HYDROSOCIAL (MArch) by Emergent Technologies and Design [EmTech] Selected Dissertations Repository

HYDROSOCIAL

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES PROGRAMME: EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN YEAR: 2022-2023 COURSE TITLE: M.Arch Dissertation DISSERTATION TITLE: Hydrosocial STUDENT NAMES: Gautami Bhoite (MArch) Shraddha Nepal (MArch) Mehul Shethiya (MArch) DECLARATION: “I certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our and that my quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of other is duly acknowledged.” SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENTS:

Gautami Bhoite DATE: 12th January 2024

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Shraddha Nepal

Mehul Shethiya

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HYDROSOCIAL

COURSE DIRECTOR Dr. Elif Erdine

FOUNDING DIRECTOR Dr. Michael Weinstock

STUDIO MASTER Dr. Milad Showkabakhsh

STUDIO TUTORS Lorenzo Santelli Paris Nikitidis Felipe Oeyen Fun Yue

Gautami Bhoite (MArch) Shraddha Nepal (MArch) Mehul Shethiya (MArch)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to all the individuals who played a pivotal role in the completion of our dissertation. This research project would not have been possible without the unwavering support and assistance of many, and we wish to express our appreciation. First and foremost, we would like to convey our sincere thanks to our dissertation advisors, Dr Michael Weinstock, Dr Elif Erdine and Dr Milad Showkatbakhsh, along with our course tutors whose guidance, expertise, and invaluable insights significantly contributed to the success of this research. A special thanks to Dr George Jeronimidis who helped us whit his expertise in material sciences. All their mentorship was

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instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of our work. Our friends, colleagues, and families deserve special recognition for their unwavering support, encouragement, and understanding during this academic journey. Their belief in our efforts has been a constant source of motivation. This dissertation stands as a testament to the power of collaboration and collective effort, and we are humbled by the incredible support we have received. While it’s impossible to name everyone individually, please accept our heartfelt thanks for your indispensable contributions to this research project.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 1. Introduction 1.1 Overview 1.2 Climate change and glacier melt 1.2.1 Glacier melt 1.3 Spiti valley 1.3.1 Villages of Spiti valley 1.3.2 Biome 1.3.3 Population 1.3.4 Occupational and economical shift 1.3.5 Hydrological cycle and seasonal distribution 1.4 Conclusion 2.

Domain 2.1 Overview 2.2 Transformation in Spiti valley 2.2.1 Agricultual diversification 2.2.2 Building technology 2.3 Climate responsive traditional design strategies 2.4 Development in tourism 2.5 Migration 2.6 Conclusion 2.7 Overview of Case studies 2.8 Water harvesting 2.9 Ice stupa 2.10 Snow management technique 2.11 Underground reservoirs 2.12 Stepped well 2.13 Conclusion 3.

Methods 3.1 Overview 3.2 Material 3.3 Architecture 3.4 Urban

Research Development 4.1 Overview 4.2 Introduction to Kaza 4.2.1 Water quantification 4.2.2 Conceptual proposal 4.3 Material system 4.3.1 Introduction and aim

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15 17 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 29 33 35 36 38 40 42 44 46 49 50 52 54 56 58 62 67 68 70 72 77 79 82 84 87 88

4.4 4.5

4.3.2 Material composition 4.3.3 Physical prototype experiments 4.3.4 Digital prototyoe experiments 4.3.5 FG block design development 4.3.6 Material comparison Building elements 4.4.1 Snow fence 4.4.2 Cascade development 4.4.3 Embankment development Conclusion

Hydrologocal network development 5.1 Overview 5.2 Site identification 5.2.1 Collection and preservation 5.2.2 Distribution and preservation 5.2.3 Distribution network 5.3 Architectural intervention 5.3.1 Typology A 5.3.2 Typology B 5.3.3 Typology C 5.4 Construction and vernacular details 5.5 Network analysis and quantification 5.6 Conclusion 6.

Socio-economic resilience 6.1 Overview 6.2 Urban fabric 6.2.1 Hydrological network generation 6.2.2 Typology C site identification 6.2.3 Road network generation 6.2.4 Parcellation 6.2.4 Landuse 6.3 Communal development 6.3.1 Design development 6.3.2 Aggregation design 6.3.3 Clustering 6.4 Network analysis and quantification 6.4.1 Water distribution detail 6.5 Socio-economic network 6.6 Conclusion 7.

Discussion 7.1 Overview 7.2 Reflection 7.3 Workflow 7.4 Conclusion

Bibliography

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ABSTRACT The proposal addresses the pressing issues of water scarcity and ecological degradation in the transHimalayan region, with a specific focus on the Spiti Valley grappling with desertification. Challenges include rapid urbanization, overexploitation of natural resources, and the impacts of climate change, particularly glacier melt, worsening water scarcity and contributing to desertification. To tackle these issues, the project employs adaptive traditional techniques, strategic urban planning, and the use of locally available materials to establish a sustainable water system. The primary goals are to alleviate water scarcity, combat desertification, and create communal spaces for the local community. The Spiti Valley currently faces seasonal water scarcity due to prolonged summers, short winters, and significant temperature fluctuations, resulting in a shortened melt season and increased summer runoff. Elevated temperatures also lead to high evaporation rates, depleting rivers and reservoirs. Consequently, water scarcity

during the summer requires importing water from neighboring regions. This proposal addresses inadequate summer water supply by implementing methods to collect and preserve glacier melt during the spring season and summer runoff, reducing dependence on imported water. The aim is to ensure sufficient glacial melt-water throughout the summer while integrating social spaces focused on water distribution for community development. The project establishes a hydrological network tailored to the site’s specific needs, covering water collection, preservation, and distribution. It also includes complementary programs designed to meet local requirements. Construction methods prioritize the use of local materials to minimize carbon emissions and water consumption. Overall, the project strives to enhance the longterm sustainability and resilience of both the Spiti Valley and the broader trans-Himalayan region through a comprehensive and integrated approach.

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01 | Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

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Overview Climate change and glacier melt Spiti valley Conclusion

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1.1 Overview

Fig.1 Spiti valley | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 14

This chapter commences with study of world’s several critical challenges due to global climate change, among which glacier melt emerges as a pivotal concern. Understanding the consequences of glacier melt is critical, prompting us to explore deeper into its repercussions, particularly in areas such as the Trans-Himalaya. This Himalayan area is facing immediate and severe consequences of glacier melt, with Spiti Valley at the epicentre of the catastrophe. Our research focuses on glacier melt because of its increasing rate and the consequences for water supplies, ecosystems, and populations. The urgency in Spiti Valley, which is located in the Trans-Himalaya region, stems from its dependency on glacial melt-water for survival, particularly during the dry summer months. As glacial melt accelerates, the valley will face increased water scarcity, disturbances in conventional water systems, and probable desertification, further exacerbating the region’s vulnerabilities.

To highlight the challenges that Spiti Valley faces, our research goes beyond glacier melt to investigate multiple interconnected issues. We investigated the valley’s distinct climate pattern, which is characterized by harsh winters, little precipitation, and a critical reliance on seasonal snow-melt for water sources. Furthermore, we investigated the valley’s socioeconomic structure, looking at changes in occupational patterns, increased reliance on tourism, and a decline in interest in traditional farming practices as a result of climatic constraints. Our study aims to understand the multiple implications of glacier melt by focusing on the larger TransHimalayan region and zooming down on particularly local elements inside Spiti Valley. This method enables us to appreciate the intricate interplay of climatic changes, water availability, socioeconomic developments, and the critical need for sustainable water co practices in Spiti Valley and comparable locations.

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1.2 Climate change and glacier melt Glacial melt has emerged as a pivotal consequence of global climate change, significantly impacting ice-covered regions worldwide. Among the most vulnerable areas experiencing this phenomenon is the Himalayan Mountain range. The Himalayas, with their immensity of glaciers, play a vital role in regulating water supply to millions of people across South Asia. However, the rapid pace of Himalayan glacial melt poses unprecedented challenges to the region’s environmental stability, ecosystem integrity, and the livelihoods of communities that depend on these precious glacial water resources.1 2 Climate change is the main cause of Himalayan glacier melting due to human activities like burning fossil fuels, deforestation,

Fig.1 Annual mass change in Global Glaciers2

and industrialization. These activities release greenhouse gases, trapping heat, causing rising temperatures and fast glacier melting which has a direct impact on the settlements which are dependent on this melt-water. The Himalayas host a number of villages that depend on the rivers and streams that are formed by the melting glaciers which is the main source of water during the summer season. This summer season is the cropping season but in recent times, it has been observed that the rivers, due to fast melting and excessive evaporation are not able to provide and evenly distribute water to these villages throughout the cropping season.3

Bajracharya, Samjwal & Maharjan, Sudan & Shrestha, Finu & Guo, Wanqin & Liu et al. “The glaciers of the Hindu Kush Hi malayas” International Journal of Water Resources Development, 31 (2015): 11-12. 2 Lee, E., Carrivick, J.L. et al. “Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age” Sci Rep 11, 24284 (2021). 3 Biemans, H., Siderius, C., Lutz, A.F. et al. “Importance of snow and glacier melt-water for agriculture on the Indo-Gangetic Plain” Nat Sustain 2, 594–601 (2019). 1

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1.2.1 Glacier melt

2015

1990

The irregular distribution of water leads to a reduction in availability. The glacial melt water serves as a crucial source to recharge water resources and as glaciers are melting faster than they can be replenished, the overall water availability in the affected areas decreases. This reduced water supply can lead to arid conditions. Additionally, with the rapid melting of glaciers, there can be significant fluctuations in the timing and volume of the water flowing in the rivers resulting in disruptions of the ecosystems and agricultural practices, impacting the productivity of land and eventually leading to the encroachment of desertlike conditions.⁴ Since the glacial melt water also carries nutrients downstream which contribute to the fertility of the soil, this quick shrinking of glaciers diminishes the supply of nutrients leading to soil degradation and slowly leading to desertification of that these ecologically sensitive areas through a series of mechanisms.5 The observed changes between 1990 and 2015 in the context of desertification and water shortage are extremely worrying. The decreasing snow cover during this time period, along with an increase in Land Surface Temperature, hastens the rate of snow-melt.⁶ This

disturbing occurrence has obvious and significant consequences for water supplies in Spiti Valley, both for agricultural and household operations. The negative effects are more obvious in the case of Kuhls, which convey water from snow and glacier sources to communities. The significant drop in snow cover has resulted in extended water scarcity, altering the traditional access to water supplies on which inhabitants in Spiti Valley have relied for generations. Furthermore, the flow of the Spiti River, which is vital to the region’s environment and human habitation, is significantly dependent on snow accumulation. The decreasing snow cover not only compromises the river’s long-term flow but also increases populations’ vulnerability to desertification and water scarcity. The complex interaction between declining snow supplies, desertification, and water shortages highlights the critical need for comprehensive initiatives aimed at protecting water resources, reducing desertification, and developing sustainable practices in the face of increasing climate difficulties.

Yashwant E., “Climate Change Altering Farming in Spiti.” (2018). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate-change-altering-farming-in-spiti/ Eriksson, Mats & Xu, Jianchu & Shrestha et al. “The Changing Himalayas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources” (2009). 6 Husain, Md & Kumar, Pankaj & Singh et al. “Snow Cover and Snowline Variation in Relation to Land Surface Temperature in Spiti Valley” International Journal of Ecology. 49. (2022). 4

Snow | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 18

Land

Fig.2 Monthly Variation of snow cover in Spiti Valley (1990 and 2015)6

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

1.3 Spiti valley This mountain range produces a variety of contexts with varying climates, terrain, and resources. One of which is Spiti Valley, located in the Indian State of Himachal Pradesh. Spiti Valley is situated within the rain shadow region of the Himalayas, nestled between the Tibetan plateau in the East and Ladakh to the North, as a result, it has a dry environment and little to no precipitation, earning it the title of a cold desert. The rain shadow effect occurs when the moist winds from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal rise upon the Himalayas, causing rainfall on the windward side of the Himalayas but leaving the leeward side relatively dry. Spiti Valley’s rough geography adds to its uniqueness. The valley

is characterized by its rough and desolate mountains, steep gorges, and rocky terrain, and is surrounded by high peaks reaching heights of over 6,000 meters, creating stunning panoramas and a compelling and aweinspiring atmosphere for tourists. The villages in the valley are majorly settled in close vicinity of the river Spiti which also serves as a lifeline for the local population of 12,457 distributed in around 80 rural settlements, according to the 2011 census.⁷ Out of these villages, we selected the five most populous settlements in the valley to study and understand the social structure and the culture of those villages.

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Fig.3 Elevation profile of the Himalayas, showing the location of Spiti Valley

Fig.4 All the settlements are situated on the banks of River Spiti which is the main source of water

Kaza, the largest town in Spiti Valley, is a hub for administration, commerce, and agriculture, with a population of 1690. It is a major agricultural centre focusing on barley, peas, potatoes, and livestock rearing. Kaza relies on glacial melt-water for domestic and agricultural purposes and serves as a gateway for tourism. Tabo, a small village with a population of

592, faces challenges in agriculture due to arid conditions and limited water availability. Traditional farming practices are used for crops like barley and peas, while Tabo Monastery holds significant religious and cultural importance.8

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011). https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ ⁸ Mishra, Amit, “Tabo Monastery (996 CE) A Vernacular Architecture of Lahaul and Spiti Region of Himachal Pradesh” Journal of Environmental Design and Planning, 22. 304. (2023). 7

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1.3.2 Biome 1.3.1 Villages of Spiti valley Losar, Dhankar, and Sumdo are three villages in Spiti Valley, each with unique characteristics and importance. Losar primarily cultivates the same barley and peas, while Dhankar and Sumdo engage in limited farming activities due to rugged terrain and arid conditions, emphasizing livestock rearing and traditional pastoral practices. They

mainly rely on glacial melt-water and limited groundwater resources for their agricultural and domestic needs. On the other hand, Dhankar holds historical and cultural significance with its Dhankar Monastery, while Sumdo serves as a vital transportation hub connecting Spiti Valley with neighbouring regions.⁹

Fig. 6 The difference of landscapes in Spiti Valley. A) August B) February Fig.5 Most populous villages in the Valley

9 “Spiti Valley: Recovering the Past and Exploring the Present”, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Spiti, Wolfson College, Oxford, (2016). 10 Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015) 11 Sonawani, Sanjay, “Ancient Trade Routes Passing through Northern India to Connect with Central Asia” (2021)

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Fig. 7 Annual temperature 10

Spiti Valley falls within the TransHimalayan region, which is classified in the Koppen classification as ‘Et’ (Tundra Climate). The biome of Spiti Valley can also be classified as a high-altitude cold desert. The valley experiences extreme temperature variations. Winters bring bone-chilling cold, with temperatures plummeting to sub-zero levels. The harsh conditions make daily life and basic survival a constant struggle for the residents. Snowfall blankets the valley, further isolating communities and limiting access to essential resources. Additionally, the long duration of winter limits the growing season for crops, hindering agricultural activities

and exacerbating food scarcity.10 The high-altitude cold desert biome offers a experience of vast open spaces. The presence of ancient monasteries, such as Tabo and Dhankar, adds a spiritual dimension to the site, showcasing the deep-rooted cultural traditions of the region. Spiti Valley’s strategic location along the ancient trading route11 and its position within the rain shadow region make it a gateway to adventure, offering opportunities for trekking, mountaineering, and connecting with nature in its rawest form.

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Fig.9 Occupational shift

According to a study conducted in 2011, out of the entire population, 7,112 were working. 63.5% of workers were involved in the agricultural industry, while 36.5% describe their work as marginal work. There were 1,284 cultivators (owner or co-owner) and 112 agricultural labourers among the 7,112 employees engaged.14 Agriculture and livestock rearing have been the backbone of the local economy in Spiti Valley, but younger generations have shown declining interest in pursuing traditional agricultural practices due to harsh climatic conditions, limited water resources, and short growing seasons. This has led to an occupational shift in the valley.¹⁵

1.3.3 Population The villages in the valley are majorly settled in close vicinity of the river Spiti which also serves as a lifeline for the local population of 12,457 according to the 2011 census.¹² And is characterized by relatively small and scattered settlements, with some

villages having a few dozen residents while others having a few hundred as stated earlier. The population density is relatively low due to the region’s rugged terrain, harsh climate, and limited resources .

Fig.8 Projected population of the districts of Spiti and Lahaul combined 13

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011) https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ 13 “Lahul and Spiti District Population Census 2011 - 2021 - 2023, Himachal Pradesh Literacy Sex Ratio and Density” (2023) 12

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1.3.4 Occupational and economical shifts

Tourism and hospitality have become a crucial source of income for the local population, with the development of tourism-related infrastructure, such as guesthouses, home stays, restaurants, and adventure tourism services due to which handicrafts and

artisan work have gained prominence as an economic activity in Spiti Valley, showcasing the region’s rich cultural heritage and contributing to preserving traditional craftsmanship and simultaneously government services play a vital role in the local economy, providing employment opportunities and contributing to the overall development of the region.¹⁶ Alternative livelihoods have emerged as individuals explore small-scale businesses, transportation services, trading activities, and seasonal work in nearby towns or cities. However, tourism has also posed challenges such as environmental impact, cultural change, and the potential over-reliance on a seasonal industry. Striking a balance between sustainable tourism practices and the preservation of the unique cultural and natural heritage is a key consideration for the future development of the valley.

Government of India, “Spiti Tehsil Population, Religion, Caste Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India.” Mukherjee, Sumit, “Changing Economy and Culture of Food in Spiti” (2020) 16 Chauhan, “Keen to Improve Basic Infra in Spiti to Facilitate Locals” (2022) 14 15

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

1.3.5 Hydrological cycle and seasonal distribution Due to its geographical location, this valley follows a distinct seasonal pattern. The winter season lasts from December to February, the temperatures reach extremes and precipitation occurs mainly in the form of snowfall. This snow on higher elevations acts as a reservoir that stores water for the upcoming seasons. This snow is then released in the form of glacial melt-water in the Spring months of March to May, feeding and replenishing water sources in the valley, but the temperatures remain cold making agriculture difficult. Agriculture sees

a boom every Summer which lasts from June to mid-September which is relatively short but crucial in terms of water availability. This is also the primary monsoon season where the scattered rainfall averages around 170mm annually because of its rain shadow region, but these showers further contribute to the water resources. September to November is Autumn in the valley, which witnesses a decrease in the water availability and temperatures gradually start to drop. 17 18

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Fig.10 Change in the water availability affecting agricultural patterns. The orange color on the diagrams shows the period when water is scarce.

Fig.11 Annual Hydrological Cycle of Spiti Valley

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With rising temperatures accelerating Himalayan glacier melting and water scarcity which threatens ecosystems and livelihoods of the valley, sustainable water management practices, climate change mitigation efforts, and adaptive strategies are

crucial for addressing the challenges posed by the climate and ensuring the long-term resilience and wellbeing of the region.19

“Weather report for Kaja” https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/kaja_india Yashwant E., “Climate Change in Spiti.” (2019). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate-change-spiti/ | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 27

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1.4 Conclusion The unprecedented acceleration of Himalayan glacial melt, mostly due to human-caused climate change, is a significant global concern with far-reaching consequences. This phenomenon, which is driven by activities such as the use of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrialization, has serious ramifications for locations such as Spiti Valley, which is tucked in the Himalayan rain shadow. The valley’s unusually dry environment and low precipitation are compounded by the valley’s difficult geography, which has steep gorges and rocky landscapes. Alarming alterations were noticed in Spiti Valley between 1990 and 2015. Reduced snow cover and increasing Land Surface Temperatures have resulted in rapid snow-melt, leading in extended times of water shortage. Kuhls, critical conduits that convey glacier-sourced water to villages, have been severely damaged, causing conventional access to water supplies to be disrupted.

Fig.12 Natural terrain formation in Spiti valley

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The Spiti River, which is vital to both the ecosystem and human civilization, is strongly reliant on snowfall. The river’s continued flow is jeopardised not just by declining snow cover, but also by increased vulnerability to desertification and water shortages. Water scarcity has disastrous implications, including dry conditions, altered ecosystems, and variable agricultural practices, all of which contribute to land degradation and desertification. The future of Spiti Valley and similar regions hinges

on sustainable water management practices, climate change mitigation, and adaptive methods. Regionspecific, community-driven solutions are required, drawing on India’s rich tradition of water conservation. It also signals the need for comprehensive initiatives to address these issues. The research aims to tackle these problems across different scales: Local Scale: The study will investigate the impact of changing water availability on Spiti Valley’s villages, focusing on how these changes affect agriculture, livelihoods, and communities. Regional Scale: It will assess the broader regional implications of glacial melt and water scarcity, considering factors such as ecosystem disruption, desertification, and the dependency of multiple communities on shared water resources. Global Scale: The research will contribute to the understanding of the global issue of glacial melt and climate change, offering insights into how local actions in regions like Spiti Valley can be part of the broader solution. This chapter not only highlights the severity of the problem but also lays the groundwork for a multiscale research approach to address the complex challenges posed by Himalayan glacial melt and its impacts on water availability in Spiti Valley and beyond.

