rectangular cloister and a cylindrical-octagonal Chapter House.

Architecturally, the choir (alt. spelling quire) is the area of a church or cathedral, usually in the western part of the chancel between the nave and the sanctuary (which houses the altar). The choir is occasionally located in the eastern part of the nave. In some monastic churches the choir occupies the western end of the nave and thus counterbalances the chancel and sanctuary.

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Salisbury Cathedral, 13th ce, England.

Salisbury Cathedral, 13th ce, England. Stained glass.

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Salisbury Cathedral, 13th ce, England.

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Interior of the Pazzi Chapel, 1441-60, Rome, Italy, by F. Brunelleschi.

Links:

 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_di_San_Lorenzo_di_Firenze : San Lorentzo in

Florence (Brunelleschi). Romanesque-Renaissance http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagresta_Vecchia : Old Baptistry in San Lorenzo by Brunelleschi, Florence- Reinaissance

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Sant'Andrea, 1472-1790 (!), Mantua, Italy, the facade. by Alberti (the bell tower remained from a pre-existing Benedictine Monastery in 414). 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/MantovaBasilicaSantAndr ea_cutnpaste_over_intrusions.jpg/450pxMantovaBasilicaSantAndrea_cutnpaste_over_intrusions.jpg

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Villa-Rotonda, 1567-1591, Vicenza, Italy, by Andrea Pallladio: Mannerism.

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Façade of the Church of the GesÚ, 1575, a precursor of Baroque architecture by Giaccomo della Ports.

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the latter cannot produce art without the Beauty`s inspiration and influence. This leads to Heidegger`s metaphysic existentialism. As such Romantic Architecture is deeply and necessarily integrated with the social-economic and cultural life of artist`s society, to which is an expression and an inspiration alike. Architecture is the embodiment of the society that built it, as it expressed f.e. in the Arts and Crafts movement in England and is Colonies and later in Bauhaus (albeit, in the latter case, serving primarily functionality and rationality) -and therefore we should place and conceive it within its social, political, moral and religious context. It denies the distinction between Fine and Applied Arts. Romantic architecture is a psychological portrait of the artist, based on four elements: noble subject, love and beauty, sincerity, and inspiration, expressing the feelings of the contemporary artist emerged from his interpretation and recollection of historical events and nature. It is a contemporary emotional depiction of old historical events. Ruskin believed that the only architecture style which can satisfy and express fully the above features is only the Gothic. He believed that Classical and Renaissance architecture and even his contemporary architecture and design developed into the new Industrial Revolution era, which are based upon cheap mass-produced, homogenous and unidentified materials and ornaments, enslave the architect on firm, established and imposed rules, resulting in a dehumanizing architecture. He instead considered Gothic style as permitting the artist`s freedom, individuality, subjectivity, spontaneity and his emotional expression, leading to a more moral society. Architecture produced in the dehumanizing, unmeaning way of his contemporary industrial years, demoralizes and fails people who used it, just as it fails the people who build it. In other words, a society that enslaves its workers in a demeaning, dehumanizing work, finds itself demeaned and dehumanized by the buildings they produce. Classical and Renaissance Buildings as such do not only express the cultural and spiritual poverty of the society, but they further demoralize its members by starving their imagination, sensibility, inner culture and morality, faculties that Ruskin believed lie at the heart of a healthy, happy human life.

I suspect that much of Ruskin's admiration for Gothic architecture, in particular, stemmed from its vital use of exquisite craft values in both its decoration and construction: medieval Gothic buildings are often seething with magnificently worked sculpture and ornament. Ruskin saw this emphasis upon craftbased construction techniques as implying that medieval Gothic architecture arose immanently from the collective sensibility of medival societies - and that therefore a return to these manual and craft-based virtues could somehow 're-humanise' the (increasingly industrialised) architectural practices of the nineteenth century.

Ruskin`s deep evangelical faith for Purity was expressed in his suggestion of the use in architecture of “true” materials, without f.e. stucco covering on them. Ruskin expressed all his above views in his two architectural works, namely the “Seven Lamps of Architecture” and “The Stones of Venice”.

In conclusion, Romantic (Gothic) Architecture is meaningful, maybe historical in its content and subject, but not functional. It is rational in the sense that it expresses a logical (formal) denial of the classical-Aristotelian logic as it is expressed in the structures of the Classical buildings.

“Hygeia”, An Ideal City of Health by Benjamin Ward Richardson, 1875 

http://www.fullbooks.com/Hygeia-a-City-of-Health.html

RUSKIN (external source)

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Western Architecture throughout his long career. His comparisons in the first volume of Modern Painters of his experience of La Riccia with Claude's painting of it, his experience of Tintoretto's Annunciation in the second, and his similar narration of the experience of landscape in The Seven Lamps of Architecture (1849) and of Venice and its surrounds in The Stones of Venice (1851-53) are matched by his many relations of personal experience in the works on political economy. "Traffic," for example, draws upon his encounter with an advertisement in a shop window observed while walking, and his other works present his personal experiences of the contemporary world, occasionally in the form of citations from his letters or diaries. Praeterita, too, which grew out of autobiographical chapters in Fors Clavigera, his letters to the working men of England, draws upon his characteristic word-painting and dramatization of the experience of meaning to create a new form of self-history. At the end, Ruskin, who had proved such a brilliant interpreter of art and society, proves himself one of the greatest, if most unusual, of autobiographers.

Sir Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) is known for his publication “Garden Cities of Tomorrow” (1898), the description of a utopian city in which people live harmoniously together with nature. The publication resulted in the founding of the garden city movement, that realized several Garden Cities in Great Britain at the beginning of the 20th century. This movement influenced the development of several model suburbs such as Forest Hills Gardens designed by F. L. Olmsted Jr. in 1909 , Radburn NJ (1923) and the Suburban Resettlement Program towns of the 1930s (Green Belt, Maryland, Green Hills, Ohio, Green Brooke, New Jersey and Greendale, Wisconsin).

Garden City by Ebenezer Howard.

The Effect of Sir Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement on Twentieth Century Town Planning. 

http://www.rickmansworthherts.freeserve.co.uk/howard1.htm#sna

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Plan of an Ideal Garden City. Engraving: from “Garden Cities of Tomorrow� by Sir Ebenezer Howard (1902). Source: RIBA British Architectural.

