Shift: A Digital and Material Framework for Enhancing Seismic Resilience (MSc)
ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES
PROGRAMME
EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
YEAR 2023-2024
COURSE TITLE
MSc. Dissertation
DISSERTATION TITLE SHIFT
A Digital and Material Framework for Enhancing Seismic Resilience
STUDENT NAMES
Syeda Mushda Ali (M.Sc), Akansha Pandey(M.Arch), Sameerah Mohammed Yusuff (M.Arch)
DECLARATION: “I certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our and that my quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of other is duly acknowledged.”
SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT
Syeda Mushda Ali (M.Sc)
DATE: 20 September 2024
Course Directors: Dr. Elif Erdine
Dr. Milad Showkatbakhsh
Founding Director: Dr. Michael Weinstock
Studio Tutors: Paris Nikitidis
Felipe Oeyen
Dr. Alvaro Velasco Perez
Lorenzo Santelli
Fun Yuen
Acknowledgements
As a team, we would like to thank Dr.Elif Erdine and Dr. Milad Showkatbakhsh for guiding us throughout this course and help refine our research through the critical feedback and support. We are grateful to our course tutors Dr. Alvaro Velasco Perez, Felipe Oeyen, Paris Nikitidis, Lorenzo Santelli and Fun Yuen for guiding and sharing with us the knowledge and the insightful conversations which made us carry this project forward.
Acknowledgements - Mushda
To my late grandparents, and to my parents and sisterswithout the support and encouragement you have given, this would not have been possible.
To Aumio - thank you for your love and support and being my guiding light in good times and bad.
To my friends and seniors who cheered me on throughout this past year - thank you for the long conversations, feedbacks and guidance in all its forms possible.
To my EmTech peers - thank you for the memories.
Acknowledgements - Sameerah
To my parents for providing me with this opportunity and supporting me throughout. To my friends who always pushed me forward.
To Jerry, for always being by my side through tough times and achievements.
To my professors and EmTech colleagues for their guidance and support.
Acknowledgements - Akansha
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who supported and guided me throughout this project. Special thanks to my Professors for their invaluable insights and encouragement. I am also grateful to my team members for their collaboration and hard work.
Lastly, I thank my family and friends for their continuous support and motivation throughout this journey.
ABSTRACT
Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, faces significant seismic vulnerability due to its geological location and a presence of conflicting architectural paradigms between traditional Newari structures and modern buildings. Current explorations lack a comprehensive approach that addresses the dual challenges of preserving traditional Newari architecture while enhancing its seismic resilience. The prevalent focus on RCC structures overlooks the potential of integrating local materials and construction techniques into modern frameworks. Furthermore, there is a deficiency in urban design strategies that balance the growth of built environments with the need for accessible open spaces, crucial for effective post-disaster evacuation efforts. The thesis aims to develop a resilient housing neighbourhood in Kathmandu, with the primary objective of addressing the challenges surrounding the present seismic vulnerabilities posed by the increase in spatial density and inadequate evacuation spaces. The aim is to develop a new material system using locally sourced resources improve seismic performance and a construction framework for adaptable, incremental growth while preserving structural integrity. At the urban scale, the design utilizes risk assessment data to propose a new settlement layout that reintroduces a hierarchy of courtyards to build spaces, forming an evacuation strategy. At a morphological scale, the research develops a housing block using a methodology that integrates form-finding processes and material experimentations by exploring the properties of wood-based biocomposite. These are abstracted from seismic potentials present in Newari architecture and lifestyle. Ultimately, the form achieved enables incremental housing growth, addressing increasing spatial density while enhancing the network of evacuation spaces. The new material system not only bolsters seismic resilience but also promotes the use of local materials, fostering a circular economy and bridging traditional and contemporary construction paradigms.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
DOMAIN
2.1 The city of Kathmandu
2.2 Architecture of Kathmandu
2.3 The conflict between modern and vernacular
2.4 The Material System
2.5 Case studies
4.1 Site
4.2 Material
4.3 Morphology
5.1 Naradevi
5.2 Material
5.3 Morphology
5.4 Structure
METHODS
3.1 Cellular Automata
3.2 Spatial Analysis
3.3 Evolutionary Algorithm
3.4 FEA
3.5 NFA
3.6 Moulding/CNC
6.1 Housing units library
6.2 Aggregation rules
6.3 Library
6.4 Library growth
6.5 Site growth
INTRODUCTION
Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, stands at the crossroads of tradition and modernity, where ancient architectural heritage coexists with rapidly advancing urbanization. This research project centres on Kathmandu, a city prone to significant seismic activity, which starkly contrasts the architectural practices of the past with those of the present. The urban expansion in Kathmandu has magnified the visibility of earthquake impacts, necessitating a reevaluation of current building typologies and construction methods to mitigate property damage and loss of life. The catastrophic 2015 Gorkha earthquake exposed the limitations of traditional construction materials, such as bricks, which proved insufficient against seismic forces due to their brittle nature. This disaster underscores the urgent need for a culturally relevant, sustainable, and seismic-resilient architectural system that bridges the gap between Kathmandu’s historical and contemporary architectural identities.
This research delves into the traditional Newari architecture, particularly focusing on the extensive use of wood, as a structural element. The study aims to explore the properties of local wood and its potential application in designing buildings that can better withstand seismic activities. By also integrating locally sourced natural fibres, the composite material aims to achieve improved performance characteristics. Natural fibres offer additional tensile strength and flexibility, which can significantly enhance the composite’s ability to withstand seismic forces. The primary objective of this research project is to develop a physical and digital framework for the usage of the bio-composite material as a structural layer through the utilization of advanced fabrication techniques. The research then aims to translate the wood-based composite material into the design of a seismic-resilient housing typology for Kathmandu. The dwellings will utilize the bio-composite in an optimum manner while fostering a sustainable economic cycle between the city and the forest.
This research explores the possibility of developing a wood-based bio-composite that could have improved architectural and technical in terms of sustainability and durability. This research paper proposes a strategy regarding new earthquake-proof housing in the city of Kathmandu with the use of the bio-composite and robotassisted fabrication techniques. With this, it is essential to thoroughly understand the existing situation and the potential of the developed wood-based bio-composite elements. The integration of traditional and modern construction practices will promote cultural relevance and sustainability in urban development.
DOMAIN
2.1 The city of Kathmandu
2.2 Architecture of Kathmandu
2.3 The conflict between modern and vernacular
2.4 The Material System
2.5 Case studies
02.1: KATHMANDU CITY
02.1.1: Climate and Topography
Situated between latitudes 27°36’ and 27°48’ N and longitudes 85°12’ and 85°31’ E, the Kathmandu Valley (KV) is a rapidly urbanizing basin located within the Himalayan Mountain range. Encompassing an area of 899 km² 1, the valley hosts the districts of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur. The valley floor, predominantly flat, has an average elevation of 1300 meters and is surrounded by mountains that rise to heights between 1900 and 2800 meters.2 Notable geological features include a narrow, winding outlet formed by the Bagmati River to the south and three mountain passes, each approximately 1500 meters in altitude, situated on the eastern and western edges of the valley. This tertiary structural basin is characterized by its fluvial and lacustrine sediments, forming a distinct bowl-shaped depression with an elevated basin and plateau bordered by mountainous terrain on all sides. 2 This topographical and geological configuration highlights the valley’s unique environmental and developmental dynamics, as it continues to evolve under the pressures of rapid urbanization.
The climate of the Kathmandu Valley (KV) is predominantly shaped by the South Asian monsoon, which significantly influences precipitation patterns and wind directions. Over 80% of the valley’s annual rainfall, occurs during the summer monsoon period from June to September. In recent decades, the city has experienced notable climatic changes, including increased temperatures and altered precipitation patterns, largely driven by global climate change. These shifts have resulted in more frequent extreme weather events such as intense rainfall and prolonged dry periods. Furthermore, the rapid urbanization and increased vehicular emissions in Kathmandu have led to significant air quality deterioration, posing serious health risks to its inhabitants.
Fig. 02. Average temperatures and precipitation of Kathmandu
1. Thapa, Rajesh Bahadur, and Yuji Murayama. “Drivers of Urban Growth in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Examining the Efficacy of the Analytic Hierarchy Process.” Applied Geography 30, no. 1 (January 2010): 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.10.002.
2. Haack, Barry N., and Ann Rafter. “Urban Growth Analysis and Modeling in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” Habitat International 30, no. 4 (December 2006): 1056–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.12.001.
Fig. 01. Street map of Kathmandu
Earthquakes are a prominent global hazard, affecting numerous regions with varying intensities and frequencies. Seismically active zones, particularly around tectonic plate boundaries, such as the Pacific Ring of Fire, experience frequent and intense earthquakes. Asia emerges as the most seismically active continent with a substantial count of 3971 earthquakes, representing approximately 47.81%.3 This high earthquake count in Asia is primarily influenced by the presence of multiple tectonic plate boundaries, including the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate and subduction zones in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
The Kathmandu Valley is situated along the boundary of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates. The main Himalayan thrust, a significant seismic fault line, runs through Nepal, making the region susceptible to earthquakes. Historical seismic activity, such as the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, highlights the city’s vulnerability. The tectonic movements of the Indian plate pushing against the Eurasian plate create immense geological pressure, resulting in frequent seismic events. This tectonic setting necessitates earthquake preparedness measures, including stringent building codes and public awareness campaigns to mitigate the risks associated with future earthquakes.
Kathmandu has undergone rapid urbanization, expanding beyond its historical core into new urban zones. This growth has strained the city’s infrastructure, leading to challenges such as inadequate water supply, waste management issues, and traffic congestion. The population of Kathmandu has surged, driven by rural-to-urban migration, which has further exacerbated these challenges. As of 2023, Kathmandu’s population is estimated to be 1,571,010, with projections showing continued growth to 1,621,642 by 2024. 4 Economically, the city remains a central hub for tourism, although political instability and environmental issues have impacted its growth. Efforts are underway to improve living conditions through various infrastructural projects and urban planning initiatives. The interplay between Kathmandu’s climate, seismic activity, and urban development is complex and significant. Climate change exacerbates the city’s vulnerability to seismic events by impacting the stability of soil and built structures. Rapid urbanization, if not managed with an understanding of these risks, can increase the susceptibility of new urban zones to both climatic and seismic hazards. Therefore, integrated approaches are essential for Kathmandu’s development, combining urban planning with robust disaster risk reduction strategies to enhance the city’s resilience against these multifaceted challenges. 02.1.2:
Seismicity and City
3. Ibrahim, Mariam, and Baidaa Al-Bander. “An Integrated Approach for Understanding Global Earthquake Patterns and Enhancing Seismic Risk Assessment.” International Journal of Information Technology 16, no. 4 (March 13, 2024): 2001–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41870-024-01778-1.
4. Thapa, Rajesh Bahadur, and Yuji Murayama. “Drivers of Urban Growth in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Examining the Efficacy of the Analytic Hierarchy Process.” Applied Geography 30, no. 1 (January 2010): 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.10.002.
Main boundary thrust
Main central thrust
Main frontal thrust
Fig. 03. Fault lines in Nepal
Kathmandu
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
02.1.3: The settlement pattern
Rapid demographic, socio-political, and economic transformations have dramatically shifted the urban fabric present in Kathmandu Valley (KV). Historically, the valley was characterized through the settlement patter of compact, agricultural clusters with low population densities, surrounding religious or culturally significant monuments. However, population growth has surged significantly, with an annual growth rate of 4.3% in the past decade, peaking at 6.5% in certain Village Development Committees (VDCs).1 As of the 2011 census, the population was estimated being at 2.5 million, with projections reaching 4 million by 2020 and nearly 7 million by 2030.2 This exponential growth has created immense pressure on land resources, resulting in the rapid conversion of agricultural land into urban spaces.
From 1990 to 2012, the built-up area in KV expanded from 38 sq. km to 119 sq. km, representing a 211% increase over a 22-year period.3 The relaxation of building regulations after a decadelong insurgency and the influx of migrants seeking economic opportunities significantly contributed to this transformation. Highrise buildings, apartments, and commercial structures have rapidly multiplied, particularly in the Central Business District (CBD), where urban density has increased considerably. However, as space within the city core contracts, peri-urban areas have seen increased horizontal expansion and the formation of informal settlements.
