Collective Ecology

Architectural Association School of Architecture Graduate School Programmes

Emergent Technologies and Design 2012-2013

Students: Nicolas Cabargas Mori (M.Arch)

Andrew Haas (M.Arch)

Miguel Rus (M.Arch)

Contribution: Mikaella Papadopoulou (M.Sc)

Title: Collective Ecology, An Integrated Hydrological System for Arid Climates

Course: Master of Architecture

Tutors: Michael Weinstock, George Jeronimidis

Advisors: Evan Greenberg, Mehran Gharleghi

Date: 14-02-2014

“We certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our own and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged.”

Andrew Haas Miguel Rus Nicolas Cabargas

Acknowledgements

We owe deep gratitude to Mike and George. Through their continual encouragement and guidance, the development of this book was made possible.

In addition, we would like to thank Evan, Mehran, and Wolf, as well as the members of Architectural Association for providing continuous inspiration throughout our studies. Lastly, we are profoundly grateful for our friends and loved ones, whose constant encouragement and support inspires us to continually strive to achieve great things.

COLLECTIVE ECOLOGY is an investigation focused on addressing the intensifying metabolic demands of growing urban populations by approaching the city as a dynamic complex system. It places emphasis on the feedbacks and critical thresholds of its ecological processes, climatic conditions and cultural modalities to drive the emergence of novel morphologies, social organizations and metabolic processes within a larger collective system. This systems-based model for urban growth explores the potential to minimise metabolic flow in and out of the system through integration of localised natural water

treatment processes. Acting as an agent for its own productivity, it symbiotically develops with the architectural and urban morphology to extend hydrological retention within the system through multiple cycles of use and treatment.

The resulting heterogeneous landscape of emergent interactions presents a more homeostatic environment, in which the dynamic qualities of an urban system can better adapt to intensifying metabolic demands of a growing population.

Exponential acceleration of urban growth around the world brings with it unsustainable levels of increased material processing and flow, with water being the largest material flux of any urban system. Current methods of urbanisation are often presumptuously confident that these resources will remain secure and abundant, even as population growth and metabolic demands continue to escalate. The epitome of this heedlessness is seen in the recent and dramatic urban growth of Doha, Qatar, the largest consumer of water per capita, yet also one of the most water stressed cities in the world.

Introduction Overview

Through an understanding of the metabolic processes and associative logics inherent to biological systems, a new conceptual and methodological framework can be established to address the complex interactions, organisations, and material exchanges within urban systems. This fundamental shift from the current paradigm of urban master planning allows for the development novel urban morphologies through emergent and dynamic systems, minimising the demands brought forth by relentless urban growth, not only within Doha, but in future emerging urban centres around the world.

Metabolism

Processing and Flow of Energy & Material

Biological Metabolism

Biological metabolism can be described as the processing and flow of energy and material throughout an organism. It symbiotically develops with an organism’s morphology,1 emerging together through dynamic forces acting upon them2 in the conversion and movement of resources from the environment throughout the organism, and in the return of transformed materials back into the ecosystem.3 It functions through optimised, hierarchical branching networks4 that exhibit identical mathematical parameters in all species, at multiple scales, determining the rates at which energy is delivered, and setting the pace of physiological processes to regulate the size the organism.6 The rate of energy consumption per unit body mass declines at a scale of ¾ as the mass of an organism increases,7 the basis of Kleibers Power Law, which adduces that the larger the organism, the less amount of energy in relation to body mass is required to sustain it. (Fig. 1.1) This symbiotic relationship of an organism’s metabolism with its morphology is the critical factor in developing their sublinear metabolic rate.8

Collective Metabolism

Metabolism can also be seen in the allometric relationships of individuals within populations of a species and their surrounding environment.9 These higher levels of organisation begin to materialise through metabolic processes in the relationships between species, based on their density and distribution patterns, establishing a dynamic equilibrium within their ecosystem.10 The flow of energy and material is thus regulated by the collective metabolism of all the living forms within it, defining an ecosystem’s anatomical organisation,11 and over time modifying the fitness criteria for natural selection within it.12

Urban Metabolism

Urban metabolism can be described as the flow and transformation of energy and material throughout an urban system into physical structures, biomass, and waste.13 It is the fundamental physical process that directs urban growth and organisation,14 in the forms of infrastructure, architectures and networks behaving in a similar branching fashion as biological metabolism.15 These network dynamics bring about economies of scale in cities, which require fewer infrastructures to operate as they increase in size, expanding only 85% as the population doubles, similar to the 75% scaling optimisation seen in biological systems.16

[Cities] are dynamic, spatial and material arrays of buildings that are constructed, reworked and rebuilt over time, decaying, collapsing and expanding in irregular episodes of growth and incorporation. As they grow and develop, their systems for the movement of food, material, water, people and manufactured artefacts must grow and extend with them. From this perspective, cities are not static arrays of material structures, but are regarded as analogous to living beings, as they consume energy, food, water and other materials, excrete wastes and maintain themselves down through the generations.” 26

Michael Weinstock

Urban Metabolic Capacities

Urban metabolism can be measured spatially through the amount of land an urban system requires to meet its metabolic needs.17 Throughout most of history, urban systems developed and expanded to limits based on their capacity to extract energy and materials from their environment, and their ability to manage and distribute flows throughout their system.18 Similar to an organism reaching a stable size at maturity,19 urban systems developed and matured until they were close to their critical threshold of stability, imposing a self-regulating limit to size and population capacity. 20

Globalisation, particularly in the last century, has enabled

urban systems to no longer be self-reliant on their immediate environment to provide resources and absorb waste. 21 The removal of these critical, self-regulating, capacity limits have allowed for an escalation of urban population at unprecedented scales. Urban metabolisms, as a result, have developed independently from their morphologies as cities continue to mature and grow.22 This has led to increased energy and material flows in relation to the spatial patterns and forms of the city,23 and established a reliance on resources from outside their boundaries24 in order to meet urban demands at a super-linear metabolic rate. 25 With demographic pressures in cities increasing, these discrepancies of morphology and metabolic flows threaten the future sustainability of urban systems.

Decker,

Weinstock,

‘Bettencourt

Weinstock,

Decker,

Weinstock,

Weinstock,

Decker,

Weinstock,

(UNW-DPAC)

Revision, 2013 Report 3, 2009 (UNW-DPAC)

Water Stress

Largest Component Flux of Metabolism

Photograph 1.2: Aral Sea, present state.

Source: Documentary “Aral, el mar perdido” / Aral, the lost sea. < http://www. palmyrasculpturecentre.com/?attachment_id=3053>

Excessive Demand

In 2013, the world population reached 7.2 billion, with one fifth of people living in areas of water scarcity.27 The UN estimates growth of an additional 3 billion people by 2050, with a majority living in developing countries that already sufer water stress.28 Demographic, economic and social activities and process can all exert excessive pressures on already limited water resources directly and indirectly. The ever demanding requirements for water to meet these increasing needs worldwide threaten the continued sustainability and growth of fragile ecosystems, both natural and urban.

Demographic Drivers

Pressures on freshwater resources brought on by shifting population dynamics (growth, gender and age distribution, migration) inevitably alter water demands and pollution levels. Transformations of the natural landscape associated with population dynamics can create additional pressures on local water networks and resources, and often lead to the necessity of more water-related services and infrastructures.

Economic Drivers

International economic growth and trade can both aggravate water stress in some areas and relieve it in others in the form of embedded water used in the production of consumer goods and agriculture.29 History has often demonstrated a link between how water has contributed to economic development and how, in turn, development has demanded an increased use of water resources. This urban growth often generates additional pressure on the local environment and hydrological networks, leading to financial competitiveness among consumers to be able to obtain it.

Social Drivers

With increased afuence in Asia, Latin America and the Middle East, accelerating rates of water consumption will inevitably occur as new urban centres continue to develop and expand, influencing changes in lifestyles and consumption patterns. With 95% of urban population growth taking place in the developing world30 this rapid global rise in living standards threatens the sustainability of local water resources and environments that may be incapable handling dramatic influxes of demand.

In terms of sheer mass, water is by far the largest component of urban metabolism.”32

Figure 1.4: Water Stress World map for 2025.

Source: The WBCSD Water and Sustainable Development Program, Facts and Trends, 2006,

Figure 1.5: Graph, Water flux percentage in urban metabolism

Figure 1.6: Graph,Available fresh water in the world

Source: The WBCSD Water and Sustainable Development Program, Facts and Trends, 2006,

Chris Kennedy

Our requirements for water to meet our fundamental needs and our collective pursuit of higher living standards, coupled with the need for water to sustain our planet’s fragile ecosystems, make water unique among our planet’s natural resources.”31

UN World Water

P

Qatar QATAR

Economic Growth and Population Increases

The State of Qatar is a small, desert peninsula located halfway along the south coast of the Persian Gulf, bordered to the south by Saudi Arabia. This once quiet State has been transformed by the discovery of an estimated 900 trillion m3 of natural gas reserves beneath its landscape.33 It is currently the world’s third largest known reserve, projected to last well into the 22nd century.34 Despite this highly secure economic driver, Qatar is one of the few energy rich nations in the Middle East pushing for high levels of economic diversification; investing heavily in infrastructural expansion and other industries for continued population growth and urban development. This has spurred annual economic growth to reach 12.5% in 2012, making it the world’s fastest growing economy,35 and providing Qataris with the highest average per capita incomes in the world.36 These investments have stimulated development in both the urban and once rural sectors of Qatar, increasing its population tenfold in the last 30 years. With a population of 2.1 million people,37 it has maintained its position as the fastest growing country in the world since 2004, peaking at an increase of 17.5% in 2007.38

Figure 1.8: Graph, Average monthly temperature in Qatar from 1901 to 2009

Figure 1.9: Graph, Average monthly rainfall in Qatar from 1901 to 2009

Source: World Data Bank <http://data. worldbank.org/ country/qatar>, March 2013

Figure 1.10: Graph, Water breakdown per household in Qatar.

Source: M.A. Darwish & Rabi Mohtar, Qatar water challenges, Desalination and Water Treatment, Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, 2012

Qatar’s population growth and increased standards of living have led to a hyper-dramatic acceleration of water consumption in Qatar within the last few decades. Qatari nationals, in spite of being only 10% of the population,39 consume 40% of total daily fresh water used within Qatar, nearly 1,200 litres per capita, per day.40 Expatriate residents, however, consume on average only 150 litres per capita, per day,41 on par with most westernised nations. Taking these numbers into consideration for the total population, water use averages to 430 litres per capita, per day, the highest rate in the world.42 The leading factor for this high consumption rate is the Qatari government’s subsidisation of water costs for Qatari citizens and residents, leading to high levels of waste and network inefciency.

M.A. Darwish & Rabi Mohtar, Qatar water challenges, Desalination and Water Treatment, Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, 2012

Figure 1.11: Regional subdivision of Qatar.

39. Al-Mohannadi, 40. GSDP 41. Ibid. 42. KAHRAMAA 43. Global 44. Kardousha, Dec Nov AugOctSep MayJulJun AprMar Feb Jan Average Monthly Temperature 1901 to 2009 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature ( o C) Dec Nov AugOctSep MayJulJun AprMar Feb Jan 0 3 6 9 12 Average Monthly Rainfall 1901 to 2009 Rainfall (mm) Doha 50 100 150 25 75 125 200 175 Water (L) Water Use Per Household 2% 2% 3% 3% 5% 10% 11% 21% 43% Cooking & Drinking Car Washing Floor Cleaning Clothes Washing Garden Watering Dish Washing Toilet Bathing Personal Washing Use

Acquisition Stress

Water Use

Photograph 1.4: Aerial view of Doha and the main desalination plant: Ras Abu Fontas Kahrama.

Source: Google Earth

Photograph 1.5: Qatar ‘s main desalination plant and storage containers.

Source: <http://www. utilities-me.com/ article-745-24bn-rasal-zour-contract-forsaudi-chinese-jv/#. UgkjNRY0pLw>

Source: World Data Bank <http://data.worldbank.org/country/qatar>, March 2013

1.13: Graph, Increasing desalinated water production versus decreasing water availability per person. Population is growing faster than additional plants can be built: Decreasing total amount of water available per capita.

Source: KAHRAMAA Statistics Report 2008, 2007/ Qatar National Vision 2030, 2009

production expansions.

Currently, 99.9% of Qatar’s fresh water comes from desalination processes, with only 0.1% derived from ground water.45 Existing desalination throughout Qatar can ofer 1,600,000m3 of water a day,46 with facilities running at 71% capacity.47 Construction of an additional plant is underway, but will only produce an additional 320,000m3 of water a day.48 Contributing these issues even further, the required decommission of an aging desalination plant is expected in 2020, at which time the population is expected to have reached over 2.6 million.49 These figures suggest that continued population growth and resultant water demand will outpace desalination plant capacities.

through large scale mechanised filtration plants, and primarily utilised for agricultural irrigation located often long distances from the source, leading to substantial issues of water loss within the network.52 Treated water is also used for landscape irrigation within Doha, and for artificial wetland reservoir top-of within the Abu Nakhla Reserve, located 20km away from central Doha.

Figure 1.12: Qatar solar map, showing demonstrating sun irradiance.

Source: Rabi H. Mohtar, Qatar Foundation Vision in Energy Efciency and Renewable Energy, Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute 2012

Storage Stress

Qatar uses various means of water storage including reservoirs, ground tanks, elevated tanks and water towers. Capacities for water storage facilities have increased alongside population growth patterns over the last decade, but even with these expansions, water storage capacity is estimated at less than 2.0 million m3 providing an emergency supply of only 2 days.50 As the Qatari population continues to escalate, preparations are underway for expanding the emergency storage capacity to 7.0 million m3 within the next decade.51 This will provide up to 7 days of storage, alleviating some risk of supply interruption, but is still a short term solution to a larger, long term water emergency storage issue.

Water Reintegration

Qatar currently reintegrates about 24% of its total grey water produced, a leader among other Gulf States which average only 16%. However, this reintegrated water is obtained

Figure 1.14: Graph, Population growth versus fresh water availability in Qatar.

Source: World Data Bank <http://data. worldbank.org/ country/qatar>, March 2013

Figure 1.15: Graphs, Wastewater use in Qatar.

Source: KAHRAMAA Statistics Report 2008, 2007/ Qatar National Vision 2030, 2009

1. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence

2. Thompson, D. (1917, 1961) On Growth and Form

3. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence

4. Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

5. Weinstock, M. (2011) ‘The Metabolism of the City’ AD Vol. 81, Iss. 4

6. Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

7. West, G., et. al. (1997) ‘A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology’ Nature, Vol. 413

8. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence

9. West, G. (1997) ‘A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology’ Nature, Vol. 413

10. Weinstock, M (2011) ‘The Metabolism of the City’ AD, Vol. 81, Iss. 4

11. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence

12. Weinstock, M. (2010) ‘Emergence and the Forms of Metabolism’ AD, Vol. 80, Iss. 2

13. Decker, E., et. al. (2000) Energy and Material Flow through the Urban Ecosystem

14. Ibid.

15. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence

16. Bettencourt L., et. al. (2010) ‘A Unified Theory of Urban Living’ Nature, Vol. 467

17. Decker, E., et. al., (2000) Energy and Material Flow through the Urban Ecosystem

18. Weinstock, M. (2010) ‘Emergence and the Forms of Cities’ AD, Vol. 80, Iss. 3

19. ‘Bettencourt L., et. al. (2010) A Unified Theory of Urban Living’ Nature, Vol. 467

20. Weinstock, M. (2010) ‘Emergence and the Forms of Cities’ AD, Vol. 80

21. Decker, E., et. al. (2000) Energy and Material Flow through the Urban Ecosystem

22. Weinstock, M. (2008) ‘Metabolism and Morphology’ AD, Vol. 78, Iss. 2

23. Weinstock, M. (2011) ‘The Metabolism of the City’ AD, Vol. 81, Iss. 4

24. Decker, E., et. al. (2000) Energy and Material Flow through the Urban Ecosystem

25. Weinstock, M. (2008) ‘Metabolism and Morphology’ AD Vol. 78, Iss. 2

26. Weinstock, M. 2011, !"#$%#&'()*+,-$).$&"#$/+&0

27. UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication 2 (UNW-DPAC)

28. World Population Prospects - The 2012 Revision, 2013

29. The United Nations World Water Development Report 3, 2009

30. UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication 4 (UNW-DPAC)

31. The United Nations World Water Development Report 3, 2009

32. Kennedy, C. et.el (2007) ‘The changing metabolism of cities’ Journal of Industrial Ecology

33. Global Water Market (2011) Qatar - General Indicators p.571

34. Ibid.

35. GSDP (2011) Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016 p.214

36. Ibid.

37. ESCWA (2012) The Demographic Profile of Qatar

38. United Nations (2013) World Population Prospects - The 2012 Revision

39. Al-Mohannadi, et. al. (2003) Controlling Residential Water Demand in Qatar

40. GSDP (2011) Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016 p.218

41. Ibid.

Introduction References

42. KAHRAMAA Statistics Report 2008 (2009)

43. Global Water Market (2011) Qatar General Indicators p.571

44. Kardousha, M. Dr. (2009) Qatar Biodiversity

45. Global Water Market (2011) Qatar General Indicators p.577

46. GSDP (2011) Qatar National Development Strategy 2011–2016 p.218

47. Global Water Market (2011) Qatar - General Indicators p.577

48. Qatar Electricty & Water (2013) Ras Abu Fontas Plant to Open in 2015

49. The Demographic Profile of Qatar (2012) ESCWA Annual Report

50. GSDP (2009) Qatar National Vision 2030

51. Al Malki, A.S. (2009) Water Network Afairs

52. Ibid.

Scalability of the City p.30

Natural Water Treatment Systems p.32

Sociocultural and Climatic Aspects p.38

Research Proposal Statement p.40

Domain Overview

Concentrating on urban growth and metabolism, initial research investigates the scalability of cities, for a mathematical understanding of the dynamics, development, and organisation of urban systems. In order to address these issues, subsequent research focuses on passive infrastructural systems for cleansing and reintegrating water. Investigating constructed natural water treatment systems provides guidelines and establishes limits for their viability throughout an urban framework. The ability to appropriately integrate these systems within a regionally specific context is explored to ensure a more applicable approach. Processes of quantifying and analysing the sociocultural modalities expressed in the morphologies of cities are explored to drive the development of culturally relevant architectural and urban morphologies. These precedents are crucial for determining various parameters in the research and how urban metabolic rates are linked to urban growth.

Photograph 2.6: Aerial view of New York, New York, USA

Source:Tim Sklyarov < http://timsklyarov. com/new-york-cityaerial/#more-1351>

Scalability of the City

Quantifying urban systems

Figure 2.16: Graph, Scale factors of organism demonstrating sub-linear behaviour.

Source: Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

“Cities are the crucible of human civilization, the drivers towards potential disaster, and the source of the solution to humanity’s problems. It is therefore crucial that we understand their dynamics, growth and evolution in a scientifically predictable, quantitative way.”

Urban Transitions

As population and urbanisation continue to increase throughout the world, cities are facing several large challenges as they develop and grow. Health concerns, habitat destruction, and environmental impacts imposed through increasing densification presents what Geofrey West and his colleagues describe as ‘…an urgent requirement for establishing a science-based understanding of the dynamics, growth and organisation of cities for future sustainable development.’53

Unified Theory of Scaling

West and his transdisciplinary team of physicists and biologists are in the process of developing a unified theory and predictive framework of scaling in urban systems applicable to cities around the world. Their work hypothesises in part that the solutions to problems associated with urban scaling phenomena can be found in the structural and organisational principles among organisms.54

Through natural selection, the expectation for any degree of correlation between organisms of difering scales seems improbable, since each organism and it’s subsystem evolved in its own unique environmental niche. However, looking at all the elements comprising a mouse and all the elements of an elephant, they have remarkably similar power laws in relation to one another in terms of scale and the processing

of flows within their systems.55 This consistency is sustained through hierarchical, branching network structures, and can be measured in any physiological variable, such as energy consumption, heart rates, life span, and difusion rates across surfaces. The variables follow a ¼ scaling law, either increasing by ¼ or decreasing by ¼ 56 and reflect the general mathematical, physical, and topological properties of all organisms, regardless of each individual’s morphology and size.57 (Fig. 2.16)

Urban Scaling

West and his colleagues further investigated whether this scaling phenomenon was also found in urban systems. Their analysis is based on large urban data sets, from

ObservationsCountry–year

Table 2.1: Classification of scaling exponents for urban properties and their implications.

CI: Confidence Interval; Adj-R2: Adjusted R2; GDP: Gross Domestic Product; RD: Research Development

Table 2.2: Scaling exponents for urban indicators vs city size

Source: Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

Scaling exponentDriving force

Organization Growth

ß < 1 (Sub Linear) Optimization, efficiency Biological Sigmoidal: long-term population limit

ß > 1 (Super Linear) Creation of information, wealth and resources Sociological Boom/collapse: finite-time singularity/unbounded growth; accelerating growth rates/discontinuities

ß = 1 (linear) Individual maintenance

hundreds of cities around the world, spanning several decades, and has revealed remarkably universal, quantifiable scaling features of urban systems.58 Their findings indicate systematic behaviour in urban growth patterns and processes, shared among all cities throughout difering nations and points in time, following specific power law functions.59 (Table 2.2)

Looking across infrastructural aspects of cities, they find a clear similarity to biology. Road networks and utilities such as electrical, water and sewer networks, among other aspects, all require fewer infrastructures as cities get larger, signifying efciency found in economies of scale per capita.60 This demonstrated growth occurs in a sublinear fashion, as a population doubles the infrastructure only increases at a scale of 85%, similar to systems found within biological organisms.61 However, in socio-economic aspects of cities, they find the opposite is true. Quantities and pace grow at an increased rate in relation to population growth.62 This proves both problematic and beneficial for urban systems. Aspects such as energy consumption, disease, crime, waste production and pollution all increase in a super-linear fashion, demonstrating that as a population doubles these elements increase at a scale of 115%.63 (Table 2.1) West explains that cities may hold these negative features, but the answer to these problems can also be found in cites themselves, through their increased productivity,

innovation, wealth creation and education all reflecting the same 115% scaling ratio.64 (Fig. 2.17)

These researchers have made great discoveries in the development of this theoretical framework on urban scaling, demonstrating two main systematic characteristics in relation to population growth. The first is that the space required per capita is sub-linear, minimised through denser development and utilisation of branching network infrastructures. Second, they demonstrate that the pace of socio-economic activity accelerates, leading to superlinear productivity and cultural growth. This combination of densification and economies of scale with and increased productivity, diversification, interdependence and cultural expression, clearly outline the benefits to continued global urbanisation. 65

Figure 2.17: Graph, Demonstrating super-linear socio-economic behaviour.