"New Towns": The creation of Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City were influential in the development of "New Towns" after World War II by the British government. This movement produced more than 30 communities, the first being Stevenage, Hertfordshire (about halfway between Letchworth and Welwyn), and the last (and largest) being Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. Howard's ideas also inspired other planners such as Frederick Law Olmsted II and Clarence Perry. Walt Disney (*) used elements of Howard's concepts in his original design for EPCOT (Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow).

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Western Architecture Sunnycroft near Wellington.

Hellerau, City of Dresden, Germany.

The original Garden City concept by Ebenezer Howard, 1902. 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Garden_City_Concept_by_Howa rd.jpg (by Eb. Howard).

Maple Grove, Garden Village.

The Oval, Garden Village.

Both in Kingston upon Hull, England.

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Buckinghamshire, England.

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Hertfordshire, Ebgland.

Hertfordshire, Ebgland.

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Western Architecture Modernism-Avand Guard (1890-1960)- Functionalism & Structuralism-A break in the classic Realism and Dualism. The transition from the Classical hymn to the metaphysical (divine) beauty to the hymn of the human being (the postmodernism commences in 1960 by Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968).

General Features of Modernism- A Structuralistic Art These can be best appreciated in comparison of the features of classicism and baroque art and architecture. Classic art is a visual, non-meaning communicating art, which depicts beauty in human dimensions and magnitude. Beauty for it consists of geometry, balance, simplicity, harmony, symmetry, rationality, soberity, sincerity. It aims to depict an utopian ideal of human dimensions, it is an Aesthetic Realism.

Baroque art is an expressionistic art, which expresses or causes the feelings of admiration and faith to God of the artist or the spectator respectively. It is therefore a non-rational (not irrational), romantic and expressionistic art. But its romantic content is not derived from an admiration of the nature (as does the romantic art of the 19th ce), but from the imagination of a Metaphysic Religious Reality. It can be then classified as a “Metaphysical Romantism-Expressionism”. The same aesthetic values can be attributed to Gothic architecture, albeit being accomplished through different architectural forms.

Modernism is expressing a forward radical and dynamic sense of our world through the aesthetic and abstract pictorial qualities of art works, such as, color, form, space, volume, related in a rythmical composition, in a entirely novel and new non-classical formalism, totally rejecting any concern for depicting an illusion, as the history telling painting of the classical acadimaism was doing. Modernism, in the eve of the new scientific developments of the beginning of the 20th century, such as General Relativity and Quantum Physics, expresses a move from the static and immutable to a rather dynamic and changing world, being vastly influenced in it by Bergon`s philosophy and finally from the visible and perceptible to the invisible and conceived comprehension of the world. Modernism is totally unconcerned to tell a story, or to communicate a meaning as the old classic acadimaism. Such were the movements of Fauvism (early Mattisse), Futurism (Bozzioni), Cubism (Braque, Picasso). Modernism follows the Kantian formalistic criterion of the great art as that which “exists only for itself (it is purposeless) and it is universally liken”. It rejects “art schools” for the establishment of the personal style in art, it rejects “historism” in its subjects along with the compositional forms, and finally “nationalistic” art, i.e. it breaks any linkage with the tradition.

That for painting, sculpture, music and architecture. But in the domain of Modern Architecture the term “abstract qualities” includes also the special abstract “quality” of “functionalism”, which means that the architectural forms should be arranged and composed spatially in such a way (always non-classical) as to be “functional” for its inhabitants. But the term “functional” here is not a predicate, is not something ancillary and attributed feature to the human being, but it is instead an “essential” element of his human nature. It expresses the “freedom” of movement, living and the freedom of the development of human`s inner world and personality, in conditions of protection and security. “Functionalism” is “freedom in space”, it expresses a “shelter for freedom” and as such the architectural composition of forms and spaces are real “extensions” of the human body, soul and mind. There is no void space in the world, but instead the “space”, nature and human all constitute a unity. These are principles inherided by Ruskin`s aesthetic values. The “freedom” is accomplished by arranging the inner “empty” spaces and solid forms in a way that the perpendicular projections of the “empty spaces” on an horizontal level to constitute a continuous line. It is also accomplished by the abolishment of the boundaries between “interior” and “exterior” of the building. The above principles are realized by the applying the rules of General

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Fallingwater House, Ohiopyle, (Bear Run), Pennsylvania , 1934, 1938, 1948, by W.L. Wright. 

http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Fallingwater.html

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important abstract linkage with the ancient classicism, in its conception and handling of space, architecture and Rhymotomy in terms of Platonic Geometrical forms. Therefore Bauhaus, is a rationalistic Monistic and humanistic constructivistic geometric style, belonging to the “historic classicism” club and thus being paralleled with Cezanne (1839-1906) constructivistic cubistic painting. Bauhaus school advocates the unification of all arts (architecture, painting, sculpture, music, theater, decoration) in a integrated unity, following the same principle first applied in Baroque architecture and in R. Wagner`s (1813-1883) opera works.

W. Gropius himself, in his monumental, or private architectural creations should be classified as an “expressionist”.

4) Die Stijl in Holland:1917-1928, founded by Theo Van Deosburg:1883-1931) All the other modern styles and in particular Bauhaus`s functionalism should be contrasted with the Die Stijl architectural style which, in parting away from the modernist rules and features, signals a return to the old classical Dualistic attitude in art, which regards the building as an absolute existence which dictates the life of its inhabitant. While in denying Bauhau`s aesthetic Die Stijl`s aim is to serve the financial interest of the inhabitant by bringing into practical use the greatest possible of the available space, giving thus to aesthetic a secondary significance. It serves the idea of “space-economy”. It is a capitalistic (pragmatic) architecture. To achieve this it bases its architectural archetype on the Idea of the Platonic Geometry, as did all the until now examined architectural styles. It believes, in agreement with the prementioned modern styles that the human naturally conceives the space in the form of Platonicn Geometrical objects. Therefore Die Stijl, as Bauhaus, is a rationalistic humanistic constructivistic geometric style, belonging to the “historic classicism” club and thus being paralleled with Cezanne constructivistic cubistic painting.

