Arctic Synthesis by Emergent Technologies and Design [EmTech] Selected Dissertations Repository

ARCTIC SYNTHESIS Resource-driven Settlement Strategies for Life 60°N

MArch. candidates

Francis McCloskey-López Alican Sungur

MSc. Graduate

Giulio Gianni

2 | 3

60°N

Architectural Association School of Architecture Master of Architecture, Emergent Technologies and Design 2014-2015

Course Director Course Director Studio Master Studio Tutor Studio Tutor

Michael Weinstock George Jeronimidis Evan Greenberg Manja van de Worp Elif Erdine

60°N

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION, SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMME PROGRAMME: TERM:

COURSE TITLE: COURSE TUTORS:

Emergent Technologies and Design 2014-2016

MArch. Dissertation Michael Weinstock, George Jeronimidis Evan Greenberg, Manja van de Worp, Elif Erdine

SUBMISSION DATE:

February 5th, 2016

SUBMISSION TITLE:

Arctic Synthesis

STUDENT NAMES:

Francis McCloskey-López (MArch candidate), Alican Sungur (MArch candidate) Giulio Gianni (MSc graduate)

DECLARATION:

“We certify that this piece work is entirely our own and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged.”

SIGNATURE OF STUDENTS: (Francis McCloskey-López)

DATE:

(Alican Sungur)

February 5th, 2016

4 | 5

60°N

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would express our sincere gratitude to Michael Weinstock and George Jeronimidis for their invaluable support and guidance in this project and during our time at the Architectural Association. We would also like to express our gratitude to Evan Greenberg, Manja van de Worp and Elif Erdine for their critical feedback and numerous suggestions for elaboration. We would like to thank our MSc graduate, Giulio Gianni, for his continued support and enthusiasm for this project in the later stages of the work. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the support of our friends and colleagues at the Emergent Technologies and Design programme, for their encouragement and evaluative criticism of the work on a daily basis.

6 | 7

60°N

Fig. 1: The 64 residents of the remote east Greenland village of Isortoq still hunt and fish but combine traditional Inuit foods with market food. The photographer writes, “Nothing can grow in the Arctic - a barren land of rock and ice.”

ABSTRACT Resource-driven Settlement Strategies for Life 60°N Arctic Synthesis is an investigation of resource-driven settlement strategies in Arctic environments. Traditional construction materials are scarce in the northern latitudes, and extreme environmental challenges to construction are notoriously common to the Arctic. As such, the majority of the built mass consists of imported panellised assemblies that borrow from modular military buildings or housing types better suited to lower latitudes. In light of recent economic interest in the Arctic, this project reconsiders current models of construction and importation. Firstly, a material system and building type was developed to address locally sourced materials. This material strategy has been explored at a variety of scales ranging from various building types, to environmentally driven building arrangements, to sustainable settlement growth patterns. The aim of the investigation is the development of sustainable and semi-autonomous settlement types for pioneering what is often perceived to be the Earth’s final frontier. The work is contextualised in the Northwest Territories of Canada, the site of various settlements few and far in between, developed in the 1950s and 1960s mostly as part of a relocation strategy for indigenous peoples. In response to the lack of conventional construction materials, this project has been developed to capitalise on the most abundant resource in the Arctic: soil, which, conveniently, also has positive thermal properties. Peat can easily be prepared for use in a one year period using traditional methods and simple tools. For lack of aggregate material in both availability and ease of construction, a system was devised in which hermetically sealed bags are filled with soil, and a vacuum pump is used to compress the bags into rigid panels. This process is referred to as a vacuumatic assembly. To direct these vacuumatic panels into a specific form, a simple assembly sequence was developed in which the bags are attached to a series of rod elements, and vacuumed after the entire assembly has been bent into place. With this model as a proposed building type, various environmental, topological and strategic relationships have been used to develop a design model for autonomous building clusters. Different building types were also developed with different uses to define cluster variations. A low greenhouse type is used to thaw soil to prepare it for use in the vacuumatic system. This has the consequence of thawing out permafrost layer - a thick subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing year round. The thawing of permafrost is seen as an opportunity, where building on thawed ground ensures that there will not be differential settlement once buildings have been constructed. The gradual thawing of permafrost is used as a way to study sequential occupation and settlement growth. While loam is readily abundant for vacuumatic building types, the use of wood is the main limitation to construction. The rate at which material can be sustainably extracted is evaluated as a determining factor in the rate at which a settlement can be constructed. Lastly, the capacity of a site to harness water from precipitation dictates the maximum viable population of a site accounting for the needs of a self-sufficient settlement. The aim of this multi-scale investigation of a material strategy is to investigate the possibility of pioneering the New North in a way that is economically efficient and environmentally meaningful.

8 | 9

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION �� 12 2. DOMAIN �� 20 Overview, 23 Challenges of Arctic Construction, 24 Arctic Architecture, 35 Conclusions, 50 3. MATERIAL SYSTEM �� 52 Loam, 56 Vacuumatic Systems, 62 Bending, 64 System Evaluation, 72 Research and Design Ambitions, 74 4. METHODS �� 76 Data Mining Techniques, 80 Statistical Modeling, 81 Design Methods, 82 Design Analysis, 84 Network Analysis, 86 Permafrost Simulation, 86 5. SITE �� 88 MacKenzie River and Northwest Territories, 92 Sources of Construction Materials, 94 MacKenzie Delta, 98 Inuvik, 104 6. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT �� 108 Resource-Driven Settlement Strategies, 110 Spruce Thinnings, 112 Hydrological Productivity, 120 Permafrost and Site Preparation, 122 Land Transformation and Occupation Cycle, 134 Conclusions, 141 Settlement Growth Model, 142 7. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT �� 150 Design Strategies, 153 Building Morphologies, 154 Snow Accumulation, 166 Density Distribution, 170 Solar Orientation, 174 Cluster Organization by Function, 180 Conclusions, 190 8. DESIGN PROPOSAL �� 192 System Details, 196 Thermal Layers, Zones and Partitions, 202 Centralised Resource Distribution, 216 Settlement Design, 220 Sequential Occupation, 222 9. CONCLUSIONS �� 224 10. REFERENCES �� 230 Bibliography , 232 Image References, 235 11. APPENDIX �� 238

10 | 11

1. INTRODUCTION

Acknowledgments Abstract The Arctic The New North Inhabiting the Arctic

7 9 15 17 19

60°N

| Introduction

Russia

Finland

Sweden Norway

Greenland

Alaska

Canada

Opposite page A Lambert Azimuthal EqualArea Projection map of the Arctic region describes the various delimitations of the Arctic.

THE ARCTIC 01-1

Defining the context of the project within the unique Tundra biome. An evaluation of the Arctic environment requires a working definition of the very term “Arctic”. On land, “Arctic” refers to the extent of vegetation or temperature. The Arctic tree line delimits the northern limit of tree growth (Nsidc.org, 2015). It is therefore the boundary between the boreal forest and the tundra, where tree growth is inhibited by cold temperatures, short growing seasons, and only low-lying vegetation such as moss, lichen and shrubs can be supported. For centuries the Arctic has been seen as a vast and static ecosystem. The tundra biome (from the Kilding Sami word tūndâr “uplands” or “treeless mountain tract”) can be found in both Arctic (in vast areas of Canada, Russia and China) and Antarctic regions. Although the biodiversity (with 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 species of land mammals) and the human presence in those regions are considerably low (UNESCO, 2009), there is a complex and highly dynamic scenario of physical and chemical phenomena, including rapid cycles of freezing and thawing, evaporation, precipitation, greenhouse gas emission and wildfires. One of the most singular traits of these regions is the presence of permafrost: a thermal condition of the subsoil layer where material remains below 0°C for two or more years.

Arctic Circle Tree-line 10°C Isotherm 0

500 kilometres

500 miles

14 | 15

60°N

| Introduction

Russia

Finland

Sweden Norway

Greenland

Alaska

Canada

Opposite page A Lambert Azimuthal EqualArea Projection map of the Arctic region describing its energy resources and seasonal shipping routes.

THE NEW NORTH 01-2

Identifying the environmental, social and economic drivers that will define the future of northern expansion and development The four major global forces influencing development in the New North can be identified in: the increase in global population and migration, the growing demand for natural resources, globalisation and climate change (Smith, 2011). Mineral resources (oil, gas, and mining), fisheries, shipping, and tourism the four main sectors for development. (Emmerson et al., 2012). Climate change is drastically changing the geography of the Arctic and its ecosystems. As sea ice thins and snow cover reduces, the Arctic absorbs more heat and reflects less light (Emmerson et al., 2012). Summers arrive earlier in the year and last longer. Younger ice breaks with less effort, making more of the Arctic navigable without icebreakers. Existing infrastructure built on permafrost will become more expensive to maintain and more difficult to access. Winter roads, which many communities such as Tiksi, Russia, depend on for access to the outside world, have seen their seasons decline from over 200 days in the 1970s to 100 day (Emmerson et al., 2012). Amidst this uncertainty, there is also economic opportunity. The Arctic Ocean has seen increased use in transport recent years. The Arctic shipping industry is currently a point-to-point operation but a diminishing of these barriers makes a transArctic shipping route possible. And while new oil, gas and mineral reserves are constantly being discovered, an increase in labour demand and economical opportunities is predicted to attract an increasing number of people in the years to come (Smith, 2011).

Shipping routes Mining sites Oil Gas Gas+Oil reserves 0

500 kilometres

500 miles

16 | 17

60°N

| Introduction

‘NEW NORTH’ SCENARIO

CURRENT SETTLEMENT STRATEGY

Creation of new shipping routes Discovery of reserves of natural resources Less extreme projected climate

High cost of life Poor living conditions Short periods of stay

INCREASE IN DEMAND

DECREASE IN SETTLEMENT POPULATION

Energy Transport infrastructure Market goods Housing/Construction materials

Socially, environmental and economically unsustainable settlements

01-3

01-4

01-4.1 BUILDING TYPES Building types designed to accomplish different functions for peri-Arctic settlements.

INTEGRATED STRATEGY FOR ARCTIC INHABITATION

01-4.2

CLUSTERING PRINCIPLES

Clustering principles that take into account the interaction of a settlement as a whole with the environment

01-4.3

SETTLEMENT GROWTH

Growth strategies in relation to resource management and population growth.

01-5

INHABITING THE ARCTIC Current design responses to the climatic challenges and the role of responsive architectural designs. Any human intervention has an immediate and measurable effect on urbanisation and the soil tectonics below it. Thawing of permafrost causes unstable ground for the buildings and infrastructure supported on it. This serves as a precondition for architectural systems that demonstrate adaptability to site variability in the Arctic context. Thawing of permafrost not only causes unstable ground for established ecosystems, buildings and infrastructure- but also releases methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), due to the huge amount organic matter stored in the frozen soil, with heavy consequences on the environment. Since the creation of permanent settlements in the 1950’s, these communities have been lacking of adequate buildings and infrastructure (Bone, 2008). Due to the inaccessibility of most Arctic communities, and a lack of building materials sourced locally, most buildings are designed to incorporate transportable components with low manufacturing costs, often yielding energy inefficiencies. Given the military and scientific nature of most of the buildings around which the first settlements were created, it is not uncommon to see houses in the shape of quonsets or hangars (Waldron, 2009). This universal type of architecture based on economy rather than local climatic factors has produced buildings that for almost any function, from civic to residential, are usually rectilinear prefabricated envelopes, often called ‘matchbox’ houses for their lack of geometrical variation (Dawson, 1997). With the dynamics of the future growth of northern settlements being unknown, there is an opportunity for a new paradigm in arctic architecture to be developed in response to the need for more regional designs (Hampson, 2011).

18 | 19

2. DOMAIN

OVERVIEW �� 23 CHALLENGES OF ARCTIC CONSTRUCTION �� 24 Foundations on Permafrost 26 Wind and Snow 28 Logistics 30 Material Sourcing 33 ARCTIC ARCHITECTURE �� 35 Contemporary Architecture 36 Vernacular Architecture 40 Modern Proposals 44 Settlement Planning 46 CONCLUSIONS �� 50

60°N

| Domain

GREENLAND Barrow

Upernavik

[Pop. 4,373]

[Pop. 1,181]

Ilulissat

Prudhoe bay

Resolute Bay

[Pop. 2,174]

ALASKA

Inuvik

[Pop. 4,893]

[Pop. 229]

Sachs

[Pop. 3,463]

Mary River

Sirmlik

[Pop. 1,450]

[Pop. 16,583]

Pond Inlet

Johnson pt

Kugluktuk

Nuuk

[Pop. 1,549]

Qikiqtarjuaq [Pop. 520]

Albert Bay

[Pop. 1,200]

Pangnirtuang [Pop. 1,425]

Dewey Soper Coral Harbour Chesterﬁeld Inlet

[Pop. 834]

Katannilik

Iqaluit

[Pop. 6,699]

[Pop. 332]

CANADA

Kuujjuaq [Pop. 2,375]

0 0

500 Kilometers 500 Miles

02-1

OVERVIEW “Human Adaptations” Whoever wants to survive the extremes of the Arctic environment needs to adapt to them. During the centuries of Arctic occupation, humans, from the Thule to their Inuit descendants, have found different ways of responding to such challenges. Whether it is the materials they adopted for their dwellings, the strategic positioning and orientation of their settlements, or the seasonal migrations in search for food sources and milder climates. The following sections explain what the responses in contemporary Arctic design have been, and how a dynamic and adaptive response approach has led way to a standardised, rapid and cost-effective one. The opportunity and limitations of such responses, on both the scale of a settlement and that of a dwelling will be analysed in order to lay out the framework for what is intended to be a methodical approach encompassing several scales to improve construction in the North. The scenario taken into consideration is that of the Canadian North. Although many of the challenges and indeed their possible responses can be valid for different Arctic contexts around the world such as the Siberian tundra and the Icelandic and Scandinavian regions, this area was chosen for the wide availability of data and information as well as the unique “Euro-Canadian” issue explained in depth in the following sections.

22 | 23

60°N

| Domain

02-2

CHALLENGES OF ARCTIC CONSTRUCTION Challenges that come with such an extreme environment and existing building traditions.

Fig. 2: People walking in the roads of Arviat, NWT, Canada (61°06’23.1”N) during a light snowstorm. The barren land around the building makes the structure capture plenty of snowdrift during blizzards: accumulation of snow is only one of the few challenges that arctic dwellings have to face.

UNDERSTANDING THE SITE’S CONDITIONS 02-2.1

As it has been said by Harold Strub (1996) “designing successfully for people in the world’s coldest climates demands a broad understanding of site conditions an and their unique social context”. He supported strongly how anyone who had to make decisions regarding the built environment should have in mind what the severe constraints posed by the environment and the often extreme geographical position could be. These challenges have been grouped into four main categories. Starting from the ground, the ever-changing soil conditions, and the large presence of perennial ice (permafrost) is the main cause of frost heave and differential settlement- all known to be a major threat for building foundations. The mostly flat topography of the Tundra also causes large amounts of snow to be carried away freely by the strong winds and accumulate around the first obstacles they find- often the dwellings or other structures. Low temperatures threat poorly insulated buildings to loose all their heat, making the inner environments uninhabitable, while the geographical position of most of the settlements causes common construction materials, heavy machinery and skilled labour to be extremely expensive.

02-2.2

FOUNDATIONS Heave due to ground freezing Loss of bearing strength due to thawing Differential settlement

02-2.3

02-2.4

02-2.5

WIND & SNOW Snowdrift control High imposed loads on roofs Need for bracing at foundation level

LOW TEMPERATURES High heat losses High thermal mass required Vapour/Moisture control Low thermal transmittance required

LOGISTICS Limited period for construction (summer) Lack of skilled labour Limited availability of machinery Limited availability of construction materials

24 | 25

60°N

| Domain

Fig. 3, Left: Soviet building severely damaged by heavy differential settlement at foundations due to frost heaving (location unknown). Fig. 4, Right: House on Sarichef Island completely eradicated from foundations due to rapid thaw of permafrost upper layer.

02-3

FOUNDATIONS ON PERMAFROST Assessment of existing technology and engineering-related limitations and problems related with permafrost construction.

GROUND-RELATED CHALLENGES

The unique geomorphology and climate of the Arctic pose special engineering challenges for the construction and maintenance of much-needed infrastructure such as roads, railroads, airfields, pipelines and buildings (Ferrians, 1969). When constructing in regions underlain by permafrost, architects, designers, engineers and construction and maintenance personnel need to face a wide range of problems such as severe frost heaving, subsidence due to thawing of the active layer, solifluction, landslides and icings.

FREEZE-THAW MECHANISMS

Being in a continuous state of dynamic equilibrium with the environment, the permafrost’s upper layer (i.e. the active layer) is constantly expanding (or ‘aggrading’) or shrinking (or ‘degrading’). Both changes in this fragile equilibrium can have devastating effects on structures (Ferrians, 1969). Permafrost degradation comes with an increase in the water table level, which reduces the load-bearing capacity of the soil and causes ground surface to sink. While permafrost aggradation causes the active layer, supersaturated with moisture, to freeze and expand in volume, which can in turn cause severe heaving. Although the frost-heaving mechanism is complex, the main

02-3.1

Next page (Top) Dynamic equilibrium of ground level under different thermal regimes caused by change in insulation layer. Case A: less insulation is provided (greater oscillation in temperatures). Case B: additional insulation is provided (e.g. a house is placed). Next page (Bottom) Temperature profile across soil during seasonal freeze/thaw cycles.

02-3.2

Case A Case A Original temp. at permafrost table Original temp. at

0°C 0°C

permafrost table

TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE

Case B Case B

Summer Summer -16°

-8°

-16°

-8°

TIME TIME TEMPERATURE 0° TEMPERATURE

Surface Temperature Surface Temperature Winter Winter

0°

average min. temp.

average max. temp.

average min. temp.

average max. temp.

16°

8° 8°

ACTIVE LAYER

16°

ACTIVE LAYER

invariant temperature

ISOTHERMAL PERMAFROST ISOTHERMAL PERMAFROST

SOIL SOIL DEPTH DEPTH

Upper limit of seasonally invariant temperature Upper limit of seasonally

FROST-FREE SOIL FROST-FREE SOIL

THE SOIL LAYERS 02-3.3

factors controlling it are the soil properties (i.e. texture of sediments, permeability, chemical properties and moisture content), the surface condition of the soil (i.e. with vegetation, snow or peat) and the ground-surface temperatures. A newly constructed building for example, poses a great threat to the natural equilibrium of the permafrost as during winter, when the permafrost should be frozen, heat radiated from the building foundations causes thawing, and in summer, when the soil should be warmer, the building provides additional insulation from solar radiation, exacerbating the effects of heave. Engineering problems associated to permafrost are very dependent on the stratigraphy of the site and on the type of rock or sediment present. Few problems for instance are presented by coarse grained sediments such as gravel or bedrock although below 0° C, as ice expansion will simply fill the voids between the particles, or in saline water, which will have very low freezing temperatures. Major problems arise in poorly-drained fine sediments which often have an undesired plasticity and cause settlement, caving and subsidence of the ground surface (PTF, 2000).

26 | 27

60°N

| Domain

Fig. 5, Left: Snowdrift accumulating behind a wooden snow fence. Fig. 6, Right: High amount of snow deposited on top of a house’s roof causing inaccessibility and great structural threat.

Next page (Top) Snowdrift affecting different houses designs and typical design recommendations. Next page (Bottom) Snowdrift accumulation study for different fence porosities

02-4

WIND AND SNOW Engineering related problems caused by the strong arctic winds and the snowdrift phenomenon

SNOW ACCUMULATION 02-4.1

Information about snow precipitation, depth and properties as well as typical duration of snow season are commonly included in national codes of practice and their commentaries. When designing structures for the Arctic and subarctic climate one must have a good knowledge of snow transportation and accumulation mechanisms. A typical engineering issue is the high loads imposed by the snow on roofs and wall surfaces. Due to the combined effect of compaction and moisture absorption snow can increase in density from approximately 100 kg/m3 (for freshly fallen snow) up to about 500kg/m3 depending on the age of the snow formation (US Dept. of the Army, 1987). Predicting the amount of snow that accumulates on a structure is therefore a key design consideration for peri-Arctic settlements.

SNOWDRIFT 02-4.2

Following a process analogous to the one that causes the formation of sand dunes in deserts, snowdrift consists in loose snow particles taken up by the wind traveling several miles before depositing against stationary objects or when the wind speed drops and at higher wind speeds.

Wind >10m/s

Suspensio on

ati salt

Height [m]

100%

2 1 0

30%

<6m/s

Porosity [%] 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0

6-10m/s

YES

Wind Direction

74% 50% 42%

SNOW FENCES 02-4.3

15 10 20 Distance from Fence [m]

As it occurs regularly on most of the snow-covered surfaces, snowdrift is known to cause many serious problems to arctic buildings and roads. The solution commonly adopted is to place ‘snow fences’ to passively control the drift. These simple barriers, often made of wood boards, serve to reduce wind speed and cause particles to sediment around them. While some snow deposits on the windward height, most of it will deposit on the leeward side, usually at a distance not greater than 35 times the barrier height (Tabler, 1991). The amount of snow deposit is also a function of the amount of caption area of snow (‘fetch’) and the porosity of the barrier. Snow fences are also adopted in north-western U.S. to effectively harvest snow drifts collecting them in holding ponds for later melt, this freshwater supply is then used for livestock (Lewis, 1978).

28 | 29

60°N

| Domain

GREENLAND Barrow

Uppernavik

Norne Bethel

Prudhoe bay

Ilulissat

Resolute Bay

GREENLAND

Inuvik Barrow ALASKA

Uppernavik

Anchorage Norne Bethel

Nuuk

Pond Inlet

Prudhoe bay

Ilulissat

Resolute Bay

Iqaluit

Pond Inlet

ALASKA Inuvik

Yellowknife

Anchorage

Nuuk

Kuujjuaq

Juneau

Iqaluit

REENLAND

Yellowknife

Uppernavik

Edmonton

Ilulissat

Juneau

Nuuk

Kuujjuaq

CANADA Winnipeg Ottowa

Edmonton

Iqaluit

0Montreal

Ottowa

Montreal

Cargo routes

500 Kilometers 500 Miles

CANADA Winnipeg

Kuujjuaq

Montreal

500 Kilometers

02-5

500 Miles

Cargo routes

uction steel

Shipping routes

t production

Highways

ction timber

Tree line

Top Map with different modes of transport for the northern part of Canada and Alaska.

Construction steel Cement production

LOGISTICS

Construction timber

Shipping routes Highways

Cargo routes

Tree line

Evaluation of the modes of transport and the limitations for construction in the Arctic region. Shipping routes

SEASONAL TRANSPORT 02-5.1

Highways

Due to the lack of local suppliers, building material, including steel, wood and concrete must be imported. In some Tree line communities even gravel or coarse aggregates for foundation backfill is scarce. Construction equipment might also not be readily available and forklifts and cranes- when requiredmight have to travel a long way to reach the site. It has been estimated that marshalling and shipping charges for transporting material to the Arctic may take up to 20% of the total cost of construction (CMHC, 1987). Transporting material on site in the Arctic usually takes place in three ways: by truck, ship or air cargo. It is important to point out that the availability and cost of these modes of transport highly depend on the location of the settlement and the time of the year.

BY LAND 02-5.2

Terrestrial transportation happens prevalently by truck on paved or more commonly gravel-surfaced roads. For just a few months during the winter freeze-up, ice-bridges are formed and what are called ‘ice-roads’ which allow circulation of heavy goods vehicles (HGV’s) can function as the only way to reach certain settlements by land.

Main Use:

Medium-size crates, large tanks, barrels, oversized shipments Cost: [for 1,000kg on flatbed]: $39/100km 10$

Season Summer

BY SEA 02-5.3

Marine transportation is rapidly expanding as it is becoming easier to sail the Arctic Ocean as perennial ice starts retreating. Since port facilities and wharf in arctic destinations are almost non existent, shipments loaded on container ships are usually unloaded onto landing barges which can run up onto the beaches.

200$

Winter

Main Use:

Large prefabricated structures, minerals, large crates. Cost: [for 1,000kg or 2.5 m3]: $11/100km 10$

200$

Season Summer

BY AIR 02-5.4

Due to its high costs, aerial transportation is more commonly reserved to high priority or perishable goods such as medicines or the movement of people. Almost every major arctic settlement is provided with short landing strips for small charter planes to land.

Winter

Main Use:

Perishable goods, Medicines, People

Cost: [for 1,000kg]: $188/100km 10$

200$

Season Summer

Winter

30 | 31

60°N

| Domain

THE PATTERN OF DISTRIBUTION

The breakdown of the total cargo transported with via land, sea and air varies from country to country. It is therefore essential to understand what pattern of distribution there is from the main hubs (like Murmansk, Noril’sk, Nuuk and Anchorage) down to the smaller settlements. In fact, in Alaska’s case, the port of Anchorage is estimated to handle 90% of the merchandise goods used by Alaskan communities (POA, 2011). Everything from day-to-day items up to chemicals, sack cement, grain products, construction goods, heavy industrial loads, oversized items and fuels, as well as general construction materials as well as the precious drill pipes - a vital supply for the oil industry- is imported from abroad through the Port of Anchorage.

THE ‘LIFELINE’

These are then distributed to smaller hubs and rural communities through truck, train and barges which constitute a real ‘lifeline’ for the small northern settlements. While roughly four container ships supply this port each week, it was estimated that most of retail companies and government agencies would reach a crisis mode if this service would be disrupted for more than two weeks (Ibid, 2011).

02-5.5

Fig. 7: A cargo Hercules plane taxiing at Iqaluit, Nunavut (63°45’41.9”N). Air cargo is responsible for a vital amount of transported goods in all northern settlements independent of the season of the year.

02-5.6

TYPE

Concrete 30 MPa

Structural steel beams

Softwood timber

General labour

Site foremen

Units

(m3)(1,500 m3 job)

(tonne)(>100 tonne job)

100mmx50mm (m)

(hourly cost including overheads)

Samara,RU

88£

680£

4£

9£

13£

Yakutsk,RU

100£

768£

4£

12£

18£

Fairbanks,US

107£

1150£

7£

65£

85£

Washington,US

80£

1050£

8£

53£

77£

Yellowknife,CA

135£

1210£

12£

30£

49£

Vancouver,CA

95£

1180£

12£

35£

55£

02-6

MATERIAL SOURCING The cost of sourcing materials and labour in the Arctic region

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 02-6.1

Although potentially rich in underground resources, the region of the arctic tundra is fundamentally devoid of any material that can be used for ‘conventional’ types of construction. Cement, aggregates, clay and timber are all sourced at much lower latitudes, the extremely high costs of shipping make it hard even for other manufactured materials such as steel, aluminum and other prefabricated elements to be readily available. The table above compares the costs for common elements in construction for a ‘southern’ city and a northern one in Russia, Canada and the U.S. As it can be seen prices are consistently at least 25% higher in all of the northern regions.

32 | 33

60°N

| Domain

02-7

ARCTIC ARCHITECTURE Analysis of past and present building types in the Arctic, with specific focus to Canada and Alaska.

PERMANENT ARCHITECTURE IN THE ARCTIC 02-7.1

Government post-WWII housing typologies have created a template for arctic shelters which is in use still today. Development of Canadian Arctic did not start until the 1950’s when the government started using the small ports and whaling stations built in the early twentieth century as a basis to form communities for indigenous people. Permanent settlement was encouraged by providing health care, education and social amenities to the Inuit (Bone, 2009). Installing permanent architecture in these zones can be seen as a Canadian and American attempt to assert arctic sovereignty during the Cold War when the arctic started having greater strategic importance (Bhatia et al, 2012). The resulting architectural designs are the proof of this fact, as they appear more “frontier” designs than family houses.

CATEGORIES EXPLORED 02-7.2

The type of designs that are investigated in the following sections are three: contemporary buildings, with particular focus on the “Euro-Canadian” type of dwelling, vernacular examples such as the Inuit’s shelters and nomadic houses, and finally a series of “prototypes”- or more courageous designs which although they all incorporate some interesting and valid feature in their design they have not been implemented.

Fig. 8, Top: Radar military station part of the Early Warning Belt (EWB) in Greenland. Fig. 9, Bottom: Aerial View of the settlement of Igluik (66°47’15”)

34 | 35

60°N

| Domain

02-8

CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE Current building forms, methods and materials.

THE ‘EURO-CANADIAN’ DWELLINGS 02-8.1

FORM & MATERIAL 02-8.2

Fig. 10, Top: Frozen roads of Inuit town of Igluik, north of Nunavut Greenland. (66°47’15”) Fig. 11, Bottom: Prefabricated timber dwellings (the so called “EuroCanadian houses) dominate the scenery in Nunavut, Greenland.

According to Hampson (2011), despite promoting the new notions of comfort and durability, the housing stock provided by the Canadian government in the last five decades completely disregards the traditional Inuit lifestyle and the cultural and sustainable intelligence of their existing dwellings. In fact, the ‘Euro-Canadian’ or ‘southern’ model of dwelling, articulated around a common living room and several individual sleeping quarters, often took the form of an hermetic container. Several Canadian anthropologists, like Peter Dawson in 2002, recorded how the activities of Inuit families (e.g. food preparation, crafting, storage, etc.) were often illaccommodated by the spatial configuration of the new homes. These so called ‘Euro-Canadian’ dwelling types applied the post-war modernist ideal of regularity to ‘universalise’ the design process and cut down design and fabrication costs. The result is the choice of timber as primary structural and exterior surface material, as is was inexpensive to import it from the southern regions (Dawson, 2003). The poor thermal insulation of such material, and its rapid deterioration in the arctic environment however often caused expensive maintenance.

36 | 37

60°N

| Domain

TYPE-A Irregular body, roof pitch>30°

Photo Mosaic 1: Different examples of the so called ‘Euro-Canadian’ dwellings in different Canadian towns listed by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC).

TYPE-B Straight body, roof pitch<30°

TYPE-C Other. (E.g. quonset, row houses)

plan view

TYPE-A

‘Euro-Canadian’

32° end view

10 m

plan view

TYPE-B ‘Prefab

12°

end view

plan view

TYPE-C

48°

Row houses

Above: typical sizes for the three types of houses listed in the previous mosaic. These numbers will be used for later comparison with the proposed new types of dwelling.

end view

38 | 39

60°N

| Domain

PART 2

02-9

Fig. 12, Top: Dukha Reindeer Herders (Tsaatan) moving summer camp, taiga, northern Mongolia

Fig. 13, Next Page: Two diagrams showing the seasonality of vernacular arctic dwellings versus a permanent type of architecture (and lifestyle) adopted after the 50’s.

ARCHITECTURE

VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE Existing building traditions around the arctic region. Historic evidence suggests that Arctic indigenous architecture often featured semi-subterranean house floors, passageways, cold-trap tunnels, raised sleeping platforms and a variety of Dukha Reindeer Herders (Tsaatan) moving summer camp, taiga, that differed according to seasonal construction materials northern Mongolia, 2006; Photo credit: Marilyn Walker needs and availability (Mc Ghee, 1983). In the generally treeless tundra environment they commonly used materials such as sod, turf and animal skins as a building envelope, and driftwood, whalebones, caribou antlers and even narwhal tusks for the main structure (Ibid, 1983).

MATERIAL & FORM 02-9.1

SUMMER & WINTER DWELLINGS 02-9.2

A crucial element of the Inuit settlement pattern is its seasonal shift between concentration in winter and dispersion in summer (Mauss and Beauchat, 1979). This major demographic shift is heavily coupled with the surrounding life: summer was the season for exploring, and kayak hunting; while winter was a time for visiting, storytelling, ritual ceremonies and regenerating the cooperation vital to the

ting House Type Hun u o rib a SprinCg

VERNACULAR

Sod house

Winter

Winter Winter

Wood house

Autu m n Aut

Summer

Tent

mmer

Season

in g

Su Kayakin g

Economic Activity

Tra d

Autu m n

Tra di Wa g e L a b o u r n g

umn

Spring

Summer

Kayaking

Summer

am kineg r KSauym

Kayaking

Summer Winter

Spring

Autu m n Aut

in g

Spring po euse Type House TyH

Autu m n

Tra d

Spring

Winter

ting ting Hun Hun u o u b o ri rib Ca Ca Spring

CONTEMPORARY

Autu m n umn

Wa g e L a b Woaugre Labour

EconomicEconomic Activity Activity Season

Season

Tent

Economic Activity

Tent

Season

Wood house

Tent

Wood house Wood house Sod houseSod house

Sod house

group survival (Ibid, 1979). This overturn in lifestyle also saw a major switch in housing type. As days become warmer and the ground begins to thaw many winter houses become uninhabitable because of the excessive heat and moisture accumulated. Turf-covered roofs are commonly replaced with makeshift skin covers allowing additional ventilation while newly made tent structures were used for the most warm months of the year (Murdoch, 1892). Location was extremely important for winter houses where there was a pressing consideration for proximity to freshwater (usually frozen lakes or ponds) and protected south-facing hillsides where sun exposure was maximum. In summer, mobility was the preferred characteristic as such dwellings had to be often dismantled and transported on their backs .