Source: Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

log scale)

Geoffrey West66

Photograph 2.7: Aerial view of Jebel Ali, Power and Desalination Plant, UAE

Source:< http://images. cfa-uat.com/gallery/ index.php/Grace/ Energy-and-Industrial/Jebel-Ali-Power-and-Desalination-Plant_UAE

Natural Water Treatment Systems

Ecosystem use for purifying water.

Photograph 2.8: Constructed wetlands in Houtan Park, Shangai, China

Source:< http://www. phaidon.com>

Impact at City Scale

As Qatar’s population growth and socio-economic activity continue to accelerate, super-linear rates of consumption will soon meet their capacity limits for water production. Exploring the details of their consumption modalities will ofer insight into potential solutions for addressing this water stress.

Qatari daily water consumption averages 430L per capita, per day, and can be separated into several categories.

(Fig. 2.18) The first distinction made from this breakdown demonstrates that only a mere 2% (8.6L) of the water input to the system necessitates potable quality water, with the remaining 98% (421.4L) capable of utilising non-potable quality water. The second large distinction is that of the average waste output, per capita, per day, 77% (331L) is grey water, with only 11% necessitating extensive treatment as black water. This percentage is extremely high, in comparison with of other city samples taken from the United Kingdom and Australia, where the majority of the waste output is black water, with only 42% as grey water.

(Fig. 2.19)

Qatar’s high percentage of grey water ofers a unique opportunity for treatment and reintegration within its hydrological system, rather than being lost to conventional ofsite black water treatment plants. The ability to reclaim grey water to supply Qatar's non-potable water needs would

dramatically reduce the necessary water input to the system, addressing its growing metabolic hydrological needs through multiple cycles of use and treatment.

Comparison of grey water produced as percentage of tolal water consumed

Photograph 2.9: Natural wetland

Source: < http://red6747. pbworks.com/w/ page/26462365/ Wetlands%204>

UN-HABITAT, 2008

Photograph 2.10: Surface Flow constructed natural water treatment system.

Source: < http://red6747. pbworks.com/w/ page/26462365/ Wetlands%204>

Natural processes passively clean water in a multitude of efcient ways. Rivers, lakes, and streams are absorbed through wetlands and sedimentary rock aquifers, acting as natural filters that trap or utilise sediment and microorganisms to provide natural water purification. Utilising these strategies, constructed natural water treatment systems allow for the break down and transformation of pollutants and bacteria into nutrients and cleansed water through a combination of vascular plants and communities of microbes and invertebrates.67 Acting as a self-adjusting system, constructed natural water treatment systems are tolerant of fluctuations in flow cycles prevalent in most urban hydrological systems.68 This ensures low operation and maintenance expenses, which are periotic rather than continuous as in conventional treatment systems, ofering long term natural capital in the future.69 While constructed natural water treatment systems are utilised primarily for water re-integration, they also provide other benefits such as enhancing the landscape for recreation, remediating progressive efects of desertification and establishing local wildlife habitats.70 These additional factors allow for easier integration into urban landscapes, incorporating the land required to operate within urban areas as dispersed localised treatment systems. There are conventionally three main constructed natural water treatment systems in use around the world: Surface Flow, Sub-surface Flow, and Vertical Flow,71 each bringing

with them advantages and disadvantages for re-integrating water. (Fig. 2.21) Through evaluation of each system, it is clear that Sub-surface Flow Water Treatment Systems are the most appropriate for a location such as Qatar. They provide quick and efcient grey water treatment, through a closed system, without exposing surface water to reduce evaporation and easily integrate into urban contexts. (Fig. 2.22)

Surface Flow Water Treatment72

- Land requirement to purify water per person – 90 sqm

- Water flow occurs on the surface, increasing odours and evaporation

- Quickly treats incoming water, but less efcient

- More difcult integration into urban systems, larger architectural impact

- Open water beds increase wildlife diversity

- Initial capital and operation costs are relatively low

Sub-surface Flow Water Treatment73

- Land requirement to purify water per person – 40 sqm

- Water flow occurs below the surface, resulting in less odours and reduced evaporation

- Quickly and efciently treats incoming water

- Easy integration into urban systems, least amount of architectural impact

- Covered water beds allow for less wildlife diversity

- Initial capital and operation costs are relatively high

Vertical Flow Water Treatment74

- Land requirement to purify water per person – 14 sqm

- Water flow is percolated from above the surface, increasing odours and evaporation

- Slowly but efciently treats incoming water

- Most difcult to integrate into urban systems, largest architectural impact

- Open water beds increase wildlife diversity

- Initial capital and operation costs are relatively high

Systems of constructed natural water treatment systems in relation to the space require to meet Qatari water consumption needs per capita, per day. (430 litres)

Cross section of subsurface flow constructed natural water treatment systems.

soil or gravel

Constructed wetlands are a natural, low-cost, eco-technological biological wastewater treatment technology designed to mimic processes found in natural wetland ecosystems”75

Photograph 2.11:

Typha Domingensis selected plant specie for the project.

Source: <www. ecohusky.uconn.edu>

Photograph 2.12: Phragmites Australis, selected plant specie for the project.

Source: Alan Cressler http://www.flickr. com/photos/alan_ cressler/479137579/ lightbox/

Photograph 2.13: Juncus Rigidus selected plant specie for the project.

Source: <www. ecohusky.uconn.edu>

Ecology

Figure 2.23: Simplified Pollutant Removal Mechanism in wetlands.

Source: UN-HABITAT, 2008. Constructed Wetlands Manual. UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.

Strategies for developing constructed natural water treatment systems within Qatar must address several issues to ensure viability within such a harsh climate. Extreme sun exposure, dryness, and heat can limit options for plant selection and types of water treatment systems. Focus is placed on integrating native and regional vegetation, to ensure robustness within the severe arid climate. Constructed natural water treatment systems consist of a multitude of plant species with capabilities of breaking down pollutants through biological, chemical and physical processes which interact in a complex fashion to filter grey water. Vegetation absorbs dissolved inorganic nutrients such as ammonia, nitrates, and phosphates, incorporating them into their tissue and digested further by bacteria and fungi which utilise their carbon compounds and nutrients.76 These processes occur most rapidly in high temperatures, as it stimulates microbial activity,77 ideal for an area with continual elevated heat such at Qatar. Of these most abundant species found in the within the region, three are commonly used in constructed natural water treatment systems: Phragmites Australis, Typha Domingensis and Juncus Rigidus (Fig. 2.24). They range in characteristics from full sun exposure to full shade, enabling coverage within the heterogeneous typologies found in urban systems.

Wastewater Constituents Removal Mechanism

Suspended Solids

Soluble organics

Phosphorous

Sedimentation

Filtration

Aerobic microbial degradation

Anaerobic microbial degradation

Matrix sorption

Plant uptake

Ammonification followed by microbial nitrification

Denitrification

Metals

Adsorption and cation exchange

Complexation

Precipitation

Plant uptake

Microbial Oxidation /reduction

Sedimentation

Filtration

Natural die – off

Table 2.3: Pollutant removal mechanisms in constructed wetlands.

Source: UN-HABITAT, 2008. Constructed Wetlands Manual. UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.

Nitrogen

Plant uptake

Matrix adsorption

Ammonia volatilization (mostly in SF system)

Pathogens

Predation

UV irradiation (SF system)

Excretion of antibiotics from roots of macrophytes

Scientific NameVernacular NameRegional Viablity

Schoenoplectus spp.Clumbrush speciesNo

Typha latifoliaCommon reedmace Yes

Sagittarius spp.Arrowhead speciesNo

Phragmites australisCommon reed Yes

Phalaris arundinaceaReed canary grassNo

Iris pseudacorusYellow iris No

Carex spp. Sedge speciesNo

Juncus spp. Rush species Yes

Butomus umbellatusFlowering rushNo

Acorus calamusSweet - flag No

Table 2.4: Common species used in constructed natural water treatment systems, highlighting regionally appropriate species.

Sources: J. B. Ellis, et. al., “Constructed Wetlands and Links with Sustainable Drainage Systems” / Kardousha, Mahmoud M. Dr., 2009. Qatar Biodiversity

1m

Phragmites Australis

Exposure Tolerance: Nearly Full Sun

Average Height: 2 m

Flowers: Yes

Characteristics: Highly Invasive

Typha Domingensis

Exposure Tolerance: Full Sun

Average Height: 3 m

Flowers: Yes

Characteristics: Dense & Dominant

66%

Figure 2.24: Spatial implications and characteristics of selected Sub-Surface constructed natural water treatment systems.

Juncus Rigidus

Exposure Tolerance: Full or Partial Sun Average Height: 0.5 - 1 m

No

Aridity Tolerance

Sociocultural and Climatic Aspects

Drivers for a Site Specific Design.

Photograph 2.14: Opem ublic space, Jamaa El Fna Square, Marrakesh, Morocco

Source: Nicolas Cabargas Mori

Photograph 2.15: Traditional Arab town in Algeria

Source: <http:// dc370.4shared.com/ doc/Eja7JHlN/ preview004.png>

Photograph 2.16: Traditional Arab town of Tripoli, Libya.

Source: <http://www. jasonhawkes.com/ blog/2013/03/aerialviews-in-libya/>

During the second half of the 20th century, Qatar witnessed dramatic rates of modernised urbanisation, linked to its rapidly increased levels of wealth and population growth. Influenced and guided by teams of Western consultants, its development and planning has focused heavily on zoning plans and land policies of several uncoordinated parties over multiple decades. The resulting situation in its capital city of Doha presents a highly fragmented and sprawling urban landscape, comprised of suburban developments and areas of high-rise central business districts, unrepresentative of sociocultural modalities and unresponsive to climatic conditions of the region.

The culture and climate that had previously shaped Doha’s built environment reflected not only how its spaces were functionally used, but they also expressed the inner world of its society, highly responsive to its natural environment and religious or tribal traditions. The urbanisation model shaping Doha today has established sparsely dispersed buildings across the landscape, necessitating vehicular transportation for nearly all movement throughout the city, inhibiting previously prominent features for social interaction found throughout urban morphologies of the region for millennia. This dispersal has dissolved nearly all public traditional gathering spaces, and inhibited local community interaction and the establishment of neighbourhood afliations. Climatically, Doha’s dispersal has substantially encouraged urban heat islands throughout

its landscape, and promoted high levels of solar exposure on building facades.

The dissolution of Qatar's sociocultural modalities and lack of consideration for climatic conditions presents a developmental process with multiple long term potential difculties. Through incorporation of these aspects in the design process, a more culturally relevant and climatically appropriate developmental methodology can be established.

Photograph 2.17:

Urban development of Doha, Qatar

Source: Alexey Sergeev <http://www.asergeev. com/pictures/archives/ cmpress/2013/1160/06. htm>compress/2013/1160/06. htm>

Research Proposal

Collective Ecology: An Integrated Hydrological System for Arid Climates

Ecological

The incessant financial prosperity and economic diversification seen in Qatar for the last two decades has driven unprecedented levels of population growth and large scale development within a dramatically short timeframe. To meet the needs of this growing economy and population, Qatar’s ambitious investment in economic and social infrastructures has laid the foundation for potential continued growth well into its future. However, conspicuous consumption and waste brought forth by increased afuence and substantially improved standards of living has led to the highest rates of water consumption in the world, rapidly accelerating and expanding the demands placed on Qatar’s water supply. In light of its strong financial position and lack of natural water resources, Qatar has recently relied solely upon large scale desalination processes to meet these immense water supply needs. However, with consideration of the sheer amount of hydrological flow required to meet their long term growth ambitions, it is clear that its economic ability to acquire boundless supplies of water should not be considered a permanent solution. The escalating difculty to ensure a constant and reliable supply of water is becoming increasingly evident, with projected levels of demand outpacing proposed production capabilities and emergency water reserves limited to only 2 days’ supply. Re-examination of this current model paves the way for development of a new urban system, capable of addressing and sustaining the intensifying metabolic demands of a growing urban population within Qatar well into its future.

Collective Ecology proposes a systems-based model for urban growth which will consider natural water treatment systems as an integral part of its architectural and urban morphologies. In contrast to the conventional practice of expelling grey water as waste for ofsite treatment, the urban environment will be considered as an ecological system, minimising freshwater demands through multiple cycles of use and filtration. This ofers the ability to treat and re-integrate nearly 77% of Qatar’s used water and will allow for the majority of fresh water currently supplied from

desalination plants to be significantly minimised. This dramatic reduction of the systems metabolic input will greatly extend the magnitude of achievable population growth, and significantly reduce the immense amount of energy that would otherwise be required with additional desalination expansions. This shift from the majority of water reliance placed on centralised desalination plants to dispersed natural water treatment processes and storage facilities will have many advantages. It will allow for minimised network spans and connections to prevent water loss, and provide increased emergency water reserves through a series of decentralised locations throughout the network.

The fundamental properties of network organisation and metabolic flow will be symbiotically developed with the distribution and morphology of the urban environment. Driven by the requirements of the ecological processes, environmental analysis, and spatial patterns and social programmes abstracted from case studies, novel architectural and urban morphologies will be generated throughout the system. These arrangements will produce highly performative urban organisations capable of negotiating environmental conditions, managing hydrological flows, arranging infrastructural networks and creating complex spatial and microclimatic environments. This dynamic complex system places emphasis on the interactions and connectivity of the flows through its infrastructures, and on the feedbacks and critical thresholds that will drive the emergence of new morphologies social organisations and in response to the specific ecological, climatic and cultural modalities of the State of Qatar.

Ecological Processes:

Research into natural water treatment systems for use within the region will establish sets of data outlining the treated water production capabilities, and the spatial impacts of their morphological characteristics and coverage requirements. It will present the implications of dispersed natural water treatment systems and influence strategies for potential viability throughout urban the urban system.

Sociocultural Modalities: Through examination of several regional case studies, a system of analysis will be developed to extract and quantify the cultural values and social parameters of several relevant urban tissues. It will establish a catalogue of descriptive metrics and mathematics expressed through the sociocultural modalities of the region, providing a culturally relevant and socially sensitive approach to the system.

Climatic Conditions: Analysis of the region’s climatic conditions will outline the environmental qualities and sensory characteristics expressed through the mathematics of humidity, temperature and solar exposure levels. These parameters will drive aspects of solar accessibility and environmental comfort throughout the system based on the specific challenges presented by the climatic conditions of the region.

Morphological Development:

The allometric development of morphologies throughout the collective system is driven in response to the ecological processes, sociocultural modalities, and climate conditions of its environment. These parameters will simultaneously drive a system of growth which will be moulded in direct response to a multitude of regionally specific qualities and influences.

Social Organisations:

The thresholds of privacy hierarchies throughout the system will be informed by the sociocultural influences of the region, the morphological and spatial conditions of the ecological environments, and strategies for the development of comfortable microclimates. It will allow for a development of diferentiated social spaces throughout the system in a methodological manner in accordance to multiple factors of influence.

Metabolic Performance:

The potentials to reduce the metabolic input of the system will be explored through localised natural water treatment processes within the ecological environment. Their dispersal will be organised by the spatial impacts of their coverage requirements, the parameters of the climatic conditions and the consumption demands of the culture.

53. Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. West G., et. al. (2001) ‘A General Model for Ontogenetic Growth’ Nature, Vol. 413

58. Bettencourt L., et. al. (2010) ‘A Unified Theory of Urban Living’ Nature, Vol. 467

59. Ibid.

60. Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

61. Bettencourt L., et. al. (2010) ‘Urban Scaling and Its Deviations’ PLoS ONE, Vol. 5, Iss. 11

62. Bettencourt L. et. al. (2006) ‘Growth, Innovation, Scaling, and the Pace of Life in Cities’ PNAS, Vol.104, No.17

63. Bettencourt L., et. al. (2010) ‘Urban Scaling and Its Deviations’ PLoS ONE, Vol. 5, Iss. 11

64. Ibid.

65. Bettencourt L., et. al. (2010) ‘A Unified Theory of Urban Living’ Nature, Vol. 467

66. Ibid.

67. Luise, D. (1998) ‘A Handbook of Constructed Wetlands, Volume 1’

USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service

68. Ibid.

69. Costanza, R. et. al. (1997) ‘The Value of the World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital’ Nature Vol. 387

70. Melbourne Water (2005) Water Sensitive Urban Design - Engineering Procedures: Storm water

71. Luise, D. (1998) ‘A Handbook of Constructed Wetlands, Volume 1’

USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service

72. Ibid.

73.

Domain References

77.

74.

75. UN-HABITAT, 2008. "Constructed Wetlands Manual". UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.

76.

Methods

City Samples p.48

Case Studies p.52

Computational Techniques p.62

Methods Overview

The current conditions within Doha, Qatar are analysed and evaluated with city samples from around the world to compare relationships between population density, public space and road networks, among many other factors. Their guidance, coupled with strategies garnered from several relevant regional case studies helps establish the principle driving factors for our urban system. Computational methods were then researched and evaluated to find the best strategies for informing decisions and analysing approaches within the design.

City Samples

Extraction of Metrics and Relationships

Doha, Qatar

Sample Patch Analysis (500x500m)

Number of Buildings 535buildings

Built Area 95353.43m2

Unbuild Area 154,646.57m2

Percentage Build 38.14%%

Minimum Blocksize 351.84m2

Maximum Blocksize 10996.33m2

Block Area 165823.19m2

Percentage Block Are Build0.58%%

Average Blocksize 3616.78m2

Minimum Building Footprint 3.376 m2

Maximum Building Footprint1657.21m2

Average Area 193.24m2

Minimum Stories 1 Floors

Maximum Stories 5 Floors

Avearage Stories 3.60Floors

Public Green Space 3122.78m2

Courtyards 10,048.99m2

Streets Area 84176.81m2 Streets Intersections 39 nodes Streets Max. Width 25 m

Min. Width 3 m

2745 persons

109.8people / hectare

needed 109800m2

Amsterdam

Amsterdam, Netherlands

Sample Patch Analysis (500x500m)

Number of Buildings 1125buildings

Built Area 76974.34m2

Unbuild Area 173,025.66m2

Percentage Build 30.79%%

Minimum Blocksize 252.35m2

Maximum Blocksize 8699.1m2

Block Area 119506.48m2

Percentage Block Are Build 0.64% %

Average Blocksize 2987.662m2

Minimum Building Footprint5.56m2

Though examination city samples from Doha, Frankfurt, New York City, and Amsterdam, several elements of data are extracted and analysed to reveal the metrics and mathematics of their network systems and geometries. These comparative data sets ofer quantifiable insight into the characteristics and organisational principles of multiple urban contexts from which to set and gauge the desired properties of our urban system.

Maximum Building Footprint3499.59m2

Average Area 68.42m2

Minimum Stories 2 Floors

Maximum Stories 7 Floors

Avearage Stories 3.68Floors

Floor Area 283557.26m2

Building Density 1.13 floor area/ patch size

Public Water spaces 54758.42m2

Public Green Space 14489.61m2

Courtyards 28,042.53m2

Amenities 6501.47m2

Streets Area 11814.3m2

Streets Intersections 65 nodes

Streets Max. Width 71 m

Streets Min. Width 3 m

Residential Building Area 18442m2

Residential Building 29.00%%

Office Building Area 6903 m2

Office Building 11.00%%

Mixed Use Office Area 18147m2

Mixed Use Office Building 28.00%%

Retail Building Area 8484m2

Retail Building Percentage13.00%%

Other Use Building Area 12206m2

Other Use Building 19.00%%

Population 1250persons

Density 55 people / hectare

Wetland needed 50000m2

Photograph 3.19: Aerial view, sample Amsterdam, Netherlands

Source: Google Earth

Figure 3.28: Built area, sample Amsterdam, Netherlands

Figure 3.29: Roads area, sample Amsterdam, Netherlands

Frankfurt, Germany

Sample Patch Analysis (500x500m)

Manhattan, New York, USA

Sample Patch Analysis (500x500m) Number of Buildings 345buildings

Percentage Build 54.99%%

Minimum Blocksize 23472.5m2

Maximum Blocksize 26462.66m2

Area 203926.82m2

Photograph 3.21: Aerial view, sample Manhattan, New York, US

Source: Google Earth

Figure 3.32: Built area, sample Manhattan, New York, US

Figure 3.33: Roads area, sample Manhattan, New York, US

Block Are Build0.51%%

Percentage Block Are Build 0.67% % Average Blocksize 24462.8m2

Minimum Building Footprint27.89m2

Maximum Building Footprint 2492.09 m2

Average Area 398.51m2

Minimum Stories 1 Floors

Maximum Stories 20 Floors

Avearage Stories 6.86Floors

Floor Area 943,093.64m2

Building Density 3.77floor area/ patch size

Public Water spaces 0 m2

Public Green Space 0 m2

Courtyards 30804.33m2

Amenities 0 m2

Streets Area 46073.18m2

Streets Intersections 12 nodes Streets Max. Width 37 m Streets Min. Width 20.4 m

Residential Building Area 40962m2

Residential Building 31.00%%

Office Building Area 26317m2

Office Building 20.00%%

Mixed Use Office Area 29899m2

Mixed Use Office Building 23.00%%

Retail Building Area 13737 m2

Retail Building Percentage11.00%%

Other Use Building Area 19733m2

Other Use Building 15.00%%

Population 4050persons

Density 162 people / hectare

Wetland needed 162000m2

Case Studies

Regionally Specific Research

Doha, Qatar

Doha has a surprisingly short history. Established in the early 19th century as a small fishing village, it became a British protectorate in 1916, before achieving independence in 1971. Despite foreign involvement, Doha maintained its vernacular architectural methodologies and held consistent population levels up until the discovery of its oil and gas reserves in the middle of the 20th century.78 It has since emerged as a modern urban centre with more than 1 million inhabitants.79

Doha originally developed and dispersed in a bottom up manor through the settlement and clustering of tribes along the coast. Climate and culture shaped its urban morphology, reflecting not only how its spaces were used in functionality, but also in how these spaces expressed the societal norms and tribal afliations.80

Designs followed Islamic tradition, with high degrees of privacy, and complex systems of winding streets and alleys throughout neighbourhoods. Buildings were constructed with local materials and varied from simple one room homes, to two story courtyard houses.81 These were clustered in close proximity with one another, in a highly dense fashion, often built wall to wall, encouraging and resembling the close social relationships within communities. These adjacent building schemes helped to develop shading strategies for walkways and exposed walls from the harsh desert conditions.