The consequences of this unplanned urban sprawl include land degradation, fragmentation, and declining environmental quality, with growing urban poverty exacerbating socio-economic inequalities. The quality of life has declined because of inadequate urban design, with more vulnerable populations living in high-risk locations. Today, the valley’s urbanization is defined by an outward sprawl, forming an agglomeration that connects previously rural VDCs with urban municipalities, signalling a major challenge in managing Kathmandu’s rapid population growth.
2. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). National Population and Housing Census 2011: National Report. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal, 2011.
3. Muzzini, Elisa, and Gabriela Aparicio. Urban Growth and Spatial Transition in Nepal: An Initial Assessment. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2013.
Image Source : Haack, Barry. “A History and Analysis of Mapping Urban Expansion in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” The Cartographic Journal 46, no. 3 (August 1, 2009): 233–41. https://doi.org/10.1179/00087040 9x12488753453417.
Fig. 04. Expansion near Baudhanath religious site, 1967(above) and 2001(below).
1. Irwin, D., S. Basnet, A. Joshi, G.S. Dawadi, R.M. Pokharel, P. Paudyal, T.R. Adhikari, S. Duwal, B. Rakhal, and D. Tamang. 2014. Urban Growth Trends and Multi-Hazards in Kathmandu Valley. edited by A. Joshi. Kathmandu: Kathmandu Valley Development Authority (KVDA) and UNDP/CDRMP.
The vernacular housing buildings in Kathmandu valley exhibit unique characterises in it’s over all form and functionality. The geometry of the building is of symmetrical in nature with a rectangular plan that adds on to the seismic resilient factors.1 The buildings are defined by their multistorey levels with sloped roofs and a central courtyard which all together forms the key design.
The courtyard serves as the heart of the home serving as a communal space within the family or immediate families surrounding the houses to host gatherings or activities reflecting the social nature of the Newari community. Beyond its social functions, the courtyard also enhances the building’s environmental quality though light and ventilation. The open design facilitates cross ventilation throughout the buildings along with the arrangement of windows overlooking it. Moreover the courtyard enhances the climates extremities mitigating both intense summer heat and winter temperatures. 1
Fig. 05. Left: Spatial arrangement for internal thermal comfort, Right: Ventilation aiding in cooling the building1
Fig. 06. Typical plan of a Newari house plan with courtyard
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
Notable features of the house can be noticed right from the intentional placement of the main doors with lower heights, compelling the users to bow down as gesture of respect to their living space. The living space also has a humble height ranging from 1.60-1.90m to 2.50-2.90m1, optimizing both space and functionality. The floors on the ground level open up to the central courtyard or ‘chowk’.3
One of the most striking characteristics of the traditional Newari building are the huge projecting roofs. The roofs are generally inclined at an angle to mitigate the heavy monsoon experienced in the valley, allowing for quick water runoff and reducing the risk of waterlogging. They are supported primarily by tundals, carved wooden struts which sometimes serve a decorative purpose by depicting various deities and mythological figures. This sloping roof form can be seen in almost all the Newari structures including temples and palaces making the functionally performing structure a trademark of the community. 3
di Milano, A.B.C. dep. THE USE OF TIMBER INTO THE TRADITIONAL NEPALESE ARCHITECTURE , Milan, (Italy) 2 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Media Lab, Responsive Environments, Cambridge, MA, (USA)
3.
Dwelling-Its Construction Technologies and Vertical Functional Distributions. SCITECH Nepal. 15. 58. 10.3126/scitech.v15i1.49105.
Fig. 07. Typical traditional Nepali house with four floors.1
Fig. 08. Roof to wall connection 2
1. Wellman, Lisa Awazu. 2024. “Sikami Chhen, Nepal.” RTF | Rethinking the Future. February
Sandra Tonna1,Valentina Sumini2, Francesco Chillè1 and Claudio Chesi1
Politecnico
Suwal, Ram. (2021). Vernacular Newar
Fig. 09. Facade of a
The facades of these buildings which mainly face the streets are given more attention for their aesthetical appearance. Which are adorned with intricately designed and carved windows and doors. The lattice windows are smaller in size in lower floors to maintain the strength of the walls by minimizing the puncture in the wall making the building more seismically resistant, while the windows on the upper floor are larger for ample sunlight and airflow. Symmetry is achieved along a central axis on each floor, with the central window on every level with its detailed artistic works2
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
The foundation elevates the building from the ground constructed of large cobbles and brickwork binded with mud mortar, the brick work further as wall. The buildings do no have a designated column beam structure, rather are supported by walls and floors2
The walls are the load bearing elements of the building, composed of brick, the thickness varies from the bottom being the thickest at 75cm to top being thinner are 45cm to reduce the weight of the wall on the foundation walls2
The floors of the housing are composed of closely spaced joists that are covered with wooden planks and finished with approx. 10cm of fine yellow clay. These joists are supported by wooden wall planes on the walls where its held by wooden pegs. floors2
1. “Traditional Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley by Wolfgang Korn : Wolfgang Korn : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive.” 2017. Internet Archive. 2017. https://archive.org/details/TraditionalArchitectureOfTheKathmanduValleyByWolfgangKorn_201712/page/115/mode/2up.
2. Suwal, Ram. (2021). Vernacular Newar Dwelling-Its Construction Technologies and Vertical Functional Distributions. SCITECH Nepal. 15. 58. 10.3126/scitech.v15i1.49105.
3. Gutschow, N, Kolver, B. Shresthacarya, I. Newar Towns and Buildings - An Illustrated Dictionary. (Germany, Hans Richarz Publikations, 1987)
Newari building 1
Fig. 10. Foundation of a Newari building 3
fair-faced tapered bricks Regular brick for interior
Rubble/irregular bricks as infill
Fig. 11. Different layers of brick used for wall construction 3
Fig. 12. Street showcasing the Newari housings
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
02.2.2: Spatial Layout
The spatial planning of the Newari housing exemplifies the socio- cultural and practical functionality of the community. Their planning dictates a crucial establishment of functions from public to private each serving specific purposes with the needs of the users. 1
Historically with Kathmandu’s importance in the trade chapter, many Newars’ utilized the residential spaces for business, with their retail and storage situated on the ground level to leverage the street’s proximity. Today the traditions follow by utilizing the floor for commercial purposes. Additionally, the floor on the interior opens up to a central courtyard used as a ‘semi-public’ space for communal engagements.
The succeeding floor shifts from the public to private functions. The first floor (Matan), houses living rooms and sleeping quarters which maybe further divided by partition walls depending on the floor area. Above the matan, the next floor (chota) is reserved for daily functions such as cooking and sanitation. The topmost floor, is often allocated for most private and personal uses like for religious practices.
Fig. 13. Section showing the division of space 2
Fig. 14. Windows and open ground floor aiding views to the street 2 1. Singh, Ashna. “The Changing Domestic Architecture of Kathmandu Valley.” Master’s thesis, University
02.2.2: Spatial Layout
This hierarchical arrangement effectively allows the ascending floors to maximize the distance from the street level bustle. This arrangement emphases the concept of defensible space theory, coined by Oscar Newman in 1970’s which revolves around the idea that the physical environment can influence the users to control and protect their spaces and how design can enhance sense of security by creating boundaries.1
a. Clear spatial hierarchy can be identified by the placement of commercial level on lowest floor to act as a public area and privatized upper floors to establish a distinct separation maintaining comfort and privacy for the residents.
b. Semi-public division: Newman’s theory establishes the role of semi-public spaces to softer community interaction, such is reflected in the courtyards where no stranger can enter into the space abruptly and forms a boundary to engage only with immediate residents
c. Surveillance: A sense of surveillance and control is incorporated as design elements by strategic window placements and balconies usually covered with aesthetic lattice works but lets the users to monitor nearby areas, a key component of the defensible space theory
d. Territoriality: The spatial planning resonates a sense of territory and control by integrating both public and private spaces within the same building fostering a sense of safety and privacy
The residential spatial planning of Newari space exemplifies key principles of defensible space theory through its meticulous spatial organization, spatial hierarchies and integration of public and private function, The placement and use of central courtyards, elevated entries and design elements aligns with Newman’s ideas about creating spaces to enhance security, promote communication and gain a sense of ownership. This alignment highlights the effectiveness of traditional Newari design in addressing fundamental aspects of spatial security and community cohesion.
Fig. 15. Diagram of discrete defensible spaces clearly allocated to various residents and small groups of residents 1
Fig. 16. Newari housing sectional elevation showing the communal to intimate space progression
1. Donnelly, Patrick G., “Newman, Oscar: Defensible Space
02.2.3: Materiality
Fig. 17. Image showing the usage of wood and brick in a Newari housing
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
The backbone of the Newari construction includes two primary materials namely: Brick and Timber. Given its availability and ease of cost through the times it became integral to the construction and expression found in the Newari architecture.
Given the proximity, abundance, durability and functionality of timber, it is used in many parts of the housing. Timber also contributes to the building’s thermal insulation, which helps to regulate indoor temperatures, keeping the interior cooler in summer and warmer in winter. The material usage can be found in:
a. Structural framework: Timber in a skeleton frameworks supports the building with its beams and columns joined with carpentry techniques ensuring flexibility and strength. A potential advantage to withstand frequent earthquakes.
b. Roof structure: The sloped roofs covered by roof tiles hosts a timber framework carrying any loads. The timber beams and struts from the underlying support structure bear the load of the roof and ensure stability which are crucial in distributing the weight evenly and preventing any collapse.
c. Doors and Windows: The usage is highlighted in the openings which are elaborately carved windows known as Tikijhya. The intricate artistry of the culture can be observed in the detailed craftmanship on the façade of the building
Adding on the ‘lightweight’ and versatility of the material, timber is also used for staircases, railings and even furniture inside the Newari housing.
Bricks are fundamental building blocks of the structures and have been long favoured due to their robustness and durability .Given the regions experience in making handmade bricks along with ease of cost contributes to its extensive usage. The material can be identified in:
a. Walls: The bulkiness of the material provides a structural stability for the walls though it usually corresponds to brittle failure under seismic load.
b. Foundations: The buildings generally sit on a raised platform of brick to protect the structure from flooding and dampness.
c. Hard pavements: The courtyards are composed of brick pavements, sometimes in decorative patterns to create intriguing visuals.
Fig. 18. Timber frames in a Newari housing
Fig. 19. Usage of bricks walls in a Newari housing
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
02.2.4: The seismic impact
The Newari housing possess elements in terms of seismic resilience. The topic can be broadened in terms of structure and material structure.
Building configuration (uniform load distribution and minimized twisting): The traditional building plan of a Newari housing has symmetrical configuration with a rectangular plan, this allows for even distribution of seismic forces across the structure. This helps to balance the concentrated stress points most prone to structural failure. The layout allows the forces to be absorbed and dissipated uniformly. Additionally, an asymmetrical building can experience torsional movement, where the building twists around its vertical axis. The building configuration mitigates by even distribution and reducing the risk of differential movement and collapse.
Vertical load distribution (structural redundancy and out of plane failure): The primary load paths of a Newari building rely mainly on thick load bearing walls that carry the weight and distribute it from upper floors to the foundation. Presence of the multiple load bearing walls with the supporting timber structure can help carry the load even if one element fails but due to the brittle nature of brick and the increased weight of upper floors with heavy roof structures generally lead to building collapse in seismic events.
Openings (reduced load bearing): Discontinuities occur in walls with openings which can lead to stress concentrations. Poorly placed or large openings can reduce the load bearing capacity of the walls which was noted in post-earthquake assessments where buildings with large openings mainly in upper floors experiencing collapse.