40 | 41

60°N

| Domain

WINTER DWELLINGS 1. IGLU

Description: Fig. 14: Could be built quickly providing temporary shelter for hunting or traveling. The low passage allowed cold air to sink and be trapped in the entryway. Internally, there were several sleeping benches raised from the floor. Heating was provided with oil lamps.

Inhabitants: 1-4 Construction materials: Ice blocks (shell)

2. NAPAQTAQ

Description: Fig. 15: Often referred today as ‘sod house’, In winter the Napaqtaq would look like a large snow dome. Constructing such structures was energy and time consuming as part of the ground would usually have to be excavated.

Inhabitants: 4-8 Construction materials: Driftwood, whalebones (frame); sod and turf (skin); caribou skin (door)

3. IGLURYUAQ

Description: Fig. 16: More common in Greenland, where the sod can be combined with flat granite rocks to form very solid walls. They were often located close to the coast to transport easily kayaks.

Inhabitants: 6-8 Construction materials: Sod and turf cut from tundra (skin); Flat Rocks

SUMMER DWELLINGS 4. QALURVIK

Description: Fig. 17: Qalurviks are commonly used during the kayak hunting period. They are simple, light tents made by bending and tying saplings together and covering them with skins. They are easily recognisable by their rounded dome-like shape.

Inhabitants: 1-4 Construction materials: Saplings, caribou antlers (frame); sealskin, caribou fur (skin)

5. TUPIQ

Description: Fig. 18: Not unlike the Plains tipis. The Tupiqs were simply made by arranging several driftwood poles in a conical shape and wrapping dark-colored skins around them. They served as dwellings for single families during the traveling and hunting period in summer.

Inhabitants: 4-6 Construction materials: Driftwood (frame); caribou or sealskin (skin)

6. ARCHED TUPIQ

Description: Fig. 19: Similar in function and materials to normal Tupiqs, the difference is the type of structure used to erect it: this type of Tupiqs use bent saplings to create half an arch that rests on a sort of A-frame made with driftwood or whalebones

Inhabitants: 4-6 Construction materials: Driftwood , whalebone (frame); caribou skin (skin))

42 | 43

60°N

| Domain

Fig. 20: The Antarctic Radar Station was built in 2014 by the University of Alaska, Fairbanks is powered by wind and sun, and generates detailed maps of the ocean’s surface.

02-10 MODERN PROPOSALS Next page, from top to bottom: Fig. 21: Finalist entry for Arctic Perspective Design competition by Catherine Rannou for a deployable ETFE shelter.

Various design prototypes proposed from the 1960’s until today.

PROTOTYPES OR ACTUAL DWELLINGS?

A new notion of Arctic dwelling has been at the centre of many architects focus already since the early 1960’s. Of these architects, the most notable one is surely Ralph Erskine, who is renown for his plan of redevelopment of Resolute Bay, as well as for several proposals for buildings all to be constructed in Arctic scenarios. In all of these proposals it is clear that there is a new strive to accept notions of ‘reconfigurability’, ‘low cost fabrication’ and ‘integration with the surrounding environment.

OVERALL PERFORMANCE

During the years however, none of such solutions has really been proved to be successful at tackling all the different challenges of Arctic construction. It seems to be a common trend that where designs solutions were successful at resolving structural or performance issues, they often then neglected the quality and arrangement of internal spaces for the inhabitant. A list of some of the most successful design ideas is provided on the next page. Each of the five designs was selected for a particular trait.

02-10.1

Fig. 22: Finalist entry for Arctic Perspective Design competition by Richard Carbonnier for a modern Qamutik sled . Fig. 23: The Angirraq House: a prototype of a low-cost prefabricated house made of SIP’s, developed in 1964 by Canada’s Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources. Fig. 24: A prototype for a detached house in Resolute bay by architect Ralph Erskine. The T-shape was developed to reduce snowdrift around the structure. Fig. 25:. Another design by Ralph Erskine proposing a model of dwelling more integrated with the landscape.

02-10.2

02-10.3 DEPLOYABILITY ‘Mobile media centric and habitation work system’

02-10.4LOWSURFACE/VOLUME RATIO The ‘Qamutik Sled House’

02-10.5 PREFABRICATION The ‘Angirraq House’

02-10.6 MITIGATION OF SNOWDRIFT Detached house for Resolute Bay

02-10.7 INTEGRATION WITH LANDSCAPE Ski hotel in Borgafjall, Sweden

44 | 45

60°N

| Domain

02-11

SETTLEMENT PLANNING Existing building traditions around the arctic region.

SOUTHERN STYLE PLANNING 02-11.1

The dominant design in Canadian settlements designed and built after the 1950s features rows of buildings which are arranged around road networks. This positions buildings in such a way that they inconveniently cast shadows onto each other and onto pedestrians, as well as creating wind tunnels that add to thermal discomfort.

SUN AND WIND

Due to the extremes of the Arctic climate, urban forms should be arranged to maximize solar exposure. The ideal site is therefore a south-facing slope, where no building stands in the shadow of another. This is naturally quite challenging in high latitudes, as the winter sun angles cast long shadows and would distribute buildings sparsely; the disadvantages of heat loss and additional effort for travel outweigh the advantages of the additional solar exposure. By building small, compact structures, the smallest amount of shadow is cast on other buildings, with the smallest amount of energy need for heating (Matus, 1988).

DENSITY

A second factor affecting thermal comfort in a northern settlement is wind. The structures of a settlement should be located in order to hinder prevailing winds, or at a minimum to prevent accelerating them, which would add to heat loss. The optimal density of buildings and trees is therefore specific to every site.

02-11.2

02-11.3

Fig. 26, Previous Page: A colored sketch of Ralph Erskine’s plan for the redevelopment of resolute bay settlement (N.W.T, Canada).The project fort the large ring of public buildings surrounding and protecting the inner houses from the strong winds was started but never completed. Fig. 27, Top: The same concept was brought forward for the ‘Ecological Arctic Town of Svappavara, Sweden, in the 1958. This time the plan presented a more complex visual system of smaller city cores.

46 | 47

60°N

| Domain

GREENLAND 02-11.4

Traditional settlements in Greenland demonstrate a climatic logic in building organization. The buildings of Upernavik seldom cast shadows on each other in the low sun angles, despite being in relative proximity. Iliulissat features connected buildings along an East-West axis which make for more effective windbreaks and have less exposed surface per dwelling from which to lose heat.

ILIULISSAT, GREENLAND [69°13’11.7”N]

UPERNAVIK, GREENLAND [72°47’02.7”N]

Scale= 1:2000

Scale= 1:1000

Density: 430 people/km2 Planning type: heliocentric (little snow on coast), on south facing slope. Some houses clustered in EastWest rows to contain heat effectively.

Density: N/A Planning type: heliomorphic (houses arranged on slope so as to reduce self-shading to minimum).

CANADA 02-11.5

INUVIK, CANADA [68°21°42°N]

RESOLUTE, CANADA [69°13’11.7”N]

Scale= 1:1750

Scale= 1:1000

Density: 55.4 people/km2 Planning type: conventional US 50’s planning with rows of houses arranged around roads.

Density: 30.4 people/km2 Planning type (built): Planned to have houses protected from the arctic winds by a belt of larger public buildings (which was never built)

48 | 49

60°N

| Domain

02-12

CONCLUSIONS Defining research questions and the focus of the following sections.

NEED FOR PLANNING

On a building scale, it appears that modern construction solutions, albeit responding effectively to strict cost and transport constraints, are not suitable to provide durable, long-lasting structures. Not only the seasonal character of the building skin adopted by the Inuit (from heavy insulating sod in winter to light skins in summer) is completely lost in favour of cheap panels often ill-suited to provide insulation from the extreme arctic weather. The problem regarding building technology is its return on investment. This cannot be tackled without including a more broad policy strategy that incentivises construction in the north. As Anja Jeffrey, Director of the Northern and Aboriginal Policy knowledge area at the Conference Board of Canada, said: “Unless you have innovative approaches and designs, you will typically have built an infrastructure that is not durable [...]. The problem, often, is the lack of critical mass,” she said.

BUILDING SCALE

Such critical mass can only be achieved with a long-term plan that incentivises and facilitates the inhabitation of Nordic settlements. An effective approach to planning which brings together all the needs of these communities allowing for substantial future growth can only be provided by incorporating notions of sustainability and material and energy efficiency both in the building and the town designs. It seems that planning of northern settlements so far is keeping the same approach of southern U.S. settlement planning, not giving any advantage to the buildings and letting them cope ‘on their own’ with the environmental challenges.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

It is also clear that new building methods can only bring substantial benefits if coupled with a strategy for urban growth that takes into account the not only the major environmental challenges of the settlements, but also their unique social and cultural traits. The aim of this project is therefore set to determine what these specific strategies might be, and originating from a solution to the building design challenge reach the scale of the settlement as a whole, analysing what factors determine effectively a ‘sustainable’ (in both environmental and economical terms) rate of growth.

02-12.1

02-12.2

02-12.3

50 | 51

3. MATERIAL SYSTEM

Overview

LOAM �� 56 Loam Harvesting Process 58 Known Applications of Loam 60 VACUUMATIC SYSTEMS �� 62 BENDING �� 64 Form Finding by Bending 66 Bending-Active Structure Precedents 68 Panelization 70 Span Variations 71 SYSTEM EVALUATION �� 72 RESEARCH AND DESIGN AMBITIONS �� 74

60°N

| Material System

03-1

OVERVIEW Towards an integrated logic

DRIVERS

Taking the material scarcity issue as the primary driver to define a new structural or ‘material’ system, loam, or ‘peat’, (the top layer of soil present almost everywhere in the tundra) is seen as a great opportunity to tackle this problem. It is easy to harvest, it grows rapidly and it may have surprisingly good thermal and mechanical properties if used in the correct way. Different types of loam construction already in common use are explored, and its potential to be combined with a lightweight, deployable and reconfigurable vacuumatic system are investigated.

FORMING

The result is a system made of hermetic bags, filled with processed peat, that can be moulded to shape and locked into a specific geometry by starting applying negative pressure. The limitations of this material system which are mainly in its poor stiffness when acting in bending and the actual need of a support framework before the assembly is vacuumed, help define what shaping techniques must be adopted when using such system.

INTEGRATION

The removal of the layer of peat from the ground, a process which is commonly used to cause the acceleration of permafrost’s thaw, is also seen as an opportunity to integrate the harvesting of the material with the rate of growth of the settlement which uses it.

03-1.1

03-1.2

03-1.3

54 | 55

60°N

| Material System

03-2

LOAM Developing a set of basic principles and associated tools for determining sustainable growth in the Arctic.

CLASSIFICATION 03-2.1

Key to diagram below: Typical section of tundra ground up to a depth of 4 metres. The depth of the active layer is also shown on the left hand side of the column. O Horizon: organic topsoil A-Horizon: organic and/or mineral top soil B-Horizon: mineral subsoil TUNDRA SOIL PROFILE I-Horizon: perennially frozen ground.

According to the textural classification triangle (figure below), loam is a soil which neither be classified as entirely clay, silt nor sand.. On a typical soil profile, loam is located at the top surface between the 0 and A horizons, hence typically not below a depth of 0.5-1 metres. Its high organic content derives from the decomposing layers of moss (typically sphagnum moss) and other vegetation that continuously decompose above the surface. For this reason, loam is commonly estimated to grow at a rate that can vary from 1 to 7 centimetres per year (NAWCC, 2001).

In 1999, about 1.2 million metric tonnes or about 10 million cubic metres of peat where produced in Canada alone (ibid, 2001). This amount is considerably small if compared to the SOD AND PEAT AS PERMAFROST INSULATION 70 million tonnes that are estimated to grow in Canada each year. Peat accumulated sixty times faster that it is harvested, leaving great potential for an increase in use. It should also be noted that countries such as Canada, United States, Russia, LOAMNorway, SOIL CLASSIFICATION Finland, Sweden, and Iceland are all known to have abundant peat resources (Lappalainen, 1996).

PRODUCTION 03-2.2

Moss and peat

clear ground

3.6 100 after 0.5 yrs 5.9

sandy clay loam

LOAM

silt loam

Y %C LA

T SIL

loamy sand

10 0

sand

silty clay loam

clay loam

sandy loam

silty clay

sandy clay

30 20

22.0

after 20 yrs.

% SAND

Fig. 28, Next Page: A Latvian peat bog. Peat, or loam, contains partially decayed organic material. It is often harvested as an important source of fuel in parts of Scandinavia, Russia and the United Kingdom. This image shows a typical ‘peat bog’ where large chunks of material have already been extracted.

15.4

Clay

after 6 yrs.

12.5

-4 m

after 3 yrs.

8.9

after 1 yr.

8 DEPTH[ft]

Original permafrost surface

-0.5 m

56 | 57

60°N

| Material System

03-3

Process

LOAM HARVESTING PROCESS Understanding the different time-scales and processes involved in order to use loam as a construction material.

DRAINAGE

LOAM MILLING/CUTTING

Process: Process:

Drainage Drainage

Moisture Moisture Moisture Content content content

Fully saturated (100%+) Fully saturated (100%+)

60-40% 60-40%

Duration Duration Duration

-12 months 3 -12 3months

1-2 weeks 1-2 weeks

Fig. 29: Excavator making drainage channel

milling/cutting LoamLoam milling/cutting

Fig. 30: Bulldozer cutting loam layer

In order to serve effectively as a construction material, loam has to be harvested and processed according to specific time constraints. The main processes commonly adopted in loam harvesting are aimed to reduce the moisture content of the soil (it is often fully saturated during summer, when permafrost thaws and water stagnates on the surface) and make the soil more workable and loose by milling it.

RIDGING/DRYING Ridging/drying

HARVESTING Harvesting

10-15%

3 - 4 months

1 week

Fig. 31: Loam ridges left drying in the sun

Fig. 32: Harvesting of milled peat moss

In order for loam to dry naturally without using any industrial process, the excavated ridges, after being drained for several months, need to be exposed to the air for a period of not less than three months. Time is essential to allow loam to be used effectively as a construction material.

58 | 59

60°N

| Material System

03-4

KNOWN APPLICATIONS OF LOAM Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the three main construction techniques listed earlier.

SOD/TURF HOUSES 03-4.1

STRENGTHS: Sod can be extracted (cut into briquettes) and used directly, high thermal insulation.

WEAKNESSES No waterproofing (high percolation), need for an additional support structure (usually timber frame).

EARTH BAG CONSTRUCTION 03-4.2

STRENGTHS: No binding material needed, low fabrication costs (only bags+earth needed)

WEAKNESSES Can only obtain compression-active structures (i.e. vaults), additional rendering might be needed.

COMPACTED EARTH BLOCKS (CEBS) 03-4.3

STRENGTHS:

High mechanical performance of blocks

WEAKNESSES Need of high pressure (usually from mechanical or manual ‘Cinva’ ram) and cement to stabilise peat into blocks

03 Fig. 33: Icelandic ‘turf houses’ in Skagafjörður, Iceland. The typical turf cover of these houses helps increase the poor impermeability of loam alone. Fig. 34: “Sandbag Shelters”: emergency housing for refugees made with earthfilled bags,, sponsored by UN agencies and designed by Nader Khalili, architect at the Cal-Earth Institute. Fig. 35: Construction site in the U.S. using stabilised earth blocks. These blocks can be easily and rapidly produced on site with the use of manual or more modern mechanical rams.

60 | 61

60°N

| Material System

03-5

VACUUMATIC SYSTEMS The definition of the physical principles behind a deflated material system.

VACUUMATICS

For lack of aggregate material in both availability and ease of construction, a system was devised in which hermetically sealed bags are filled with soil, and a vacuum pump is used to compress the bags into rigid panels. This process is referred to as a vacuumatic assembly.

PREVIOUS WORK ON VACUUMATICS

The use of partial vacuum has been known for a very long time in different industrial sectors. However, architectural applications only began in the 1970’s- as investigations on the potential of negative pressure pneus for their structural integrity as opposed to structures that exploit overpressure. In these years professor Ivan Petrovic of the Queen’s University in Belfast first came up with the term ‘vacuumatic structures’ or simply ‘vacuumatics’ to describe them. Since then, there has been a handful of projects reaching past the conceptual level of development. Amongst the most noticeable accomplishments in this field, it is worthy to mention the several domes designed at Belfast’s Queens University, multiple prototypes developed at the Institute of Lightweight Structures (ILEK) in Stuttgart and many full-scale models developed by Delft’s Technical University (TU Delft). Amongst these, the work carried out by Frank Huijben in determining the structural and morphological properties of vacuumatic structures to be used as semi-rigid configurable formwork fro free-form concrete stands out. His work was fundamental to investigate the relationship between the membrane, the aggregates and the pressure levels and to highlight what is found to be the weakest mechanical property of this system: its bending stiffness (Huijben, 2014).

THE DEFLATING PROCESS

The principles of a vacuumatic system are similar to the ones of conventional pneumatic inflated structures. In its balanced state (stage 01) each face (inside and outside) of the membrane is subject to the same amount of pressure (e.g. atmospheric pressure of approximately 1 bar). Any disruption to this balance in pressure (e.g. the deflation of the inner side of the membrane) can cause a drastic change in the state of the loose particles inside. Deflating causes at first the outer membrane to be moulded around the unbound particles (stage 02). Further decrease in inner pressure will increase stiffness of the inner particles (a process commonly known as ‘particle jamming’) and cause them to work as a single rigid body , thus stabilising the entire structural assembly (stage 03). During this process of gradual stiffening, any force applied to the aggregate core might affect the arrangement of particles and would effectively act as forming method to change the bag’s shape.

03-5.3

03-5.1

03-5.2

Next page: 1. Diagram showing working principles of negative pressure. 2. Basic toolset required to acquire to achieve simple vacuumatic system.

DEFLATING PROCESS STAGE 01

STAGE 02

loose membrane flexible aggregate core

STAGE 03

tight membrane stiff aggregate core

tight membrane mouldable aggregate core

1 bar

0.5 bar

1 bar

0.5 bar

1 bar

0.1 bar

1 bar

0.1 bar

1 bar

NECESSARY EQUIPMENT Vacuum gauge Bag connector (‘‘vacuum port’)

Vacuum pump

semi-rigid hose (pvc)

airtight film (e.g. plastic membrane

62 | 63

60°N

| Material System

03-6

BENDING The selected shaping technique for the vacuumatic system and its governing parameters.

RIGID BENDING ELEMENTS 03-6.1

It has already been established how a vacuumatic system needs an additional structure to define its geometry (and support its weight) during the shaping process. While aggregated forms methods (such as filled bags) don’t require such measures, they are indeed limited in the types of configurations they can achieve, as the geometry is closely dependent on the shape (or different number of shapes) of the blocks. Using rigid elements connected to the vacuumatic bag to be bent in place is seen as a method with several potentials, both from the point of view of the additional support material needed (no scaffolding or formwork has to be used as the rigid elements themselves will be serving both a structural and a form-directing function) and of the ease of deployment (rigid elements simply need to be connected to the bag and bent to shape).

THE PROPOSED SYSTEM 03-6.2

Above: 40x10cm physical prototype of the bending-active vaccumatic system. With three point connection (top), and with continuous seam connection (bottom).

The proposed system uses these rigid elements (from now on referred to as ‘rods’) to serve both a shaping function during assembly and a structural one during the lifetime of the structure. They can be either made of hardwood thinnings, a material not too hard to get hold of at the edge of the tundra, or even of thin steel rebar of the type that is very commonly used in the construction industry for reinforcement of concrete. If the bag is connected to these joints with a continuous seam, then it will take exactly the shape of the bent curve (second figure above). The system should start from this point to establish what range of curvatures might then be suitable to create an inhabitable building in the Arctic context.

n t

L W n V n t

Length of bag/panel: L Width of bag/panel: Infill amount (kg): Number of rods/m: Size of ribs (diameter):

PROPOSED SYSTEM ELEMENT W

L W

n t

bar

P: d:

P d D

Negative pressure Amount of shrinkage (%) D Degree of curvature (1/R)

RESULTANT GEOMETRY D

bar 0

0.4

bar

0.8

P cm

D D

D bar

P: 0

d: D:

bar 0

bar

0.4

0.8

8 25

D D bar

P: 0

d: D:

64 | 65

0.4

60°N

| Material System

R/S= ~0.7

~0.5

~0.3

Rise (R)

~0.24

~0.16

~0.12 ~0.08

1 2

Deflection [mm]

Span (S)

0.01

circular arc

0.009

FORM FINDING BY BENDING 0.008

03-7

Different curved geometries and their structural performance. 0.007 0.006

ANALYTICAL APPROXIMATION 0.005 03-7.1

0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0

RISE SPAN 0 TO0.1

Elastica Catenary

Circular arc Rx Ry

Low

Since the chosen shaping technique implies that the global geometry is entirely driven by the elastic bending of flexible elements an accurate approximation of the geometry such curved profiles becomes essential. The necessity for the vacuum-bagged system to act in compression, explained in the previous sections, implies that such curves should follow a catenary shape. However, common methods for achieving elastica catenaries (e.g. hanging shells or specifically designed formwork), are impractical in the arctic environment. catenary

03-7.2

Above: different Rise to Span ratios for three types of curves. It can be noticed how above a ratio of 0.3-0.4 the curve’s geometry starts differing.

It was noticed by Lienhard (2014) that under a Rise to Span 0.3 0.4 0.3 curve 0.2 of approximately 0.5 types 0.6like the0.7 ratio Catenary,0.8 the Rise/Span (R/S)arc elastic bending curve (or ‘Elastica’) and evenRatio the circular all have a very similar geometry. This is shown in the graph below. A simple load analysis to understand the geometrical W W stiffness is also provided, this highlights that under the R/S or 0.3 the curves deform approximately of the same amount. This fact is important for the system as it is understood that under suchR a ratio, an elastica curve (such asRthe one proposed for this system) performs just like a catenary.

Rx Ry

MPa High

Low

Rx Ry

MPa High

Low

N/m

N/m 0

MPa High

N/m 0

circular arc circular arc arc circular

Deflection [m D

Deflection [mD Deflection [mD

0.010.01 0.006 0.0060.006 0.003 0.003 0.009 0.0090.009 0.005 0.0050.008 0.005 0.008 0.008 0.002 0.002 0.004 0.0040.004 0.007 0.0070.007 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.0030.003 0.006 0.0060.006

elastica elastica

catenary catenary

000.0020.002 0.002 0.005 0.0050.005 0.1 00ARC 0.1 CIRCULAR

elastica elasticaelastica

0.001 0.0010.004 0.001 0.004 0.004 0 0 0 0.003 0.0030.003 0 0 0.1 0 0.1 WW 0.002 0.0020.002

0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 ELASTICA

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.20.3

0.5 0.5

0.6 0.6

0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 CATENARY

Rise/Span Rise/SpanRatio Ratio (R/S) (R/S) catenary catenary catenary

0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.40.5 0.6 0.50.6 0.7 0.60.7

0.7 0.8 0.8

0.001 0.0010.001 10

R/S= Test Setup ~0.7

RxRx RyRy

S Rx

Low

~0.5

7 00

Rise (R)

~0.160 0 ~0.12 ~0.08

S W

W S

MPa MPa

RyRy

MPaMPa Low MPa High High Low R

R High High

N/m N/m

High Low Low

SRx S

Low

S Rx Rx Rx 0 Ry Ry

1010S 10

MPaMPa MPa

Low

High High

High Low

Low

S 10

Low

0 10 0

mm mm

0 0 0.009 0.009 0.009

0.009 0.009

N/m N/m

Low

1010 0

100

Rx Rx 0 Ry

High Low Low

N/m N/m

0.002 0.002 0.002 0 0

MPaMPa MPa High

High High

0.0020.002 00.0020

mmmm mm mm Displacement for mm <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 various cases

<0.001 <0.001

mm mm mm 0

0.002 0.002

MPa MPa

N/mN/m N/m

mm mm

W S

MPaMPa MPa High High R Geometric Stiffness R High High High

Low

100

10 0

S W

N/mN/m N/m S (W) 1010 SApplied Load Rx S

00 Ry

S Rx

mmmm mm

0 0 0.0090.009 0.009

RyRy

N/mN/m N/m

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Low High Low

High High

mmmm mm

MPa MPa

MPaMPa MPa

N/mN/m N/m 0

R High High

0.8

RxRx

MPaMPa High High MPa Low Low

S Rx Rx Rx 0 Ry Ry

0.7 0.8 0.8

Rise/Span Ratio Rise/Span Ratio (R/S) Rise/Span Ratio (R/S)R(R/S) R R

N/mN/m N/m

0 10 0

N/mN/m N/m

6 Right: Vertical displacement vs. Rise/Span ratio for different curve types. Above ~0.3 5 a ratio of 0.3 thec circular arc starts deflecting considerably. The elastica behaves like a 4 ~0.24 catenary approximately until a ratio of 0.5

RxRx

Low Low Low Low

catenary catenary catenary W W W

0 0 RR 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.40.5 0.6 0.20.3 0.4 0.50.6 0.7 0.60.7 0 0 0.10 0.1 0.2

0 RR

0.8 elastica

elastica elastica Rise/Span Rise/Span Rise/Span Ratio Ratio (R/S) Ratio (R/S) (R/S)

mm mm mm Disp. Magnitude

<0.001 <0.001 <0.001

1 2

Deflection [mm]

Span (S)

0.01

circular arc

0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003

Elastica Catenary Circular arc

elastica

0.002 0.001

catenary

0 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Rise/Span Ratio (R/S)

66 | 67

60°N

| Material System

03-8

BENDING-ACTIVE STRUCTURE PRECEDENTS A review of active bending in architectural structures.

Architectural uses of bending in traditional structures: Fig. 36: The traditional Oca (communal house) structure of the Yawalapiti people of the Amazonian Basin of Brazil features bent wood clad with thatching. Fig. 37: The Mudhif cane huts in South Iraq are constructed by anchoring reed bundles into dug foundations in pairs and connecting their free ends as an elastically bent arc. Fig. 38: The traditional Karakalpak yurts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan connect a bent pantographic grid wall to a central ring using elastic bending in the roof construction.

Architectural uses of bending in contemporary structures: Fig. 39: The Eco-resort Pavilion by Vo Trong Nghia features 38 prefabricated bamboo arches around a central axis.

Fig. 40: The Mannheim Multihalle by Frei Otto and Buro Happold was designed as a catenary chain model, but constructed as a flat gridshell that was lifted into place to induce bending stresses in its elements. Fig. 41: Similar to Mannheim, Otto and ABK architects designed a bent form to approximate a catenary surface. It was resolved not as a gridshell but as a series of bent wood trimmings.

68 | 69

60°N

| Material System

03-9

PANELIZATION Panelization provides a basis for modification or the insertion of fenestration elements.

100% Functional Zoning

50% Functional Zoning 50% Heliomorphic

100% Heliomorphic

03-10

SPAN VARIATIONS Functional zoning in these spaces is achieved by varying arch spans to create dome-like asemblies

C B

A. Common space B. Domestic space C. Storage D. Transition zone E. Entrance

E C

70 | 71

60°N

| Material System

03-11

SYSTEM EVALUATION The potentials and limitations of the project in terms of the material system developed in the MSc stage of this project.

POTENTIALS: MATERIAL SYSTEM 03-11.1

The designed system accomplishes the initial ambition of being able to respond to the high performance demands of the Arctic environment. With the adoption of a vacuumatic structure using loam as an independent aggregate, building construction in the Arctic has a new means to respond to housing deficit and cater for future demands. Overall, the advantages that the designed system provides can be listed as follows: Thermal performance: where a large thermal mass is provided by the approximately 180m3 of loam in the shell, and low thermal transmittance due to the vacuum present inside the two layers of membrane. Resistance to structure’s wracking due to frost heave: since the vacuumatic system allows a high degree of reconfigurability, sections of the building which start experience wracking can be simply be inflated and deflated again to acquire the desired shape and better follow the ground profile. Low transport and construction costs: loam- an abundant, renewable and inexpensive resource- accounts for more than 90% of the building’s total mass and can be locally harvested at very low costs. While the plastic membranes, being extremely light and easy to pack, will account for relatively low shipping costs. Ease of construction: the proposed construction method involves a simple site layout, no expensive ground works, and

the deployment of the structure simply through the bending of rigid rods through tension ties. Current building methods require more time and a greater amount of more skilled laborers.

POTENTIALS: INTEGRATED LOGIC

The real potential of the proposed system comes from the integration of the building dimension with a strategy that affects the whole settlement. The use of this material system promises to reduce a reliance on the import of standard construction products decreasing the dependence of Northern settlements on expensive foreign materials. While incorporating environmental notions into the clustering principles/planning of the settlement can yield more comfortable living environments both in the interior (in the dwellings) and in the exterior (in the public spaces) and further reduce energy demands.

LIMITATIONS

Due to the hybrid nature of vacuumatics, to take full advantage of the properties this system, a better understanding of its structural behavior needs to be gained by deeper analysis. Testing of different aggregate and membrane types at different pressures is necessary to digitally model the structure in a more accurate and precise way.

03-11.2

03-11.3

A serious limitation of the use of vacuumatic systems could be posed by the fact that it is hard to maintain for long periods of time at a constant level of negative pressure. This is why additions- such as cement- in the aggregate core such as cement were also considered but not included in the report.

72 | 73

60°N

| Material System

03-12

RESEARCH AND DESIGN AMBITIONS The potential for the development of an integrated growth logic.

RESOURCE-DRIVEN SETTLEMENT STRATEGIES

The project now aims to investigate the principles of dynamic equilibrium between human settlements and their surrounding environment. This has so far been proposed as method of building construction in which materials and resources are extracted and used locally. An urbanization logic can then be devised from spatial patterns and time-frames of both occupation and material use. The target of this logic is to use environmentally driven processes to achieve a higher level of autonomy and economy in peri-Arctic settlements

. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

The research carried out to this point investigates the viability of using the abundant topsoil as a sustainable and reusable construction material. To develop a better understanding of an urban scenario, a strategic area will be studied in the MacKenzie Delta in the Northwest Territories. This will help to gather specific geomorphological, industrial, demographic and environmental data that will then be used to investigate possible settlement patterns and constituent structures.

03-12.1

03-12.2

In the previous stage of this project, the scope of work focused on the development of a proposed building type through the lens of logistical and engineering-related challenges of peri-Arctic construction. The technical characteristics of Euro-Canadian and vernacular building types were evaluated in detail with regards to environmental comfort and structural integrity, but not spatial relationships. The investigation has looked explicitly at dwelling typologies, and must be reevaluated to newly address the role of different structures common to arctic settlements. With the development of arctic settlement systems, it will become necessary to carry out spatial analysis of essential connectivities and network topologies. The investigation on necessary resources will have to be expanded from materiality and construction challenges to include the resources and infrastructure that sustain life in a prototypical arctic settlement. Specifically, this refers to further investigation on the use of transport, water, heating, agriculture and common utilities with respect to both seasonal and longterm occupation. The project has so far developed a material system as an isolated instance of a dwelling type. The proposed type must

. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT 03-12.3

be revised within a catalogue of larger functions at the scale of the settlement. Through the case-study of the MacKenzie Delta, revisions will also be made to account for different building types in relation to seasonal change. The predominant design drivers to distribute these arctic structures into a settlement logic are environmental processes. Controlling snowdrift is an opportunity to develop a water harvesting method by directing the location and flow of melting snow mounds. The proposed settlement type is resolved as the design of an autonomous hydrological network which supports and guides the distribution of greenhouse agriculture. A large area of the MacKenzie Delta will be evaluated to understand strategic settlement sites for snow accumulation in relation to regional transport networks and proximity to existing communities. The evaluation of building clusters must take into account site specific data such as population size, topography and environmental data. Therefore, from the overall network of communities, a specific settlement site will be selected for further development as an integrated cluster of arctic structures. To develop a better understanding of the patterns and densities of distribution, the role of a structure or space must be taken into account rather than the repetition of a single type. A set of experiments shall be carried out with variable body plans of different functions as multi-criteria optimization tests.