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02 | Domain 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Overview Transformation in Spiti valley Climate responsive traditional design strategies Development in tourism Migration Conclusion

2.7 Overview of Case studies 2.8 Water harvesting 2.9 Ice stupa 2.10 Snow management technique 2.11 Underground reservoirs 2.12 Stepped well 2.13 Conclusion

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2.1 Overview The chapter delves into the ecological, economic, and social transformations occurring in the Spiti region over time. It investigates the critical importance of studying these transitions because of their substantial impact on the region’s ecological balance and socioeconomic fabric. The chapter gives a chronological timeline of major events, beginning with the early 2000s impact of global warming, which resulted in rapid glacial melt and imminent water crisis. As a result of this phenomena, the local population declined as residents sought possibilities elsewhere. Furthermore, the chapter emphasizes substantial changes in agricultural methods, such as the shift from traditional crops to high-value cash crops. This transformation, which was encouraged by government programs, transportation improvements, and changing eating patterns, resulted in increased demand for water resources, increasing water scarcity challenges. The discussion also includes agricultural waste management and the possibilities for using agricultural wastes to produce a variety of valuable products. The architectural practices and construction materials in the valley are also investigated, with a focus on the transition from traditional eco-friendly materials to non-local possibilities such as Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC).

Fig.13 Spiti valley | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 32

Additionally, the chapter examines tourism’s significance as a driving force behind economic expansion in

Spiti Valley, while also highlighting difficulties such as trash generation, water scarcity, and unplanned construction. The phenomena of migration from Spiti Valley to metropolitan centers is explored, with causes such as limited opportunities, education, healthcare, and increased infrastructure cited as major factors. These factors helped us frame the research question and hence a number of case studies were studied to answer our research question. The detailed study and classification of water harvesting systems based on catchment size and storage type is a fundamental feature of this chapter. Case studies on these systems have provided useful insights into their effectiveness and application in a variety of scenarios. The team is certain that the knowledge gained from these case studies will be useful in producing design ideas, demonstrating the potential for these practices to be effectively implemented in a variety of settings. Overall, this comprehensive chapter demonstrates the interaction of environmental, economic, and social elements in shaping Spiti’s biological ecosystem. It lays the groundwork for comprehending the region’s transitions and underlines the critical need for long-term, locally relevant development approaches to conserve Spiti’s distinctive ecology and cultural heritage.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.2 Transformation in Spiti valley

Fig.14 Timeline of the events that led to the transformation of the valley

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The diagram presented above encapsulates a succinct brief of the ecological transformations that have unfolded in the Spiti region over time. It outlines a chronological sequence of key events and their subsequent repercussions. In the early 2000s, the region felt the impact of global warming, manifesting as prolonged summers and rising temperatures. This phenomenon triggered rapid glacial melt and indicated looming water scarcity during the summer season, leading to a population decline as residents sought opportunities elsewhere. By the 2010s, changes in agricultural practices emerged, shifting from traditional crops to cash crops for increased profitability. Consequently, many locals transitioned from traditional farming to careers tied to the burgeoning tourism industry, which Spiti embraced in the mid1990s. The surge in tourist arrivals prompted residents to enter the

tourism sector, resulting in the rapid expansion of infrastructure to meet growing demand. This surge also catalysed a shift from traditional construction materials to faster but non-local options, sparking illegal sand extraction from riverbeds for construction. This, in turn, altered river courses and negatively impacted farmlands and riverside areas. Cumulatively, these events have culminated in the ecological decline of the region, characterized by water scarcity and a shift towards unsustainable practices. This timeline underscores the intricate interplay between environmental, economic, and social factors in shaping the ecological landscape of Spiti, underscoring the pressing need for sustainable and locally attuned development practices to safeguard the region’s unique environment and cultural heritage.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.2.1 Agricultural diversification Since the early 1980s, notable advancements have been documented in the agricultural sector of the Lahaul and Spiti region. The most prominent transformation involves the shift toward cultivating high-value cash crops, such as fruits and vegetables. While this diversification has positively impacted the income and employment of farming households, particularly in remote tribal areas, it also imposes a considerable strain on the natural resource base. The move from traditional agriculture to cash crops offers economic advantages but simultaneously places stress on available natural resources. In regions like Lahaul and Spiti, characterized by challenges like a short sowing season, mountainous constraints, population growth, and limited land holdings, farmers face

the primary task of overcoming these limitations to maximize profits within the available land and time. Consequently, crop diversification emerges as the most effective strategy for farmers to optimize their earnings. The initiation of the Desert Development Program in 1985 marked a pivotal moment, leading to the expansion of crops from two major ones, black peas and barley, to nine, including cash crops like garden peas and apples by 1990. Government initiatives, along with improved road connectivity and transportation, played significant roles in altering cropping patterns. Changes in dietary habits and market demands also contributed to diversification. However, this shift to water-intensive

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Fig.16 Classification of agricultural residues

Fig. 15 Diversification of agriculture

cash crops has increased the demand for water resources, leading to water scarcity in the region. Recognizing the link between transitioning to water-intensive crops and current water scarcity, there is a pressing need to implement sustainable

water management strategies. These strategies include promoting efficient irrigation practices, exploring alternative water sources, and selecting crops aligned with the region’s available water resources.

Agricultural waste production Agricultural waste, including fertilizer runoff, pesticides, manure, and crop residues, is often burned after harvest cycles, posing environmental and energy concerns. The Lahaul and Spiti region alone generates 10 million tonnes of agro-waste annually, according to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). This waste, rich in organic and inorganic compounds, can be repurposed for livestock feed, biopreservatives, biofuels, biofertilizers, and sustainable building materials.

To address environmental concerns in this fragile region, a study focused on alternative building materials. Barley husk and flaxseed meal were used to create particle boards, while barley waste, walnut shell, flax, and hemp were explored for brick/ masonry components and insulation materials. These materials offer a promising solution for sustainable and eco-friendly construction in the future stages of the project.

Department of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh, “District Agriculture Plan: Lahaul-Spiti, H.P.” (2009) Sharma H., Chauhan S., “Agricultural Transformation in Trans Himalayan Region of Himachal Pradesh: Cropping Pattern, Technology Adoption and Emerging Challenges”. Agricultural Economics Review. 26 Conference (2013): 173–179 22 Indian Council of Agricultural Research, “Agriculture Contingency Plan for District: Lahaul & Spiti.” (2018) 23 Pollock J., “Concrete vs. Earth in the Spiti Valley” (2013) 20 21

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2.2.2 Building technology Spiti, located at an elevation of 4,270 meters, experiences extremely harsh weather conditions, including frigid temperatures dropping to -35˚C and heavy snowfall of up to 2 meters for a prolonged six-month winter period. During this winter season, the region becomes isolated with no access in or out, leaving a limited construction window of just five months. To adapt to these challenging conditions, a variety of strategies are employed by the locals, including climateresponsive planning, utilization of local materials, and incorporating thermal insulation within traditional construction methods.23

In summary, traditional construction practices in the valley region combine cost-effectiveness, adaptability to extreme climates, sustainability, and a connection to local culture, resulting in resilient and environmentally friendly building methods. Replacing traditional local materials with imported Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC) and steel in the valley has raised concerns. RCC’s growing use is driven by the need for rapid construction in a limited timeframe, but it poses challenges. RCC has drawbacks, including a

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 38

Fig.17 Traditional construction details

Fig.18 Shift in building materials over the years

shorter lifespan compared to natural materials, poor thermal insulation in extreme cold, and a negative environmental impact. The production and transport of RCC contribute to carbon emissions, sand extraction disrupts ecosystems and agriculture, and high water usage exacerbates water scarcity.

earthen homes in Kaza have been steadily replaced. Questions persist about RCC’s long-term durability, environmental effects, structural deterioration, and waste management. Balancing infrastructure demands with environmental preservation is a complex issue that requires careful consideration.

Despite RCC’s unsuitability for the region’s extreme cold, traditional | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 39

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.3 Climate responsive traditional design strategies One notable example of intelligent bio-climatic design can be seen in an ancestral home in a village called Kwang.24 Here, the design allows for seasonal migration of the family. During the summer months, the upper level of the home is occupied, providing ample sunlight and scenic views. A Makang, or communal space, is also utilized. However, when winter arrives, the family moves downstairs to the Yokang, a centrally located room that benefits from insulation provided by surrounding rooms, effectively combating the extreme cold. Construction in the valley region is characterized by traditional practices

that employ stone and wood for building, often finishing with lime or mud plaster.25 These methods offer numerous benefits: Traditional materials such as stone and wood are readily available and cost-effective, reducing the need for expensive imports. These construction methods are accessible to local communities as they do not require highly specialized or skilled labor, thus reducing labor costs. The use of stone and wood provides excellent thermal insulation, which is essential for coping with the extreme climatic conditions of the region, ensuring comfortable indoor temperatures even during severe winters. Thick rammed earth walls, measuring 500-600 mm in thickness,

Fig.19 Climate responsive traditional design strategies

Joshi, Phartiyal, and Joshi, “Hydro-Climatic Variability during Last Five Thousand Years and Its Impact on Human Colonization and Cultural Transition in Ladakh Sector, India.” (2021) 25 N. Engin, N. Vural, S. Vural, M.R. Sumerkan, “Climatic Influences on Vernacular Architecture” Building and Environment, 42 (2007) 24

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Fig.20 Traditional housing layout

are a notable feature of valley construction. Raw earth with high moisture content is used, creating air pockets within the walls, enhancing their insulating properties. Valley construction prioritizes ecofriendly and culturally significant materials, including stone foundations, wooden structural members, lime and sand plaster, and willow branches for roofing, which contribute to sustainability and connect the architecture with local culture and traditions.

These materials are known for their durability, ensuring that buildings can withstand the harsh weather conditions and last for generations. Many of these construction materials can be reused or recycled, reducing waste and promoting sustainability. By utilizing locally sourced materials and minimizing the need for long-distance transportation of construction materials, this approach reduces the carbon footprint associated with construction.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.4 Development in tourism Spiti Valley has become a popular destination among Indian tourists, renowned for its remote charm, ancient monasteries, and trekking opportunities. The valley, situated between the India-Tibet border, showcases a rich cultural heritage with magnificent monasteries offering panoramic views. Initially isolated, Spiti gradually opened to tourists in 1995, leading to the development of home stays and a shift toward tourism as a primary occupation.26 Tourism in Spiti Valley has contributed to its economic growth, providing alternative sources of income for locals. However, it has also presented challenges such as waste generation, water scarcity, and haphazard development. To improve connectivity, a new tunnel route was introduced, reducing travel time and doubling the number of visitors. This

route has facilitated year-round travel, even during the winter season when the valley was previously closed.27 During the summer season, locals cater to tourists, while in winter, they migrate to nearby cities. The tourism industry has provided employment opportunities and boosted the region’s economic prospects. However, the influx of tourists and increased accessibility have also brought environmental challenges. Waste generation has increased, and the region faces water scarcity issues.28 These issues require sustainable management and infrastructure development to ensure the preservation of Spiti’s pristine natural environment. Despite the challenges, tourism has played a crucial role in promoting Spiti Valley and its cultural heritage.

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Fig.21 Tourist season in Spiti Valley, Himalayas

Fig.22 Graph showing the boost in tourism because of infrastructure development 29

The valley’s picturesque landscapes, ancient monasteries, and unique way of life continue to attract visitors. The government’s efforts to improve connectivity through the tunnel route have further bolstered tourism in the region. Moving forward, it is essential to strike a balance between tourism development and environmental preservation in Spiti Valley.

Sustainable practices, waste management initiatives, and responsible tourism can help mitigate the adverse impacts while maximizing the economic benefits for the local community. With proper planning and conservation efforts, Spiti Valley can continue to thrive as a popular destination, captivating visitors with its untouched beauty and cultural significance.

Rashmi A. “Spiti: Responsible tourism in Spiti Valley, Himalayas” Rohan Jain, “A Brief History of Lahaul and Spiti Valley”, https://renokadventures.com/history-of-lahaul-and-spiti-valley/ 28 Auer, C.E., “Measure for measure: Researching and documenting architecture in Spiti” 41, (2021): 181-201 29 Rashmi A. “Spiti: Responsible tourism in Spiti Valley, Himalayas” 26 27

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2.5 Migration Migration from Spiti Valley has been driven by several factors, including limited economic opportunities, limited education, limited healthcare facilities, and improved connectivity and infrastructure.30 Young people from Spiti Valley migrate to urban centres and developed regions for better economic prospects, such as Shimla, Chandigarh, and Delhi.31 Education is also a major factor, with limited institutions in the valley attracting students seeking diverse job opportunities. Healthcare facilities are also limited, with individuals with serious medical conditions or advanced treatments seeking better facilities in urban areas. Connectivity and infrastructure improvements, mainly the construction of the Atal tunnel have made migration

easier, with better roads and public transport options reducing barriers to mobility.32 Lifestyle and cultural shifts, exposure to different cultures, and changing aspirations have also influenced migration patterns. Young people may choose to explore life outside the valley, seeking modern amenities, education, career growth, and a different way of life. To summarise, emigration is influenced by a variety of economic, educational, healthcare, infrastructure, cultural, and aspirational issues. It will have far-reaching consequences for the valley’s population, economics, and general development. To solve the issues connected with emigration, a comprehensive approach that considers all these elements is required for the region’s long-term development.

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Fig.23 Migrant population from the state of Himachal Pradesh 33

Sharma, Indu and Rani Dhanze. “Lahaul-Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), India.” (2013) Government of India, “Population by State of Last Residence and Place of Enumeration (Migrations)” 32 Dipender J., “Atal Tunnel Will Check Winter Migration.” (2015) 33 Government of India, “Population by State of Last Residence and Place of Enumeration (Migrations)” 30 31

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2.6 Conclusion The Spiti region is currently grappling with an urgent and escalating demand for a sustainable water supply, primarily triggered by a confluence of ecological degradation factors that directly impact the region’s hydrological pattern. These challenges have notably affected the agricultural sector, prompting a shift in both ecological and economic patterns. Simultaneously, the construction technology landscape has witnessed a significant transformation driven by considerations of comfort and costeffectiveness. The consequences of these shifts are palpable in the form of migration, as residents seek more favorable conditions elsewhere.

While the specter of climate change remains an undeniable reality, it is essential to recognize that a range of both traditional and modern approaches exists to address these challenges effectively. These methods have the potential to not only enhance the region’s construction practices but also rejuvenate the hydrological pattern in a sustainable and environmentally sensitive manner. By embracing innovative strategies and contemporary solutions, the Spiti region can embark on a path towards a more resilient and ecologically harmonious future.

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How can traditional ecological knowledge and modern environmental science be combined to develop sustainable solutions for the Spiti region’s water scarcity and environmental degradation issues?

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.7 Overview of Case studies Water harvesting, a time-tested practice in many regions worldwide, has significantly impacted settlement life through both traditional methods and recent interventions. Unfortunately, the vast potential of water harvesting remains largely unrecognized, undervalued, and unacknowledged. The fundamental concept involves capturing surface runoff, which could be potentially damaging, and converting it into a valuable resource for plant growth or water supply. This Fig.24 Micro-catchment water harvesting techniques on a site | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 48

chapter presents research on water harvesting practices conducted in the Indian region, encompassing various techniques such as snow collection and underground reservoirs. The classification of water harvesting systems is based on two key criteria: catchment size and storage method.34 The team is confident that the insights gained from these case studies can contribute to the development of a design proposal, as these practices hold promise for effective implementation in various contexts.

Maher Salman, “Strengthening Agricultural Water Efficiency and Productivity” Irrigation and Drainage. 10.1002 (2021) | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 49

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.8 Water harvesting Macro-catchment water harvesting In Spiti Valley, water preservation relies on artificial glaciers, or glacier seeding, which freeze and store meltwater from natural glaciers. These structures slow glacial melt, providing a reliable water source and supporting traditional sustainability practices. Three main types of artificial glaciers exist: 1.Basin-type: Simple and lowmaintenance, they collect water in basins near the village for distribution through a spring-loaded gate valve. 2.Cascade-type: Constructed with 3-6 feet high retention walls across streams, forming step-like glaciers along the river. 3.Diversion-type: Redirects water to 35

shaded valleys with wall structures, useful when sunlight hampers ice formation in the stream during winter, though it demands more investment, labor, and maintenance.35 The Spiti Valley is geographically characterized by sloping terrain on its northern periphery, with a river stream flowing along the southern side of the settlement area. To effectively manage water resources in this region, a cascade system presents a viable solution. This system entails diverting water from the rivers to regulate the rapid flow of glacier melt. Additionally, this diverted water can be channeled into a network of small reservoirs, facilitating its preservation for future use and mitigating water scarcity concerns.

Dolker K., “Impact of Ice Stupa in Mitigating the Obstacles to Agriculture in Ladhakh” (2018)

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Fig.25 Macro-catchment water harvesting techniques

Micro-catchment water harvesting Fig.26 Micro-catchment water harvesting techniques

Micro catchment refers to a technique that involves surface flow from compact catchment areas with limited length. In an adjacent application area, collected water is accumulated and stored in the root zone to be used by plants directly. Within a single field, catchment and application zones alternate, resulting in water concentration in specific confined areas designated for plant cultivation. Consequently, the system is replicated multiple times following an identical pattern. Micro catchment methods are frequently integrated

with targeted agricultural practices for annual crop cultivation or tree establishment. These practices encompass methods such as mulching, fertility management, and pest control. Overall, micro catchment water harvesting can be seen as a versatile and cost-effective solution applicable to a wide range of crops. For farmers seeking sustainable water management, it is a valuable technique due to its ease of replication and adaptability.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.9 Ice stupa The ice stupa project serves as an alternative to artificial glaciers, freezing water during winter to meet agricultural needs in spring. Ice stupas, resembling large stalagmites, draw attention to depleting glaciers and their ecological impact in the Himalayas. Using underground pipes, water is directed to the stupa, utilizing natural pressure to rise vertically. Each stupa can store millions of liters of water, providing crucial support to farmers until glacial streams flow in summer. In Ladakh, at night, freshwater is pumped through a sprinkler, freezing onto a purpose-built structure to form an artificial glacier. Additional piping can increase storage capacity. As temperatures rise, the melting ice

provides a crucial water source for early-season irrigation, supporting local communities.36 The location of ice stupas is typically below 20 to 25 meters, which is not ideal for sustaining the people of the Spiti valley throughout the year. Since ice requires freezing temperatures, it is not feasible to construct ice stupas in the town area. Moreover, with rising temperatures and intense heat, the ice in the stupas tends to melt easily. As a result, this preservation system is not sustainable in the long run. The effectiveness of ice stupas as a reliable water source is limited by their melting in warmer weather and changing climate patterns. The lower altitude of their location further

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Fig.27 Conceptual working of Ice-stupa

Fig.28 Artificial glacier Ice-stupa

complicates maintenance challenges throughout the year. While ice stupas offer a temporary solution for water scarcity during the planting season, they are not a sustainable longterm method. Exploring alternative approaches is crucial to ensure a consistent water supply for the Spiti valley communities, considering the changing climate and geographical limitations.

Storing fresh water in ice form is crucial for the research, offering an innovative approach to preserve water for extended agricultural use. This method ensures a gradual release, enhancing sustainability and addressing water scarcity in farming practices. The integration of ice storage adds a valuable dimension to the research, promoting efficient water management and resilient agricultural practices.

Spanner H., “Ice stupas: The artificial glaciers helping combat the effects of climate change” Scientific Focus (2022) | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 53

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.10 Snow management techniques A snow fence functions as a barrier designed to redirect wind-driven snow, forcing it to accumulate at specified locations. Initially, this system was implemented to mitigate snowdrift issues on roads and railways. However, over time, farmers employed snow fences strategically to encourage the formation of snowdrifts within basins, ensuring the availability of a reliable water source during the spring season. In years with limited precipitation, drifting snow can become the primary water source for ponds located in windy areas within high-altitude terrain. In 1988-89, southeastern Wyoming experienced severe drought conditions, leading

to the construction of snow fences to capture drifting snow in various reservoirs.37 This approach has demonstrated its effectiveness in ensuring an adequate water supply. The drought situation in Wyoming prompted extensive research and on-site testing of various models to investigate the optimal effectiveness of this method. In 1995, R. L. Jarrell and R. A. Schmidt described and conducted tests on the primary models that elucidate the impact of snow fence and embankment placements on snow deposition in stock ponds.38 They presented a comparative analysis among three primary models for estimating snow accumulation. Model A, which solely incorporated a pit and an

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Fig. 29 The principle of operation of a snow fence Fig. 30 The categorization of models of snow fences

37 38

various

embankment without a snow fence, was juxtaposed with Models B and C, where the introduction of a snow fence and adjustments to the embankment’s location were made. Model C has been identified as the most effective option, excelling both in the collection of snow during windy months and in retaining this snow in the pit until the melting period. In contrast, Model A exhibited limited snow accumulation. Model B demonstrated remarkable snow accumulation, surpassing even Model C. However, Model B faced challenges

in securely storing the accumulated snow, as it continued to be susceptible to wind-driven dispersion without adequate containment measures. Considering the investigation of snow fence principles and operational characteristics, this technology presents itself as a viable solution to address drought-related challenges within the chosen region. Based on the climatic conditions prevalent in the Spiti Valley, this area appears well-suited for the implementation of such a technology.