Links:   

http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Schroder_House.html, by Gerrit Rietveld http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo_Van_Doesburg

c) Scandinavian Architecture founded by Alvar Aalto (1898-1976): It blends Wright`s expressionism with many elements of structuralism, i.e. it is more conservative than the former and therefore it can be classified as structuralistic (*) and being paralled with Impressionistic painting. (*) recall the “engineerer`s architecture).

Expressionism in Architecture- A close alie to Romantism Many writers contributed to the ideology of expressionist architecture. Sources of philosophy important to expressionist architects were works by Friedrich Nietzsche, Søren Kierkegaard and Henri Bergson, Sigmund Freud and Karl Jung.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Distortion of form for an emotional effect.

Subordination of realism to symbolic or stylistic expression of inner experience.

An underlying effort at achieving the new, original, and visionary.

Profusion of works on paper, and models, with discovery and representations of concepts more important than pragmatic finished products.

5. Often hybrid solutions, irreducible to a single concept.

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Postmodernism:

Vanna Venturi House 1962-64, in the neighborhood of Chestnut Hill in Philadelphi, Pennsylvania, by Robert Venturi (b.1925), for his mother Vanna: That is, constructivism argues that the abstract structural mathematical formula and the physcial world built according to its rules, are both, mind-dependent and mind creations. This means that we see the world through our mathematical ideas we create and which are contextual, that is they are essentially influenced from our social-cultural, religious and ehtical status.

Russian Post-Modern constructivism Russial Avand Guard- Russian constructivism-expressionism (1890-1930) Russian Avant Guard architecture expresses all the features of the monistic constructivistic-expressionistic architecture, but in its case the term “expressionism” takes the meaning of an art which communicates political messages in favour of the communistic revolution. It is a militant art in the service of the communistic propaganda. In it the capitalistic and old classic distinction between the “beautiful” and the “useful” is also rejected. This type of a communicative art returns again later in 1960 in the form of Pop Art (postmodernism by Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968).

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Western Architecture Tatlin (1885-1953) and Lazar Lissitzky (1890-1941)

Turning Torso, 2005, MalmÜ, Sweden, is the tallest building in Scandinavia. 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning_Torso

Modernism vs Postmodernism (external source) Modernism (the International style) was a major architectural style that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, the formative decades of Modernist architecture. The term had its origin from the name of a book by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson written to record the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1932 which identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics common to Modernism across the world. As a result, the focus was more on the stylistic aspects of Modernism. Hitchcock's and Johnson's aims were to define a style of the time, which would encapsulate this modern architecture. They identified three different principles: the expression of volume rather than mass, balance rather

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Wexner Center for the Arts ,1989, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio by Peter Eisenman and Richard Trott.

Vitra Design Museum, 1989, Weil am Rhein, Germany, by Frank Gehry.

Links:  

http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Wexner_Center.html by Wexner Center for the Arts by Peter Eisenman http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wexner_Center_for_the_Arts: Wexner Center for the Arts

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“dripping” “crypto-fractal” painting in 1956, preceded the discovery of “fractal” mathematics in 1970.

The assignment that follows has been written by, and is entirely the work of, <Dimitrios ANTONIOU>.

LLWA_ANTONIOU_assignment2 Postmodernism and Deconstructivism –A conceptual-contextual constructivistic architecture Modernism (structuralism) in architecture originated in Europe after the end of the WW-I and it is the aeshtetic depiction of our world conceived as the result of the excertion of the depositional power of a mind-independent Structural Realism, which functions as an a-historic mathematical formalistic foundation of the former. This mathematical foundation is either the visible Eukledian geomerty and classical Aristotelian logic (W. Gropius`s Bauhus), or the invisible Riemannian geometry of the General Relativity been exemplified in the Cubistic architecture of Le Cornusier, F.L. Wright, L.M. van der Roche and the Die Stijl movement (Theo van Doesburg, G. Rietveld, Alvar Aalto). Lastly, Modern minimalistic architecture (“less is more by Roche) is vastly influenced by P. Mondrian`s mystical Plasticism and Malevich`s suprematism too. In modernism, fucntionalism determines the undecorative, simle, sober and nonmeaning communicating sincere architectural form (see also John Worrall`s “scientific strucrtural realism”).

Constructivism: This can be conceived as the dialectic anti-realistic opposing member of Modernism. By using first the scientific vocabulary of scientific constructivism, we claim that Constructivism argues that mathematical theories are mental constructs (anti-realism), crucially contextually influenced by the agent`s personal, social, and historical background (all these collectively called as “paradigm” by Kuhn) into which the theories are constructed. Constructivism further claims that our experiences consists of theory-laden observations, or mental interpretations of the physical, suggesting thus a “world-picture”, or “theory-world” phenomenalism, while it regards, for the same reason, any kind of formal logic used within it, totally unreliable as criterion of a theory`s truth. The various constructed world-pictures are phenomenalistic, integrative pluralistic and theory-relative (theory-worlds) and they exist as either synchronic and diachronic (P. Feyerabend), or diachronic (in succession) (Th. Kuhn)”. In philosophy of science Constructivism introduced by Thomas Kuhn, P. Feyerabend and late L.Wittgenstein. As such constructivism, philosophically, is closely relater to existentialism: “Human is first and above all. He creates all, abstract and physical” (Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Nitzsche, Kierkergaard, Protagoras, Rudolf Steiner). In Art theory we can understand Constructivism by subsistuting “mathematical theories” of the scientific constructivism for “aeshtetic theories”. It is impressive that both, Scientific and Aesthetic Constructivism, appeared at the same time (around 1960) and importantly, not necessarily as crosswise and interdependent, but as parallel and synchronous developments of human intellect. Aesthetic Constructivism includes both Postmodernism and Deconstructivism, the former being pioneered by Marcel Duchamp and the second by the French linguistic philospophers Ronald Barthes, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, along with the French philosopher and Art Theorist Giles Deleuze and the American Architects Peter Eisenman and Daniel Libeskind.

Postmodernism (post-structuralism) began in America around the 1960s–1970s and spread across Europe and the rest of the world, to stay in action until nowdays.