Fig. 20. Center of Mass coincides with Center of Resistance1
Fig. 21. Section of Newari building showing the soft storey1
Fig. 22. Section of Newari building showing the vertical mass irregularity1
Compressive strength: 2 Mpa
Tensile Strength: 0.09 Mpa
Young’s Modulus: 1000 – 2000 Gpa
Shear Strength: 0.2 -1.0 MPa
Brick
a. Brittle nature : The material is inherently brittle in nature and has the inability to flex under stress. When the building is subjected to lateral and vertical forces, it experiences movement and deformation. It does not possess any energy absorbing and dissipating characters making it prone to cracking and breaking as it reaches its tensile strength limit.
b. Improper bonding: Many field assessments pointed in the failure of bricks mainly due to its improper bonding, Since the strength of the wall heavily relies on the quality of the mortar joints and bonding between the bricks, the walls failed leading to cracks and collapse. This also stems from poor construction practices and lack of awareness for earthquake building practices.
c. Separation of masonry units: Buildings that were built really long ago was subjected to shrinkage of bricks and mortar over time which caused differential movement between masonry units and weakening the overall structure. During a seismic event, these pre-existing weakness can be amplified, leading to further damage. The overlooking of these shrinkage can also be a potential threat due to water infiltration induced by cracks.
02.2: ARCHITECTURE OF KATHMANDU
Compressive strength: 70-140 Mpa
Tensile Strength: 51.0 – 120.7 Mpa
Young’s Modulus: 10 – 60 Gpa
Shear Strength: 3 -15 MPa
Timber
a. Flexibility: Timber has a higher degree of elasticity compared to brick, which can absorb and dissipate energy more efficiently. This allows the structure to deform with the movement without collapsing, providing a higher degree of safety.
b. Lightweight: A major analyses discovered was buildings collapsing due to the heavy weight of roofs and brick elements, given the natural ability of timber to be less heavy minimized the stress loads throughout the structure decreasing the likelihood of differential settlement.
c. Joinery: Due to dynamic seismic forces joints experienced unusual stresses leading to separation and given the age of the structures, added forces can further weaken the joinery.
Fig. 23. Section of Newari building with brick layers highlighted.
Fig. 24. Section of Newari building with weak points of timber layers highlighted.
02.2.4: The seismic impact
Fig. 25. Images of post disaster of Ghorka 2015 earthquake1
1. Kathmandu Valley, post 2015 Earthquake ; A J Ghani
02.3: THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE MODERN AND VERNACULAR
02.3.1:
In terms of Architecture
The increased job opportunities and better amenities in the city of Kathmandu resulted in huge influx of population, (National Population and Housing Census, 2011) coming to the city in search of a better life. The inundation of migrants has put a massive strain on the infrastructure of the valley, creating major lackings in accommodation. The housing sector has taken a huge hit and lack of proper housing facilities makes the city vulnerable to damages from earthquake, indicating a need for a strengthened infrastructure to accommodate the growing population.
In response many construction companies started investing in the housing sector. A new building typology has emerged which is altering the spatial arrangement of the residential architecture. The typical Newari house which earlier accommodated one family is now transforming into multiple housing units where lower floors are used for renting. The people who usually rent these units are migrant workers – who rent these houses till they can buy their own homes (Singh,2019).
This has resulted in a new spatial dynamic, where multile families live within the same block and people expand their homes once they buy their own homes. A typical family in Kathmandu consists of grand parents, parents and grand children all living under the same roof. Typically the property gets divided between the children, resulting in uneven distribution of spaces which are not structrally viable. (Singh,2019)
02.3:
As Kathmandu sits on a seismic zone, destruction resulting from earthquakes is inevitable. Now with the extensive use of materials like RCC in construction, the vernacular architecture is being replaced by RCC blocks covering the entire city scape. The global identity that RCC buildings are better equipped to handle earthquakes is making the locals shift towards RCC construction (Pant,2018). The idea is so deeply rooted in Nepalese society that in Nepali language the old vernacular houses are called Kachha Ghar meaning temporary or frail house, and on the other hand the RCC houses are called Pakka Ghar meaning permanent or sturdy houses. (Singh,2019).
02.3.2: In terms of Socio-Economic values
1. Pant, Shaswant, Newari architecture in Kathmandu: ‘Old and weak’ buildings are also part of heritage.
2. Ashna Singh, 2019 The Changing Domestic Architecture of Kathmandu Valley
Fig. 26. Vernacular buildings1
Fig. 27. Modern buildings1
02.4: MATERIAL SYSTEM
02.4.1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN URBAN AND NATURE
For centuries, the inhabitants of Kathmandu relied on renewable bio-based resources such as wood and crops for construction and agriculture, maintaining a balanced and sustainable relationship with their natural environment. This equilibrium was disrupted by the onset of industrialization, which introduced dependence on fossil fuels and non-renewable materials like metals and minerals. This shift not only contributed to environmental degradation but also exacerbated seismic challenges, as traditional bio-based materials were replaced by more rigid and resource-intensive alternatives such as steel and concrete.
A paradigm shift towards using wood and bio-composites in Kathmandu’s construction industry presents a multifaceted solution to current challenges. It offers a pathway to enhanced seismic resilience, reduced carbon emissions, and economic selfsustainability. By leveraging local timber resources and community forest management, Kathmandu can revive its natural construction heritage while addressing the pressing needs of modern urban development. This shift not only aligns with global sustainability goals but also ensures a resilient and economically vibrant future for Kathmandu.
Van der Lugt, P., & Harsta, A. (2020). Tomorrow’s timber: Towards the next building revolution (1st ed.).
02.4.1:
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN URBAN AND NATURE
Locally found hardwood exhibits several properties that make it highly suitable for construction. Given the seismic vulnerability of the city, the mechanical strength of the material can play a vital role. Hardwood has natural flexibility which helps absorb and dissipate energy, reducing chances of failure. (Conrad, 2023) The reduced mass of hardwood structure results in lower inertia during earthquake. High strength to weight ratio of hardwood can help enhance the structural integrity of buildings, enabling them to endure seismic forces more effectively than heavier material. (Timber Council, 2022)
In addition to its mechanical properties, hardwood sourced from sustainably managed local forests offer environmentally friendly alternate to the currently used materials as wood has the ability to hold carbon for it’s entire life duration and can help generate the bio based economy.
Locally Available Self sustaining economy
Low carbon footprint Mechanical Stregnth
Light weight
02.4: MATERIAL SYSTEM
Nepal’s timber supply is predominantly derived from governmentmanaged, community, and private forests. The promotion of a local timber industry offers the potential for creating a self-sustaining economy and improving the livelihoods of rural communities. The forests in Kavrepalanchowk, located near Kathmandu, are particularly promising for timber production. Kavrepalanchowk’s extensive community forests could serve as a major source of construction timber for Kathmandu. (Saxena et al,2022)
Sustainable management of these forests and practicing silviculture would ensure a continuous timber supply while maintaining ecological balance. By engaging local communities in forest management and timber production, it is possible to generate employment, empower rural populations, and promote sustainable forestry practices that benefit both the environment and the economy.
1. Alark Saxena et al., ‘Opportunities and Barriers
Fig. 28. Forests of Nepal2
Fig. 29. Forests around Kathmandu
SHIVAPURI
Type: Hardwood
Local name: Sal
Scientific name: Shorea robusta
Use: frames for doors and windows
Growth: 60-70 years
Type: Moderately hardwood
Local name: Gobre Salla
Scientific name: Pinus wallichina
Use: Fuel wood, timber
Growth: 30 years
Type: Hardwood
Local name: Chilaune
Scientific name: Schima wallichii
Use: frames for doors and windows, railway sleepers, buildings, fence, beams
Growth: 30-50 years
Type: Moderately softwood
Local name: Utis
Scientific name: Alnus nepalensis
Use: General carpentry, light construction
Growth: small timber can be harvested in less than 10 years
Type: Softwood
Local name: Pate Salla
Scientific name: Pinus patula
Use: Firewood, timber posts, pulpwood, shade and ornamental
Growth: 25-30 years
02.4: MATERIAL SYSTEM
Nepal is one of the significant producers of jute which grows mostly in the terai region. Although, it has decreased in production in recent years, it still remain a important industry promoted by the Nepalese government. With the world increasing moving towards a sustainable living, jute has regained its importance. Jute can offer sustainable alternate to traditional building materials and at the same time is more cost effective than importing synthetic materials. It’s usage in bio-composites can help replace synthetic composites like plastic and glass, making them more environmentally sustainable while also supporting the local economy. (Sharma, P & Bhandari, 2021).
Jute is a major agricultral product and use of jute as a construction material can enhance the production and provide employment to the community. Integrating jute into construction in Kathmandu offers both environmental and economic benefits, promoting local production while contributing to sustainable and resilient building practices.
1. Sharma, P., and A. Bhandari. “Applications
Fig. 31. Jute producing areas in Nepal2
With a long history of use in the construction industry, jute plays many roles, bringing to fore it’s many properties that makes it a desirable constituent of our bio-composite.It’s a natural fiber which is easily biodegradable, has a high growth rate and very short processing time.
It’s high tensile strength, with moderate elasticity make it ideal to be used as a load bearing element. It retains a relatively good degree of stiffness despite being a natural material. Jute has a high moisture absorption rate; this allow us to make it flexible when required and on drying, increases stiffness as needed. It exhibits good impact resistance while being lightweight and having low thermal conductivity; this makes it an ideal choice for insulation while also being able to handle sudden compressive forces due to blasts. (SpringerLink, 2022; Textile Engineering, 2023)
02.4: MATERIAL SYSTEM
For biocomposites, potato starch with jute and other natural fibers aims to produce a product with good mechanical properties. Both jute fiber and starch are hydrophilic materials, and therefore their molecules contain hydroxyl (– OH) groups, which facilitate the formation of hydrogen bonds between the reinforcing material and the theoretical distribution of mechanical stress in the material, and improves bonding, while starch provides a cohesive matrix for activation
Silica is commonly used as a reinforcing agent to improve the performance of biomaterials thermally treated with potato starch. When embedded in potato starch matrices, the silica particles increase the thermal stability of the material by forming strong interactions with the starch polymer chains These interactions interfere with starch molecules, generating heat with increased thermal degradation.
Because potato starch is a natural polymer, it is not very thermostable, which limits its use at high temperatures. The addition of silica improves the heat resistance of the material. Silica acts as a thermal insulator and shares the initial breakdown temperature by providing uniform thermal absorption throughout the composite. Moreover, the silica particles form a more rigid frame within the starch matrix, which further prevents deformation under heating.
S.
Das, S. Basak, H. Baite, M. Bhowmick, S. Debnath, A.N. Roy, Jute fibre reinforced biodegradable composites using starch as a biological macromolecule: Fabrication and performance evaluation, International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, Volume 273, Part 1,2024,132641, ISSN 0141-8130,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132641.
Azevêdo, Luciana & Rovani, Suzimara & Santos, Jonnatan & Dias, Djalma & Nascimento, Sandi & Oliveira, Fabio & Silva, Leonardo & Fungaro, Denise. (2021). Study of Renewable Silica Powder Influence in the Preparation of Bioplastics from Corn and Potato Starch. Journal of Polymers and the Environment. 10.1007/s10924-020-01911-8.
Potato starch1
Silica2
Latex3
Derived from rubber tree sap, natural latex provides excellent elasticity, flexibility and flexibility. Latex when added to jute fibers acts as a binder enabling the composite to be soft, strong and durable
The interaction between natural latex and jute fibers creates a composite material that preserves the strength of jute and greatly increases its flexibility Latex covers jute fibers, fills voids and reduces fiber weakness, and it makes it soft and strong.
Soy protein4
Soy protein is a natural binder that can enhance the tensile strength of natural fibres. It also contains amino acids that can for form strong hydrogen bonds with hydroxyl groups in natural fiber cellulose. The interfaces between these materials allow for better performance under tension. Furthermore the material maintains the essence of biodegradability in terms of material development. The protein with fibre compatibility can thus output a product with good tensile strength and flexibility in a sustainable manner.
Kumar, S (Kumar,
; Lal, S (Lal,
; Jagdeva, G (Jagdeva,
; Arora, S (Arora,
; Kumar, P
; Soni, RK
R.