Jairell, R; Schmidt, R., “Snow Management and Windbreaks” University of Nebraska (1999) Jairell, Robert L. and R. A. Schmidt “Constructing scaled models for snowdrift tests outdoors” Vancouver, BC (1987) | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 55

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

2.11 Underground reservoirs In the arid climate of India, traditional water preservation systems have been extensively studied and utilized. These structures are specifically designed to conserve natural runoff water from the ground, and they often include tanks to collect rainwater. Additionally, some systems are adept at harvesting groundwater. These age-old practices have been consistently employed over the years and continue to be vital for water preservation in the region. Johads are small earthen check dams that capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater recharge. This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area. Kuis / Beris Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit gets wider as it

burrows under the ground, so that water can seep in into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely earthen structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations. Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks, found traditionally in the main house or in the courtyard. They were circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which rainwater was collected. Tankas were often beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool. The water was used only for drinking. Stepwells Built by the nobility usually for strategic and/or philanthropic reasons, they were secular structures from which everyone could draw water. Sculptures and inscriptions in stepwells demonstrate their importance to the traditional social and cultural lives of people. When a stepwell was located within or at the edge of a village, it was mainly used for utilitarian purposes and as a cool place for social gatherings. When stepwells were located outside the

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Fig.31 Water reservoirs in arid climate

village, on trade routes, they were often frequented as resting places. Kunds / Kundis These structures harvest rainwater for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat. Essentially a circular underground well, kunds have a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well-pit are covered with (disinfectant) lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on their use (drinking, or domestic water requirements).39

Upon delving deeper into various methods for conserving water resources, it becomes evident that a straightforward approach, such as the implementation of pit systems, is suitable for terrains characterized by steep slopes. Conversely, in densely populated areas, the integration of water preservation strategies with communal spaces presents an opportunity to enhance public engagement and social interactions in the Spiti Valley. This conceptual framework can be further refined to not only attract tourism but also to catalyse agricultural development in the region while fostering a vibrant social milieu. Further a detail study of Stepped well is done to ensure public involvement in water conservation practices.

Sharma, Pawan & Srivastava, “Water Harvesting Systems : Traditional Systems.” | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 57

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Fig.33 Timeline of development of stepwells across India

2.12 Stepped wells Stepwells were built along natural slopes to collect run offs and acted as rainwater catchment areas, often connected to ponds so they could channel rainwater. The construction of stepwells date from four periods: Pre-Solanki period (8th to 11th century CE); Solanki period (11th to 12th century CE); Vaghela period (mid-13th to end-14th century CE); and the Sultanate period (mid-13th to end-15th century CE).40 They are unique yet minor elements of the Indian architecture, particularly the beautifully engraved walls of these underground water bodies. The climate of Western India is hot, semi-arid and rain is infrequent. Consequently, it is always necessary to save the water of the monsoon rains and keep it available for the arid season of the year. Primarily deep excavated ditches, rock-cut wells, or

ponds filled in with water accessed by a circular flight of stairs or steps are called stepwells. The stepwells became not only sources of drinking water, but calm places for bathing, prayer, and meditation. These stepwells were always constructed on the trade routes. They served as breezy resting places for pilgrims, caravans, and common voyagers during the high temperature of the day or for the night sojourn. However, these outstanding constructions were much more than functional tanks. The well-preserved and maintained examples in Rajasthan hold significant importance and serve as valuable case studies for understanding their relevance in the Trans Himalaya region. Despite the varying climate between Rajasthan and Spiti, the influence of community involvement has extended beyond these regions,

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Fig. 32 Traditional stepped well

impacting other areas of India as well. The study of these structures allows us to establish correlations and draw insights into their significance within the Trans Himalaya region. By analyzing the architectural and engineering aspects, we can identify design principles that are suitable for the challenging environment and adapt them to other locations. One notable aspect identified in the specific context is the lack of a social structure that facilitates communitybased gatherings. This presents an opportunity for development, particularly in terms of creating a network of water preservation combined with the incorporation of public spaces. By integrating these elements, a multi-functional system can be established that serves the dual purpose of water conservation and community engagement. Implementing a hierarchy of structures in Spiti valley can have multiple benefits. Firstly, it can address the pressing need for water preservation in the area, given its challenging climate. The stepped wells, with their efficient water storage and distribution systems, can be adapted

to meet the specific requirements of the region. This would help in sustainable water management and provide a reliable source of water for the community. Additionally, the incorporation of public spaces within this network of water preservation structures can foster community development. These public spaces can serve as gathering points for social interactions, cultural events, and community-based activities. They provide a platform for the residents of Spiti valley to come together, share experiences, and strengthen their social bonds. Moreover, the implementation of such a network can act as a catalyst for overall regional development. It can attract tourism and create opportunities for economic growth, while also preserving the unique cultural heritage of the region. The combination of water preservation, public spaces, and stepped wellinspired structures can establish a sustainable and vibrant ecosystem within Spiti valley.

“Stepwells of Ahmedabad: A Conversation on Water and Heritage | Aζ South Asia.” | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 59

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Fig.35 distribution network of stepwells across the region in Rajasthan

Fig.34 Functionality of stepwells linked to household and agriculture | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 60

As depicted in Figure 32, the layout of stepwells in Rajasthan is organized based on their functional purpose in preserving water resources. This classification is further refined by considering the design of the spaces and the water sources they rely upon. Notably, multiple water sources are evident, including rainwater, groundwater, and river water. Given the hot and arid climate of Rajasthan, groundwater serves as the predominant water source for these preservation systems. Moreover, the study of these preservation systems includes an examination of their interconnections and the scale of the

preservation areas. In Figure 33, it is evident that stepwells are strategically situated near rivers, capitalizing on the natural availability of river water. This network of stepwells is intricately linked to smaller preservation areas. This valuable insight into water resource management in Rajasthan can inform research in the Spiti Valley region. Given that settlements in Spiti Valley are located alongside rivers and rely on glacier melt-water, it is conceivable to propose preservation areas situated alongside these rivers to enhance water resource sustainability.

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2.13 Conclusion In conclusion, the investigation into glacier melt in Spiti Valley has illuminated the pressing issue of water scarcity faced by the current population during agricultural seasons. This challenge has prompted our team to explore innovative methods for water collection and preservation, with the aim of extending the existing water supply system. Our studies have revealed that the transformation of Spiti Valley, including shifts in agricultural practices, changes in building materials, and increased tourism, has brought forth a host of difficulties for the region. These challenges have resulted in population migration and a decline in the economic stability of the settlement. To foster long-term financial stability, engage the existing population in the economic framework, and ensure the preservation of water for an extended summer season, the development of a self-sustainable network for water collection, preservation, and distribution is imperative. Given the scattered nature of the settlement, a centralized distribution network is essential for effective water management.

Our comprehensive case studies have provided insights into water preservation across various scales and ideologies, tailored to the diverse geographical features of Spiti Valley. Notably, our proposed development should not solely focus on largescale distribution but also address the valley’s diminishing identity due to changing building construction materials. Therefore, at a smaller scale of experimentation, our team will concentrate on developing a material system designed to act as an insulating material for water preservation. This material system will be derived from agro-based waste materials. By intervening at multiple scales, including component, regional, and urban levels, this dissertation aims to create a sustainable water network system that synergizes with economic and social functions. Our overarching goal is to contribute to the long-term sustainability and resilience of Spiti Valley, ensuring that its residents have access to essential water resources and fostering a harmonious coexistence with the environment.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 62

How can the fusion of traditional architecture along with an advanced material system grounded in ecological solutions be designed to support a self-sustainable hydrological settlement in the TransHimalaya region ?

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

03 | METHODS 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

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Overview Material Architecture Urban

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

HydroSocial

Hydrological network generation

Collection

Socio-economic resilience

Preservation

Snow fence

Cascades

Distribution

Stepwell

Embankment

Land parcellation

Road network

Here that big chart comes?

Type A

Type B

Structural analysis

Radiation

Ecological materials

Physical prototyping

Hydrological urban network

Type C

Environmental analysis

Building units

Wasp aggregation

Particle simulation

Network generation

Syntactical analysis

Stress index

3.1 Overview

Functionality

Thermal conductivity

Communal development

Fluid dynamics

Optimisation

Building block development

Compressive strength

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Urban network

Water repellency

Digital optimisation

This chapter delves into the many approaches used in an integrated urban planning and architectural research. This chapter, in essence, presents a complete review of the approaches used, ranging from materials research and architectural interventions to advanced urban

planning tactics. These approaches provide an integrated approach that combines physical experimentation, digital modeling, simulation tools, and optimization algorithms to reveal a holistic and evolutionary paradigm in urban planning and architectural design.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Cooling element

3.2 Material After the study of locally available materials, the best suited materials were tested individually and in combinations of each other to create a functionally graded material. Every prototype underwent both digital and physical testing, establishing an ongoing feedback loop between the virtual and real worlds. Physical tests were performed on the materials to determine their compressive

strengths and thermal conductivity, primarily to verify the material proportions. Our digital model for material proportions was guided by this empirical testing. An evolutionary algorithm was then used with this data to optimize for a number of different goals. The best-performing person’s data for the material dimensions was then taken out and utilized to physically create the material.

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Fig.36 Brick Prototype

sample

heating plate

Physical prototyping

Thermal conductivity

This method involved creating scaled samples of the functionally graded material by mixing materials in a variety of proportions. The manufacturing process involved mixing, compacting, baking, and drying of the combined materials. The produced samples were then designed for their form such that they samples interlock with each other.

A cuboidal sample was put on a heated plate, generating a temperature gradient with an ice pack on top, for the thermal conductivity test. Temperature variations in the top layer are monitored at regular intervals under continual heating to determine the heat flow rate. This assessed the material’s heat conductivity or insulation, which is important for determining its thermal performance and uses.

Compressive strength

Digital optimisation

Cylindrical samples of various material compositions were used in the compressive strength test. Each sample was subjected to increasing weight until it failed. The weight applied at disintegration was translated to applied force. This test evaluated the material’s ability to bear external force, yielding critical information about its structural strength and compression resistance.

Digital optimization involved converting physical material data into computational models. An evolutionary algorithm iteratively adjusted material proportions to meet structural and thermal objectives. The best-performing digital model was extracted to create the functionally graded material physically, facilitating an efficient loop between empirical testing and computational simulations for optimization.

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3.3 Architecture The architectural scale comprises diverse building typologies essential for water collection, preservation, and distribution throughout the town. Within this scale, numerous local architectural elements required validation across various principles. These elements underwent individual and collective testing to assess structural stability,

solar radiation impact, and fluid dynamics. These components were subjected to an evolutionary algorithm for optimization aligned with these objectives. Subsequently, the outcomes were analyzed utilizing particle simulations within Grasshopper for comprehensive evaluation and refinement.

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Fig.37 Site analysis

Radiation

Structural analysis

Fluid dynamics

Dealing with a context of water preservation, this tool was used to study the solar radiation on the architectural systems. The Ladybug plugin in grasshopper was used to validate the concepts of architectural designs. This tool was also used validate minimum solar exposure on certain systems.

The physical testing and material calibration, structural analysis used Finite Element Analysis (FEA), segmented digital models into finite elements. Stress and load testing on these subdivision models in Grasshopper using Karamba 3D gauged structural capabilities at a component scale.

The effectiveness of the interventions is evaluated through CFD tests and wind simulations. Since our goal is to collect snow from winds from the south and surface runoff from the north, with the same element an integrated approach provides valuable insights into managing snow deposition on our proposed morphological development.

Optimization

Data-driven aggregation

Particle simulation

This method involves evolutionary optimization, to achieve peak system performance through selfregulation. Testing on several scales evaluates its efficacy by examining phenotypic responses to structural difficulties and module adaptability in form finding. It strives for optimal system performance and adaptability to varied environmental situations by leveraging natural principles.

The aggregation tool was used to create housing. In this method, we were able to set specific spatial planning rules which when combined with the evolutionary algorithm, was able to produce structures with the most efficient spatial planning. These aggregations are later validated using radiation and fluid dynamic analysis

This simulation was used as a tool for post analysis for the architectural elements and to quantify the harvested water. This data is then used to further optimise the architectural systems to attain maximum efficiency.

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Particle simulation

Network generation

The particle simulation on natural terrain highlighted catchment regions in the urban fabric, which aided in the choosing of architectural zones. The results of these simulations informed the design of road networks and the water distribution system. The resultant curves from this simulation were crucial in influencing the structure of both highways and the urban water distribution network.

The road network was created using the settlement’s natural topography. The technique is designed such that the road networks and distribution networks follow the logic of the catchment lines generated by the particle simulation. An evolutionary algorithm was used to optimize the network.

Syntactical analysis

Stress index

The network generation results were evaluated for betweenness centrality and shortest walks. The best approach was then chosen for further parceling of land into more manageable land units. The distances between each plot and the most frequently used roadways were utilized to create a land usage map for the whole town.

Following the completion of the land use and network connections for the entire town, the final outcome’s stress index values were produced to assess the fairness of the water distribution network. This was a significant tool since it altered the whole approach to the construction of the hydrological network. This also played an important role in distinguishing between the M.Sc. and M.Arch stages.

3.4 Urban A thorough awareness of the landscape’s complexities is essential for efficient design and infrastructure implementation in the field of urban planning and development. Particle simulation, a methodology that delineates key catchment zones within the natural topography of an urban fabric, is one of the fundamental approaches used in this context. These delineations are critical indications for selecting ideal architectural zones and play a critical role in coordinating the construction of road networks and

water distribution systems. This technique is supplemented by using the natural topography of the town to generate road networks and distribution lines that are strategically aligned with the logic produced from particle simulation results. Through a series of evaluations, including syntactical analyses and stress index computations, this multifaceted approach aims to ensure equitable and efficient water distribution while influencing distinct phases in the urban planning process.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 72

Fig.38 Stress index

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04 | Research Development 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 74

Overview Introduction to Kaza Material system Building elements Conclusion

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4.1 Overview This chapter initiates with an indepth exploration of the Kaza region, encompassing an study of its town layout, climate, and water resources—a foundational step in the research. The team’s proposals for obtaining water throughout the year are presented in this chapter, which starts with the estimation of the water needs of both locals and visitors. Ideas related to collecting, preserving, and distributing water are used as the foundation for novel solutions that are suitable for implementation in the field. Fig.39 Overview of Kaza | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 76

The focus then shifts towards innovative approaches for water

harvesting, specifically targeting snow accumulation during winter and glacier melt water collection in summer. These ideas evolve into the development of essential building elements tailored to these different methods. Simultaneously, an extensive material experiment is conducted, utilizing local agricultural waste to produce building blocks. By systematically integrating these building elements into new construction, this experimental technique seeks to improve resilience and sustainability in the Kaza region.

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Green area Agriculture

Building Typologies Residential Commercial Home stays Public

4.2 Introduction to Kaza Road Network Primary Roads Secondary Roads

Water resources Glacier melt water

Terrain 4085 M

Fig. 40 Exisiting conditions for the town of Kaza, Spiti Valley. | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 78

Our research focuses on Kaza, a village located in the Spiti Valley at an elevation of approximately 3,650 meters. Kaza is not only a popular tourist destination but also a thriving community with around 1,690 residents. It serves as a crucial hub for regional administration and trade. Despite its charm, Kaza faces a significant challenge with water supply. Our study highlights the crucial importance of water resources in this high-altitude desert ecosystem, especially during dry spells when water scarcity becomes a pressing concern. We examine the current development patterns and natural water reservoirs in and around Kaza, emphasising the urgent need for careful planning to sustainably manage and preserve these invaluable resources. Terrain: Kaza is located on the eastern bank of the Spiti River, surrounded by steep terrain to the north and east. The town’s highest point is in the northeast, reaching 4,085 meters,

while its lowest elevation, at 3,800 meters in the southeast, is home to the agricultural heart of the village. Kaza relies heavily on: the Spiti River and groundwater sources for its water resources due to the valley and nearby glaciers. However, inefficient collection, storage, and distribution of water have led to the depletion of these resources. Additionally, the surge in tourism and the use of waterintensive construction methods accelerate the drying up of water sources. Road Network: The town has expanded from its origins in the eastern ‘old town,’ showcasing an organic development in contrast to the newer western settlement. The road system in the town follows a hierarchical structure. Main roads, which are 8 meters wide, lead in and out of town, while secondary roads, which are 6 meters wide, navigate within. Smaller pathways, which are only accessible by motorcycles or on foot, branch off from these.

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Residential

Fig. 42 Land use map of existing Kaza

Agriculture

River

Structures

Fig. 41 Nolli map of the town of Kaza | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 80

Commercial

Home stays

The town of Kaza, as the governing headquarters of Spiti Valley, has numerous government buildings primarily situated on the western side of the tributary, alongside residential and commercial units. In contrast, the old town consists mainly of residential and commercial buildings and home stays, with some institutional structures interspersed. As for green spaces, while the town has some open areas for sports activities, the largest green area is located in the southeast agricultural fields. The topography of the region facilitates the flow of water from the mountains to the low-lying areas, making the southeastern part of the region suitable for agricultural activities. In conclusion, the land use map of Kaza clearly shows that residential structures are the predominant occupation, followed by the proliferation of home stays. The

Public

increasing number of tourists, attracted to the growing attractions in nearby areas, has significantly contributed to the surge in homestay establishments. It is worth noting that the town has an adequate number of public buildings and open spaces for its current population. However, the limited availability of public spaces is a significant constraint for potential interventions within the town. This scarcity highlights the urgent need to identify and map smaller areas that are suitable for secondary interventions. Specifically, it is crucial to identify spaces that are appropriate for establishing additional networks of water preservation zones. Addressing the scarcity of public spaces and strategically mapping areas for water preservation is imperative for the sustainable development and future resilience of Kaza.

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Fe b

er mb

No ve m

rua ry

January

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h rc

April

October

Ma y

te ep

Water Availibility Construction Domestic Purpose

July

Au g

Agriculture

ust

Tourists

Water Availability

4.2.1 Water quantification Water quantification is being conducted to determine the daily volume of water required for the town of Kaza. The calculation takes into account the population of 1600, which includes around 700 households with an assumed average of 3 people per household, as well as residents, livestock, and daily tourists, all on a per-day basis. Additionally, the water requirement for agricultural purposes is evaluated per acre of land dedicated to barley cultivation.

By combining these calculations, the total daily water demand for the town is 76,190.4 cubic meters. As Kaza is currently not meeting the required demand, our primary objective is to first meet the needs of the existing population. If the population grows, the same water calculation can be used to incorporate the requirements of the new population. Proposals for this are carried out in the next phase of the research.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 82

Fig. 43 Current water availability conditions

Fig. 44 Required water quantities 41 42

41 DAERA. “Water Advice for Livestock Farmers | Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs,” May 21, 2015. https://www.daerani.gov.uk/articles/water-advice-livestock-farmers. 42 “Home | Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation | GoI.” https://jalshakti-ddws.gov.in/en

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Fig. 45 Conceptual proposal

4.2.2 Conceptual proposal The conclusion from the preliminary study leads to a hypothesis that includes the design of an efficient water system that will be able to reduce the water scarcity and will be able to improve the current sociability needs. The study of the hydrological system provides data for the three main seasons that will be used in benefit to tackle the water scarcity. In winter, the data shows that there is sufficient precipitation in the form of snow. This snow can be harvested, stored and used in the summer. Since evaporation is also one of the main causes of water scarcity, the water from the melted snow should be preserved from evaporation. After collection in winter and storage in early summer, this water can be

distributed to the local population in late summer when water is scarce. In order for this system to work, the collection units used in winter should be located at the highest accessible altitude for maximum efficiency. The storage units should be located at a lower altitude than the collection units to facilitate distribution in late summer. These units, if located in the town, can themselves be a place to satisfy the sociability needs of the local population. To increase the efficiency, an additional unit can be designed with the main purpose to collect, preserve and distribute water to the agriculture fields.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 84

Snow and surface runoff collection

Fig. 46 Conceptual proposal for collection, distribution preservation

Snow collection and water preservation

Water Distribution and Preservation

water and | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 85

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Material Development Objectives

Reduced water usage

Local material

Locally producable material

Structural strength

Locally sourced

Replace contemporary building materials

Increase employment opportunities

Local agricultural waste

Thermal insulation

Water repellency

Bio-degradable

4.3 Material system

Fig. 1 Whatever the image is. How long is the description going to be anyway? Fig.47 Agricultural fields of Kaza | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 86

The section on material development outlines specific objectives aimed at resolving the issues identified in the preceding chapters. It targets the challenge of excessive water consumption and advocates for the utilization of locally sourced materials, emphasizing agricultural by-products and waste materials. The chapter extensively discusses the prevalent

reliance on modern construction materials such as RCC and bricks, exploring methods to replicate their properties using indigenous materials and traditional methodologies. Finally, it underscores the potential for increased employment opportunities, underscoring the labor-intensive nature of the block-making process.

| ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 87

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Trombe wall

Agricultural produce

Function

Material

Agricultural waste

Building material development

Compressive strength

Wall insulation

Local construction material

Thermal insulation

4.3.1 Introduction and aim The project endeavors to pioneer an innovative modular building block system that amalgamates thermal, structural, and contextual comfort elements. Conventional construction methods, while known for durability, fall short in addressing contemporary challenges such as expedited construction, resource depletion, water scarcity, and labor shortages. To counter these challenges, the project adopts a groundbreaking strategy by harnessing local agricultural by-products, thereby diminishing dependence on conventional materials and imported resources. This inventive approach not only curtails environmental impact but also champions a circular economy by repurposing agricultural residues.