Postmodernism can be said that inoculates philosophy in art and aims to the “enrichment of architecture with philosophical content”, by which it symbolizes, communicates and expresses the human essence and nature as it is exemplified in human culture, morality, tradition, history, aesthetic and social-political values. Its

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Western Architecture Deconstructivist philosophy The main channel from deconstructivist philosophy to architectural theory was through the philosopher Jacques Derrida's influence with Peter Eisenman. Eisenman drew some philosophical bases from the literary movement Deconstruction, and collaborated directly with Derrida on projects including an entry for the Parc de la Villette competition, documented in Chora l Works. Both Derrida and Eisenman, as well as Daniel Libeskind were concerned with the "metaphysics of presence," and this is the main subject of deconstructivist philosophy in architecture theory. The presupposition is that architecture is a language capable of communicating meaning and of receiving treatments by methods of linguistic philosophy. The dialectic of presence and absence, or solid and void occurs in much of Eisenman's projects, both built and unbuilt. Both Derrida and Eisenman believe that the locus, or place of presence, is architecture, and the same dialectic of presence and absence is found in construction and deconstruction.

According to Derrida, readings of texts are best carried out when working with classical narrative structures. Any architectural deconstruction requires the existence of a particular archetypal construction, a strongly-established conventional expectation to play flexibly against. The design of Frank Gehry’s own Santa Monica residence, (from 1978), has been cited as a prototypical deconstructivist building. His starting point was a prototypical suburban house embodied with a typical set of intended social meanings.

Gehry altered its massing, spatial envelopes, planes and other expectations in a playful subversion, an act of "de"construction".

In addition to Derrida's concepts of the metaphysics of presence and deconstruction, his notions of trace and erasure, embodied in his philosophy of writing and arche-writing found their way into deconstructivist memorials. Daniel Libeskind envisioned many of his early projects as a form of writing or discourse on writing and often works with a form of concrete poetry. He made architectural sculptures out of books and often coated the models in texts, openly making his architecture refer to writing. The notions of trace and erasure were taken up by Libeskind in essays and in his project for the Jewish Museum Berlin. The museum is conceived as a trace of the erasure of the Holocaust, intended to make its subject legible and poignant. Memorials such as Maya Lin's Vietnam Veterans Memorial and Peter Eisenman's Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe also reflect themes of trace and erasure.

Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) Period: 1967–1972: Derrida's interests traversed disciplinary boundaries, and his knowledge of a wide array of diverse material was reflected in the three collections of work published in 1967: Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, and Speech and Phenomena.[19] These three books contained readings of the work of many philosophers and authors, including Husserl, linguist de Saussure, Heidegger, Rousseau, Lévinas, Hegel, Foucault, Bataille, Descartes, anthropologist Lévi-Strauss, paleontologist Leroi-Gourhan, psychoanalyst Freud, and writers such as Jabès and Artaud. Derrida frequently acknowledged his debt to Husserl and Heidegger, and stated that without them he would have not said a single word. Among the questions asked in these essays are "What is 'meaning', what are its historical relationships to what is purportedly identified under the rubric 'voice' as a value of presence, presence of the object, presence of meaning to consciousness, selfpresence in so called living speech and in self-consciousness?"

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We so far have studied a kind of architecture which aimed to serve the Realistic Idea of Beauty (classic) or the Idea of God and Divine Power (Gothic, Baroque), that is an Idealistic architecture which was not functional (i.e. does not serve the earthlypragmatic life of people) and in which the form determines its use and scope.

Ruskin, Morris and Howard`s Garden Cityt`s movement, along with the Arts and Grafts founded the principles of an architecture which aims is closely correlated in a mutual way with the moral development of people and which in the Art Nouveau movement, was expressed as an architecture which is more pragmatic and functional. But still in the latter the form determines the function of a building.

And finally from this session we study Modernistic Architecture in which function determines the form. This is rather a pragmatic and social-political driven architecture than aesthetically driven.

As a fairwel then to the pre-Ruskin Idealistic architecture (Classic, Gothic. Baroque) I offer to the course a modern view of the old idealism by exhibiting some very interesting links of Idealistic Cities, proposed by a wide range of architects encompassing, Sant`Elia, Xenakis, Le Corbusier, Tatlin, along with the older Benjamin Ward Richardson and Eb. Howqrd: 1) “Hygeia”, An Ideal City of Health by Benjamin Ward Richardson, 1875 Links:     

http://www.fullbooks.com/Hygeia-a-City-of-Health.html http://www.jstor.org/pss/40111935 2) The original Garden City concept by Ebenezer Howard, 1902 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Garden_City_Concept_by_Howa rd.jpg (by Eb. Howard) http://www.cscd.gov.bc.ca/lgd/intergov_relations/library/wuf_the_ideal_city.pdf +++

2) Antonio Sant'Elia`s «La Cita Nuova»



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Sant%27Elia

Perspective drawing from La Città Nuova,1914, by Sant'Elia.

3) Vl. Tatlin (1885-1953), Lazar Lissitzky (1890-1941)

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4) Philips Pavillon by Le Corbusier and I. Xenakis

Iannis Xenakis` Ideal Cities.

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Cinderella Castle, the icon of Magic Kingdom, which is the first of the theme parks at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida, USA. Links:  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Cinderella_Castle.jpg/4 80px-Cinderella_Castle.jpg  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_Prototype_Community_of_Tomorrow_%28co ncept%29  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/EPCOTmodel.jpg/640px-EPCOT-model.jpg

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Haghios Demetrios, 550, Thessaloniki, Greece (exterior).

Haghios Demetrios, 550, Thessaloniki, Greece (interior).

Santa Maria Maggiore, 432, Rome, Italy, Exterior (left) and Interior (right).

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Romanesque style X-XII ce (the Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture): Its name causes confusion, because it is not a “Roman-like” style. In fact, Romanesque derives its name, merely from the time period developed (between X-XII), rather than from any definite feature and style of it. It combines, unsystematically, sporadically and without any definite compositional pattern, features from Paleo(proto)-Christian Basilikas (1-4th ce), classical, Roman and Byzantine elements. Thus a Romanesque church can be featured with or without (usually) Dome, be uncrossed (or crossed), with level, or arched, wooded roof, with one or three aisles separated from the central nave with classical columns, or roman piers, inteconnected by curved stoned arches, with niched or multi-sided angled chancel and external towers and bell-towers. The most common feature-amongst the Romanesque basilikas-is their Fortress-like structural appearance (Church Millitant).