; Kumar, H (Kumar,
; Kumar, S (Kumar, Sunil) ; Panchal, S
Azevêdo, Luciana & Rovani, Suzimara & Santos, Jonnatan & Dias, Djalma & Nascimento, Sandi & Oliveira, Fabio & Silva, Leonardo & Fungaro, Denise. (2021). Study of Renewable Silica Powder Influence in the Preparation of Bioplastics from Corn and Potato Starch. Journal of Polymers and the Environment. 10.1007/s10924-020-01911-8.
Narendra Reddy, Yiqi Yang, Completely biodegradable soyprotein–jute biocomposites developed using water without any chemicals as plasticizer, Industrial Crops and Products, Volume 33, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 35-41, ISSN 0926-6690, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2010.08.007.
Sumit)
Sohan)
Geetanjali)
Sanjiv)
(Kumar, Parvin)
(Soni,
K.)
Harish)
(Panchal, Suresh)
02.4: MATERIAL SYSTEM
02.4.4: BINDERS
Linseed oil is generally used as binding agent in bio materials for its natural polymeric properties. When combined with natural fibre like materials, it helps to bind with other materials collectively to form a composite. The oil includes triglycerides that undergo polymerization, which hardens upon exposure to air or warmth, growing a long lasting and flexible matrix. The porosity of a natural fiber is filled with the oil, creating a strong bond with good mechanical properties in terms of strength, flexibility and moisture resistance.
The construction industry in Kathmandu is a major contributor in increase of carbon emissions. By shifting towards a bio based economy Kathmandu can substantially reduce its carbon footprint and at the same time tackle the resilience to earthquakes by the use of wood. This approach aligns with the principles of a bio-based circular economy, (Van der Lugt & Harsta, 2020) that reduces waste and promotes recycling and reuse. In this model, materials are sourced from renewable biological processes, and products are designed to be easily repaired, repurposed and then composted or converd to biomass at the end of their life cycle.
Creating this model in the ecosystem of Kathmandu, can help mitigate the reuse of material in a post disaster sinario or can be repurposed as frames or furniture otherwise. The aim to set this cycle is to minimise environmental impact and create a close looped system where waste is reduced and resources are cycled back into the economy.
1. Van der Lugt, P., & Harsta, A. (2020). Tomorrow’s timber: Towards the next building revolution (1st ed.).
Fig. 32. Shows the Life Cycle of the material used in the research
Designed as a reconstruction project in Nepal after the 2015 Earthquake, the Khumjung secondary school showcases how local skills and materials can be translated into a community-driven project.
The structure comprises an easily deployable timber module. Two of these modules can be stacked to attain the height of a single-story building. The module serves as the primary structure of the building, with walls filled with materials available locally such as stones, and even the rubble or debris collected from buildings damaged by the earthquake. The stone infill also acts as an insulation layer in the harsh climate. The project combines traditional masonry and modern engineering techniques to enhance structural integrity and earthquake resistance.
The project demonstrates an example of hybrid construction. The architect engages the community by considering their needs, skills, and availability of resources while also developing a module that is tested structurally in Japan to understand the level of seismic resilience it can provide. The timber framework caters to a certain degree of flexibility and ability to absorb seismic forces. In addition, the elevated plinth acts as a base isolator reducing the risk to seismic activity.
The limitations posed by the project are the nature of the materials used and the associated maintenance cost in such extreme climates. The stone used is site-specific and may not be suitable for use in urban areas. Moreover, the stacked timber module allows for easy expansion in a horizontal span but does not provide any scope of expansion in the vertical direction.
Architect: Shigeru Ban; Year: 2010; Location: South Korea
Located in South Korea, the project provides potential ways to use timber elements in a lattice structure using a more technological approach to traditional timber joinery and assembly practices. The roof structure is built of a complex, interlocking system of timber beams that provide the scope of featuring large spans and open spaces. The interlocking laminated timber elements form a lattice shell structure that provides structural integrity.
21 columns, each 14m in height, support the rectangular roof span based on a square grid. Owing to the height and possibility of “buckling” – the columns are composed of individual members which are glued together to form one timber column. The circular hollow timber columns support a double curvature roof surface leading to beams with complex geometries. The traditional scarf and halving joints are used to resolve the lattice timber shell to be produced in a manner that would increase bending stiffness of the structure while also simplify assembly.
The geometric and modular configuration - systemically extracted using parametric design processes allows for the identification of clear load paths, distributing them evenly across the structure. The design process involved integration of new computational software that would allow design to optimize material usage and testing of multiple load cases at multiple points. The parametric design approach also provided ease in the assembly and fabrication process of the structure. As each beam segment was designed individually to fit into the structure and required to be produced multiple times – digitally produced templates set the outline for the prefabrication strategy.
Though the project reveals the potentiality that lies in using advanced design methods merging with traditional aspects of timber design –it also reveals the necessity of the skillset and logistics required to construct such a project to adapt in different geographical contexts. In addition, additional treatment may be required for the applicability of timber elements in double curvature alignment in terms of tackling humidity and exposure to extremes of temperature. Although material usage is optimized, the amount of timber required is still significant – which highlights the challenge of proper utilization of local materials. Although the parametric approach allowed to test the lattice structure for 30 load cases – there is no clarity of load testing carried out for seismic resilience. Such testing could further challenge the design complexity and engineering techniques required – which would also impact the time required to construct such an assembly.
Fig. 34. Fabrication of roof structure, perspective and column section (clockwise)
Located in Iquique, Chile the social housing project proposed by the government is an initiative to provide affordable and scalable housing to the residents of Quinta Monroy. The project is designed to contain expandable housing units with initial low-cost construction and integrates a participatory design process. The housing model outlines the concept of providing “half a good house”: an approach in social housing that addresses the spatial layout foremost on the primary needs while also planning for future growth.
Two types of expandable house designs are laid out: the units at the ground level and elevated units. Arranged around four courtyards, 13 blocks of 93 houses are mass-produced following a modular design arrangement. Residents can add self-built extensions to the constructed structures to sustain their spatial needs.
The primary structure is built upfront from concrete –with walls built using cement bricks. Both act as durable and seismic resilient materials. The internal framework is constructed of timber - as non-load bearing structures.
The project lays out the potential of incremental development –portraying the addition of spaces only when necessitated by the residents. This allows for residents’ exposure to an arrangement of units in both a horizontal span (ground floor units) and vertical units (elevated units). However, the project is challenged heavily due to a lack of guidance in such a manner of growth. Inconsistency in material usage and quality assurance in future expansion is compromised because of the way the residents expand their units. The surrounding open public spaces and courtyards become points of contention, limiting access points and proper areas for evacuation.
Fig. 35. Initial ‘parallel housing’ buildings and house typologies of Quinta Monroy
Source : Carrasco, S., & O’Brien, D. (2021)
Belapur Housing
Architect: Charles Correa; Year: 1983; Location: Belapur, Navi Mumbai, India
Belapur Housing addresses the housing needs of low-income families in Navi Mumbai. The project revolves around community living and incremental growth, providing an adaptable framework where residents could expand their homes as their resources permitted.
The design integrates public spaces, such as courtyards, which are key elements of the cluster. The housing units are organized in clusters of 7 or 8 houses around shared courtyards. Correa emphasized the importance of privacy by creating a hierarchy of spaces, moving from public communal spaces to semi-public shared spaces, and finally to private home areas. These spaces allow for communal activities, natural ventilation, and lighting, improving the overall quality of life for residents. Materials such as brick and concrete were used to keep construction costs low, while maintaining durability and integration with the local context.
The cluster-based layout with shared courtyards promotes social interaction, creating a strong sense of community while optimizing land use. In cities where urban density is a challenge, such a layout could provide communal spaces that improve quality of life while ensuring efficient use of limited land. The emphasis on shared spaces aligns with traditional communal living practices in the Indian subcontinent, presenting this housing typology as culturally adaptable. Resident-driven expansions as such may compromise the structural integrity of the houses if not properly regulated. In a seismic zone, such unregulated expansions could introduce significant safety risks.
Fig. 36. Belapur housing, (clockwise) , Axonometric View, Plan and after construction phase.
RAFA - Additive fabrication of components from waste wood
10.2023
-
09.2025,
Ongoing Research, University de Kassel
The ongoing research by the department of “Experimental and Digital Design and Construction” at the University of Kassel is focused on using waste wood as a construction material, in a broader effort to reduce construction waste. The use of waste wood and robotassisted additive manufacturing to create building components paves the way for achieving precision in the design of custom components. By repurposing waste wood, the project aims to reduce construction waste and promote the notion of a circular economy.
The previously developed material formulations using waste wood particles and enhanced with biogenic binders could create a pasty material that can be used for additive manufacturing. The material was successfully transitioned into new circular construction applications, which could serve as a supplement or as an alternative to 3D concrete printing. By avoiding addition of non-biodegradable additives, the components could also be reused, thereby creating a closed material cycle.
The challenges in the research for real-world architectural applications lie in scalability for larger construction modules, and in ensuring the quality and performance of the material during processing and fabrication. The technical complexity in the fabrication process also adds a layer for implementation in multiple regions.
Fig. 37. Fabricated modules from waste wood composite. Source : University de Kassel Website
Reflection and Potential
Each of the projects studied presents innovative approaches to sustainable and resilient architecture, yet they also expose critical challenges and areas for improvement. Khumjung Secondary School’s integration of traditional and modern techniques provides a culturally sensitive yet resilient structure, but the remote location complicates logistics and consistent quality control. The Clubhouse at Haesley Nine Bridges illustrates the potential of laminated timber in seismic design, but the associated cost and need for specialized skills may limit broader applicability. Quinta Monroy’s expandable housing model addresses immediate and long-term housing needs, fostering community involvement; however, ensuring structural integrity during resident-driven expansions remains a significant challenge. Similarly, Belapur Housing, offers a contextual model of incremental growth and community-based design, but its unregulated expansion processes lead to inconsistencies in material use and structural quality. The RAFA project offers a pioneering approach to utilizing waste wood through additive manufacturing, presenting a sustainable alternative to conventional materials, yet faces hurdles in material consistency, scalability, and broader industry adoption.
A resilient architecture framework can be extracted from each project’s strengths while mitigating individual challenges. As a starting research ground, integrating the expandable housing concept from Quinta Monroy with the advanced load-concentric design of the Clubhouse at Haesley Nine Bridges could provide affordable, resilient housing that adapts to residents’ changing needs. Utilizing RAFA’s additive manufacturing techniques to produce custom, modular components from waste wood for these expandable units could further enhance sustainability, reducing reliance on new timber and minimizing construction waste. Khumjung Secondary School’s approach to blending traditional and modern methods, along with Belapur Housing’s focus on community spaces, could be employed to ensure these modular components are culturally appropriate and easily integrated into various local contexts.
02: DOMAIN CONCLUSION
The unique geographical location of Kathmandu Valley, coupled with its rich Newari architectural heritage, presents both opportunities and challenges, particularly in the context of seismic resilience. The traditional architecture of the valley, characterized by its compact, courtyard-centric design, offers insights into the environmental resilience and community cohesion. However, pressures of rapid urbanization, population growth, and modern construction practices have disrupted these traditional systems, leading to issues such as land fragmentation, environmental degradation, and heightened exposure to seismic risks.
Current explorations lack a comprehensive approach that addresses the dual challenges of preserving traditional Newari architecture while enhancing its seismic resilience. The prevalent focus on RCC structures overlooks the potential of integrating local materials and construction techniques into modern frameworks. An inherent conflict between the use of traditional materials like wood and brick and modern construction techniques is identified, emphasizing the need for an design approach that integrates the strengths of both. Furthermore, there is a deficiency in urban design strategies that balance the growth of built environments with the need for accessible open spaces, crucial for effective postdisaster evacuation and rescue efforts. Through case studies, the possibilities of modular, adaptable housing systems that can evolve with the needs of the population while maintaining structural integrity are also demonstrated.