This dual benefit not only serves the environment but also uplifts the local community, fostering sustainable and eco-friendly construction practices. Recognizing the imperative for multi-functional construction attributes tailored to climate and structural demands, the project prioritizes structural integrity, thermal efficiency, and water repellent within a singular modular system. Achieving these diverse functions necessitates distinctive material compositions, such as incorporating air gaps for insulation and denser compositions for strength. These components are seamlessly integrated into a unified system, reflecting a holistic and forward-thinking approach to construction material systems.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 88

Fig. 48 Aim for material system development

Water repellent

Fig. 49 Aim for building block design

The operational essence of the building block aligns with conventional principles, possessing compressive strength and water repellent, akin to regular construction blocks. However, its distinctive feature lies in the integration of inherent insulation, drawing inspiration from traditional mud walls and modern Trombe walls. This amalgamation of functions, coupled with the utilization of bio-based materials, gives rise to

a functionally graded building block. This innovative design not only upholds traditional practices but also integrates contemporary principles. The block’s multi-functionality, derived from this synthesis, enables it to achieve a harmonious blend of structural robustness, water resistance, and thermal insulation, embodying a versatile and sustainable solution for contemporary construction challenges.

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Corn starch Barley husk

Corn starch

Abundantly produced locally

Corn starch, a common byproduct, is found in most agricultural areas

Clay soil

Walnut shell

Yeast

Vast quantities of unused waste and highly durable material

Yeast can serve as a bio-based binder and aerator

Flaxseed meal Processed flaxseed meal: highly insulating, strong material

Locally available materials

Agro-waste materials

Binding Agent

Flaxseed meal

Compressive Strength

Corn starch

Thermal Conductivity

Clay-soil Clay soil is locally accessible in nearby areas

Flax straw

Byproduct from cultivation, employed as fodder

Fig.50 Material introduction

Water Repellent

Yeast

FG Block

Flax straw

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA

Walnut shell

Fig. 51 Material physical properties

The team commenced their material exploration by examining local agricultural crops and potential materials within the region to meet specific requirements. Notably, flax seed meal and barley husk were identified for their fibrous strength, capable of solidifying with water or binding agents. Flax seed meal’s water absorption, subsequent expulsion, and resulting shrinkage create insulating air pockets, a trait also found in barley husk. To address brittleness and enhance binding, locally prevalent clay was introduced for its compressive strength. However, the composite lacked water repellent, leading to the incorporation of locally available walnut shells. Individual testing of these materials provided insights into their behavior,

guiding the formulation of composite compositions to achieve desired properties such as insulation, binding, and water resistance. This comprehensive approach resulted in multiple material compositions fulfilling multi-functional construction needs. The initial experimentation phase involved classifying material properties and identifying primary materials—flaxseed meal, barley husk, clay, and walnut shell. Compressive strength tests were conducted using compositions of these materials, along with a watercorn starch mix as a binder. Yeast was introduced with flaxseed meal to create porous structures, and walnut shell, with water repellent properties, was combined with a binding agent for water-resistant composites.

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Compressive Strength

Maximum water required

In the evaluation of novel construction materials, an initial water retention analysis was conducted to determine the water-binding requirements of three water-absorbent materials: flax, husk, and clay. Weight-tovolume comparisons revealed that flax and husk had similar weight requirements for a given volume, while clay demanded more due to its denser composition. Flax exhibited the lowest water demand for binding, husk displayed the highest, and clay fell in between. Visual observation indicated significant expansion of a husk ball due to water absorption. The team proceeded to analyze materials for compressive strength. Different mixtures were air-dried, with clay and water yielding a brittle material, flax and water producing a compact composition, and husk and water exhibiting effective binding. Further experimentation introduced clay into the flax and soil mixture, aiming to enhance material strength. Baking resulted in samples with improved binding properties and

enhanced strength. The third composition set introduced walnut shell to enhance structural stability and reduce weight while maintaining integrity. The outcome yielded a denser yet brittle composition. Yeast was also added to improve bonding, and results revealed superfluous yeast application. For thermal insulation, samples underwent baking to introduce porosity. Introducing yeast improved uniformity and porosity, with varying structural integrity. Flax, clay, water, and yeast composition were selected for further exploration. In developing a water-repellent material, crushed walnut shell was combined with corn starch as a binding agent. Samples were assessed with different walnut shell-to-water ratios and baking durations. The addition of flax improved cohesion, resulting in a solid, less brittle composition after baking.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 92

a1) husk:water:c starch 1:4:0.5

tight composition

sponge consistency

Water consistency

4.3.2 Material composition

a) flax:water:c starch 1:2:0.5

b) clay:H2O:yeast:w shell:c starch b1) clay:flax:water:w shell 2:1.3:0.06:1:0.5 1:2:2:1:0.5

Fig. 52 Image showing the amount of water required for materials to bind

a) flax:water 1:2

a1) flax:water:clay 1:2:3

5% porosity

non-uniform porosity

b) flax:water:yeast 1:1.5:0.08

b1) clay:water:yeast 1:2:0.08

compose, brittle

tight composition, brittle

40% porosity

20% porosity

a) w shell: water:c flour 1:2:0.5

tight composition, brittle

b) w shell:h2o:c starch:flax 1:2:0.5:1

b.1

a. samples

b1) w shell:water:c starch:flax 1:2:0.5:1

a.1

tight composition, less brittle

a.1

tight, brittle

not bound

a1) w shell:water:c flour 2:1:0.5

Water consistency

Maximum water required

Flax addition

Minimum water required

water

1:2

Water consistency

1:2

Water Repellent

Yeast addition

1:0.3

Thermal Insulation

water

30 gm clay 05 gm water

Walnut shell addition

10 gm husk 20 gm water

water

10 gm flax 03 gm water

b.1

a. samples

a.1

b.1 samples

Fig. 53 Material composition experiments | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 93

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Load

40 mm

Metal plate Material sample

50 mm

CS1

CS2

CS3

Sample

Flaxseed

Clay

W Shell

C starch

Water

CS1

0.05

CS2

0.05

CS3

0.10

1.3

CS4

3.5

1:6

0.05

1.5

Sample

Resistance weight

Force

CS1

73 kg

716.13 N

CS2

148 kg

1451.88 N

CS3

53 kg

519.93 N

CS4

130 kg

1275.3 N

CS4

4.3.3 Physical prototype experiments The process of assessing material compositions involved a series of rigorous tests aimed at understanding their properties and behaviours for specific applications. Four distinct

tests were conducted to thoroughly evaluate the performance of the materials: compressive strength, thermal conductivity, porosity, and water repellent.

Fig. 54 (above) Compressive strength test setup (below) Physical test samples

Fig. 55 (above) Composition of material samples (below) Experiment results

Compression strength experiment The compressive strength test focused on practical experimentation. Cylindrical samples, each with a diameter of 50mm and a height of 40mm, were prepared with varying material compositions. A wooden plate was positioned on the top surface of each sample, and weight was gradually added. The process continued until the sample reached a

point of disintegration. At this point, the weight applied was recorded, which was then converted into the force applied to the sample. This test aimed to quantify the material’s ability to withstand external force and pressure, providing insights into its structural strength.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 94

During the compressive strength test, it became apparent that samples containing a higher proportion of soil demonstrated superior performance, effectively withstanding the maximum load. This observation is paradoxical considering our initial experimental goal, which was to minimize soil content due to its higher water demand in comparison to flax. The second-best performance was noted in samples with a reduced clay content, displaying a notable 450N difference. This outcome underscores the need for further investigations to precisely calibrate

the bricks’ ability to withstand practical loads, including dead load, snow load, and wind load. These investigations are crucial for aligning with multi-functional objectives and meeting specific structural requirements. The discrepancy between the intended reduction in soil content and the observed superior performance highlights the complexity of material interactions and underscores the importance of a thorough understanding for effective material optimization in building applications.

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Sample

Flaxseed

Clay

C starch

Water

TI1

0.05

TI2

3.5

0.05

1.5

TI3

TI4

2.4

Sample

Initial temp.

3 min (U)

3 min (L)

6 min (U)

6 min (L)

Thermal C.

TI1

24 °C

37 °C

115 °C

61 °C

175 °C

0.1713

TI2

24 °C

33 °C

175 °C

45 °C

180 °C

0.1447

TI3

24 °C

23 °C

145 °C

40 °C

175 °C

0.0964

TI4

24 °C

40 °C

170 °C

56 °C

175 °C

0.1322

Cooling plate Material sample Hot plate

TI1

TI2

TI3

TI4

Thermal insulation experiment The thermal conductivity test involved a different approach. A cuboidal sample, sized 80mm x 80mm x 20mm, was utilized for this experiment. The sample was placed on a heated plate to facilitate the conduction of heat through the material. A pack of ice was placed on top of the sample to create a temperature gradient. By

observing the temperature difference in the upper layer of the sample at fixed intervals while keeping the heating temperature constant, the heat flux rate was calculated. This test offered insights into the material’s efficiency in conducting or insulating heat, which is crucial for its thermal performance.

Fig. 56 (above) Thermal conductivity test setup (below) Physical test samples

λ=(Q/t)*(d/SΔT)

Upon conducting the comprehensive tests, thermal conductivity was determined using the previously mentioned formula. The objective was to identify the sample with the lowest thermal conductivity, as this aligns with our experiment’s goals. Among the tested samples, it’s evident from the provided table that sample TI-3 exhibits the most favorable thermal conductivity performance. Notably, this sample lacks clay, contributing to its lower thermal conductivity, although it compromises structural strength compared to other samples.

λ - thermal conductivity, Q - heat flux, t - time, d - thickness of the sample, S - cross sectional area, ΔT - temperature difference.

The findings strongly suggest that clay has a significant impact on thermal conductivity, functioning

Thermal conductivity is the amount of heat that passes through 1 m2 of material with a thickness of 1 m in an hour.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 96

Fig. 57 (above) Composition of material samples (below) Experiment results

as a conductor. Consequently, it is advisable to avoid clay within the material composition to enhance thermal resistance. Remarkably, the subsequent favorable candidate is sample TI4, which includes soil and displays improved thermal conductivity resistance compared to the baseline. This outcome encourages the consideration of this particular sample’s composition for further refinements and developments, marking it as a potential candidate to meet the multi-functional objectives of the project.

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Saturated sample

Dry sample

Water in pores

Porosity experiment To evaluate porosity, cylindrical samples similar to those used in the compressive strength test were employed. The fluid displacement method was employed, wherein the weight of dry samples was measured initially. The samples were then submerged in water for a specific duration to become fully saturated.

Post-submersion, the weight of the wet samples was recorded, and the difference between the two weights was calculated. This measurement indicated the level of porosity within the material, with a higher weight difference signifying greater porosity.

Vp=Wwater / Pwater Ф = Vp / Vbulk VP - pore volume, WW - weight of water in the sample, Pwater - density of water, Ф - porosity, Vbulk- bulk volume of sample. | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 98

Sample

Flaxseed

Clay

C starch

Water

Yeast

PT1

0.05

PT2

3.5

0.05

1.5

PT3

0.08

PT4

3.5

1.5

0.08

Sample

Initial weight

Bulk vol.

Saturated w.

Water w.

Porosity

PT1

61 g

76.8 cm3

72 g

11 g

0.052

PT2

134 g

96 cm3

139 g

0.047

PT3

59 g

64 cm3

62 g

0.143

PT4

115 g

70.4 cm3

121 g

0.085

Fig. 58 Porosity test set-up Fig. 59 (above) Composition of material samples (below) Experiment results

The test results reveal distinct trends in porosity based on the composition of the samples. Samples incorporating yeast demonstrate higher porosity, indicating their ability to create a more porous structure. Conversely, the presence of clay is associated with a notable decrease in porosity. Among the samples, PT3 stands out with the most favorable outcomes, featuring yeast and flaxseed meal but lacking any clay. Despite the positive porosity results, it is crucial to recognize that the complete absence of clay does not necessarily ensure the structural stability of the material. While

PT3

exhibits

promising

characteristics, it’s imperative to consider the material’s overall structural integrity. Therefore, to further enhance the composition, a judicious approach may involve incorporating yeast along with a minimal quantity of clay. This strategy aims to strike a balance, leveraging the positive impact of yeast-induced porosity while introducing a controlled amount of clay to contribute to the material’s structural robustness. This nuanced combination seeks to optimize both porosity and structural stability, fostering a well-rounded material composition with enhanced properties for potential applications in various contexts.

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Initial weight documentation

24 hr water soaking

C starch

Water

W. shell

WA1

0.05

WA2

0.05

1.5

WA3

0.05

Fig. 61 (above) Composition of material samples (below) Experiment results

This comprehensive evaluation provided insights into water repellent and material stability, proving vital for multi-functional objectives and quality assurance. The testing process, conducted in the past, facilitated a thorough understanding of the material’s response to water exposure, contributing valuable data for refining its composition and ensuring its performance met the desired standards.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 100

Flaxseed

Sample

Initial weight

Final weight

Wight diff.

WA1

61 g

85 g

24 g

WA2

40.2 g

58 g

17.8 g

WA3

45.6 g

93 g

47.4 g

Final weight documentation

Water absorption experiment The assessment of the brick’s water repellent involved a water absorption test to quantify material permeability. The initial weight of the dry sample was recorded, followed by immersion in water for 24 hours. Weight change indicated water absorption, and subsequent natural drying for another 24 hours enabled weight remeasurement. Additionally, samples were examined for disintegration, with the disintegration percentage documented for further analysis.

Sample

Fig. 60 Water absorption experimentation process

In the water absorption test, three distinct material compositions, varying in their proportions of flaxseed meal and walnut shell, were selected based on their known superior interaction with water and resistance to disintegration. These materials were chosen following an initial test, where each material underwent individual immersion in water for 24 hours, allowing for the assessment of weight changes and structural integrity. This phase aimed to identify material compositions that held potential efficiency for the study.

exhibited the best performance. Furthermore, upon evaluating the structural integrity of the samples after complete drying, it became evident that both WA-1 and WA-2 samples retained their physical properties entirely. In contrast, the WA-3 sample displayed physical alterations and signs of decomposition. These findings strongly advocate for the consideration and further refinement of the WA-2 composition, emphasizing its potential for advancement and development in subsequent stages of the study.

The obtained results unequivocally indicated that the WA-2 composition | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 101

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Functional Variation = Compositional Variation

4.3.4 Digital prototype experiments Functionally graded materials Fig. 63 Functionally graded material illustration on modular block

Fig. 62 Functionally illustration | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 102

graded

material

Recognizing the vital role of Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) in our material exploration, the team engaged in the study of various FGM structures with the primary aim of establishing a hierarchical arrangement of material compositions. However, given the challenges associated with mass production, the team opted to focus on discontinuous gradient FGM. Initiating the process, the team conducted physical experiments to identify suitable materials and their distinctive properties. This experimentation led to the formulation of a composite material by blending soil and flax seeds, resulting in two distinct phases—phase A and phase B. Achieving the desired composite strength, the team introduced air

bubbles to enhance thermal insulation, strategically distributing them within the central region of the mixture and tapering their concentration towards the periphery of the brick module. Further development of the Functionally Graded Material (FGM) system within the modular block incorporated soil as a binding material, depicted in Figure 63 Additionally, volumes of flax and walnut were introduced based on their demonstrated resistance to thermal heat and moisture. This digital representation aids in analyzing both the material system’s strength and thermal heat transfer capacity, laying the groundwork for subsequent physical calibration in the module system’s ongoing development.

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Functionally graded block experiment To enhance the block’s composition based on physical tests, a set of multi-objective criteria has been established. The first objective is to minimize the thermal gap within the block, contributing to its improved structural stability. The second objective involves maximizing the volume of flax and walnut materials to minimize the quantity of soil needed in the block’s composition. The third objective is to maximize the air volume within the block, crucial for creating thermal gaps that enhance its insulating properties. The final objective is to minimize displacement, ensuring structural stability is a key Goal Objectives

Fitness criteria Phenotype

Gene pool

consideration in the optimization process. While standard deviation graphs provided insights into optimizing flax/walnut volume, air volume, and structural stability, it became apparent that more precise optimization of the fitness criteria related to the thermal gap was needed. Notably, the initial stages of the simulation showed a high degree of visual geometric variation, converging towards optimized values due to the limited number of genes responsible for informing morphological alterations.

To create a thermally efficient brick which also has a minimal deflection Create maximum amount of thermal air gaps at the same time find out the ratio of flax quantity to soil for structural efficiency Minimum thermal gap Maximum flax volume Maximum air volume Minimum displacement Standard size brick volume with 50% air gap and equal ratio of soil and flax volume Ratio of surface area to volume of brick Size of thermal gap length Size of flax volume Size of air volume

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Fig. 64 Multi-objective optimisation experiment goals and objectives table

Fig. 65 Objectives (above) Standard deviation graphs of the outcome (below) | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 105

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Fig.67 Length of average temperature

In the course of evolutionary optimization, a significant portion of generated morphologies showed variations in volume, influenced by a specific gene governing individual brick volumes. These size variations directly impacted the structural stability of each phenotype. Phenotypes excelling across all fitness criteria were further scrutinized to explore the relationship between porosity and thermal capacity.

Fig. 66 Best performing solutions | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 106

Top-performing phenotypes in FC1 exhibited a tendency towards a lower porosity-to-block volume ratio, correlating with elevated values in FC4 (block strength). This suggests that blocks with reduced porosity

are not only stronger but also more suitable for structural applications. Phenotypes ranking highest in FC2 and FC3 demonstrated a balanced ratio between thermal gap and flax volume. Despite slightly compromised structural integrity, these phenotypes displayed improved thermal efficiency compared to those leading in FC1. A similar equilibrium between thermal efficiency and structural integrity was observed in FC4. Fig. 67 depicts the average temperature length measured from the interior block volume, indicating that phenotypes from FC1 with larger lengths exhibit superior thermal performance in relation to the temperature difference.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Cuboid block

Defining block geometry

Height changes of vertices

Modifying the vertices to creat interlocking geometry

Fig.68 FG block design development

Friction based geomteric design

4.3.5 FG Block design development The development of the block started with the utilization of a conventional rectangular cuboid as the base form. An essential objective in the block’s design was to develop an assembly system while minimizing or completely eliminating the necessity for mortar, which consumes a significant amount of water. The block’s formation began by adjusting the heights of its corners, which generated friction forces along both the X and Y axes, giving the block its inherent interlocking system. Furthermore, the block’s design was

carefully considered to ensure that the internal thermal insulation layers could fit together, ensuring optimal thermal performance. Additionally, masonry is carried out with the displacement of the next row by half a block, which also contributes to robust interlocking system.

GSPublisherVersion 0.86.100.100

These thoughtful design and construction strategies collectively contribute to the block’s efficiency and suitability for the construction of arched structures with different spans and curvatures.

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Hexagonal interlocking side

Auxetic hexagonal interlocking side

Fig. 1 FGFig. block 69 interlocking mechanism

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

GSPublisherVersion 0.86.100.100

Material ratio

Mixing

Clay-like composition

GSPublisherVersion 0.86.100.100

Stable & repellent Block mold assembly

Mold fixing

The manufacturing sequence of the block commences with the fabrication of a precision-cut, reusable mold utilizing CNC technology. This intricately designed mold facilitates easy disassembly, streamlining the extraction of the finalized block. Once the mold is assembled, two pipes are inserted to generate voids within the block, serving the dual purpose of expediting the drying process and providing potential reinforcement space. Subsequently, the meticulously prepared mixture is poured into the

mold and subjected to compaction. Post-compaction, the block is extracted from the mold and undergoes a drying process, either in an oven at 150⁰C for 4 hours or through natural sun-drying. The selection between these drying methods may be influenced by local climate conditions, and the drying time should be calibrated accordingly. This systematic procedure ensures the production of blocks with the intended composition and structural attributes, poised to contribute to sustainable construction practices within the academic realm.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 110

Mold filling

Insulation

Stable & repellent

Reusable mold assembly

Fig. 70 Block making process

Fig. 71 Comparison of digital and physical

In conclusion, the creation of a brick incorporating local agricultural waste materials has emerged as a promising innovation. This brick not only offers ease of assembly and inherent thermal insulation properties but also demonstrates a commendable ability to significantly curtail water consumption during its production. The utilization of agricultural waste aligns with sustainable practices, contributing to waste reduction while providing a viable alternative for construction materials. The multifaceted advantages,

encompassing structural attributes and environmental considerations, underscore the potential of this innovation to address pressing challenges in the construction industry. Moving forward, further exploration and refinement of this approach holds the promise of fostering sustainable construction practices, offering a tangible solution to the evolving demands of the built environment.