Romanesque type, attributes significance to exterior and uses sculpture as an organic part of its exterior and interior decoration. The whole structure gives the impression of a lying horizontically in its long side rectangle parallelogram, but in its concave and “vacuum” parts, i.e. doors, portals, windows, arched vaults, predominates the curved line. Also-as it was said- of a fortress-like structure (church militant), in which the horizontal lines predominates over its crossing perpendicular lines. Romanesque style, along with the Egyptian arcihtecture (Pyramides of Giza, 2613-2563 B.C.) is strictly archaic geometric, strictly formalistic, spiritually meaningless, abstract, and therefore unnaturalistic, in which matter predominates over spirit. Romanesque is “cold” and “holly”. It, lastly, shows a mystique, but still constrained, tendency towards the impossible and infinite, which are instead the foundational principles of Gothic style.

Interiorly, there exist plenty of natural sun-light. Thus, at the end, Romanesque style points towards the earth, like the Byzantine too. Romanesque style, was founded in the Church of Cluny Monastery in France, in 981 (now destroyed). Examples: Cathedral of Speyer (XI ce) Germany, Worms (XII) Germany, Meinz (XII) Germany, Saint Sermin (XIXIII) France, Piza (XII-XIV) Italy, Rochester (XII) England, Benedictine church of Murbach 1160, Alsace, France, Turnai Cathedral 1171-1213, Belgium, Durham Cathedral (ribvaulted roof)1093-1128, England, St Trophin church, 1180, Arles, France.

Maria Laach Abbey, 11th ce, side (left) and frontal (right) view. Germany.

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Ulm`s Minster (Cathedral), Decorative Gothic, Lancet (pointed) windows, founded in 1377, Germany, Uncrossed Basilika.

The west front of York Minster of the 14th ce, is a fine example of Decorated architecture, in particular the Flaboyand windows and the elaborate tracery on the main window. This period saw detailed carving reach its peak, with elaborately carved windows and capitals, often with floral patterns.

The interior of Gloucester Cathedral (late 14th ce) conveys an impression of a "cage" of stone and glass, typical of Perpendicular architecture. Elaborate Decorated style

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Ospedale degli Innocenti: The Foundling Hospital was constructed in several phases and only the first phase (1419â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1427) was under Brunelleschiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1377-1446) direct supervision.

Later phases added the attic story (1439), but omitted the pilasters that Brunelleschi seems to have envisioned, and expanded the building by one bay to the south (1430).

The vaulted passageway in the bay to the left of the loggia was also added later. Since the loggia was started before the hospital was begun, the hospital was not formally opened until 1445.

Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) (above and below).

Palazzo Rucellai, Florence, 1446-1451, by Leon Battista Alberti between (1404-1472).

Pallazzo Pitti, by Brunelleschi, con.1458

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A Concise Panorama of Acrhitectural Styles Neoclassicism, Romantism, Neo-Pallantism, or Neo-Gothism, 18-19th ce.: A nostalgia for the past, a return to Pallantism and Gothism. Examples: Chiswick House, 1725, by Lord Burlington and William Kent, Strawberry Hill Villa, Twickenham, London, 1750-75,

by Horacle Wolpole (Neo-Gothic), Dosert House, Cheltenham, UK, 1825, by J. Papworth (Regency period, 1810-20), Sir John Soane`s â&#x20AC;&#x153;design for a country houseâ&#x20AC;?, 1798, Thomas Jefferson`s Villa, 1796-1806, by himself.

In painting, Romantism, can be viewed as a Baroque-like style, but with much more classical compositional from.

Chiswick House, 1725, by Lord (3d Earl of) Burlington (1694-1753) and William Kent (1685-1748).

Thomas Jefferson`s Villa, 1796-1806, by himself (1743-1826).

Strawberry Hill Villa. The villa in 2012 after restoration.

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A Concise Panorama of Acrhitectural Styles Modern, Early 20th ce: It is a response to Expressionism, signifying a return to formalistic classical. In architecture, its main feature (meaning) is “functionalism”.

Examples: “Bauhaus”, Dessau, Germany 1926, by Walter Gropius (1883-1969).

Staatliches Bauhaus, commonly known simply as Bauhaus, was a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It operated from 1919 to 1933. At that time the German term) stood for "School of Building". The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius (1883-1969)) in Weimar. In spite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first years of its existence. Nonetheless it was founded with the idea of creating a 'total' work of art in which all arts, including architecture would eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture and modern design. The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial design, and typography.The school existed in three German cities (Weimar from 1919 to 1925, Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933), under three different architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928, Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (see below De Stijl) from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime. The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. For instance: the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, even though it had been an important revenue source; when Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend it.

The Bauhaus Dessau (left) by W. Gropius (1883-1969)(and a stage in the Festsaal (right).

Gropius House (1938) in Lincoln, Massachusetts (left), The Alan I W Frank House (right).

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Western Architecture

The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, NY, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1867 â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1959), opened in 1959 (and renovated in 1992093 and 2005-8) and Petersdorff department store in Breslau, now WrocĹ&#x201A;aw (Detail) by Erich Mendelsohn (1887-1953).

The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain (right), by Frank Gerry (born in 1929)(he can be also classified as Postmodern, or still Deconstructive architect).

Dancing House in Prague, 1992-6, by Frank Gerry (American-Canadian, b.1929) (left) and Signature Towers, 2006, Dubai, by Zaha Hadid (Iraqi-British, b, 1950), 2006.

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A Concise Panorama of Acrhitectural Styles

Wright's studio (1898) viewed from Chicago Avenue (left) and Charles Weltzheimer Residence (1948) in Oberlin, Ohio (right), by by Frank Lloyd Wright (1867 –1959).

Goetheanum in Dornach near Basel Switzerland, 1924-28 (Rudolf Steiner).

Douglas Cardinal's National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, D.C. (left) and Thérèse Schwartzestraat / Willem Passtoorsstraat, Amsterdam, 1920-23, by Piet Kramer and Michel de Klerk (1920–23).

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A Concise Panorama of Acrhitectural Styles

The Sony Tower, formerly the AT &T Building, Madison Avenue, New York City, by the American architects Philip Johnson (1906-2005) and partner John Burgee (graduated in 1956 from the School of Architecture of University of Notre Dame, USA), completed in 1984 (left) and Puerta de Europa, 1989-96, Madrid, Spain, by Philip Johnson and John Burgee (right).