ARCHITECTURAL AMBITION 03-12.4

The ambition is to define a series of local clustering principles based on the notion of reconfigurability and locally sourced material systems. Re-evaluation of the developed system(s) will be translated into an organized settlement that is the assembly of its parts, and with integrated systems networks. These congregations will be compared with existing urban forms and communities in arctic landscapes to understand the size and timescale in which future arctic urban forms can grow and sustain themselves. Human territories will therefore be modeled as transitory states and based on considerations of space syntax, mathematics of settlements, climatology, energy harvesting and distribution, regional networks, and hydrological networks.

74 | 75

4. METHODS

Overview

DATA MINING TECHNIQUES �� 80 Census Data Sampling 80 Mapped Data Sampling 80 STATISTICAL MODELING �� 81 Regressive Equations 81 DESIGN METHODS �� 82 Circle Packing 82 Elastica Theory 82 Genetic Algorithms 83 DESIGN ANALYSIS �� 84 Solar Access Analysis 84 Shadow Analysis 84 Computational Fluid Dynamics 85 Snow Accumulation 85 NETWORK ANALYSIS �� 86 Centrality 86 PERMAFROST SIMULATION �� 86 Heat Transfer Equations 86 Path of Least Resistance 87 Solar Access Analysis 87

60°N

| Methods

04-1

OVERVIEW Integration of various tools in the research and design processes. The complex systems in this project require the integration of several design and analysis tools at various scales and stages of work. Early physical experiments with the material system were carried out in the design studio which informed the design process of vacuumatic assembly prototypes. From there on, digital simulations at various scales provided information feedback loops and workflows within Grasshopper, the visual programming language developed by David Rutten at Robert McNeel & Associates, which runs from the Rhinoceros 3D CAD application. Models were produced at various scales to verify various assumptions about resourcedriven settlements in the Canadian Arctic. Data mining techniques were elaborated to sample information published by the Canadian government to quantitatively evaluate available resources within the Northwest Territories. Tree growth was simulated to understand the viability of sustainably extracting wood for use in the proposed building type. As such, data was sampled from various experiments in the 1960s and 1970s, to make statistical models of tree growth under various environmental circumstances. Workflows were established in the design process where various definitions of elastica curves were used to model bent rods, and circle packing algorithms were used to generate hierarchical arrangements. Various design models for building clusters were evaluated with regards to ensure environmentally effective and strategically accessible building relationships. At the settlement scale, the goal was very clear: to simulate the growth of a settlement that took into account the continuously thawing permafrost below it. To do so, it was first essential to develop a tool to estimate the depth of the existing permafrost layer, then approximate its thaw rates under different conditions, and finally assembly the simulation model with the two tools.

CLUSTER SCALE: RESOURCE AUTONOMY

“Circle Packing” on p. 82 “Genetic Algorithms” on p. 83

“Computational Fluid Dynamics” on p. 85 “Snow Accumulation” on p. 85

“Path of Least Resistance” on p. 87

BUILDING DISTRIBUTION

SNOW ACCUMULATION

WATER HARVESTING

outputs

- Distances between the buildings

- Areas with accumulated snow

- Flow Calculations of snowmelt

- Orientation of the buildings

CLUSTER SCALE: RELATIVE BUILDING DESIGN

“Elastica Theory” on p. 82 “Genetic Algorithms” on p. 83

“Solar Access Analysis” on p. 84 “Shadow Analysis” on p. 84

“Path of Least Resistance” on p. 87 “Centrality” on p. 86

BUILDING DESIGN

SOLAR STUDIES

LOCAL NETWORK

outputs

- Hiearchical organisation

- Linear aggregation of the buildings

- Local transportation

- Topological connectivity

- Distribution of services (Utilidors)

“Heat Transfer Equations” on p. 86 “Path of Least Resistance” on p. 87 “Solar Access Analysis” on p. 87

SETTLEMENT SCALE “Genetic Algorithms” on p. 83

MULTI-CRITERIA OPTIMISATION

PERMAFROST THAW MODEL outputs - Inhabitation procedure according to

“Centrality” on p. 86 “Genetic Algorithms” on p. 83

thaw model

SETTLEMENT EXPANSION

“Regressive Equations” on p. 81

outputs

RESOURCE AVAILABILITY

- Zones withiIncreased density - Expansion into new zones

outputs - Water Harvesting - Spruce Extraction within area Analysis Model Design Model

78 | 79

60°N

| Methods

04-2

DATA MINING TECHNIQUES

04-2.1

CENSUS DATA SAMPLING Sampling of population data from governmental organisations to estimate current demographical trends. 3461

3321

Inuvik

756 628

Aklavik

168 128

Fort McPherson

915 808

Tsiigehtchic

The information published by the Canadian Census Program was used to identify trends in the population of the settlements of the Northwest Territories over time. See “Communities of the NWT” on p. A8 for more.

04-2.2

MAPPED DATA SAMPLING Sampling of mapped data of tree densities from forest services, mapping onto coordinates.

A digital model of the Northwest Territories was developed, in which statistical information published by Canadian Census Program, Canadian National Forest Inventory, and National Resources Canada were overlayed. A digital coordinate system was generated to relate urban centres with resource availability in proximity.

04-3

STATISTICAL MODELING

04-2.3

REGRESSIVE EQUATIONS Predicting the behaviour of dependent variables sampled from various experiments.

y = 83.92x^-0.21

20 15 10 5

Regression analysis is the process of estimating relationships among variables. There are various techniques for modeling and analysing multiple variables. Regression analysis was used in this project to evaluate tree-growth data, where there are many unknown parameters, and the best-fitting equation for the data was incorporated into a digital model as an abstraction of basic growth relationships. The tool that was used in this project was gRegression, developed by Tom Alexander on GitHub. This library allows the user to generate best-fitting linear, exponential, logarithmic, power law, polynomial equations to any data entries.

80 | 81

60°N

| Methods

04-4

DESIGN METHODS

04-4.1

CIRCLE PACKING For study of hierarchical relationships of different buildings in different scales

Circle packing is the study of the arrangement of circles in such a way that all circles touch one another without overlapping. In this project, this is used as a way to generate differentiated building densities.

04-4.2

ELASTICA THEORY To simulate process of bending rods by using the mathematical function of elastica curve

~0.7 R/S=

~0.5

~0.3 ~0.24 ~0.16 ~0.12 ~0.08

With the role of elastic bending in the proposed building type, various tools were used to ensure the proper geometry was being used. The Kangaroo plug-in, a live physics engine for Grasshopper, was used in early studies to understand the action and resultant geometry of bending rods into place. To streamline computational processes, various equations from Leonhard Euler and Jakob Bernoulli’s Elastica Theory were incorporated. A notable contribution to this project was the Elastic Bending Script written by Will McElwain in February 2014 and published in the Grasshopper 3D forum, which creates an elastica curve from a variety of inputs into a Grasshopper VBScript component.

GENETIC ALGORITHMS Multi-criteria optimisation

Criteria.2

04-4.3

ria

te Cri

Criter

ia 1

Multi-criteria (or multi-objective) optimisation is used to combine different evaluation parameters into the design of a structure. When two contradicting parameters are evaluated (e.g. the span versus the deflection of an arch), a range of solutions is produced. These solutions are called Pareto optimals, and occur when no solution can be improved with regards to a specific criterion without compromising the performance in the other criteria. The advantage of using this evaluation method is that, if set up correctly, no single best solution is ever produced, leaving the designer with the opportunity decide which solution out of the found range he sees more fit. To produce this range of solutions, and to rapidly and efficiently test all the different variables that a specific design might have, a Genetic Algorithm (or GA) is used. These algorithms are designed to search for the best combination of variables (or genes) to produce fit solutions (or phenotypes), using genetic principles of mutation, cross-over and elitism to increase the speed of the process. A typical “fitness landscape” is shown above. Here the three axis of the graph represent the level of fitness for three different criteria, and the algorithm is effectively tryingt to ‘climb’ the different mountains.

82 | 83

60°N

| Methods

04-5

DESIGN ANALYSIS

04-5.1

SOLAR ACCESS ANALYSIS Environmental optimisation of building surface: maximising solar gains

As in analysis carried out on a building scale using solar access analysis, the same tools can be used to calculate incident solar radiation on a surface of a proposed building type. The aim of using this tool is to maximise the precious solar gains in the Arctic environment.

04-5.2

SHADOW ANALYSIS Environmental optimisation of building distribution: minimising shaded area on buildings

Shadow pattern studies gain importance in the northern lattitudes where the low sun angles frequently create instances of buildings shading one another other- preventing solar access to neighbouring structures. During the computational experiments, shadow patterns have been studied based on the settlement Inuvik’s latitude values by using the Ladybug analysis tool. Shaded areas on the building surfaces have been calculated and minimised during the cluster studies.

04-5.3

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS Environmental/structural optimisation of building surface: wind speeds, snowdrift, wind pressure on surface.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) uses the ability of computers to quickly and efficiently tackle finite-elements to analyse fluid flow-related problems in a specific environment. Surface pressures, velocity vectors and heat transfer can all be calculated using these tools. Autodesk Simulation CFD software was used in this project at a structural level to estimate the wind pressure on a surface and the snowdrift accumulated as a consequence of wind speed reduction around the surface. CFD is also used to estimate wind speeds for specific road and building layouts, where such speeds are usually used as an indicator of thermal comfort.

04-5.4

SNOW ACCUMULATION Environmental optimisation of building distribution: minimising snow accumulation between buildings.

A snow accumulation model helps approximate the amount of snowfall on 3D surface model by using quantitative data such as precipitation, predominant wind direction and speed. First, a CFD analysis of the given topographical model with the buildings as three-dimensional obstacles illustrates wind speeds on the nodes of digital model. The analysis information is mapped onto same model and combined with the precipitation information to indicate snow accumulation on monthly basis, under the assumption that low-velocity low-pressure zones indicate the probably accumulation of snow. Because of such an analog process is used to generate accumulation models, these studies have been carried out without multi-criteria optimisation

84 | 85

60°N

| Methods

04-6

NETWORK ANALYSIS

04-6.1

CENTRALITY Syntactical analysis of topological relationships of buildings: closeness and betweenness.

To evaluate topological relationships between proposed building types, Space Syntax (Hillier and Hanson, 1984) methods have been used. Common network typologies have been generated as the basis for network models in various clustering experiments. Betweenness centrality is an indicator of a node’s centrality in a network, equal to the number of shortest paths from all vertices to all others through it in the network. Closeness centrality is defined by the total length of the average shortest path between a vertex and all other vertices in a network. Closeness and betweenness cenrality values have been evaluated by using the syntactical analysis plug-in Decoding Spaces for Grasshopper.

04-7

PERMAFROST SIMULATION

04-7.1

HEAT TRANSFER EQUATIONS Sampling of mapped data of tree densities from forest services, mapping onto coordinates.

The exchange of thermal energy between two media follows the Laws of Thermodynamics to finally reach thermal equilibrium where the to bodies reach the same temperature. There are four different modes to transfer heat: by convection, conduction, diffusion and radiation. A case of this complex interaction between different modes and rates of exchange is the interface between the air and the soil. Equations regarding these four modes are integrated into parametric models to evaluate a specific topography in order to estimate the net energy gain in the soil under different conditions.

04-7.2

PATH OF LEAST RESISTANCE To calculate Drainage level

The path of least resistance on a surface indicates the path that a particle, given an initial position, would follow if free to slide on that surface. In this case, the least resistance to forward motion is given purely by the geometry of the surface (i.e. the slope) and not the roughness or other material property that such slope could have. For the purpose of this project, the Sonic plug-in for Grasshopper is used to determine the paths of least resistance along a specific topography. These paths are seen an indicator of the likelihood of a small patch of land to have a high water content.

04-7.3

SOLAR ACCESS ANALYSIS Incident solar radiation on ground.

Solar Access analysis is an evaluation of how much direct solar radiation (in Watts) hits a specified surface, during a particular period of the year. It is carried out by generating a series of sun vectors, each with its own intensity and direction according to the location and the period of the year of the analysis. Solar access analysis also takes into account the inclination of the receiving surface. For the specified solar path and number of vectors, a cumulative value is then derived. The aim of using this tool is to estimate energy from the sun reaching to the ground which is necessary to anticipate heat transfer on a large terrain surface. Amongst the many software packages available, the Ladybug plug-in for Grasshopper 3D was chosen for its ability to integrate into the Grasshopper environment.

86 | 87

5. SITE

Overview

MACKENZIE RIVER AND NORTHWEST TERRITORIES �� 92 SOURCES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS �� 94 Predominant Species of Native Trees 96 MACKENZIE DELTA �� 98 Settlement Limitations 102 INUVIK �� 104 Network Organisation 106

60°N

| Site

05-1

OVERVIEW Contextualisation of work

THE LAST FRONTIER

As a locally sourced material system for pioneering the Last Frontier, the proposed building and settlement type is limited by the northern fringe of the boreal forest. The tree line is the edge of the Taiga biome, north of which trees are incapable of growing due to extreme cold, winds, and a lack of moisture. It is not a “line” but a gradual transition between the boreal forests and barren arctic tundra, in which trees become increasingly sparse and stunted. Given the role of linear elements in the designed material system, this area delineates the extent of habitable area.

TREE LINE AS DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT

The tree line is itself a very dynamic area of change. Though activity varies widely, some studies suggest that environmental change may be changing as fast as 2 km per year, with a loss of up to 40% of the tundra by the end of the century. In southern Greenland, for example, commercially grown potatoes reached over 100 tons in 2012, twice as much as in 2008.

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

The area in question is therefore a vast expanse shared among the eight member countries of the Arctic States. Though the proposed system and building type are intended to be suitable throughout this zone, the work will be contextualised in the Northwest Territories of Canada for the wealth of statistical, environmental, and demographic information available.

05-1.1

05-1.2

05-1.3

90 | 91

60°N

| Site

Facing page: communities within the Northwest Territories and inside the MacKenzie River Basin.

05-2

MACKENZIE RIVER AND NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Under the assumption of rising interest in inhabiting the Arctic, the river basin of the northflowing MacKenzie is a likely site of settlement in the New North.

THE MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN 05-2.1

Settlement, Population Bodies of Water

The MacKenzie is the second longest river system in North America, and the longest in Canada. The watershed encompasses over 1.8 million km2 - almost 20% of Canada’s area. It discharges more than 325 km3 of water into the Arctic, or 11% from total, and therefore plays a significant role in the local climate of the Arctic Ocean. The main stem, which runs a course of over 1,800 km, is entirely in the Northwest Territories. The change in elevation from source to the mouth of the river is merely 156 m, most of which has a width of 2 to 5 km, and a depth of 8 to 9 m; which makes the MacKenzie a slow-moving waterway that is easily navigable when not frozen. During this period from June to mid October, it is a major transportation link through northern Canada which connecting various communities along its path.

Rivers Primary Roads Minor Primary Roads

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES COMMUNITIES 05-2.2

The existing communities in the Northwest Territories are few and far between. In the permafrost region above the Arctic Circle, population sizes in 33 communities range from 45 to 19,234 people (averaging 1245 inhabitants), with a total population of 41,100 in the Northwest Territories. See “Communities of the NWT” on page A8 for population data.

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Sachs Harbour

70°

[Pop. 112]

70°

Ulukhaktok [Pop. 402]

Tuktoyaktuk [Pop. 854]

Aklavik

[Pop. 633]

Paulatuk [Pop. 313]

Inuvik

[Pop. 3,463]

Fort McPherson Tsiigehtchic [Pop. 792]

[Pop. 143]

Colville Lake [Pop. 149]

65°

Fort Good Hope [Pop. 515]

65°

Norman Wells [Pop. 727]

Tulita

Déline

[Pop. 472]

[Pop. 478]

Wekweeti

Gaméti

[Pop. 141]

[Pop. 253]

Whatì

Wrigley

[Pop. 492]

[Pop. 133]

Dettah

Behchoko

[Pop. 210]

[Pop. 1,926]

Nahanni Butte [Pop. 102]

[Pop. 536]

130°

125°

[Pop. 295]

Jean Marie River [Pop. 734] Fort Providence

[Pop. 1,238]

Fort Liar

Lutselk’e (Snowdrift)

[Pop. 19,234]

Fort Simpson

60°

Yellowknife

Trout Lake [Pop. 92]

120°

[Pop. 734]

Kakisa [Pop. 45]

60°

Fort Resolution Hay River [Pop. 474] [Pop. 3,606]

Enterprise [Pop. 87]

115°

Fort Smith [Pop. 2,093]

110°

105°

92 | 93

60°N

| Site

Facing page: Forest composition map, the size of sample dot indicates percentage to which land is forested.

05-3

SOURCES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS In response to the difficulty of attaining conventional building materials, the primary materials of the proposed building type are locally extracted topsoil and hardwood thinnings.

FOREST INVENTORY

At 1.137 million km2, 63% of the Northwest Territories is covered by boreal forest (Taiga), the majority of which is virgin forest. Overlaying geographical information of Forest Density from the Canadian National Forest Inventory with the Government of Canada’s reports of Forest Composition, reveals that the Northwest Territories have a rich inventory of Spruces and Hemlocks. See “Forest Type” on page A15 for additional forest inventory and composition maps.

SELF-REGULATION

The forest stands in the Northwest Territories range from 90 to 150 years old. It is possible for some species to grow beyond this limit, but regular forest fires often regulate age. For this reason, the oldest trees in the Northwest Territories are found in the northern forest fringe, where forest fire is less frequent.

05-3.1

05-3.2

Bodies of Water Rivers

Trees become less resistant to insects, disease and wind over time. In windy areas, branches and fallen trees gradually build up on the forest floor, which makes a stand more susceptible to intense fires. New forests will regenerate naturally in burned or harvested areas. These immature forests are generally the fastest growing. Many species, such as jack pine, actually rely on fire to spread seeds. These species have resin-filled cones that are dormant until a fire melts the resin, which opens the cones before seeds can blow out.

Primary Roads Minor Primary Roads Spruces [Picea] _ 101,918 km² Hemlocks [Tsuga] _ 108, 922 km² Other _ 121,338 km² Poplars [Populus] _ 15,612 km²

The arrangement of Spruce’s branches and cones are such that branches ignite easily but protect seeds from consumption by fire. Spruce is highly flammable as its branches and needles are very resinous. Fire return intervals in unmanaged spruce communities range from 50 to 150 years.

Pines [Pinus] _ 1,997 km²

SPRUCE: PIONEER SPECIES 05-3.3

Plant propagation by layering

The tree-line describes the area of forest in which trees cannot survive due to extreme cold and the presence of permafrost. Spruce is known to survive here by layering, a process by which lower branches touch the ground and sprout stems. Spruce may survive on the tree-line for hundreds of years due to layering. As the arctic thaws and tree-line encroaches further north on the tundra, spruce trees are the pioneer species of the New North (Albertsen, et. al). Due to constant exposure to strong and cold winds, stems often grow as stunted trees, and are referred to as “krummholz”, meaning “crooked wood” in German. Another formation that results from extreme wind exposure is referred to as the flag tree, where windward branches are killed off or deformed, giving the tree a characteristic flag appearance.

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94 | 95

60°N

| Site

05-4

PREDOMINANT SPECIES OF NATIVE TREES Evaluation of predominant species. From the data sampled, the four predominant species in the Northwest Territories are spruce, hemlock, poplars and pines. As mentioned before, spruce is considered the pioneer species of the New North as the tree-line moves into the Arctic tundra. As well as being widely available, it has a favorable elastic modulus, which allows its use in bending-active structures.

05-4.1

WHITE SPRUCE

(Spruce)182,023km²

Tree Size: 110 ft (34 m) tall, 2-3 ft (.6-1.0 m) trunk diameter Average Dried Weight: 27 lbs/ft3 (425 kg/m3) Specific Gravity (Basic, 12% MC): .33, .43 Janka Hardness: 480 lbf (2,140 N) Modulus of Rupture: 8,640 lbf/in2 (59.6 MPa) Elastic Modulus: 1,315,000 lbf/in2 (9.07 GPa) Crushing Strength: 4,730 lbf/in2 (32.6 MPa) Shrinkage: Radial: 4.7%, Tangential: 8.2%, Volumetric: 13.7%, T/R Ratio: 1.7

25 m

Spruce is a particularly useful building wood, and has a range of common uses in construction in North America. A limitation of the material is that it has no insect or decay resistant qualities after logging, and is often limited to interior uses, such as indoor drywall framing.

05-4.2

POPLARS 32,586km²

25 m

Tree Size: 80-100 ft (25-30 m) tall, 3-5 ft (1.0-1.5 m) trunk diameter Average Dried Weight: 23 lbs/ft3 (370 kg/m3) Specific Gravity (Basic, 12% MC): .31, .37 Janka Hardness: 300 lbf (1,330 N) Modulus of Rupture: 6,800 lbf/in2 (46.9 MPa) Elastic Modulus: 1,100,000 lbf/in2 (7.59 GPa) Crushing Strength: 4,020 lbf/in2 (27.7 MPa) Shrinkage: Radial: 3.0%, Tangential: 7.1%, Volumetric: 10.5%, T/R Ratio: 2.4

The flexibility and close grain of polar make it ideal for applications that require pliability, such as in the manufacture of snowboards and bows. It is a fast-growing, short-lived tree, and is spread throughout the Northwest Territories. It does not react well to shade, but grows best in rich flood plains.

50 m

05-4.3

WESTERN HEMLOCK

(Hemlock) 175,260km²

Tree Size: 165-200 ft (50-60 m) tall, 3-5 ft (1-1.5 m) trunk diameter Average Dried Weight: 29 lbs/ft3 (465 kg/m3) Specific Gravity (Basic, 12% MC): .37, .47 Janka Hardness: 540 lbf (2,400 N) Modulus of Rupture: 11,300 lbf/in2 (77.9 MPa) Elastic Modulus: 1,630,000 lbf/in2 (11.24 GPa) Crushing Strength: 7,200 lbf/in2 (37.3 MPa) Shrinkage: Radial: 4.2%, Tangential: 7.8%, Volumetric: 12.4%, T/R Ratio: 1.9

Hemlock (not to be confused with the poisonous plant of the same name) is an important commercially harvested species in North America, predominantly as wood pulp but also sold as construction lumber and often used in plywood and pallets.

05-4.4

LODGEPOLE PINES

(Pines)166,345km²

30 m

Tree Size: 65-100 ft (20-30 m) tall, 1-2 ft (.3-.6 m) trunk diameter Average Dried Weight: 29 lbs/ft3 (465 kg/m3) Specific Gravity (Basic, 12% MC): .38, .47 Janka Hardness: 480 lbf (2,140 N) Modulus of Rupture: 9,400 lbf/in2 (64.8 MPa) Elastic Modulus: 1,340,000 lbf/in2 (9.24 GPa) Crushing Strength: 5,370 lbf/in2 (37.0 MPa) Shrinkage:Radial: 4.3%, Tangential: 6.7%, Volumetric: 11.1%, T/R Ratio: 1.6

So named because of their role in the construction of the Native American tipi, Lodgepole pine is widely available as construction lumber. They are fast growing softwoods that can grow in dense stands. It is denser, and more resinous than spruce; and therefore more durable.

96 | 97

60°N

| Site

05-5

MACKENZIE DELTA Analysis of MacKenzie basin in terms of seasonal fluctuations.

OVERVIEW

The MacKenzie Delta is the area along the MacKenzie River from its confluence with the Peel River to the mouth of the river at the Beaufort Sea, which is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean. There is a low elevation difference between the Great Bear Lake and sea level, which causes low flow rates. It is a braided river, which is characterised by a number of channels and braid bars, or islands. A number of these channels are navigable as waterways and winter roads.

SETTLEMENTS

There are currently 4 settlements on the MacKenzie River Delta. Inuvik, the current administrative centre (2011: 3,463) was conceived by the Canadian government in the 1950s to replace Aklavik (2011: 633, 1950s: 1,600) as Aklavik was prone to flooding and had no south-facing slope to expand population into. At the southern delta, Fort McPherson (2011: 792) lies along the Peel River and Tsiigehtchic (2011: 143) at the confluence of the MacKenzie and Arctic Red rivers. The population of the Delta is around 5,000 which is slightly decreased from 1996 (around 5,500).

TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE

Recent infrastructural developments by the Canadian government connect Inuvik-Tsiigehtchic and Fort McPherson via the newly constructed Dempster Highway. The Highway is disconnected at Tsiigetchic by a 1 km wide stretch of the MacKenzie, where it is served by a ferry, or connected by ice road in the winter. The frozen MacKenzie and its frozen channels become the Tuktoyaktuk Winter Road; often served by snowmobiles, dogsleds, and famously by ice road truckers. Ferry transportation is usually delivered from May to October.

05-5.1

05-5.2

Facing page: A demographic map of the MacKenzie Delta demonstrates a significant population growth between 1996 and 2012.

05-5.3

Boat and road transportation are highly regulated by the seasons, and air transportation is used predominantly for passenger travel, not cargo. During the four month springsummer period, the possibility of boat travel on MacKenzie River allows the shipping of bulk and heavier goods such as construction materials (unavailable locally) and heavy machinery to interior regions. It is important for the transportation of forestry products. As an old method to move trunks, Canadian foresters use the channels during summer period due to limited accessibility of highway.

INDUSTRY AND WATER QUALITY 05-5.4

Most of the settlements on the MacKenzie Delta are located next to the river bed for the economical advantage of transportation and fishing. However, these settlements are facing difficulties with regards to water quality. Oil extraction activities started in the area and on the ocean bed at 1943. Mining is another important economical activity in the mountain range. Water contamination has therefore been gradually increasing over the years. According to The Aquatic Ecosystem report of Canada Government 2003, from Beaufort Cove to Great Bear Lake, the MacKenzie River’s water contains heavy metals that makes it undrinkable.

3461 3321

Inuvik 756 628

Peel river

MacKenzie river

Aklavik

168 915

128

808

Fort McPherson

Population change 1996 / 2012

Tsiigehtchic

Winter roads - ferry way Dempster highway Seasonal streams Rivers

98 | 99

| Site

1 -2

60°N

-22

4 29

39 .4

42 42

9 -2

6 6

13 33

-6

-27

9 -1 25

1 9

-17

13 17

1 9 3

-1

-6-7

-27

-29

-2

17 16

-6

-1

11 59

-29

1157

-2

10 -17

-10

5 -2

-27

-17

-2 1

-10

-20 13 -2 5 -20

-10

-24

-7

-8

-29

-27

15 46

Tsiigehtchic

15 13

-2

-24

1746

1 -2 24

15 12

-27

-24

-8

1 -2

Fort McPherson

-12

33 -8

-27

1 -2

-25

-8

Precipitation data for four settlements.

12 -2 5

3157

16 15

-2 5

-2 6

-25 -26

14 40

-12

-22

-12

8 -12 8

14 -2 6

39 .4

0 11

-26

Inuvik

-8

Aklavik

precipitation

temperature

PRECIPITATION

Summer in the arctic environment is the most rainy period. However, it can be said that precipitation continues during all months and for the rest of the year in the form of snowfall. Because the deposited snow does not contain any minerals, it is not possible to use directly as a drinkable source. During change of the seasons, the flow of snow melt through the ground accumulates minerals, with the possibility of collecting the mineralised water from pits or cisterns.

PERMAFROST CONDITION

It has been observed that, due to topographical features (many thaw lakes, steep hills) and considerable permafrost depth, settlements on the south delta are limited in terms of growth. On the other hand, an evaluation of Inuvik (p. 104) shows that the permafrost depth between a south facing hill and a river bed is ideal as a ground condition.

05-5.6

05-5.5

Aklavik

Inuvik

Fort McPherson

Tsiigehtchic

Comparative solar exposure on ground.

INUVIK 05-5.7

Inuvik, like other settlements on the delta, is challenging to access. Nevertheless, the area has strategic importance as the northernmost accessible settlement via land transport. Due to the logistical advantage of the settlement, Inuvik has grown more than its southern neighbours. Geographically, the settlement is placed between a thaw lake and a canal which is accessible by mid-weight sea transport. The natural shoreline allows for a wide harbour for sea vessels. The majority of Inuvik’s built mass is placed on a south facing slope next to the shoreline which keeps the dwellings accessible to sun. As the settlement with the most strategic solar orientation, Inuvik and its surroundings will be evaluated further for its capacity to be inhabited with the proposed building and settlement type.

100 | 101

60°N

| Site

05-6

SETTLEMENT LIMITATIONS Evaluation of growth strategies.

SOLAR ACCESS 05-6.1

A digital model of the Inuvik Plain explores the limitations of the area for an expansion scenario. In terms of orientation of south facing hill, instances of the existing buildings shading other buildings is controlled. This allows to keep buildings closer without affecting solar gain. Any further expansion can only be carried out in a south facing slope. A 2 km2 patch was evaluated and regarded suitable for settlement expansion with regards to solar access.

PERMAFROST CONDITION 05-6.2

The permafrost depth of the 14 km2 patch is analysed (“Permafrost and Site Preparation” on page 122). On the south facing zone that covers the existing settlement, the depth of the layer varies due to several reasons. To conclude, even though the permafrost depth varies due to orientation, surface drainage, and morphology of the hill, it can be understood that the depth of the continuous permafrost is increasing from the existing settlement to top of the hill.

TOPOGRAPHICAL CONDITION 05-6.3

0 10 20

SOLAR ACCESS 05-6.4

Solar Radiation kwH / m2 100

1000

PERMAFROST CONDITION 05-6.5

Permafrost Depth meter

102 | 103

60°N

| Site

Commercial + Industrial Educational

Total Area per Type

Religious

Density

Residential + Hotel: 3634

45.86

unit/person

Commercial + Industrial: 1061

10.7

Governmental: 425

0.98

Educational: 1100

6.35

Agricultural: 1045

0.6

Religious: 313

0.18

Hospital: 5608

1.62

Residential + Hotel Governmental Agricultural Hospital

05-7

INUVIK Demonstration of which functions are present with what density. Which type of organisation have been applied on master plan scale.

ORGANISATION

As a relatively new settlement, Inuvik’s zoning and infrastructure has been developed since its incorporation as a town in 1980. The current functional distribution of the town is a result of “Community Plan By Law,” which delineates a central ring road at the end of the Dempster Highway. The plan describes a series of sub-zones and their topological connectivity to each other, notably a discretely residential area. Other sub-zones include an industrial zone, educationalagricultural facilities and transportation hubs around the central ring.

DENSITY

To understand the program currently in use in the settlements of the MacKenzie delta, it is important to investigate their average areas and amount of facility used by per person. A figure ground analysis (next page) illustrates current trends in the use of space. It is important to mention that educational buildings and their spaces often serve as gathering spaces at the level of the community (See “Educational Program” on p. 160). In understanding the relationships between functional type/area and population size, a useful unit of evaluation is the area (m2) of program per person. In designing for a growth scenario, these values and their relative distribution patterns may or may not be modified.

05-6.7

05-6.6

Facing page: A figure-ground map of Inuvik shows functional distributions and relative densities.

Inuvik consists mostly of an Aboriginal population (64.3%) and is for the most part a permanent population. A number of the other settlements in the Northwest Territories have a wide population fluctuation, where it is observed that a significant working population migrates during the peak season of production. Another trend in peri-Arctic settlements is keeping some of the important facilities such as hospitals only in a central town such as Inuvik instead of having several small clinics in each settlement. For example, the 51-bed Inuvik Regional Hospital is the only hospital in the Beaufort-Delta region. With regular air transportation, this method serves the population efficiently.