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Single layer aggregation

Two layer aggregation to show interlocking

4.3.6 Material conclusion Fig. 73 Physical prototype of FG block with interlocking mechanism

Fig. 72 Internal view of physical prototype of an arch formation with FG block | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 112

Physical prototyping was instrumental in validating the suitability of the chosen material for the intended prototype. After minor adjustments in proportions, the material proved effective, highlighting the importance of this phase in gauging the block design’s capabilities. The iterative nature of prototyping not only deepened our understanding of

the material’s performance but also guided refinements for optimal design. These insights emphasized the adaptability and potential of the block, prompting the need for ongoing research to enhance its attributes. This iterative approach ensures the continuous evolution and refinement of the block design to cater to various construction scenarios

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Fig. 74 Front view of physical prototype of an arch formation with FG block | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 114

Fig. 75 External view of physical prototype of an arch formation with FG block | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 115

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4.3.7 Material comparison

Fig. 76 Comparison of building materials

In conclusion, the experimental outcomes align with the established aims, evident in the provided illustration detailing water consumption for 1 m³ of various construction materials, with water usage depicted in blue. The Functionally Graded (FG) block stands out as the most water-efficient option for the same volume, successfully addressing the primary objective of minimizing water consumption. Another crucial aspect investigated was the environmental impact of material transportation. The FG block, produced with locally sourced materials, significantly reduces the carbon footprint associated with transportation, contrasting with the considerable distances involved in procuring traditional materials. Additionally, the FG block’s labor-

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intensive production process not only contributes to its viability in terms of water conservation but also offers substantial job opportunities, addressing social sustainability. Despite the overall success of the FG block in various categories, there remains room for further research and development to enhance its strength and durability. This ongoing exploration is critical for the continual improvement of the FG block, ensuring it meets and exceeds industry standards for sustainable construction practices. As research advances, the FG block stands as a promising innovation, contributing to water conservation, environmental responsibility, and socio-economic development in the construction sector.

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Snowfence

4.4 Building elements The team started researching with various elements required to harvest water. This lead to different methods which can be used to collect water in winter and spring.

Cascades

Collection Preservation

Embankment | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 118

Fig.77 Snowfence Fig.78 Cascade Fig.79 Embankment

Snow fence: In prior research related to snow fences, their primary purpose has been identified as impeding the airflow to reduce speed and facilitate the accumulation of snow. Subsequent stages of the research will involve a multi-objective optimization process to determine the optimal porosity of the snow fence. Additionally, diverse particle simulations will be conducted to assess the potential volume of harvested water. Cascade: The intent behind the cascade system is to redirect the primary melt-water from the glacier and decelerate its

flow. The runoff is subsequently gathered and guided through a series of cascades before being collected in a tank. Various fluid dynamics software will be employed to analyze and determine the velocity of the water flow. Embankment: The purpose of this elemental system is to retain the accumulated water in designated areas. Additionally, diverse typology modules have been created for embankment, incorporating multiple functionalities beyond water preservation. To ensure structural stability, a series of structural analyses will be conducted. Given the development of the FG block, designed to function under compression, it is imperative to assess the compressive strength of this element.

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Fig. 83 Inclination experiments and results

4.4.1 Snow fence The experimental investigation commenced with a comprehensive analysis of snow fences, focusing on their aerodynamic attributes, masonry techniques, and structural integrity concerning snow accumulation. The angle of inclination was varied within the range of 25 to 90 degrees, while the curvature was systematically assessed by changing the radii of both the x and y axes, with the ratio between these axes maintained between 1:1.5 and 1:5. Furthermore, an evaluation of the aerodynamic

properties was conducted using computational fluid dynamics. It is worth noting that the research explicitly specifies that the porosity of the fence should fall within the range of 50% to 75%. This specific porosity range will be subsequently determined through computational fluid dynamics and a multiobjective optimization process, while concurrently considering the structural strength of the fence.

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Fig. 80 Aerodynamics features Fig. 81 Experiments in porosity Fig. 82 Strength of masonry

Fig. 84 Curvature experiments and results

The study utilized Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) experiments to analyze a fence system’s performance at various inclinations and curvatures. Vortex shedding on the leeward side was observed across inclinations from 25° to 90°, with the most significant shedding occurring at 45° to 90°. The CFD simulations revealed a decrease in wind speed with increasing inclination, prompting further investigations to optimize the fence’s strength and porosity within

this range. In the curvature experiments, different radii were examined for their impact on wind flow patterns and velocity reduction. Convex curves were found to decelerate wind particles, and a range of curvature ratios (1:2 to 1:3) was selected for further computational analysis. This exploration aims to optimize the fence’s structural strength and porosity concerning curvature variations.

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Two distinct fitness objectives were established for optimizing the fence wall. The first objective aimed to maximize porosity, which was expected to lead to a reduction in wind velocity. To assess this, an occlusion test was conducted to identify the maximum number of vector lines passing through the voids in the wall.

Fig. 86 Fitness objective for snowfence

Multi-objective optimization

Goal

To design a stable porous brick masonry wall which acts as a snow fence.

Objectives

Create maximum amount of voids in between each brick

Fitness criteria

Maximum porosity Maximum compressive strength

Phenotype

Gene pool

50% void in snow fence with 2500mm height and 300mm brick width. Curvature of snow fence Inclination of fence Size of voids in masonry structure

The curvature and inclination ranges used in this study were derived from previous experiment. It’s important to note that the fence was designed with sustainability in mind, utilizing a material system manufactured

from agricultural-based materials. As a result, optimizing the structural stability of the fence was a crucial step in advancing its development.

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The second fitness objective involved structural analysis, focusing on

evaluating the fence’s ability to stand independently while accommodating varying angles of inclination. This analysis considered the impact of multiple loads, including snow load, wind load, and the self load of the fence. It’s important to note that the ranges of fence configurations explored in these analyses were initially determined through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) testing.

Fig. 87 Standard deviation experiments

Fig. 85 Multi-objective experiment snowfence analysis

for

graphs

The optimization graph reveals that compressive strength has been consistently maximized across all phenotypes in later generations. However, porosity exhibits variations in each generation. Consequently,

there is a need to achieve stability in both wall strength and the ratio of porosity in order to advance the design of the fence wall.

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Fig. 88 Snow fence analysis

Utilizing a range of curvature and porosity settings obtained from Pareto front solutions for the snow fence, we conducted a detailed examination of the fence’s compressive strength. This analysis encompassed various combinations

of void percentages, spanning from 30% to 60%. Additionally, the study explored inclination angles within the range of 74° to 87°, focusing on the objective of maximizing compressive strength, which emerged as the bestperforming criteria.

Fig. 89 Snow fence post- analysis

The stress lines of the top-performing phenotypes underwent a reevaluation with the aim of minimizing tensile forces acting on the snow fence. These lines were subsequently employed as attractor curves to maximize the compressive strength of the fence structure. This optimization process involved a gradual reduction in the size of voids, specifically targeting the areas where wind loads (tensile strength) were at their maximum. For each of the three best-performing

phenotypes, an analysis of porosity range was conducted with respect to the direction of the wind lines. This analysis revealed variations in porosity changes. Within all three phenotypes, it was observed that compressive strength increased after reducing the voids within the structure. Further examination of the fence’s strength involved assessing the range and size of voids that underwent changes along the length of the fence.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 124

Fig. 90 Snow fence- change in porosity

From each phenotypes, the selection was done looking for range of inclination, percentage of porosity and compressive strength. With decreasing voids of each phenotypes, the change was seen to be in the range of 15-28%. It was seen that the final porosity of snow fence is 27%

which is rather less than required minimum of 50%. This illustrates that multiple snow fence must be placed to accumulate more amount of snow and to quantify the volume of water particle simulation will be further done.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Fig. 91 Initial mesh with 33% porosity

Fig. 93 Reduced mesh with 27% porosity

Iteration 05

Iteration 30

Iteration 60

Iteration 05

Iteration 30

Iteration 60

Iteration 90

Iteration 120

Iteration 150

Iteration 90

Iteration 120

Iteration 150

Snow fence

Porosity : 33%

A snow simulation was conducted to determine the number of particles effectively adhering to the fence wall and accumulating in the pit area. Through extensive research on snow accumulation43, a calculation method was devised to convert particle count to the volume of water. This method incorporates the cohesion factor

(aaac), representing the frequency at which two liquid particles stick together over a given time period (ΔT). The estimated density of snow (ρsnow) is then utilized to calculate the volume that can be accumulated within this specified time period (ΔT).

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with 33% porosity, the collected water volume measured 295m³. However, a reduction in porosity led vsnow = to an increased volume of 390m². This augmentation in volume was The aforementioned formula was attributed to the decreased porosity, employed to calculate the harvested facilitating greater accumulation on snow volume. Using a snow fence the fence wall. Porosity : 27%

Fig. 92 Snow particle iterations

Fig. 94 Snow particle iterations

43 Shon, Soonho, Wan Gu Ji, Beomsu Kim, Yu-Eop Kang, and Kwanjung Yee. “Evaluation of Snow Accumulation Simulation on a Train Using Experimental Results.” Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 232 (January 1, 2023): 105275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2022.105275.

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Fig. 96 Computational fluid dynamics test of cascades

4.4.2 Cascade development In the development of cascades, three key objectives were identified. Firstly, the aim was to decrease the water flow velocity from higher to lower altitudes, directing it towards a collection tank. The second objective focused on maximizing the distance between cascades to enhance water storage efficiency and facilitate effective harvesting of snow particles in the intervening spaces. The third criterion involved ensuring the convergence of water towards the tank. To initiate this experiment, computational fluid dynamics were

employed to determine an optimal cascade layout on the site. During the cascade design phase, two critical parameters were examined: the angle of inclination and the overlapping distance as shown in figure 95. The investigation revealed that the most favorable outcomes were observed within an inclination range of 15 to 25 degrees and an overlapping distance range of 25% to 50%. Within these specified ranges, the cascades exhibited the most substantial reduction in water velocity across their entire length.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 128

Fig. 95 Objectives of Cascade development

Fig. 97 Computational fluid dynamics result of cascades

The experiment was conducted using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), wherein the initial velocity of water was set at 15 m/s. The observed results revealed a substantial decrease in water velocity, down to 5 m/s, as it passed through the multiple cascades.

These findings have significant implications for the design of water collection and preservation areas in terrains with slopes. The parameters and configurations developed for the cascades will serve as a valuable foundation for optimizing the water collection system in such sloped terrain.

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Fig. 99 Computational fluid dynamics test of form

4.4.3 Embankment development The embankment, initially designed to preserve water from evaporation, has been envisioned with multifaceted applications. The team proposes expanding its functionality to include social spaces for interaction and communication, varying in size based on specific purposes. Given the challenging climate of Kaza, ranging from harsh summers to severe winters, the embankment must be robustly designed to withstand such conditions. Notably, the embankment is constructed

using FG blocks composed of agro-based materials, specifically designed for compression. Structural stability within the compressive strength of the block is important for the embankment. Furthermore, considering snowfall from November to March, the structure must be resilient enough to support the additional dead load of snow. These functionalities are explored in detail in the following experiment and implemented accordingly.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 130

Fig. 98 Multiple proposal of embankment Fig. 100 Computational fluid dynamics result of embankment

In developing the embankment, a critical consideration is ensuring aerodynamic characteristics that deflect wind upwards. Various morphologies and roof curvatures underwent computational fluid dynamics (CFD) testing. The analysis focused on four inclination ranges from 90⁰ to 45⁰, maintaining a constant initial wind velocity of 15 m/s.

The most significant increase in wind velocity, reaching approximately 30 m/s, was observed in the inclination range of 90⁰ to 60⁰. This range was chosen for the embankment design as it effectively redirects wind, aligning with the primary objective, and addresses the secondary goal of preserving water from evaporation.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

75 degree

90 degree

Module A

Module B

Module C

Module D

Solid wall

Window (5% opening)

5% voids

10% voids

Following wind analysis, embankment modules were developed with a 3m span and 5m height, utilizing the inclination range of 75⁰ to 90⁰ (refer to Figures 101 and 102). Four modules were designed for distinct functions: Module A focuses on water

10% voids

preservation, Module B provides communal space with windows, Module C features 5% voids for minimal light access, and Module D incorporates 10% voids for privacy while maintaining ample light. Load testing, ranging from 2600 to 3000KN,

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 132

Fig. 101 Embankment typologies with 75⁰ inclination

Fig. 102 Embankment typologies with 90⁰ inclination

was conducted using Karamba analysis, assessing compressive strength and displacement. Results showed a minimum displacement of 0.08 cm in solid embankments and a maximum displacement of 2.75 cm in modules with 10% void openings.

These modules will be implemented for various public and private functions based on their specific design and void characteristics.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

4.5 Conclusion In conclusion, this chapter extensively addressed water harvesting strategies crucial for ensuring self-sustainability during drought periods in the town. Notably, the team successfully engineered construction blocks using agro-based materials. These blocks, designed with objectives such as thermal insulation, moisture repellent, and structural stability, were physically prototyped to comprehend their interlocking system and the mechanism for forming a compressive structure. The development of functionally graded material from agro-based sources stands as a significant achievement, highlighting the potential for more precise advancements in constructing material systems.

Fig. 103 Particle simulation | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 134

Furthermore, the chapter explored the identification and comprehension of vital building elements essential

for water collection and preservation. It provided in-depth insights into the operational mechanisms of key structures, including the snow fence, cascade, and embankment. The quantification of water volume harvested through the snow fence added valuable data to the research. Additionally, the chapter delved into the principles of cascades, elucidating efficient methods for diverting glacier melt water to a storage tank. The creation of diverse embankment modules tailored for various functions represented a noteworthy milestone in the research journey. These meticulously examined building elements serve as the foundation for the next phase of our research – the development of architectural modules. These modules will play a pivotal role in implementing inventive strategies to tackle water-related challenges in the Kaza region.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Design development ( MSc.)

05 | Hydrological network generation 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 136

Overview Site identification Architectural intervention Construction and vernacular details Network analysis and quantification Conclusion

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

5.1 Overview The objective of this chapter is to address the pressing water needs of the local community through environmentally friendly and regionally responsive design principles. The proposed approach encompasses three distinct design typologies, each tailored to specific functions and seasonal requirements, ensuring comprehensive water collection, preservation, and distribution. This strategic design takes into account the diverse challenges posed by varying climatic conditions. The process commences with proposal of three different typologies for aforementioned functions. The selection of sites suitable for water harvesting and distribution within the community and for agricultural purposes. The identification of these sites leads to the establishment of a hydrological network, where each site functions as a hydrological node requiring architectural intervention. Fig. 104 Water flow in site | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 138

The

architectural

intervention

involves the design of buildings incorporating the building elements from the preceding chapter. These elements are carefully considered in the design of preservation and distribution units. Additionally, the modules are designed to be seasonal, with functionalities developed to enhance their usability based on the changing seasons. The detailed exploration of the previously conducted material research proposal on building blocks is integrated into all the modules, providing comprehensive construction details for the construction process. The subsequent step involves a series of network analyses within the hydrological network, aiming to quantify the volume of water for specific localities within the distribution module’s serving radius. This analytical approach ensures a systematic and efficient water supply to the identified areas.

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| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

5.2 Site Identification The conceptual development of the urban system culminated in the design of a comprehensive water distribution network, substantiated by various interventions strategically dispersed across the site. This encompassed the implementation of collection, preservation, and distribution units intricately woven into the urban fabric of Kaza. To achieve maximum effectiveness, an extensive and detailed analysis was conducted to identify the most suitable site locations for these

crucial components. The focus was on devising a water management system that not only harvested water efficiently but also ensured its equitable distribution throughout the settlement. To accomplish this, a meticulous evaluation was undertaken to pinpoint optimal sites for the collection units (Typology A), preservation units (Typology B), and distribution nodes (Typology C) within Kaza.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 140

Fig. 105 Conceptual sites for the proposed architectural interventions | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 141

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

maximum catchment natural drain patterns

Catchment Analysis

50 - 100% 40 - 50% 20 - 30% optimal slope area 10 - 20% 00 - 10%

Slope Analysis

5.2.1 Collection and preservation The Collection Units, denoted as Type A, serve a primary function of harvesting precipitation, encompassing snowfall and surface runoff contingent upon seasonal availability. Identifying these sites necessitated a comprehensive topographical analysis involving meticulous scrutiny of elevations, slopes, and natural catchment areas. Overlaying these parameters facilitated the identification of suitable locations for Type A units. To ascertain high-altitude zones, the analysis began by considering the highest situated household in Kaza, approximately at an elevation of 3720 meters, as the threshold. Subsequently, slope analysis was instrumental in delineating areas with gradients ranging between 20% to 30%, offering feasibility for potential interventions. The utilization of agentbased simulation outputs pertaining to catchments aided in pinpointing the most densely concentrated zones. Overlaying these outlined zones yielded the optimal sites for

Type A collection units. Although, the site boundaries needed to be rationalised so as to eliminate all the acute corners and make the whole site accessible. Furthermore, looking into the water requirements of the town it was evident that the agriculture industry requires a large amount of water. To facilitate this need, an additional Collection unit combined to have simultaneous functions to preserve water was designed (denoted as Type B) in close vicinity of the existing agricultural fields. The same principles that were used to identify the site for Type A were used with an additional objective, which was to have minimum distance of these sites from the farmlands. This unit will have functions of harvesting precipitation in both snowfall and surface runoff contingent and at the same time provide the required water for agricultural purposes.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 142

Elevation Analysis Fig. 106 Experiment for site selection

Fig. 107 Identification of sites for collection and preservation

Selected sites for water collection and preservation | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 143

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Typology A

Snow and surface runoff collection 3735 M 3715 M

Typology C

3655 M

Distribution and preservation

5.2.2 Distribution and preservation To make the water collected by Type A units available for the residents of Kaza, the water must be brought down to the town by an efficient water infrastructure. To introduce these Type C preservation units, our approach involved manual identification of open sites interspersed amid the settlement. This method relied on visual assessment and on-the-ground identification of spaces suitable for accommodating these units within the existing urban fabric. To choose the best sites, the density of existing households was considered, and a range of serving radius was established based on the distance a normal person can walk comfortably in under ten minutes on rough terrain, which was set as the maximum limit. Simultaneously, by leveraging this evolutionary algorithm, the team aimed to systematically design a network that strategically links the high-altitude Type A collection units with the identified open spaces for Type C units. For the establishment of an equitable and effective water distribution system, the evolutionary

algorithm was formulated in such a way that the algorithm gave us 3 main nodes which would further be branched out by running a sequential evolutionary algorithm. The objectives for the first algorithm to get the main nodes were as follows: Minimizing Distance and Material Usage: Aimed at reducing network length and material usage for sustainability. Maximizing Spatial Coverage: Focused on ensuring even dispersion of nodes for accessibility and fairness. Minimizing Overlapping Service Radii: To prevent redundancy and ensure equitable service. Maximizing Serving Radius: Intended to optimize the reach and coverage of distribution nodes. A comprehensive multi-objective optimization process was employed to address these criteria. The resulting Pareto front solutions were analysed to determine the most suitable configurations. Sequential simulations were then conducted to branch the network toward preservation sites within the settlement. The objectives for the

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 144

3658 M

Typology B

Snow collection and preservation

Typology A

3630 M

Snow and surface runoff collection

Typology C

Typology A

Distribution and preservation

Snow and surface runoff collection

Typology A

Snow and surface runoff collection

Typology C Distribution and preservation

Typology C

Typology B

Snow collection and preservation

Distribution and preservation

Typology B

Snow collection and preservation

Fig. 108 Sequential evolutionary algorithm to Identification of site for preservation Typology B the branched network and final Snow collectionget and and distribution preservation

type C sites were as follows: Maximizing Secondary Network Length: To ensure preservation sites cover as many locations as possible for fair and even distribution. Maximizing Serving Radius: Aimed at maximizing radius without overlaps and serving a maximum number of households. This multi-faceted approach aims to design a water distribution network that not only efficiently transports water from Type A to Type C units but also ensures equitable access,

sustainability, and optimal coverage throughout the settlement. This method allowed for the creation of an interconnected system that efficiently channels harvested precipitation from the primary collection units to the designated secondary collection sites. Ultimately, this approach facilitated the establishment of a cohesive and functional framework for water collection and preservation within the settlement, maximizing the utilization of available space and resources.

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tribution

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Maximizing Spatial Coverage Minimum stress on existing Minimumroads stress on existing roads

Minimizing Overlapping Service Radii Minimum Overlap of distributionMinimum Overlap of distribution areas areas

Minimizing Distance and Material Usage (From Type A to C) Minimum Length of Minimum distribution Length of distribution (Type A to type B) (Type A to type B)

Maximum serving radius

To establish an equitable and efficient water distribution system from the primary collection areas (Type A) to the secondary nodes for preservation (Type B) within the settlement, the development of a well-structured network becomes imperative. This network is designed to ensure that water is distributed uniformly throughout the community. To achieve these objectives, a set of key criteria were formulated:

networks are evenly dispersed across the town, enhancing accessibility for residents and promoting fairness in water access.

1. Minimizing Distance and Material Usage: The first objective aimed to minimize the distance between the Type A collection points and the Type B and C distribution nodes. This approach not only reduces the length of the distribution network but also optimizes material usage in its construction, promoting sustainability.