Oil revenues brought investment and development of infrastructure to Doha, quickly changing the conditions of the city from a bottom up organisational approach to a series of fragmented master plans and architectures imported by foreign developers.82 Nearly all of Doha’s original urban morphology and vernacular approaches have

since been replaced by fractured zone planning, orthogonal gird blocks, wide roads, conventional cement architecture, and centralised glass high rises.83 This approach during the oil boom led to vast urban sprawl comprised of low density urban typologies, dispersed throughout the landscape and connected by far spanning road networks, developing an extreme reliance on automobiles.84

Analysis of vernacular design principles and consideration of cultural traditions will define strategies to achieve conditions similar Doha’s pre-oil urban morphology and social connectivity. The relationships between building adjacencies, shading strategies and street layouts will inform the development of dense, well connected architectures and networks within our urban system.

Msheireb Downtown Doha Project

Many Middle Eastern cities have developed and grown at staggering speeds, leading to potential long-term difculties brought on by short sighted modernisation, disregarding extreme climate, urban centralisation and economic diversification. Trust in continued global demand for oil exports has led to unsustainable building typologies, migration to suburbs, and the fragmentation of urban centres, leading to inevitable loss of community and cultural traditions. Doha has been a prime example of this kind of development for the last half century. However, the government of Doha has recently pursued an alternative model for the continued future growth of their city. Their first initiative is a comprehensive revitalisation of central Doha, funded entirely by the Qatari Royal family to the tune of $5.5 billion USD. The decade long project will transform a 31 hectare area into a dense, mixed-use development, based on vernacular Qatari architecture and utilising regional urban design strategies. Comprised of more than 100 new buildings, the development will combine retail, commercial and leisure programmes with housing to service 25,000 people, while also creating public spaces that are usable in Doha’s intense climate. The aim is to restore a sense of community through a sequence of densely planned urban neighbourhoods with walkable access to services and amenities within the new urban centre. At an urban scale the plan takes into account several factors to better encourage pedestrian street activity. To minimise heat and maximise solar shading, the streets are as narrow as possible in relation to the heights of buildings, and are oriented to capture the cool sea breezes from the northsouth wind. The resulting grid has also been manipulated in response to sounding site conditions, keeping the curvature

Figure 3.34: Pedestrian Road East-West orientation.

Source: <http://www10. aeccafe.com>

Figure 3.35: Aerial Image showing the projected patch.

Source: <http://www. adjaye.com/projects/ civic-buildings/ msheireb-downtown-doha/>

Figure 3.36: Nolli Plan showing the building density and proportions of roads. The East-West roads demonstrate a narrowed condition to reduce solar exposure.

Source: <http://www10. aeccafe.com>

of the main thoroughfare to the south, retaining the Meccaorientation of the main market street, and bypassing several vernacular houses utilised as museums. Additionally, all car parks and service roads have been hidden underground to enhance the public pedestrian realm. These urban scale considerations are dramatically diferent then current conditions in Qatar, where even the shortest distances require the need for vehicles.

Architecturally, several small, but important considerations have been made for building strategies. Semi-private courtyards have been reintroduced in an initiative to return Doha back to its cultural traditions. These allow for social environments to develop through interactions in a shared space by clusters of related families. In addition, features such as covered colonnades, shading canopies, and evaporative water strategies have all been incorporated to develop a habitable environment for pedestrians from intense the sunlight and heat.

These approaches to environmental, cultural and social issues within Doha are critical steps to revitalising the city's cultural centre and reversing the trend of residential migration to surrounding suburbs. It is a difcult task to develop an interest for this form of urban morphology which is currently in small demand by Qatari citizens, but Msheireb Downtown Doha has the potential to change these opinions once completed in 2020. This new district gives hope to radically shift expectations of planned urban design if it can prove a commercial and cultural success; with the potential to change the face of many cities across the Middle East and other urbanising regions around the world.

Photograph 3.23: Aerial view

Source: <http:// webodysseum.com/art/ shibam-the-city-madeout-of-mud-bricks/>

Photograph 3.24: Shibam, Yemen

Source: <http:// webodysseum.com/art/ shibam-the-city-madeout-of-mud-bricks/>

Photograph 3.25: Shibam, Yemen

Source: <http://annadingding.blogspot. co.uk/2011/08/ travellers-wishlist.html>

Shibam, Yemen

Climatic conditions are one of the key parameters in the development of urban morphology, defining the vernacular approaches of local built environments. Analysis of how these methods afect performance in extreme heat and sun exposure is essential when developing design proposals within the Middle East.

Shibam, located in Yemen, is an excellent case of vernacular adaptability within the region. First established during the pre-Islamic period, it developed its current urban morphology as a walled city in the 16th century.85 This cluster of tall, mud brick, tower houses has been described as the 'Manhattan of the desert' composed of dwellings five to eleven stories high, developed on a fortified, rectangular grid plan.86

Shibam’s compactness allows for a walkable city throughout its narrow streets and public squares. These passages and openings provide the 7000 inhabitant’s with sufcient shading throughout a majority of the day through strategies developed over many centuries in the layout of its urban morphology and building relationships.

Analysis of design principles within Shibam will define strategies to achieve similar urban conditions in other arid, desert climates. The relationships between building heights and street widths, orientation of roads and buildings, and the dispersal of public spaces can all inform how a city can develop and maintain a balanced relationship between the building morphology, layout and the climate.

Kerman, Iran

The organizational principles which inform the morphological development of many Arab cities are typically influenced by the desire to establish multiple layers of segregation between groups within the city.87 Analysis of how these methods of separation afect the layout of networks and placement of public spaces will be essential for creating a culturally sensitive proposal within Qatar. Kerman, Iran, was once one of the best representations of Arab culture and values manifested within an urban form, prior to its substantial urban redevelopment in the middle of the 20th century. Its previous street network characterised clearly the systematic hierarchy of privacy thresholds within Arab culture and cities. Its old branching streets and paths acted as fault lines within a seemingly homogeneous urban landscape, creating multiple layers of seclusion to distinguish ethnic and religious fractions throughout the city. 88

These layers of privacy are also expressed in the organisation of public spaces and private courtyards, guiding their dispersal and form throughout Kerman. Large public open spaces spread out from central areas along the streets as bazaars containing the daily activities of business and leisure within the city. Smaller local paths branch of from these main streets, leading to common more semiprivate spaces for members of a specific group or sect, and finalise as a private courtyard for families.89

Analysis of the design principles within the original urban fabric of Kerman, Iran before its present day redevelopment, will define strategies to achieve similar cultural conditions through the development of networks and organisation of public spaces and within the city.

Photograph 3.27:

Source: Herdeg, K, (1990) Formal Structure of Islamic Architecture.

Photograph 3.26: Courtyard organisation within the urban fabric.

Source: http://overland2010.blogspot. co.uk/2010/12/ south-through-desertyazd-kerman.html

Photograph 3.28: Main public buildings defining the skyline.

Source: http:// overland-2010.blogspot. co.uk/2010/12/ south-through-desertyazd-kerman.html

Ragette,

Asquith,

Source: Nicolas Cabargas Mori

Traditional Architecture

Arab Urban Environments

Traditional Arab urban environments are the result of dense groupings of courtyard buildings over long periods of time. They provide light and air through central internal spaces, diminishing heat gain and allow for wall adjacencies with neighbouring buildings. Typically surrounding a central square, the gradual agglutination of buildings establish irregularly patterned streets which narrow as they spread away from the centre, finalizing as a semi-private dead ends serving multiple building entrances. Groups of buildings usually have a common open space and are organised through ethnic or religious afliations, establishing several distinct quarters within the city.90

Urban Gradients

Cultural modalities reinforce the delicate tension between the segregation and togetherness of ethnic and religious groups throughout an Arab city. This notion establishes clear distinctions of public, semi-public and private spaces within building and urban scale environments.91 The largest public spaces are in front of the Friday masque, which typically serve several quarters within city. Functions taking place in this space are public and open for everyone without distinction, gradating into more segregated and private groupings of the city as they are distanced from the public square. The narrowing and irregularity of the streets adds visual barriers within the urban landscape and reinforces the desired levels of seclusion between groups within the city.92

Photograph 3.30: Aerial view of Rheris Valley, Morocco.

Source: <http://3. bp.blogspot. com/-zBs4LvWZUo8/ Tg9YA4UC7YI/ AAAAAAAAFgI/ vvstva5fe0M/s1600/ Yann+Arthus-Bertrand+++morocco.jpg>

Photograph 3.31: Kuwaiti Interior Courtyard.

Source: <http://www. traveladventures.org/ continents/asia/beitkhalid03.html>

Photograph 3.32: Aerial view of El Atteuf in Algeria

Source: <http://vofa. com/archives/2010/ 12/14/065155.html>

Courtyards

Courtyards are the core of most Arab buildings, serving as a central common circulation space with peripheral rooms organised around it. The introverted character of Muslim family life closes of the home from the outside, establishing a set hierarchy of spaces, experienced as a succession of volumes throughout the building. They are typically subject to regularity and have set ideal proportions in their distribution. As the surroundings rooms are distanced from the courtyard, there is a progression of increased privacy and segregation, establishing clear thresholds of separation throughout the building.93

Passive Strategies

As a response to the harsh climatic conditions within areas of the Middle East, a number of passive design strategies have been implemented within traditional Arabic buildings and their organizations to create relatively cool microclimates throughout the city. The sun is typically the principle factor for governing the approaches to habitation within arid climates. It drives the orientation building elements in order to maximise building shading and reduce solar exposure on surfaces. The exceptions to this strategy however are Islamic religious buildings, which govern their orientation with regards to Mecca.94

The organization and orientation of these buildings organise and shape the roads and alleyways throughout the city. The tapering of their widths as they move away from the central square provide increased shading to retain any cool air that may be deposited during the night, and their irregular orientations prevent excessive air movement, which carries with it sand and dust.

Interior courtyards are also excellent modifiers of hot and dry climates, acting as an air-well collecting dense, cool air at night. As the sun heats the courtyard, the air heats up and rises, creating convection currents, and circulating air flow in from adjacent cool streets and alleyways, successfully cooling surrounding spaces well into the day.95

El Fna Square, Marrakesh, Morocco

Biodiversity Biodiversity Biodiversity

Photograph 3.33: Aereal view of Abu Nakhla Wetland, Qatar.

Source: Google Earth

Photograph 3.34: Abu Nakhla Wetland, Qatar

Source: <http:// sahilonline.blogspot. co.uk/2008/12/birdingin-al-khor-qatar.html>

Source Jdylan Green Zone bordering Water Reservoir

Natural Wetlands: Abu Nakhla, Qatar

The Abu Nakhla Reserve is unique given that it is not used for the purification of water or as an overflow containment wetland, but as an experimental reserve operated by the Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences at Qatar University. Located on the outer edge of Qatar’s largest city, Doha, it receives a fluctuating supply of treated municipal water discharged from local sewage treatment stations which continually adjusts the wetland’s depth and the reserves topography.96

Given that Qatar is one of the few countries in the world that contains no natural surface bodies of fresh water, 97 researchers initially lacked local wetland precedents for examples as they developed the reserve. As a result, they introduced species of wetland plants from other areas around the Persian Gulf that have adapted to similar soil conditions, animal communities and climate in order to survive within the Abu Nakhla Reserve.

The research conducted by Qatar University has demonstrated high levels of plant diversity within the reserve, and has successful introduced a number of submerged, littoral, and above-ground plant species for establishing future wetlands in Qatar. 98

Qunli National Urban Wetland: Haerbin, China

Located in Haerbin, China, the Qunli National Urban Wetland project demonstrates strategies for integrating wetlands within an area of dense urban development. The wetland serves a natural water treatment system, collecting and cleansing stormwater runof from surrounding road networks. It provides a natural habitat for many species of flora and fauna, and ofers much needed local public space within a dense urban environment.

The majority of the wetland is established as a ‘Surface Flow Constructed Wetland’, with exposed surface water as small ponds between mounds of earth throughout the site. Surrounding the perimeter of the site is a ring of ‘Sub-Surface Flow Constructed Wetlands’ which establishes solid terrain to inhabit, and acts as a bufer zone for the core wetland, acting as a transition between nature and the city.

(Reference Chapter: 2 Domain/Wetlands)

Native wetland grasses and meadows are grown throughout the site at various heights, establishing a series of transitions from one type of environmental condition to another. A network of elevated paths link the perimeter of the wetlands, branching out and infiltrating into areas above the ponds and terrain, allowing visitors to experience the wetland from multiple perspectives at diferent levels of elevation.

The Qunli National Urban Wetland is an successful example of constructed wetland integration within an urban context. Its local filtration of polluted water runof and incorporation of public space throughout the wetland demonstrates strategies that can be utilised for integration wetlands as public space throughout our urban system.

Photograph 3.35: Qunli Constructed Wetland Park By Turenscape

Source: <http://www. archdaily.com/446025/ qunli-stormwater-wetland-park-turenscape/>

Photograph 3.36: Inhabitant interaction of Qunli Constructed Wetland Park By Turenscape

Source: <http://www. archdaily.com/446025/ qunli-stormwater-wetland-park-turenscape/>

Photograph 3.37: Relation with the city, Qunli Constructed Wetland Park By Turenscape

Source: <http://www. archdaily.com/446025/ qunli-stormwater-wetland-park-turenscape/>

Educational Facilities, Dorset, UK.

Source: Nicolas Cabargas Mori

Source:

Integrating Vegetation Within Buildings

The integration of vegetation into building morphology has primarily been assimilated through green roofs on existing structures and as unbuilt proposals of vertical farming within skyscrapers. These approaches have shown to be environmentally and economically beneficial, and technically possible to engineer, demonstrating strategies that can be utilised for successfully integrate wetlands into buildings.

Green Roofs

Green roofs have several proven benefits at a building and urban scale. They can provide great thermal performance to moderate temperature levels inside of buildings, subsequently requiring 50-90% less continuous artificial heating and cooling.99 Collectively, a concentration of green roofs in an urban area can also improve air quality and reduce the city's average temperatures through evapotranspiration.100 Buildings with integrated green roofs however, must be able to accommodate the additional static loading of soil substrate and retained water, requiring additional structural support within the building morphology.

Vertical Farming

Proposals of vertical farming have been increasingly developed within the last decade, but there has yet to be a built example of a large scale vertical farm. Proponents of vertical farming argue they allow for localised production and increased yields within a controlled setting, but environmental scientists and engineers strongly criticise these proposals as being unrealistically feasible and question their necessity. These proposals demonstrate that although architectural engineering and agricultural technology are capable of integrating vegetation and allowing growth within buildings, the economic and productive yield feasibility of vertical farms within skyscrapers is currently not a viable option.

Green Walls

The addition of green walls to new or existing buildings provides benefits to urban environments in a number of ways. Typically applied to areas with high solar exposures, green walls alter their local microclimates and act as filters within the surrounding urban environment. The vegetation allows for the cooling of the interiors of buildings and the surrounding urban areas through the processes of shading, reduction of reflected heat, and evapotranspiration. Green walls also improve air quality though absorption of heavy metal particulate from the atmosphere, reducing levels of urban dust brought in from the surrounding dessert.101 Integrating plants capable of absorbing dissolved nutrients in the green wall system can also act as filters for localised grey water treatment.102

Vertical Plant Integration

There have been many proposed projects integrating green spaces within skyscrapers, with the few constructed used as luxury residences and hotels. These often aim at introducing more outdoor natural spaces within an urban context, and are typically in the form of private terraces, filled with local vegetation. With similar benefits as green walls, vertical plant integration helps protect from solar radiation, and helps control dust particles and acoustic pollution. Proposals and built projects often feature vegetation integration capable of filtering and reusing grey water produced by the building, demonstrating the viability of localized water reintegration.

Figure 3.38: Singapore Airport Interior by CPG Corporation

Source: <http://www. businessinsider.com/ the-10-best-airports-inthe-world-2013-4>

Figure 3.39: Vertical Forest by Stefano Boeri

Source: <http:// thisbigcity.net/ worlds-first-vertical-forest-under-construction-in-milan/>

Photograph 3.40: Park Royal on Pickering by WOHA

Source: <http://www. archdaily.com/363164/ parkroyal-on-pickering-woha-2/51756334b3fc4b748700014c_parkroyal-on-pickering->

Photograph 3.38: Student Rooms, Hooke Park, Architectural Association School of Architecture

Photograph 3.39: California Academy of Sciences by Renzo Piano

Source: Tim Grifth <http://seedmagazine. com/slideshow/ california_academy_ of_sciences/>

Figure 3.37: Vertical Farming project by SOA Architects.

<http:// www.verticalfarm. com/designs?folder=510aa317-7750-417692b0-99f7e98cddb1>

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GeneticAlgorithm.html

Thinking p.120

Algorithms algorithms p.63 algorithms, p. 65 algorithms p. 65 Optimization

Computational Techniques

Digital strategies used for the development of the project

Figure 3.40: Evolution of Tuscan column through genetic algorithms.

Source: Adapted figure from Frazer, J. (1995) An Evolutionary Architecture.

Genetic Algorithms

A genetic algorithm (GA) is a class of adaptive stochastic optimisation algorithms involving heuristic search, mimicking the processes of natural selection.26 GA’s are routinely used to generate efcient solutions to optimisation and search problems in many diferent fields. The process starts with the development of a population of candidate solutions to an optimisation problem that can be evolved toward continually better solutions based on single or multiple fitness criteria. Each candidate, called an individual, has a given set of properties or characteristics that can be mutated and altered to allow for progressive optimisation through a series of solutions.27

The evolution is an iterative process, starting from a population of randomly generated individuals, with the population in each iteration called a generation. For every generation, the fitness of each individual in the population is evaluated and ranked, based on an established fitness function, assessing the desirability of their condition for the optimisation problem being solved. Individuals that scored best are stochastically selected with their characteristics recombined to establish the next generation of individuals in a population. This process for creating new generations of candidate solution terminates when a user defined maximum number of generations has been produced, or the population has reached an established satisfactory fitness level for the optimisation criteria.28

Multi-objective Optimisation

Genetic algorithms involving more than one simultaneous objective can yield multiple sets of possible solutions, with each set optimised according to difering fitness criteria.29

GA’s are well suited to multi-objective optimization

problems as they are fundamentally based on biological processes which are inherently multi-objective.30 These multi-objective optimization algorithms allow for the option to assess the advantages and trade-ofs between diferent design morphologies comprised of mutually concurrent and often conflicting objectives.31 This approach develops many options to evaluate rather than only one optima solution as found in single objective genetic algorithms.32 Utilizing multi-objective genetic algorithms in the development of urban and building scale morphologies explores and exploits the gradual improvements of multiple environmental and cultural characteristics to establish optimised design strategies and increase performance. They will be employed for the integration of wetlands into the building morphology, and in the organisation of public and private spaces throughout the urban topography.

Solar Analysis

Daylight Sunlight refers to direct sunshine throughout the day, and experiences significant changes in intensity at difering latitudes and times of year.110 It is an important factor to consider in the development and layout of an urban system in order to either embrace or obscure it through design strategies. Difused Sky Radiation however refers to the level of natural light scattering in the atmosphere to be reflected of terrestrial surfaces.111 It is a very efective light source, illuminating a given area without projecting heat to be absorbed by surfaces, a critical factor to consider for design strategies where extreme climate conditions are an issue.

Luminance

Emissions or reflections from surfaces are known as Luminance, which indicates how much luminous power the eye will detect while viewing the surfaces from a particular angle of view.112 Luminance is thus an indicator of how bright the surface will appear, and will never be more than equal to the input light source.113

Illuminance

Illuminance is the density of photons which fall within a given surface area.114 For a given light source, the closer to a light source the illuminated area is, the higher the Illuminance value of light striking a surface. 115 Illuminance values are more critical to consider in a design than luminance, as buildings require difering amounts of intensity based on tasks undertaken in them.

Sunlight Hours

Analysis of sun exposure will evaluate and visualise how many hours of sunlight will fall on a given surface. This can be particularly helpful when quantifying solar access of key spaces and surfaces to allow sufcient sun exposure for solar panels and plants, or provide adequate shading for people within a space.

Solar Fan

Identifying the solar path for a specific location creates a volume describing the solar azimuth and solar zenith throughout the year. This defines the volume that should not be encroached upon to receive maximum solar penetration.

(2009)

(2009)

Figure 3.41: Sunlight hours analysis of a public space using computational models.

Photograph 3.41: Sunlight in the streets of London

Source: By Stefan Powell from Toronto; Canada (golden energy)

<http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Graph.html> Vol. 11 No. Diagrams

7:793–800, 1934 Triangulation mathworld.wolfram.com/MinimumSpanningTree.html> 4th Edition

Figure 3.42:

Multimodal Shortest Path Tree of Portland, Oregon. Public transit branches are coloured red, while walking branches are coloured black. The width of a branch corresponds to the number of shortest paths that travel through that branch.

Source: <http://graphserver.sourceforge.net/ gallery.html>

Figure 3.43:

Minimum Spanning Tree

Source: <http://www. flickr.com/photos/ ethanhein/ 2306994386/>

Graph Theory

Introduction

In mathematics and computer science, graph theory is the study of mathematical structures used to model relationships between entities.116 Many practical problems can be represented by graphs to demonstrate !"#$%#&'( $')"*#+,&("-+,.(+/0'1*&(",2(*+(process dynamics in physical, biological, social and information systems.117 A graph is constructed of ‘nodes’ representing objects and ‘edges’ demonstrating their connections. We utilise graph theory and its subsets in several portions of our project, for optimisation of networks, site tessellation, and to establish hierarchies within the system.

Shortest path

Within graph theory, Dijkstra’s or Bellman-Ford’s algorithms can be utilised to establish the shortest path between a given set of nodes so that the sum of the lengths of its constituent edges is minimised. These paths can represent physical entities such as distances on a map with intersections represented as nodes, and roads represented as edges to find the fastest route. Shortest Path can also represent abstract entities such that nodes embody states and edges describe their possible transitions, or it can be used to find an optimal sequence of choices to reach a certain goal state.