With this understanding in mind, the team proposes the following question –
Can we propose a new design configuration that will address the lack of seismic resilience in Kathmandu by mitigating the dense growth, redefining the spatial language, while focusing on using local materials, through a modular framework that adapts from a pre to post disaster situation?
Through 03 design scales the research would aim for the following :
Site Scale: Design an urban layout that would address density while ensuring adequate evacuation areas.
Architectural Scale: Design a building morphology that would accommodate a multitude of housing hierarchies.
Material Scale: Explore the potential of developing a strengthened wood-based bio-composite using local resources.
METHODS
3.1 Cellular Automata
3.2 Spatial Analysis
3.3 Evolutionary Algorithm
3.4 FEA
3.5 NFA
3.6Moulding / CNC
03: METHODS
03.1 : CELLULAR AUTOMATA
Cellular automata (CA) is a computational method that can be used to simulate emergent patterns in architecture. By applying simple rules to a grid of cells, complex, evolving forms can be generated for the emergence of a hierarchy of spaces, where the overall structure emerges from the interaction of individual elements.
CA is used as a growth algorithm at both the site and morphology scales. A custom C# script is created inspired by Conway’s Game of Life to generate a grid on an urban site, with cells being defined as either built or unbuilt spaces. The script initializes the grid with a certain built ratio, which dictates the proportion of cells that start as “built” (alive). The grid is further influenced by predefined “courtyards” - areas that must remain unbuilt (dead cells). Over several iterations, the code applies rules similar to those in Conway’s Game of Life: a built cell with too few or too many neighbours become unbuilt, while an unbuilt cell with exactly three neighbours becomes built.
To achieve a housing morphology where differing spaces need to be achieved while maintaining specific design rules, the growth algorithm applied through CA can assist in designing the variable nature of space formation and the pattern they grow in.
03.2 : SPATIAL ANALYSIS
The theoretical meaning of space adjacency follows the principal that spaces inside a building are interconnected, creating a delicate and intricate connection structure around which the design evolves.
This concept aligns with the computational methods of magnetizing floor plan generator, where an algorithum generates layout on the basis of evacuation plans and corridor structures. In this case each room is an entity with connects to the main access corridor. Rooms are added iteratively, adhering to functional requirements and algorithumic constraints. This algorithum usually considers metrics like the numbers or total area of room placed.
Space syntax magnetizer focuses on the relationships between spaces, helping designers optimize the functionality and accessibility of spaces. It allows designers to simulate how spaces attract or repel each other, creating dynamic layouts based on specific design criteria. Following this logic can help our team generate iterative floor plans for different housing layouts, where the relationship between spaces change depending on the size and generations of people living together. Also it can help us generate layouts with quick access to the main corridor leading to the exit.
03.3 : FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
03.4 : NATURAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
Finite element analysis is employed to evaluate the structural performance of the morphology. The software enables to simulate force fields and principle stress lines, providing an understanding of the force distribution throughout the structure. Analysing the forces, areas of stress concentration can be highlights which gives a crucial insight to identify optimal locations to integrate the secondary structural framework. This strategic placement can efficiently use to absorb and dissipate energy lessening the stress on the structure.
The project utilizes ANSYS founded by John A. Swanson for comprehensive structural analysis in terms of seismic resilience. By employing natural frequency analysis, ANSYS’s inbuilt capability to perform modal analyses is leveraged, identifying the structures frequency impact on concentrated parts. This analysis finds potential resonant frequency that could amplify seismic effects, allowing the form to develop in respect to earthquake resistance. Additionally, ANSYS’s static structural is also used to assess the various stress, strains, displacements and internal forces under loads to ensure the structures capability to withstand loads without compromising integrity. The software is also primarily used simultaneously with form finding to derive and refine the results to ensure an optimal design performance.
03.5 : MULTI-OBJECTIVE EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHM 03.6 : MOULDING AND CNC
The use of a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm allows for the design to be analyzed through multiple iterations to obtain a balanced result, especially when it involves contradicting design criteria or objectives that need to be met for the final design layout. In the urban scale experiment, the algorithm would be designed to provide the most feasible layout for the built and unbuilt areas with relation to risk assessment obtained from mapping existing layers. Secondly, the algorithm would be designed to formulate a network layout in terms of courtyard and vehicular and pedestrian pathways in terms of evacuation strategies for seismic events and proximity between residential clusters. In the cluster scale, the algorithm would be designed with relation to climatic performances of the building morphology, maximization of spatial arrangement, and allowance of incremental growth through the various modules while maintaining structural integrity.
The moulding of biocomposite materials using CNC involves creating a precise CAD model of the desired product, which is then translated into a toolpath for CNC machining. This allows for the production of an accurate mould with details. The biocomposite, in its initial batterlike form, can easily fill all nooks and corners of the mould. CNC’s precision ensures that the mould can be adjusted computationally to meet design specifications.
The research development phase involves a systematic approach to understanding the current urban context and associated seismic hazards in Kathmandu. It begins with the overlay and analysis of maps that assess the city’s present conditions and risk factors, providing a broad understanding of the spatial and environmental challenges at hand. Moreover, this phase also focused on formulating the programmatic layout that would drive form finding experiments, through extraction of design principles and present spatial requirements of residents. Concurrently, the research progresses into experimental setups designed to evaluate various mechanical and environmental factors pertinent to the proposed wood-based bio-composite material. These experiments are critical in determining the material’s suitability for seismic resilience, focusing on tests that measure its structural integrity, durability, and performance under specified loads and other forces. The results would help inform and refine the computational experiments being carried out for form finding and structural stability.
RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Site
4.2 Material
4.3 Morphology
To identify a suitable site for the proposal of seismic-resilient housing, it was imperative to analyse the interplay between the city’s landscape and its urban configuration. This analysis aimed to pinpoint an intervention area appropriate for the design initiative. A comprehensive study was undertaken, involving the superimposition of various maps to examine the numerous layers—both geographical and built—relevant to assessing seismic risks. It was crucial to ensure that the selected site not only avoided any identified risk zones but also provided a stable groundwork to address the urgent issues of urban density and the necessity for a new housing typology. This proposed typology would effectively bridge the divide between the historic and contemporary sections of the city, serving as a precedent for resilient and sustainable growth for the residents of Kathmandu city.
Kathmandu city lies along the Bagmati River and its extensive network of tributaries, which have influenced the city’s growth and urban layout. The primary road network of Kathmandu, which forms the spine of the city’s transportation system, is strategically developed along these waterways, ensuring connectivity between different parts of the city. Complementing this layer are the secondary road networks, which penetrate deeper into residential and commercial areas, facilitating local access and mobility.
Over time, the built-up area of Kathmandu has expanded significantly, radiating outward from the densely populated inner-city core, which houses many of the city’s historic and cultural landmarks. The dense core areas of the city, particularly within certain wards, have reached densities as high as 1,181 p/ha.1 This expansion reflects the pressures of population growth and urbanization, leading to the development of new residential, commercial, and infrastructural zones in the outer periphery regions. This outward growth, however, has not been without challenges, as it must continuously adapt to the geographical and environmental constraints posed by the river system and the city’s topography, including considerations of flood plains, landslide-prone areas, and other risk factors associated with natural disaster.
during
http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep01315.
1. Bajracharya, Amit, Pragya Pradhan, Poonam Amatya, Bhagawat Bhakta Khokhali, Sabina Shrestha, and Arif Hasan. “Planning for Affordable Housing
Densification in Kathmandu: Lessons from Four Settlements.” International Institute for Environment and Development, 2015.
Urban sprawl has driven the change in land use, with built up areas increasing threefold between 1990 and 2012. 1 Housing trends in the valley depict class-based gated communities, decay within the historic core areas, and rapid unplanned development in peripheral areas. Four types of settlements were identified from research spread across the city of prominently contrasting patterns.
Naradevi is located adjacent to the core of the city, laid out in the traditional settlement pattern with hierarchy of courtyard system. The area exhibits a high density of 2,112 people per hectare. The compact nature of traditional buildings has proven inadequate to accommodate the growing spatial demands of residents, leading to an increase in building height and reconstruction efforts. While the original street grid pattern has been partially preserved, the traditional architectural homogeneity has been altered due to vertical expansion using modern materials. This has resulted in narrower streets and darker courtyards as building heights have increased, with most structures now reaching up to five stories.
Sankhamul, the oldest informal settlement in the eastern part of Kathmandu, is one of 13 such settlements along the Bagmati River. This settlement exhibits a density of 377 people per hectare. The area is characterized by a linear layout, with a single row of houses extending along the entire length of the settlement adjacent to the river. A paved road separates this informal settlement from the formal developments to the east. Initially consisting of single-story temporary structures, residents have gradually converted these into permanent reinforced concrete (RCC) buildings, with horizontal expansion into surrounding open spaces.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.11.006.
01 NARADEVI
02 SANKHAMUL
1. Chitrakar, Rajjan Man, Douglas C. Baker, and Mirko Guaralda. “Urban growth and development of contemporary neighbourhood public space in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” Habitat International 53 (April 1, 2016): 30–38.
03 KHUSIBO
Khusibo is a land pooling project initiated as a government proposal and is situated on the outskirts of the city’s main urban core. The area has a density of 1,046 people per hectare. The land readjustment project, guided by the existing infrastructure, transformed former agricultural fields to accommodate urban expansion by implementing a concentric layout with roads at regular intervals. Approximately 70% of the plots were reorganized into regular sizes, while 21% of the land was developed into roads. Many buildings in the area are reinforced concrete structures. However, violations of building regulations have permitted vertical expansion, resulting in numerous buildings reaching multiple stories.
04 CHABAHIL
Chabahil is a settlement that gradually developed on former agricultural land because of population growth spillover. It is located adjacent to the ring road that encircles the main urban core of Kathmandu and has a population density of 410 people per hectare. Due to the significant amount of vacant land, the area’s density is anticipated to increase. The primary impetus for housing development in Chabahil is its proximity to the revered Pashupatinath Temple and its adjacent conserved forest area, both recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The area has experienced unplanned growth, leading to the emergence of irregular and non-linear roads. Consequently, housing has been constructed in a disorganized manner, lacking a coherent pattern and making navigation through the settlement difficult.
04.1.3: Landscape and Risk Assessment
The Kathmandu valley hosts the districts of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur. The valley floor, predominantly flat, has an average elevation of 1300 meters and is surrounded by mountains that rise to heights between 1900 and 2800 meters. 1 The contour maps of the city, alongside the slope analysis map indicate the central and lower elevation areas, where the contours are more widely spaced (marked red on the slope analysis map), representing the valley floor where most of the city’s built-up area is concentrated. The outer region of the city shows higher elevation and steeper slopes – indicative of the extent to which the city’s growth has expanded and thereafter constrained.
1. Haack, Barry N., and Ann Rafter. “Urban Growth Analysis and Modeling in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.” Habitat International 30, no. 4 (December 2006): 1056–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2005.12.001.
During seismic events, liquefaction results in water-saturated soils losing their structural integrity, leading to higher levels of damage to buildings and infrastructure. The central and southern parts of Kathmandu city, identified as high-risk zones on the liquefaction susceptibility map, are particularly vulnerable due to their location on the flatter valley floor. This area, characterized by water-saturated sediments, is inherently more prone to liquefaction, especially around the riverbanks. The convergence of flood-prone areas and liquefaction zones within the city underscores the combined risks present, rendering these regions exceptionally susceptible during seismic activity. The inner core of Kathmandu, where traditional architecture and high-density development are most concentrated, faces significant seismic hazards. In contrast, the eastern and northern peripheries, where urban expansion is underway, are increasingly at risk of becoming flood-prone, further complicating the city’s vulnerability to natural disasters. 1
1. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Urban Development, Kathmandu Valley Development Authority, United Nations
Overlaying the four settlements—Naradevi, Sankhamul, Khusibo, and Chabahil—on liquefaction and flood-prone maps reveals the specific vulnerabilities faced by each site. Slope analysis indicates that Chabahil, situated near the city’s hilly outer edge, is the only settlement located on steep slopes, while the other three sites are on relatively flat terrain within the central part of the city. Sankhamul, located along the Bagmati River, lies within a ten-year floodplain and is at significant risk of erosion and flooding during the monsoon season. Khusibo, positioned on the western edge of the city near the Bishnumati River, a tributary of the Bagmati, is highly susceptible to liquefaction and is at risk of flooding during a 100-year return period. Similarly, Chabahil, although moderately susceptible to liquefaction, faces a flood risk due to its proximity to another tributary, the Dhobi Khola River. In contrast, Naradevi, located near the inner core of Kathmandu, is in a zone of moderate liquefaction susceptibility. However, the direct seismic risk in Naradevi is exacerbated by its dense settlement pattern and unplanned growth.