4. Maximizing Serving Radius: The final objective aimed to maximize the serving radius of each distribution node, optimizing the reach and coverage of the water distribution network.

3. Minimizing Overlapping Service Radii: The third objective sought to minimize the overlap of service radii between nodes. By doing so, it ensures that all residents are served equitably without redundancy or over-concentration of resources.

To attain solutions that satisfy these multi-faceted objectives, a comprehensive multi-objective optimization process was executed. This approach ensures that the resulting water distribution network is not only efficient but also equitable, sustainable, and tailored to the unique needs of the community.

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Maximum serving radius Maximum serving radius

Maximizing Serving Radius

5.2.3 Distribution network

2. Maximizing Spatial Coverage: The second objective focused on maximizing the distance between nodes within the settlement. This strategy ensures that distribution

Minimum Overlap ofMinimum distribution Overlap of distribution areas areas

Fig. 109 Fitness objectives for Simulation 1 to identify the most optimal primary network.

Fig. 110 Pareto Front Simulation 1

solutions

the

Fig. 111 Parallel Coordinate chart showing the values of the results of Simulation 1. | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 147

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

Maximizing the Length of the Secondary Network

The Pareto front results obtained from this optimization process were meticulously analyzed to discern the most suitable solutions. A range of values, determining these solutions, was selected to conduct a sequential simulation for the secondary branching of the network, leading to the preservation sites located within the settlement. The objectives for this subsequent optimization process encompassed two key aspects: 1. Maximizing the Length of the Secondary Network: This objective aimed to ensure that the preservation

Maximizing Serving Radius

sites or the points from where locals collect water could cover as many potential sites as possible. This strategy aimed for an even and fair distribution of water throughout the settlement.

Fig. 112 Fitness objectives for a sequential simulation to find the most optimal secondary distribution network.

2. Maximizing Serving Radius: The final objective for the sequential optimization process focused on achieving the maximum radius without any overlap with other preservation sites. Additionally, it aimed to accommodate the maximum number of households within its reach, thereby serving the maximum number of local residents efficiently.

Fig. 113 Pareto Front solutions Sequential Simulation. | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 148

the

Fig. 114 Parallel Coordinate chart showing the values of the results of Sequential Simulation | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 149

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Fig. 115 Site intervention for Typology A

5.3 Architectural interventions Fig. 116 Site intervention for Typology B

Fig. 117 Site intervention for Typology C | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 150

Following the identification of sites for each typology, the team conducted further investigations to design and propose building interventions specific to each site. Commencing with the zone at the highest altitude, aligned with catchment areas, we introduce ‘Typology A.’ This type primarily focuses on harvesting water from catchment zones. Given its elevated location, it accumulates snow during winter and preserves water from spring surface runoff and glacial melt. Typology A serves as the principal water source for other types, encompassing both collection and preservation functions.

Transitioning to the zone near agricultural fields, designated as ‘Typology B,’ its primary role is to provide a water source for agricultural fields and livestock. Strategically located on terrains with gentle slopes, Typology B is designed to facilitate its specific functions. Lastly, ‘Typology C’ is situated within the urban fabric, functioning as a tertiary node. The placement of these nodes is determined by a network that considers their proximity to the water source, contributing to the overall efficiency of the water distribution system.

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Winter scenario Snow harvesting

5.3.1 Typology A The design intervention ‘typology A’ operates in distinct ways during different seasons. In the winter and spring seasons, its primary function is related to collection, while in the later spring and summer seasons, it transitions into a preservation unit. During the winter, the snowfence serve to facilitate the accumulation of snow. Previous chapters has researches carried out to conform the working mechanism of snowfence. These mechanisms work together to gather and store snow effectively.

Spring scenario Preservation

Fig. 118 Seasonal scenario of typology A | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 152

As spring arrives, the accumulated snow begins to melt, complemented by the runoff from higher-altitude glaciers. During this time, all of this water is collected and stored in a

preservation water tank. This stored water becomes a critical resource for use during the 90 days of summer when water availability is limited. Essentially, the design intervention transforms from a collector of winter precipitation to a preserver of this precious resource for the drier months ahead. Additionally, a series of multiobjective optimization methodologies will be employed to strategically position each building element on the site. This will be followed by snow particle simulations and surface runoff analyses to quantify the volume of water that can be effectively collected and preserved within this specific typology.

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In the initial on-site planning analysis, key parameters were established. This included determining the optimal distance between cascades (10-15 meters) for effective water flow, balancing the distance between the embankment and cascades (1015 meters) for snow pit length and

Fig. 121 Typology A illustration on site

Fig. 119 Fitness objective for typology A site

runoff efficiency, exploring a rotation range of 15 to 25 degrees for the ideal orientation of the snow fence and cascades, and seeking an optimal solution to minimize sun exposure on the snow pit area and prevent rapid snow melting.

Site (Multi-objective optimization) The design integrates cascades strategically positioned at the site’s highest points. These cascades serve a dual purpose, channelizing surface runoff and accumulating snow during winter. The embankment

beneath the snow fence acts as a preservation unit, storing melt-water for subsequent supply to distribution nodes, ensuring a sustainable water source for the entire system.

Goal

To locate optimal site of cascade and embankment within the site.

Objectives

Create maximum distance between the cascades

Fitness criteria

Maximum distance between cascades Maximum distance between cascades and embankment Minimum solar exposure in snow pit area

Phenotype Gene pool

6 different cascade with 50% overlap and 25⁰ rotation. Distance between cascades Rotation of cascades Position of embankment

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 154

Minimize solar radiation

Maximize distance between cascades

Maximize angle of rotation Fig. 122 Standard deviation experiments

Fig. 120 Objective table for Typology A

graphs

The optimization graph consistently indicates the maximization of solar radiation across all phenotypes in later generations. However, there are variations in the angle of rotation and distance between cascades. Notably, the distance between cascades and

Maximize distance between cascades and embankment

the embankment contradicts the optimization trend for solar radiation. Furthermore, embankment optimized with it’s own set experiment.

is of

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Embankment (Multi-objective optimization) The development of Type A embankment primarily revolves around the preservation of water, including the implementation of a covering to prevent evaporation from the reservoir. The initial morphology was conceived using a curve derived from the embankment analysis conducted during the research and development phase. This curve was further refined to create a

base plinth area intended for water storage. To protect this storage area, a vault structure was employed as a cover. These vaults are structurally supported by arches following the curvature of the design. Additionally, a snow fence was incorporated on top of the structure to facilitate the accumulation of snow during the winter months, aided by cascades.

Goal

To design a self-standing embankment that helps prevents evaporation

Objectives

Create a shell structure with minimum deflection and maximum curvature to accumulate larger amount of snow.

Fitness criteria

Maximum surface area to volume ratio Maximum curvature Maximum solar radiation in pit Maximize compressive strength

Phenotype

A curved surface along the curvature with arches for supports.

Gene pool

Curvature of embankment Inclination of embankment wall No. of arches Rise of arches Height of snow fence

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 156

Fig. 124 Primitive development and Fitness objectives

Fig. 123 Multi-objective experiment snowfence analysis

for

Fig. 125 Standard deviation experiments

graphs

In the context of multi-objective optimization, several key objectives have been established: Minimization of the surface areato-volume ratio of the vault: This aims to reduce exposure to solar radiation, thereby preventing thermal heat gain and preserving water in its natural state. Maximization of the curvature of the embankment: This objective seeks to enhance wind flow through the fence, facilitating the accumulation of snow. Minimization

of radiation exposure on the pit area: The goal here is to reduce radiation levels in the pit area, which helps in preserving snow and slowing down its melting process. Optimization of the structural stability of the vault: This involves assessing the load-bearing capacity of the vault, considering factors such as the snow accumulation load, the mass of the fence, and the self-load of the vault itself.

Minimum surface area to volume ratio

Minimum solar radiation in the pit

Maximum curvature

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62 | 16

69 | 42

72 | 45

75 | 03

89 | 35

93 | 27

Fig.126 Phenotypes selection from Pareto front solutions

Outputs ( Embankment) In the multi-objective optimization process for the preservation unit, the selection criteria from the pool of outputs focused on minimizing radiation on the surface of these embankments. Phenotypes were chosen based on their average performance in each fitness criterion, and then further selected based on radiation. Specifically, Generation 75

and Individual 01 were chosen for placement on the site. Moreover, this particular embankment was specifically selected and placed on Type A site, and phenotypes with average fitness values were again chosen, as illustrated in Figure 127, for post-analysis across the entire site.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 158

Outputs ( Site ) Fig. 127 Selected outputs from Site | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 159

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25 | 04

Particles : 2065

Iteration 05

Iteration 30

Iteration 60

Iteration 15

21 | 08

Iteration 30

Iteration 60

Iteration 15

19 | 06

Iteration 30

Iteration 60

Iteration 15 Fig.128 Particle simulation of snow

Snow simulation Following the selection of three topperforming phenotypes from the pool of average ranks, a snow simulation was conducted, similar to the approach in Chapter 4.4.1. The entire iteration spanned one minute, and the values were extrapolated to represent scenarios for a maximum of 30 days of snowfall. Particle attachment to all the fences and pits was calculated for each phenotype solution. Utilizing the same formula, the volume of snow accumulation was determined to be 2775 m³, 2947 m³, and 2916 m³,

respectively, for the aforementioned phenotypes. Subsequently, these values were translated into liters of water that could be stored in the tank area. Given that Phenotype 21|08 exhibited a higher accumulation of particles, indicating increased water collection potential, it was selected for further evaluation. The phenotypes are now being assessed through surface runoff simulations.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 160

Iteration 90

Iteration 180

Iteration 90

Iteration 180

19 | 06

Particles : 2160

Iteration 05

Iteration 180

21 | 08

Particles : 2183

Iteration 05

Iteration 90

Fig.129 Water flow simulation

Water flow simulation A water flow simulation was conducted to assess which phenotype among the selected outputs directed water flow towards the embankment. The volume of the flow mesh was utilized to calculate the convergence ratio. In Phenotype 21|08, a significant portion of the water spilled out of the cascades, resulting in only 5% of the mesh volume converging into the tank. Conversely, in Phenotypes 25|04 and 19|06, 20% and 35% of the mesh volume, respectively, was observed to accumulate in the tank. This outcome contradicted the findings from the snow simulation.

In response to this, the team decided to select Phenotype 19|06 for further consideration. In this phenotype, snow accumulation (as shown in Figure 129) was nearly equal to the particle accumulation in 21|08. Additionally, the 35% convergence of mesh into the tank resulted in the maximum volume of water that could be stored. Therefore, it was determined that a cascade rotation of 15⁰ and a cascade overlap of 50% resulted in optimal water harvesting conditions.

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The exploded diagram provides an insight into the operational mechanism of Typology A. In this system, water, sourced from the glacier melt in the river, is directed through a narrow channel. Subsequently, it is stored in the cascade

pit, overflowing into the preservation tank. This deliberate slowing down of runoff water proves to be effective in ensuring a sustainable water supply during the drought period in Kaza.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 162

Fig. 130 Working mechanism of typology A

Fig. 131 Visualization of typology A preservation tank | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 163

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Spring scenario Preservation

5.3.1 Typology B The versatility of ‘Typology B’ design intervention is evident in its varying functions across different seasons. The open area designated as the snow pit serves a specific purpose during the winter months when snow accumulates, with the assistance of the snow fence and embankment. In winter, this area efficiently collects snow, which is then naturally channeled into the water tank due to the site’s natural slope.

Winter scenario Snow harvesting

Fig. 132 Seasonal scenario of typology B | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 164

However, as the spring and summer

seasons arrive and the snow melts, the snow pit is left empty. During this time, it can be re-purposed to serve various agricultural needs, such as segregation, auctioning, or hosting a farmers’ market. This adaptability ensures that the space remains productive and useful throughout the changing seasons. Additionally, a series of multiobjective optimization methodologies will be employed to strategically position each building element on the site.

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Multi-objective optimization

Type B, designed for flat terrain, incorporates various essential building elements such as snow fences, snow pits, and embankments. Given its specific location requirements, Type B serves multiple functions, including the need for storage and the production of raw materials. This

Fig.134 Primitive development and Fitness objectives

comprehensive approach aims to stimulate the economy of the existing settlement and provide opportunities for the migrating population. To achieve these objectives, the design incorporates agro-based functions, as well as a water harvesting and preservation area.

Goal

To design a multi-functional area with snow harvesting and preservation area.

Objectives

Development of morphology with base curvature and snow fence to accumulate snow.

Fitness criteria

Maximize snow pit Minimize surface area to volume ratio Maximum solar radiation Maximize wind hits

Phenotype

A curved surface along the curvature with arches for supports.

The primitive structure starts with a fundamental base curve that defines multiple functions along its contour. A flexible shell structure, adapting to various functions, is constructed along this curve. To enhance structural integrity, arches are introduced along the curvature, maximizing compressive strength. A snow fence is strategically placed for snow accumulation. For morphological optimization, a multi-objective algorithm is applied:

Minimize Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio: Reducing solar radiation exposure in summer. Maximize Snow Pit Area: Optimizing snow collection. Maximize Wind Exposure on Snow Fence: Orienting the fence to face prevailing winds for snow accumulation. Minimize Solar Radiation on Surface: Counteracting solar radiation exposure on the snow pit.

Base area of functions Snow fence curvature distance Gene pool

No. of arches Rise of arches Width of arches Height of snow fence

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 166

Fig. 133 Multi-objective optimization experiment for typology B

Fig.135 Standard deviation experiments

graphs

of | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 167

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12 Acres

13.45 Acres

Volume of water = 8000m³

Volume of water = 8950m³

76 | 08 76 | 08

59 | 15

14.35 Acres

15.35 Acres

Volume of water = 9500m³

Volume of 10000m³

76 | 08

62 | 01

water

59 | 15

80 | 19

76 | 08

14.40 Acres

12.92 Acres

Volume of water = 7564m³

Volume of water = 8568m³ 59 | 15

Fig.137 Phenotypes analysis and water quantification

Water quantification analysis 94 | 01

98 | 12

Outputs ( Embankment ) In the multi-objective optimization process for Typology B, the selection criteria from the pool of outputs aimed at minimizing radiation on the surface of the embankments. Phenotypes were initially chosen based on their average performance across fitness criteria, with further selection based on radiation values. These selected

phenotypes were then graded based on the value of each fitness objective. Subsequently, a graph was generated to assess the serving capacity of the agricultural land area, and the optimal phenotype was chosen based on these considerations.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 168

Fig.136 Phenotypes selection from Pareto front solutions

From the pool of results, where the primary criterion was minimum solar radiation, the selected phenotypes were further analyzed based on their water storage capacity. Utilizing an underground tank with a height of 3m, the estimated water tank capacity was calculated. Phenotype 59|15 stood out with the highest volume of water storage, reaching approximately 10,000m³. This substantial water capacity, as determined through calculations outlined in the research conducted in Chapter 4.2.1, is deemed capable

of efficiently servicing an agricultural land area of nearly 12 acres. Contextualizing this within the agricultural landscape of Kaza, which encompasses approximately 128 acres of cultivable land, the determined water volume is significant. It holds the potential to sustain a day of agricultural production, underlining the practical implications of the optimized water storage capacity for agricultural practices in the region.

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The exploded diagram offers a detailed view of the operational mechanism of Typology B. Within this system, water derived from diverse sources, including snow accumulation and the river, is strategically stored in

the southern section of the unit. This area is enclosed by an embankment, providing accessibility for agricultural functions. On the northern wing, designated space is allocated for the production of agricultural products.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 170

Fig. 138 Working mechanism of typology B

Fig. 139 Visualization of typology B | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 171

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Spring scenario Water collection and market area

5.3.1 Typology C

Winter scenario Community participation and market area

Fig. 140 Working mechanism of typology B | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 172

‘Typology C’ functions as a water distribution unit integrated into the urban fabric of Kaza. The system’s core purpose is derived from a case study detailed in Chapter 2.12. Drawing inspiration from stepped wells, the central area is envisioned as a water fountain, a feature central to the spring scenario. In winter, it transforms into a communal space where individuals can showcase their

inventions and sell products within community buildings. These aspirations will be realized through thorough analysis, employing multiple tools such as Ladybug for environmental analysis and fluid dynamics for a comprehensive understanding of the system’s functionality.

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Water Fountain (Traditional Hiti)

Form development

Water fountain

Multi-purpose hall

Auxiliary buildings

Wind protection

Semi-covered seating

Objectives and functions

Type C represents a strategically positioned building intervention within the town fabric, primarily functioning as a vital water distribution hub for the local community. This architectural intervention plays a crucial role in providing water to the locals and other residents. Additionally, it incorporates a stepwell-like configuration, serving as a communal space where people can convene, engage in conversations, and carry out the daily ritual of collecting water for their households. The design takes inspiration from traditional Hiti structures found in regions like Nepal. In such setups, water collected in an elevated storage tank is directed through hills via drain pipes to a tank-

like space where individuals can access water through taps, acting as an intermediary between the storage tank and households. The project transforms this utilitarian space into a social hub by introducing the concept of stepwells surrounding a Hiti. It further enhances the space by incorporating covered areas that host activities celebrating local culture and fostering social interactions among residents. These additional features encompass multi-purpose room spaces, semi-covered seating areas, and zones for organizing regular or flea markets.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 174

Fig. 141 Kit of parts

Water storage

Market

The architectural form of the intervention was conceived around the central concept of a Hiti. The team’s objective was to design structures around the Hiti with direct access from the junctional roads. To achieve this, buildings were strategically planned to guide people from the roads towards the Hiti. These structures not only served as directional elements but also provided spaces for various activities. Given Spiti’s challenging climatic conditions, the buildings were designed in a close-knit arrangement to offer protection against the ingress of wind into the central space. The

design

approach

involved

configuring the buildings in such a way that they collectively formed the central Hiti, adopting a swirl-like layout with coverings from all sides. Open alleyways were integrated into the design, contributing to a hospitable and inviting atmosphere. Subsequently, the central area was elevated to accommodate a water storage tank, eliminating the need for excavation below ground and preserving the natural terrain. As a result, the central space became an elevated platform, accessed through stairways leading to the Hiti, while access to the outer buildings remained unchanged from the exterior for other activities.

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15° rotation

30° rotation

45° rotation

40° rotation

250° rotation

260° rotation

15° rotation

30° rotation

45° rotation

Minimise wind obstruction Minimise wind entering in the central core

Minimise solar exposure on Hiti Minimise summer solar exposure on Hiti

Maximise solar exposure on the buildings Maximise winter solar exposure on the buildings

Analysis To enhance the design of the intervention, the team conducted specific analyses to determine the optimal orientation and dimensions of the intervention components. Three key categories were established for analysis: firstly, the orientation of auxiliary buildings was carefully considered to minimize wind obstruction in the central space. Subsequently, the orientation of the steps in the Hiti was examined

to reduce solar radiation during the summer season, preventing excessive water drying due to evaporation. Lastly, the orientation of the auxiliary buildings was further evaluated to maximize solar radiation on them during the winter months. These analyses aimed to improve the overall performance of the buildings, ensuring thermal comfort throughout all seasons.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 176

Fig. 142 Type C optimisation objectives

Fig. 143 Analysis for development

Type

design

Various rotation angles were tested across all types of analyses, and values were meticulously recorded based on predefined objectives. Subsequently, the three most effective candidates were selected in each analysis for further comparative evaluation. In the comparison between the rotation angles of auxiliary buildings for wind obstruction and solar radiation analyses, the individuals performing

best were observed at rotation angles of 45° and 30°, respectively. Prioritizing wind obstruction, the chosen rotation angle for the auxiliary buildings was finalized at 45°. Similarly, in the solar radiation analysis for the Hiti, the best-performing individual was identified at a rotation angle of 260°, which was subsequently confirmed as the optimal outcome.

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The exploded diagram provides a comprehensive insight into the operational mechanism of Typology C. In this system, water is stored in the central part of the module,

enveloped by wings of communal spaces. These spaces are shaped by multiple embankments, offering dedicated areas for various functions to be performed within the system.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 178

Fig 144 Working mechanism of typology C

Fig. 145 Visualization of typology C | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 179

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5.4 Building construction and vernacular details In the comprehensive design approach, each module within the architectural interventions serves a distinct purpose encompassing collection, preservation, and distribution, seamlessly integrating social functions into the fabric of the structures. Moreover, a meticulous focus on construction modules has been undertaken, accompanied by the creation of a detailed catalog elucidating various block specifications. This catalog serves as a valuable resource for comprehending the intricacies of block details essential to the overall architectural framework. Fig.146 Vernacular details | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 180

The architectural interventions are

structured based on four distinct modules, each possessing its unique dimensions and block positioning. This meticulous detailing ensures a nuanced understanding of the spatial organization and functional elements inherent in each module. Furthermore, the design philosophy extends to the incorporation of vernacular strategies within these units. Through a thorough study, specific areas are identified where vernacular elements are applied, preserving the essence and cultural identity of Kaza as a town. This approach not only enhances the aesthetic appeal but also contributes to the sustainable integration of the architectural interventions within the broader context of Kaza.