Delaunay Triangulation

The application of Delaunay Triangulation to a given set of nodes within a graph can be exploited to compute the most efcient paths for a Euclidean Minimum Spanning Tree through the same nodes.118 A triangulation is formed by constructing edges between pairs of nodes so that the

edges form a non-overlapping set of triangles. 119 Delaunay Triangulation ensures that the circumcircle associated with each triangle created contains no more than three nodes in its interior, maximising the minimum angle of each triangle within the triangulation120 and developing a characteristic that each connection is no longer than 2.418 times the Euclidean distance between the two nodes.

Minimum Spanning Tree

Given a connected set of points in graph, a minimum spanning tree of that graph is created by establishing the shortest possible length that connects all points in a set without creating any closed loops.121 A single graph can have many diferent spanning trees, and the minimal spanning tree is found by summing the lengths of each edge connection within each spanning tree and comparing them to one another.122

Centrality

There are several methods for measuring the centrality of a node within a connected graph to determine its relative importance.123 This research was initially developed for social analysis to quantify the influence a person has within a social network, and has since been adapted to calculate road connectivity within urban networks.

Degree Centrality

The first method developed is conceptually the simplest for measuring importance within a graph, which is defined by the number of links incident upon a node in relation to others. If seen in terms of flow throughout the network, nodes with increased connectivity have higher levels of Degree Centrality, facilitating flow to them more often than others.

Closeness Centrality

In every connected graph there is a distance between all pair of nodes, this distance can be defined by the shortest path. The farness of a node is defined as the sum of its distances to all other nodes, and its closeness is defined as the inverse of the farness.124 With this you can define how central a node is in respect to all others. The lower this value is, the closer it is in average to the rest of the nodes.125 Our research will utilise this method for locating instances of key functions within the urban system.

Betweenness Centrality

The quantification of the number of times a node acts as a bridge along the shortest path between two other nodes is known as Betweenness Centrality. The count of the

Figure 3.44: Space Syntax axial analysis using graph theory. Centrality to see the integration of diferent roads in London, UK

Source: Modified Space Syntax <www. spacesyntax.com>

Figure 3.45: Graphical representation of contacts within social clusters and their connections.

Source: Brand Tao <http://brandtao. wordpress. com/2011/04/18/ inmaps-social-network-connections-visualised/>

node acting as a bridge is fractional, which means that if there is more than one possible shortest path this will get distributed between the diferent solutions. Nodes that have a high probability to occur on a path between two random nodes being evaluated will have a higher level of betweenness. Within our research this method measures the probability of a road being used in the network helping identify intersections that could be utilised as locations for points of interest in the system.

123. Newman, 124. Sabidussi, 125. Newman,

53. Weidmann, F. (2012) ‘The Urban Evolution of Doha’ METU.JFA

54. ESCWA (2012) The Demographic Profile of Qatar

55. Weidmann, F. (2012) ‘The Urban Evolution of Doha’ METU.JFA

56. Jaidah, I., et.al. (2009) The History of Qatari Architecture

57. Al Buainain, F. (1999) Urbanisation in Qatar: A Study of the Residential and Commercial Land Development in Doha City

58. Weidmann, F. (2012) ‘The Urban Evolution of Doha’ METU.JFA

59. Ibid.

60.

61.

62. Ragette, F. (2006) Traditional Domestic Architecture of the Arab Region p.50

63.

64. Asquith, L. et. al. (2006) Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-First Century p.208

65. Ragette, F. (2006) Traditional Domestic Architecture of the Arab Region p.50

66. Ibid p.51

Methods References

67. Ibid p.53

68. Ibid, p.59

69. Ibid p.84

70. Asquith, L. et. al. (2006) Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-First Century p.208

71. Kardousha, Mahmoud M. Dr., 2009. Qatar Biodiversity

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid..

74. Gill, S. et.el. (2007) “Adapting Cities for climate Change: The Role of the Green Infrastructure.” Built Environment Vol 33 No. 1

75. Liu, K. et.el. (2003) Thermal Performance of Green Roofs Through Field Evaluation

76. Hoyano, A (1988) Climatological uses of plants for solar control and the eforts on the thermal environmental of a building, Energy and Buildings 11

77. AIA Green Wall Committee (2008) Introduction to Green Walls Technology, Benefits & Design

78. Rowland, T. et. al. "Genetic Algorithm." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GeneticAlgorithm.html

79. Menges, A. et. al. (2011) Computational Design Thinking p.120

80. Mitchell, M. (1999) An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms

81. Koumoutsakos, P. et.al (2000) Multiobjective optimization using evolutionary algorithms p.63

82. Ibid. p. 65

83. Ibid.

84. Zuluaga, M. et.al (2012) Active Learning for Multi-Objective Optimization

85.

86.

87.

88. (2009)

89.

90. (2009)

91. Weisstein, Eric W. "Graph." From MathWorld - Wolfram Web Resource <http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Graph.html>

92. Pirzada, S. (2007) 'Applications of Graph Theory' Journal of the Korean Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Vol. 11 No.

93. Okabe, A.; et.al (1992) Spatial Tessellations: Concepts and Applications of Voronoi Diagrams

94. B. Delaunay: Sur la sphère vide, Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR, Otdelenie Matematicheskikh Estestvennykh Nauk, 7:793–800, 1934

95. Lee, D. et. al. (2007) Protocol Design for Dynamic Delaunay Triangulation

96. Weisstein, Eric W. "Minimum Spanning Tree." From MathWorld - A Wolfram Web Resource <http:// mathworld.wolfram.com/ MinimumSpanningTree.html>

97. Sedgewick, R. (2013) Algorithms, 4th Edition

98. Newman, M .E.J. (2010) Networks: An Introduction

99. Sabidussi, G. (1966) ‘The Centrality Index of a Graph’ Psychometrika Vol. 31, Iss. 4

100. Newman, M .E.J. (2005), "A measure of betweenness centrality based on random walks" Social Networks Vol. 27 No. 1

Experiments Overview

The possibility of moving away from reliance on desalination plants and towards localised water treatment in constructed wetlands is examined through analysing their spatial requirements within the urban context and possible integration within architecture. These approaches, coupled with analysis of Shibam, Yemen, demonstrate strategies for urban organisation and building morphologies which enable better performance in the harsh climatic conditions similar to those seen in Doha, Qatar. It further informs strategies for developing relationships between locations of interest in a network and their level of connectivity within an urban system, leading to experiments in patch development focusing on the afects patterns of subdivisions have on levels of connectivity within networks.

Photograph 4.42: Aerial view of Shibam, Yemen

Source: <http:// webodysseum.com/art/ shibam-the-city-madeout-of-mud-bricks/>

Analysis of Streets and Public Spaces

The case study of Shibam, Yemen

Overview

The unique layout and morphology of Shibam, Yemen demonstrates a well-connected and dense urban fabric capable of handling the extreme levels of solar exposure and high temperatures. Through analysing these characteristics, geometric ratios are abstracted, and quantifiable data is collected, which can be utilised to drive network layout and building morphologies within similar climatic conditions, such as Doha, Qatar.

Study 1: Network Analysis

Methods for analysing degree, closeness and betweenness centrality within networks measure the relative level of connectivity and importance of a node within a graph. Utilising these techniques creates an understanding of the network topology within Shibam and the impact or correlation it might have on the location of public squares or important buildings.

Degree Centrality

The diagram analysis demonstrates clearly that there are four highly connected vertices, all of which are nodes representing public squares. (Fig 4.46) The bar chart demonstrates that many nodes are connected to only one additional neighbour, meaning there is a high level of impasse streets. Additionally, a majority of the nodes connect to three other neighbours, signifying that many intersections connect only three roads in the network. (Fig 4.47)

Closeness Centrality

The central public square in Shibam contains two highly integrated nodes, with additional surrounding nodes

decreasing in value as they move away from this central point. (Fig 4.48) Analysis of the bar chart reveals the integration values of the nodes follow a bell curve, with very few nodes being highly integrated and very little nodes being hardly integrated. (Fig 4.49) This signifies that a majority of Shibam is fairly evenly connected with a few main points of interest and just several areas that are isolated.

Betweenness Centrality

The importance a node has within the network can be measured by the probability it has of being used to pass from one node to any other. The bar chart reveals that there are a few nodes which have an extremely high likelihood of being used within Shibam’s network. (Fig 4.50) Analysis of the diagram reveals that these nodes are located within the public squares and receive a high level of trafc through them. (Fig.4.51)

Qualities Measured:

-Betweenness Centrality

-Closeness Centrality

-Degree Centrality

Analysis:

All of the centrality analysis clearly demonstrates two primary locations within Shibam’s network. These two public squares contain a majority of the activity within the city and demonstrate a correlation between the network topology and the location of its architecture, primarily important points of interest such as mosques and areas where markets congregate.

Degree Centrality

Figure 4.46: Diagram of most integrated nodes in Shibam using Degree Centrality analysis.

Figure 4.47: Graph, Number of nodes versus degree values, resulting from Degree Centrality analysis.

Figure 4.48: Diagram of most integrated nodes in Shibam using Closeness Centrality analysis.

Figure 4.49: Graph, Number of nodes versus centrality values resulting from Closeness Centrality analysis.

Figure 4.50: Diagram of most integrated nodes in Shibam using Betweenness Centrality analysis.

Figure 4.51: Graph, Number of nodes versus centrality values resulting from Closeness Centrality analysis.

Study 2: Solar Exposure Studies

Analysis of solar exposure levels throughout the year within Shibam’s public squares and streets will establish strategies for developing usable outdoor public spaces and promote pedestrian street use. Investigations into the two main public squares demonstrate the impacts of how orientation and geometry influence the use of the spaces throughout the seasons. Examinations of the street network will provide insight into how its organisation can influence shading conditions.

Located in the centre of Shibam, the first public space analysed is located near the centre of the city, its orientation is along the north-south axis and is located adjacent to the largest mosque in Shibam. (Fig. 4.54) To the south east of this space another public square is located which is the largest open space within the city, and has approximately a 2:1 width to length ratio, with its geometry primarily facing towards the east-west axis. (Fig. 4.55)

Qualities Measured:

-Average number of sunlight access hours.

Analysis:

Solar analysis studies reveal that the orientation of the central public square provides sun protection year round through shading provided from adjacent buildings along the East and West edges. (Fig. 4.65) This strategy limits exposure to only 4 hours of direct sunlight throughout the day, with the majority of this exposure confined to areas closest to the street intersections.

The southeast public square however is allowed access to sunlight year round, with daily exposures ranging from 7-13 hours during the summer and only 4-8 hours during the winter. Extreme solar exposure is not desirable during the summer months, but is welcomed within the public square during the winter as temperatures fall to a 10-15 °C average. Further analysis into the solar exposure maps reveals additional strategies within the street networks of Shibam. The grid has been massaged into a wavy set of non-linear

roads which is the key to its successful shading qualities. The buildings have orchestrated their positions to avoid similarly aligned facades and street widths, ensuring sun exposure for only minimal periods of time throughout the day. This arrangement, coupled with building heights, provides a nearly completely shaded pedestrian street environment throughout the entire year.

The few streets that demonstrate higher levels of exposure tend to be along extended stretches of the east-west axis, creating seasonal network systems which provide pathways of preferable climatic conditions throughout extremes of both hot and cool weather.

Figure 4.53: Analysis of Shibam streets width

Figure 4.54: Space A: Orientation North-South. Analysis of the main public spaces in Shibam.

Figure 4.55: Space B: Orientation East-West. Analysis of the main public spaces in Shibam,

Source: UNESCO / Maria Gropa

Figure 4.57: Example of subdivision experiment and analysis using Betweenness Centrality in a 500 x 500m patch, with attractors.

Subdivision and Integration

Recursive Subdivision and Centrality Analysis

Figure 4.58: Recursive subdivision logic for squares and triangles

Overview

A systematic approach for developing a heterogeneous set of block types and network organisations is established through evaluation of block proximity to elements on the site.

The initial experiment explores how subdivisions are controlled and manipulated through gradual, recursive iterations based on location in relation to a set attractor. The smaller the distance between a parcel and attractor, the further each parcel subdivides into subsequently smaller parcels. (Fig 4.58)

The resulting network is evaluated with betweenness centrality to assess how integrated each of the nodes are within the overall network, mapping out the most connected nodes.

Parameters

Level of subdivision

Amount of attractor lines

Location of attractor lines

Experiment

A series of patches measuring 500x500 meters were evaluated to test the placement of attractor lines and their resulting subdivided quadrilateral parcels. This reveals how many levels of subdivision are required to reach the size of a

block (150x70m), high-rise building footprints (90x90m) and low-rise building footprints (10x10m).

Six studies were conducted with varying attractor positions, and two diferent starting conditions:

a. The initial patch as one complete square

b. The initial patch as a square separated into two triangles The resulting parcel distributions are analysed with Betweenness Centrality to measure the connectivity of each node.

Observations

Case 1

The analysis indicates that with a single linear attractor placed at the top of the patch, the most integrated nodes are in very similar locations for both case starting conditions. The topologies of the nodes difer however, with the recursive subdivision within the triangle being more integrated and more dispersed within the patch. (Fig. 4.59)

Case 2

Placement of a single linear attractor through the middle of the patch demonstrates much diferent results in the level of connectivity between nodes. Within the patch subdividing a square, the most integrated nodes are located closer to the attractor, gradually minimising the level of connectivity as the distance from the centre of the attractor increases.

Figure 4.59: Betweenness centrality analysis of recursive subdivision experiments using squares and triangles.

Betweenness centrality analysis of recursive subdivision experiments using squares and triangles.

However, the recursive subdivisions within the triangle patch establishes nodes that have connectivity levels dispersed in a non-uniform manor located both near and away from the attractor curve. (Fig. 4.69)

Case 3

The location of a single linear attractor running diagonally through the patch results in most integrated node dispersal throughout any of the cases tested. Although the patch is highly connected, the most integrated nodes are all relatively close to each other in a uniform manor rather than distinct moments of dispersal across the site. This success however is not seen in the patch subdividing the triangles, which demonstrates almost the opposite behaviour, with very low connectivity in two opposite corners of the patch.

Case 4

An additional attractor curve is incorporated to explore methods of achieving higher levels of distribution for integrated nodes. The placement of attractors at opposite

ends of the patch demonstrates very similar results in both types of patches. They concentrate the most integrated nodes in the centre of the patch, with gradual dispersal out toward the edges. The subdivision of the triangle however disperses the subdivisions in a less homogeneous way while maintaining a high level of integration.

Case 5

A third attractor is added, which decreases the amount of the most integrated nodes, but increases the overall connectivity levels. The dispersal is similar to the previous case, but with increased sub-divisions throughout the patch. The subdivision of the triangle patch disperses the more integrated areas throughout a larger portion of the site, establishing four zones of high connectivity.

Case 6

The introduction of a non-linear attractor gives some insight into how parcel size behaves along curves and its afects the subsequent connectivity of the resulting nodes.

The patches subdividing a square result in a clustering of nodes along the most planar portion of the attractor line. The opposite is true however for the patch subdividing triangles, in which the resulting sub divisions contain areas of highest integration where the angles of curvature along the attractor line are most intense.

Conclusions

These case studies, demonstrate that recursive subdivisions within the square and triangle patches lead to a series of unique network topologies with increased connectivity. Attractor curves, regardless of their placement, will establish further subdivided parcels and will return increased levels node connectivity within the network. Understanding and cataloguing these results will help inform strategies to influence and control areas of high connectivity in the development an integrated network.

Traditional Socio-Cultural Values

Kerman, Iran

Overview

Analysis of the ancient urban fabric of Kerman, Iran, before its present day redevelopment, gives insight into the influence its culture had on the organisation of buildings and public spaces, and development of networks within the city. Its once prominent branching of streets and paths, together with its dispersal of distinctly private courtyards and public open spaces, visibly demonstrates the privacy hierarchies and the organisation logics found in the architectures of ancient Arab cities. Through examining these characteristics, their dimensions and ratios are collected, which can be utilised to drive an atavistic approach to the organisation of buildings, and dispersals of private and public open spaces and networks within Doha, Qatar.

Study 1: Quantifying the Urban Fabric

Methods for measuring building dimensions and their aggregate relationships will help create an understanding of the role building clusters play in the development of public spaces between them, and establish guidelines for the proportions of building geometries and their associations throughout our urban system.

Qualities Measured:

-Densities

-Proportions

-Sizes

Analysis:

The tested sample demonstrates that a majority of the urban fabric is dominated by built area, at ratios higher than those found in all the city samples. (Chart 4.65) (Reference

Chapter: 3 Methods/Case Studies) Of the unbuilt area, very little consists of street space, with a majority of the area utilised as private courtyards within buildings. (Chart 4.66) The building clusters reveal a large range of plot sizes, however a majority of the plots range from 150-350 sqm with other sizes gradually tapering of to the extremes found in the sample. (Chart 4.64) Floor heights also varied throughout the sample area, with a majority characterised as double stories and none above three stories. (Table 4.50) Based on the average household size and amount of built space occupied by residential built area, the estimated population density is consistent to densities found in both

the Frankfurt and Doha city samples, although the Kerman sample reveals a built/unbuilt ratio nearly double both cities and even higher than Manhattan. (Reference Chapter: 3 Methods/Case Studies/Frankfurt, Doha)

Study 2: Analysis of Privacy Hierarchies

Methods for establishing the relationships between multiple thresholds of privacy found in Kerman will help measure the frequency of each level of privacy and the distances from one threshold to the other within the city. The qualities that define each type of space will also be quantified to establish guidelines for creating social spaces throughout our urban system. These methods will create an understanding of the role public and private spaces play within the city, and establish guidelines for forming these cultural distinctions and separations throughout the urban system.

Qualities Measured:

-Area

-Frequency

-Quantity

-Distance

Analysis:

Analysis of privacy found in Kerman at the urban scale provides insight into the strategies Arab culture uses for establishing multiple thresholds of separation throughout the city. Public open spaces vary in a range of sizes (Chart 4.70) and are primarily focused around the main bazaar running North-South, with additional public open spaces scattered periodically throughout the remainder of the city sample. Private courtyards tend to be more evenly dispersed and are of a more equal size in relation to one another. (Chart 4.67) Their distance from the nearest public open space is often within a similar range, with only a few distances exceeding this average transition distance from one level of privacy to another. (Chart 4.71)

100-200200-400400-600600-800800-10001000-12001200-14001400-16001600-50005000-10000

Figure 4.74: Building Dispersal

Source:: Source:: Ragette, F. (2006) Traditional Domestic Architectur e in Arab Regiona

Figure 4.75: Network Dispersal

Study 3: Network Analysis

Methods for measuring and quantifying the dimensions and relationships within the network will help create an understanding of the role streets play establishing the hierarchy of thresholds between public and private space within the city and establish guidelines for establishing these cultural distinctions and separations throughout the urban system.

Qualities Measured:

-Street Lengths

-Street Widths

-Intersections

found throughout the urban system. The manner in which the network has intricately emerged between clusters of building plots in an often non-linear fashion, narrowing and finalising as dead ends, helps develop pockets of public and semi-public open spaces throughout the system. The proportions, dimensions and orientation of these spaces also have a direct relationship with the climatic conditions found in the region, often responding in a manner of reducing exposed surface area and increasing instances of shading.

Quantifying these strategies found in Kerman, the data, ratios, and relationships extracted can be utilised as drivers

Network Ratios

Table 4.7: Network Ratios

Analysis:

There are three distinct types of street networks demonstrated in the area of analysis. These primary, secondary, and tertiary streets decrease in width, but increase in total street lengths as they transition from one type to another respectively. (Chart 4.78) The primary streets are typically straight and direct, with secondary streets establishing connections between them. Tertiary streets branch of from both of these in an obfuscatory manner and finalise as a dead end, with no street with straight segments exceeding 20m. (Table 4.70)

Conclusions:

Analysing Kerman has revealed several strategies developed within Arab culture for mitigating privacy through a series of morphological diferentiations at both urban and building scales.

The network organisation and building aggregation seen throughout the urban fabric has a direct relationship with the privacy hierarchies and the formations of social spaces

Amount Primary Roads 6Units

Amount Secondary Roads 10Units

Amount Tertiary Roads 87 Units

Amount of Tertiary Roads With Dead Ends 54Units

% Dead Ends 62%

% Amount Primary Roads 6%

% Amount Secondary Roads10%

% Amount Tertiary Roads 84%

Length Primary Roads 1402m

Length Secondary Roads 2108m

Length Tertiary Roads 3758 m

Streets Area 20355m2

Uncovered Streets Area 14222

Streets Intersections 188nodes

Streets Max. Width 10m

Streets Min. Width 1.5m

in the development of our urban system. They will help produce the most appropriate approach embedding social and cultural aspects into the development of urban form while also responding to the extreme climatic conditions found within the Arab region.

Figure 4.76: Main network

Figure 4.77: Main network and soial spaces

Amount of Roads per Type 6%

Tertiary Roads Connection 38%

Figure 4.78: Graph, Tertiary Netwrk Straight Segments

Figure 4.79: Graph, Roads by Type

Figure 4.80: Graph, Percentage of Tertiary Roads

84% Amount of Tertiary Roads

Primary Roads Secondary Roads

62% Dead Ends

Connected Tertiary Roads

Plot Distribution Strategies

Aggregation of plots developing emergent social spaces

Figure 4.81: Low-rise plot distribution outcome.

Overview

Through the previous analysis of traditional building geometries and the organisational relationships found in Kerman, Iran, (Reference Chapter: 3 Methods/Case Studies/ Kerman) a range of plot sizes and associative patterns are extracted and used as drivers for building dispersal within a test area. Several strategies are explored to develop compact aggregations of building plots, while generating well connected emergent open public spaces between them. The resulting configurations are measured and evaluated based on several evaluation criteria that will drive the dispersal of geometries and interstitial spaces throughout the urban system.

Methods

A generative algorithm aggregates assorted plots throughout the test area based on their ability to cluster around a centroid with minimum space covered. The interstices between the plots define semi-public spaces with diferentiated privacy hierarchies throughout the aggregation.

Evaluation Criteria

Coverage Ratio (CR) (Fig. 4.82)

Covered Area ( sqm) / Block Area ( sqm)

- Measures the floor area of the buildings (including open spaces within the cluster) against the area outside of the cluster.

- Ambition: Maximise ground coverage by buildings within test boundary area.