104 | 105

60°N

| Site

Left: Snow removal priority map (Inuvik Municipal Plan) Right: Betweenness analysis of the urban centre of Inuvik

5 4 3 2 1

05-8

priority zones

NETWORK ORGANISATION Analysis of the transportation network of Inuvik and connectivity between sub-zones

MASTER PLAN 05-7.1

As previously mentioned, the Dempster Highway and the many winter roads are the major way to transport people, goods and heavy machinery within the MacKenzie Delta. The Highway approaches Inuvik from the south and passes along Inuvik Airport. From the airport to industrial zone, the highway follows a south-facing slope, defining Inuvik’s main urban axis. A central area with a ring road is placed at the widest part of the plain, which is surrounded by also an agricultural area and a outdoor recreation area which is active in the summer period.

betweenness low

high

URBAN CENTER 05-8.1

Apart from this central organisation, the distribution of functions within the urban centre keeps transportation infrastructure in use during months despite high snowfall and low temperatures. Important communal functions including various educational buildings, a church, and small businesses are placed at the centre of the urban centre, which is surrounded by residential facilities without interruption of any other commercial or industrial facility. Comparing a snow removal map with a centrality analysis map of the urban centre reveals that, similar to centrality hierarchy, the priority zones that guide the snow removal process are established by the Community Plan By-Law. Prioritisation of the residential centre is therefore aimed at keeping daily life up-and-running during these months.

106 | 107

6. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

RESOURCE-DRIVEN SETTLEMENT STRATEGIES �� 110 SPRUCE THINNINGS �� 112 Spruce Growth Approximation 114 Spruce Extraction and Regeneration Rates 116 HYDROLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY �� 120 PERMAFROST AND SITE PREPARATION �� 122 Permafrost Depth Map 124 Permafrost Thawing Rates 126 Thawing Simulation 130 Test Patch 131 LAND TRANSFORMATION AND OCCUPATION CYCLE �� 134 Sequencing 136 Seasonality 138 Site Preparation Time Calculation 140 CONCLUSIONS �� 141 SETTLEMENT GROWTH MODEL �� 142 Conclusions 149

60°N

| Research Development

06-1

RESOURCE-DRIVEN SETTLEMENT STRATEGIES Settlement strategies addressing resource scarcity and autonomy.

RESOURCE SCARCITY

The logistical challenges of importing goods from the southern latitudes to the few-and-far-between settlements of the Northwest Territories drives not only their high cost of construction but a higher cost of living. This section seeks to investigate the extent to which this may be alleviated by capitalizing on local resources as much as possible.

SPRUCE: PIONEER SPECIES

The proposed material system is defined by loam infill, a plastic membrane, and the bending-active structure that constrains its form. As described in previous sections, loam is readily abundant, renewable, and inexpensive. Although the membrane material must likely be imported, it is extremely light and easy to pack. In terms of the acquisition of construction material, the primary constraint is therefore access to elements that can be used as bent rods.

06-1.1

06-1.2

It was defined in”Sources of Construction Materials” on p. 94 that spruce trees are the most available in the northern fringe of the boreal forest, and from other species identified in the Northwest Territories, is also the one with the most favorable elastic modulus. In sourcing this species, a sustainable rate of extraction must be identified where consumption does not exceed production. As such, a first series of simulations were developed to model spruce growth over time, and were mapped to the proposed building type to illustrate a relationship between population growth (defined by construction rates) and spruce [re]growth rates.

WATER HARVESTING 06-1.3

The harvesting of water locally provides self-sufficiency for settlements or independent building clusters. By generating a surface runoff model from topography, strategies for the collection of water can be developed. By knowing the volume

of water harvested from a defined catchment area, the maximum viable population can be estimated according to consumption predictions and agricultural requirements per person.

PERMAFROST & SUSTAINABLE GROWTH 06-1.4

The extraction or harvesting of large amounts of loam for the vacuumatic structures is a process which will have an undeniable impact on the landscape, both visually and environmentally. The separation of inhabited/constructed areas and the vast harvesting fields required for loam extraction may prove to be an unsustainable model of growth due to the large areas that these fields might quickly start occupying. An opportunity to combine the two uses of the land, as well as reducing the footprint of a settlement on the landscape, might come from sequentially occupying harvesting fields which have already been exploited. The biggest advantage of doing so is that due to the phenomenon observed in “Permafrost Thawing Rates” on p. 126, the permafrost gradually starts to thaw when loam is removed. Actively controlling this thaw rate to achieve full thaw of permafrost will benefit all types of construction on the surface, which will prevent differential settlement and permafrost-related challenges. Permafrost thawing can be also be accelerated by placing greenhouses or gas-harvesting membranes, which in turn can yield produce and energy vital for the settlement’s growth and autonomy. Different ways of integrating these functions together in a dynamic pattern of occupation of the landscape which is heavily coupled with the environment (i.e. the permafrost thawing) are therefore going to be investigated in the following sections of the report.

110 | 111

60°N

| Research Development

Fig. 42: As opposed to clearcutting, where all trees in an area are uniformly cut down, the selective cutting of trees ensures continued biological productivity - even, at times, enhancing it.

06-2

SPRUCE THINNINGS Given their presence in the boreal forest, and role in surviving into the New North, spruce thinnings are seen as an opportunity to be incorporated in a building strategy with a direct relationship to thinning patterns and intensities.

WHAT IS THINNING? 06-1.5

In forest management, thinning refers to the selective removal of trees (or branches) to make room for the growth of others. In a logging practice, the practice of thinning can make a forested stand more profitable in the final tree harvest. Certain ecological goals can be achieved with thinning treatments as well, such as increasing biodiversity or accelerating the development of certain attributes in a species. As the principle of thinning is to relieve competitive stress between neighbouring individuals, it also increases the resistance of a forested stand to environmental stresses. Thinning treatments are conventionally described in terms of the number of remaining trees per area or average spacing between trees, with the aim of favouring individual attributes, such as the diameter of dominant trees, and overall attributes of a forested stand, such as volume.

HEIGHT-DIAMETER RELATIONSHIPS TO SPACING 06-1.6

The remaining tree quantity and available growing space after thinning has a visible result on the development of stem diameter- and much more so than on the height development of the same forested stand. Spacing and thinning experiments have consistently demonstrated that stands with wider

A. Unthinned Stand

C. Moderate Thinning

B. Light Thinning

D. Heavy Thinning

spacings or with record of thinning have larger average diameters than unthinned or denser stands.

Fig. 43: Compact experimental designs for studying plant growing space and alignment

Such experiments are best exemplified by the systematic spacing trials for plantation research as described by John Nelder in the 1960s, in which a radial array of plants provides a systematic increase in growing space as the distance between concentric rings increases gradually. The inner and outer edges of the plot act as buffers that separate the experiment from the surrounding area. This spacing design benefits from being able to occupy a small area of 0.4 ha, which reduces the influence of the site on the experiment.

Fig. 44: A Nelder Plot at Blodgett Forest Research Station in the Sierra Nevada mountains

The Nelder experiments have been adapted for assessing the impact of growing space and arrangement on trees in various countries. One such experiment took place in Prince Edward Island in 1969, where several plots were planted with white spruce and white cedar in tree densities between from 0.6 m2 to 5.4 m2. Four of these plots have survived on two sites: Jacks Road and Kelly’s Cross. The average diameter for every representative density was recorded for years 1986, 1995, and 1997. See “Nelder Spacing Experiments on Prince Edward Island” on page A18 for sampled information.

112 | 113

| Research Development

06-3

SPRUCE GROWTH APPROXIMATION Data collected on various forested stands can be analysed to generate a digital model simulating the growth of a stand of spruce trees. Of particular interest is information collected from the systematic spacing experiments on Prince Edward Island since 1969, relating tree spacing and arrangement to stem diameter and height.

REGRESSIVE EQUATION FOR STEM DIAMETER TO SPACING 06-2.1

As an indication of density to diameter relationships, the diameter data recorded for a site for a particular year can be evaluated with regression analysis. Using information from the Nelder experiments carried out on Prince Edward Island (see p. A18), a regressive equation for 28 year old spruce on the Jacks Road site can be abstracted for year 1997 as follows:

Equation 1

y = 83.92 * x-0.21 where: y = average stem diameter [cm] x = spacing density [stems/ha]

average stem diameter [cm]

60°N

sampled points projected points

10 692

5838

10983

16129 spacing density [stems/ha]

STEM HEIGHT TO DIAMETER

Regression analysis can also be used to predict the height according to the diameter at breast height as follows:

06-2.2

Equation 2 Equation 3

h = 13.21 * (1 - ea) a = -(x/7.255)1.437 where: h = average stem height [m] e = Euler’s number x = diameter breast height [cm]

06-3.1

Both of these equations are specific to the data to which they were assigned as best-fitting- in this case the spruce trees on Jacks Road in 1997. They are, therefore, to be taken as indications of relationships between relative tree locations at but not as definitive predictions as to absolute height.

MEAN TREE HEIGHT BY SPECIES AND AGE 06-3.2

Equation 4 Equation 5 Equation 6 Equation 7

Another set of regression equations have been developed by the USDA Forest Service to predict the mean height of regenerated spruce (from thinning and conventional harvesting methods) as a function of tree age, overstory density, elevation, site preparation, and habitat. These relationships are specific to secondary succession following disturbance (or thinning). The period of secondary succession is characterised by increased sunlight, moisture and availability of nutrients- also creating growth opportunities for shrubs, forbs, grasses and trees. The growth rate of spruce can be described as follows: h = ß0 * e f f = ß1 + c + d + g + s c = ßa* ln(a) d = ßb * b where: h = tree height [ft] ß0 = Log bias correction factor for spruce = 1.36 e = Euler’s number ß1 = height coefficient for spruce = -2.5216 a = age [yrs] ßa = age coefficient for spruce = 1.3595 b = residual plot basal area [ft2/acre] ßa = basal area coefficient = -0.0038 g = habitat type ABGR = 0.2160 s = mechanical site prep = 0.1642

DIGITAL MODEL CALIBRATION 06-3.3

A digital model can be produced to simulate the growth of spruce relative to age and density. By establishing a series of points in space that each represent a spruce stem of a defined age, the mean tree height can be attributed for each point. By knowing the distance to the closest stem, the projected heights of the stand at age 28 (using equations 5 and 6 for Jacks Road, or at a recorded age with its regressive equations) can also be predicted. These values can be remapped as a multiplier (from 1-x to 1+x) to increase or decrease the calculated age-height of each spruce tree in relation to its forest density. The value for x is calibrated in the digital model by recreating the Nelder experiments at various stages in digital space until the heights generated are within tolerance.

Fig. 45: A Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco) Nelder design type 1a in Coastal Oregon.

These relationships are by no means comprehensive, but serve as indications of the locations and rate of production of a valuable resource. Such a model is merely an abstraction, and does not take into account the myriad occurrences that could alter the rate of succession, including weather, seed predation, small mammal activity, disease, and abiotic damages.

114 | 115

60°N

| Research Development

Top: Isometric drawing explains the data matching for population estimation from spruce extraction according to number of people each dwelling inhabits

06-4

SPRUCE EXTRACTION AND REGENERATION RATES A digital model simulates growth according to outcomes of The Nelder Spacing Tests

OVERVIEW

The digital model approximating the height and diameter of a spruce tree with regards to age and density is used to test the logical relationship between different material extraction rates (intensity and time) and the consequential limits to maximum population growth.

Equation 8 Equation 9 Equation 10 Equation 11

h = ß0 * e f f = ß1 + c + d + g + s c = ßa* ln(a) d = ßb * b

06-3.4

Fig. 46, Next Page: Aerial image of Aspen Face experiments developed by Michigan Technical University

where: h = tree height [ft] ß0 = Log bias correction factor for spruce = 1.36 e = Euler’s number ß1 = height coefficient for spruce = -2.5216 a = age [yrs] ßa = age coefficient for spruce = 1.3595 b = residual plot basal area [ft2/acre] ßa = basal area coefficient = -0.0038 g = habitat type ABGR = 0.2160 s = mechanical site prep = 0.1642

AIM OF EXPERIMENTS 06-4.1

Population growth rates are evaluated on 3 patches of different spruce densities within 1 Ha (100 x 100 m) each. Patches with 7500, 2500 and 750 trees have been set up to evaluate the effect of density on material production from each successive thinning. Thinning intensity is defined as the percentage of material to be removed per thinning cycle. A thinning cycle is the amount of time between two successive thinnings. Using the test patches, Experiment 1 evaluates the effect of various thinning rates on a fixed cycle, while Experiment 2 evaluates a fixed intensity over variable thinning cycles.

Experiment 2 on different Experiment 1 on different intensities with a 5 year cycle for thinning cycles with 15% intensity for 100 years 100 years Intensity.a - 5% Intensity.a - 15% Intensity.a - 50%

Cycle.a - 2 years Cycle.b - 5 years Cycle.c - 15 years Cycle.d - 50 years

116 | 117

60°N

| Research Development

EXPERIMENT 1.B

Beams stored Total population inhabited Period Thinning cycle Thinning intensity

EXPERIMENT 2.C

Beams stored Total population inhabited Period Thinning cycle Thinning intensity

Top: Isometric drawings comparing outcomes of different thinning strategies of the same patch.

Next Page: Bar charts showing results of the increase in population according to the different set of forestry caring strategies.

POPULATION VS RESOURCES 06-4.2

158

250 75 100 years

0 0

50 years

50 %

0 0

37 40 75 100 years

0 0

The simulation matches spruce thinnings to the bent elements of the proposed building type. As an early approximation, the smallest dwelling unit has been used to estimate the population that can be housed- assuming one dome per inhabitant. After the simulation runs a thinning cycle, the trees unfit for use due to too short a length are discarded, and once the necessary materials for assembling a dome are collected, the simulation increases the population size by one. To estimate the average amount of construction material necessary per inhabitant requires not only a more nuanced relationship to more building types with different functions in a settlement, but also their densities and distribution. It would therefore be limited to talk about the range of population growth according to material extraction without actuating an urban growth model or incorporating the difficult conditions of material transport in the Arctic. The tests have been applied on three different patches of land to compare what material extraction amounts can be achieved

50 years 50 %

250 population 200 150 250 population experiment 1.b

100 200 50 150 100 0

250 population

50 Experiment.1 200 Comparison of different thinning cycles 150 %15 Thinning intensity: Population of spruce used:20 7500 800population 100 250 population Area: 1 Ha 60

150

80 40 population 60 20

20 80 population 60 40 20

years

100

years

100

years

5 years

15 years

100

years

60 40

20 40

6040

80 60

100 80

years

experiment 2.c

100

years

Experiment.2 Comparison of different thinning intensities Thinning cycle: 5 years Population of spruce used: 2500 250 population Area: 1 Ha 250 population

200

5% 15 % 50 %

200 150

from different patches of land. At a schematic level, these 150 20 CONCLUSION 40 60 80 100 years 250 population 100 06-4.3 densities approximate those that occur due to variations in the 50

50 150

100 0

250 population 50

150 100 50 0

100

2 years

100 200

200

years

80 population

40 020

100

50 years 0

200

100

landscape, such as north-facing slopes and river deltas. (See “Spruce Growth Simulation Results” on page A22 for more test results). 40

100

years

The test experiments suggest that higher volume yields can be attained with lower intensities and more frequent periods such 60 cycle at a 15%80 100 the case40 for a 5 year thinning intensity. It could be said that growth in population would be higher compared to other options with less impact on forest vegetation. To compare different test results it is important to understand the amount each successive 100 40 of time and energy 60 required on 80 thinning. It should be kept in mind that for each successive thinning there is a cost of transportation of heavy machinery and logging process. For example, the model is limited in that comparison of high intensity-sparse cycles versus low intensity-frequent cycles would be an equal comparison from the given perspective.

100

years

118 | 119

60°N

| Research Development

Fig. 47: Rivers from retreating glaciers carry a large volume of sediment, and the resulting pattern is a braided rivers with multiple channels between sediment deposits.

06-5

HYDROLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY Calculation of maximum viable population in a cluster of buildings in relation to their water catchment area.

VOLUME CALCULATION 06-5.1

Equation 12 Equation 13

The volume of water that can be captured in a particular building cluster can be roughly estimated by developing a topographical model of its surrounding area, dividing it regularly into a series of points, and calculating the path of least resistance from each point. By counting the number of paths that cross the catchment area, the total volume of water that is assumed to fall on a cluster is calculated as follows: Vtotal = A*p Vpath=Vtot /n where: V = volume [m3] A = area of sample area [m3] p = precipitation rate [m/day] n = number of paths in patch

central cistern

drainage path

Fig. 48: A greenhouse based in the northern Canadian community of Kuujjuaq, Nunavik is providing fresh local produce for residents of the Arctic region for the first time.

PRECIPITATION AVERAGE

The average precipitation of Inuvik is 22 mm/day.

06-5.2

DIRECT HUMAN USE

The human use of water is established as a range from 100 to 200 L/day, or 0.1 to 0.2 m3/day. The worst-case scenario of 0.2 m3/day is used in the calculation.

AGRICULTURAL USE

The population supported by one individual greenhouse measuring 245 m2 (“Greenhouse Type B: Agricultural Production” on p. 159) can be calculated by pairing its growing area to its assumed yield per person:

06-5.3

06-5.6

Equation 14

Q = A*u*k/s where: Q = population per greenhouse [n] A = area of greenhouse [m2] u = growth area from total factor [.85] k = 3 kg/m2 of tomatoes/potatoes s = 43 kg/person of greenhouse produce per yearly cycle Q = (245 m2 )(0.85)(3 kg/m2 )/(43 kg/person) = 14.5 people

The use of water for growing tomatoes and potatoes is established as a range from 4.1 to 5.6 mm of water per m2 per day. The worst-case scenario of 5.6 mm is used in the calculation. A greenhouse with 245 m2 therefore requires 1.1662 m3 of water per day. Dividing this number by 14.5 reveals that greenhouse production requires 0.08 m3 of water per day per person.

REQUIREMENT

Direct use and agricultural use total 0.28 m3 water/person/ day. This number can be used against the total volume of water captured in a building cluster to estimate its maximum viable population.

ASSUMPTIONS

These values do not take into account evaporation rates, absorption rates, nor inefficiencies/leaks in water capture, for which worst-case scenarios are assumed in estimation.

06-5.4

06-5.5

120 | 121

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| Research Development

Fig. 49 : A house collapsed into the ground in Alaska, after the permafrost upon which it was built melted

06-6

PERMAFROST AND SITE PREPARATION Developing a set of basic principles and associated tools for determining sustainable growth in the Arctic.

INTEGRATED STRATEGIES

As mentioned in “Foundations on Permafrost” on p. 26 of the Domain chapter, the presence of permafrost underneath buildings often yields differential settlement. However, building on ground that has already thawed prevents this problem in the long-run. The thawing of permafrost as a result of peat harvesting is therefore investigated as an opportunity for settlement expansion.

TOOLS DEVELOPMENT

This complex interaction of environmental and human-related factors is going to be examined in the following section by developing a series of essential tools. As such, permafrost depth and permafrost thaw rate algorithms are going to be integrated into a parametric model simulating a given land patch.

PERMAFROST DEPTH

Permafrost depth (see p. 124) is calculated from two primary conditions generated from a topographical model: water drainage and solar radiation. Regularly subdividing a land patch into a series of cells allows for comparative analysis between various points across the evaluation area in terms of drainage and solar exposure. These evaluations are used to rank each cell in terms of the probable depth within the known range of permafrost depths for a site (0 to 150 m for Inuvik, NWT).

06-5.7

06-5.8

06-5.9

Analytical approximation, “Permafrost Depth Map” on p. 124

PERMAFROST DEPTH from inputs: - Topography -Soil water content -Location latitude

Analytical approximation, “Permafrost Thawing Rates” on p. 126

Analytical approximation, “Hydrological Productivity” on p. 120

PERMAFROST THAW RATE

MAX. POPULATION SIZE AND SITE PRODUCTIVITY

from inputs:

- Soil conditions -Topography -Permafrost depth

- Independent access to water - Greenhouse feeding capacity - Water requirements per person

Digital model, “Sequencing” on p. 136

Simulation, “Spruce Extraction and Regeneration Rates” on p. 116

NECESSARY SITE PREPARATION PERIOD

MAX. VIABLE CONSTRUCTION RATE

from inputs:

- Max. viable population - Necessary volume of loam extraction - Quantity of greenhouse units -Accelerated thaw conditions

- Local spruce density - Thinning intensity & (extraction/construction) rate - Regrowth periods

Digital Model “Settlement Growth Model” on p. 142

SETTLEMENT GROWTH from inputs: - Target population - Site preparation period - Construction period - Existing settlement patterns

122 | 123

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| Research Development

PERMAFROST DEPTH MAP 06-7

An algorithm that estimates the depth of the permafrost layer using environmental factors obtained by the terrain’s topography and the geographical location (i.e. latitude) of the patch chosen.

DATA

ANALYSIS

FLOW LINES

Minimum resistance lines

TOPOGRAPHY

Grid subdivision 25x25m cells

2m contour lines

SOLAR RADIATION

Max

Min

CELL-BASED EVALUATION

OUTPUT

A [0-100]

PERMAFROST DEPTH

Max

Depth [m] = f (A+B/2)

Min

DRAINAGE LEVEL

SUN EXPOSURE

B [0-100]

Max

Min

124 | 125

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| Research Development

06-8

PERMAFROST THAWING RATES An analysis on the depth of thaw and thawing rate for different ground conditions based on ground surface energy balance. The energy balance on the Earth surface is expressed as the sum of Solar radiation QS, Long-wave radiation emitted from the atmosphere QL/ and the losses made up by reflected longwave radiation QL\ the heat flux to the ground Qg, the sensible heat flux from the surface to the atmosphere QH and the latent heat of evapotranspiration QhEquation 15

Solar radiation and long-wave radiation can be obtained using environmental analysis software, while It is assumed that the latent heat flux is proportional to the sensible heat flux QH, which is described as follows: Equation 16

Equation 17 Equation 19 Fig. 50, Next Page: Thermokarst Thaw Lakes in Nunavik. Thermokarst is a land type characterised by irregular marshy hollows formed by the seasonal thawing of permafrost.

The heat flux to the ground, Qg, can then be subdivided into: the sensible heat required to heat the active layer Qs , the heat conducted out of the active layer and into the permafrost, Qp and finally the latent heat required to melt the ground ice Qi (i.e soil thaw energy). Equation 18

Equation 20 Equation 21

Equation 22

where: Csoil=specific heat capacity of soil [Jm-3K-1] dt/dz= temp. change of active layer [Kd-1] z= active layer thickness [m] K= thermal conductivity of soil [Wm-1K-1] dt/dz= temp. gradient in active layer [K m-1] K= conductivity of soil [Wm-1K-1] dt/dz= temp. gradient act.lyr. [K m-1]

126 | 127

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| Research Development

06-8.1

CASE 01 Undisturbed soil with snow cover Snow albedo [%] = 90 Transfer Resistance = 200 Air Temp. [°C] = -10 Surface Temp [°C] = 0 T change in active layer [K d-1] = 10 Active layer thickness [m] = 0.5 snow peat subsoil

06-8.2

Thaw rate:

2.69 [m/year] (2.91 cm/day)

CASE 02 Undisturbed soil without snow cover Surface albedo [%] = 0.1 Transfer Resistance = 250 Air Temp. [°C]= -10 Surface Temp [°C] = 0 T change in active layer [K d-1] = 10 Active layer thickness [m] = 0.5 peat subsoil

Thaw rate:

5.11 [m/year] (2.91 cm/day)

06-8.3

CASE 03 Top layer of soil (loam) removed for material harvesting Surface albedo [%] = 0.1 Transfer Resistance= 250 Air Temp. [°C]= -10 Surface Temp [°C] = 0 T change in active layer [K d-1] = 0 Active layer thickness [m] = 0 peat Thaw rate:

subsoil

06-8.4

8.01 [m/year] (8.62 cm/day)

CASE 04 Soil transformed into productive farmland (with greenhouses)

greenhouse

Surface albedo [%] = 0.1 Transfer Resistance = N/A Air Temp. [°C] = 20 Surface Temp [°C] = 10 T change in active layer [K d-1] = 0 Active layer thickness [m] = 0

peat subsoil

Thaw rate:

18.85 [m/year] (20.03cm/day)

128 | 129

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| Research Development

06-9

CONDITIONS 06-8.5

TOOLS 06-8.6

ALGORITHM 06-8.7

THAWING SIMULATION A simulation that uses the tool previously developed to estimate the permafrost depth, and combines it with the prediction of thaw rates for different land-uses.

CELL FUNCTIONS

ENVIRONMENT

Variables

- Snow cover -Exposed ground -Harvested loam -With greenhouses

-Solar radiation -Sunlight hours -Slope/Drainage -Air temperature

PERMAFROST THAW RATE

PERMAFROST DEPTH

Constants

Results

- Soil thermal conductivity -Soil specific heat capacity -Active layer temperature

- Lower depth of permafrost -Active layer thickness

THAW SIMULATION Results - Time at which permafrost has completely thawed

06-10

TEST PATCH 68°21’08.7”N 133°30’56.8”W

Size: 3.285 [km2]

A test patch of roughly 3km2 was selected around Inuvik (68° latitude). This patch is going to be analysed for solar radiation, drainage level and permafrost depth and tested for four different cases.

SOLAR RADIATION

South-facing and north facing slopes are clearly visible (red and blue patches respectively).

DRAINAGE PATHS

A tributary canal that drains into the river (land with high water content) are visible at the centre-left of the patch.

ACTIVE LAYER DEPTH

Active layer thickness is assumed to be 0 underneath the river (i.e. Depth=100m).

06-9.1

06-9.2

06-9.3

130 | 131

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| Research Development

CASE 01

Time: 4yrs.

All cells are undisturbed soil with snow cover

thaw rate: 3.6 - 6.4 [my-1]

thawed area:228,854m2 percentage fully thawed: 12%

Time: 8yrs.

thawed area: 1,258,697m2 percentage fully thawed: 62%

CASE 03

Time: 4yrs.

All cells have loam layer (topsoil) removed

thaw rate: 9.5 - 13.1 [my-1]

thawed area:1,829,115m2 percentage fully thawed: 51% Time: 8yrs.

thawed area: 3,443,040m2 percentage fully thawed: 96%

CASE 02 All cells are undisturbed soil without snow.

Time: 4yrs.

thaw rate: 7.9 - 11.2 [my-1]

thawed area:386,400m2 percentage fully thawed: 30%

Time: 8yrs.

thawed area: 3,285,600m2 percentage fully thawed: 94%

CASE 04

Time: 4yrs.

All cells have no loam and greenhouses on top

thaw rate: 16.1 - 20.9 [my-1]

thawed area: 3,227,040m2 percentage fully thawed: 90% Time: 8yrs.

thawed area: 3,585,600m2 percentage fully thawed: 100%

132 | 133

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| Research Development

06-11

LAND TRANSFORMATION AND OCCUPATION CYCLE Strategies for sequential operations on the site including extraction of resources, construction materials, unit reconfiguration and reassembly with respect to associated time factors.

INTRODUCTION 06-11.1

MAX. POPULATION SIZE TO SELECTIVE THAWING 06-11.2

The loam harvesting processes and thawing rates outlined on p. 128 can be used for passive control of the permafrost layer depth. The time it takes to fully thaw out the required area informs the necessary period of pre-construction preparation according to the selected method of localized passive control. Up to this point, the four methods have been discussed individually, but the specific building requirements of a building cluster tells us which methods are used on site and to what extent. As previously discussed, the catchment area of a site determines the amount of water that can be harvested to ensure autonomy, which in turn dictates the maximum viable population. After a site has been designated an population, the number of greenhouses can be known (p. 120). These greenhouses are assumed to be built as low greenhouses and assigned the appropriate thawing rate as in “Case 04” on p. 129, which may be converted to agricultural units during the inhabitation period. The necessary volume of loam can be translated into an area harvested at a 0.5 m depth, which is assigned “Case 03”. The remaining area is attributed “Case 02”.

Fig. 51 : Winter Construction of telecommunications networks and road in Dawson Creek.

YEARLY POPULATION GROWTH 06-11.3

The yearly population growth is limited by the maximum rate of material extraction that still allows a net increase in forest productivity. See “Spruce Growth Simulation Results” on p. A22 for values.

134 | 135

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06-12

SEQUENCING The possibility of a cyclical growth model were land is made habitable from loam harvesting as the focus of the design development tests and investigations.

Collectable surface runoff

HYDROLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY

WATER COLLECTION 02

Stage.1

Greenhouse units(methane harvesting)

Maximum population could be sustain within an autonomous cluster.

LOAM IS HARVESTED 03

Target population and construction defined by production

LOAM HARVESTING Stage.2

Change in thaw rate of permafrost

PERMAFROST THAWS SPRUCE EXTRACTION

Yearly construction with respect to spruce extraction

Stage.3

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 05

Reconfigured greenhouse units(agriculture)

INHABITATION COMPLETED

Extraction amount defines population growth on yearly basis.

STAGE 1 12th month

12th month

drainage channel

methane harvesting units

Patch.2: 4 Hectare (200x200 m) Greenhouse Units : 4

Patch.1: 4 Hectare (200x200 m) Greenhouse Units : 6

STAGE 2 60th month

82th month

loam excavation

partial thaw of permafrost

Population Cap : 60 people Number of Dwellings: 6 Loam Extraction : 1704 m2 (50 cm depth) Accelerated Thaw Rate : 6.1 m/year (from 5 m/year)

Population Cap : 90 people Number of Dwellings : 8 Loam Extraction : 2850 m2 (50 cm depth) Accelerated Thaw Rate : 7.2 m/year (from 5 m/year)

STAGE 3 95th month

105th month spruce thinning

building construction

Spruce Density : 2850 in 5 km Yearly inhabitation : 16 people

STAGE 4 127th month

130th month

reconfigured greenhouses stable ground

136 | 137

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| Research Development

06-13

SEASONALITY Land transformation and material extraction cycles explained in detail with respect to seasonal factors.

January

February

March

April

May

June

6 hrs

9 hrs

12 hrs

15 hrs

18 hrs

20 hrs

-30°C

-32°C

-27°C

-18°C

-8°C

4°C

WINTER

SPRING

During the cold season with temperatures around -30°C ice roads in certain areas of the MacKenzie Delta enable transportation of heavy machinery for forestry. In the meantime, young saplings that are easier to bend for construction can be extracted. The removal of snow layer on construction site would accelerate thawing of permafrost.

To estimate the potential productivity and greenhouse locations, a study on the hydrological capacity of a site is applied on the season which snow melts and generates the most surface runoff. Agricultural greenhouse locations are identified for productivity. Additionally, low greenhouses can be used to dry over the peat on given locations to ease extraction process.

C Soil condition Frozen

Thawed

Hours of sunlight Temperature

Loam milling/cutting

)

60-40%

July

August

September

19 hrs

16 hrs

10°C

1-2 weeks

Ridging/drying

Harvesting

10-15%

October

November

December 1 week

13 hrs

10 hrs

7 hrs

5 hrs

8°C

0°C

-9°C

-27°C

3 - 4 months

SUMMER

FALL

During the summer, temperatures are high enough to allow greenhouses to yield agricultural products, while the out-gassing from the permafrost thaw accelerates due to the increase in temperatures. These greenhouses are then going to be moved at the end of summer to be replaced by buildings.

After the permafrost has completely thawed and the loam is ready to be placed in the vacuum bags, construction can start in the early fall, when the temperatures are relatively mild and there are enough sunlight hours to allow work on site. It is important to ensure that loam is fully dried, as any moisture content left over increases the likelihood that the vacuumatic assemblies will expand and contract with seasonal fluctuations.

138 | 139

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| Research Development

06-14 CONDITIONS 06-14.1

SITE PREPARATION 06-14.2

PROCESS 06-14.3

SITE PREPARATION TIME CALCULATION CLUSTER REQUIREMENTS

ENVIRONMENT

Variables

- Location - Population cap - Construction amount

-Solar radiation -Sunlight hours -Slope/Drainage -Air temperature

MATERIAL EXTRACTION

PERMAFROST THAW RATE

Results

- Spruce extraction within 5 km - Loam extraction for construction

- Change in average thaw rate within cluster area

INHABITATION PROCEDURE Results - Amount of time needs to pass before construction - Yearly population increase - Reconfiguration of greenhouse units

06-15

CONCLUSIONS Evaluation of an integrated logic between surface runoff model, permafrost control and material extraction simulations.