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Typology A details

Fig.148 Openings in buildings Fig.149 Use of traditional jali for privacy

Typology B details

Fig.150 Tapering structure for warmth Fig.151 Agro based material Fig.152 Lintel detail Fig.153 Interlocking detail

Typology C details

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 182

Fig 147 Block catalog

As detailed in chapter 4.3.5, the implementation of FG blocks and Structure blocks is a consistent feature across all modules, as illustrated in Figure 147. Each module incorporates its own thermal and compressive blocks, strategically chosen to ensure stability and strength. The blocks at the base exhibit a wider size, gradually transitioning to narrower dimensions towards the apex. In cases of curved structures, the blocks follow a similar pattern, with wider dimensions in synclastic curvature and narrower dimensions in anticlastic curvature. These standing modules exemplify a fusion of traditional and vernacular techniques. Various vernacular practices have been employed, encompassing the use of agro-

based materials and interlocking techniques reminiscent of traditional Kaza construction methods. The accompanying images highlight specific details, including modular openings designed for privacy, the incorporation of traditional jali as a snow fence, and arches providing structural support. The integration of agro waste, a time-honored traditional material, and the creation of an interlocking mechanism of blocks, combined with wooden frame details, further enhance the overall architectural narrative. This synthesis of modern and traditional techniques not only adds aesthetic richness but also pays homage to the cultural and architectural heritage of Kaza.

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5.4 Network analysis and quantification

Fig. 154 Site intervention for Typology C | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 184

This research endeavors to address the critical need for water supply in both household contexts and agricultural practices. The primary focus involves the design and quantification of water storage capacity across all typologies, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the potential water resources available.

analytical approach serve as a crucial foundation for the next steps in the research journey. By quantifying the number of buildings served, the research not only validates the practical applicability of the designed water supply systems but also provides essential data for further refinement and optimization.

In order to establish the viability and efficacy of the designed water storage systems, a meticulous hydrological analysis was conducted. This involved delving into the total number of buildings served by the water supply network, offering a quantitative perspective on the impact and reach of the proposed interventions.

This sub-chapter marks the concluding phase of the MSc. research, encapsulating the comprehensive efforts invested in understanding, designing, and quantifying water solutions for both residential and agricultural needs. The outcomes of this phase lay the groundwork for continued exploration and refinement in subsequent stages of the research.

The

insights

gained

from

this

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The results obtained from the analysis in Chapter 5.2.3 underwent investigation through hydrological network analysis. This involved the creation of a series of pipelines facilitating water transfer from Type A water storage tanks to Type C water supply tanks. After establishing the

serving radius based on a designated walking distance, a 30m radius was chosen. Buildings falling within this radius were then calculated to be served by the water stored in Type C tanks. The outputs visually highlight buildings

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 186

Fig.155 Phenotypes analysis for stress index

Fig.156 Phenotypes analysis for stress index

served by the nearest Typology C. To quantify the impact, a stress index was formulated, mapping each value from 0.0 to 1.0 based on the number of buildings served by the closest distribution unit. Subsequently, each phenotype underwent re-evaluation in light of these stress indices.

Among the Typology C options, those with nearly identical stress values were identified for further analysis. Notably, 36|06, 49|00, and 49|09 are among the selected typologies with similar stress levels. These specific typologies will be subjected to more in-depth analysis, forming the basis

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Fig.158 Phenotypes selection from Pareto front solutions

for the subsequent stages of the research. The capacity of Typology A, with a total of 29,160,000 liters, was meticulously distributed among individual units of the typology, guided by the previously established

stress index. The stress index served as a parameter for determining the allocation of water resources to each phenotype, and corresponding graphs were generated for each unit. The assessment brought to light variations in the water requirements

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 188

Fig.157 Phenotypes selection from Pareto front solutions

of different units. Some units, experiencing higher stress levels, were found to necessitate a more substantial water supply, such as 20,000 liters, to effectively serve a 30m radius. In contrast, other Typology C units exhibited lower stress levels and required only 300 liters of water to cover the same radius. The establishment of this network within the existing urban fabric resulted in an uneven distribution of water across the various distribution

units. This disparity underscores the importance of thorough hydrological analysis and quantification in the planning phase. The research team recognizes that for hydrological systems to be efficient, careful evaluation and planning must precede the selection of sites for distribution units. This realization forms a crucial aspect of optimizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the hydrological system under consideration.

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5.5 Conclusion In conclusion, this chapter strategically addresses the critical water needs of the local community through the proposal of environmentally friendly and regionally responsive design principles. The introduced approach encompasses three distinct design typologies, each tailored to specific functions and seasonal requirements, thereby ensuring comprehensive water collection, preservation, and distribution that aligns with varying climatic conditions.

Fig. 159 Flow simulation | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 190

Key aspects of this conclusion include the implementation of a collection area at higher elevations, with preservation and distribution units strategically placed at lower elevations within the fabric. Analytical tools have played a crucial role in determining the output and quantity of water that can be effectively stored.

Within the context of architectural intervention, each unit holds intrinsic value, contributing to the overall functionality of the system. The formation and analysis of the hydrological network have proven to be instrumental, offering insights into the unequal distribution of water and the stress on individual units responsible for water distribution. This marks the conclusion of the MSc. phase of this research, laying the foundation for further exploration. The findings provide a valuable opportunity to extend this research by focusing on the creation of a suitable distribution node and generating service functions prior to housing development, thereby advancing the practical implications of the proposed water network system.

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Design development ( MArch.)

06 | Socio-economic resilience 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 192

Overview Urban fabric Communal development Network analysis and quantification Socio-economic network Conclusion

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6.1 Overview This chapter reflects on the development of the hydrological network and reevaluates planning approaches as concluded in the MSc. phase.

Fig. 160 Cluster design | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 194

How can the hydrological network be leveraged to ensure an equitable supply of water? This innovative methodology aims to assess the feasibility of centralizing water supply to transform it into a communal space for the community. Notably, the Town of Kaza, while initially developed without a focus on water supply, will serve as a pilot site for this groundbreaking proposal. The new method revolves around establishing a settlement that strategically integrates a road network developed using a data-driven hydrological network algorithm. This forwardthinking initiative aims to be applicable to similar geographical regions. By the end of this experimental research,

it is anticipated that urban planning can be revolutionized. The proposed flow network, centered around a distribution area, is expected to provide a framework for efficient water supply planning and contribute to the development of a sustainable and community-centric urban fabric. Building upon the newly created network, a different approach to land use is adopted in generating a base map for site development. The team revisits the housing system of Kaza valley, aiming to design a communitybased housing structure that uplifts the economic well-being of the local population. The socio-economic network is examined within the proposed settlement, analyzed to create an economic chain involving the society and people of Kaza.

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Fig. 161 Old town of Kaza valley

6.2 Urban fabric Introduction to old town

Min

Max

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Fig. 162 Density of old town

For further investigation into developing a hydrological network, a specific area of Kaza was chosen, separated by a river, as depicted in Figure 162. The eastern part of the town is the densest and oldest, holding its unique identity. The old town accommodates the maximum number of residents and is a highly frequented area due to numerous home stays, hotels, and commercial activities. This part of the town is directly accessible from the agricultural fields, contributing to

its dense and organic development, which has evolved without adherence to any solid principles. In contrast, the new approach emphasizes the need for fair distribution and necessitates a development based on the water network. Including all the typologies of hydrological nodes would establish a self-sustainable town, addressing the challenges posed by the existing organic development in the town’s eastern part.

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Fig. 163 Old method used for site seelction of Type C

6.2.1 Hydrological network generation The post-analysis of the distribution network revealed an uneven supply of water throughout the town. To address this issue and achieve a more even and equitable distribution, a new method was implemented. The identification of Type C sites involved examining the natural topography and depressions in the urban fabric rather than relying on available open spaces within the existing urban development.

units, specifically Typology C, and establishes a road network around these units following the direction of water flow lines. This method ensures a more coherent and efficient road network that respects the natural terrain and slope, making subsequent water pipeline analysis and installation more straightforward.

This process involved decoding space using the hydro network. The approach utilizes basic primary | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 198

Fig. 1 64 New method used for site seelction of Type C | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 199

| MArch Thesis | HydroSocial

1. Existing roads

2. Zoning

3. Catchments

4. Point generation

5. Point Density mapping

6. Densest area identification

7. Density chart for each zone

8. Possible site for Type C

9. Rationalised type C sites

6.2.2 Typology C site identification The novel approach aimed to synchronize the trajectory of urban development with the intricate network of water resources, necessitating the establishment of an equitable and just water distribution framework. This initiative sought to redefine the conventional alignment of urban growth by harmonizing it with the complex architecture of the water supply system. The process of creating a hydrological network began with a meticulous segmentation of the old town area into four distinct zones, established precisely based on the pre-existing road network. This segmentation divided the town in smaller and reasonably manageable sections. Each of these delineated zones was subjected to a thorough landscape investigation using the agent-based simulation that identifies the natural catchments. These catchment zones were then populated by points at equal distances from each other. And then the density of these points was mapped giving us the varying density of the catchments from which the densest zones were marked out. These determined catchment zones

were rationalized in order to maximize planning and site selection for the later deployment of water preservation and distribution units. The process of rationalization involved streamlining and organizing the defined catchment regions to provide discrete, controllable locations that support the placement of water preservation systems. This modelling approach aided in the identification and delineation of specific regions within each zone that naturally accumulated water, such as depressions, low-lying terrain, or places prone to gathering precipitation and runoff. This strategy divided the old town into manageable sections, identified natural catchments, mapped their density, and rationalized these regions into workable locations, laying the foundation for a strategically planned water distribution system. Its goal was to combine intentional urban development with the natural watercollecting characteristics of the land to create a more cohesive, effective, and fair water distribution system in Kaza’s old town.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 200

Fig. 165 The process identification

for

Type

site

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1. Naturally occuring catchments

6.2.3 Road network generation After each zone’s Type C preservation sites were identified, the next step was to build a road network connecting the sites while taking the natural catchment lines into consideration. At the outset, the road network was designed in accordance with the zones’ designated catchment lines. But this initial strategy was inflexible, not providing the flexibility that is essential for the best possible road design. An evolutionary algorithm was incorporated into the planning process to overcome these restrictions and improve the road network. The growth angle (the angle for the branching to take place) and street block size (distance between nodes in the network) were limited to predetermined ranges by this method. The objectives were to optimise for having minimum road network lengths, equal plot areas and minimum distance from one type C site to another. The main goal was to reduce the walking distances between Type C preservation units

and the parcels or designated areas they are connected to by iteratively optimizing the network configuration. The evolutionary algorithm operated through iterative cycles, generating diverse phenotypes or configurations of the road network. These configurations underwent evaluation based on their fitness values, encompassing criteria aimed at achieving the above-mentioned objectives. Furthermore, the bestperforming configurations were distinguished and then these setups were selected for in-depth investigation to determine their acceptability, effectiveness, and compliance with the post analysis that involved analysing for betweenness centrality of the whole network, shortest walk from one Type C site to another, and for shortest walks from each of the land parcels in each of the four zones to their respective zones’ type C site. The post-analysis results allowed us to select the most commendable road network.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 202

2. Rationalised catchments

Fig. 166 Rationalisation of catchment lines

Growth Angle (Branching) Angles depend on the flow lines

Street Block Size (Distance between nodes) Dimension depends on individual housing units

Range: 5 - 45 degrees

Range: 20 - 60 meters

Fig. 167 Genes for optimisation

the

Fig. 168 muti-objective experiment setup

Evolutionary

optimisation

Goal

To design a road network for water distribution and human circulation

Objectives

Generate a road network that follows the natural terrain while considering to reduce overall network length and have equal plots

Fitness criteria

Minimise network lengths Equalise plot areas Minimise distace from one Type C to others

Phenotype

Old town, with existing main roads and terrain

Gene pool

Growth angle (the angle for the branching to take place) Street block size (distance between nodes in the network)

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Shortest walks

Betweeness Centrality

Generation 2 | Individual 8

Minimum Road lengths : 47471.12 Minimum walj from C to C : 217 Equalise plot area : 1323.44

Shortest walks C to C : 1213.11 Parcels to C: 9538.52

Generation 3 | Individual 7

Minimum Road lengths : 45646.00 Minimum walj from C to C : 214 Equalise plot area : 1360.96

Shortest walks C to C : 964.741 Parcels to C: 10033.53

Minimum Road lengths : 47471.12 Minimum walj from C to C : 217 Equalise plot area : 1323.44

Shortest walks C to C : 1213.11 Parcels to C: 9538.52

Fig. 169 Paretofront solution and analysis | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 204

Results - Pareto front solutions

Generation 4 | Individual 8

Generation 1 | Individual 4

Generation 1 | Individual 1

Generation 0 | Individual 2

Results - Pareto front solutions

Shortest walks

Betweeness Centrality

Minimum Road lengths : 46484.65 Minimum walj from C to C : 215 Equalise plot area : 1330.81

Shortest walks C to C : 958.99 Parcels to C: 9844.67

Minimum Road lengths : 47471.12 Minimum walj from C to C : 217 Equalise plot area : 1323.44

Shortest walks C to C : 1213.11 Parcels to C: 9538.52

Minimum Road lengths : 45646.00 Minimum walj from C to C : 214 Equalise plot area : 1360.96

Shortest walks C to C : 895.45 Parcels to C: 9964.24

Fig. 169 Paretofront solution and analysis | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 205

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Results - Pareto front solutions

Shortest walks

Betweeness Centrality

Minimum road lengths 49000 48500 48000 47500 47000 46500

Generation 5 | Individual 9

46000 45500

Minimum Road lengths : 46484.65 Minimum walj from C to C : 215 Equalise plot area : 1330.81

45000 {0;1}

{1;1}

{1;4}

{2;8}

{3;7}

{4;8}

{5;9}

{6;6}

{7;5}

{5;9}

{6;6}

{7;5}

{5;9}

{6;6}

{7;5}

Minimum walk C to C 218 216

Shortest walks C to C : 889.70 Parcels to C: 9775.38

214 212 210 208 206 204

Generation 6 | Individual 6

{0;1}

{1;1}

{1;4}

{2;8}

{3;7}

{4;8}

Equalise plot area

Minimum Road lengths : 48405.87 Minimum walj from C to C : 206 Equalise plot area : 1150.79

1400 1350 1300 1250 1200

Shortest walks C to C : 1087.47 Parcels to C: 11711.10

1150 1100 {0;1}

{1;1}

{1;4}

{2;8}

{3;7}

{4;8}

SW_Parcels to Type C

Generation 7 | Individual 5

SW_Type C to C

Minimum Road lengths : 48405.87 Minimum walj from C to C : 206 Equalise plot area : 1150.79

206

12000

1200

11500

1100

11000

1000

10500

900

10000

800

9500

700

9000 {0;1}

Shortest walks C to C : 1087.47 Parcels to C: 11711.10

Fig. 169 Paretofront solution and analysis | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA

1300

{1;1}

{1;4}

{2;8}

{3;7}

{4;8}

{5;9}

{6;6}

{7;5}

{0;1}

{1;1}

{1;4}

{2;8}

{3;7}

{4;8}

{5;9}

{6;6}

{7;5}

Fig. 170 Value charts for each fitness objective and post analysis data and the selected phenotype. | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 207

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6.2.4 Parcellation Subsequently, a more intricate parcel subdivision was carried out, with a focus on plot frontage to obtain smaller and more manageable plot sizes that are appropriate for efficient urban planning. First, a range of parcel frontages from 10 to 45 meters was determined by a evaluation that included the average plot sizes in the existing urban fabric of Kaza, in addition to the plots’ depth and length measurements. After a thorough analysis, it was found that parcels with a 10-meter frontage produced a very thick fabric with oblong and elongated plot sizes. On the other hand, the 45-meter frontage plots resulted in the construction of disproportionately large parcels, which were especially apparent in

zones with a high distance between the nodes of the road network. As such, choosing the best frontage became essential to achieving a balance between fabric density and plot size. Following comprehensively, the parcellation featuring a 30-meter frontage was determined to be the best option because of the average plot area that this dimension generated, which was 408.97 square meters, for additional urban fabric development in the area that was specified. It was decided that this specific frontage would be ideal for producing smaller plots that would allow for efficient urban development without sacrificing fabric density or producing huge parcels.

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Fig. 171 Parcellation variations | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 209

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6.2.5 Land use Selection and of 30m frontage

Cell Distance: Average plot area:

30 M 40897 SQM

Fig. 172 Selected parcellation layout | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 210

Upon a comprehensive evaluation, the parcellation scheme employing a 30-meter frontage emerged as the most suitable option, generating an average plot area of 408.97 square meters. This frontage was deemed ideal for enabling efficient urban development without compromising fabric density or creating excessively large parcels. However, it’s important to note that despite aiming for smaller-sized plots, the 30-meter frontage configuration still produced

larger plots on average. Following the establishment of these plots, a strategic allocation process ensued, whereby these plots were designated for specific purposes such as residential, commercial, or homestay usage. This allocation strategy was guided by their proximity to Type C preservation sites, road networks, and the shortest accessible pathways within the settlement. A weighing process was derived which interrelated to each other to give most optimum land use.

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Type C

Roads

Shortest walk

TYPE C SITES

ROADS

SHORTEST WALKS

0.6

0.2 0.3

0.2

RESIDENTIAL

The land allocation strategy aimed to ensure that plots situated close to the shortest walking routes were specifically designated for commercial use, aiming to maximize the visibility and accessibility of business activities. By situating commercial plots along the shortest walking routes, the intent was to enhance economic viability. This approach not only increased the exposure of businesses to potential customers but also streamlined the movement of people within

Commercial

the settlement, fostering a vibrant commercial environment and promoting local economic growth. Conversely, another facet of this allocation strategy was the earmarking of plots in close proximity to Type C preservation sites for residential purposes. The rationale behind this distribution technique was twofold. Firstly, it was aimed at meeting the settlement’s existing water demands by strategically situating residential areas close to vital water preservation units. This proximity ensured that residents had convenient access to these essential water resources, contributing to improved quality of life and addressing the fundamental need for water supply. Secondly, by placing residential areas near these preservation sites, it underscored the settlement’s sociability needs by promoting the social interaction in the preservation sites.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 212

0.4

COMMERCIAL

Residential

The weightage system, as shown in Figure 173, served as an important foundation for allocating land for certain purposes inside the town. The fundamental goal of this strategic allocation approach was to maximize land usage based on plot proximity to important infrastructure features that were derived from the networking process.

0.4

0.3

0.3 HOMESTAYS

Homestay

Fig. 173 Weighing criteria for the land parcels

Min

Max

Fig. 174 Distances of Parcels from roads, shortest walks and type c sites | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 213

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Type C site

Shortest walk / main road

Type C site

Fig. 176 Details of landuse

Fig. 175 Generated land use map | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 214

Reviewing the land use diagram reveals that the weighting technique used for land allocation not only strategically assigns specific land uses to individual plots, but also provides a level of elasticity to meet any future changes. The allocation of land use may be improved to meet changing needs within the settlement by simply modifying the weights allocated to various parameters. This adaptability enables a dynamic response to people’ changing requirements, ensuring that land use arrangements stay conducive to satisfying the settlement’s developing demands. Furthermore, once finished, this methodological approach was subjected to an assessment of the

number of structures intended to be developed in accordance with this land use strategy. Remarkably, it was observed that the proposed number of units surpasses the existing structures within Kaza, as outlined in Figure 176, By designating specific areas for commercial, residential, or homestay uses, the settlement’s accessibility is improved while maximizing resource usage. This careful planning of land use patterns strives to align the settlement’s infrastructure with the changing demands of its population, allowing effective resource management and guaranteeing an ideal environment for long-term growth.

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6.3 Communal development The succeeding chapter delineates the foundational elements of the envisioned cluster, encompassing building typologies and patterns of settlement growth. It further highlights the essential factors integral to formulating the architectural structure, aiming to derive these interventions from insights obtained in prior exercises and resource assessments pertaining to the water circumstances of the town as discussed in Research Development. Fig. 177 Housing design | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 216

The design is proposed through

the incorporation of environmental and social principles specific to this location, characterized by its reliance on agriculture and tourism in a desertified setting. The findings of this research are transferable to locations exhibiting analogous contextual features. It is obtained using planning rules generated by the research team and wasp aggregations. further it is generated using multi-objectve optimization

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Load distribution

Heat convergance

Snow prevention

Seasonal distribution

Longitudinal section

Small openings

Window coverings Cross section

6.3.1 Design development The chosen architectural design for the units embraces an arch-based form, chosen due to the capabilities of the Functionally Graded (FG) block in constructing such forms. Archbased structures offer the advantage of distributing loads as a cohesive monolithic unit, eliminating the need for multiple construction elements. In Spiti’s harsh winter conditions, where achieving thermal comfort is challenging, curved wall structures,

Fig. 179 Plan & Section of a typical building unit

reminiscent of igloos, efficiently trap and direct heat towards the central space, ensuring thermal stability. Sloping walls aid controlled snow sliding, preventing excessive snow load. The two-floor layout strategically utilizes the ground floor for winter warmth and designates the upper floor as a ventilated summer space. Small openings minimize heat loss, and window coverings regulate sunlight during summers.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 218

Fig. 178 Form development

The provided housing unit exemplifies a grid-based layout, strategically placing each function according to environmental factors derived from the analysis of traditional dwellings. The rooms, following the study of traditional houses, are not only designed to be spacious but also maintain habitable conditions through the incorporation of curved walls. Social spaces, including terraces and verandahs, are seamlessly integrated into the unit’s plan, emphasizing weather resilience. The house comprises two floors, aligning with

traditional practices where the lower floor, insulated from the top and benefiting from natural ground heat, is utilized during winter. In contrast, the upper floor serves as a summer room, promoting ventilation and access to open spaces. The varying heights of the two floors cater to their respective seasonal functions, amalgamating traditional building features with contemporary researchdriven techniques responsive to socio-economic, environmental, and fabrication considerations.