Porosity Ratio (PR) (Fig. 4.82)

Perimeter Length (m) / Bounding Box Length (m)

- Measures the perimeter length of the cluster of buildings against the perimeter of the cluster’s bounding box.

- Ambition: Maximise perimeter condition, ensuring increased inlets that can be utilised as public spaces.

Proximity Average for Public Space (PA) (Fig. 4.82)

Distance (m)

- Measures the average distance from the centroid of each building to the centroid of the closest public spaces.

- Ambition: Minimise the average distance of each building to the nearest public space.

Frequency Ratio for Public Space (FR) (Fig. 4.82)

Quantity of Public Spaces / Quantity of Building Plots

- Measures the frequency of public spaces in relation to number of building plots.

- Ambition: Maximise the quantity of public spaces among building plots.

Figure 4.82: Four main fitness criteria for development.

Table 4.8: Average comparison between itterations of experiments.

Aggregation Sequence

Fittest Population: Experiment 3 / Iteration 1 /

Figure 4.83: Progressive sequence of plot aggregation

Experiment 1A: Starting Point for Plot Aggregation

Experiment 1A: Starting Point for Plot Aggregation

This initial investigation will explore the variations found in building plot aggregations resulting from multiple starting point locations. Each iteration will be initiated at a diferent point of origin, from which building plots aggregate until reaching an established plot quantity limit or reaching the boundary condition of the test area. Each of the iterations will produce 10 populations, which will be analysed according to the fitness criteria, and evaluated to find the most optimal start condition.

Parameters:

-Plots Size: Randomly range between 100-400 sqm (Extracted from Kerman study)

-Boundary Area: Rectangle of 100x125m (Extracted from Kerman study)

-Plot Quantity: 50 units or until boundary condition is reached

-Plot Orientations: North-South axis

Variables:

-Aggregation Origin Position within Boundary Area: Boundary Area Centroid (Fig. 4.84), Corner (Fig. 4.84), Centred along longest edge (Fig. 4.85) and Centred along shortest edge (Fig. 4.85)

Observations:

It can be observed that the populations within ‘Iteration 3’ achieved the best overall average of the Fitness Criteria. Although ‘Iteration 1’ demonstrated the best Proximity Average for Public Space, and ‘Iteration 2’ averaged the highest Coverage Ratio, ‘Iteration 3’ outscored for highest Porosity Ratio and Frequency Ratio for Public Space, accumulating highest fitness overall. (Table 4.90)

Analysis:

The success of ‘Iteration 3’ reveals that the fittest starting point is centred along the longest edge of the boundary area, with the least successful position located at the centre of the block, as seen in the results of ‘Iteration 2’. It is also found that establishing a fixed maximum quantity of plots within the experiment limited the coverage ratio and the porosity within the iterations, which will be explored in subsequent experiments.

‘Experiment 1A’ included 4 Iterations, each iteration containing 10 populations. Full results can be referenced in the Appendix (Appendix/Experiments/Plot Distribution Strategies/Experiment 1A)

ferentation of aggregation start point.

Table 4.9: Analysis of multiple iterations

Experiment 1B: Starting Point for Plot Aggregation

Experiment 1B / Iteration 1

Experiment 2: Establishing Plot Orientation

Experiment

Experiment 1B: Starting Point for Plot Aggregation

Expanding from Experiment 1A, the two best cases are analysed again, however these iterations do not limit the ‘Plot Quantity’, allowing for additional plots to aggregate until reaching the edges of the boundary condition. Each of the two iterations will produce 10 populations, which will be analysed according to the fitness criteria, and evaluated to find the most optimal start condition.

Parameters:

-Plots Size: Randomly range between 100-400 sqm

-Boundary Area: Rectangle of 100x125m

-Plot Quantity: No limit until expansion reaches boundary condition

-Plot Orientations: North-South axis

Variables:

-Aggregation Origin within Boundary Area: Corner (Fig. 4.86) and Centred along longest edge (Fig. 4.86)

Observations:

It can be observed that removing the limit to the Plot Quantity was beneficial to the populations of both iterations, allowing for better overall averages in their Fitness Criteria evaluation. The biggest improvement is seen in the coverage ratio value, which creates more reliable results. Although ‘Iteration 1’ demonstrated the best Frequency

Ratio for Public Space, ‘Iteration 2’ averaged the highest Coverage Ratio, Porosity Ratio and Proximity Ratio for Public Space, accumulating highest fitness overall. (Table 4.10)

Analysis:

The success of ‘Iteration 2’ reveals again that the fittest starting point is centred along the longest edge of the boundary area. This position will ensure the most optimal location for initiating the building plot aggregation throughout further experiments.

‘Experiment 1B’ included 2 Iterations, each iteration containing 10 populations. Full results can be referenced in the Appendix (Appendix/Experiments/Plot Distribution Strategies/Experiment 1B)

Experiment 2: Establishing Plot Orientation Moving away from a rectangular boundary test, aggregations of building plots are tested within a nonorthogonal boundary condition to analyse the impacts of orientating buildings parallel to the longest edge condition or along the North/South axis. An optimum orientation will be established for use throughout the urban system to best fit within the non-orthogonal block parcels.

Parameters:

-Plots Size: Randomly range between 100-400 sqm (Extracted from Kerman study)

-Boundary Area: Quadrilateral (13,080 sqm)

-Plot Quantity: No limit until expansion reaches boundary condition

-Starting Point for Aggregation: Centred along the longest edge

Variables:

-Plot Orientation: Orientated parallel to North-South axis (Fig. 4.87) and Orientated parallel to longest edge of boundary condition (Fig. 4.87)

Observations:

Both iterations demonstrate very little diference in their result averages. ‘Iteration 2’ however has a slight advantage

in all Fitness Criteria evaluated, with the largest gain in the Frequency Ratio for Public Spaces. (Table 4.11)

Analysis:

The slight advantage of ‘Iteration 2’ demonstrates that orientation of the plots would be most appropriate along the longest edge of the boundary condition. Variations in the orientation of multiple boundary conditions within the urban system will consequently help minimize solar exposure levels along the north/south axis. ‘Experiment 2’ included 2 Iterations, each iteration containing 10 populations. Full results can be referenced in the Appendix (Appendix/Experiments/Plot Distribution Strategies/Experiment 2)

Figure 4.86: Adjuested Staring Point Locations

Table 4.10: Comparison chart of Iteration 1 and 2.

Figure 4.87: Variations of building orientation are explored.

Table 4.11: Comparison chart of orientation results.

Experiment 3: Optimisation of Public Spaces

Experiment 3: Optimisation of Public Spaces

With the starting point and plot orientation established, further refinement of the aggregation system focuses on the public spaces being produced between the plots. Through re-evaluation of the fittest iteration in ‘Experiment 2’, it is altered by removing open areas that fail to meet a minimum size established for sufcient use as gathering points. This altered iteration is tested in comparison to the original, in order to reveal the most suitable system for developing well dispersed, and properly sized interstitial public spaces throughout the aggregation of plots within the boundary area. To identify the most successful solutions, the evaluation method is refined to provide both a collective assessment of each iteration, and to develop a ranking system between their individual populations.

Evaluation Refinement:

The evaluation method used in previous experiments permitted selection of the fittest individual based on an average of the values found per iteration. However, each of the fitness criteria contained vastly diferent value ranges, prohibiting the system to establish a cumulative value, limiting accurate analysis of the behaviour of each individual population in comparison to another.

The data collected and analysed for ‘Experiment 3’ will have the values remapped to a value within a uniform domain to address this limitation. Remapping will allow for more

clear comparison between evaluation data results, and ensure equally weighted values for multiple evaluation criteria. Without remapping the data, priority will be given to evaluation criteria that have data values with higher numerical ranges, inaccurately ranking its importance within the overall fitness of individuals of an iteration. Remapping is conducted by identifying the range of data values found in individuals of an iteration, and re-assigning the value of the highest ranked individual. The remaining individuals are evaluated as a ratio of this individual, and are assigned new values within the range of 0.00-1.00, or in situations where a lower value is more beneficial, its values range from -1.00-0.00. This process subsequently gives all

Average Comparison (Remapped)

data in the experiment the same range from which to be evaluated, and allows for the fittest individual population and collective iteration to be selected through summation of the total value of all the aspects assessed.

Parameters:

-Plots Size: Randomly range between 100-400 sqm (Extracted from Kerman study)

-Boundary Area: Quadrilateral (13,080 sqm)

-Plot Quantity: 50 units

-Starting Point for Aggregation: Centred along the longest edge

-Plot Orientations: Orientated parallel to longest edge of boundary condition

Variables:

-Refinement of Public Spaces

Observations: Through removal of open areas that are below a minimum established size for use as public spaces ( 1m), the ‘Coverage Ratio’ and ‘Porosity Ratio’ have very little change in value, showing only slight improvement. The ‘Proximity Average for Public Space’ and ‘Frequency Ratio for Public Space’ show mixed results, with some population values demonstrating improvement, while others fare worse. The Total Evaluation value of Population 2 in

‘Experiment 2/Iteration 2’ reveals that it ranks the highest of all populations tested. When comparing the cumulative averages of the Total Evaluation values in both iterations, ‘Experiment 3/ Iteration 1’ demonstrates a slightly better average value, ranking it as the fittest iteration overall.

(Table 4.12)

Analysis:

The method utilized to create ‘Experiment 3/Iteration 1’ minimized the irregular and impractical interstitial open areas throughout the plot aggregation, and provided more accurate measurements of the ‘Proximity Averages for Public Space’ in the experiment. This increased precision and reduction of unsuitable public spaces revealed that the collective performance of the populations within ‘Experiment 3/Iteration 1’ outweighed the higher individual performance of some of the populations within ‘Experiment 2/Iteration 2’ and is the most suitable system for developing well dispersed, and properly sized public spaces in our urban system.

‘Experiment 3’ included 2 Iterations, each iteration containing 10 populations. Full results can be referenced in the Appendix (Appendix/Experiments/Plot Distribution Strategies/Experiment 3)

Table 4.13: Comparison of the most fit opulations within iteration of Experiment 2.

Table 4.14: Comparison of the most fit opulations within iteration of Experiment 3.

Figure 4.88: Public space production throughout the building plos.

Table 4.12: Comparison of iteration results.

Plot Distribution Overall Conclusions:

Conducting these multiple experiments helped successfully establish a system for developing compact aggregations of building plots, with well-connected emergent open public spaces between them. Through establishing multiple evaluation criteria, the system takes into account several objectives to drive the dispersal of geometries and their resultant interstitial spaces throughout the parcel, developing a system with similar characteristics to those found within the case studies. This system will be utilised throughout the site on each parcel, and further evaluated to develop optimised networks throughout their organizations.

The five fittest individuals of the last study are selected to continue with the next set of experiments in order to develop the connecting network.

Network Strategies

Developing the connecting network

Figure 4.90:

Defining the connecting network

Several approaches are explored within the context of the five fittest individuals from the previous experiment (Reference Chapter: 4 Experiments/Plot Packing Strategies) to generate the minimum network required for fully connected parcels throughout the site, and to produce appropriate transitions through the multiple levels of privacy found in Arab culture. The resulting configurations will then be measured and assessed through several evaluation criteria, to establish the best strategy for network dispersal throughout the building plots and intestinal public spaces of the urban system.

Evaluation Criteria

Data results will be remapped to a value within a set domain to allow for a clearer comparison of populations across multiple evaluation criteria. Remapping is conducted by identifying the range of data values found within an evaluation criterion, and re-assigning the value of the highest ranked individual to a new domain limit. The remaining individuals within this evaluation criterion are remapped accordingly as a ratio of this individual, and are assigned new values within the range of 0.00-1.00, or in situations where a lower value is more beneficial, its values range from -1.00-0.00. This process subsequently gives all data in the experiment the same range from which to be evaluated, allowing for diferential weighting to be applied

among the multiple evaluation criteria. It is conducted by multiplying a value designated by the user with the values of an evaluation criterion, providing the user a metaheuristic approach to defining diferential levels of importance among multiple conflicting objectives in an experiment. Remapping data values from the refined nodes allows for better evaluation of the weighted criteria within each experiment, however, when analysing results in relation other experiments, the remapped values cannot be properly compared. Examination of their original values (Appendix/ Experiments/Network Development Strategies) is required to appropriately analyse value diferentials across multiple experiments.

Nodes (N) (Fig. 4.91)

-Quantity of Nodes (units)

-Diferential Weighting: 1.00(x)

-Ambition: Maximise the number of nodes throughout the parcel, located at intersections of network segments and public spaces, minimising opportunities for longer segments throughout the network to increase privacy.

Road Segments (RS) (Fig. 4.91)

-Quantity of Road Segments (units)

-Diferential Weighting: 1.00(x)

-Ambition: Minimise the number of segments throughout the network, reducing redundancies in the network while ensuring full connectivity.

Connection Length (CL) (Fig. 4.91)

-Length (m)

-Diferential Weighting: 1.50(x)

-Ambition: Minimise the length of the longest linear connection between nodes to increase areas of privacy.

Network Length (NL) (Fig. 4.91)

- Length (m)

-Diferential Weighting: 2.00(x)

-Ambition: Maximise the cumulative length of the network for the development of larger areas of semi-private space throughout the parcel.

Figure 4.91: Evaluation Criteria for development of the network.

Table 4.15: Average Comparison results.

Table 4.16: Remapped values.

Completed evaluation of the network within a parcel.

Experiment 1

This first investigation will explore development of a method to fully connect all the nodes in a parcel with the minimum possible cumulative length of the network. Nodes will be extracted from all building plot intersections, the centre of any open public space, and at the intersection of any building plot with the boundary condition of the parcel. The set of nodes established within the parcel will be connected with one another in all possible configurations and evaluated to establish its Minimum Spanning Tree.

(Reference: Chapter 3/Methods/Graph Theory/Minimum Spanning Tree) This will reveal a refined topological graph, representing the shortest configuration for connecting the parcel’s node set without creating any closed loops within the path. The optimised topological graph will be overlaid on the base grid of the network to establish the minimal network required to fully connect all nodes throughout the parcel.

Variables:

-Nodes: Extracted from all building plot intersections within the site and along the border condition

-Connecting Logic: Connection between all nodes throughout the parcel

-Connecting Path: Minimum Spanning Tree

-Base Grid to Evaluate: The edge components of all building plots within the boundary condition of the parcel

Observations: Development of a network to connect all the nodes throughout the site established mixed results across the multiple fitness criteria examined. All the tested criterion reveal high values, representing positive results for those which reward maximised value outputs such as the ‘Nodes’ and ‘Network Length’ criteria. However, criteria that reward minimum value outputs, including ‘Road Segments’ and ‘Connection Length’, demonstrate negative results that would not efciently drive the network.

4.18)

Analysis:

The resulting outcome provided the minimum length possible to connect all nodes within the network; however, a majority of individuals and clusters of building plots demonstrate multiple redundant connections within the network. This lack of refinement decreases the ability to ofer more defined paths of transition from one hierarchical level of privacy to another throughout the parcel, as found in the Kerman case study. (Reference: Chapter 3/Methods/ Case Studies/Kerman) Reduction of redundant connections in the network can be explored further through explorations into the nature of the node connections at the boundary condition and through emphasis of node connections between open public spaces, which demonstrate high levels of connectivity to building plots.

igure 4.92: Network Process Figure 4.93: Connecting Logic and Shortest Walk

Table 4.18: Remapped evaluation

Experiment 2

Expanding from ‘Experiment 1’, development of a network is explored through utilisation of more refined criteria for extracting and connecting nodes from the parcel. Focusing exclusively on nodes extracted from the centre of open public spaces, and from eight boundary condition points, a Minimum Spanning Tree is developed through evaluation of all possible node configurations. The connections of the resulting topological path are then analysed with consideration of the base grid to develop the Shortest Path

(Reference: Chapter 3/Methods/Graph Theory/Shortest Walk) required to connect all nodes throughout the parcel. The reduced amount of initial nodes will help develop a fully spanning network with less redundant connections, ofering more defined transitions through the multiple levels of privacy.

Variables:

-Nodes: Extracted from the end and mid-points of each edge of the parcel, and the centre points of the open public spaces.

-Connecting Logic: Initiated from nodes extracted from the boundary condition, connections are made with the nearest nodes extracted from the open public spaces, and proceed to connect with all other nodes extracted from the open public spaces on the site.

-Connecting Path: Minimum Spanning Tree through extracted nodes

-Base Grid to Evaluate: The edge components of all building plots within the boundary condition of the parcel

Observations: Evaluation of the resulting values demonstrates a decline in the quantity of nodes and overall length of the network, an outcome expected due to the refinement of nodes extracted for use in developing the network. With nearly half the quantity of nodes extracted as in ‘Experiment 1’, the quantity of ‘Road Segments’ and the maximum ‘Connection Length’ values both improved. (Table 4.20) Focusing on the cumulative result among all four evaluation criteria in the experiment, the resulting average values scored lower than ‘Experiment 1’, however, it can be seen in the Resulting Network (Fig 4.95) that the organisational outcome has less redundancy throughout the network, while still maintaining full connectivity throughout the site.

Analysis:

Through altering the Nodes to be used and adjusting their Connecting Logic (Fig 4.94), a much more concise, and direct network is generated. The reduced nodes around the boarder condition of the parcel allow for a well distributed set of entry points into the site, while maintaining a threshold that transitions from areas outside the boundary of the parcel into the more remote and private network of the parcel. The results developed through this organisational method reduce redundancy while maintaining a well distributed network throughout the

parcel. Transitions through the multiple levels of privacy are successfully achieved through a network focused on connecting open public spaces in a non-linear, yet most direct fashion, as seen in the traditional case studies.

Table 4.20: Remapped Values

Connecting Logic and Shortest Walk

Cannecting

Experiment 3

Continuing from ‘Experiment 2’, the same methodology will be explored, however the base grid utilised to run the Shortest Walk algorithm will be the resultant network developed from the Minimum Spanning Tree in ‘Experiment 1’. This will investigate networks driven by the placement of the refined topological graph within the context of the minimal network connecting all nodes within the parcel. Integrating the refined network from ‘Experiment 1’ will explore the development of a fully spanning network within the context of a base grid that has optimised connections to all nodes within the parcel. This step will attempt to further optimise connections and better define privacy transitions throughout the network.

Variables:

-Nodes: Extracted from the end and mid-points of each edge of the parcel, and the centre points of the open public spaces.

-Connecting Logic: Initiated from nodes extracted from the boundary condition, connections are made with the nearest nodes extracted from the open public spaces, and proceed to connect with all other nodes extracted from the open public spaces on the site.

-Connecting Path: Minimum Spanning Tree through extracted nodes

-Base Grid to Evaluate: The resulting network developed from the Minimum Spanning Tree in ‘Experiment 1’

Observations: Examining the tested criterion reveals values similar to those found in ‘Experiment 2’, with the quantity of Nodes and Road Segments averaging nearly the exact same values. Results deviated however when examining the lengths of the longest connecting paths, demonstrating an average increase throughout the tested networks, negatively impacting their Total Evaluation value. The average Network Length also increased, however, positively impacting the Total Evaluation value. (Table 4.22)

Analysis:

Utilising the network developed from the Minimum Spanning Tree in ‘Experiment 1’ as the base grid, the resulting path developed from the Shortest Walk through the patches demonstrated similar characteristics as found in ‘Experiment 2’. Limiting the paths accessible for the network to pass through forced more in-direct connections and successfully improved the average cumulative length of the network. This also however forced routes of the Shortest Walk algorithm that may not be the optimised condition if all of the base grid paths were available, causing the average Connection Length to increase. Although the Network Length shows larger average values, the increased average values of the Connection Length produces longer linear corridors throughout the parcel, afecting the development of privacy hierarchies throughout the site.

Table 4.22: Remapped Values

Network Strategies Overall Conclusion:

Exploration into these multiple methods of network generation and refinement has led to the development of a system capable of fully connecting the parcel while successfully corresponding to the hierarchies of privacy important in Arab culture. Driven by the characteristics and strategies found within traditional architectures of the region, the tessellated networks that were developed had variable success, and were comparatively analysed to help choose a system to utilise within the parcels of our site. ‘Experiment One’ successfully created a network to provide the minimum length possible to connect all possible intersections throughout the parcel and at its boarder condition. This approach revealed multiple redundant connections within the network, which impeded the development of privacy hierarchies throughout the site.

‘Experiment Two’ successfully addressed this issue with a refined network of nodes and connection conditions at the boarder of the parcel. It maintained connectivity to all building plots throughout the parcel, and created meandering branches of the network throughout the parcel to establish multiple interstitial spaces and hierarchies of privacy.

‘Experiment Three’ combined these two strategies with the goad of utilising the Minimal Network of ‘Experiment One’ with the Node refinement and Shortest Path procedure of ‘Experiment Two’ to develop a further developed system for

developing the network. This approach, however, did not demonstrate an improvement in its resulting values. Comparing the remapped values of the three experiments together (Table 4.16) prompts a critical evaluation of the data results, requiring concurrent visual analysis of the graphs and resulting networks to help choose the most efcient network system. Although the Average Comparison chart rates ‘Experiment 1’ as the top ranking network, the impact of its Network Length to its cumulative Total Evaluation was so great that it skewed the ability to compare all the experiments together. The data values suggest that it is most desirable for achieving networks appropriate for our desired results, however, it did not take into consideration redundancies in the graph and network, which when analysed reveal that this approach is not appropriate for our system. Given this consideration, ‘Experiment Two’ is clearly a more efcient and acceptable system, with ‘Experiment Three’ also showing more favourable results. Both will be considered and evaluated further throughout our subsequent design proposal to further test the results of each and choose a final approach for our network development system.

Building Morphologies

Impact of Wetlands On the Ground

15 Persons Number of households: 5 Number of Floors: 5 Wetland required: 600m

Figure 4.99:

Initial state of wetland impact considered for the experiments, One house hold

Initial State

Wetlands Impact

Overview

Through investigating the necessary requirements of localised natural water treatment processes throughout the system, several implementation methodologies will explore the potential viabilities of the system.

Parameters

-Average household size: 3

-Constructed wetland required per capita: 40 sqm

-Constructed wetlands required per household: 120 sqm

Experiment 1

Exploring the relationships between built area and constructed wetlands will develop an understanding of the impacts natural water treatment systems have at ground level and within buildings as they expand vertically. Wetland impacts are initially explored through their placement next to and on top of the built areas, identifying the spatial requirements and treatment possibilities of a single unit. (Fig. 4.100) To enable increases in density, integration of constructed wetlands within clusters of built areas explores the possibilities of vertical stacking and patterning of multiple household units. (Fig. 4.101)

This experiment will formulate the spatial requirements necessary for constructed wetlands per household unit, and will establish the ratios for necessary wetland requirements in relation to household units.