INTEGRATED LOGIC

The integration of the three developed toolsets as a (1.) water harvesting model (2.) spruce extraction simulations, and (3.) permafrost depth and thawing models are successful in creating a feedback loop. This system can be evaluated either in self-sufficient pioneering clusters or as growths on existing settlements and transportation networks. It must be said that these are indicative respectively of (1.) maximum population, (2.) extraction rates, and (3.) preparation time, but do not take into account the related technologies and their limitations.

HYDROLOGICAL MODEL

In the hydrological model, many assumptions were made about catchment techniques and efficiencies, and abstracted as a series of minimum resistance paths- an indication of water from a total volume. This model does not regard absorption nor evaporation of water, but is indeed a viable way to establish population limits which allow resource autonomy and functional independence.

SPRUCE THINNING

The thinning of trees or parts of them to remove competitive stresses is a time-tested technique in silviculture around the world. This ensures sustainable biological growth and suggests a balance between production and consumption as locally sourced material.

06-15.1

06-15.2

06-15.4

As suggested by the use of best-fit regression equations and the many adjustment factors and variables in the associated equations, it is difficult to predict growth. This model is purely an abstraction of relationships between density, diameter, age, and height; but is not meant to be a predictive model of spruce growth. Another important factor not taken into account is the distance and method of transportation of spruce thinnings from harvesting site to construction site, which may significantly affect the harvesting process. Seasonal factors are not taken into account, and although the thinning process is usually performed every certain amount of years in a specific time of year, the extreme seasonal variations may pose a challenge in accessibility and viability.

PERMAFROST / SITE PREP 06-15.3

The permafrost and site preparation models, which in previous versions had been run as a cellular automata, are now integrated specifically to the target population by way of prescribing quantities of greenhouses and material extraction. This successfully provides an indication of a time scale, but does not relate to seasonal fluctuations despite being run on a per month basis.

140 | 141

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06-16

SETTLEMENT GROWTH MODEL Development and analysis of different patterns of growth according to given population target and topographical - environmental conditions.

SETTLEMENT GROWTH 06-16.1

LIMITS OF GROWTH 06-16.2

This section addresses questions regarding sustainable settlement growth. The resource extraction models and cycles developed in the Research Development are contextualised and validated in a model of Inuvik, NWT. This model is informed by various population goals. Population and urban growth in Inuvik, as much as other settlements in the MacKenzie Delta, is driven by topography. As previously discussed, this can be broken down into solar access and the regulatory and logistical issues influencing accessibility. The viability of year-round municipal services such as trash collection and snow removal in the extreme environmental conditions of the Inuvik, for example, determined its ring-road layout (“Inuvik” on p. 104 and “Network Organisation” on p. 106). The permafrost layer, on the other hand, becomes thicker and closer to the surface around the inner lowlands and the slopes further away from the MacKenzie River. Seasonal fluctuations on the permafrost layer (frost heave) cause differential settlement which hinders construction in these areas. Few locations in these areas have favorable soil conditions for construction, and even then, are not viable settlement sites as they are inaccessible and dispersed. As such, Inuvik is limited to expand from the riverbank in which it sits, so long as there is sufficient south-facing slope.

AUTONOMOUS CLUSTER

Due to limitations of growth, the chosen method of study of potential growth scenarios involves self-sufficient zones that can merge geospatially into existing conurbations. This pattern is similar to the way Inuvik is organised to ensure usability.

EXPERIMENT STAGES

The capacity of Inuvik’s surrounding slopes to house a target population over time has been evaluated with a computational experiment involving the site preparation, population limits and construction rates outlined in Chapter 6 and summarized in “Sequencing” on p. 136. For each topological distribution of clusters, the necessary site preparation and construction sequences prior to inhabitation have been quantified as time as a method of evaluation.

06-16.3

06-16.4

The study looks at the amount of clusters, their relationships to each other, and their connectivity to Inuvik’s existing fabric. An inhabitation period has been factored into this experiment by establishing a sequential experimentation methodology where experiments are run in stages. For instance, to study the population growth of 600 people, a three-step experiment for 200 people at each stage is initiated. For each consecutive step, a selected model from the previous stage is used as the base model. Fig. 52, Facing Page: Kangaamiut is a small Greenlandic settlement of 350 people, about 75 minutes by boat from Maniitsoq.

142 | 143

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| Research Development

SETUP 06-16.5

The experiment was run on the 21 km2 (3 x 7 km) patch of predominantly south-facing slope surrounding Inuvik’s urban centre. As an spatial model a grid system was generated on the patch, where a 4 ha (200 x 200 m) cell represents the unit area of a cluster.

SITE MODEL

ANALYSIS MODELS

FLOW LINES Minimum resistance lines

PERMAFROST LAYER 15 m

130 m

Inuvik 21 km2 (7x3 km)

SPRUCE DENSITY 150

1700 In 2 Ha cells

0%+)

CLUSTER INFORMATION

EXPANSION MODEL

Method: Hydrological Productivity Estimation: Construction Material Requirement

Loam milling/cutting

Method: Loam Extraction 60-40% Estimation: Site Preparation 1-2 weeks

Ridging/drying

Harvesting

10-15%

3 - 4 months

Multi criteria optimisation

1 week Maximise Connectivity With Existing Settlement

Minimise Inhabitation Process

Method: Spruce Extraction in 5 km range Estimation: Yearly Population Increase

144 | 145

60°N

| Research Development

5th year

Experiment.2 (G.20.4) Population target: 200 individual Inhabitation process : 57 months Base network model : Inuvik

8th year

Top: Diagrams explaining sequential experimentation methodology to study expansion of the settlement Inuvik. Next page: Results of the GA experiment for different target populations showing site preparation and construction processes.

Experiment.3 (G.80.60) Population target: 400 individual (total) Inhabitation process : 100 months Base network model : G.20.4

10th year

Cluster completed Experiment.4 (G.80.12) Population target: 600 individual (total) Inhabitation process : 127 months Base network model : G.80.60

Cluster in site preparation Additional road infrastructure Existing network Spruce extraction area

APPROACH 06-16.6

As mentioned, the analytical approximations developed in the previous chapter and their resource evaluation methods are used as the basis of this experiment. The procedures applied as (1.) evaluation of hydrological productivity to identify a maximum population (p. 120); (2.) a thaw process related to permafrost conditions (p. 130); and (3.) a construction rate and yearly population increase in relation to local spruce extraction (p. 114) are merged into a genetic algorithm model to study viable growth patterns and rates to achieve a target population.

Experiment 4 : Target population 600

G.80.3 Total Inhabitation : 33 months Yearly Population increase : 74 people Site Preparation : 0 months Neccesary Road Length : 5 km

G.80.21 Total Inhabitation : 30 months Yearly Population increase : 76 people Site Preparation : 0 months Neccesary Road Length : 9 km

G.80.19 Total Inhabitation : 41 months Yearly Population increase : 59 people Site Preparation : 0 months Neccesary Road Length : 5 km

Experiment 3 : Target population 400

G.80.60 Total Inhabitation : 37 months Yearly Population increase : 64 people Site Preparation : 0 months Neccesary Road Length : 11 km

G.80.43 Total Inhabitation : 31 months Yearly Population increase : 75 people Site Preparation : 18 months Neccesary Road Length : 8 km

G.80.5 Total Inhabitation : 40 months Yearly Population increase : 60 people Site Preparation : 0 months Neccesary Road Length : 7 km

G.20.7 Total Inhabitation : 78 months Yearly Population increase : 25 people Site Preparation : 19 months Neccesary Road Length : 14 km

G.20.14 Total Inhabitation : 57 months Yearly Population increase : 25 people Site Preparation : 47 months Neccesary Road Length : 13 km

Experiment 2 : Target population 200

G.20.4 Total Inhabitation : 56 months Yearly Population increase : 65 people Site Preparation : 22 months Neccesary Road Length : 16 km

146 | 147

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| Research Development

Undisturbed Tundra Permafrost condition

Total Area : 21 km2

10th Year Emergent expansion pattern

10th Year Permafrost condition

Population Inhabited : 600 Number of Clusters : 16

Thaw ground : 12 km2

CONNECTIVITY

An important condition that has not been studied in previous models is connectivity, which becomes significant at this scale. The relationship between clusters and their proximity to Inuvik gains importance to establish accessibility. On the distribution models of clusters within the defined 21 km2 land patch, minimising the amount of necessary road construction is ideal in order to prevent isolated cluster formations.

POPULATION GROWTH

The population increase, and amount of time necessary to reach the target population depends on the capacity to thaw permafrost and harvest spruce. At the first stage, the thaw rates indicate the site preparation period. After this preconstruction stage, the spruce density within a 5 km search radius informs the construction rate, and consequently, the yearly population growth. Clusters within each other’s 5 km range share the same spruce extraction zone, which decreases the yearly construction rate significantly.

06-16.7

06-16.8

06-17

CONCLUSIONS Findings from evaluation of sustainable growth rates

population G.80.12

600

G.80.60

400

G.20.4

200

TIME

The experiment shows that the most efficient models in terms of rates of inhabitation are concentrated on the south facing slope at the southeast of Inuvik. These isolated models from the settlement can be connected to the existing airport area and associated network, which is 10 km from the urban centre.

IDEAL SITES

The thickness of the permafrost layer on the south facing slope is favorably low, enabling inhabitation with shorter site preparation times. However, with respect to emergent patterns of the experiment, it can be said that a resourcedriven organisation generates smaller, separate settlements. In models that are closely packed around Inuvik, site preparation processes require 16 to 20 years for a 600 person population growth as compared to 8.5 years for semi-autonomous clusters.

06-17.1

06-17.2

108

120

months

148 | 149

7. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN STRATEGIES �� 153 BUILDING MORPHOLOGIES �� 154 Dwelling Units 156 Greenhouse Type A: Loam Harvesting 158 Greenhouse Type B: Agricultural Production 159 Educational Program 160 Public Services 162 Transport 162 Commercial and Small Business Buildings 163 Arctic Market 164 Hospital 165 SNOW ACCUMULATION �� 166 Accumulatıon Modellıng 167 DENSITY DISTRIBUTION �� 170 SOLAR ORIENTATION �� 174 Building Geometry and Solar Exposure 176 Oriented Building Distributions on a Regular Grid 178 CLUSTER ORGANIZATION BY FUNCTION �� 180 Network Models 181 Genetic Algorithm 1 / Residential and Agricultural 182 Genetic Algorithm 2 / Small Business and Public Services 184 Genetic Algorithm 3 / Residential and Education 186 Genetic Algorithm 4 / Small Business and Market Type 188 CONCLUSIONS �� 190 Design Methods 190 Design Model Evaluation 191 Further Development 191

60°N

| Design Development

07-1

DESIGN STRATEGIES Development of working design models

HABITABLE SPACE

Once the potentials of a vacuumatic system and the integrated logics of water harvesting, spruce extraction and site preparation have been established, it is important to develop such a system across scales to enable the creation of habitable spaces.

FUNCTIONAL BUILDING DESIGN AND ORGANISATION

Having developed settlement growth patterns, functional building design and environmentally-driven building organisations can be generated. Buildings are modeled based on recurring building types found in the NWT. Agglomerations and building associations are evaluated environmentally by controlling orientations and densities to enforce the idea of autonomous building clusters.

07-1.1

07-1.2

DESIGN MODELS 07-1.3

The aim of these experiments is to develop working design models, adjusted to data from the Northwest Territories, across various scales.

152 | 153

60°N

| Design Development

07-2

BUILDING MORPHOLOGIES The proposed building type can be adapted to conform to a series of functional requirements suitable to settlements in the Northwest Territories.

Rendered Image: Different window attribution patterns for the same building configuration. The top building has windows placed to maximise fully solar gains. The bottom one aims at distributing them homogeneously about every room of the dwelling and the middle one is a combination of the two.

TYPES DEVELOPMENT 07-2.1

AGGREGATIONS 07-2.2

Having developed settlement growth patterns, the proposed building types will be elaborated in the following pages before being tested as environmentally-driven building clusters. The types developed, their sizes, and relative quantities per resident have been adapted from functional studies of Inuvik (programmatic map on p. 104). The spans and heights are kept within the ranges outlined in the Material System Chapter. The proposed material system is expressed as linear aggregations that can be built as multiple units within an aggregation. Connected buildings appear in many traditional design patterns of northern societies (Adamic, 2011). The advantages of these structures are in the creation of windbreaks from the cold Arctic winds and the prevention of heat losses.

unit

RELATIVE SEGMENTS

dwelling

= 2L

07-2.3

A standard segment of 12 m describes half of the total length of a 4 person dwelling unit (two bedrooms/dome). Each segment is rotated variably relative to each other. This base poly-line curve describes the construction sequence of the loam spans.

10 m

SPAN ATTRIBUTION 07-2.4

Working with a range of spans between 7 and 10 m, a series of spans are distributed along the design curve using a sine function, spacing the spans at a regular interval.

HEIGHT ALLOCATION 07-2.5

Each span is designated a height, within the established range of 0.2 to 0.45 height-tospan ratio of its elastica curve.

hmin

hmax spanmin

spanmax

hmin PANELISATION 07-2.6

hmax spanmin

spanmax A series of loam panels are modeled over the sequential elastica geometry to define the overall assembly, and can be evaluated as a surface for solar exposure and interaction with prevailing winds.

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07-3

DWELLING UNITS By developing the design of dwellings as aggregable components, they can be deployed as individual units, multi-unit families and multi family homes- and variable over time.

AGGREGATION

Such linear aggregations can be assembled to effectively create a windbreak for thermal comfort, as much as creating increased interaction amongst inhabitants. It is also a way to distribute residential units with regards to a desired local density.

FUNCTIONAL ZONING

To make use of the thermal capacity of a loam assembly, functional zoning in these spaces is achieved by varying arch spans to create dome-like volumes in the overall assembly. As these regions behave as heat sinks, the location of these zones predetermines the location of a central heat source and therefore common areas.

LODGING

Hotels and accommodation in Inuvik currently occupy 17,170 m², or 4.96 m² per inhabitant. In light of recent trends of the hotel industry gearing towards the bed and breakfast economical model, it is assumed that traveller accommodation can also be provided with the dwelling typology, owned and operated by settlement inhabitants as a secondary income.

07-3.1

07-3.2

07-3.3

Rendering of proposed building type with fenestration allocated according to solar exposure analysis.

Residential units in Inuvik, population 3,463: 141,628 m²; 40.9 m²/person Building Size: 200 m² average; ranging from 37 m² single unit to 2293 m² multifamily

PROTOTYPICAL NWT HOME 07-3.4

Existing

Proposed

Dome Length: 12 m Maximum Dome Count: 6 Span: 7 m to 10 m Height: 3.15 m to 4.5 m Unit Area: 115.26 m²

RELEVANT PARAMETERS & VARIATIONS 07-3.5

2 BR / 1 Unit

6 BR / 3 Unit

10 BR / 5 Unit

4 BR / 2 Unit

8 BR / 4 Unit

12 BR / 6 Unit

HEAT ZONES 07-3.6

C B

E C

A. Common space B. Domestic space

C. Storage D. Transition zone

E. Entrance

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07-4

RELEVANT PARAMETERS

Segment Length: 35 m Rod Length: 8.5 m Dome Count: Linear Segments Span: 8.3 m Height: 0.83 m Unit Area: 290.5 m²

GREENHOUSE TYPE A: LOAM HARVESTING Preliminary design of a greenhouse type adapting similar techniques and construction materials to the proposed building type: bent rods and loam-infill bags.

CONSTRUCTION

With the aim of thawing topsoil, a series of 8.5 m rods are bent over a low support structure, where an LDPE membrane is draped over the array of rods. Due to the high wind speeds in the arctic, this membrane must necessarily be held down by a number of earth bags.

EARTH BAGS

By building the eastern wall taller than the western wall, the setting sun can further heat up the earth bags, helping to maintain a warmer temperature for a longer period of time. As the moisture content of the soil evaporates, it can be collected in a condensation channel below the highest point in the structure. Additionally, as permafrost melts, it emanates methane gas, which can be contained and collected safely in this chamber before the area is deemed suitable for construction.

07-4.1

07-4.2

HUMIDITY 07-4.3

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

It is important to ensure that loam is fully dried, as any moisture content left over increases the likelihood that the vacuumatic assemblies will expand and contract with seasonal fluctuations.

Low density polyethylene (LDPE) 8m length rods, bent in place Earth bags Exposed topsoil Condensation channel

2 1 4

07-5

PARAMETERS

Segment Length: 35 m Rod Length: 8.5 m Dome Count: Linear Segments Span: 7 m Height: 2.19 m Unit Area: 245.0 m²

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

GREENHOUSE TYPE B: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION Modification of proposed greenhouse type to adapt from loam harvesting capabilities to agricultural production to supply the population of a growing Arctic settlement.

ASSEMBLY ADAPTATION 07-5.1

When the permafrost thaw period of a loam-harvesting greenhouse is complete, it can be dismantled to make space for construction. The lightweight components can be easily relocated to new sites for passive permafrost thawing acceleration. Alternatively, it can be modified to allow the growth of produce locally. Bending the same rods in place into a taller structure, the earth bags on site can be reused to hold the membrane in place, where an eastern wall has more mass than a western wall to radiate heat after sunset. This means that the eastern side will receive more light, so plants shall be organised according to their specific light requirements. As seen in greenhouses in Patagonian Chile, a trench serves dually as a walkway and cold air sink, maintaining air hot and humid at the growth level.

LDPE membrane 8m length rods, bent in place Earth bags Exposed topsoil Trench

4 5

158 | 159

60°N

| Design Development

Fig. 53: Photograph of a traditional dance taking place in the basketball court of a school in Nunavut.

07-6

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM Educational facilities in the NWT are characterised by their extracurricular activities in larger spaces as much as their teaching facilities.

NECESSARY SPACES

Notably, schools in the NWT serve as a focus of community activity not just for their educational programs, but for the extracurricular activities that take place in wide spanning gymnasia and sports halls. Beyond hosting sports events, these spaces are often re-purposed for various gatherings including community meetings, traditional dances and live performances.

INTERPRETATION

An interpretation of this function is proposed by adapting the building type around a central courtyard. This courtyard may be covered with similar details as the greenhouse typology to provide a semi-enclosed space that is usable in the winter period.

07-6.1

07-6.2

EDUCATION, INUVIK 07-6.3

22,000 m²; 6.35 m²/person Building Size: 1,100 m² average; ranging from 132 m² to 6908 m²

PARAMETERS

Dome Length: 30 m ea. Dome Count: 5 to 7 units Span: 7 m to 15 m Height: 3.15 m to 4.85 m Area: approx. 320 m²/dome Courtyard : 803 to 2,195 m²

6 UNIT DOME

Incrementing the dome count yields a much larger central outdoor space that serves as a controlled area for sporting activity.

5 UNIT DOME

A five-unit educational type with a covered courtyard creates a semi-public space that may be used for extracurricular activities outside of the regular program. This example is rendered as a small botanical garden.

07-6.4

07-6.5

07-6.6

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07-7

PUBLIC SERVICES Public services are described in terms of a main desk and a main office operations space. This category embraces post office, police station, meeting house and clinic functions.

PUBLIC SERVICES, INUVIK 07-7.1

PARAMETERS 07-7.2

3,400 m²; 0.98 m²/person Building Size: 425 m² average; ranging from 262 m² single unit to 760 m² multifamily Dome Count: 2 Dome Length: 10 and 35 m Span: 10 m and 20 m Height: 2.52 to 5.6 m Unit Area: 595 m²

e ﬁc of

ac sp

main desk

07-8

TRANSPORT An undifferentiated aggregation for transit buildings

TRANSPORT, INUVIK 07-8.1

17,518 m²; 5.06 m²/person Building Size: 701 m² average; ranging from 170 m² to 3,770 m²

PARAMETERS

Dome Count: 2/3 Dome Length: 30 m segments Span: 12 m Height: 5.22 m Unit Area: approx. 360 m²/segment

PARAMETERS

The settlements of the Northwest Territory are few are far between. As such, an important ancillary function within the settlements of the Northwest Territories is that of transport buildings. Most of these settlements employ the use of small airports to ensure year-round connectivity to the outside world.

07-8.2

07-8.3

While the limitations of the defined height-to-span ratios excludes the possibility of creating a hangar, some of the other functions of a regional transport centre include airline services and an aviation terminal, airplane tower support, maintenance, fire stations, railway stations, bus stops, and taxi stands. Due to the importance of efficient circulation in a transit building, the building type is generated as a linear aggregation without differentiation with regards to spans nor heights.

07-9

COMMERCIAL AND SMALL BUSINESS BUILDINGS Linear aggregations of commercial units.

AGGREGATIONS 07-9.1

Fig. 54: Small Business Cluster in Inuvik

The scheme for commercial program is similar to that of the dwelling typology, where a linear aggregation of program can be assigned as single businesses, multi-business assemblies (akin to the North American strip mall), or individual businesses that may require multiple units to operate. As for the domestic spaces, this aggregation is a way to distribute program with regards to a desired local density.

SMALL BUSINESS, INUVIK 07-9.2

PARAMETERS 07-9.3

21,572 m²; 6.23 m²/person Building Size: 674 m² average; ranging from 101 m² to 1,854 m² Max Dome Count: 5 units Dome Length: 25 m segments Span: 7 m to 14m Height: 2.85 to 5.35 m Unit Area: approx. 270 m²/segment

1 Unit Commercial

2 Unit Commercial

3 Unit Commercial

4 Unit Commercial

5 Unit Commercial

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07-10

ARCTIC MARKET Branching typology for a permanent market building.

PARAMETERS:

Ancillary Spaces: 20 m long segments spanning 20 m, 4.95 to 6.25 m high Central Corridor Dimensions: 11 m width, with 10 bays spanning 7 m each (70 m total) Bays Dimensions: 7 m span, 9 m from corridor Area: approx. 2,694 m² total, 100 m² per market stall, approx. 316 m² per dome

MARKET TYPOLOGY

While current models of food and product access in the isolated and remote communities of the NWT rely on import from the south, an emphasis on local production via a greenhouse network requires a different type of commercial space than those currently in place. An indoor market type is intended to facilitate the sale of fresh food items and nonperishable goods from producers (from farming and hunting activities) directly to consumers, allowing more spontaneous exchanges. The benefits of this model are decreased food transport and the associated infrastructure costs. It will be assumed in the conditional growth model that market traffic generates traffic for nearby businesses as well.

BODY PLAN

The proposed body plan consists of a three-segment main body, in which a series of bays project perpendicular to the middle span, intended to generate a market stall from each side of the projection. The domes at the two ends of the body are used as public spaces, in which consumers can eat food or events can be hosted.

07-10.1

07-10.2

Fig. 55: The Jokkmokk market has a long history of over 400 years, occurring on the first Thursday of every February in Lapland, Sweden. It is one of the most important social events for the Sámi people in Sápmi, with concerts, exhibitions and trade, while temperatures can reach -40°C.

07-11

HOSPITAL Branching typology to create an adaptable hospital format.

MARKET TYPOLOGY 07-11.1

PARAMETERS 07-11.2

Similar to the proposed market type, a hospital generated as an array of bays promises a building type that can be extended over time from its spine (to host additional services). Each bay can be manipulated autonomously, with changing requirements or technologies per function. Entrance Hall: 20 m long segments spanning 20 m, 4.95 to 6.25 m high, approx. 316 m² Central Corridor Dimensions: 11 m width, with 7 m bays Bays Dimensions: 7 m span, 20 m from corridor, 200 m² ea. Area: approx. 2,732 m² total for a 7 bay hospital

164 | 165

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07-12

SNOW ACCUMULATION Study on different building aggregations to identify snow accumulation patterns and its relation to hydrological productivity.

AMBITION 07-12.1

In an arctic context, snow frequently accumulates above and between buildings. This process also prevents accessibility and partially blocks transportation, and more so than snowfall itself. Snowdrift is described as a deposit of snow moved by wind and deposited in low pressure areas, particularly in relation to a stationary object. During this experiment, various building orientations and spacings were evaluated with regards to snow accumulation on and around a local transportation network. Dense snow accumulation areas have been identified to calculate significant surface runoff paths. This information can then be used to place a cistern in an optimal location in order to maximise water harvesting.

ASSUMPTIONS

As an analysis model, a simplified variation of the topographical model (p. 124) developed for the previous clustering experiments was used. Nine dwelling units (population 96, the densest population tested previously) were placed on the topographical model in a linear configuration, without geometrical modification. The study was carried out by using environmental data such as prevailing wind direction and speeds, and seasonal precipitation values of Inuvik.

SETUP

Subjecting these three-dimensional objects and topographical terrain to weather data, wind velocity was evaluated in threedimensional space. Regions of low wind speed are assumed to be those of snow accumulation.

07-12.2

07-12.3

The test was again carried out on a 4 hectare patch, changing two main parameters. Firstly, to demonstrate snow accumulation patterns between buildings, the distance between buildings is made variable. It was hypothesised that this could serve to identify optimal closeness between buildings without increasing snow accumulation between them. Secondly, the building orientations were also studied to observe their effect on local and overall snow accumulation patterns.

07-13

ACCUMULATION MODELLING Step by step explanation of the experimentation setup.

07-13.1

BUILDING AGGREGATION ON TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL

07-13.2

CFD ANALYSIS OF THE MODEL

07-13.3

ACCUMULATION MODEL ACCORDING TO PRECIPITATION

Wind speed 0

7 m/s

Maximum Snow Depth

07-13.4

SEASONAL SURFACE RUNOFF FLOW

0.5 m

Flow Rate 0

1 range

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07-13.5

DESIGN MODEL

accumulation area

drainage path

central cistern

OBSERVATIONS 07-13.6

The snow accumulation patterns generated from the CFD model suggest that by keeping the average distance between buildings more than 50 metres, the accumulation between buildings is significantly reduced. At this separation, it is observed that CFD analysis results are almost similar to individual tests on each building. In terms of rotation, aligning structures to wind direction enables snow accumulation in a larger area of the topographical model. On the other hand, aligning the structures perpendicular to prevailing winds creates an observable snow accumulation area behind the buildings.

CONCLUSIONS 07-13.7

In terms of informing a design model, it can be said that snow accumulation areas and the consequent surface runoff can inform the location of a central cistern and generation of a single or various drainage paths. Higher accumulation areas can be used to identify significant drainage paths with high flow rates to devise a catchment system.

07-13.8

ACCUMULATION PATTERNS

Average Building Distance [m] 50 Building Orientation [0] 90 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 50 Building Orientation [0] 45 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 50 Building Orientation [0] 0 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 70 Building Orientation [0] 90 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 70 Building Orientation [0] 45 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 70 Building Orientation [0] 0 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 90 Building Orientation [0] 90 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 90 Building Orientation [0] 45 Grid Orientation [0] 45

Average Building Distance [m] 90 Building Orientation [0] 0 Grid Orientation [0] 45

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07-14

DENSITY DISTRIBUTION A genetic algorithm to demonstrate the relationships between building aggregations, spacing, and agricultural productivity.

AMBITION 07-14.1

The premise of this experiment is to understand viable densities in an urban cluster pairing agricultural units with residential program.

GREENHOUSE QUANTITY

The designed model for bending-active agricultural greenhouses (“Greenhouse Type B: Agricultural Production” on p. 159) contains 245 m²; if 15% of the area is used as a trench, each greenhouse represents 208 m² of growing space. It is assumed that this type can yield 3 kg/m², where an inhabitant will consume 43 kg of greenhouse per year on average. Every greenhouse is therefore able to sustain 15 inhabitants.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

As discussed earlier (“Dwelling Units” on p. 156), the proposed dwelling type can be aggregated to house anywhere between 2 to 12 people. The importance of this design decision is that 44 inhabitants can be housed in 4 larger structures or 22 smaller units, and anywhere in between. While larger aggregations can accommodate more inhabitants more compactly inside a building, the larger a building, the more space it requires to arrange buildings around it. In a digital design model, this concept is simplified by creating a minimum radius from the centre of a building.

CONSTANTS

These assumptions are tested on a 4 ha patch (200 m x 200 m, or .04 km2), by assigning three greenhouses and their representative population of 44 inhabitants at 1,100 people per km2.

EVALUATION

In agricultural-residential clusters, due to the importance of solar radiation and challenge of designing with low sun angles, buildings should be arranged to reduce shading on both greenhouses and dwellings, while a contradicting criteria is the reduction of the average distance between buildings.

07-14.2

07-14.3

07-14.4

07-14.5

SETUP 07-14.6

Greenhouse

Circle Packing Algorithm

EVALUATION 07-14.7

maximum radius 4 BR Dwelling [units]: 12 Greenhouse Contributive Area [%]: 50.1 Greenhouse Shaded Area [m ]: 76.17 Dwelling Self-shading [m2]: 1633 Average Distance between Buildings [m]: 37.65 Total Radiation [gWh]: 3.25

minimum radius

4 bedroom dwelling kWh/m2 0

1125

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2 Bedroom Dwelling [units]: 20 Greenhouse Shaded Area [m²]: 11.05 Dwelling Self-shading [m²]: 1888.13 Average Distance between Buildings [m]: 29.37 Total Radiation [kWh]: 2956800.0

OBSERVATIONS 07-14.8

See “Greenhouse Distribution Genetic Algorithm Results” on p. A26 for GA individuals. The biggest observable differences between the individual clusters is due to the selection of building sizes. Larger aggregations of smaller units pack efficiently, reducing the average distance between dwelling units, but often yields more instances of buildings shading other buildings. Conversely, a smaller number of larger units takes up less area per inhabitant, which increases the remainder of area distributed between buildings. This has the unintended effect of spreading out these units more sparsely than necessary, with increased distances between buildings. These clusters are more successful in terms of reduced self-shading, have a reduced footprint on site, and more ground exposure. As might have been expected, the fittest individuals with regards to sun access for the greenhouse units were the ones in which the greenhouses were placed at the perimeter of the site, and those which attributed a large area to greenhouses. While the orientation of buildings was not a controlled variable, there is a visible difference between buildings oriented more East-West than North-South. Due to the low sun vectors used, shadow lengths were constant but their widths are directly

8 Bedroom Dwelling [units]: 3 10 Bedroom Dwelling [units]: 2 Greenhouse Shaded Area [m²]: 0 Dwelling Self-shading [m²]: 394 Average Distance between Buildings [m]: 108.16 Total Radiation [kWh]: 2925400.0

ORIENTATION

related to the primary orientation of a structure. The area of shadows therefore increases dramatically when buildings are oriented primarily East-West. The total radiation, however, does not vary as much, as the undulation of the geometry seems to ensure adequate surface area for solar exposure.

OBSERVATIONS

Aggregated buildings are more effective for sun access at the scale of the cluster, while smaller units are effective in packing and accessibility. Further developments will give preference to longer aggregations when possible to reduce material expenditure and provide opportunities to design windbreaks and open spaces, although this entails developing control of the orientation of the elongated structures to eliminate unnecessary shadow area.

07-14.9

07-14.10

With regards to building locations, greenhouse units can be given priority at the southern perimeter of a cluster to ensure food security. The integration of longer aggregations also introduces the possibility to insert greenhouse units in the wider spaces between them.

NEXT STEPS 07-14.11

While the building locations in this experiment were a consequence of relative density and size, a next step is made to devise these points specifically according to site preparation processes - via permafrost thawing and methane harvesting units.

172 | 173

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07-15

SOLAR ORIENTATION Testing the viability of a grid system to distribute thawing units at a regular interval and predetermine building locations accordingly.

AMBITION

It was seen in previous experiments that aggregated buildings are an efficient way to provide dwelling space for a population while significantly decreasing shadows and heat losses. Building orientation was revealed to be an important factor in environmental performance. As an exploration of the orientation of aggregated buildings, this experiment aims to relate the distribution of regular site preparation processes to the points that predetermine the alignment and interconnection of building elements.