Comerica Tower, 1991-3, Detroit, Michigan, USA (left) and Comerica Bank Tower, 19857, Dallas, Texas, USA, both by Philip Johnson and John Burgee.

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The Walt Disney World Dolphin Resort, 1990, in Orlando, Florida, USA, by Michael Graves.

Catholic parish church "Heilig-Kreuz", 1927-29, at Gelsenkirchen in North RhineWestphalia, Germany, by Josef Franke (German, 1876-1944).

The Guild House, completed 1964, on Spring Garden Street, Philadelphia, by Robert Venturi (born June 25, 1925 in Philadelphia).

Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery, 1991, London, by Robert Venturi (American, born in 1925).

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A Concise Panorama of Acrhitectural Styles

Jewish Museum Berlin, 1999, Daniel Libeskind, (born May 12, 1946).

Run Shaw Creative Media Centre, 2011, City University of Hong Kong, by Daniel Libeskind, (born May 12, 1946)

Torres de Satélite (1957–58), seen from the Anillo Periférico.

In Mexico, in 1953, German émigré Mathias Goeritz, published the "Arquitectura Emocional" (Emotional architecture) manifesto where he declared that "architecture's principal function is emotion." Modern Mexican architect Luis Barragán adopted the term that influenced his work. The two of them collaborated in the project Torres de Satélite (1957–58) guided by Goeritz's principles of Arquitectura Emocional.

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Great Buildings

Santa Maria Maggiore, 432-440 (by Pope Sixtus III), Rome, Italy. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Piazza_Esquilino%2C_Sa nta_Maria_Maggiore.JPG/640px-Piazza_Esquilino%2C_Santa_Maria_Maggiore.JPG

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Ground Plan of Haghia Sophia, 6th ce, Constantinopoli (Istanbul), Turkey). ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Hagia-SophiaGrundriss.jpg/640px-Hagia-Sophia-Grundriss.jpg

Ground Plan of Hagia Sophia, 6th ce, Constantinopoli (Isanbul), Turkey. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hagia-SophiaLaengsschnitt.jpg/640px-Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt.jpg

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San Vitalle, 6th ce, Ravenna, Italy, reigning Justinian I Emperor of East Roman Empire (Byzantium). ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Basilica_of_San_Vitale,_Ravenna,_Italy.jpg

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Maria Laach Abbey, 11TH ce, Germany. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Maria_Lach_02.jpg/622p x-Maria_Lach_02.jpg

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Cologne Cathedral, Early Gothic, f. in 1248, Cologne, Germany. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Koeln_RdFlug_2.JPG/576 px-Koeln_RdFlug_2.JPG

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Notre Dame of Reims,1211, Reims, France, Rose windows, Decorative Gothic, Equilateral traceried Arches. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Reims_Kathedrale.jpg/5 76px-Reims_Kathedrale.jpg

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King`s College Chapel, erected in 1532-36, Cambridge, England, Perpendicular (Depressed arch) Gothic Style. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/F%C3%A4chergew%C3%B 6lbe_KingsCollege.jpg/560px-F%C3%A4chergew%C3%B6lbe_KingsCollege.jpg

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San Lorenzo, 1422-70, Florence, by Fillipo Brunelleschi. On the left of the picture (at the end of the north transept) we see the small dome, with the white ornamental cupola on its top, of the Old Sacristy, which contains tombs of the Medici family. On the right of the picture (at the end of the south transept and opposite of the Old), we see the small dome, with the white ornamental cupola on its top too, of the Medici Chappel of the New Sacristy, by Midhelangelo, contained the tombs of the Duke of Nemur and Duke of Urbino, both of the Medici family too. On the left of the picture, in the cloister, we see the Bibliotecca Laurentianna 1522, by Michelangelo too. The basic architectural frameworks of the last two works by Michelangelo, are in classical (Renaissance) form, similar to New Sacristy, whereas their interior, are that of the Manneristic style.

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Western Architecture

St Peter Basilika, Rome, Italy. “Latin Cross” Basilika, founded in 1506 by the 1 st ground plan by Donato Bramante (1444-1514). Baroque Façade constructed in 1612 by Carlo Maderno (15561629) and the Manneristic Dome designed in 1547 onwards by Michelangelo (1475-1564) and completed and constructed by Giacommo della Porta (1533-1602).  http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Petersdom_von_Engelsb urg_gesehen.jpg/640px-Petersdom_von_Engelsburg_gesehen.jpg 1st ground plan, 1506, by Bramante (1444-1514): “Greek Cross in a rectangle” (far left) 2d ground plan, 1513, by Raphael (1483-1520), “Latin Cross” (center, below) 3d ground plan, 1547 by Michelangelo (1475-1564): “Greek Cross” (not depicted) 4th ground plan, 1607, by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629)(far right, below)

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Great Buildings

Chiswick House is a Neo-Classic-Neo-Palladian villa in Burlington Lane, Chiswick, in the London Borough of Hounslow in England. The house was completed in 1729 during the reign of George II and designed by Lord (3d Earl of) Burlington (1694-1753). William Kent (1685â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1748), designed the gardens. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Chiswick_House_view_fr om_forecourt.jpg/640px-Chiswick_House_view_from_forecourt.jpg

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Great Buildings

The secession building in Vienna was built during 1897 by Joseph Maria Olbrich (18671908) for exhibitions of the secession group. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Secession_Vienna_June_ 2006_017.jpg/640px-Secession_Vienna_June_2006_017.jpg

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The Bauhaus Dessau, 1925, Germay, by Walter Gropius. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bauhaus_Dessau%2CGrop iusallee.jpg/640px-Bauhaus_Dessau%2CGropiusallee.jpg

226

Western Architecture

Villa Savoye, 1929–1931, France, by Le Corbusier's (1887 –1965).