Impact of Wetland on Ground:

One household is initially explored through placement of a built unit coupled with the necessary constructed wetlands required to sustain it at the ground level. As household units begin to be added in the Z-axis, the wetland area

increases in the X and Y axes expanding outwards at the ground level. (Fig. 4.100)

Impact of Wetland on Roof: Expanding the surface area of the roof is explored as a viable option to accommodate the space necessary for wetlands. As the number of household units increase in the z-axis, the roof area expands its coverage to accommodate the treatment needs of the households. (Fig. 4.100)

Impact of Coupling Wetlands and Households: Through clustering units in a three by three aggregation, eight household units surround a centre core to establish a base. As additional floors are added, household units are removed and replaced by constructed wetland units as required to sustain the density and treatment production of the building. (Fig. 4.101)

Analysis

Through integration of wetlands located at the ground level or through roof surfaces, vertical stacking is constrained to handle a maximum of five household units before reaching its water treatment capacities, restricting density levels to only 15 people per 700 sqm. Although not architecturally viable for a highly dense urban system, these two options establish ratios between the building morphology and the constructed wetlands. Through coupling household units and water treatment units as ratios of one another as they expand vertically, the possibility arises for their relationships to be weighted for either higher densities levels or higher levels of water treatment. With this variability, a wide range of building options becomes available, based on the desired density levels or amount water treatment necessary to sustain of the system.

Impact of Wetlands On the Roof

15 Persons Number of households: 5 Number of Floors: 5 Wetland required: 600m2

Figure 4.100: Wetland impact on ground and roof.

Two Floors

24 Persons Number of households: 8 Wetland required: 960m Actual Wetland: 900m Spare Wetland: -60m

One Floor

21 Persons Number of households: 7 Wetland required: 840m2

Actual Wetland: 1000m2

Spare Wetland: 160m2

Figure 4.101: Integration of wetlands within a building

Four Floors

33 Persons

Number of households: 11 Wetland required: 1320m

Actual Wetland: 1400m2

Spare Wetland: 80m2

Three Floors

48 Persons Number of households: 15 Wetland required: 1800m2

Actual Wetland: 1800m2

Spare Wetland: 0m2

57 Persons

Number of households: 19 Wetland required: 2280m

Actual Wetland: 2200m

Spare Wetland: -80m

Five Floors

69 Persons Number of households: 23 Wetland required: 2640m2

Actual Wetland: 2700m2

Spare Wetland: 60m

Incorporating natural water treatment systems and considering social, cultural and climatic aspects.

Figure 4.102: Resulting buildings considering the integration of wetlands within buildings using computational methods

Figure 4.103:

Example of an Initial state and next 2 generation applied

Build Volume: 29700.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 79

People: 237

Wetland surface area needed: 9480 m

Actual wetland in the building: 8100.0 m2

Wetland difference: 1380.0 m

Rule 011

Experiment 2

Continued from Experiment 1, the logic of constructed wetland integration within the building is further explored through a systematic approach to their organisation. Utilisation of cellular automaton will establish ratios between built (households units) and unbuilt (wetland units) cells through rules for patterning their aggregation. The rule set to drive a cellular automaton can be read from the bottom three cells, comprised of the configuration of states for the centre cell, and its two immediate neighbour cells. There are 23 = 8 possible configurations a cell can take in relation to its neighbours. The fourth cell above this configuration specifies the state the centre cell will take in the next generation, resulting in 28 = 256 possible cellular automata rules.

Each time the experiment is ran it starts in one of a possible 28 = 256 initial states, with each subsequent generation stacked on top of the previous. (Fig. 4.103 Each of these 256 initial states were tested with each set of 256 cellular automata rules. The resulting 65,536 possible aggregation outcomes were evaluated and graphed to develop a catalogue of potential building options. A small percentage (0.037%) of which are represented from the results of ‘Initial State 16’ on the following pages. (Fig. 4.110)

Initial State Case 016

Second Generation Case 016_Rule 011

Twentieth Generation

Flat Cellular Automata

Figure 4.104:

Twentieth Generation:

Throughout the experiments generations were kept constant at 20 generations to represent a mid-high rise building.

Figure 4.105: Flat Cellular Automaton:

Seen as a sequence of generations from top to bottom, CA’s can begin to develop patterns based on their CA rule

Third Generation Case 016_Rule 011

Solar exposure levels of typical aggregation configurations were then investigated to explore the amount of light penetration within the areas reserved for wetlands. These studies are tested within multiple configurations and throughout the seasons of the year in the following pages.

Qualities Measured

-Ratios of wetland area/built area

-Production of water

-Density

-Solar exposure

Building Core

Figure 4.106: Building Core:

To ensure viability of the design, each tower includes a consistent ‘Building Core’ allowing for basic elements such as stairwells and utilities to be included which are necessary for a functional tower.

Figure 4.107: The facades wrap around the core:

Transitioning from the 2D structure of wetlands and households into a 3D tower is achieved by wrapping its morphology around the building core until both ends connect together.

Figure 4.108: The facades wrap around the core.

Figure 4.109: The facades wrap around the core.

The Facade Wraps Around the Core.

The Facade Wraps Around the Core.

The Facade Wraps Around the Core.

Figure 4.110: Some of the resulting buildings considering the integration of wetlands..

Experiments Sample

Rule 062

Rule 037 Build Volume: 24300.0 m

Envolope: 18000 m3 Number of floors: 20

Build Volume: 15000.0 m Volume Envolope: 18000 m

of floors: 20

30

90

Wetland surface area needed: 3600 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 13000.0 m

Wetland difference: -9400.0

Build Volume: 33600.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 92

People: 276

Wetland surface area needed: 11040 m

Actual wetland in the building: 6800.0 m2

Wetland difference: 4240.0 m

Rule 087

Build Volume: 30300.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 81

People: 243

Wetland surface area needed: 9720 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 7900.0 m

Wetland difference: 1820.0 m

Rule 101

Build Volume: 30000.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 80

People: 240

Wetland surface area needed: 9600 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 8000.0 m2

Wetland difference: 1600.0 m2

Rule 155

building: 8300.0 m2

Wetland difference: 940.0 m

Rule 094

Build Volume: 29400.0 m

Volume Envolope: 18000 m3

Number of floors: 20 Houses: 78

People: 234

Wetland surface area needed: 9360 m

Actual wetland in the building: 8200.0 m2

Wetland difference: 1160.0 m2

Rule 124

Build Volume: 31500.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m3

Number of floors: 20 Houses: 85 People: 255

Wetland surface area needed: 10200 m

Actual wetland in the building: 7500.0 m2

Wetland difference: 2700.0 m

Rule 161

difference: -2580.0 m

Build Volume: 43500.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 125

People: 375

Wetland surface area needed: 15000 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 3500.0 m

Wetland difference: 11500.0 m

Build Volume: 25800.0 m

Volume Envolope: 18000 m3

Number of floors: 20 Houses: 66 People: 198

Wetland surface area needed: 7920 m

Actual wetland in the building: 9400.0 m

Wetland difference: -1480.0 m2

Sun Exposure Studies

Autumn and winter demonstrate high levels of solar access, with the remainder of the year supplying moderate levels of light into the space.

East-west strips provide the best scenario for solar access, especially during the winter months, with more than 10 hours of direct sunlight.

Interior Pockets drastically reduce the solar levels that penetrate into the building. There is almost no direct sunlight into the north openings. This is the worst position for wetlands out of the tested cases.

Similar to the east-west strips, there is an overall high solar gain that is fairly constant throughout the year, with direct sun exposure between 4 and 8 hours a day.

An increase in ceiling height allows for a substantial elevation in solar gain throughout all four seasons.

With extended ceiling height, the eastwest strip continues to demonstrate the best performance out of all the cases, allowing for deep penetration into the openings.

Even though the ceiling height has doubled, its impact is fairly minimal, as this scenario still demonstrates poor sun exposure throughout the majority of the year.

Similar to the east-west strips, doubling the ceiling heights allows for increased solar exposure, with near continual exposure levels throughout the year.

Rule 222

Rule 246

Figure 4.111: Graphs, analysis of the resulting buildings versus the number of buildings with diferent initial states.

Build Volume: 39000.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 110

People: 330

Wetland surface area needed: 13200 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 5000.0 m

Wetland difference: 8200.0 m

Rule 15

Build Volume: 44100.0 m

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 127

People: 381

Wetland surface area needed: 15240 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 3300.0 m

Wetland difference: 11940.0 m

Rule 195

Build Volume: 30000.0 m

Volume Envolope: 18000 m

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 80

People: 240

Wetland surface area needed: 9600 m

Actual wetland in the building: 8000.0 m2

Wetland difference: 1600.0 m2

Analysis:

To better analyse the dispersal of buildings throughout the spectrum of results, 256 graphs were developed, each representing an initial start state for the cellular automaton. Within each graph of an initial state, the resulting buildings created from each of the 256 cellular automata rules were plotted. Their dispersals were analysed to present the number of buildings developed within each of the ten percentage ranges of wetland area. There were four common types of dispersals found within the graphs. (Figs. 4.111) ‘Initial State 44’ represents the graphs with a dispersed bell curve, indicating the percentage of wetland was distributed fairly evenly throughout each of the 10 ranges evaluated. ‘Initial State 43’ represents the graphs which had a tighter distribution of buildings located primarily within the centre of the 10 ranges evaluated. ‘Initial State 170’ illustrates graphs with clustered dispersals primarily in mid-range ratios and the two extremes of the graph, with little in-between. Lastly, the graph of ‘Initial State 255’ exhibits graph types with

distribution predominantly in the low level of integration within buildings.

Analysis of the solar conditions demonstrated high levels of exposure for wetlands located on the southern portions of the building, with early no direct sunlight exposure within areas on the northern end. The wetlands demonstrated longer hours of exposure during the winter months, due to the reduced angle of the sun penetrating light deeper into the building openings. Opening locations on corners of the building also allowed for additional solar exposure compared to openings in the centre of the building due to access to light penetration coming from the east and west of the building. Doubling the height of the openings improved the solar penetration for all the aggregation organisations.

Conclusion:

Through evaluation of the 65,536 buildings created by cellular automaton, the resulting aggregations were analysed and catalogued based on their ratios of built to unbuilt area. Several distinct aggregation categories were identified from these results. On one spectrum of the results, buildings were capable of treating more wastewater than what was necessary to produce to sustain their inhabitants. These buildings have the disadvantage of being low in density, but they have the potential to assist in the water treatment demands of adjacent buildings incapable of fulfilling their own needs. On the opposite spectrum of the buildings analysed, were aggregations comprised of more built cells than unbuilt cells. Those within this spectrum are high in density, but lack the constructed wetlands necessary to support the treatment of waste water to sustain their own needs. Between these two extremes, the remaining buildings demonstrated a capacity of treating just above or below the amount of wastewater they required to bear their own needs.

Build Volume: 44400.0 m3

Volume Envolope: 18000 m3

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 128

People: 384

Wetland surface area needed: 15360 m

Actual wetland in the building: 3200.0 m2

Wetland difference: 12160.0 m2

Rule 109

Build Volume: 39600.0 m

Volume Envolope: 18000 m3

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 112

People: 336

Wetland surface area needed: 13440 m

Actual wetland in the building: 4800.0 m

Wetland difference: 8640.0 m2

Rule 188

Build Volume: 30000.0 m

Volume Envolope: 18000 m3

Number of floors: 20

Houses: 80

People: 240

Wetland surface area needed: 9600 m2

Actual wetland in the building: 8000.0 m Wetland difference: 1600.0 m

The solar exposure studies were essential to establish whether these organisational layouts were viable for wetland growth. Although difused light also enters into the space, the analysis indicates that due to low light access deep within the building openings, issues may arise with viability of plant growth. Taking also into consideration the probable solar exposure loss due to shading conditions of the neighbouring building morphologies, this system of developing building morphologies was no longer pursued.

4.112: Building morphologies selection

Case 00 -

Courtyard Studies

Overview

Examination of vernacular low rise buildings will establish a catalogue of the environmental and privacy conditions that result from the organisational relationships of building geometries and private courtyards.

The initial experiment explores how placement of the building geometry within the site afects the number of sunlight hours the courtyard area is subject to receive. This solar analysis is then evaluated to map out the optimal placement of plant types based their level of solar tolerance. Each case is then evaluated to measure the level of privacy the courtyards ofer within each of organisational layouts.

Study 1: Courtyard Sunlight Exposure & Vegetation

Integration

A series of parcels measuring 15x15 meters were evaluated to examine the environmental conditions resulting from vernacular building geometries and private courtyard spaces as found in the region. Each case is analysed as a single storey and double storey building, establishing ten case conditions to evaluate. Solar exposure levels examine the number of hours of sunlight measured in the courtyard. Privacy Ratios are quantified through measurement of the surfaces exposed at eye level from outside the parcel. The variations in placement, shape, height and orientation of

the buildings will demonstrate the varying impacts building geometry has on levels of privacy as well as measure the total amount of sunlight hours exposed within the private courtyard.

Qualities Measured:

-Built Area

-Open Surface Area

-Solar Exposure Hours

-Privacy

Observations:

-Single Storey Solar Analysis

Analysing the organisation of building geometries and courtyard spaces as single stories provides a range of observations that can be abstracted from the data. The placement of building geometry on the site did little to vary the average sunlight hours during the summer months, with most cases averaging over 8 hours of exposure. (Case 00, 01, 02, 03) However, it did afect the average sunlight hours during the winter months more dramatically, with the location of the building geometry in the centre of the site demonstrating the least hours of exposure. (Case 02) The placement of building geometry at the north and south ends of the site exhibit similar solar conditions in both summer and winter due to their large surface areas of open courtyard space. (Case 00, 03) A courtyard space enclosed on at least three sides within the building geometry dramatically reduces the average sunlight hours during the summer months, while still maintaining several hours of solar exposure during the winter months. (Case 01, 04) The corresponding bar graph demonstrates this organisational strategy provides the most evenly dispersed hours of sunlight over the surface area, primarily in a range 3-5 hours, with only a few areas experiencing lower or higher amounts of solar exposure. (Case 04)

-Double Storey Solar Analysis

Maintaining the same organisation of building geometries and courtyard spaces, the building heights are increased to double stories and further analysed. All five cases demonstrated increased shadow coverage from the heightened geometries, decreasing their levels of solar exposure within the courtyards. The two most extreme single storey cases continued to characterise the highest levels of average sunlight hours, with only minimal change to the amount of solar exposure their courtyards were subject to. (Case 00, 03) Courtyards enclosed on at least three sides by the building demonstrated dramatic diferences in the average sunlight hours in comparison to their accompanying main open courtyard space. (Case 01, 04)

Figure 4.113: Evaluation of typical single and double storey low-rise buildings.

F

4.114: Evaluation of typical single and double storey low-rise buildings.

Figure 4.115: Evaluation of typical single and double storey low-rise buildings.

Figure 4.116: Evaluation of typical single and double storey low-rise buildings.

Privacy Ratios

It can be observed that as single stories, all cases resulted in the highest possible privacy ratio. However, when the cases changed from a single storey to a double storey, their privacy ratios diminished. The geometries with lower amounts of vertical surface area and without inlets or centre open spaces were more exposed and resulted in lower privacy ratios. (Case 02, Case 03) The highest performing double storey case contained a completely enclosed centre space ensuring high levels of privacy. (Case 04)

Figure 4.117: Solar analysis and wetland viabilitiy tests.

Conclusions

These case studies, as both single and double storey buildings demonstrate the importance building placement and enclosure has in defining average sunlight hours on courtyard surfaces. Height helps mediate these levels, but only at a minimal amount compared to the impact placement and orientation of building geometry has on solar exposure. This varying level of solar exposure, however, ofers the opportunity to explore further the placement of plant species dependent on their ability to handling sunlight. Building geometries also had impacts on privacy ratios, demonstrating that height can diminish privacy by exposing more vertical surface area; however, this loss can be ofset with enclosed, highly private centre spaces. Understanding and cataloguing these results will help inform organisational strategies and building geometries within further experiments for the development of our urban system.

‘Study 1’ included 10 cases, each case tested in all cardinal directions, with the most optimal orientations presented in this chapter. Full results can be referenced in the Appendix (Appendix/Experiments/Building Morphologies/Low Rise: Courtyard Studies)

Design Development

Site p.130

Cells p.132

Public Spaces p.140

Urban Wetland Integration p.146

Network Development p.150

Test Patch p.152

Building Morphologies p.164

Low Rise p.166

Low-Rise Sections p.186

High Rise p.196

High-Rise Sections p.216

Conclusions p.235

Design Development Overview

The culmination of the previously explored methods and experiments leads to the development of a design proposal to address the issues presented within Doha, Qatar. Through implantation of these strategies on a chosen site, population densities are dispersed, networks are developed and optimised, and building typologies are positioned to create a system aimed at demonstrating the viability of the urban system.

Photograph 5.46: Doha skyline

Source: <http://www. qia-qatar.com/content/ doha-city-tour>

Site

Doha, Qatar

Source:

Source: A. Ahmed <http://static. panoramio.com

Photograph 5.47: Contrast between the West-End building morphology (High rises) and the rest of the city.

Source: Deep Ghosh <https://www.flickr. com/groups/1599245@ N24/>

The chosen site to test the urban system is located along the Qatari coastline of the Arabian Gulf, allowing for access to seaside winds and a relatively flat and empty patch of desert. Covering an area of 13.62 ksqm, this patch will be designed to support 150,000 people at an average density of 109.8 per hectare, similar to rates found within central Doha. Located midway between two major Qatari cities, Doha and Al Khor, the site is subject to their continued outward expansion, leading to its increasing and density development in the near future.

Cells

Cells as containers of information

Figure 5.121: Rules defining preferential attachment

Cell Types

With the site chosen and an overall desired density established, a systematic approach for dispersing population levels is developed, informing the resulting amount of wetland required to sustain them. Within a series of cells types, each cell represents a collection of information in regards to density, ratios of function type, and their consequential water consumption levels. (Fig 5.72) Analysis of tissue samples from Frankfurt, Manhattan and Amsterdam informed the characteristics of each of the cell types. Leading ‘Cell A’ to be primarily residential based, ‘Cell B’ to be mostly ofce based, and ‘Cell C’ to be comprised of evenly split function types. The distribution of cells on the site will allow for a variation of density levels and wetland dispersal within the urban system.

Growth Strategy

The growth strategy begins with the placement of a cell on the site from which to start from. Its cell type is randomly chosen and additional cells begin to connect based on preferential attachment rules. This procedure disperses population densities based levels found in surrounding neighbours, allowing for a gradual transition between areas of low and high density. The probability of the selection of a cell type for placement on the site is controlled through a weighted probability algorithm, adjusting the ratios between cell types on the site in order to achieve an overall desired population level.

Figure 5.122: Steps for cells aggregation process.

Figure 5.123: Three diferent

starting points for the cell aggregation process.

Starting points

Study 00

Table 5.23:

Possible cells distributions, highlighting the three selected ones to run the experiments using diferent starting points

Population 150,916

Number of Cell types

Cell A 28

Cell B 16

Study 01 )0

Population 150,569

Number of Cell types Cell A 11 Cell B : 23 Cell C : 39

Study 02 )0

Population : 150,053

Number of Cell types

Cell A : 39

Cell B 11

Cell C : 29

Figure 5.124:

Experiments based on the three selected distribution running from three diferent starting points

PopulationCell ACell BCell CStandard Deviation

1495772915296.60

149706 22 18336.34

1498153413 26 8.65

1498351521 37 9.29

149944 27 1630 6.02

15005339112311.47

1500732019346.85

1501823214 27 7.59

15020213 22 3810.34

1503112517315.73

150420 37 12 24 10.21

150440182035 7.59

1505493015286.65

15056911233911.47

1506782318325.79

1507873513258.99

1508071621368.50

1509162816295.91

1510254011 22 11.95

1510452119336.18

1511543314 26 7.85

Cell Ratios

Each cell covers an area of 21 hectares, permitting a total 73 cells to fit on the site. This allows for a population range from 86,724 up to 255,500 depending on the ratios of the difering cells. All combinations of cell types were calculated and their resulting population levels were assessed to find all arrangements that come within 1% of the target population range. (Table 5.5) Of these, three combinations are further evaluated, two that are closest to the targeted population goal, and one which had the lowest standard deviation between the ratios of cell types throughout the site.

Population 150,916

Number of Cell types

Cell A 28

Cell B 16 Cell C : 29

Study 03 )1

Population 150,569

Number of Cell types Cell A 11 Cell B : 23 Cell C : 39

Study 04 )1

Population : 150,053

Number of Cell types

Cell A : 39

Cell B 11

Cell C : 29

Study 05 )1

Population 150,916

Number of Cell types

Cell A 28

Cell B 16

Cell C : 29

Study 06 )2

Aggregation and Starting Points

Three starting points were established to test the behaviour of the aggregation of cells throughout the site. Locating points in the centre, Northwest and Southeast corners, these points examine how the relationship between the starting point and the border condition has an efect in the organisation of cell types. (Fig 5.75)

Each of starting positions develops a unique pattern of dispersal, either flowing along the border condition or through the middle of the site. Variations in the ratios of cell types allow for some patters to emerge, with some studies having more defined clustering of types, and others developing a more mixed distribution. (Fig 5.76)

Population 150,569

Number of Cell types Cell A 11 Cell B : 23 Cell C : 39

Study 07 )2

Population : 150,053

Number of Cell types

Cell A : 39 Cell B 11

Cell C : 29

Study 08 )2

Clustering

Cells are coupled together to develop regional clusters that can collectively sustain themselves, permitting autonomy from other clusters in the treatment, storage and reintegration of water. Each cluster allows for the urban systems within them to collectively accommodate fluctuations in population or function within the cells of the cluster.

Cells cluster with their neighbours in the order they were placed on the site until they reach a collective population of 7000-9000 people. (Fig. 5.77) In most studies, a range of 3-8 cells are required to meet this population level within a cluster.(Fig 5.78) Clusters with the most similar amounts of cells within them also have comparable surface areas. (Fig.5.79) Analysis of the clustering studies shows that Study 05 demonstrates the most similarity in cluster types, which will maintain density variations, allowing it to develop a heterogeneous urban landscape.