The selected site for moving forward with the design is Naradevi, identified as a low-risk zone through its alignment with risk maps, offering the potential for developing a culturally sensitive yet new housing morphology. Naradevi represents a traditional settlement type that distinctly reflects the spatial hierarchy characteristic present in the Nepali architecture. This hierarchy, initially imposed through the grid pattern surrounding the Durbar squares, historically accommodated members of the higher caste system. Originally, the tightly clustered residential blocks comprised three to four-story buildings facing either open courtyards or the streets. A similar stratification is evident in the layout of major open spaces and broader streets, all of which converge towards the Durbar squares, with the rest of the site becoming more compact and denser.
In recent years, Naradevi has experienced vertical densification due to population influx, with additional floors being added to traditional dwellings. This vertical expansion, coupled with the lack of maintenance of aging structures, has heightened the area’s vulnerability to seismic events and fire hazards. Moreover, the narrow streets and increasingly inaccessible routes leading to courtyards, often passing beneath deteriorating traditional homes, exacerbate the risks posed by earthquakes. These conditions underscore the urgency of developing a resilient architectural framework that respects Naradevi’s cultural heritage while addressing its contemporary challenges.
NARADEVI
The research was defined with the material aim that intended to develop a wood-based bio-composite with a high strength-toweight ratio, enhanced ductility, and effective energy dissipation while maintaining durability and environmental sustainability.
The research bases the material system primarily on sawdust and jute. Both materials showcase notable characteristics that possess a potential for developing a composite material in conjunction with the material aim.
04.2.1: MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Fig. 38. Properties of jute and sawdust
Fig. 39. Material aims and respective binders
01. Aim: To find optimized balance between adhesion and water resistance in the bio-composite.
Blend sawdust and jute fibres in a 4:3 ratio followed by latex and potato starch in a 2:1 ratio.1
Procedure:W
1. Weigh and mix sawdust and jute fibres in the specified ratio.
2. Prepare a binder mix of latex and potato starch.
3. Thoroughly combine the fibre blend with the binder mix.
4. Mold the mixture into test samples (e.g., small bricks or tiles) and cure at room temperature for 24 hours.
02. Aim: To increase thermal stability and water resistance while maintaining flexibility in the bio-composite.
Blend sawdust and jute fibers in a 3:2 ratio followed by latex, soy protein and silica in a 2:1:1 ratio. 1
Procedure:
1. Weigh and mix sawdust and jute fibers in the specified ratio.
2. Prepare a binder mix of latex, soy protein, and silica.
3. Thoroughly combine the fiber blend with the binder mix.
4. Mold the mixture into test samples and cure in a controlled environment (humidity-controlled chamber) for 48 hours.
03. Aim: To maximize durability and adhesion in the biocomposite for structural stability.
Blend sawdust and jute fibers in a 3:3 ratio followed by latex, soy protein and silica in a 3:1 ratio 1 .
Procedure:
1. Weigh and mix sawdust and jute fibers in the specified ratio.
2. Prepare a binder mix of latex, soy protein, and silica.
3. Thoroughly combine the fiber blend with the binder mix.
4. Mold the mixture into test samples and cure under heat (60°C) for 24 hours.
(1) Oldakowski, Anna Maria, and Manya Singhal.
04.2: MATERIAL
1. Compression Test
To apply load to the composite samples in a specified thickness and size to check for moments of deformation or crack.
Method:
To apply various loads to the composite samples. Record the force at which the sample deforms or cracks.
Analyse stress-strain curves to determine compressive strength.
2. Bending stress test
To subject the composite to a three-point bending test to check measure the strength and flexibility under various loads.
Method:
The composite is placed on two end supports. Load is applied at intervals.
Analyse the materials response to return to its original state.
3. Water loss or Gain
To test the effect of water on the swelling or shrinkage of the composite sample.
Method:
Measure and record the original weight and dimensions of the sample. Submerge samples in water for 24 hours, then dry and re-measure the weight and dimensions.
Calculate percentage change in weight and dimensions.
4. Thermal test
To test the effect of the composite to resist or insulate against heat transfer.
Method:
Subject the material to heat on one side. Place an ice pack on the other side. Record the state of the ice pack melting.
04.3: MORPHOLOGY
04.3.1: ARCHITECTURAL ABSTRACTIONS
Kathmandu’s housing sector faces numerous challenges, as the increasing population compels residents to settle in areas increasingly vulnerable to environmental and seismic hazards. The research aims to address these issues by examining the spatial needs of the local population and proposing a refined approach to the design of the housing morphology.
The objective is to develop a resilient housing form that accommodates the city’s rising population density while ensuring that the proposed structures remain culturally sensitive, structurally stable, and adaptable to future growth. The study draws upon principles of Newari architecture, extracting design elements that enhance seismic resilience, and integrates these as key design guidelines for the new form. Furthermore, an analysis of existing family typologies and demographics informs the design of spatial configurations that would effectively balance population density while preserving necessary open spaces.
vertical courtayards
04.3.1: ARCHITECTURAL ABSTRACTIONS
Plan: symmetry
Plan: Street adjacency
Plan: Egress route
The design principles are extracted in two manners from the existing Newari architecture. The language of spatial organisation and the cultural aspects that define them.
The Newari houses show linearity as the functional spaces are stacked one above the other in a vertical manner throughout the three to four storied structures. From the practice of traditional layout and construction, as well as current building codes, buildings which are symmetrical in plan and elevation are deemed to be more seismic resilient. In certain cases, a strict sense of proportion is maintained through the organisation of square or rectangular spaces. The buildings are courtyard centric with at least one side having a direct access to the adjacent street. The built forms themselves also act as intervention zones between the more public street to the private hierarchy of internal courtyards.
The most common built form in the city is the General buildings, which defined as per the Nepal Building Code are buildings which are 01 to 05 stories or below 16m in height (1). This height constraint is deemed to be optimal in reach for emergency egress and rescue efforts. Observed through the cultural lens, the Nepalese society is composed of multi-ethnic groups, with some preferring joint family structures. Urbanization and changing economic activities have led to a shift from joint to nuclear families in urban areas. According to a recent survey (2), around 70% of families in Nepal belong to nuclear families (less than 06 members) and the rest 30% belong to large joint families (above 06 people). Spatial requirements have adapted accordingly with permanent houses being divided up to provide smaller rental units. According to the NLSS 2010/11 (3), the average dwelling size in Kathmandu Valley is approximately 50sqm. The understanding of these quantitative data is further refined when setting up a library for units catering to different family sizes in the following part of the research.
(1) “Nepal National Building Code.” Ministry of Urban Development. Accessed September 16, 2024. https://moud.gov.np/pages/nepal-national-building-code.
(2) Rai, Dewa Kumar. “Changes of Family Structure in Nepal.” DMC Journal 8, no. 7 (December 31, 2023): 73–79. https://doi.org/10.3126/dmcj.v8i7.62432.
(3) “Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/11: Statistical Report-Volume Two.” Accessed September 16, 2024. https://nepalindata.com/resource/NEPAL-LIVING-STANDARDS-SURVEY-2010-11---STATISTICAL-REPORTVOLUME-TWO/.
Fig. 40. Abstractions from Newari architecture
Section: symmetry
Section:
connecting spaces
Plan: Courtyard to courtyard connection
04.3: MORPHOLOGY
04.3.2: STRUCTURE
Use of ring beams can be observed in seismic regions around the world, it helps in preventing overturning of walls by providing outofplane strength and stiffness. The rings also works to tie the leaves of multiple-leaf masonry walls to prevent separation. It showcases a improved performance in seismic structures in its inelastic range, retaining the load bearing capability while also being able to undergo deformation without collapsing1
The project aims to abstract this ‘ring beam’ features into the design. By introducing a curve in the corners the column and beams connect together to a form a vertical ring frame that can be fixed to a central column. This approach improves the performance of the structure under seismic loads and also connects with the wooden structures already observed in Newari housings
Fig. 41. Traditional timber ring beam reinforcement1
Fig. 42. (Left) stiffening ring beams; (middle) independent corner brace attached to the wall with wedges; (right) partial ring beam at the corner1
Fig. 43. Abstracted vertical ring beam and column for a modular frame
1. Javier Ortega, Graça Vasconcelos, Hugo Rodrigues, Mariana Correia, Paulo B. Lourenço, Traditional earthquake resistant techniques for vernacular architecture and local seismic cultures: A literature review, Journal of Cultural Heritage,
Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) highlighted the importance of reinforcing building corners in his treatise *De re aedificatoria*. He suggested strengthening these areas by thickening the walls with pilasters.2
Given the inherent flexible nature of timber, joints utilizing timber solely are more effective in withstanding seismic loads compared to ‘fixed joints’3. During a seismic event, the energy generated is absorbed and dissipated through friction within the joints, reducing the impact on the overall structure. This method relying on the exclusive use of timber joints can be widely seen in Japan, where many buildings have survived earthquakes over the centuries. Apart from the seismic advantage, timber only joints provides practical advantages like ease of assembly and disassembly, making repairs and modifications simpler and also it mitigates the issue of rust commonly seen with conventional nails and bolts.
1. “Traditional Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley by Wolfgang Korn : Wolfgang Korn : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive.” 2017. Internet Archive. 2017. https://archive.org/details/TraditionalArchitectureOfTheKathmanduValleyByWolfgangKorn_201712/page/115/mode/2up.
2. Javier Ortega, Graça Vasconcelos, Hugo Rodrigues, Mariana Correia, Paulo B. Lourenço, Traditional earthquake resistant techniques for vernacular architecture and local seismic cultures: A literature review, Journal of Cultural Heritage, Volume 27, 2017, Pages 181-196, ISSN 1296-2074, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2017.02.015.
3. “Fibre to Fibre: Japanese Timber Joinery.” n.d. Fp-Corporatewebsite-Prod.azurewebsites.net. https://www.fosterandpartners.com/insights/plus-journal/fibre-to-fibre-japanese-timber-joinery.
Fig. 44. Assembly of posts, lintels and beams in a Newari housing1
Fig. 45. Four way Mortise and tenon joint
Fig. 46. Half splice joint
Fig. 47. Mortise and tenon joint
The design development phase of the project advances through the application of different computational methodologies, specifically cellular automata and evolutionary algorithms, to craft a site layout that resonates with the intricate urban fabric of Kathmandu. This phase involves the generation of 3D morphologies within a specific grid, incorporating courtyards that reflect the traditional spatial dynamics of the city. Concurrently, the research focuses on the development and potentials of a wood-based bio-composite material, combining wood and jute fibres, to enhance seismic resilience. The integration of this new material into the architectural design aims to establish a sustainable and culturally responsive framework, addressing the critical demand for earthquake-resistant construction practices in the context of Kathmandu, while bridging the gap between traditional and contemporary building practices.
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
5.1 Naradevi
5.2 Material
5.3 Morphology
5.4 Structure
05.1: NARADEVI
05.1.1: SITE GROWTH ALGORITHM
The design experiment commences with outlining the site boundary and dividing it into a grid of 20x20m, followed by populating the area with circles, each having a radius of 30 meters. This specific radius is selected to adhere to the strategic requirement of maintaining the standard evacuation distance from any enclosed space to the nearest open area. The centres of these circles serve as reference points for establishing the center of primary courtyards or evacuation centres, which are instrumental in the subsequent stage of defining a growth pattern using Cellular Automata for urban design.