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VillaSavoye.jpg

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Great Buildings

The Rietveld Schröder House, 1888–1964, Utrecht, Netherlands, by Gerrit Rietveld (Dutch, 1888-1964). 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/RietveldSchroederhuis.j pg/640px-RietveldSchroederhuis.jpg

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Western Architecture

Casa Batlló is a building restored by Antoni Gaudí (1852-1926) and Josep Maria Jujol, built in 1877 and remodelled in the years 1904–1906 in the Eixample district of Barcelona (next page). 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CasaBatllo.jpg/458pxCasaBatllo.jpg

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Great Buildings

Berlin Philharmonic, 1956-63, Berlin, Germany, by Hans Scharoun (German, 1893-1972). 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Berlin_Philharmonie_200 2.jpg/800px-Berlin_Philharmonie_2002.jpg

The Sydney Opera House was conceived and largely built by Danish architect Jørn Utzon (1918-2006), opening in 1973. Utzon received the Pritzker Prize for this work, architecture's highest honour, in 2003. 

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Sydney_Opera_House__Dec_2008.jpg/640px-Sydney_Opera_House_-_Dec_2008.jpg

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Great Buildings

The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao is a museum of modern and contemporary art designed as a metaphor of the fish by Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry (born in 1929) built by Ferrovial and located In Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain. It was established in 1997. Frank Gehry can also be classified as a Postmodern, or still an Decontructive architect (see below).

ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Guggenheim-bilbaojan05.jpg/640px-Guggenheim-bilbao-jan05.jpg

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Great Buildings

The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, NY, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1867 –1959), opened in 1959 (and renovated in 2005-8).



http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC__Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/640px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg

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Great Buildings

Second Goetheanum, 1923, front (West) view, Dornach, Switzerland, by Rudolf Steiner (1861- 1925). ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Goetheanum_Dornach.jp g/640px-Goetheanum_Dornach.jpg

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The Sony Tower, formerly the AT&T Building, Madison Avenue in the New York City, by Philip Johnson (1906 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2005) and partner John Burgee, completed in 1984. Postmodern.

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Vanna Venturi House, 1964, by Robert Venturi, Chestnut Hill in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, for his mother Vanna. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/V_Venturi_H_720am.JPG /640px-V_Venturi_H_720am.JPG

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Centre Le Corbusier (Heidi Weber Museum) in Zurich-Seefeld (ZĂźrichhorn), 1965-67.

The Centre Le Corbusier is a "Gesamtkunstwerk", i.e. a total work of art, and reflects the harmonic unity of Le Corbusier's (1887-1965) architecture, sculptures, paintings, furniture designs and his writings which is unique and possibly the only one such existing structure in the world. The museum is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Z%C3%BCrich__Seefeld_-_Corbusier_-_Heidi_Weber_Museum_IMG_1552.JPG/640px-Z%C3%BCrich__Seefeld_-_Corbusier_-_Heidi_Weber_Museum_IMG_1552.JPG

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The Experience Music Project, 2000, in Seattle, USA, by Frank Gerry.

ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Aerial_view_of_EMPSFM. jpg/640px-Aerial_view_of_EMPSFM.jpg

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Westside interior, 2008, by Daniel Libeskind, (born May 12, 1946).

ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WestsideInterior.jpg

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Great Buildings

Maggie's Centre, Ninewells, Dundee, Scotland, 2003, designed by Frank Gehry. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Maggies_centre_Dundee. jpg/640px-Maggies_centre_Dundee.jpg

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The Roman Empire at 117 AD. Emperor Great Konstantin in 330 AD finished declared Konstantinopoli as the new capital of the re-united Empire. Emperor Theodosios A (r.379-395) divided the Roman Empire into East Part (to his son Arkadius) and West (to his son Onorio). In 476 the West Empire, collapsed by the Barbarians (Franks, Unni, Vandals, Goths, Ostrogoths, Visigoths. During Theodosios`s rule, the last ancient Olympic games took place in 393.

After 476, the ancient Roman Empire, continued as the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire, until 1453, when conquered by Ottomans. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117.svg

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Europe in 526. The new “barbarian” kingdoms, on the ruins of the West Roman Empire.

Goths in central Europe (Germany and East France), Visigoths in Spain and West France, Lombards in Italy, Vandals in North Africa.



http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_526.jpg

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Europe in 10th ce.: In the German Part of the Empire, the German Saxon Otto A`(936973), annexed by the Pope in 962 as the Emperor of the New Holly Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806 (sieged by Napoleon the Great). Under Otto A`, the Holy Roman Empire included Germany, northern Italy, Austria, and the Netherlands. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HRR_10Jh.jpg

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Western Architecture

Europe at the era of the crusade in 12th ce: Seljuk Turks, have already settled in Asia Minor after the defeat of the Byzantine Emperor Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 10681071) and his army in 1071, by the Sektjuk leader Alp Arslan, in Armenia`s Manzikert (battle of Manzikert). The first crusade begun in 1085 (Alexios A` Komninos (1081-1118), Emperor of Byzantium), siege of Jerusalem in 1099, which freed by the Arab Salantin in 1187.

Later, in 1330, the Seljuk leader Ohran (1326-1360) conquered Nikea.

During the 4ht crusade, was sieged Konstantinopoli (1204-1261), which finally regained by the Emperor Michail Paleologos H`. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://www.google.gr/imgres?hl=el&client=firefoxa&hs=x06&sa=X&rls=org.mozilla:el:official&channel=np&biw=1230&bih=853&tbm=isch&prmd=imvns&tb nid=E34GM8p1Fd7L5M:&imgrefurl=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1142.jpg&docid=2vjnAm0i lbHEaM&imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Europe_1142.jpg&w=1327&h= 959&ei=Pr72T8j_EMWY8QPB3tm6Bw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=303&vpy=324&dur=10028&hovh=191&hovw =264&tx=145&ty=108&sig=109826678027353175186&page=1&tbnh=147&tbnw=203&start=0&ndsp=21&ve d=1t:429,r:6,s:0,i:88

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Europe in 1519: Annexion of Hasburg Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556).