Figure 5.128: Selected clustering Cluster Analysis 73 individual cells grouped together into 19 clusters.

Clustered Site

Through this systematic distribution of population across the site, the information that is coupled with the resulting clusters informs parameters which will drive the manner in which the site will develop. Factors such as population, density, surface area, buildable area and wetland impact will continually be referenced from these studies throughout the development of the urban system.

Figure 5.129: Analysis of clustered cells informs future development of the parcels on the site.

Figure 5.131:

Wetlands as a public park based on the most integrated nodes. The park is defining the subdivision as an attractor and density distribution

Public Spaces

Water Route and Storage Points

Re-adjustment of nodes to be part of the site boundary

Relocation of Storage Points

Figure 5.134: Work flow steps to define the public wetland and building density distribution.

Low-rise High-rise Mid-rise Park Wetlands

Public Park as Main Public Wetland

Figure 5.132: Wetlands required for the site according to density.

Overview

Given that 40 sqm of constructed wetland is required to treat the average daily grey water output per person, the amount of surface area to sustain 150,000 people would necessitate 36% of the entire site. Of this amount of required wetland, 60% will be integrated within buildings and courtyards, and the remaining 40% will be located at ground level as public wetlands. These public wetlands are usable parks that also act as water purification systems for neighbouring built morphologies. Therefore, their incorporation within the urban system should be within the most integrated parts of the site to minimise water flow distances throughout the system.

Figure 5.133: Public wetlands percentage defining the public park.

Initial Parcellation

Through the clustering of cells throughout the site, each cluster has individual water storage. In order to allow for shifts in density distribution and fluctuation of water demand, these storage points need to be interconnected to help each other overcome these variations.

Storage points are connected through the application of Delaunay Triangulation which returns a triangular subdivision on the site through all of the points. (Fig. 5.134) These points are then further refined to more evenly and fully connect the site.

Integration Analysis (Betweenness Centrality)

Connection of most Integrated Nodes (Minimum Spaning Tree)

Park Wetlands cover the most integrated part of the site 15%

Height of building distribution in relation to the park

Modification of building height distribution based on most integrated nodes of the site

Low-rise High-rise Mid-rise Park Wetlands

Public Wetland

From this connected network, betweenness centrality is applied to identify the most integrated and traversed nodes within the site. (Fig. 5.134) These nodes, primarily located in the centre of the site and along the coastline, are then connected with a minimum spanning tree to establish the shortest possible network that connects all points in a set. (Fig 5.134) This connected network is what defines the location of our public wetland, ensuring high connectivity within the site. (Fig 5.134)

Parcel Subdivision

With the public wetland located within the site, a recursive subdivision algorithm was applied to diversify parcel size

Low-rise

Park Wetlands

throughout the site. Two approaches were considered and tested for determining block size. The initial approach established more connection points and resulted in smaller parcel sizes that were closer to the public wetlands. This method allowed for inhabitants of low rise typologies to more easily access the public wetlands. However, this decreased over all connection to the park, given that larger parcels which housed higher densities of inhabitants were located farther away from the public wetlands. (Fig. 5.131)

The second method attempted to approach this condition by locating the high rise parcels nearest the most connected nodes within the site, with lower density parcels in less integrated areas. This provides the highest number of people to the most accessible areas of the site.

Figure 5.135: Public squares based on Closeness Centrality,

Closeness Centrality Analysis per Cluster

Location of Public Squares

Figure 5.137:

Clustering analysis of integration with the public squares to define subdivision and density distribution.

Low-rise High-rise Mid-rise Park Wetlands

Locating Public

Squares

Figure 5.136:

Clustering used to analyse the integration

Once the public wetland and initial subdivisions are established on the site, closeness centrality analysis of each cluster establishes the areas of highest connectivity (Fig. 5.137) for placement of public squares. With the locations of the public squares, each cluster is analysed further for additional subdivision, in a similar manner as the public wetlands. (Fig. 5.137) Parcel subdivisions within each cluster position the high rise parcels nearest the most connected nodes within the site, with lower density parcels in less integrated areas, generally further away from the public square. This allows for the highest number of people within the cluster to have access to their local public space.

Cluster Target

Evaluation of Public Square within a cluster based on Closeness Centrality

Evaluation of the subdivided cluster based on Closeness Centrality

7000 People

low high

low high

Final Subdivision, Public Squares and Park

Low-rise5.4 km2

Mid-rise1.8 km2

High-rise 4.6 km2

Park Wetlands1.8 km2

Total Surface Area 13.6 km2

Merging public wetlands and pubic squares layer

Urban Wetland Integration

Examining Spatial Qualities

Development of the park wetland was driven through the ecological requirements of plant species, coupled with the impacts of their physical characteristics on the site. Diverse plant species can handle difering solar exposure levels, and provide variations in shading abilities, density, and visibility. The park wetland running though the centre of the site meets with multiple road network types, prompting strategic placement of plant species to allow or discourage views throughout these areas. These variations in plant characteristic allow for the development of diferentiated spatial and microclimatic conditions within the park wetland to establish a heterogeneous landscape throughout the site.

Park Wetland Production

1,786,502 (m2) area of the park wetlands on site

17,865,020 (L) total treated water from the main park

Figure 5.143: Belowground vehicle integration.

Figure 5.144: Above ground vehicle integration.

Photograph 5.49:

Branching network of a tree

Source: David Hulme <http://www.flickr. com/photos/davidhulme/5269425862/>

Network Development

Diferentiation of System Hierarchies

Figure 5.145: Betweenness centrality analysis

Three network typologies are established through evaluation of the parcel subdivisions across the site. The primary road network is informed through betweenness centrality analysis of the network, which finds the paths with the highest probability of being utilised when traversing from one node to another. This resulting network contains the most integrated paths, with a width of 22m. The secondary road network is based on the initial subdivision established through the Delaunay Triangulation, creating localized road connections that are 11.5m wide. Lastly a pedestrian network aims to have as many uninterrupted paths as possible while minimising intersections. These pathways are located along road networks and as dedicated pedestrian pathways 3.5m wide, to minimise sun exposure and promote use.

Betweenness Centrality Analysis on First Level of Subdivision

Low-rise

Sections of Roads and Streets Based on Downtown Doha

Sections of Roads and Streets Based on Downtown Doha

Sections of Roads and Streets Based on Downtown Doha

Primary Secondary Pedestrian

Primary Secondary Pedestrian

Primary Secondary Pedestrian

The construction and the structure of graphs or networks is the key to understanding the complex world around us.”126

Albert-László Barabási

High-rise Mid-rise Park Wetlands

Figure 5.148: Outcome of network development, indicating the specific patch for further development

Test Patch

System development

Park Wetlands and Public Spaces

Relationship of network integration and building height

With each cluster’s subdivision established, information of the floor area and the wetland required for its population is utilised to develop each cluster’s urban morphology. (Fig 5.149) Each building typology is dispersed based on the parcel subdivisions throughout the clusters within the site. The level of integration each parcel subdivision has within the network is analysed and informs the extruded building height. This relationship between network integration and building heights allows for increased floor areas and higher densities within the most well-connected areas of the site.

(Fig 5.150)

Evaluation of Pedestrian Network

From the developed network and morphology, two tissue samples within the patch were evaluated to analyse the amount influence building heights and street widths have on the resulting sun exposure levels within the site. Focusing on Study A, high density typologies aren’t provided enough access to sun in both the summer and winter because of very narrow adjacent roads. However Study B, comprised of primarily low rise typologies, demonstrates a more balanced exposure level, allowing some solar access in the winter season, yet still providing some shadows during the summer. (Fig. 5.153)

Study A

Study B

Figure 5.154: Close-up view of the patch

Study 01

Street widths that are 6m wide provide shade throughout the year, with some solar access for 4-6 hours a day during the summer months.

Optimisation of the Initial Network

Figure 5.155: Street analysis of Shibam in diferent seasons

To better optimize solar exposure levels within the road networks, a small study examines the solar conditions at ground level based on street width and orientation (Fig. 5.156) Four test patches are developed and are evaluated for both winter and summer solar exposure. These eight tests contain a set of buildings 12 stories high, with street widths ranging from 6-24m. Analysis of these studies indicates how to develop a system of varying street widths to better control solar exposure and promote pedestrian use within a network.

Study 02

Doubling the width to 12m wide, the streets develop two distinct characteristics, almost completely shading the north-south streets for the entire year, with solar access only to streets running east-west during the summer months.

Figure 5.156:

Pedestrian roads solar analysis in diferent seasons with a width variation

Study 03

At 18m wide, the street demonstrates very similar solar access to what occurs at a width of 12m. This allows for further expansion of widths on along the north-south streets, providing shade while allowing for additional wind flow.

Study 04

Widening the streets even further, to 24m, we find that the shading condition still remains along the north-south axis for a majority of the day, only being exposed for four hours a day

Re-evaluated Network

From the previous tests and analysis, east-west pedestrian streets demonstrate high levels of solar exposure, limiting their widths to expand to a maximum of 6m. North-south pedestrian streets however are able to increase up to 18m wide, while still providing sufcient shading conditions. Given the non-linearity of the streets throughout the site, their orientation varies to a great degree, alternating shading conditions throughout the lengths of many streets. (Fig. 5.159) An algorithm evaluates street orientation within the network and adjusts their widths accordingly to better accommodate or discourage solar access. These changes allow for both increased public space and better environmental conditions throughout the entire urban system. (Fig. 5.158)

Figure 5.157: Patch network and tissue samples

Figure 5.158: Pedestrian roads optimisation logic according to orientation

Tissue Sample A Before

Tissue Sample B After

Tissue Sample A After

Tissue Sample B Before

Figure 5.159: Pedestrian street tissue sample before and after optimisation

Building Morphologies

Development of strategies considering social, cultural and climatic aspects.

Proximity to Park Wetland

To ensure viability of higher population densities within the most integrated areas of the site, a systematic approach for determining the water treatment capacities within building morphologies is established. Based on their proximity to the park wetlands, parcels located closer distances are capable of placing a higher reliance on the park wetlands to assist in their water treatment needs. This will require a smaller portion of their building morphologies to be devoted to the integration of constructed natural wetlands, and allow for a higher population of inhabitants within the building morphology. Those located further distances away require a larger portion of their morphologies to be devoted to constructed wetland systems, and capable of meeting the needs of smaller populations. Through feedbacks regulating the proximities and relationships between elements within the site, a system emerges that drives the morphology of the buildings and the capacities of their metabolic processes in relation to the collective ecology.

Low Rise

Development of strategies considering social, cultural and climatic aspects.

Overview

Novel low-rise building morphologies and network organisations will be generated throughout the parcels, driven by the requirements of the ecological processes, climatic conditions, and sociocultural modalities abstracted from sample tissues of case studies.

Building of traditional courtyard typologies and urban networks, the metrics and relationships of their geometries will be extracted to establish a design methodology capable of developing a more culturally specific approach for the system. Further incorporation of ecological processes will explore the spatial impacts of constructed natural wetland systems within low-rise morphologies and will demonstrate their role as drivers of public space with diferent hierarchies. These factors are further shaped by the local climatic conditions of the region, moulding and organising the development of morphologies for optimised levels of solar exposure or shading as desired throughout the system. These arrangements will produce highly performative novel low-rise building morphologies and network organisations, capable of negotiating environmental conditions, managing hydrological flows, arranging infrastructural networks and creating complex spatial and microclimatic environments.

Figure 5.165: Application of plots on site.

Figure 5.166: Seperation for extended wetlands.

Plot Distribution

Table 5.24: Ana;ysis of plot distribution.

Plot Distribution

Low-rise plot distribution is informed through methods developed from the plot experiments, and employed for use throughout areas of the system. (Reference: Chapter 4/ Experiments/Plot Distribution) Exploring the development of one parcel on the site, the chosen process for low-rise aggregation is presented. Informed by the metrics and relationships extracted from the Kerman case study, this process demonstrates a systematic dispersal of geometries that best address the cultural modalities of the region with through emergence of semi-public spaces throughout the parcel.

The process initially quarters the parcel, allowing for extensions of the park wetlands to penetrate into the area as open public space, establishing four distinct blocks for the plot aggregation to be applied to. Informed by strategies developed in the plot distribution experiment, dispersal begins along the longest edge of each boundary condition and aggregates accordingly until the entirety of the space is occupied, with the emergence of interstitial semi-public spaces throughout their geometries. This process is conducted for five populations and evaluated with one another to establish the highest ranking population to be used within the parcel.

Plot Distribution On Selected Patch (Overall Evaluation)

Table 5.25: Oversll plot distribution.

Connecting Network Outcome

Network Development

Network Development

Continuing within the same parcel of the site, the methodologies developed in the network development experiments are employed to analyse possible connections and establish a network throughout the low-rise plots.

(Reference: Chapter 4/Experiments/Network Development)

Informed by the metrics and relationships extracted from the Kerman case study, this process generates the minimum network required for fully connected parcels throughout the site, and produces appropriate transitions through multiple levels of privacy, in accordance with the cultural modalities of the region.

The process initially starts by extracting nodes the centre of open public spaces, and from eight boundary condition points, a Minimum Spanning Tree is then developed through evaluation of all possible configurations between nodes. The connections of the resulting topological paths are then analysed with consideration of the base grid to develop the Shortest Path required to connect all nodes throughout the parcel.

Network

Network Development on Selected Patch (Remapped Values)

Plots and Emergent Social Spaces

Building Generation

Overview

The afects geometry and orientation have on local environmental conditions and levels of privacy were explored in a previous experiment (Reference Chapter: 4 Experiments/Courtyard Studies) and catalogued to help drive the development of building morphologies. The results are based on circumstances the of variable characteristics, and categorised into four main types of courtyard building morphologies comprised of one, two, three or four sides, and enclosed by a single storey wall surrounding the parcels perimeter. (Fig 5.171) These four characteristic types are to be explored in a multiobjective genetic algorithm, taking into consideration the optimisation of multiple conflicting evaluation criteria. The resulting populations will provide a series of candidate buildings for each plot on the site, and further collectively assed in-relation to one another.

Variables

-Morphology Type (M)

-Building Orientation (OR)

-Building Depth (D_S, D_E, D_N, D_W)

-Ofset from the Perimeter (O_S, O_E, O_N, O_W)

Evaluation Criteria

Criteria 00: Minimum Sunlight Hours at Ground Level (SunG)

To better ensure functional private open space year round, shading conditions at the ground level are evaluated to minimise sunlight hours during the most extreme condition of the Northern Solstice on 21, June each year. (Fig. 5.174)

Criteria 01: Maximum Sunlight Hours at Elevated Conditions (SunE)

Horizontal building surfaces above the ground plane are contrarily evaluated to maximise sunlight hours during the least extreme condition of the Southern Solstice on 21, December, ensuring optimum solar exposure for integrated constructed wetlands.

Criteria 02,03,04: Floor to Area Ratios (FAR00, FAR01, FAR02)

Target floor to area ratios (FAR) extracted from those found in Kerman (Reference Chapter: 4 Experiments/ Social Spaces) and the courtyard analysis cases (Reference Chapter: 4 Experiments/ Low Rises: Courtyard Analysis) are utilised to establish a desirable range for each of the building floor areas to be contained within. Candidates of the GA population are rewarded if the FAR falls within this desired target range and penalised if not.

Criteria 05: Exposed Horizontal Surface Area (S.A.)

Building geometries are evaluated to maximise the horizontal surface area (m2) above the ground plane, ensuring optimal arrangements for placement of wetlands throughout the site building.

Criteria 06: Privacy (P)

To ensure higher levels of privacy, building geometries are evaluated to minimise levels of vertical surface exposure from areas outside of the site, ensuring increased privacy from surrounding buildings.

Figure 5.172: Viablility analysis of wetlands.

Figure 5.173: Fitness Criteria

Figure 5.174: Solar analysis and viability of wetlands.

Evaluation Results

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 00 (SunG)

Analysis of the graph reveals the population geometries optimised to reduce the average amount of sunlight hours at the ground level by one hour. The minimum and maximum range of sunlight hours in the final population significantly reduced from the initial population, having an overall tighter population domain in the final population.

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 01 (SunE)

The fitness evaluation initially demonstrated a near constant increase in sunlight hours for the first 20 generations, helping maximise the hours of sunlight exposure on horizontal surfaces above the ground plane. However, these increases levelled of and showed little fluctuation in the fitness of subsequent generations.

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 02 (FAR00)

The FAR fitness criteria had target values within a desired range rather than targeting minimum or maximum as other criteria, leading it to graphically exhibit a less optimal average improvement from the first and last generation, but overall the values improve the range in which they fell within the chart. Although the average FAR (Red Line) fluctuates throughout Evaluation 02, and subsequently in Evaluation 03 and Evaluation 04, the lower and upper bounds of the generations (Black Lines) appear to stay fairly constant. This signifies that at least one individual in the population consistently ranks low and another that ranks high throughout the course of the evaluation.

The graph demonstrates a clear increase of the average FAR for the ground floor over the course of the 50 generations, initially growing at a steep rate and levelling out as the generations matured. They tended to stay close within the target range, with little instances outside the desired ratios, finalising at a ratio nearly triple the initial average.

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 03 (FAR01)

With a similar strategy and goal of Evaluation 02, the average FAR for the centre storey in this evaluation also demonstrates an increased ratio throughout the generations, but at a more gradual rate, levelling out and staying within the desired range after only 15 generations. The average of these levelled generations exhibited a 50% increased FAR compared to the beginning of the evaluation to reach the target ratios.

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 04 (FAR02)

Analysis of the graph reveals that similar to Evaluation 02 and Evaluation 03, the average FAR for the top storey increased over the course of the evaluation, but with more inconsistency, initially increasing for the first half of the evaluation, before decreasing to an average ratio lower than the start of the evaluation, eventually increasing again to a ratio 50% greater than the initial average FAR.

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 05 (S.A.)

The fitness evaluation demonstrates a gradual increase in the exposed horizontal surface area (Red Line), leading to an average of 400m2 for the final generation, 100m2 (33%) higher than the initial average. A gain is also seen in analysis of the individuals establishing the higher bounds of each generation (Top Black Line), resulting in a maximum exposed horizontal surface area of just over 500m2 which is 100m2 (25%) higher than the initial generation. The individuals comprising the lower bounds of each generation (Bottom Black Line) demonstrated fluctuating results throughout the evaluation, but resulted in the greatest overall gain, to end at a minimum exposed horizontal surface area of 300m2 150m2(100%) higher than the initial generation.

-Fitness Evaluation: Criteria 06 (P)

Analysis of the graph indicates that the average privacy levels decreased from the initial generation, however, through comparative analysis with the data output from the evaluation, it was discovered that a bug in the recording process for the development of the chart incorrectly averaged the data, producing incorrect results in the chart. The output results prior to this error however indicate a general improvement in privacy levels throughout the 50 generations.

Figure 5.177: Highest ranked individuals for each critea.

Figure 5.178: Fitness evaluation results.

The top ranking 12 individuals (Fig. 5.179) demonstrate a variety of diferent building geometries, with south facing, three sided morphologies dominating the majority of the individual’s top stories, ensuring the desired high levels of sunlight hours for wetlands and minimal light penetration at the ground level. Large four sided morphologies tended to occupy the ground level, with larger central open spaces to inhabit. Centre storey morphologies often exhibited a varied number of sides throughout the population. However, they almost always had their geometries ofset from the ground storey condition, ensuring increased levels of horizontal surface area.

Focusing on the fittest individuals for each criterion, the criteria most important for controlling sunlight exposure hours and horizontal surface area displayed some of the most sizeable average improvements, ensuring better solar comfort at the ground level and maximum integration of wetlands within the building morphology. The top ranking individual for minimal sunlight hours (Fig. 5.175) demonstrated a large open space at ground level with a smaller courtyard opening at the top storey, allowing less solar penetration. Individuals providing optimal solutions for wetland integration established south facing three sided building geometries on the top storey (Fig. 5.175) and higher values for building depth at each story (Fig. 5.175).

The fittest individuals for the FAR (Fig. 5.175-5.177) demonstrate a dominant increase in building depth for the particular storey being evaluated, but typically erodes when the multiple fitness criteria factors are considered together, as seen in the top 12 ranking individuals (Fig. 5.175). Privacy values typically show an increase in the levels of privacy from areas outside the site. The most fit individual (Fig. 5.177) demonstrated fully enclosed ground and centre stories and a three sided top storey, increasing the amount of unexposed vertical surface area within the building.

Conclusion

Overall the evaluation exhibits substantial improvements in the fitness values of the populations by the final generation of the experiment. The majority of the fitness criteria demonstrate significant optimisation, maximising or minimising accordingly within the limiting factors of other fitness criteria, and typically followed alongside trends of the best and worst individuals of the populations. The findings of this evaluation will help ensure low-rise building optimisation throughout the development of our urban system.

Figure 5.179: Top 12 ranking individuals.

Figure 5.180: Top 12 ranking individuals.

Wetlands Application on Public Space (Winter and Summer)

Public Wetlands

Analysis of solar exposure hours at the ground level reveal locations throughout areas of the open public space and semi-public spaces capable of receiving sufcient hours of sun for placement of natural water treatment systems. Examined for both winter and summer, the cumulative yearly analysis reveals their optimised placement within the parcel, and the range of plant species capable of sustaining growth in each location based on the minimum amount of solar hours needed. This defines a spectrum of plant options based on their viability within a location, ofering a selection of plant species based on the desired spatial and shading qualities or level of privacy for the specific location.

Solar Exosure And Wetland Viability

Evaluation Criteria Open Public and Semi-Public Space

Cumulative Solar Hours 93328

Average Solar Hours 6

Unsuitable Wetland Area (sqm)3089

Suitable Wetland Area (sqm)9806

Medium Solar Exposure Area (sqm)5280

High Solar Exposure Area (sqm) 4526

Public Space and Connecting Network

Evaluated area and resulting solar exposure hours and wetland viablity tests.

Placement of Public Wetlands.

Juncus Rigidus

Location: Low exposed areas and roofs

Purpose: Generate open views

Height: 0.6m Sun Tolerance: 66%

Phragmites Australis

Location: High exposed areas

Purpose: Generate privacy

Height: 3m

Sun Tolerance 80%

Location of Detailed Sections

Juncus Rigidus

Juncus Rigidus 0.6m

Juncus Rigidus

Juncus Rigidus

Location: Low exposed areas and roofs

Purpose: Generate open views

Height: 0.6m

Sun Tolerance: 66%

Phragmites Australis

Location: High exposed areas

Purpose: Generate privacy Height: 3m

Juncus Rigidus

Location of Detailed Sections

Typha

Typha

High Rise

Development of morphologies considering social, cultural and climatic aspects.