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Single cell

Experiment set-up

Fig. 181 Typology table

Fig. 180 Cell aggregation building unit | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 220

translation

The modeling process for constructing these building units commenced by establishing a foundational cell, which could aggregate according to predefined rules to achieve the desired architectural form. The cells, existing in three dimensions, represented individual spaces Vertical aggregation of cells defined each floor, while horizontal aggregation represented spatial layout in the form of a plan, as depicted in the accompanying diagram. For instance, stacking two cells denoted a ground plus one floor, while stacking two cells next to a single cell indicated a terraced floor. A single cell aggregated without a cell beneath signified a stilt floor. These spatial rules governed the aggregation process. Regarding typological variation, aggregations were constrained by specific sizes and numbers, as outlined in the provided chart. These typologies were further categorized

based on privacy domains aligned with their functions. Each typology received an urban adjacency designation to inform rules for understanding the aggregated structures in an urban context. In terms of typological variation, aggregations adhered to specific sizes and numbers, as outlined in the provided chart. These typologies were then categorized based on privacy domains aligned with their functions. Additionally, each typology received an urban adjacency designation to guide rules for comprehending the aggregated structures in an urban context. The effectiveness of these adjacency rules was subsequently tested at the urban scale to ensure their applicability in larger planning contexts. The designated spatial rules for the cell were further analyzed to incorporate environmental considerations, aiming for optimal outcomes.

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Fig. 182 Aggregation adjacency rules

Upon meticulous examination of the spatial dynamics of cell aggregation and diverse typologies, the experimental setup for unit aggregation was initiated. Adjacency parameters were determined based on the privacy domain, providing insights into unit plan dynamics. Subsequently, the area allocation for each function was established, considering the type of function and its spatial requirements. A crucial aspect of this rule-setting stage involved pinpointing the grid locations for functional cells, guided by the occupancy rate study.

Living/common rooms, occupied for approximately 25% of the day, were strategically placed on the south and west sides to maximize heat gain in winters and provide convenient road access. Bedroom cells, with an occupancy rate of around 40%, were located in the south and central areas to optimize privacy and capture heat during winter. Kitchen cells, utilized about 18% of the time, found their place in the south and west sections of the grid. Toilets, with a 5% occupancy throughout the day, were positioned on the south and east. Storage and cattle areas were designated to the

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 222

Fig. 184 Fitness objectives for aggregation experiment

Fig. 183 Aggregation adjacency rules

Minimum surface area to volume ratio

Maximum solar exposure on primary blocks

Minimum wind hits

Minimum entrance distance from the road

north and east, where sun exposure was not a requirement. Circulation spaces were placed on the north and east sides, being transitional spaces without the need for natural heat. Homestay spaces were allocated to inner spaces and those on the west, benefiting from some heat gain. Commercial spaces, potentially occupied 60% of the time, were strategically placed to maximize solar exposure. Adjacency rules were established to create connections between cells, such as situating bedrooms adjacent to toilets and placing kitchens

adjacent to storage for ease of access. The experiment aimed to achieve several objectives: minimize the surface area to volume ratio to maintain thermal balance, reduce exposed surface area to outer weather to prevent heat loss, maximize solar exposure on primary habitable cells, minimize the unit’s form to avoid wind hitting the outer surface and causing heat loss, and minimize the distance between the road and circulation cells.

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Site_01 River on west Road on south

Given Spiti’s harsh seasons, the experiment necessitated the incorporation of environmental parameters to optimize the units and mitigate any environmental drawbacks in the planning process. These parameters, serving as guidelines applicable to any location, included maximizing solar radiation for primary habitable cells. Services and circulation spaces were strategically placed on the northern side to minimize exposure to extreme winds. Additionally, efforts were made to reduce frontage in the direction of prevailing winds and minimize snow accumulation. Commercial cells were positioned closer to main roads to enhance accessibility, while thermal efficiency was enhanced by minimizing surface area and designing deep floor plans for heat accumulation. Circulation cells were strategically placed for easy access, and priority was given to creating privacy for residential functions on the lower floor. These environmental rules were applied to four distinct sites, each presenting unique challenges and

considerations.

Main road on east

Site 01, situated with the Kaza River to the west and road access to the south, posed challenges in placing primary functions on the wind-exposed west facade and limiting access to roads for commercial functions on the north. Site 02, featuring road access to the east, presented challenges in balancing circulation spaces on the east with the need for commercial access on the same side.

Site_03 Junction Road on the west & south

Site 03, located at a junction with roads to the west and south, posed challenges in positioning circulation spaces to the east and limiting road access for homestay functions. Site 04, with an obstruction to the south causing shadow and reduced sun exposure, posed challenges in optimizing habitable spaces for sun exposure. Each site’s unique characteristics informed specific rules applied during the aggregation process.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 224

Site_02

Fig. 185 Design objectives

Site_04 Obstruction on south

Fig. 186 Site selection for data driven design aggregation | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 225

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Site_01 River on west Road on south

Goal

To custom design building units as per selected site and environmental conditions.

Objectives

Design units based on environmental, traditional, social and economic factors.

Fitness criteria

Minimum surface area to volume ratio Maximum solar exposure on primary blocks Minimum wind hits Minimum entrance distance from the road

Phenotype

Single cell size 5m x 3m x3m Adjacency rule

Gene pool

Solar radiation on primary blocks Wind vectors

Site_02

Site_03

Site_04

Main road on east

Junction Road on the west & south

Obstruction on south

Distance between circulation block and road

6.3.2 Aggregation design The experimentation process was initiated for each site individually, considering each location’s specific attributes to ensure comprehensive results aligned with the environmental context. These aspects were thoroughly assessed in accordance with predefined objectives, including minimizing the surface area to volume ratio, maximizing solar exposure on primary blocks, reducing wind impact on the units, and minimizing the entrance distance from the road.

To execute the cell aggregation with defined rules, a data-driven aggregation design toolkit was utilized for a multiobjective optimization experiment. The toolkit generated multiple iterations of cell aggregation, and these outcomes were subsequently refined based on environmental objectives. The experiment yielded diverse results for each site, and from these, six optimal outcomes were selected.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 226

Fig. 187 Multi-objective optimisation experiment goals and objectives table

Fig. 188 Data driven outcomes

aggregation

best | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 227

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Site 01

Site 02

Site 03

The parallel coordinate plots featured in Fig. 189 serve to exhibit the optimized results for four distinct sites, showcasing the outcomes for all four specified objectives on each site. The degree of convergence among lines serves as an indicator of maximum optimization, while greater separation between lines signifies a variance in results. The primary aim of this exercise was to yield a diverse array of optimized outcomes, tailored to the specific criteria of each site.

Site 04

Following this optimization phase, the aggregated modules underwent a transformative process, transitioning into detailed building designs. This transition involved progressing from the foundational understanding of individual cells to the intricacies of architectural conversion. Subsequently, a meticulous selection process led to the identification of a singular design for each site, a choice made with careful consideration of both structural robustness and architectural spatial aesthetics.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 228

Fig. 189 Parallel coordinate plot for unit experiment

Fig. 190 Translation of design aggregation to building unit design | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 229

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Cluster Site_01 Residential cluster

Dense cluster

Cluster Site_02 Homestay cluster

Maximum green spaces

Cluster Site_03 Commercial cluster

Maximum exposure to main road

6.3.3 Clustering Fig. 192 Cluster analysis and cluster planning diagram

Fig. 191 Land use map with site identification

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 230

In the culmination of the experiment, units were aggregated into clusters on designated land parcels, guided by a meticulous analysis of the generated land-use map, resulting in the identification of three development zones. The initial map revealed a concentrated residential presence in the first parcel, nearest to type C, forming a densely populated cluster with 20% green space. Site 02, with a majority of homestay units, situated at a distance from type C and the road, allowed for a less dense fabric and

ample green space. Site 03, adjacent to the main road, predominantly featured commercial plots, strategically aligned for direct access and incorporating approximately 30% green area. In conclusion, the experiment resulted in the formation of clusters, with specific land use considerations and development densities tailored to the unique characteristics and locations of each parcel.

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Cluster Site_01

Residential cluster

Cluster Site_02

Homestay cluster

Cluster Site_03

Commercial cluster | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 232

Fig. 193 Cluster development scenario

In conclusion, the experiment undertaken to formulate a functional and environmentally responsive cluster proved successful, culminating in the establishment of clusters on designated land parcels within the Spiti region. The research meticulously integrated foundational elements, building typologies, and settlement growth patterns, considering the complexities of water circumstances, agricultural reliance, and tourism in a desertified setting. The chosen architectural design, embracing arch-based forms, strategically addresses the challenges posed by Spiti’s harsh winter conditions, optimizing thermal comfort and load distribution. The incorporation of traditional housing principles and modern adaptations ensures a synergy between historical wisdom and contemporary

requirements. The experiment’s environmental focus, considering solar exposure, wind impact, and entrance distances, further refined the design to align with site-specific challenges. The clusters, delineated into three development zones, reflect nuanced land-use considerations, including residential, homestay, and commercial plots. The designated green spaces within each parcel contribute to a sustainable and visually appealing urban fabric. This comprehensive approach, rooted in environmental responsiveness, traditional insights, and contemporary design, provides a robust framework for the envisioned cluster, poised to address the multifaceted challenges and opportunities presented by the unique context of the Spiti region.

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Fig. 194 Old town illustration | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 234

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Fig. 195 Stress index for old town

6.4 Network analysis and quantification Based on the quantification and analysis conducted in Chapter 5.4, a reevaluation was undertaken to compare the outcomes for this new water network. In contrast to the initial experiments, the results demonstrated a significantly improved alignment and positive impact with the generation of the new network.

Fig. 196 Water quantification

The stress index, calculated based on houses served within a similar radius of 30m, indicated a more equitable distribution of stress among each typology of distribution unit. The chart illustrates a flatter trend line compared to those in previous analyses, showcasing a slightly positive outcome with this new approach. The recent proposal implemented in the Old Town, utilizing a

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hydrological network generated through algorithmic flow lines, demonstrates its significant efficacy in the development of urban fabric. Unlike the conventional method of retrofitting the distribution unit into a pre-established town, this approach proves to be more suitable and substantial for terrains with specific geographical challenges. The algorithmic flow lines offer a dynamic and adaptive framework for urban planning, showcasing its potential for creating a well-organized and contextually fitting urban environment in areas with diverse topographical characteristics. Encouraged by these results, the team proceeded to provide a detailed layout of the distribution network.

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Type A

Underground Pipe line

Type C

6.4.1 Water distribution detail The water pipeline system is depicted in the picture above, demonstrating the distribution of water from the preservation tank of Type A to the distribution tank of Type C. The preservation tank (Type A) has a maximum water holding capacity of 2,916,000 liters, supplying water to the urban fabric of the old town. Additionally, as illustrated in the figure, Type B operates independently of the other two networks, providing

self-sustainable water access for agricultural lands. The accompanying illustrations in Figure 197. showcase a section of the town featuring an underground water pipeline. Given the winter temperatures that can drop below 0⁰C, it is crucial for the water pipeline to be positioned below ground level, ensuring the system’s resilience and functionality during harsh winter conditions.

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Fig. 197 Water distribution

Distribution from Type A to Type C

Fig. 198 Distribution from Type A to Type C | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 239

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Fig. 199 Quantification of each unit | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 240

Fig. 200 Quantification of each unit | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 241

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6.5 Socio-economic network

Fig. 201 Proposed economical chain in Kaza | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 242

The primary development of the hydrological network has given rise to a chain of economic relations within the town. The highlighted road serves as the shortest path connecting all units of Typology C, functioning as a commercial thoroughfare where various economic activities converge. Commercial buildings, strategically placed along this main road and in the vicinity of Typology C, contribute to fostering economic vibrancy in the Kaza valley. Additionally, Typologies B and C are designed

with social activities that promote job opportunities. This economic network addresses historical water scarcity issues, potentially mitigating the factors that lead people to migrate away from the town. Looking towards the future, time-based activities are mapped out for socio-economic development, providing a comprehensive plan for sustained growth and prosperity in the town.

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Fig. 203 indoor activities Fig. 204 indoor activities Fig. 205 Outdoor activities in spring Fig. 206 Outdoor activities in winter

Fig. 202 Socio-economic mapping | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 244

The proposed development envisions a sustainable and longterm transformation, centered around the creation of an agricultural typology complemented by a social space for communal activities, specifically the production of blocks from agricultural products. This innovative approach places a strong emphasis on community involvement, fostering collaborative efforts at the grassroots level. The construction and development of new structures are anticipated not only to meet agricultural needs but also to attract tourism to the town, thereby stimulating the local tourism industry. With a dedicated market area and tourist attraction in Typology C, the proposal aims

to establish a foundational space for economic benefits, potentially luring back those who had migrated away. The holistic nature of this development plan is evident, as it integrates various activities and emphasizes the interconnectedness of social, economic, and hydrological aspects. In adopting a hydro-social approach, the proposal underscores the significance of water-related considerations as a primary objective within the broader framework of community development. Overall, this proposal reflects a forward-thinking strategy that intertwines agriculture, community, tourism, and economics, guided by a vision of sustainable growth and resilience.

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6.6 Conclusion The development of a hydrological network, coupled with a strategic approach to community development, has simplified the creation of an evenly distributed water distribution zone. This workflow not only enhances water accessibility but also informs a modern methodology for housing design, drawing insights from vernacular studies. The research has provided a nuanced understanding of the interaction between substantial building typologies and their locations, leading to a decentralized distribution area. This approach ensures efficient water distribution while considering the unique characteristics of each building type. The focus on the water pipeline system underscores the importance of self| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | MEHUL SHETHIYA 246

sustainability for agricultural lands, employing underground pipelines to withstand harsh winter temperatures. This practical consideration aligns with the overall goal of creating a resilient and reliable water supply system. Beyond hydrological concerns, the research expands into socioeconomic considerations, introducing a chain of economic relations. The emphasis on a commercial road and typology-based activities seeks to stimulate economic growth and address longstanding challenges such as water scarcity and migration. This integrated approach aims to create a sustainable and vibrant community in Kaza, combining traditional wisdom with modern methodologies for holistic development.

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07 | Discussion 7.1 7.2 7.3

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Workflow Reflection Conclusion

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7.2 Reflection

7.1 Workflow The research project initiated with a comprehensive analysis of the onsite challenges, with a primary focus on addressing the critical issue of water scarcity. Recognizing water as a central concern, the workflow was strategically structured to ensure a cohesive and effective solution at various scales. Beginning at the smallest scale, the team meticulously designed a building block, considering its positive attributes and inherent limitations. The constraints identified at the building block scale served as pivotal factors directing the progression to the next level – the building and structural form. The architectural and structural choices were informed by the restrictions posed by the building block, leading to the adoption of an arch-shaped building design. This design not only responded to structural requirements but also aligned with functional and architectural principles, incorporating a blend of traditional and modern approaches. To synthesize these elements into a cohesive blueprint, the team ventured into the larger urban scale, formulating an urban plan network. This network was intricately woven based on on-site information and

applied principles, providing a foundational framework for the subsequent stages. While the initial urban plan utilized existing open spaces, its limitations in optimizing water distribution outcomes prompted a reevaluation. Leveraging terrain-based analysis, the team identified sites with superior performance potential, enhancing the effectiveness of the design outcome. This iterative process, marked by continuous feedback and refinement, underscores the non-linear nature of the workflow. The research workflow, therefore, emerges as an organic and iterative progression, with insights from each scale informing decisions at subsequent levels. The dynamic interplay between the smallest building block, its structural manifestation, and the broader urban plan reflects a holistic approach, culminating in a project that systematically addresses the multifaceted challenges presented by the site. This methodology ensures that each scale contributes to the overall success of the project, resulting in a well-rounded and contextually responsive solution.

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Throughout the comprehensive exploration of Spiti Valley’s water scarcity challenges, the thesis journey has unveiled multifaceted complexities and potential avenues for sustainable solutions. The critical examination of the region’s hydrological alterations due to Himalayan glacial melt has shed light on the urgent need for viable water management systems. However, a critical reflection on the entire thesis process reveals certain noteworthy aspects. Primarily, the research undertook a meticulous analysis of the valley’s evolving hydrology, noting alarming changes that underscored the severity of the situation. This intensive investigation formed the bedrock for proposing sustainable water collection and distribution mechanisms, an indispensable step towards addressing the valley’s pressing needs. The approach undertaken during the M. Arch phase has been validated with successful results. However, it is worth considering that a similar approach could have been retrofitted into the current town scenario with minimal disruption, allowing for a thorough analysis of the outcomes of the distribution network. The results of such an adaptation might have differed from the proposal of repurposing the entire settlement for establishing new ideologies. Yet, as the development progresses, the outcomes may gradually align with similar design conditions as initially proposed. This suggests that while the immediate results may vary, the long-term evolution of the development could converge towards the envisioned design principles. Another

critical

aspect

pertains

to the thesis’s methodological approach. While the research embraced a multilayered strategy, spanning from local to global scales, and amalgamated insights from both traditional and contemporary approaches, it encountered limitations in achieving a holistic quantification and validation of architectural systems. This gap warrants an enhanced emphasis on fieldwork, physical prototyping, and empirical validation to fortify the proposed methodologies and ensure their real-world efficacy. Furthermore, the thesis navigated a transformation from a broader scope targeting the entirety of Kaza to a more localized focus on the old town region. While this shift enabled a more intricate analysis of methodologies and workflows, it may potentially limit the generalizability of findings to other areas within the Spiti valley. Thus, a critical reevaluation of the scalability and adaptability of proposed strategies across diverse settlement contexts is imperative. In conclusion, while the thesis forms a substantial groundwork for addressing Spiti Valley’s water scarcity challenges, critical reflections spotlight avenues for refinement and augmentation. Empirical validation, a reassessment of methodological approaches, and a renewed focus on scalability are pivotal to fortifying the thesis’s proposals, ensuring their relevance and applicability across varied geographical and socioeconomic landscapes within the Spiti valley. This critical reflection serves as a springboard for further research, compelling a continuous quest for robust and contextually adaptive solutions to the pressing water management issues in Spiti Valley.

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7.3 Conclusion The research journey commenced with a fundamental inquiry into the drastic acceleration of glacial retreat fueled by human-induced climate change, presenting a global concern with multifaceted consequences. This phenomenon significantly impacts regions like Spiti Valley, nestled within the Himalayan rain shadow, exacerbating water scarcity, ecological imbalances, and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Taking inspiration from the success story of the “Ice Stupas” in Leh-Ladakh, designed to address similar water scarcity issues but limited to specific locations beneath the glacier line, our thesis aimed to bridge this gap by proposing a solution focused on water collection and distribution closer to settlements rather than directly adjacent to the glaciers. “HydroSocial” emerged as our proposed initiative, aiming to tackle Spiti Valley’s pressing water demands through

the integration of sustainable water networks and water-conservationcentric urban development. Throughout our study, critical alterations in the valley’s hydrology, such as diminished snow cover, escalating Land Surface Temperatures, and the deterioration of vital conduits like Kuhls, have been observed, intensifying the gravity of the situation. While the research provided comprehensive insights into the existing conditions of Spiti Valley, these alterations have also triggered population displacement and a decline in the region’s economic stability, underscoring the urgency for sustainable solutions. It has laid the foundation for a multilayered approach to address the intricate challenges stemming from Himalayan glacial melt, emphasizing the imperative need for a sustainable water management system, necessitating

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community-driven strategies and region-specific initiatives. Initiating in the M.Sc. phase with an exploration of locally available materials and concurrently conceptualizing a network for water collection, preservation, and distribution, the thesis evolved. While the M.Sc. phase lacked a consolidated outcome encompassing quantified architectural systems as a whole, the subsequent M.Arch. phase delved deeper into these aspects. However, the experiments and proposals in the M.Arch. phase, reliant heavily on digital simulations, require further validation. They serve as a comprehensive groundwork for the thesis’s future exploration. Initially aspiring to revive the water management system across Kaza, the M.Arch. phase narrowed its focus to the old region of the town, allowing for a meticulous analysis

of methodologies and workflows. The strategies devised for efficient networking and development within the old town hold potential applicability not only to Kaza but also to other settlements within the Spiti valley. Adaptations of these strategies must align with region-specific priorities and needs, emphasizing the importance of customizing processes according to diverse contexts. In conclusion, the thesis presents a stepping stone towards addressing the critical water scarcity challenges prevalent in Spiti Valley. It beckons for continued exploration, refinement, and validation of proposed strategies and methodologies, fostering a vision of sustainable development that harmonizes human settlement with the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.

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