GREENHOUSE GEOMETRY AND GRID ORIENTATION

The basic site preparation unit is the methane-harvesting greenhouse (“Greenhouse Type A: Loam Harvesting” on p. 158) used to thaw out permafrost and prevent frost heave on building foundations. The 35 m length is first evaluated for orientation, and geometry. Through a series of small geometrical explorations evaluated with Inuvik weather data, it was determined that the optimal curve to describe the deployment of bent rods for this greenhouse type is a 35 m long arc, with a 167.4° arc angle, oriented 28.17° from north. This particular geometry/orientation achieves the most total radiation (thawing), as well as the most sunlight hours (agricultural production).

BUILDING ALLOCATION WITHIN GRID

A regular grid oriented 28.17° from north was then used to describe the distribution of these elements on site. With these points distributed regularly with a spacing of 30 m in a 240 m x 240 m patch, it is assumed that aggregated structures are assembled between thaw points. This is described digitally by introducing a building layout’s ideal start and end points, and expressing it as a shortest path between the start/end points within the oriented grid (next page, bottom image).

07-15.1

07-15.2

07-15.3

The following investigations described in “Building Geometry and Solar Exposure” on p. 176 and “Oriented Building Distributions on a Regular Grid” on p. 178 seek to identify the ideal building orientation to reduce the shadows cast from one structure onto another and maximize solar gains.

Total Radiation [GWh]: 0.2323

Total Radiation [GWh]: 0.2061

167.4° arc angle, oriented 28.17° from north.

1. Grid points

2. Converted Greenhouse

28.170 N

Oriented building distribution between permafrost thawing locations at 30 m intervals

3. Building Orientation Expressed as Shortest Path Between Points

174 | 175

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07-16

BUILDING GEOMETRY AND SOLAR EXPOSURE Preliminary evaluation of building orientation, geometry and solar gains.

INTRODUCTION 07-15.4

SETUP 07-16.1

It was noted in the “Density Distribution” experiment that the orientation of buildings North-South yields dramatically less shadows than an East-West orientation with the low sun angles of the Arctic. The total radiation values were not significantly different, however. It was hypothesized that the undulation of the geometry helps ensure adequate surface area for solar exposure. A simple demonstration illustrates the role of surface variation in increasing total solar radiation on the proposed type. Individuals 1 and 2 of the next page are vary in span between 7 and 11 m, while individuals 3 and 4 are modeled as a continuous 9 m span. These are rotated 0° and 90° from North, respectively.

SURFACE UNDULATION

Individual 1 has the smallest shadow area, and the second highest radiation values after individual 2, which has the same morphology. This demonstrates that an undulated geometry is particularly useful for linear structures in the Arctic environment with regards to solar gains.

ORIENTATION

Both linear morphologies demonstrate higher radiation values when oriented East-West, at the expense of much larger shadow areas. The difference is approximately a third of the value when oriented North-South, and can be much greater with longer buliding aggregations. As mentioned previously, building structures should be oriented so as to not shade each other in a building cluster. The following experiment will therefore investigate the orientation of buildings in a cluster in terms of shadow creation and solar radiation.

07-16.2

07-16.3

Avg. Shadow Area [m²] 49.0099 Total Radiation [GWh] 0.2072

Avg. Shadow Area [m²] 151.6216 Total Radiation [GWh] 0.2088

Avg. Shadow Area [m²] 58.8651 Total Radiation [GWh] 0.2061

Avg. Shadow Area [m²] 150.9189 Total Radiation [GWh] 0.2071

176 | 177

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07-17

ORIENTED BUILDING DISTRIBUTIONS ON A REGULAR GRID Evaluation of various residential and agricultural units.

SETUP 07-17.1

As in the previous genetic algorithm “Density Distribution” on p. 170, genes describe two building types, the location of four greenhouses, the location of a population centre, and a surplus area distribution parameter for a circle packing algorithm. A new gene was introduced which described the orientation of all dwelling types on site. These orientations were then described as paths on a network of curves that connect thaw points, which is then used to generate a dwelling. The same greenhouse-to-dwelling quantity relationships established in the earlier experiment and “Hydrological Productivity” on p. 120 were also maintained. 8 units of 8 Bedroom dwellings (four domes) were used.

EVALUATION

The average sun vector for the month of January was used as a worst-case scenario from which to measure the long sun shadows from low sun. As in the density distribution experiment, these variables were subjected to a genetic algorithm that sought to decrease the average distance between buildings, decrease the amount of shadow cast from buildings to each other, and increase the total solar radiation.

OBSERVATIONS

As anticipated, orienting length of the buildings to the average sun vector yields considerably smaller shadow area, and much less instances of buildings shading other buildings. After running this genetic algorithm for 25 generations, the fittest individuals began to converge at around 85°.

07-17.2

07-17.3

The use of a regular grid system introduces various opportunities in terms of design, particularly with the combination of segments of various angles. It allows for regular intersections between buildings, which is grounds for creating geometrical modifications at the intersections between buildings. One of the drivers was the decreased distances between buildings. The introduction of a grid system is potentially a way to devise these building layouts without use of a circle packing algorithm.

CONCLUSIONS 07-17.4

Design exercises “07-14” and “07-15” use a relative location of buildings to hint at the effect of orientation and sizes of greenhouse-residence clusters. What is readily apparent is the need for a hierarchical distribution of functions, and timebased strategies.

07-17.5

8 units 8 BR Dwelling Building Orientation [deg] 85.09 Avg. Proximity [m] 29.79 Self-Shaded Area [m²] 55.06 Building Area [m²] 4189.19 Total Radiation [GWh] 7.54

07-17.6

8 units 8 BR Dwelling Building Orientation [deg] 147.19 Avg. Proximity [m] 29.57 Self-Shaded Area [m²] 510.57 Building Area [m²] 4154.4 Total Radiation [GWh] 7.59

07-17.7

8 units 8 BR Dwelling Building Orientation [deg] 147.19 Avg. Proximity [m] 31.98 Self-Shaded Area [m²] 476.39 Building Area [m²] 4180.4 Total Radiation [GWh] 7.64

178 | 179

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Fig. 56: Centralised networks, often referred to as “utilidors” in the Canadian Arctic, are enclosed utility conduits that protect essential utilities such as water and sewage from permafrost and the extreme environment.

07-18

CLUSTER ORGANIZATION BY FUNCTION Evaluation of various residential and agricultural units. See Appendix for all results.

AMBITION

To study relationships of the building types developed, four cluster types have been proposed for further evaluation. These have been selected as functional pairings: (1.) residential and agricultural units, (2.) commercial structures and public services, (3.) educational facilities and residential units, and (4.) a market type in relation to small businesses. The hierarchical relationships between these different functions and the environmental performance at the cluster scale has been modeled and analysed.

DESIGN CONSTANTS

The Settlement Growth Model incorporated the maximum viable population of a semi-autonomous building cluster by calculating the amount of water that could be harvested. A large cistern, illustrated in red on the next page, defines an element around which buildings aggregate. This unit serves as a central distribution point for water and resources via utilidor networks (above), and has the potential to be designed as a meaningful outdoor space.

07-18.1

07-18.2

A circle packing algorithm has again been used to distribute buildings within an oriented grid. As per previous experiments, an average orientation of 85° has been assumed for all linear buildings, which then defines the selection of building points within the network of thaw points.

VARIABLES 07-18.3

Varying the necessary area of each building type and their positions within the circle packing algorithm, this experiment seeks to evaluate functional distributions in terms of integration or isolation. Additionally, 3 different network models have been developed (next page) as: (1.) a centralised model that privileges a specific function, (2.) a minimum spanning tree that connects buildings by using minimum amount of segments and (3.) lastly, a ring model that relates buildings to the perimeter.The aim of the following experiments is to define the most suitable network organization for four following programmatic cluster types.

07-19

NETWORK MODELS Evaluation of various network types for different cluster types.

RING MODEL 07-19.1

CENTRALISED MODEL 07-19.2

MIN. ST 07-19.3

Cistern

Utilidors Closeness 0

180 | 181

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07-20

GENETIC ALGORITHM 1 / RESIDENTIAL AND AGRICULTURAL Evaluation of various residential and agricultural units.

SETUP 07-20.1

The residential-agricultural cluster, which has been the subject of study of earlier clustering experiments, has a particular set of criteria specific to both functions. The greenhouses on site must have maximal solar radiation and sunlight hours, for which wider spacing between buildings may serve to guarantee productivity and reduce self-shading. At the same time, proximity reduces the amount of necessary utilidor infrastructure to be built. The selected network topology must be able to generate similar accessibility to all residential units in the cluster (as defined by closeness centrality values) to increase the effectiveness of municipal services such as snow, removal, trash collection and maintenance (“Inuvik” on p. 104).

OBSERVATIONS 07-20.2

With the given requirements, the results of the genetic algorithm reached convergence at the 11th generation, where the majority of the individuals’ network model was a ring model, which ensures year-round functionality and equal accessibility for residential units. The result is not unlike what is currently in place in Inuvik, and can be further developed as a way to describe pedestrian and vehicular pathways.

See “Residential and Agricultural Pairing [Generation 11]” on p. A28 for more results.

07-20.3

GA RESULTS

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1287.78 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.19 Self-Shading [m²] 542.24 Built Area [m²] 3765.01

07-20.4

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1364.01 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.45 Self-Shading [m²] 445.7 Built Area [m²] 3975.6

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1233.41 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.39 Self-Shading [m²] 552.99 Built Area [m²] 3765.7

DESIGN MODEL

182 | 183

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07-21

GENETIC ALGORITHM 2 / SMALL BUSINESS AND PUBLIC SERVICES Evaluation of various small business and public services arrangements.

SETUP

With the same circle packing and oriented grid, a cluster of small businesses and public services has very different requirements than an agricultural-residential pairing. It requires a networked organisation in which commercial structures enjoy higher closeness centrality on average (Defined in “Centrality” on page 86); so that small businesses can have equal opportunity to be active players in the network. At the same time, public services should have more betweenness (p. 86), where these building locations exist at a few points that are at a crucial location for network flow.

OBSERVATIONS

This experiment was run with what was seemingly too many Public Services buildings, and while a number of the fittest individuals displayed centralised organisation, there seemed to be a difficulty in distributing commercial units. In general, the tendency was towards a centralised model with less public services.

07-21.1

07-21.2

In comparison to the previous experiment, where a ring network provides redundant paths, centralised networks require longer utilidor network lengths in total.

Fig. 57: A concept for a cistern/public space combination can be devised similar to how the Gammel Hellerup Gymnasium by BIG creates an informal meeting place.

PROPOSED DESIGN 07-21.3

A centralised services model, with a network design as a minimum spanning tree, will be developed further for a small business and public services cluster. A centralised cistern, a result of the preference for shorter utilidor lengths, is also an opportunity to develop its surface as an outdoor space in relation to a dominant public services building.

See “Small Business and Public Services [Generation 21]” on p. A29 for more results.

07-21.4

GA RESULTS

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1997.44 Betweenness of Public Services [%] 0.5 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.87 Built Area [m²] 8670.58

07-21.5

Utilidor Network Length [m] 2166.64 Betweenness of Public Services [%] 0.31 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.84 Built Area [m²] 9371.92

DESIGN MODEL

184 | 185

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| Design Development

07-22

GENETIC ALGORITHM 3 / RESIDENTIAL AND EDUCATION Evaluation of relationship between residential and educational facilities.

SETUP

As in the previous cluster with residential units, residences should have a more homogenous distribution to ensure the efficiency of municipal services. The inclusion of a school, however, requires an organisation in which a school and a cistern/open space are centralised as integral functions (increased betweenness values), while surrounding residential buildings have a less deviation from the average closeness values.

OBSERVATIONS

Due to the large size of the designed educational facility, and use of a circle packing algorithm, the genetic algorithm did not tend to centralise the educational facility. It did, however, frequently generate ring networks in later generations, which, as discussed earlier, serves to facilitate equalised accessibility. The proposed design model will therefore be developed as a ring network.

07-22.1

07-22.2

See “Residential and Education Pairing [Generation 19]” on p. A30 for more results.

07-22.3

GA RESULTS

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1032.43 Betweenness of School Bldg [%] 0.7 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.51 Built Area [m²] 4342.62

07-22.4

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1135.18 Betweenness of School Bldg [%] 0.44 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.56 Built Area [m²] 4799.12

DESIGN MODEL

186 | 187

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| Design Development

07-23

GENETIC ALGORITHM 4 / SMALL BUSINESS AND MARKET TYPE Evaluation of relationships between small business and a market building type.

SETUP

Increasing the betweenness of a market building and open space in a cluster makes it a central function for the general public, but equalized distribution (evaluated as closeness) of both commercial units and a market structure ensures healthy competition.

OBSERVATIONS

The emergent organisation yields a centralised market building and cistern, which will be evaluated further in the design proposal as a centralised model.

07-23.1

07-23.2

See “Small Business and Market Building [Generation 30]” on p. A31 for more results.

07-23.3

GA RESULTS

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1569.21 Betweenness of Market [%] 0.41 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.62 Built Area [m²] 7336.46

07-23.4

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1352.76 Betweenness of Market [%] 0.59 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.57 Built Area [m²] 6645.16

DESIGN MODEL

188 | 189

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07-24

CONCLUSIONS Evaluations of design and research advancements in the Design Development chapter.

DESIGN METHODS SNOW ACCUMULATION 07-24.1

The experiment “Snow Accumulation” on p. 166 validates the idea of semi-autonomous building clusters in the Canadian Arctic, where precipitation and surface runoff can be measured on a topographical object. Using CFD analysis to measure the effects of buildings on each other with regards to snow accumulation is lacks precision due to topographical variations, where buildings have as much of an effect as topography. However, this method has been useful in observing accumulated snow areas on the topography as a result of building density and orientation. The accumulation study informs other resource gathering processes such as water harvesting considering the water shortage for human consumption due to the contamination of the MacKenzie River (p. 98).

SOLAR ACCESS

The sun is a precious resource, as it is the primary source of thermal gain and both the building envelopes and the outdoor surface should benefit as much as possible from it. Although solar access to open ground conditions in relation to building clusters has not yet been evaluated, this would be a significant advancement.

SELF-SHADING

In the design of arctic settlements, solar access and strategic proxemics are contradicting criteria for evaluation. As previously discussed, the obvious solution is to orient the long axis of buildings East-West, although this immediately creates higher instances of self-shading with the low sun angles of the arctic. This is overcome by spacing buildings out more sparsely, which proves inconvenient for accessibility.

07-24.2

07-24.3

“Building Geometry and Solar Exposure” on p. 176 highlights an alternative solution brought about by geometrical variation, where northerly alignment of buildings is worth considering as it allows similar solar radiation with significantly reduced shadow areas.

DESIGN MODEL EVALUATION ASSUMPTION OF INTERIOR OCCUPATION

Given the extreme climate, the system has been assembled under the assumption of creating habitability through safe enclosure, but requires some reevaluation as to the abundant leftover spaces between buildings. As solar gains, minimal shading, and decreased snow accumulation have been prioritised, the resultant scheme leaves wide spaces between the designed linear units. As a whole, the system has been designed for extreme climate conditions but leaves plenty of unused gaps between buildings that might have otherwise been an opportunity for designing outdoor space.

WINDBREAKS AND PEDESTRIAN COMFORT

While high wind speeds notably increase the chill factor and decrease the level of thermal comfort in a space, the snow that they can carry can also block or impede the access to buildings, further decreasing the appeal that an outdoor space might have for any activity. As such, a part of relevant network strategy should incorporate the strategic allocation of snow fences and windbreaks that will provide thermal comfort and year-round use of buildings and the pathways that connect them.

07-24.4

07-24.5

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT DENSITY EVALUATION

As residential density has been redefined not by the amount of single family homes but by the agglomeration of various dwellings into one structure, it would be useful to quantify the advantages or disadvantages of this method of achieving density in an Arctic context.

NETWORK HIERARCHY

Once the topological relationships described in the”Cluster Organization by Function” on p. 180 have been developed, the next design development consists of interpreting and designing these networks as pedestrian and vehicular circulation.

07-24.6

07-24.7

190 | 191

8. DESIGN PROPOSAL

Introduction

194

SYSTEM DETAILS �� 196 Wind Energy 201 THERMAL LAYERS, ZONES AND PARTITIONS �� 202 Partitions 204 Sectional Variations 206 Market Interface 210 Educational Type 212 CENTRALISED RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION �� 216 Pedestrianised Utility Conduits 218 SETTLEMENT DESIGN �� 220 SEQUENTIAL OCCUPATION �� 222

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| Design Proposal

08-1

INTRODUCTION Integrated strategies for networked design. This section illustrates assembly details and relevant variations of the proposed building type. The relevant system details demonstrate the association of various components in the proposed material system. It is important to note that a wide range of other possibilities for material specifications might be pursued as the system is open to all sorts of alterations depending on context-specific availability. Variations of the dwelling type are discussed. Up to this point, buildings have been generated as simple linear aggregations on a base-curve. Two strategies are elaborated for volumetric differentiation: layering shells and sectional variations. These have begun to indicate possibilities of designing for interior partitions and thermal zones. Two building types are illustrated in detail: a market and an educational type. The notion of a centralised utility conduit has been elaborated further to illustrate how it can be designed within a pedestrian network at the scale of the settlement, using many of the guide parameters discussed so far. This ensures year-round pedestrian access while also expediting maintenance of utilities. Finally, a comprehensive settlement design is described in steps. Considerations of time, an important factor in sequential occupation, are demonstrated as a time-based transformation between greenhouse harvesting and a construction sequence.

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08-2

SYSTEM DETAILS Detailed drawings and explanation of material requirements for variation of proposed structure

1 1.2

ELEVATED BULIDING SECTION DETAIL 08-1.1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Vacuumed bags 8 m length rods Steel wire Floor deck Aluminum window frame Gravel sack Double glazing Timber frame

1.2 Bag to bag connection detail

4 6 3

5 8

VACUUMATIC PANEL BAG 08-2.1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Screws Steel ties Plastic bag Weatherproof cover Loam infill Vacuum connector Plastic pipe Steel rods

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| Design Proposal

1.4

1.5

2 6

ELEVATED BULIDING SECTION DETAIL 08-2.2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Box truss Steel wire Cross bracing Triple glazing Steel ties Floor plate Frame sill plate

1.4 Wındow detail 1.5 Side window detail

WINDOW DETAIL

08-2.3 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Screws Plywood clamps Windows transom Steel window frame Double glazing

4 3

SIDE WINDOW DETAIL 08-2.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Rods Window sill Cross bracing Floor beam Steel wire Floor plate Box truss

198 | 199

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| Design Proposal

Wings

Mill connection

Mill bearer

Steel wires

08-3

WIND ENERGY Possibilities in sustainable energy harvesting.

WIND HARVESTING 08-2.5

Sustainable energy is a difficult subject in the Arctic. The region is facing economic opportunity with resource extraction as its coal and oil sources are becoming easier to exploit with climate change. In terms of renewable energy, solar energy is also quite challenging- the Arctic Circle defines the portion of the Earth in which the sun does not set for 24 consecutive hours at least once, and does not rise for at least 24 consecutive hours. The high winds in the Arctic, however, are quite promising. The incorporation of wind harvesting units is deemed worthy of further exploration for Arctic settlements.

200 | 201

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| Design Proposal

08-4

THERMAL LAYERS, ZONES AND PARTITIONS Integrated strategies for networked design.

SEASONAL SPACE AND STORAGE 08-4.1

Anthropologists such as Peter Dawson have studied how the Euro-Canadian houses built in the 1950s and 1960s did not accommodate many of the key activities of their predominantly Inuit inhabitants. In large part this is due to the lack of large open spaces and storage. Dawson notes, “While Inuit families concentrate a wide range of activities in a few highly integrated spatial locations, the activities of EuroCanadian families are more widely dispersed throughout the house.” Variation of the proposed type might be integrated into the open use of the house, particularly incorporating the parking and storage of snowmobiles, ATVs, boats, hunting equipment, and winter gear.

LAYERED SHELLS 08-4.2

The linear aggregation can be layered to create mudrooms, where outer clothing and seasonal equipment can be stored before proceeding to the interior.

SECTION

10 ft

08-4.3

A’

AA’’

E C D

AA’’

A’

WORM’S EYE PLAN

08-4.4

A. Common space / Heat Zones B. Domestic space C. Equipment and Large Game Storage D. Transition zone E. Entrance E

A B

202 | 203

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| Design Proposal

08-5

PARTITIONS Integrated strategies for networked design.

DESIGN 08-5.1

Intersecting a series of bent rods creates an opportunity for the design of partitions. These can be incorporated as an internal element that houses a heat source and storage for quotidian objects.

AXONOMETRIC 08-5.2

Common area

Kitchenette

Entrance Washroom/storage Sleeping quarters Heat source

SUNKEN ENTRANCE GEOMETRY 08-5.3

HEAT SOURCES FROM PARTITIONS 08-5.4

PARTITIONS FROM BENT RODS 08-5.5

204 | 205

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| Design Proposal

08-6

SECTIONAL VARIATIONS Integrated strategies for networked design.

RESIDENTIAL TYPES

Seasonal storage and thermal layers can also be achieved in section, as a shared amenity between various units. This creates a semi-open or semi-public space in which vehicles can be kept, and large animals can be skinned.

COMMERCIAL TYPE: PROTECTED WALKWAY

One common danger of arctic environments is the presence of “black ice,” a thin coating of glazed ice on a surface. As not always immediately visible, icy pedestrian paths pose a great danger as the frequent cause of slips and trips. One way to prevent an icy surface from forming and keep pedestrians safe is the use of covered walkway.

08-5.6

08-5.7

The proposed building type for commercial structures can be raised over public staircases protectively. Consequently, this strategy may serve as an architectural interface between the public and commercial realms, i.e. vitrines, recreational areas and outdoor terraces for the warmer periods.

COMMERCIAL TYPE: PROTECTED WALKWAY 08-6.1

RESIDENTIAL TYPE: SEASONAL STORAGE 08-6.2

vehicular storage and food preparation

seasonal equipment storage

CANOPY 08-6.3

C shared protected space

206 | 207

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| Design Proposal

chimney

fenestration detail

tension ties

floor boards

SEASONAL EQUIPMENT

triple glazing

VEHICULAR STORAGE

Soil Horizons

A E B1 B2

Former Permafrost Line

3m 10 ft

208 | 209

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| Design Proposal

08-7

MARKET INTERFACE

210 | 211

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| Design Proposal

08-8

EDUCATIONAL TYPE In “Educational Program” on p. 160, the design of educational facilities was discussed, where this typology is frequently used in the Canadian arctic as a center of congregation. For this reason, the proposed educational type is designed to enclose a public space. “Cluster Organization by Function” on p. 180 discusses the possibility of reinventing central cisterns as public spaces. This rendition of an educational type proposes the arrangement of educational facilities around a central public space and cistern.

212 | 213

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| Design Proposal

214 | 215

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| Design Proposal

08-10

CENTRALISED RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION Integrated strategies for networked design.

Snow Fence

UTILIDOR AS WALKWAY

Light Post

08-9.1

Floor Boards Electricity/Gas Sewage Collection Water Delivery

NETWORK DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES 08-9.2

DESIGN 08-9.3

Centralised networks, often refered to as “utilidors” in the Canadian Arctic, are enclosed utility conduits that protect essential utilities such as water and sewage from permafrost and the extreme environment. Reinventing these functions within a pedestrian network ensures their accessibility for ease of maintenance. Once the topological relationships described in the “Cluster Organization by Function” on p. 180 have been developed, the next design development consists of interpreting and designing these networks as pedestrian and vehicular circulation.

RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION AS UTILIDOR

C. Road

08-10.1

B. Protected Pedestrian Path

A. Road + Protected Pedestrian Path Cistern

ARCTIC PIPE 08-10.2

Metal Jacket

H/D Polyurethane PVC/HDPE Carrier

Control Sensor

Temperature Limit Sensor Conduit Heating Cable

Pipe Insulation

216 | 217

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| Design Proposal

08-11

PEDESTRIANISED UTILITY CONDUITS UTILIDOR DESIGN 08-10.3

The incorporation of bent rods creates a series of “snow fences” which has two functions which ensure year-round functionality. Firstly, the partial cladding of the surface oriented to prevailing winds protects the path from the accumulation of snow. This is easily achieved with wood scraps that are not suitable for the proposed system. Secondly, the inclusion of a lighting system ensures use during the dark winter months.

218 | 219

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| Design Proposal

08-12

SETTLEMENT DESIGN Integrated strategies for networked design.

INPUTS 08-12.1

The design of a settlement or any of the building clusters that constitutes it begins with a hydrological model that combines precipitation and topographical data. “Hydrological Productivity” on p. 120

CISTERN LOCATIONS 08-12.2

BUILDING DISTRIBUTIONS 08-12.3

Once a network of drainage channels has been determined, the optimum location of a cistern or various cisterns can be predicted, as well as the amount of water estimated to be harvested with each unit. This in turn dictates the maximum viable population. A regular grid of 35 x 35 m describes the possible locations of greenhouses. These points consequently describe the points through which the arches of the proposed type are distributed. “Land Transformation and Occupation Cycle” on p. 134 “Solar Orientation” on p. 158 “Building Geometry and Solar Exposure” on p. 176 “Oriented Building Distributions on a Regular Grid” on p. 178

UTILIDORS/TRANSPORT 08-12.4

Once buildings have been laid out on site, the appropriate utilidor network can also be distributed. It is assumed that drainage channels are also part of a pedestrian network. In line with the idea of creating perimeter roads to maintain access and municipal services, vehicular transport can be attributed at the perimeter of each autonomous building cluster, with a cistern as its cell nucleus. “Cluster Organization by Function” on p. 180 “Centralised Resource Distribution” on p. 216 “Pedestrianised Utility Conduits” on p. 218

INUVIK SAMPLE 08-12.5

As the results of the settlement growth pattern experiment suggested that the south facing slope at the southeast portion of Inuvik is favourable due to the area’s low and fast thawing permafrost condition, this area has been developed in a digital model to illustrate this settlement pattern (next page). “Settlement Growth Model” on p. 142

TOPOGRAPHICAL + HYDROLOGICAL DATA

undisturbed ground

08-13.1

flow lines

HYDROLOGICAL MODEL

greenhouse units

08-13.2

drainage channel central cistern

UTILIDOR/TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

completely thawed zone

08-13.3

08-13

utilidors

snow fences

BUILDING DISTRIBUTION

dwelling units

08-13.4

public buildings road division

public space

INTEGRATED MODEL 08-13.5

220 | 221

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08-14

SEQUENTIAL OCCUPATION Integrated strategies for networked design.

SEQUENCE 08-14.1

The following images illustrate the sequential occupation and construction of various components at the scale of the autonomous cluster as permafrost thaws.

SITE PREPARATION 08-14.2

The first step is the placement of low greenhouse units and extraction of loam to accelerate the thawing of permafrost.

INFRASTRUCTURE 08-14.3

As permafrost thaws, building construction and organisation of transportation infrastructure takes place.

GREENHOUSE RECONFIGURATION 08-14.4

After the complete thaw of permafrost, low greenhouse units are reconfigured into taller agricultural units.

BUILDING COMPLETION AND USE 08-14.5

As occupation begins, resource distribution and the placement of public functions takes place within an urban patch.

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9. CONCLUSIONS

Material System and Proposed Type Clustering Strategies Conclusion

226 228 229

60°N

| Conclusions

09-1

MATERIAL SYSTEM AND PROPOSED TYPE The potentials and limitations of the project in terms of both the material system developed and the integrated growth logic.

PROPOSED TYPE 09-1.1

The proposed system proves to be an appropriate building strategy for the complex Arctic environment. The use of vacuumatic loam assemblies as a building material promises to address challenges of material scarcity, reconfigurability, and thermal performance. Under the assumption that there is rising economic and strategic interest in pioneering the New North, it may well respond to a housing deficit and future demands within a sustainable framework that is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a settlement’s life-cycle from siting and construction, to modification and deconstruction. The building types developed differ significantly from the current Euro-Canadian panellised designs. The dome-like geometrical variations that resulted from the requirement of increased solar radiation has the effect of creating heat zones in the interior. When compared to traditional uses of Inuit homes, this approach is more suited to the way the northern societies of Canada occupy their homes where fewer and larger common spaces are preferred over a larger number of smaller private spaces (Strub, 1996) . Given the role of bent rods in the designed assembly sequence, the range of morphological variation is limited to linear aggregations of loam shell assemblies. The integration of building types that are not suitable for construction with the proposed material system, such as airport hangars, have not yet been contextualised or accommodated in the preceding studies. The designed structures promise resistance to structure’s wracking due to frost heave, since the vacuumatic system allows a high degree of reconfigurability. Sections of the building which start to experience wracking can be simply be

MATERIAL SYSTEM 09-1.2

inflated and deflated again to acquire the desired shape and better follow the ground profile. There are also low transport and construction costs of loamas an abundant, renewable and inexpensive resource. It accounts for more than 90% of the building’s total mass and can be locally harvested at very low costs. While the plastic membranes, being extremely light and easy to pack, will account for relatively low shipping costs. The proposed construction method involves a simple site layout, no expensive ground works, and the deployment of the structure simply through the bending of rigid rods through tension ties. Current building methods require more time and a greater amount of more skilled labourers. Further investigation needs to be developed on the mechanical requirements of bending spruce thinnings or bundles into place, and maintaining geometry in place.

FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS 09-1.3

The proposed type has been designed to conform logistical, structural and environmental criteria. Although spatial qualities have not been explored in detail, this study has presented various differentiated configurations that begin to introduce preliminary mudrooms and the organisation of heat zones. Qualitative and functional comparison with existing and traditional types remains a crucial point for investigation. The prioritising of the thermal capacities of vacuumatic shells contradicts the resultant light qualities. Light conditions of the interior spaces presented so far have been created in two ways: (1.) the strategic allocation of fenestration elements and (2.) the incorporation of a fenestrated structure at ground level (previously described in this document as a box truss).

226 | 227

60°N

| Conclusions

09-2

CLUSTERING STRATEGIES The potentials and limitations of the clustering strategies developed for the proposed material system and building type.

POTENTIALS OF VERTICAL INTEGRATION

BUILDING DISTRIBUTION

Strategies for clustering are aimed at maximising the role of the sun as a resource for winter heat. As seen in the Design Development Chapter, maximised solar gains and proximity are contradictory design principles when it comes to the spacing and orientation of structures in arctic settlements. A significant advancement was made in relating an undulated building geometry to increased solar radiation, which allows a more northerly orientation and therefore reduced building shadows.

09-2.1

09-2.2

As previously discussed, the resulting outdoor spaces do not have any specified function or quality. To devise a more complete strategy for planning of buildings in an Arctic town functions are a crucial point to be investigated.

RESOURCE AUTONOMY 09-1.4

The role of resource autonomy is a major driver for the system as developed so far. While there are other building foundations technologies that will prevent differential settlement without requiring a lengthy thaw period as described in the Research Development chapter, the permafrost thawing strategy does not require advanced machinery, has reduced material expenditure, and diminishes the role of imported materials in construction. The capacity of these structures to be easily converted into agriculturally productive structures further reinforces the notion of resource autonomy at the operational stages of a cluster. The day-to-day management and functions of these agricultural units has yet to be explored in detail- the development of which might signify more carefully considered cluster designs.

09-3

CONCLUSION An Arctic Synthesis as the combination of different elements to form a connected whole.

ARCTIC SYNTHESIS 09-3.1

The increasing strategic and economic interest in the Arctic will inevitably cause an increase in the population living above 60°North. Whether existing settlements, towns or hamlets are going to expand, or new urban agglomerations are going to form, this project proposes a system that integrates the growth of these clusters with the ever-changing context of the Tundra biome. In order to make this proposed strategy more than just an utopic vision, great care was taken to drive the concept of resource autonomy with an integrated low-technology material, building and settlement type. Early material experiments were carried out as 1:1 physical prototypes during the MSc stage of this work. These were abstracted digitally for exploration and evaluation across various scales from assembled arches, building types, building arrangements, and ultimately as the large scale growth of a settlement as a timebased simulation taking into account resource utilisation rates. The work has been contextualised specifically in the Northwest Territories of Canada for the abundance of information available, but the ideas embedded are intended to be easily replicated and readjusted throughout the fastchanging New North. An Arctic Synthesis is a holistic approach to building at high latitudes. An experiment to combine several different elements in the buildings, settlements and landscape, to form a connected whole.