Overview

Novel high-rise building morphologies and network organisations will be generated throughout the parcels, driven by the requirements of the ecological processes, climatic conditions, and sociocultural modalities abstracted from sample tissues of case studies.

Informed by the courtyard typologies and urban networks found in low-rise experiments, the metrics and relationships of their geometries will be extracted to establish a design methodology capable of developing a vertical morphology capable incorporating these aspects within the system. Further incorporation of ecological processes will explore the spatial implications of stacking building geometries for integration of constructed natural wetland systems as drivers of public space, with diferent hierarchies throughout high-rise morphologies. Local climatic conditions of the region, will mould and organise the development of morphologies for optimised levels of solar exposure or shading as desired throughout the system. These arrangements will produce highly performative, novel high-rise building morphologies and network organisations, capable of negotiating environmental conditions, managing hydrological flows, arranging infrastructural networks and creating complex spatial and microclimatic environments.

Figure 5.184: Solar analysis of exposed high rise facades.

High Rise Dispersal

Overview:

To increase the solar exposure for building facades within clusters of high-rise morphologies, an emphasis is placed on their dispersal patterns to decrease shadow casting while, maintaining the highest levels of density possible. A multi-objective genetic algorithm was developed, taking into consideration the optimisation of conflicting evaluation criteria which aim to maximise the amount of towers on site while also maximising the amount of sunlight hours the building envelopes are exposed to. The resulting populations will provide a series of candidate building dispersals for the parcel which will be evaluated to establish the optimal organisation for a cluster of high-rises in the parcel.

Evaluation Criteria:

Criteria 00: Maximum Number of Towers

Criteria 01: Maximum Sunlight Hours (Winter)

Criteria 02: Maximum Sunlight Hours (Summer)

Analysis:

A varied range of possibilities were generated through the multi-objective algorithm, presenting similar quantities of towers and solar exposure hours, while ofering dramatically

diferent dispersal characteristics within the parcel. (Fig 5.186) There was an increase overall for both summer and winter solar hour averages, with tower dispersal typically inhabiting just over half of the site. The main consistency for tower location was along the east side of the parcel, typically occupying the entirety of the plots available.

Conclusion:

The varied spatial characterises of the highest ranked candidate organisations ofer the ability to choose among several similarly capable solutions for patterning high-rise dispersal within the parcel. Although density does not reach the maximum capacity as if the entire parcel was comprised of high-rise geometries, the ability to incorporate appropriate solar access to facades for constructed natural water treatment systems was achieved while balancing the highest levels of density possible.

Figure 5.185: Solar analysis of exposed high rise facades, fully occupied and optimized dispersal.

Selection of distribution test layouts.

Figure 5.187:

Solar fan limitations to morphologies.

Constrained High-Rise Geometry

The high-rise dispersal strategy required removal of approximately half the towers within the parcel, dramatically reducing the original density levels. To regain a portion of these inhabitants, the towers were reintegrated and examined with the volume of the solar fan (Reference: Chapter 3/Methods/Solar Analysis/Solar Fan) to refine their geometries. These constrained high-rise morphologies allow for increased densities while ensuring no obstruction of solar access to the wetlands throughout the year.

Figure 5.188: Process for removal of geometry for optimized solar acces.

Intersection of the Solar Fan with the High Rises

Removal of the Obstructing Geometry

Removal of the Obstructing Geometry

Maximum Buildable Volume in Order to Guarantee the Solar Access

Development of Elevated Platforms and Tower Placement Relationship to Adjacent Wetlands

Network Development

Continuing within the same parcel of the site, the methodologies developed in the network development experiments are employed to analyse possible connections and establish a network throughout the high-rise plots.

(Reference: Chapter 4/Experiments/Network Development)

Informed by the metrics and relationships extracted from the Kerman case study and adapted for high-rise networks, this process generates the minimum network required to fully connect the parcel, and to produce appropriate transitions through the multiple levels of privacy, in accordance with the cultural modalities of the region. The process initially starts by extracting nodes from the centre of open public spaces, and from eight boundary condition points, a Minimum Spanning Tree is then developed through evaluation of all possible configurations between nodes. The connections of the resulting topological paths are then analysed with consideration of the base grid to develop the Shortest Path required to connect all nodes throughout the parcel.

Figure 5.189: Placement of elvated platforms.

Figure 5.190: Development of high-rise networks.

Overview

Within the low-rise morphologies, building plot dispersal and network organisation strategies established distinct public, semi-public and private spaces dispersed throughout the parcel. In order to generate similar privacy hierarchies within the development of high rise morphologies, a space will be developed for transitioning from the open public spaces of the extended wetlands, to the privacy found within the building morphologies. A building platform extruded from the plot boundary will address this issue, generating an elevated semi-public space surrounding the high-rise footprint that establishes a hierarchical threshold between the extended wetlands and high-rise morphology.

Elevated Platform Connections

Elevated platforms will be connected with the ground condition by adjusting a portion of the elevated geometry to establish stepped access from one privacy hierarchy to another, diferentiating the spatial qualities for each connection. Elevated platforms will also be connected to one another through development of a secondary elevated network, established through a similar logic found within the network development experiments. (Reference: Chapter 4/Experiments/Network Strategies/Experiment 2) The methodology utilised considers all possible connections

between the centroids of the open public spaces and those of the building platforms to develop a Minimum Spanning Tree and define the connecting path. This topological relationship identifies which platforms will be connected to one another in addition to their connections to the open public spaces at the ground condition.

Platform Development

Elevated platforms throughout the parcel will be evaluated with solar fan analysis (Reference: Chapter 3/Methods/Solar Analysis/Solar Fan) to remove any volume of the platforms that obstruct direct solar access to the extended wetlands within an 8 hour period. Through exploring a series of systems for developing the geometry of the elevated platform, each scenario will be evaluated and analysed to achieve the highest level of solar access to the extended wetlands.

Connection Between Platforms and Opem Public Space

Platfrom Accessibility with Ground Level

Figure 5.191: Elevated platform extrusion and development.

Figure 5.192: Elevated platform extrusion and development

Wetland Application within Open Public Spaces and Building Pedestals

Variables

-System 1: This system acts as a control for comparison to other evaluated systems. It considers a 10.5m platform extrusion without application of the solar fan. (Fig 5.192)

-System 2: Develops the same extrusion as System 1, with removal of platform geometry based solar obstructions established through evaluation of the solar fan. (Fig 5.192)

-System 3: Develops the same process as System 2, minimising the platform extrusion height to 7m. (Fig 5.192)

-System 4: Develops the same process as System 3, with the accompanying high rise tower elevated two stories above the elevated platform to establish a void for additional wetland integration. (Fig 5.192)

Evaluation Criteria

-Criteria 00: Cumulative Solar Hours (sqm)

-Criteria 01: Average Solar Hours (sqm)

-Criteria 02: Unsuitable Wetland Area (sqm)

-Criteria 03: Suitable Wetland Area (sqm)

-Criteria 04: Medium Solar Exposure Area (6-8 Hours/Day)

-Criteria 05: High Solar Exposure Area (8-12 Hours/Day)

Analysis

Evaluation of the four systems developed presents incremental improvements for all values tested. The largest improvements are seen in System 4, which increased the area suitable for wetlands by nearly 20% and improved areas of high solar exposure by 38%. (Table 5.28)

Examining the viability of wetlands within semi-public platforms as well as the open public space increases the coverage area that is suitable for wetlands by nearly 200%. Similarly, the semi-public platforms ofer substantially higher amounts of area of capable of receiving medium and high levels of solar exposure, at rates of nearly 200% and 300% respectively. (Table 5.29)

Conclusion

Overall, the evaluation of elevated platforms among the high-rise morphologies exhibit substantial improvements in the availability of viable wetland space within the parcels, while also establishing semi-public transitions between the extended wetlands and the high-rise towers. Development of a secondary elevated network between platforms generates additional levels of connectivity among the semi-public spaces and establishes relationships between high-rise neighbouring morphologies similar to those found within the case study of Kerman. Establishing a system for developing the geometry of the platforms generated substantial improvements in solar access to the extended wetlands. Elevating the high rise towers two stories above the platforms established substantially large amounts of area suitable for wetland integration, increasing the overall treatment capacity of the high-rise morphologies. (Fig 5.195)

Figure 5.193: Wetland apliction within the parcel.

Figure 5.194: Secondary elevated network development. Table 5.28: Evaluation of wetland implementation between systems.

Table 5.29: Comparison of wetland implementation within publi spaces and the semi-public platform.

Figure 5.195: High-rise solar analysis andwetland application

Figure 5.196: High-rise solar optimization.

Tower Design

Building Generation

Overview

Figure 5.197: Conflicting solar criteria for solar access and shading comfort.

Through the development of low-rise morphologies, the afects geometry and orientation have on local environmental conditions and levels of privacy were explored and catalogued to help drive their development. A similar approach is explored to incorporate privacy hierarchies and courtyard spaces throughout the development of high-rise morphologies. A multiobjective genetic algorithm, takes into consideration the optimisation of multiple conflicting evaluation criteria to better incorporate the cultural modalities of the region, while maintaining high population densities and wetland treatment integration capabilities.

Initial Organisation

The high-rise geometries are evaluated as a series of stacked slabs, organising themselves to best achieve shading conditions for use as outdoor spaces, while also retaining surface areas of high solar exposure capable of integrating wetland systems.

Figure 5.198: A series of individual morphologies.

Morphological Refinement

With slab geometries optimised for both shaded and exposed solar conditions, a methodology for generating additional areas for solar exposure was established through removal of slab volumes throughout the building morphology. Each slab attempts to maintain the highest volume possible while also trying to establish additional surface area exposure of the slab below for additional placement of wetlands. These conflicting evaluation criteria ofered a multitude of equally optimised individuals, each capable of sustaining its specified population density and wetland productions.

Tower Design

Figure 5.199: Removal of volume for additional areas of solar penetration and shading.

Figure 5.200: Removal of slabs for inhabitation.

Figure 5.201:

A series of individual morphologies.

High-rise Accessibility and Integration

To establish a gradual transition between privacy hierarchies, the semi-public spaces of the elevated platforms extend up within the tower’s geometry through a series of steps and ramps entwined throughout the base to establish additional semi-public spaces within the high-rise. As the spaces rise in elevation they transition from semi-public spaces to private outdoor spaces for each floor. This system of transition allows for gentle transitions from one privacy hierarchy to another as found in the case studies of Kerman and utilised within other morphologies of the urban system.

Conclusion

Evaluation of the developed morphologies present high-rise geometries capable of incorporating wetlands with sufcient levels of solar access, while maintain areas of shade for the development of private outdoor spaces. They successfully incorporate privacy hierarchies as found within the lowrise morphologies but in a vertical fashion, transitioning between each threshold through a series of morphological diferentiations within the building,

Typha Domingensis

Location: High exposed areas

Purpose: Generate shaded conditions Separation of spaces

Height: 3m Sun Tolerance 100%

Conclusions

Overview

COLLECTIVE ECOLOGY has presented a systems based urban model that acts as an agent for its own productivity, in which its metabolic exchanges develop symbiotically with the dynamic growth of its morphology. The feedbacks and critical thresholds of its ecological processes, climatic conditions and cultural modalities have driven the emergence of novel morphologies, social organizations and metabolic processes within a larger collective system. It explores the potential to minimise metabolic flow in and out of the system through integration of localised natural water treatment processes, extending hydrological retention within the system through multiple cycles of use and treatment. The resulting heterogeneous landscape of emergent interactions has presented a more homeostatic environment, in which the dynamic qualities of an urban system can better adapt to intensifying metabolic demands of a growing population.

System Overview

Cell Distribution on Site

To meet an overall desired population, a systematic approach to develop variable density dispersal and appropriate water storage distribution across the system was established. Factors such as population, density, buildable area, and wetland requirements of established clusters were continually referenced from these studies throughout the development of the urban system.

Distribution of Park Wetland

Ensuring viability of the system, 40% of the constructed natural water treatment system requirements are located within the landscape of the site as a public park. Its distribution within the most integrated parts of the site allows for high levels of access and the ability to support the water treatment requirements of the areas with the highest densities of the population.

Site Subdivision and Distribution of Public Squares

Initial divisions of the site are made between water storage locations, and subdivided further with Delaunay Triangulation to establish primary parcels. These edge conditions were then evaluated to identify the most integrated areas within each cluster for placement of public squares throughout the site.

Network Development and Building Heights

Additional subdivisions throughout the parcels were defined by their relationship to the Park Wetlands and Public Squares and Coastline. Evaluation of these parcels revealed their level of integration, establishing a hierarchy of network typologies, containing primary, secondary and pedestrian networks and identifying dispersal of building typologies across the site. Building heights were then established based on the highest level of network integration for each parcel.

Constructed Natural Water Treatment Systems and Building Production Ratios

Based on a parcel’s proximity to the Park Wetland, the percentage of water treatment required of its building morphologies is established. Buildings in parcels closer to the park require less integration of constructed natural water treatment systems, while those further distances are more self-sustaining.

Low-rise Distribution

A range of plot sizes and associative patterns were extracted from case studies and used as drivers for building dispersal throughout the parcel. Compact aggregations of building plots were driven and developed from these criteria, while generating well connected emergent interstitial spaces throughout the urban system.

Distribution of Park Wetland

Park Wetlands

Low-riseHigh-rise Mid-rise

Subdivision to Block Size

Low-riseHigh-rise Mid-rise Public Square

Low-rise Network

A system was developed to generate the minimum network required for fully connected parcels throughout the site. Organised through the building plots and intestinal public spaces, it produces appropriate transitions through the multiple levels of privacy found within the system.

Low-rise Morphology

Within this building typology, four characteristic types were explored in a multi-objective genetic algorithm, taking into consideration the optimisation of seven conflicting evaluation criteria. The resulting populations provided a series of candidate buildings for each plot on the site, assessed further through a collective evaluation in-relation to one another.

High-rise Distribution

To increase the solar exposure for building facades within clusters of high-rise morphologies, an emphasis is placed on their dispersal patterns to decrease shadow casting while, maintaining the highest levels of density possible.

Platform Development

A building platform was extruded from the plot, generating an elevated semi-public space surrounding the high-rise footprint that establishes a hierarchical threshold between the extended wetlands and high-rise morphology.

High-Rise Network

A system was developed to establish secondary connections throughout the high-rise plots, generating the minimum network required to fully connect the parcel. These connections produce appropriate transitions through the multiple levels of privacy within a vertical morphology, in accordance with the cultural modalities of the region.

High-rise Morphology

Influenced by the organisation of low-rise morphologies, a system was established to incorporate privacy hierarchies and courtyard spaces throughout the development of high-rise morphologies. It takes into consideration the optimisation of multiple conflicting criteria to better incorporate the cultural modalities of the region, while maintaining necessary population densities and water treatment capabilities.

System Relationships Analysis

and Conclusions

Figure 5.204: Develomental process of incorporating feedback parameters rather than linear flow.

Ecological Processes

Social

Metabolic

Ecological Processes

Research into natural water treatment systems for use within an extremely arid and hot region such as Qatar established sets of data outlining treated water production capabilities, and the spatial implications of their morphological characteristics and coverage requirements. It presented the efects and advantages of dispersed natural water treatment systems within the context of Qatar and influenced strategies for ensuring their viability throughout urban the urban system.

Sociocultural Modalities

Through examination of regional case studies of Kerman, Iran and Shibam, Yemen, a system of analysis was developed to extract and quantify the cultural values and social parameters of sample tissues within their contexts. It established a catalogue of descriptive metrics and mathematics which expressed the sociocultural modalities of the region, and outlined culturally relevant and socially sensitive approaches for the system.

Climatic Conditions

The environmental qualities and sensory characteristics of Qatar’s climate were catalogued through the analysis of its humidity, temperature and solar exposure levels. These parameters drove aspects of solar accessibility and environmental comfort throughout the system to adapt to the specific challenges presented by its extreme climatic conditions.

Morphology

The allometric development of morphologies throughout the collective system were driven in response to the necessities of the ecological processes associated with natural water treatment systems, the sociocultural modalities of Qatari citizens, and the extreme environmental qualities brought forth by its climatic conditions. These parameters of Qatar’s specific qualities and requirements collectively influenced and moulded a process of morphogenesis to develop novel architectures and relationships throughout the system.

Social Organisations

The privacy hierarchies established throughout the system were informed by the sociocultural influences of Qatar, and incorporate ecological environments as extensions of public spaces to establish privacy thresholds and develop comfortable microclimates throughout the system. These multiple factors of influence establish a methodological approach for diferentiated social spaces to be organised throughout the system in accordance with the unique modalities of Qatar.

Metabolic Performance

The metabolic input of the system was dramatically reduced through localised natural water treatment processes within the ecological environment. Their dispersal in accordance with the morphological development of the system synthesised the spatial impacts of their coverage requirements with the parameters of the climatic conditions and the consumption demands of the culture to develop an appropriate methodology for minimising metabolic flow throughout the system.

Performance Analysis

The system’s results are encouraging, and ofer the potential for further improvement through refinement and continued development. The generated patch established is capable of a relativity high population of over 11,000 inhabitants, with densities of 250 people/hectare, double the desired average of the site. This, however, is due to the proximity of the generated patch to a highly integrated area along the park wetlands, establishing its higher population levels. Analysis of the water treatment capacities for the generated patch reveal it is capable of treating only 25% of the required water input, and places reliance on the neighbouring park wetland to supplying an additional 15% to meet the system’s goal of 40% reintegration. Although this reliance on the neighbouring park wetlands was intended, the system can be refined through adjustments of ratios among its elements to influence their importance within the morphology, such as the relationship of water treatment systems over density. Performance analysis of the developed system demonstrates that the multiple conflicting elements of a generative system aim at reaching equilibrium of its encompassing relationships and morphologies based on set parameters. Through continued examination of these parameters, the system can continue to better develop and further demonstrate its viability.

Final Conclusion and Further Potentials

Collective Ecology proposes a systems-based model for generating dynamic complex systems, placing emphasis on the interactions and connectivity of the flows through its infrastructures, and on the feedbacks and critical thresholds to drive the emergence of new morphologies social organisations. It is informed by ecological processes, environmental analysis, and sociocultural modalities of

the region to generate a contextually relevant approach to its development. It establishes a platform that can be applied to situations of urban growth around the world, capable of negotiating environmental conditions, managing hydrological flows, arranging infrastructural networks and creating complex spatial environments in response to the specific ecological, climatic and cultural modalities of its context. This platform presents a fundamental change from the current model of urban development, shifting the current water crisis into a water opportunity, dramatically reducing the systems metabolic input and extending the magnitude of its achievable population growth well into the future.

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51. 2. Thompson, D. (1917, 1961) On Growth and Form

52. 75. UN-HABITAT, 2008. "Constructed Wetlands Manual". UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.

53. 38. United Nations (2013) World Population Prospects

- The 2012 Revision

54. 27. UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication 2 (UNW-DPAC)

55. 30. UN-Water Decade Programme on Advocacy and Communication 4 (UNW-DPAC)

56. 78. Weidmann, F. (2012) ‘The Urban Evolution of Doha’ METU.JFA

57. 25. Weinstock, M. (2008) ‘Metabolism and Morphology’ AD Vol. 78, Iss. 2

58. 20. Weinstock, M. (2010) ‘Emergence and the Forms of Cities’ AD, Vol. 80

59. 1. Weinstock, M. (2010) The Architecture of Emergence

60. 10. Weinstock, M (2011) ‘The Metabolism of the City’ AD, Vol. 81, Iss. 4

61.

62. 116. Weisstein, Eric W. "Graph." From MathWorldWolfram Web Resource <http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ Graph.html>

63. 121. Weisstein, Eric W. "Minimum Spanning Tree." From MathWorld - A Wolfram Web Resource <http:// mathworld.wolfram.com/MinimumSpanningTree.html>

64. 9. West, G. (1997) ‘A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology’ Nature, Vol. 413

65. 57. West G., et. al. (2001) ‘A General Model for Ontogenetic Growth’ Nature, Vol. 413

66. 28. World Population Prospects - The 2012 Revision, 2013

67. 109. Zuluaga, M. et.al (2012) Active Learning for MultiObjective Optimization

Appendix

Algorithms p.240

Experiments p.266

Algorithms

Defining Cells

PopulationCell ACell BCell CStandard Deviation

1495772915296.60 149706 22 18336.34 1498153413 26 8.65 1498351521 37 9.29 149944 27 1630 6.02

15005339112311.47

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Experiments

Cellular Automata Experiments (Samples from Case 16 - Rules 12 to 108)

Plot Distribution Strategies

Experiment 1: Defining a starting point for the aggregation

Experiment 1B: Defining a starting point for the aggregation

Iteration 1 ( Starting Point: Corner)

2 ( Starting Point: Centre of Longest Edge)

Highlighted Value Top 1Top 10%

Experiment 2: Defining the plots orientation

Experiment 2

Iteration 1 (Plots orientated: North-South)

Iteration 2 (Plots orientated: Along longest boundary edge)

Experiment 3: Optimising the Evaluation Method and Social Spaces

Experiment 2

Iteration 2 (Fittest iteration from experiment 2 (Plots orientated along longest boundary edge))

tion 3

tion 4

Iteration 1 (Optimised public spaces for the fittest iteration from experiment 2)

Plot Distribution on Selected Patch

Network Development on Selected Patch

Network Development - Strategies Comparison

Iteration 1: Method extracted from (Chapter 4: Experiments/Network Strategies/Experiment 2

Iteration 2: Method extracted from (Chapter 4: Experiments/Network Strategies/Experiment 3

Network Development - Strategies Comparison (Remapped Values) Block 1 (Pop.1) Block 2 (Pop.4) Block 3 (Pop.4) Block 4 (Pop.2)

Iteration 1: Method extracted from (Chapter 4: Experiments/Network Strategies/Experiment 2

Iteration 2: Method extracted from (Chapter 4: Experiments/Network Strategies/Experiment 3

Building Morphologies

Low Rise: Courtyard Studies

Low Rise: Building Generation

Ranking Criteria 02 (FAR1)