The implementation of a regular grid, with consistent cell sizes, facilitates the systematic organization and precise calculation of areas, thereby enhancing the understanding of the potential growth patterns and scale within the site.
SITE AREA
1,13,511 sqm
CIRCLE PACKING
EVACUATION CENTERS
28 possible points
05.1.1:
The rules for aggregation used to populate the grid on the site can be foremost defined by the CA rules of reproduction, survival and death applied to the grid on site, extracted from Conway’s Game of Life.
These rules are then used to create a custom CA logic to populate the site. The courtyard cells (circle centres) are set to be the starting cells, and the built cells are populated surrounding them within the set boundary curve. The rules are maintained in a manner so that the iterations can produce a higher density of built(alive) cells as the algorithm proceeds and reach and maintain the set footprint ratio.
1. SEARCH RANGE
Starting cell and search neighbours
2. POPULATE
Create Built Cells around the court/open space cells
3. GROW
Populate to meet target built footprint area
A circle with a radius of 30 meters encompasses 21 cells, collectively covering a total of 8,400 square meters. The footprint ratio, determining the proportion of built versus open space, is designated to vary between 50% and 70%. With a built ratio of 50%, 10 cells would be designated for buildings, resulting in a constructed area of 4,000 square meters. According to local code, which allocate 18 square meters per person for a house, this built area could accommodate approximately 222 individuals. To serve this population, two cells (800 square meters) would be designated as communal open space, while five additional cells (2,000 square meters) would be allocated as evacuation zones.
05.1: NARADEVI
05.1.1: SITE GROWTH ALGORITHM
The iterative CA algorithm allows for differing urban growths on the site, however due to its stochastic nature, a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm with specified objectives is set to the produced iterations to better facilitate and rephrase the spatial growth on the urban scale.
The MOEA is setup taking into considerations the parameters that should be put forward to maintain a layout that would cater to both predisaster and post disaster situation at site. Built spaces are to be extracted in such a manner that would deviate less from the targeted built ratio for the desired density on site, while also ensuring that the evacuation spaces are accessible from all ends. The perimeter to area ratio of the building clusters is also maintained at a low ratio to minimize the impact of lateral forces from seismic waves, by making sure there are reduced number of isolated structures or singularly spread built cells. A shortest walk computation was set to minimize the necessary road and pedestrian network connecting the main built area to the primary evacuation zones while ensuring better connectivity.
FO_4 and 5 MINIMIZE ROAD LENGTHS for both vehicular and pedestrian access
The pareto fronts showed the optimized results from the simulation and assisted in narrowing down the site layout that would help attain the desired density in the design and spatial layout of the evacuation areas. Phenotypes performing better in maintaining high density created a limit in providing accessible open spaces. Three optimized individuals were selected for further analysis with priority being given to phenotypes that achieved similar built to open area ratios on the site.
FO_1 MAINTAIN BUILT RATIO
FO_3 MINIMIZE ISOLATED STRUCTURES
FO_2 MAXIMIZE ACCESSIBILITY
FO_4 MINIMIZE ROAD LENGTHS
05.1: NARADEVI
05.1.2: POST ANALYSIS
Generation 5 Individual 18
Build:Open = 40:60
Build Area = 44,800sqm
Open Area = 64,800sqm
Generation 35 Individual 5
Build:Open = 36:64
Build Area = 40,400sqm
Open Area = 69,200sqm
Generation 36 Individual 23
Build:Open = 42:58
Build Area = 46,800sqm
Open Area = 64,000sqm
The three chosen individuals showed similar build to open area ratio. Using network and environmental analysis, the aim was to select the final optimized individual which could be carried forward for further development. In network analysis, betweenness centrality is a measure of how often a node (or cell, in this context) will act as a bridge along the shortest path between two other nodes. A higher betweenness centrality (red nodes) suggest that a node is crucial for facilitating connections or movement between other nodes in the network.
Taking the average centres of the build forms as origins and the open spaces as destination, an analysis on the individuals showed that Gen5Ind18 showed an increased presence of scattered red nodes showing better connectivity amongst multiple points of origins and destinations through the attained vehicular and pedestrian path.
Generation 5 Individual 18
DirectSunHours = 1314 to 4212 hours
Generation 35 Individual 5
DirectSunHours = 1314 to 4120 hours
Generation 36 Individual 23
DirectSunHours = 1314 to 4255 hours
The massing layout of Generation 5 Individual 18 proposes higher solar exposure supporting passive heating during Kathmandu’s cold winters, while strategic shading can prevent summer overheating. Its 40:60 built-to-open ratio balances high-density housing with open spaces crucial for community interaction and evacuation zones, addressing both urban density and seismic resilience. The areas of lower wind velocity(blue color) in the central parts of the layout could protect residents from excessive wind exposure, creating comfortable living conditions and reducing potential heat loss in winter.
Through the simulations and subsequent analysis of the selected phenotype is Generation 5 Individual 18 - to be further developed as the site obtains a build area of 44,800 sqm. An initial number of 492 units to be housed within this site is targeted as per density that can achieved following local building codes.
The project focuses on developing a material system to replace the traditional walls used in Newari vernacular housing. This effort aims to address the shortcomings of conventional materials, which are prone to failure due to their brittle nature and improper bonding techniques. Since they are utilized as load bearing elements, during a seismic event the walls experience immense pressure and leads to structural collapse.1
To overcome these challenges, the project seeks to create a new material system that will enhance wall performance. The proposed bio composite material will be designed to address several critical factors: strength, bonding efficiency, flexibility, thermal insulation, and water resistance.
The composite is developed by exploring locally available materials with complementary physical properties that can work synergistically. In particular, hardwood sawdust and jute fibre are being investigated as potential components for creating this new composite material. By combining these materials, the project aims to harness their individual strengths to produce a composite, each result informing the next experiment.
Fig. 48. Material aim
1. Dipendra Gautam1, 2, Hugo Rodrigues3 Seismic vulnerability of vernacular Newari buildings in Nepal: observations and analysis of damage due to 1934, 1988, 2011, and 2015 earthquakes
05.2.1: PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS
Preliminary experiments were carried out on a small scale to identify effective additives and binding agents that work well with each other. Various combinations of linseed oil, liquid latex, silica, potato starch, and soy protein were tested with jute and hardwood sawdust being fixed components. The tests involved adjusting both fixed and variable parameters across different ratios and processing steps to determine which combinations provides the best results.
05.2.1: PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS
05.2.1: PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS
The various experiments performed provided a foundation of binders and ratios that work together. Moving on to the next stage focusing on removing moisture content from the materials, the experiments were subjected to baking.
Experiment
Experiment
EXTRACTIONS
The initial experiments demonstrated that the composite material developed mold growth when exposed to water. To address this problem, linseed oil was introduced as a binding agent to enhance the cohesion of the mixture, which had previously been prone to crumbling when dry or without any liquid.
Subsequent experiments involved incorporating linseed oil with various binders and additives to determine their effects on the material’s stability. Additionally, the proportions of the fixed components, namely sawdust and jute fibre, were adjusted to explore their influence on the composite’s properties.
The use of liquid latex in combination with other binders and additives produced inconsistent results, with some mixtures forming undesirable lumps. However, in the third experiment, a formulation was identified that exhibited improved cohesion and stability. This successful mixture was then subjected to a baking process to remove excess moisture, which resulted in the sample hardening and demonstrating enhanced structural integrity.
Experiment number 8 was scaled up to a larger mould measuring 40 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm. The same mixing procedures used for the smaller modules were followed, but the increased quantity of materials led to problems with binding, resulting in the formation of lumps. Despite applying the baking process, the larger samples remained unstable, exhibiting crumbling and cracking.
Fig. 49. Material making process
Fig. 50. (Left) top view, (right) side view
05.2.3 MODULE 2
Consequent experiments were conducted using an uniformly sized box mould of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm. This adjustment aimed to achieve more reliable results and subject to further testing.
C1
C2
C3
C4
C6
C1
C3
C2
C4
05.2.4 LOAD TEST
Experiment selection:
Experiments C1 and C2demonstrated very poor compressive strength, while experiment C3, although not showing the best compressive performance, exhibited a degree of elasticity and did not experience brittle failure. Experiments C4 and C6 were able to withstand greater forces compared to the other materials. Based on the observed results, the research selected experiments C3, C4, and C6 for further testing, as they indicated that a higher percentage of starch yielded the optimal material properties.
C5
C6
05.2.5: BENDING TEST
Experiment size
Span: 30cm
Width: 7cm
Height: 2cm
The three experiments chosen from previous tests were subjected to a three-point bending stress evaluation. For this, the samples were resized appropriately to undergo the bending test. During the testing process, each experiment was subjected to incremental loading, and the degree to which they returned to their original shape after the load was removed was carefully observed.
Experiment C4 exhibited significant deformation and ultimately broke halfway through the application of the loads, indicating poor resistance to bending. In contrast, experiment C6 demonstrated superior performance, returning to its original position much more effectively than experiment C3, which showed less recovery from deformation.
C4 observed breakage
05.2.6 WATER ABSORPTION TEST
The procedure involved recording the material’s initial weight, submerging it in water for 24 hours, and then weighing it again before drying for 12 hours and measuring the final weight. The observed absorption shrinkage percentages were 5.93% for C3, 6.40% for C4, and 11.95% for C6. These results indicate that Experiment 1 showed the lowest water absorption rate, making it the most effective in minimizing water uptake among the three tested materials. Therefore, C3 is identified as the best-performing experiment in terms of water absorption resistance.
C3
C6
C4
The three experiments demonstrated varying thermal properties. In C1, the temperature showed a gradual decrease with a slight rebound, indicating moderate thermal stability. C2 exhibited a significant drop in temperature over time, suggesting the material has high thermal conductivity and dissipates heat quickly. C3 displayed an initial increase in temperature, peaking before eventually decreasing, which suggests the material initially absorbs heat before stabilizing. Based on these observations, C3 appears to possess the best thermal properties, as it shows a robust response to temperature changes and maintains stability after initial fluctuations.
Comparing all the experiments, C6 performed well consistently and was chosen as the final material
C3
C6
C4
05.3: MORPHOLOGY
05.3.1: GROWTH ALGORITHM
The scale of architectural design is exploited at the morphological scale by developing the housing typology. The design abstractions are carried forward to be used as parameters in the computational phase of exploration. A custom CA logic is developed to be used as a growth algorithm for the aggregation of modular units to a block scale. The produced iterations were thereafter streamlined through a multi objective evolutionary algorithm as per set fitness objectives to achieve a form that could accommodate a target set of housing units that would cater to the different family types.
CELL SIZE
08 x 08 x 2.7m
GROWTH AREA
40 x 40 x 13.5m
1. SYMMETRY Built cells across XY axis
3. TRANSITION Void cells as open spaces
2. COMPACT Target built footprint area
4. CONNECTIVITY Constant cells for
CELL STATES
GROWTH RULE STATES
In alignment with the grid dimensions established on the site, a 40x40m bounding box subdivided into 8x8m cells is utilized as the foundational grid. With accordance to the building code standards, a five-storey building is proposed to maximize the volume and floor area of the housing units. Considering the necessity for seismic resilience, cell states are carefully defined, and specific rules are implemented to warrant overall structural integrity. Symmetry within the block is maintained by centrally positioning the core and courtyard cells, thereby allowing built spaces to be systematically aggregated along the X and Y axes. Core cells are well extended along the Z axis to facilitate vertical transitions between floor levels. Built spaces are densely arranged within the designated boundaries of the bounding box to achieve a targeted footprint ratio. To promote efficient circulation and wind flow through the form, void cells are proposed as transitional elements between levels or as elevated courtyard spaces intended for semi-public gatherings within the housing block.
05.3: MORPHOLOGY
05.3.1: GROWTH ALGORITHM
The bounding block can originally accommodate 125 cells or units. As the algorithm progresses with the set rules, the CA produces complex morphologies that are not innately understood due to their emergent nature. Thus, a multi-objective evolutionary algorithm is set up to systematically analyse, evaluate and optimize the forms following objectives that would align the form towards a desired outcome.