Before him, his father Fillip the Beatifull of Hasburg (1478-1506) (*) married his first wife, the Maria the dutches of Bourgoundy and Low Countries (Flandra, Holland Bourgoundy) which became thus part of the Empire.The marriage of Fillip the Beatifull with his second wife, the dutches of Spain Jean the Mad (daughter of Ferdinat and Isabbela, Kings of Spain), offered to the Empire, Spain, Neapoli, Sicily, Sardinia, Spanic Colonies in S. America (kingdoms of Ajteks and Inkas). (*) son of the Emperor Maximillian A` of Hasburg (b.1459-d.1519) Louther (1483-1546): Declared Protestantism in 1521, ruling Emperor Charles V. Poland united with Lithuania by a treaty at 1569. Poland-Lithuania were divided between Russia, Austria and Prussia, in 1772, 1793, 1795. It was freed in 1919 (after the WWI), where Lithuania was separated from Poland too. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://www.google.gr/imgres?start=257&hl=el&client=firefoxa&sa=X&rls=org.mozilla:el:official&channel=np&biw=1230&bih=853&tbm=isch&prmd=imvns&tbnid=Vqm7pAaT_Uv6M:&imgrefurl=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/spain/haxspain.html&docid=IMmWi s_YA617NM&imgurl=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/maps/1519eur.jpg&w=568&h=453&ei=KUL1T_2Y M4Xf8AOoucSCBw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=703&vpy=203&dur=21455&hovh=200&hovw=251&tx=143&ty=1 15&sig=109826678027353175186&page=10&tbnh=157&tbnw=197&ndsp=30&ved=1t:429,r:21,s:257,i:261

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The generalized European war (1550-1618), ended up with the 30 years lasting German civil war (1618-48), between the Catholic Emperors and the protestantic independent German states, which ended up with Vestfalia Treaty in 1648, with France declared as the final winner.

Holland –under Vestfalia treaty –declared its independence from the Empire.

The 17th ce. is the golden century for France, under the rule King Louis XIV (r.1643(1661-)), whose last war was the seven-year lasting “war of Spanish throne succession” (1701-1714), which ended up with the Treaty of Utrecht (1714), between France and UK (*) (ruling Quenn Anna, the last Stuart Queen, r. 1702-1714). The Treaty secured the inheritance rights of French Kings` descendants over the Spanish Throne, commencing from Louis XIV`s grandson Fillipe V, King of Spain, who secures Spains`s colonies in America, to the satisfaction of his grandfather Louis XIV. Under the same Treaty, France lost the New Earth Island to England, whereas later, at the end of the 7years war (1756-1763) it lost also Canada and East Louiziana to England to (Treaty of Paris). In 1803, Napoleon A` (the Great) sold to Independent America the West Louiziana. (*) from 1707, under the ...of Union, England and Scotland were united as the United Kingdom of Great Btritain (UK). 

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_map_1648.PNG

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Europe in 1914 before the WWI. Hungary: Under Ottoman rule between 1525 (1541)-1669. In 1669, after the defeat of Ottomans and with the Karlovich Treaty, Hungary occupied by Austria.

In 186, the Austro-Hungary Empire was established (successor of the Hasburg Empire (prior Holy Roman Empire), which, in turn, disintigrated in the WWI. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_1914.jpg

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Western Architecture

World WarII in Europe 1939-1945.

ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ww2-europe-overview.gif

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Western Architecture Ivan III the Great of Russia (1462-1505), liberates Russia from the Mongolian Goldedn Horde, in 1470. Ivan III married in 1472 Sophia Paleologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI`(r.1449-1453), and made the Byzantine doubleheaded eagle his own, and eventually Russian, coat-of-arms. He named Moscow as the “Third Rome” and himself as the successor of the Roman Cecars and Byzantine Emperors.

The Grand Duke Ivan IV (the Terrible) was officially crowned the first Tsar ("Caesar") of Russia and ruled in 1547-1584.

The death of Ivan IV`s sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik Dynasty in 1598.

Boris Fyodorovich Godunov was de facto regent of Russia from c.1585 to 1598 and then the first non-Rurik tsar from 1598 to 1605. The end of his reign saw Russia descend into the Time of Troubles.

Michael Romanov (1613-1645) was founder of the Romanov Dynasty (lasted until 1917, with the decapitation of Tsar Nikolaos B`).

The Romanov Tsar Peter the Great (r.1682-1725), was the first Emperor of Russia proclaimed it as Empire in 1721. On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia's Window to Europe. Peter the Great's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia.

Peter I's daughter Elizabeth ruled Russia in 1741–62.

Catherine II the Great, who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of Russia Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the Crimean Khanate. As a result of victories over the Ottomans, by the early 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in Transcaucasia. This continued with Alexander I's (1801–25) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812. At the same time Russians colonized Alaska and even founded settlements in California, like Fort Ross.

In alliances with various European countries, Russia fought against Napoleon's France.

The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian Winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European Grande Armée perished. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the war of the Sixth Coalition, finally entering Paris. Alexander I headed Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.

The officers of the Napoleonic Wars brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of Nicolas I (1825–55) a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War. Between 1847 and 1851 a massive wave of Asiatic cholera swept over Russia, claiming about one million lives. Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861. These Great

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largest theater of World War II. Although the German army had considerable success early on, their onslaught was halted in the Battle of Moscow. Subsequently the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–43, and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941–44 by German and Finnish forces, suffering starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendering. Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as Georgy Zhukov and Konstantin Rokossovsky, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and captured Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945 the Soviet Army ousted Japanese from China's Manchukuo and North Korea, contributing to the allied victory over Japan.

Russian Federation 1991, under the new President of Russia Boris Yeltsin consisted of 83 federal subjects. They differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.

The Russian Federation comprises 83 federal subjects. These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council. However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.

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UNITED STATES OF (NORTH) AMERICA: It was discovered by Marko Polo in 1492.

16th-16th ce. was colonized by European Powers, mainly by England, France, whereas central and South America, by Spain and Portugal.

1775-1781: Independence war, against England.

4th July 1776: Independence 1789: Publishing the new Democratic Constitution, by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. First President of USA, George Washington 1800-1860: Extension to the Far West.

Civil War: 1861-1865, under President Linkoln (elected in 1861). Winners the Northerns liberals (Yunkes), over the conservative pro-slavery Southerns.

USA bought Alaska from Russia on March 30, 1867, for $7.2 million ($120 million in today's dollars) at approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km²).

Territorial acquisitions by date. ď&#x201A;ˇ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png

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Western Architecture

Fira, Santorini, Greece.

Kastelorizo, Greece.

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Greek Traditional Architecture

Zagorohoria, Epirus, Greece.

Zagorohoria, Epirus, Greece.

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