228 | 229

10.

REFERENCES

BIBLIOGRAPHY �� 232 IMAGE REFERENCES �� 235

60°N

| References

BIBLIOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION Dawson, P. C. (1997). “Variability in Traditional and Non-Traditional Inuit Architecture, AD. 1000 to Present”. Calgary, AB: University of Calgary. Emmerson, Charles, and Glada Lahn. (2012). “Arctic Opening: Opportunity and Risk in the High North. Lloyd’s Risk Insight”. N.p. Web. Retrieved 09 May 2015. Hampson, C. (2011). “Arctic Adaptive: Responsive design in the Canadian North”. Ryerson University theses and disserations. Paper 1052. Nsidc.org,. (2015). “Arctic Tree Line | National Snow and Ice Data Centre”. Retrieved 18 May 2015, from https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/glossary/term/arctic-tree-line Smith, Laurence C. (2011). “Martell’s Hairy Prize.” Introduction. “The New North: The World in 2050. London”. UNESCO, (2009). “Climate Change and Arctic Sustainable Development” UNESCO Publishing, Paris. Waldron, A. (2009). “Frobisher Bay Future: Megastructure in a Meta-Land”. AI, 8, 20-35.

DOMAIN Arctic Life: Challenge to Survive, edited by MartinaMagenau Jacobs and James B. Richardson III, pp. 73-112. Carnegie Mu-seum of Natural History, Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh. Bhatia, N. Bremer, T. Casper, M. et al (2012) “Drift house: Housing Protoype for Northern Climates, Canada, 2012” : Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts. Bone, R. M. (2009) “The Canadian North: Issues and Challenges”. (3rd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CHMC), (1987). “Shipping and Marshalling in the Northwest Territories”. Retrieved 2nd June from: [https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/corp/li/index.cfm] Dawson, P. (2003) “Examining the impact of Euro-Canadian architecture on Inuit families living in Arctic Canada”, in: J. Hanson (Ed.) Proceedings: Space Syntax: 4th International Symposium, pp. 21.1–21.16. Volume 1 of 2 Ferrians, O.J. (1969). “Permafrost and Related Engineering Problems in Alaska” Geological Survey Professional Paper 678, U.S. Printing Office, Washington. Jia, G. J., Epstein H., and D. A. Walker, (1981-2001) “Greening of arctic Alaska, , Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(20). Lewis, L. E. (1978) “Development of and evaporation map for the state of Wyoming for purposes of estimated evaporation and evapotranspiration” Department of Civil Engineering, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY. Matus, V. (1988). “Design for northern climates : cold-climate planning and environmental design”. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Mauss, M. Beuchat, H.(1979) “Seasonal Variation of the Eskimo: A Study in Social Morphology”, trans. by James J. Fox. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. (Originally published1904–1905, Année Sociologique 9). Mc Ghee, R. N.(1983) “Eskimo Prehistory”.

McFadden, T. (2001) “Design Manual for New Foundations on Permafrost” PTF Publications, Anchorage, Alaska. Murdoch, J. (1982) “Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition. In: Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology for the Years 1887–88” Government Printing Of Ice, Washington, DC. Permafrost Technology Foundation PTF, (2000) “Design Manual for New Foundations on Permafrost”. PTF Publications, Anchorage, Alaska. Port of Anchorage (POA), (2011). “Alaska’s Lifeline: Cargo Distribution Patterns from the Port of Anchorage to Southcentral, Northern, Western and SouthEast Alaska”. Anchorage, Alaska. Strub, H. (1996) Bare Poles, Building Design for High Latitudes. Ottawa, ON: Carleton University Press. Tabler, R. D. (1991) “ Snow Fence Guide” Strategic Highway Defence Program SHRP-W/FR-91-106, Washington, US. The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CISBE) (2006) “Environmental design: Guide A” Issue 2. Cibse Publications, Norwich, UK. U.S Department of the Army (1987) “Technical Manual TM -5-852: Arctic and subarctic construction” Vol. 1. Faribanks, Alaska.

MATERIAL SYSTEM Hudson, S. H. (2012). “Mechanical Characterization of Jammable Granular Systems” Massachussets Institute of Technology BSc Dissertation. Boston, MA. Huijben, F. (2014) “Vacuumatics: 3D Formwork Systems”. Eindhoven University of Technology PhD dissertatio. Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Lappalainen, E. (1996) “Global Peat Resources”. International Peat Society, Finland Lienhard, J. (2014). “Bending-Active Structures: form-finding strategies using elastic deformation in static and kinetic systems and the structural potentials”. PhD Dissertation, ITKE Stuttgart, Germany. Minke, G. (2006). “Building with Earth: Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture”. Birkhauser Publishers, Berlin, Germany. North American Wetlands Conservation Council Committee (NAWCC), (2001). “ Canadian Peat Harvesting and the Environment” Issues Paper, No. 2001-1. Ottawa, Ontario.

METHODS Hillier, B. “Introduction to Space is the Machine”. Cambridge University Press, pp1-8. Hillier, B (2009). “Spatial Sustainability in Cities: Organic Patterns and Sustainable Forms”. Proceedings of the 7th International Space Syntax Symposium. Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). Stockholm, Sweden.

SITE Albertsen, E., Harper, K., & De Fields, D. (2014). Structure and Composition of Tree Islands and Krummholz within the Forest-Tundra Ecotone in Central and Eastern Canada. ARCTIC, 67(3), 396. http://dx.doi.org/10.14430/arctic4400 Aurora Research Institute,. (2007). Executive Progress Report for Wind Energy Monitoring in Six Communities in the NWT. Inuvik, NT: Aurora College. Aurora Research Institute,. (2015). Pre-Feasibility Analysis: 2015. Inuvik, NT: Aurora College.

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60°N

| References

Canadian Forest Inventory Committee (CFIC),. (2016). Ground Sampling Guidelines. Retrieved from https://nfi.nfis.org/documentation/ground_plot/Gp_guidelines_v4.1.pdf Health Canada. (2016) (pp. 169 - 194). Ottawa, Ontario. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca Meier, E. (2015). Wood! identifying and using hundreds of wood worldwide. [United States]: The Wood Database. Natural Resources Canada,. (2014). State of Canada’s forests report. Retrieved 30 January 2016, from http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/forests/report/16496 Nfi.nfis.org,. (2016). Canada’s National Forest Inventory: Monitoring the Sustainability of Canada’s Forests. Retrieved 30 January 2016, from https://nfi.nfis.org/forest_themes.php?lang=en Statistics Canada,. (2016). Focus on Geography Series, 2011 Census - Northwest Territories. Retrieved 30 January 2016, from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/ Town of Inuvik,. (2015). Zoning By-Law 2583/P+D/15. Inuvik, NWT: Dillon Consulting Limited.

RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT Comeau, P., Kabzems, R., McClarnon, J., & Heineman, J. (2005). Implications of selected approaches for regenerating and managing western boreal mixedwoods. The Forestry Chronicle, 81(4), 559-574. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc81559-4 Ferguson, Dennis E.; Carlson, Clinton E. (2010). Height-age relationships for regeneration-size trees in the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Res. Pap. RMRS-RP-82WWW. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 19 p. Huuskonen, S., & Hynynen, J. (2006). Timing and intensity of precommercial thinning and their effects on the first commercial thinning in Scots pine stands. Silva Fennica, 40(4). http://dx.doi.org/10.14214/ sf.320 Krieger, C. (1998). The Effects of Tree Spacing on Diameter, height and Branch Size in White Spruce (13th ed.). Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada: P.E.I. Department of Agriculture and Forestry, Forestry Division. Lei, X., Peng, C., Wang, H., & Zhou, X. (2009). Individual height–diameter models for young black spruce ( Picea mariana ) and jack pine ( Pinus banksiana ) plantations in New Brunswick, Canada. The Forestry Chronicle, 85(1), 43-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5558/tfc85043-1 McCarthy, J., & Weetman, G. (2006). Age and size structure of gap-dynamic, old-growth boreal forest stands in Newfoundland. Silva Fennica, 40(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.14214/sf.339 Nigh, Gordon D. 2015. Years-to-breast-height model for Engelmann spruce in the Engelmann Spruce – Subalpine Fir biogeoclimatic zone. Prov. B.C., Victoria, B.C. Exten. Note 114. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/ pubs/Docs/En/En114.htm Redmond, J., Gallagher, G., & Mac Siúrtáin, M. (2016). Systematic Spacing Trials for Plantation Research and Demonstration. Coford Connects. Retrieved 29 January 2016, from http://www.coford. ie/media/coford/content/publications/projectreports/cofordconnects/Nelder-note.pdf

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT Ross, J. (1977). Arctic/Subarctic Urban Housing: Responses to the Northern Climates (Master of Architecture). University of British Columbia. Zrudlo, L. (1982). A Model for an Integrated Design Approach to Settlement Planning in the Arctic (Ph.D). University of Edinburgh.

IMAGE REFERENCES Fig. 1: The 64 residents of the remote east Greenland village of Isortoq still hunt and fish but combine traditional Inuit foods with market food. �� 8 Paleyphoto.photoshelter.com,. (2016). Arctic - The Inuit - Images | Matthieu Paley. Retrieved 28 January 2016, from http://paleyphoto.photoshelter.com/gallery/Arctic-The-Inuit/ G0000ItCdYNKOPT8/ Fig. 2: People walking in the roads of Arviat, NWT, Canada (61°06’23.1”N) during a light snowstorm. �� 24 Aningat, P. 2014, Roads of Arviat. Accessed 11th September from: [https://www.flickr.com/ photos/canadianson/] Fig. 3, Left: Soviet building severely damaged by heavy differential settlement at foundations due to frost heaving (location unknown). �� 26 Unknown, Soviet Building damaged by perfmafrost. Accessed 8th March from: [www. uniteusforclimate.org] Fig. 4, Right: House on Sarichef Island completely eradicated from foundations due to rapid thaw of permafrost upper layer. �� 26 Kaushik, A. 2015, House toppled by permafrost. Accessed 10th September from: [http://www. amusingplanet.com/2015_01_01_archive.html] Fig. 5, Left: Snowdrift accumulating behind a wooden snow fence. �� 28 Fig. 6, Right: High amount of snow deposited on top of a house’s roof causing inaccessibility and great structural threat. �� 28 Lupino, G. 2011, House covered with snow. Accessed 14th July from: [http://newsforaliens. com/2011/02/09/] Fig. 7: A cargo Hercules plane taxiing at Iqaluit, Nunavut (63°45’41.9”N). �� 32 Pineau, J. 2008, Cargo Hercules Plane. Accessed 10th September from: [www.flickr.com/photos/ jspitfire/] Fig. 8, Top: Radar military station part of the Early Warning Belt (EWB) in Greenland. �� 35 Crouch C. [Public domain] 2001, DEW Radar site in Greenland. Accessed 18th June from: [https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DEW_radar_site_in_Greenland_(cropped).jpg] Fig. 9, Bottom: Aerial View of the settlement of Igluik (66°47’15”) �� 35 Anderson, M 2014, Aerial view of Akulivik. Accessed 18th June from: [http://www. canadiangeographic.ca/blog/archives.asp?currentPage=2&m=1&y=2014] Fig. 10, Top: Frozen roads of Inuit town of Igluik, north of Nunavut Greenland. (66°47’15”) �� 36 Pineau, J. 2014, Igloolik roads. Accessed 20th June from: [https://www.flickr.com/photos/ jspitfire/13930761542] Fig. 11, Bottom: Prefabricated timber dwellings (the so called “Euro-Canadian houses) dominate the scenery in Nunavut, Greenland. �� 36 Candian Mortgafe Housing Association, several photos of houses of houses. Accessed 22nd June from: [https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/corp/li/li_002.cfm] Fig. 12, Top: Dukha Reindeer Herders (Tsaatan) moving summer camp, taiga, northern Mongolia �� 40 Arctic Perspective Initiative, 2010, Reindeer herders. Accessed 25th June from: [http:// arcticperspective.org/news/api-cahier-no-1-out-now] Fig. 13, Next Page: Two diagrams showing the seasonality of vernacular arctic dwellings versus a permanent type of architecture (and lifestyle) adopted after the 50’s. �� 40 Unknown, Inuit Igloo. Accessed 1st June from: [http://www.sfu.ca/archaeology-old/museum/

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| References

danielle_longhouse/keepers/housing.html] Fig. 14: Could be built quickly providing temporary shelter for hunting or traveling. The low passage allowed cold air to sink and be trapped in the entryway. Internally, there were several sleeping benches raised from the floor. Heating was provided with oil lamps. �� 42 Projects.cbe.ab.ca,. “Inuit Homes”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 15: Often referred today as ‘sod house’, In winter the Napaqtaq would look like a large snow dome. Constructing such structures was energy and time consuming as part of the ground would usually have to be excavated. �� 42 Greenland, Visit. “Dwellings Of The Inuit Culture – From Igloo’S To Turf Huts”. Greenland.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 16: More common in Greenland, where the sod can be combined with flat granite rocks to form very solid walls. They were often located close to the coast to transport easily kayaks. �� 42 Greenland, Visit. “Dwellings Of The Inuit Culture – From Igloo’S To Turf Huts”. Greenland.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 17: Qalurviks are commonly used during the kayak hunting period. They are simple, light tents made by bending and tying saplings together and covering them with skins. They are easily recognisable by their rounded dome-like shape. �� 43 University of Calgary, 2010. Tupiq house. Accessed 1st June from: [http://www. inuvialuitsodhouse.ca/] Fig. 18: Not unlike the Plains tipis. The Tupiqs were simply made by arranging several driftwood poles in a conical shape and wrapping dark-colored skins around them. They served as dwellings for single families during the traveling and hunting period in summer. �� 43 Iliff, H. 1930. Jamesi family outside tent. Accessed 2nd June from: [http://www. freezeframe.ac.uk/collection/photos-britisharctic-air-route-expedition-1930-31/p48-1673] Fig. 19: Similar in function and materials to normal Tupiqs, the difference is the type of structure used to erect it: this type of Tupiqs use bent saplings to create half an arch that rests on a sort of A-frame made with driftwood or whalebones �� 43 Freezeframe.ac.uk,. “Freeze Frame » Jamisi (Eskimo) And Family Outside Tent”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 20: The Antarctic Radar Station was built in 2014 by the University of Alaska, Fairbanks is powered by wind and sun, and generates detailed maps of the ocean’s surface. �� 44 Converge,. “Antarctic Radar Station, Some Assembly Required”. N.p., 2014. Web. 28 Jan. 2016. Fig. 21: Finalist entry for Arctic Perspective Design competition by Catherine Rannou for a deployable ETFE shelter. �� 44 Fig. 22: Finalist entry for Arctic Perspective Design competition by Richard Carbonnier for a modern Qamutik sled . �� 44 Fig. 23: The Angirraq House: a prototype of a low-cost prefabricated house made of SIP’s, developed in 1964 by Canada’s Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources. �� 44 Fig. 24: A prototype for a detached house in Resolute bay by architect Ralph Erskine. The T-shape was developed to reduce snowdrift around the structure. �� 44 Fig. 25:. Another design by Ralph Erskine proposing a model of dwelling more integrated with the landscape. �� 44 Erskine, R. 1958 Ecological Arctic Town. Accessed 8th June from: [http://stefaniesart. com/?page_id=2144] Fig. 26, Previous Page: A colored sketch of Ralph Erskine’s plan for the redevelopment of resolute bay settlement (N.W.T, Canada).The project fort the large ring of public buildings surrounding and protecting the inner houses from the strong winds was started but never completed. �� 47 Erskine, R. 1958 Ecological Arctic Town. Accessed 8th June from: [http://stefaniesart. com/?page_id=2144] Fig. 27, Top: The same concept was brought forward for the ‘Ecological Arctic Town of Svappavara, Sweden, in the 1958. This time the plan presented a more complex visual system of smaller city cores. �� 47 Erskine, R. 1958 Ecological Arctic Town. Accessed 8th June from: [http://stefaniesart. com/?page_id=2144]

Foss, Peter. “Stages In The Creation Of A Peat Dam Across A Raised Bog Surface Drain | Foss Environmental Consulting | Peter Foss”. Fossenvironmentalconsulting.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 30: Bulldozer cutting loam layer �� 58 Foss, Peter. “Stages In The Creation Of A Peat Dam Across A Raised Bog Surface Drain | Foss Environmental Consulting | Peter Foss”. Fossenvironmentalconsulting.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 31: Loam ridges left drying in the sun � 59 Foss, Peter. “Stages In The Creation Of A Peat Dam Across A Raised Bog Surface Drain | Foss Environmental Consulting | Peter Foss”. Fossenvironmentalconsulting.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 32: Harvesting of milled peat moss �� 59 Foss, Peter. “Stages In The Creation Of A Peat Dam Across A Raised Bog Surface Drain | Foss Environmental Consulting | Peter Foss”. Fossenvironmentalconsulting.com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 33: Icelandic ‘turf houses’ in Skagafjörður, Iceland. The typical turf cover of these houses helps increase the poor impermeability of loam alone. �� 61 Homeditorial.com,. “Lovely Steelblue Building Green Homes Traditional Icelandic House Beautiful Architecture - Architecture. Building Green Homes | Homeditorial”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 34: “Sandbag Shelters”: emergency housing for refugees made with earthfilled bags,, sponsored by UN agencies and designed by Nader Khalili, architect at the Cal-Earth Institute. �� 61 Taflinelaylin.com,. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 35: Construction site in the U.S. using stabilised earth blocks. These blocks can be easily and rapidly produced on site with the use of manual or more modern mechanical rams. �� 61 Wikidwelling,. “Compressed Earth Block”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 28, Next Page: A Latvian peat bog. Peat, or loam, contains partially decayed organic material. It is often harvested as an important source of fuel in parts of Scandinavia, Russia and the United Kingdom. �� 56 Flickr,. Latvian Peat Bog. 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 36: The traditional Oca (communal house) structure of the Yawalapiti people of the Amazonian Basin of Brazil features bent wood clad with thatching. �� 68 Getty Images,. “Traditional Yawalapiti Village Longhouse Under Construction.”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 29: Excavator making drainage channel �� 58

Fig. 37: The Mudhif cane huts in South Iraq are constructed by anchoring reed bundles into

dug foundations in pairs and connecting their free ends as an elastically bent arc. �� 68 vista.ir,. “‫سکع‬: ‫رد فیضم یتنس یاه هناخ تخاس‬ ‫”انقفش | قارع‬. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 38: The traditional Karakalpak yurts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan connect a bent pantographic grid wall to a central ring using elastic bending in the roof construction. �� 68 richardson, david, and David Richardson. “History Of The Karakalpak Yurt”. Karakalpak. com. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 39: The Eco-resort Pavilion by Vo Trong Nghia features 38 prefabricated bamboo arches around a central axis. �� 69 Vo Trong Nghia Architects,. “Eco-Resort Pavilion”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 40: The Mannheim Multihalle by Frei Otto and Buro Happold was designed as a catenary chain model, but constructed as a flat gridshell that was lifted into place to induce bending stresses in its elements. �� 69 Shells.princeton.edu,. “Mannheim Multihalle– Strained Grid - Evolution Of German Shells: Efficiency In Form”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 41: Similar to Mannheim, Otto and ABK architects designed a bent form to approximate a catenary surface. It was resolved not as a gridshell but as a series of bent wood trimmings. �� 69 Bennet, Valerie. “Buildings At Hooke Park”. Aaschool.ac.uk. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 42: As opposed to clearcutting, where all trees in an area are uniformly cut down, the selective cutting of trees ensures continued biological productivity - even, at times, enhancing it. �� 112 Derr, Alex. “Thinned Timber”. Flickr - Photo Sharing!. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 43: Compact experimental designs for studying plant growing space and alignment �� 113 Redmond, John, Gerhardt Gallagher, and Máirtín Mac Siúrtáin. “Systematic Spacing Trials For Plantation Research And Demonstration”. Coford Connects. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 44: A Nelder Plot at Blodgett Forest Research Station in the Sierra Nevada mountains �� 113 University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. “Centre For Forestry At UC Berkeley”. Ucanr.edu. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 45: A Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco) Nelder design type 1a in Coastal Oregon. �� 115 Redmond, John, Gerhardt Gallagher, and Máirtín Mac Siúrtáin. “Systematic Spacing Trials For Plantation Research And Demonstration”. Coford Connects. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 46, Next Page: Aerial image of Aspen Face experiments developed by Michigan Technical University �� 116 (image ref http://www.sisef.it/iforest/ contents/?id=ifor0545-003) Fig. 47: Rivers from retreating glaciers carry a large volume of sediment, and the resulting pattern is a braided rivers with multiple channels between sediment deposits. �� 120 Alaska Dispatch News,. “Getting Up Close And Personal With Alaska’s Coastline”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 48: A greenhouse based in the northern Canadian community of Kuujjuaq, Nunavik is providing fresh local produce for residents of the Arctic region for the first time. �� 121 Monitor, The. “Arctic Greenhouse Provides Locals Fresh Produce Year-Round”. The Christian Science Monitor. N.p., 2014. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 49 : A house collapsed into the ground in Alaska, after the permafrost upon which it was built melted �� 122 Mail Online,. “Loss Of Permafrost Is ‘Unbelievable’, Expert Warns”. N.p., 2015. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 50, Next Page: Thermokarst Thaw Lakes in Nunavik. Thermokarst is a land type characterised by irregular marshy hollows formed by the seasonal thawing of permafrost. �� 126 Imaggeo.egu.eu,. “Imaggeo - Thermokarst Thaw Lakes Nunavik”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 53: Photograph of a traditional dance taking place in the basketball court of a school in Nunavut. �� 160 Fig. 54: Small Business Cluster in Inuvik �� 163 Fig. 55: The Jokkmokk market has a long history of over 400 years, occurring on the first Thursday of every February in Lapland, Sweden. It is one of the most important social events for the Sámi people in Sápmi, with concerts, exhibitions and trade, while temperatures can reach -40°C. �� 164 Fig. 56: Centralised networks, often referred to as “utilidors” in the Canadian Arctic, are enclosed utility conduits that protect essential utilities such as water and sewage from permafrost and the extreme environment. �� 180 Flickr - Photo Sharing!,. “0603-07 Inuvik Utilidors”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 57: A concept for a cistern/public space combination can be devised similar to how the Gammel Hellerup Gymnasium by BIG creates an informal meeting place. �� 184 ArchDaily,. “Gammel Hellerup Gymnasium / BIG”. N.p., 2013. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 58: Support Crew in Inuvik awaits a First Air Flight. �� A8 Inuvikphotos.ca,. “February | 2011 | Life In Inuvik, Northwest Territories”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 59 �� A18 Fig. 60: A Nelder Plot at Blodgett Forest Research Station in the Sierra Nevada mountains �� A18 University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. “Centre For Forestry At UC Berkeley”. Ucanr.edu. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

Fig. 51 : Winter Construction of telecommunications networks and road in Dawson Creek. �� 134 LP, Valard. “Winter Work In Dawson Creek”. Flickr - Photo Sharing!. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016. Fig. 52, Facing Page: Kangaamiut is a small Greenlandic settlement of 350 people, about 75 minutes by boat from Maniitsoq. �� 142 Flickriver.com,. “Kangaamiut Overview - A Photo On Flickriver”. N.p., 2016. Web. 29 Jan. 2016.

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11. APPENDIX

Arctic Settlements in Greenland �� A2 Arctic Settlements in Russia �� A4 Arctic Settlements in Canada �� A6 Communities of the NWT �� A8 Determining Spanning Capacity �� A10 Physical Models �� A12 Forest Density �� A14 Forest Type �� A15 Thinning Yield and Viable Population Sizes �� A16 Nelder Spacing Experiments on Prince Edward Island �� A18 Spruce Growth Regressive Equations �� A20 Spruce Growth Growth Simulation Code �� A21 Spruce Growth Simulation Results �� A22 Population Growth by Spruce Thinning/Growth Simulation �� A24 Greenhouse Distribution Genetic Algorithm Results �� A26 Residential and Agricultural Pairing [Generation 11] �� A28 Small Business and Public Services [Generation 21] �� A29 Residential and Education Pairing [Generation 19] �� A30 Small Business and Market Building [Generation 30] �� A31 Summit MAP Competition �� A32

60°N

| Appendix

011-1

ARCTIC SETTLEMENTS IN GREENLAND Nuuk, Greenland

Ilulissat,Greenland

Upernavik, Greenland

64°10’22.17”N 51°43’48.65”W 16,992 people (23.97/km2)

69°13’3.81”N 51° 6’15.09”W 4,541 people (430/km2)

72°47’13.00”N 56° 8’50.00”W 1,181 people

Capital city, and world’s northernmost capital. Nuuk is the fastest growing town in Greenland, with migrants from the smaller towns and settlements reinforcing the trend. Nuuk and Tasiilaq are the only towns in the Sermersooq commune (a third of Greenland) which have grown steadily over the last two decades. The population increased by over a third relative to the 1990 levels.

Third largest city in Greenland. Principal industry is tourism due to the icebergs formed in the nearby Illulissat Icefjord. Flights from within Greenland and to Reykjavik. Ferry connects to Nuuk, Sisimiut and other western settlements.

It is the northern-most town in Greenland with a population of over 1,000. The population has been relatively stable over the last two decades and has increased by more than 28% from 1990 levels, with migrants from the smaller settlements in the archipelago keeping the population level stable. Served by Air Greenland weekdays, and a small ferry in the summer.

Longyearbyen, Svalbard, No

Barentsburg, Svalbard, No

Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, No

78°13′N 15°33′E

78°04′0″N 14°13′0″E

78°55′30″N 11°55′20″E 30-35 permanent pop., 120 in summer

World’s northernmost settlement of any kind with greater than 1,000 permanent residents. Longyearbyen experiences a very high turnover; in 2008, 427 people (23 percent) moved away from the town.[58] The average person lived in Longyearbyen for 6.3 years, although it is 6.6 years for Norwegians and 4.3 years for foreigners.

Second largest settlement on Svalbard, almost entirely Russians and Ukranians. Russia has full rights to exploit natural resources, and therefore maintains coal mining operations since 1920. The town relies entirely on mainland Russia for food and coinage. Its Russian consulate is the northernmost diplomatic mission of any kind in the world.

Research town (owned and operated by Kings Bay). It has 15 permanent research stations from 10 countries and is the northernmost civilian settlement in the world. Most research is centred around environmental and earth sciences.

2,040 people

500 people

Kangerlussuaq, Greenland

Kullorsuaq, Greenland

Nuuussuaq, Greenland

67° 0’33.29”N 50°42’38.85”W 512 people

74°34’43.51”N 57°13’15.77”W 448 people

74° 6’35.98”N 57° 3’13.29”W 204 people

Permanent settlement. Greenland’s main air transport hub and largest commercial airport (which dates from American settlement in WWII). Economy dependent on airport and tourism industry due to terrestrial fauna such as muskoxen, caribou and gyrfalcons.

Permanent settlement. Fishing narwhals and whales. Hunting fur seals and walruses. Fish processing plant and Pilersuisoq general store are only organised employers in settlement. Among 10 poorest communities in Greenland. Air Greenland serves village with twice-weekly helicopter flights.

Permanent settlement. Fishing and whales. Hunting fur seals and walruses. Fish processing plant and Pilersuisoq general store are only organised employers in settlement. Among 10 poorest communities in Greenland. Air Greenland serves village with twiceweekly helicopter flights.

Hammerfest, Norway

Honningsvåg, Norway

Memahmn Gamvik, Norway

70°39′45″N 23°41′00″E 10,287 people

70°58’56.62”N 25°58’30.33”E 2,257 people (5,850/sq mi)

71°02′08″N 27°50′57″E 737 people (1,365/km2)

The construction of the large liquefied natural gas site on Melkøya (island) just off Hammerfest, which will process natural gas from Snøhvit, is the most expensive construction project in the history of Northern Norway. This project has resulted in an economic boom and new optimism in Hammerfest in recent years in contrast to most other municipalities in Finnmark.

The ice-free ocean provides rich fisheries and tourism is also important to the town.

A2 | A3

60°N

| Appendix

011-2

ARCTIC SETTLEMENTS IN RUSSIA Saskylakh, Russia

Tiksi, Russia

Kyusyur, Russia

71°57′55″N 114°05′32″E 2,317 people

71°38′N 128°52′E 5,063 people

70°41′12″N 127°22′34″E 1,345 people

It was founded in 1930 as a part of Soviet efforts to settle the nomadic Yakuts, Evenks, and Dolgans who lived in the area. There is a small airport a few kilometres south, but no year-round roads that lead up to it. A winter road leads 600km south to Udachny.

During the Cold War, Tiksi saw military construction projects at Tiksi North and Tiksi West airfields. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Tiksi’s population has declined markedly and many of its apartment blocks have been abandoned. The settlement is served by the Tiksi Airport, which was shut down except for helicopters.Tiksi was connected only by helicopter flights and winter roads.

Only inhabited settlement in Bulunsky National Okrug. 120 km from Tiksi.

Murmansk, Russia

Norilsk, Russia

Mirny, Russia

68°58′N 33°05′E

69°23’39.76”N 86°12’37.44”E 175,365 people

62°31’44.83”N 113°59’36.81”E

Most populous city above the Arctic Circle.

Northernmost city with a population of more than 100,000. Expanded from a mining settlement as a centre of the Norillag GULAG camps. Contains some of the largest nickel deposits on earth, and therefore mining and smelting ore are the major industries. Closed to foreigners since 2001.

Founded in 1955 after the discovery of a nearby kimberlite pipe. Classified as a town. Mir mine is an open hole, 525 meter deep and with a diameter of 1.25 km. It was closed in 2011. Served by Mirny Airport, but there are concerns about aircraft operations over the abandoned workings.

2014: 299,148 (1989: 468,039)

37,188

Chokurdakh, Russia

Dikson, Russia

Belushya Guba, Russia

70°38′N 147°55′E 2,367 people

73°30’27.91”N 80°31’50.31”E 2010: 676 people (1989: 4,489)

71°32′44″N 52°19′13″E 2010: 1,972 (2002: 2,622)

Chokurdakh is not connected with the outside world by any year-round roads. A winter road follows the Indigirka upstream when it is frozen, travelling partly along the river ice, leading to Ust-Nera via Belaya Gora and Khonuu. The settlement is served by the Chokurdakh Airport, one of the most northerly airports in Russia and only usable for around 3 months each year.

Northernmost port in Russia.

Work settlement & administrative centre of Novaya Zemlya island territory. Made up largely of military personnel associated with the nuclear test sites on the island. Located in a deep bay with the same name, and influenced by warm currents which allows year-round sailing of all types and classes of vessels.

Krasnoyarsk, Russia

Yakutsk, Russia

Novokuznetsk, Russia

56°01′N 93°04′E

1,035,528 people

62°02′N 129°44′E 269,601 people (1989: 186,626)

62°02′N 129°44′E 2010: 547,904 people (1989: 599,947)

Important junction in Trans-Siberian Railway and one of Russia’s largest producers of aluminum. Has been inhabited as a city since 1690. The Krasnoyarsk Hydroelectric dam maintains river flowing throughout the year.

Coldest major city in the world. Russian Yakutsk founded in 1632. Grew into a citywith discovery of gold and other minerals, and developed with forced labour camps. Responsible for a fifth of the world’s production of diamonds.

Founded in 1618, developed as a major coal mining and industrial centre in the 1930s.

A4 | A5

60°N

| Appendix

011-3

ARCTIC SETTLEMENTS IN CANADA ALERT, Canada

Eureka, Canada

Pond Inlet, Canada

82°30′05″N 62°20′20″W 0-5 permanent. Rotating population

79°59′20″N 085°56′27″W 0-8 permanent. Rotating staff

72°41′57″N 077°57′33″W 1,549 people

Northernmost permanently inhabited place in the world. Rotating military and scientific personnel. Only 817 km from North Pole. As a result of the rising costs to heat the station, the Canadian Forces proposed cutbacks to support jobs by using private contractors.

Small research base, and part of a network of Arctic weather stations. Founded in 1947, when 100 tons of supplies were airlifted to a promising spot, and five prefabricated Jamesway huts were constructed.