Since the CA aims to populate the bounding box at an increasing goal to meet the target built ratio objectives are set with the intention of optimizing the form that would allow for maximum density while also maintaining environmental comfort. This would also allow for strategic placement of the void cells – allowing built cells within the form to be exposed to maximum sun and wind exposure.
Experiment Set-up
Generations: 50
Individuals Per Generation: 100
No. of Genes: 04
Number of Fitness Objectives: 04
FO_1 MAXIMIZE FLOOR AREA achieve housing density
FO_3 MAX SUN PENETRATION reduce shadow on ground
FO_2 MINIMIZE SA/V RATIO achieve thermal comfort
FO_4 MAXIMIZE WIND CIRCULATION increased porosity in form
05.3.1: GROWTH ALGORITHM
05.3.1: GROWTH ALGORITHM
Maximum Floor Area
Generation 15 Individual 5
Build:Void = 64:61
Floor Area = 4096 sqm
Court Area = 64 sqm
Max Sun Penetration
Generation 45 Individual 4
Build:Void = 32:93
Floor Area = 2048 sqm
Court Area = 320 sqm
05.3.1: GROWTH ALGORITHM
Minimize SA/V ratio
Generation 7 Individual 5
Build:Void = 32:93
Floor Area = 2048 sqm
Court Area = 704 sqm
Max Wind circulation
Generation 82 Individual 44
Build:Void = 62:63
Floor Area = 3968 sqm
Court Area = 64 sqm
The highest-ranking individuals are identified from each objective and further analysis conducted with a priority being given to the floor area achievable for each individual block of the 40x40m grid.
05.3: MORPHOLOGY
05.3.2: POST ANALYSIS
Maximum Floor Area
Generation 15 Individual 5
Minimize SA/V ratio Generation 7 Individual 5
Max Sun Penetration
Generation 45 Individual 4
Max Wind circulation
Generation 82 Individual 44
Environmental analysis on the selected individuals presented the stark difference in how the aggregation of the cells at different levels impact the thermal comfort and wind circulation through the extracted form. Direct sun hour analysis for the individuals depicted the clustering of the built cells along the first two levels allowed for more sun penetration to the lower levels and interior spaces of the form, whereas the opposite effect of more dense shadow levels was observed in the forms which had built forms spread out more in the higher levels. In contrast, the forms that showed improved wind circulation were the ones which were more porous and had more void cells present at the lower levels.
05.4: STRUCTURE
05.4.1: OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM
Two of the best-performing morphologies were selected for further analysis, after which an optimization algorithm was applied. The purpose of this algorithm was to achieve a structurally resilient building capable of withstanding various loads and stresses.
Drawing from previous research, vertical ring structures were incorporated into each module of the design. The aim of this integration was to create a final form that not only minimized displacement under external forces but also optimized material usage.
FO_2 OPTIMISE HARDWOOD optimising hardwood material
05.4.1: OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHM
The pareto fronts produced optimised structures performing well under stress loads. To validate this observation, two optimized structures were selected for further analysis using modal testing. This analysis aimed to examine the dynamic behavior of the structures under seismic conditions, to understand how forces are distributed and how the designs perform under such stresses.
05.4: STRUCTURE
Due to the presence of a single column connected in only two directions, displacement became concentrated in that specific region. This concentration of forces is highly unsuitable in an seismic event, where the nature of seismic forces tends to target the weakest links across a structure, thus eliminating it from being a possibility FO_1
Gen13Ind0
Displacement = 0.054692cm
Weight = 405340kg
Gen3Ind5
Displacement = 0.021427cm
Weight = 544134kg
Gen11Ind4
Displacement = 0.275506cm
Weight = 498897kg
Gen6Ind3
Displacement = 0.404534cm
Weight = 436227kg
A modal analysis was conducted in symmetry conditions to understand the modes of the structure. Structure 1 has a significantly lower displacement in the fundamental mode, meaning it is likely to experience less motion during an earthquake in this critical mode. Structure 2 has a slightly lower displacement in Mode 10, but the difference is small compared to the significant difference in the first mode. Structure 1 is chosen as the final frame, primarily because it has much lower displacement in the critical first mode which generally indicate less demand on the structure benefitting for seismic performance.
Gen13Ind0: Structure 1
Gen3Ind5 -Structure 2
51. Final structure through evolutionary optimization 05.4:
05.4.2: POST ANALYSIS
Fig.
Fig. 52. Framework detail
05.4.3 FRAMEWORK DETAIL
The design utilizes Japanese joinery techniques for the framework, which provide significant strucral benefits. Considering the modularity feature of the morphology, this method apart from enhancing structural integrity by improving resistance to seismic loads also facilitates quick assembly. Which is highly advantageous in a in post-disaster scenarios, where damaged components can be quickly replaced, ensuring efficient rebuilding efforts.
Additionally The framework incorporates an extrusion on the horizontal frames, for the non structural panels to be easily slid into place aiming to improve efficiency and practicality
Fig. 53. Exploded view of the 8x8 module framework
06: INCREMENTAL GROWTH
6..1 HOUSING UNITS LIBRARY
A library of housing units is created to efficiently accomodate different family demographics within the same morphological framework. The concept of incremental growth focuses on the flexibility and scalability in housing design to accommodate families’ expanding spatial needs over time. Housing units are divided into 03 typologies. Housing for a family of four, housing for a family of six and housing for a family of eight.
6.2 AGGREGATION RULES
Aggregation rules were established from abstracted design principles in regards to the placement of housing units.
The family of 08 housing unit holds 03 generations of a family, and so to facilitate ease of access for elderly residents these housing units were placed on the lower floors, while housing units for nuclear families - or a family of 04 were allocated to the higher levels.
The multilevel open areas served as informal meeting spaces for adjacent families, fostering community interaction within the building blocks.
Residents receive allocation into in sequence of populating the core modules in the 40x40m square, the 40x20m L and 40x20m I shapes placed on the site level allowing for future expansion. Structural supports and connections for second-story extensions are prefabricated into the design to manage unpredictability and ensure seamless growth when needed.
Fig. 54. placement of core
Fig. 55. Larger units at the bottom
Fig. 56. Smaller housing units on top
Family of four is the nuclear family - consisting of a couple and their children, in a 2BHK layout. The house is built around central living room overlooking their open balcony , making it the heart of family life.
Family of six is the extended family - consisting of a couple and their children, and their parents in a 3BHK layout. The spaces within the house are built around central living room and caters to differing generational needs of space.
Family of eight is the joint family - consisting of 03 generations and dominant in the Nepalese society. A 4BHK layout is provided in two levels so as to optimize the spatial requirements while also maintaining levels of environmental comfort, privacy and ease of access.
The floor plans were iteratively generated using the magnetizing floor plan generator and the most suitable iteration was choosen from a pool of 100 iterations on the basis of privacy , compactness and functional adjacency of the layout. The most important factor in choosing the layout was given to the ease of access to the services and the common living and open spaces.
Unit 3
Unit 2
Unit 1
First floor
Ground floor
Unit 2
The images shows the setting up of a 40x40 meter square block as the foundational framework for a housing cluster designed to accommodate families of four. The units are arranged within the block, allowing ample space for circulation and potential expansion. The configuration of the block is optimized to accommodate a total of 35 housing units, ensuring efficient spatial utilization while providing flexibility for future growth and movement.
Fig. 58. setting up the 40x40 block
Fig. 59. Growth possibility in the block of 40x40m
Fig. 60. L’ block Circulation
Fig. 61. ‘I’ block Circulation
The L and I blocks are modular extensions derived from the primary block’s morphology, segmented along the framework to function as adjuncts to the main block. These shapes are informed by the site layout and are designed to facilitate the potential for expansion across a larger cluster within the site.
The I block is configured to accommodate 16 housing units, while the L block is designed to house 24 units. This modular approach allows for flexible growth and adaptation, supporting the expansion of the housing cluster in a manner that is both coherent with the site’s spatial constraints and responsive to future demands.
Fig. 62. Growth possibility in the L block
Fig. 63. Growth possibility in the I block
Fig. 64. Year zero
Fig. 65. In 5-10 years completely occupied blocks
Fig. 66. Addition of L blocks
Based on the current rate of population growth, a timeline has been developed to achieve full occupancy of the proposed site. Initially, the 40x40 meter blocks, designed to accommodate families of four, will be implemented. As these blocks reach full occupancy, the L and I blocks will be introduced to address the increasing population. It is anticipated that by year 25, the site will be fully occupied. This phased approach facilitates a responsive and scalable development strategy, ensuring that the housing cluster can meet future demands while optimizing spatial utilization and adhering to the evacuation strategies outlined in the site-level layout.
Fig. 67. All L blocks added in the next 10 years
Fig. 68. All I blocks added in the next 10 years
Fig. 69. Year 25 to acieve full occupancy
CONCLUSION
The aim of the thesis was to develop a material system using locally sourced resources to enhance seismic performance in the city of Kathmandu, while establishing a construction framework that allows for incremental growth that would be adaptive to residents’ evolving needs while maintaining overall structural integrity.
A significant potential of the project lies in its introduction of a seismically resilient urban layout. By prioritizing open spaces, the design not only provides vital evacuation zones but also ensures adaptability to the projected population growth. The principle of incremental growth allows the site to evolve in response to residents’ needs while maintaining a suitable density, addressing both longterm planning objectives and immediate structural concerns on a global scale within the selected site. This results in a more contextual and resilient proposal, setting a valuable precedent for future growth in Kathmandu.
At the architectural scale, the housing demonstrates a synthesis of diverse spatial arrangements, maintaining structural integrity while translating traditional spaces and construction techniques into a contemporary form. This approach supports high-density development, crucial in the context of Kathmandu’s rapid urbanization.
The development of a wood-based bio-composite as a primary material presents a promising foundation for further exploration. The resulting bio-composite exhibits high elasticity, positioning it as a sustainable alternative to brick, which is prone to brittle failure. Additionally, the material offers good thermal stability, a significant advantage in extreme climates and post-disaster scenarios. However, despite these promising potentials, the project reveals several limitations. At the site level, the post-disaster layout remains underexplored, leaving a critical gap in the design’s effectiveness during recovery stages. Moreover, the lack of well-defined connectivity between building blocks could undermine overall functionality and integration into the urban fabric, especially during crises when accessibility is crucial.
From an architectural standpoint, the building morphology faces challenges in climatic optimization. Although structurally sound, the form has not been fully adapted to Kathmandu’s changing environmental conditions. A culturally sensitive roofing structure, designed to harness solar heat gain while addressing water runoff during the monsoon season, is needed. Additionally, the rigidity in the form’s growth imposes strict rules that limit further development, and the housing units, which accommodate various families, do not adopt a climateresponsive design approach. The proposed panels, made from the wood-based bio-composite, were not thoroughly analysed following their introduction into the morphology.
At the material scale, while the composition and performance of the biocomposite are promising at a prototype level, large-scale fabrication remains underexplored. Without considering the possibilities of industrial-scale production, the project’s scalability and feasibility are constrained, particularly considering the demands of rapid urbanization and post-seismic reconstruction.
Looking ahead, the research could either continue at the three design scales or be refined to a single scale for exploration. At the material scale, the composition could be developed for larger-scale fabrication to enhance its properties and address other environmental risks prevalent in Kathmandu. The modularity of the composite could be further explored for application at different scales and functional elements within the morphology. At the architectural level, the morphology must be further developed, incorporating seismic resilience through base isolation techniques. Elevating housing units above street level could aid in managing water runoff during seasonal floods, while ensuring accessibility is maintained. By introducing varying heights in both built and open spaces, the structural system could be rigorously explored, optimizing material usage and construction methods. Augmented reality (AR) technology could be employed to assess the morphology for weak points in post-disaster scenarios or assist in replicating the design in other parts of the site. At the site level, the connectivity between housing units needs to be further refined to enhance access, while ensuring a continuous vehicular thoroughfare is maintained to support evacuation and rescue efforts in post-disaster situations. Acknowledging these potentials and limitations, the project can be carried forward to cohesively address the initially posed research question.
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