Small, predominantly Inuit community in Nunavut. The economy is expected to boom once the Mary River Iron Ore Mine is in full operation. The mine site is approximately 160 km (99 mi) west south-west of the community and still in its developmental stage. Because of transportation costs, food and construction supplies are much higher than that of southern Canada.

Barrow, Alaska

Deadhorse, Alaska

Wainwright, Alaska

71°17′44″N 156°45′59″W

70°12′20″N 148°30′42″W

70°38′50″N 160°00′58″W

Barrow is the transportation hub for the North Slope Borough’s Arctic Coastal villages. Because transporting food to the city is very expensive, many residents continue to rely upon subsistence food sources. Whale, seal, polar bear, walrus, waterfowl, caribou, and fish are harvested from the coast or nearby rivers and lakes.

Unincorporated community, which houses facilities for the workers and companies operating on nearby Prudhoe Bay oil fields. Facilities in Deadhorse are built entirely on man-made gravel pads and usually consist of pre-fabricated modules shipped to Deadhorse via barge or air cargo.

Airport built in 1957 to support Distant Early Warning Line Radar station. Alaska Natives comprise 94% of the population, the majority of which practice a subsistence lifestyle dependent on whales and caribou.

4,373 (96.1/km2)

perm. residents 25-50, temp. up to 3000

556 people

Igloolik, Canada

Resolute, Canada

Grise fiord, Canada

69°22′34″N 081°47′58″W 2,000 people

74°41′51″N 094°49′56″W 229 people

76°25′03″N 082°53′38″W 130 people

Inuit hamlet. Inhabited for more than 4,000 years. The Igloolik Research Centre focuses on documenting Inuit traditional knowledge and technology, as well as climatology and seismic data research.

Small Inuit hamlet, populated in 1953 as part of the High Arctic relocation. The Inuit were forced to stay. Eventually, the Inuit learned the local beluga whale migration routes and were able to survive in the area, hunting over a range of 18,000 km2 a year. The Canadian Forces documents showed plans to build an army training centre with a $60 million deep-water port at Nanisivik 370 km to the southeast.

Atqasuk, Alaska

Point Hope, Alaska

Fairbanks, Alaska

70°28′40″N 157°25′05″W

68°20′49″N 166°45′47″W

64°50′37″N 147°43′23″W

Atqasuk had a population of about 268 in 2010 and a work force of 118, largely based on subsistence caribou hunting and fishing. The village corporation, Atqasuk Corporation, owns a grocery and merchandise store which sells food, clothing, first-aid supplies, cameras, film and hardware. Propane, gas, diesel and motor oil are also available. Atqasuk bans the sale and importation of alcohol.

This ancient village site was advantageous, because the protrusion of Point Hope into the sea brought the whales close to the shore. At Tikigaq, they built semi-subterranean houses using mainly whalebone and driftwood. Point Hope is one of the oldest continually occupied sites in North America. Relies on whale and caribou hunting for subsistence.

Largest city in the interior region of Alaska, and second largest in the state. As the transportation hub for Interior Alaska, Fairbanks features extensive road, rail, and air connections to the rest of Alaska and Outside.

233 people

674 people

32,070 people

A6 | A7

60°N

| Appendix

011-4

COMMUNITIES OF THE NWT Fig. 58: Support Crew in Inuvik awaits a First Air Flight.

NAME

POPULATION 2011

LATITUDE

LONGITUDE

AREA (KM2)

DENSITY (/KM2)

LIVING COST

FOOD PRICE INDEX

Yellowknife

19,234.00

62.442222

-114.3975

136.22

105.44

117.5

Hay River

3,606.00

60.81265

-115.789285

133.15

27.1

127.5

111

Inuvik

3,463.00

68.361667

-133.730556

62.48

55.4

147.5

149.8

Fort Smith

2,093.00

60.005278

-111.890556

92.79

26.7

132.5

108.5

Behchoko

1,926.00

62.830843

-116.044539

75.17

25.6

127.5

135.1

Fort Simpson

1,238.00

61.814756

-121.319344

78.32

15.8

137.5

125.1

Tuktoyaktuk

854.00

69.442778

-133.031111

13.9

61.4

172.5

161.6

Fort McPherson

792.00

67.435476

-134.881818

53.39

14.8

157.5

165.7

Fort Providence

734.00

61.354906

-117.659293

255.05

2.9

132.5

121.3

Norman Wells

727.00

65.28111

-126.831389

82.48

8.8

152.5

179.6

Aklavik

633.00

68.220563

-135.006106

14.47

43.7

167.5

174.1

Fort Liard

536.00

60.240902

-123.46972

68.38

7.8

132.5

134.9

Fort Good Hope

515.00

66.260147

-128.629445

47.14

10.9

172.5

180.2

Whatì

492.00

63.144444

-117.272778

59.95

8.3

147.5

138.4

Tulita

478.00

64.900278

-125.5775

52.12

9.2

162.5

178

Fort Resolution

474.00

61.171667

-113.671667

455.22

142.5

125.8

Déline

472.00

65.188035

-123.422641

79.44

5.9

172.5

172.1

Ulukhaktok

402.00

70.736389

-117.768056

124.45

3.2

177.5

204.1

Paulatuk

313.00

69.351389

-124.069444

66.86

4.7

177.5

195.9

Lutselk'e (Snowdrift)

295.00

62.40527

-110.738611

43.18

6.8

162.5

167.5

Hay River Reserve

292.00

60.833611

-115.765833

134.07

2.2

105.2

Gamèti

253.00

64.112222

-117.353611

9.19

27.5

147.5

127.4

Dettah

210.00

62.412413

-114.309779

1.34

157.2

Colville Lake

149.00

67.04192

-126.088743

128.39

1.2

177.5

202.8

Tsiigehtchic

143.00

67.442559

-133.743025

48.98

2.9

162.5

155.7

Wekweeti

141.00

64.190278

-114.182778

14.67

9.6

155

Wrigley

133.00

63.228056

-123.47

55.84

2.4

152.5

154.7

Sachs Harbour

112.00

71.985556

-125.248056

290.94

0.4

177.5

Nahanni Butte

102.00

61.033889

-123.380556

78.99

1.3

142.5

180

Trout Lake

92.00

60.4425

-121.245278

119.51

0.8

152.5

122.2

Enterprise

87.00

60.556609

-116.143409

286.89

0.3

Jean Marie River

64.00

61.525833

-120.627222

37.29

1.7

142.5

Kakisa

45.00

60.94

-117.414167

94.8

0.5

132.5

A8 | A9

60°N

| Appendix

011-5

DETERMINING SPANNING CAPACITY Digital evaluation of the independent spanning capacity and length parameters of a vacuumatic loam assembly

DEFINING A RANGE OF LENGTHS AND SPANS 011-4.1

ASSUMPTIONS 011-4.2

As a vacuumatic assembly is a compression active structure, the ambition of this experiment is to test the spanning capacity of a vacuumatic loam assembly independent of secondary structural elements. Assuming that the most efficient method of construction is bending a thin element to create a guide for the allocation of panels before filling them with material, the panels are modeled along an elastica curve and not a catenary curve. By subjecting these structural assemblies to gravity and wind loads, the outcome of the experiment defines a range of spans possible with vacuumatic loam panels, as well as a range of rod lengths that can be bent into shape. In this genetic algorithm, every individual is modeled with six ‘rods’, and compresses them equally by a specified amount. The rod lengths and their compression distance are independent variables, while the resultant height of the structure is a dependent variable of the first two. Vacuumatic elements are distributed contiguously between rods at intervals of approximately 500 mm, and are assumed to be filled with loam and vacuumed to 300 mm at atmospheric pressure. The fitness criteria provided to the evolutionary solver are increased values for usable floor area (at 2m clearance), decreased values for maximum displacement due to gravity, decreased values for maximum displacement due to wind loads, and an increased percentage of the total construction in compression. As the Arctic tundra has average wind speeds of 48-97 km/h, the experiment assumes a wind speed of 120 km/h expressed as a wind pressure of 1042 N/m2. The wind direction is assumed to be horizontal, facing one side of the structure.

OBSERVATIONS 011-4.3

As discussed earlier, an elastica curve compresses similar to a catenary curve or arc when the height to length ratio is smaller than 0.3. For this reason, it is anticipated that the best performing structures will have lower height to length ratio values. An evaluation of the individuals generated in the GA demonstrates that as the height to length ratio approximates 0.3, the structure becomes more compressive. The contradicting criteria of increased usable floor area (which requires a high H/L ratio) and decreased displacement values (which requires a low H/L) yields individuals which may have a low H/L ratio but longer span. The individuals that demonstrate lower H/L ratios also display larger amounts of wasted space. This indicates that such spaces should be resolved by digging out ground from beneath the span of the structure, which may increase the thermal stability of the space; or by supporting the span atop a berm or raised mass.

DESIGN RANGE 011-4.4

The top 25% of individuals with regards to compression had spans between 4.56m and 9.88m, with H/L ratios of .2 to .45. When ranking the individuals according to usable area, the top 25% individuals spanned from 7.29m to 11.94 with H/L ratios of .31 to .65. As a design value, an appropriate range of spans to be explored a dwelling typology is therefore from 7m to 11m, with H/L ratios between .2 and .45

stress (kN/cm2) 2.00e-4

01 1.00e-4

(1.) A well performing individual in terms of compression and decreased displacement values, but a small amount of usable area. (2.) A similarly performing individual in terms of compression and decreased wind displacement, but with more usable area at the expense of an increased displacement by gravity and amount of unusable area. (4.) The least fit individual with less usable area and compromised structural integrity.

6.18

rod length (m): 6.36

15.0

1.3

rod span (m): 4.596

11.94

0.17

H/L Ratio: 0.433

1.95

0.01

gravity max displacement (m): 0.014

0.22

0.02

wind max displacement (m): 0.024

1.64

0.45

compression (%): 0.694

0.69

3.83

usable area (m2): 6.507

35.81

6.18

rod length (m): 10.77

15.0

1.3

rod span (m): 9.883

11.94

0.17

H/L Ratio: 0.207

1.95

0.01

gravity max displacement (m): 0.089

0.22

0.02

wind max displacement (m): 0.047

1.64

0.45

compression (%): 0.686

0.69

3.83

usable area (m2): 16.088

35.81

6.18

rod length (m): 14.91

15.0

1.3

rod span (m): 11.937

11.94

0.17

H/L Ratio: 0.347

1.95

0.01

gravity max displacement (m): 0.218

0.22

0.02

wind max displacement (m): 0.417

1.64

0.45

compression (%): 0.612

0.69

3.83

usable area (m2): 35.806

35.81

6.18

rod length (m): 12.03

15.0

1.3

rod span (m): 2.781

11.94

0.17

H/L Ratio: 1.751

1.95

0.01

gravity max displacement (m): 0.049

0.22

0.02

wind max displacement (m): 0.914

1.64

0.45

compression (%): 0.47

0.69

3.83

usable area (m2): 10.464

35.81

A10 | A11

60°N

| Appendix

011-6

PHYSICAL MODELS

A12 | A13

60°N

| Appendix 150°

A14

145°

135°

140°

130°

125°

120°

115°

110°

105°

100°

95°

90°

85°

80°

FOREST DENSITY

100% 75° 75°

70° 70°

65° 65°

60° 60°

130°

125°

120°

115°

110°

105°

150°

A15

145°

135°

140°

130°

125°

120°

115°

110°

105°

100°

95°

90°

85°

80°

FOREST TYPE Spruces (Picea): 182023km² Hemlocks (Tsuga): 175260km²

75°

Other: 166345km² Poplars (Populus): 32586km² Pines (Pinus): 16579km² Birches (Betula): 4713km² Firs (Abies): 329km²

70° 70°

65° 65°

60° 60°

130°

125°

120°

115°

110°

105°

A14 | A15

60°N

| Appendix

011-7

THINNING YIELD AND VIABLE POPULATION SIZES Relating maximum viable population to maximum possible thinning yields in an area.

THINNING YIELD CALCULATION 011-7.1

The maximum thinning yield of spruce (in m3/ha) can be determined according to a thinning rate, yield class, and period of a thinning cycle. The Marginal Thinning Rate, expressed in m3/ha/yr, is the maximum rate at which volume can be removed without causing a loss of cumulative production. The Forestry Commission’s current yield models are based on the assumption that this number is roughly equal to 70% of the respective Yield Class of a forest stand, and can be applied from the time a forest stand achieves its threshold basal area. The Yield Class is the maximum volume a stand can produce, expressed as m3/ha/yr. The average yield class of Sitka spruce is 16, although some yield classes in excess of 28 are possible. Norway spruce is up to 10-20% less productive than Sitka spruce, but more resistant to frost damage. For this reason, the Yield Class was abstracted to 14 in this calculation.

Equation 23

Mt = RQ where: Mt = Marginal Thinning Rate [m3/ha/yr] R = Extraction Factor [.7] Q = Yield Class of a Species [m3/ha/yr]

Equation 24

Mspruce = (.7)(14 m3/ha/yr) = 9.8 m3/ha/yr

If the thinning intensity is set at .8 times the maximum extractable volume, at a five year thinning cycle, the volume extractable per hectare of spruce can be known: Equation 25

Yt = IMtC where: Yt = Thinning Yield [m3/ha] I = Thinning Intensity [Factor from .8 to 1.2] Mt = Marginal Thinning Rate [m3/ha/yr] C = Thinning Cycle [yrs]

Equation 26

NECESSARY THINNING MATERIAL PER PERSON 011-7.2

Yspruce = (.8)(9.8 m3/ha/yr)(5 yrs) = 39 m3/ha

Using a digital model of the proposed building type, it was estimated that 144 m3 of spruce thinnings would need to be produced per inhabitant in a settlement.

MAX. VIABLE POPULATION / SETTLEMENT 011-7.3

If all forest stands are equally forested, spaced, accessible and have achieved threshold basal area, the maximum viable population size can be determined according to the maximum desired distance from settlement to source. Pmax = Et/Tperson Et = πD2 FYspruce

Equation 27 Equation 28

where: Pmax = Maximum Population per Settlement [people] Et = Extractable Volume [m3] Tperson = Volume of Thinnings Necessary per Inhabitant [m3] D = Maximum Distance from Spruce Source to Settlement [km] F = Conversion factor from km2 to ha [100] Yspruce = Thinning Yield [m3/ha]

MAX DIST. FROM SOURCE TO SETTLEMENT [KM]

POPULATION [PEOPLE]

354

762

1361

2151

3076

4192

5472

6914

8549

MAXIMUM VIABLE POPULATION / NWT 011-7.4

Using the technique illustrated on the previous page, the Northwest Territories was sampled for spruce inventory, revealing 10,091,800 ha of spruce. Assuming a spruce thinning yield of 39.2 m3/ha on a 5 year thinning cycle, this number reveals that there may be up to 399,518,560 m3 of extractable material after a thinning cycle. If all forest stands are equally forested, accessible and have achieved threshold basal area, dividing this number by the previous calculation of 144 m3/ person indicates that the Northwest Territories might house a maximum population of up to 2,774,434 with the proposed building method.

A16 | A17

design and became Nelder plots in 1969. The trees were about 1.5 meters high in 1971. There was no record found regarding fill plantings. In the following years, only ingrowth had been removed (Glen,1986). Diameter and height were measured in 1986, 1991 and 1997.

| Appendix

60°N

011-8

•

Kelly`s Cross (Queens County)

NELDER SPACING EXPERIMENTS PRINCE EDWARD These two plots wereON also established on old fields in 1970ISLAND by planting to the Nelder spacing design with white spruce. Heavy grass and high mortality (...“less than 40 % survival”...) possibly due to the extremely late time of planting in 1970 and poor choice of planting stock (3-0) necessitated replanting in 1971 (2-1 stock was used) (Anon., 1969-70; Brewer, 1970). In the mid 80's ingrowth had been removed (Glen,1986). Diameter and height were measured in 1986, 1991 and 1997.

011-8.1

Figure: Location of the sites on Prince Edward Island. SITE 2LOCATIONS

Fig. 59

Kelly's Cross

Jacks Road

-2-

011-8.2

Fig. 60: A Nelder Plot at Blodgett Forest Research Station in the Sierra Nevada mountains

NELDER SPACING EXPERIMENT

011-8.3

011-8.4

MIN., MAX., AVG. HEIGHT AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF JACKS ROAD AND KELLY`S CROSS.

minimum height [m.]

maximum height [m.]

average height [m

JACKS ROAD

8.2

15.5

KELLY’S CROSS

5.4

12.2

standard deviation

number of trees

12.1

1.7

100

8.8

1.4

109

AVG DIAMETER (CM) FOR VARIOUS SPACING DENSITIES (STEMS/HA) OF JACKS ROAD AND KELLY`S CROSS FOR THE YEARS 1986, 1995 AND 1997.

JACKS ROAD

KELLY’S CROSS

STEMS/HA

1986

1995

1997

1986

1995

1997

16,129

8.7

10.4

11.3

6.4

8.5

9.1

12,345

7.4

11.0

12.2

6.8

8.5

8.9

9,434

7.8

11.5

14.8

7.5

10.3

9.9

7,299

8.0

9.6

11.0

8.1

10.3

5,618

9.7

11.7

14.0

8.3

12.1

13.1

4,310

9.4

11.6

15.7

8.3

13.6

3,323

10.0

11.9

15.4

9.5

13.6

15.2

2,558

11.4

14.0

16.8

10.1

15.1

16.1

1,961

11.4

14.0

16.2

10.2

16.2

16.9

1,506

11.6

14.9

17.6

10.0

17.2

17.3

1,161

11.9

15.6

18.7

9.7

18.0

18.8

893

12.8

17.5

20.2

9.2

19.2

19.4

692

12.5

17.5

24.6

8.9

17.1

19.4

A18 | A19

60°N

| Appendix

011-9

SPRUCE GROWTH REGRESSIVE EQUATIONS 011-8.5

NUMBER OF STEMS PER HECTARE

y = [(x2)*(1*10-4)]-1 where: x = Spacing (m) y = Stems/ha

011-8.6

STEM AND MINIMUM BRANCH DIAMETER

y = 83.92*(x-0.21) where: x = Stems/ha y = Stem Diameter (m)

z = 30.28*(x-0.32) where: x = Stems/ha z = Minimum branch diameter (m)

011-8.7

HEIGHTS ACCORDING TO AREA SPACING

y = m* [1-(e,(-[((x/p)*t)2]))2] where: x = Stems Diameter (m) y = Height (m) m = 12.998 p = 17.12 t = 0.52

011-8.8

MEAN TREE HEIGHT BY TYPE AND AGE

h = [Bfactor*(e(B+(agefactor*ln(age))+(ba*bafactor)+(habitat)+(siteprep))]*0.3048 where: x = age (years) h = Height (m) Bfactor = 1.35 (log bias) B0 = -2.5216 agefactor = 1.3595 ba = 0 (canopy cover) bafactor = -0,0038 habitat = 0.2160 (habitat type ABGR) siteprep = 0.1642 (mechanical site prep)

011-10

SPRUCE GROWTH GROWTH SIMULATION CODE

# ASungur 151115_EmTech 60North McCloskey,Sungur import rhinoscriptsyntax as rs import math import random import scriptcontext as sc import clr clr.AddReference(“Grasshopper”) import Grasshopper as gh # Joint Algorithm to create Nested Material Simulation period = 0 tree_age = [] def StickyOperate(tree_age,period): if sc.sticky.has_key(“period”) == True: period = sc.sticky[“period”] else: period = 0 if sc.sticky.has_key(“age”) == True: tree_age = sc.sticky[“age”] else: for i in range (0,int(n)): tree_age.append(0) return [tree_age,period] if refresh == True: sc.sticky.clear() pass else: tree_age = StickyOperate(tree_age,period)[0] period = StickyOperate(tree_age,period)[1] “”” THINNING INTENSITY get the value and convert into max number of trees can be cut “”” nMax = int(n*(intensity)) # TREE HEIGHT INFORMATION def TreeToPyList(DataTree): “”” get height of each tree for every possible age as data tree from grasshopper convert data tree into nested list in python “”” pyList = [] for i in range(DataTree.BranchCount): branch = list(DataTree.Branch(i)) pyList.append(branch) return pyList height = TreeToPyList(heightTree) # GROWTH SIMULATION def Growth(points,maxAge,treeAge): “”” run simulation for each point according to height data and year information use positions information to establish list length, etc. perform growth according to iteration information(iter) “”” heightNew = [] tree_ageNew = [] for i in range (0,len(points)): if treeAge[i] >= int(maxAge-1): age = int(maxAge-1) h = height[i][age] tree_ageNew.append(age) heightNew.append(h) else:

age = int(treeAge[i]+(iter/12)) h = height[i][age] tree_ageNew.append(age) heightNew.append(h) return [tree_ageNew,heightNew] tree_age = Growth(positions,ageMax,tree_age)[0] heightReal = Growth(positions,ageMax,tree_age)[1] # PERFORM THINNING PROCESS thinYears = list(range(0,1000,int(cycle))) thinMonths = list(range(0,(1000*12),int(cycle*12))) def Thin(positions,tree_age,heightReal): “”” calculate thinning years and keep data use searching logic for lists “height” and “cutNew” “”” cutResult = [] for i in range (0,nMax): t = random.randint(0,int(len(positions)-1)) if t > 5: cutResult.append(heightReal[t]) tree_age[t] = 0 heightReal[t] = height[t][0] return [cutResult,tree_age,heightReal] if period in thinYears: tree_age = Thin(positions,tree_age,heightReal)[1] heightReal = Thin(positions,tree_age,heightReal)[2] cutData = Thin(positions,tree_age,heightReal)[0] else: pass # ANALYSE CUT DATA AND MATCH WITH THE AMOUNT transfer = 0 sc.sticky[“transfer”] = 0 if sc.sticky.has_key(“cons”) == True: n = sc.sticky[“cons”] if period in thinYears: beams = int(sum(cutData)) + transfer req = int(sum(cut)) if beams >= req: n = int(beams/req) # number of structres could be construct from beams transfer = (beams%req) elif beams < req: n=0 transfer = beams beamStored = int(transfer/(req/len(cut))) #number of beams else: n=0 “”” CONVERT BACK TO STICKY DATA convert values back into sticky list to use later “”” sc.sticky[“cons”] = n sc.sticky[“age”] = tree_age period = period + 1 sc.sticky[“period”] = period sc.sticky[“transfer”] = transfer h = heightReal

A20 | A21

60°N

| Appendix

011-11

250 40 population 200

20 GROWTH SIMULATION RESULTS SPRUCE 150

250 population 20 200

SETUP

100 011-11.1 50

100

years

100

years

150 10020

50 250 80 population population

200 60

Setup 250 population Comparison of different tree densities 250 population Thinning cycle: 5 years 150 Thinning intensity : 15% 200 40 Area: 1 Ha 200

100

years

7500 2500 750

150

20 150 50

EXPERIMENT 1 100 011-11.2 0 50 0

100 250

population

50 20 200 150 0 100 20 80 population 50

60 80 population 0 250 population 40 60 Experiment 1 80 population 200 15040

400

50 0

3 6 2 5 1 4 250 population

150 100

100

years

20 40

40 60

60 80

80 100

100 years

years

100

years

6 population 20 20 5 20 4 0

200

Comparison of different thinning intensities Thinning 20 cycle: 5 years Population used : 7500 60 Area: 1 Ha

10020

100

50%

100

years

100

years

100

years

100

years

100

years

Experiment 1 142 population Comparison of different thinning intensities Thinning cycle: 5 years 121 Population used : 750 Area: 10 1 Ha

6 14

15%

population

5% 15%

50%

100

years

80 population

150 100

0 OBSERVATIONS

As an experiments, that during timber thinning years 20 of thinning simulation 40 60 it can be said80 100 20outcome processes, it is crucial to avoid from actions that could change the tree density temporarily. 011-11.3 Experiment 1 on 750 seed patch could shown as an example, high rate of thinning intensity 80 population prevents thinnings to growth between two successive thinnings. To simply explain logic behind this reaction different intensity on simulation. 0 20 rates have analysed 40 60 For the sample 80 that generated 100 by 50% thinning intensity, uncut half of the trees has limited time to grow until the second thinning 60 action, and each individual has 50% chance to get cut during the second thinning process.

population

On the other hand, by keeping thinning intensity at 15% with more frequent thinning cycles such 5 as 5 years, material extraction amount could be kept consistent. On different patches, resultant population growth values have varied from 5 to 25 (not considering experiments with population population 4 growth 0).

40 250 20 200

3 2

1500

100 6 population 0 50 5

EXPERIMENT 4 2 011-11.4 0

14 12

population 20

6 46 4 0 3 2

6 4 2

100

years

100

years

80 population 20

years

100

years

2 years

100

5 years

years

15 years 50 years

100

years

100

years

60 40

Comparison of different thinning cycles Thinning20 intensity: 15 % 40 50 Population used : 750 Area: 1 Ha

population 0

Experiment 2 100

8 0

10 2 population 80 8 1 6 60 250 population 4 0 20 40 200 2 14 population 150 0 20 12

years

20 population 0

Experiment 2 6 population Comparison of different thinning cycles Thinning intensity: 15 % 5 Population used : 2500 Area: 1 Ha

4 3

100

years

2 years 5 years 15 years 50 years

A22 | A23

60°N

| Appendix

011-12

POPULATION GROWTH BY SPRUCE THINNING/GROWTH SIMULATION

TREE DENSITY IN 4 HA : 7500 YEARS

EXPERIMENT 1.A

EXPERIMENT 1.B

EXPERIMENT 1.C

EXPERIMENT 2.A

EXPERIMENT 2.B

EXPERIMENT 2.C

14.8

7.5

10.3

11.0

8.1

10.3

14.0

8.3

12.1

15.7

8.3

13.6

101

15.4

9.5

13.6

110

127

16.8

10.1

15.1

142

153

16.2

10.2

16.2

175

177

17.6

10.0

17.2

209

203

112

18.7

9.7

18.0

100

226

216

118

20.2

9.2

19.2

TREE DENSITY IN 4 HA : 2500 YEARS

EXPERIMENT 1.A

EXPERIMENT 1.B

EXPERIMENT 1.C

EXPERIMENT 2.A

EXPERIMENT 2.B

EXPERIMENT 2.C

100

TREE DENSITY IN 4 HA : 750 YEARS

EXPERIMENT 1.A

EXPERIMENT 1.B

EXPERIMENT 1.C

EXPERIMENT 2.A

EXPERIMENT 2.B

EXPERIMENT 2.C

100

A24 | A25

60°N

| Appendix

011-13

GREENHOUSE DISTRIBUTION GENETIC ALGORITHM RESULTS

011-12.1

4 BR Dwelling, 12 units Greenhouse Contributive Area: 50.1% Greenhouse Shaded Area: 76.17 m² Dwelling Self-shading:1633.33 m² Average Distance between Buildings: 37.65 m Total Radiation: 3249300.0 kWh

011-12.2

4 BR Dwelling, 8 units Greenhouse Contributive Area: 29.9% Greenhouse Shaded Area: 0.0 m² Dwelling Self-shading:744.81 m² Average Distance between Buildings: 38.52 m Total Radiation: 2396600.0 kWh

011-12.3

8 BR Dwelling, 4 units 4 BR Dwelling, 4 units Greenhouse Contributive Area: 38.5% Greenhouse Shaded Area: 0.0 m² Dwelling Self-shading:685.49 m² Average Distance between Buildings: 66.22 m Total Radiation: 3175100.0 kWh

011-13.1

4 BR Dwelling, 8 units Greenhouse Contributive Area: 33.3% Greenhouse Shaded Area: 58.74 m² Dwelling Self-shading:400.84 m² Average Distance between Buildings: 52.57 m Total Radiation: 2395800.0 kWh

011-13.2

4 BR Dwelling, 12 units Greenhouse Contributive Area: 17.7% Greenhouse Shaded Area: 222.35 m² Dwelling Self-shading:434.01 m² Average Distance between Buildings: 55.38 m Total Radiation: 3260600.0 kWh

011-13.3

4 BR Dwelling, 4 units 8 BR Dwelling, 4 units Greenhouse Contributive Area: 28.0% Greenhouse Shaded Area: 140.47 m² Dwelling Self-shading:747.48 m² Average Distance between Buildings: 62.73 m Total Radiation: 3199200.0 kWh

A26 | A27

60°N

| Appendix

011-14

RESIDENTIAL AND AGRICULTURAL PAIRING [GENERATION 11]

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1167.63 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.46 Self-Shading [m²] 610.11 Built Area [m²] 3743.72

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1364.01 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.45 Self-Shading [m²] 445.7 Built Area [m²] 3975.6

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1254.6 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.48 Self-Shading [m²] 649.91 Built Area [m²] 3970.58

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1226.36 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.63 Self-Shading [m²] 599.72 Built Area [m²] 3923.94

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1226.59 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.63 Self-Shading [m²] 552.95 Built Area [m²] 3857.1

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1333.55 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.69 Self-Shading [m²] 455.94 Built Area [m²] 3994.46

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1428.39 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.53 Self-Shading [m²] 440.77 Built Area [m²] 3974.88

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1364.01 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.45 Self-Shading [m²] 445.7 Built Area [m²] 3975.6

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1192.38 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.45 Self-Shading [m²] 607.96 Built Area [m²] 3859.83

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1443.02 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.41 Self-Shading [m²] 521.07 Built Area [m²] 3975.14

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1287.78 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.37 Self-Shading [m²] 542.25 Built Area [m²] 3765.01

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1400.37 Closeness Deviation [%] 0.68 Self-Shading [m²] 558.43 Built Area [m²] 3765.55

011-15

SMALL BUSINESS AND PUBLIC SERVICES [GENERATION 21]

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1425.69 PS Betweenness [%] 0.57 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.12 Built Area [m²] 6290.79

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1388.75 PS Betweenness [%] 0.64 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.23 Built Area [m²] 6248.78

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1672.39 PS Betweenness [%] 0.45 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.09 Built Area [m²] 6633.56

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1597.34 PS Betweenness [%] 0.4 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.11 Built Area [m²] 6586.33

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1486.53 PS Betweenness [%] 0.32 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.11 Built Area [m²] 6469.65

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1413.76 PS Betweenness [%] 0.33 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.38 Built Area [m²] 6375.43

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1354.63 PS Betweenness [%] 0.37 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.3 Built Area [m²] 6052.66

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1404.45 PS Betweenness [%] 0.41 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.23 Built Area [m²] 6136.37

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1433.65 PS Betweenness [%] 0.41 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.32 Built Area [m²] 6802.12

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1349.95 PS Betweenness [%] 0.67 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.35 Built Area [m²] 5922.22

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1096.77 PS Betweenness [%] 0.75 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.5 Built Area [m²] 4580.28

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1368.13 PS Betweenness [%] 0.72 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.4 Built Area [m²] 6359.24

A28 | A29

60°N

| Appendix

011-16

RESIDENTIAL AND EDUCATION PAIRING [GENERATION 19]

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1044.6 Betweenness of School [%] 0.4 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.73 Built Area [m²] 4075.14

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1197.55 Betweenness of School [%] 0.31 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.77 Built Area [m²] 4747.27

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1106.15 Betweenness of School [%] 0.31 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.96 Built Area [m²] 6341.66

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1145.76 Betweenness of School [%] 0.12 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.71 Built Area [m²] 4302.32

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1095.81 Betweenness of School [%] 0.27 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.72 Built Area [m²] 4399.91

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1183.02 Betweenness of School [%] 0.6 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.59 Built Area [m²] 6428.76

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1020.78 Betweenness of School [%] 0.51 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.76 Built Area [m²] 4399.91

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1084.68 Betweenness of School [%] 0.34 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.85 Built Area [m²] 6036.59

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1023.07 Betweenness of School [%] 0.38 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.98 Built Area [m²] 4041.0

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1106.62 Betweenness of School [%] 0.25 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.89 Built Area [m²] 4597.29

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1044.12 Betweenness of School [%] 0.45 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.64 Built Area [m²] 4693.35

Utilidor Network Length [m] 1230.7 Betweenness of School [%] 0.75 Closeness of Bldgs [%] 0.35 Built Area [m²] 4958.65

011-17

SMALL BUSINESS AND MARKET BUILDING [GENERATION 30]