Biopneumatic Structures by Emergent Technologies and Design [EmTech] Selected Dissertations Repository

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Architectural Association School of Architecture Graduate School Programme

Programme Term Course Title

Course Tutors

Submission Title Graduates

Submission Date Declaration

Emergent Technologies and Design 2017 - 2018 Emergent Technologies and Design MSc Dissertation Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr.

Michael Weinstock Elif Erdine George Jeronimidis Lidia Badarnah Mohamed Makki Antiope Koronaki Alican Sungur

Biopneumatic Structures Tilong Fu MSc Rita Stella Roesch Diaz MArch Yufeng Zhai MArch 21st September 2018 “We hereby certify that this piece of work is entirely our own and that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of others is duly acknowledged.”

Signatures

Ti Long Fu

Date

Rita Stella Roesch Diaz

21st September 2018

Yufeng Zhai

Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to Dr. Michael Winestock, whose guidance and encouragement propelled me to reach my full potential at the AA, and whose insightful curriculum has set an essential milestone in my career. A special thanks to Dr. Elif Erdine, whose stern guidance has cultivated a high standard in our projects and a keen attitude towards critical reflection. A special thanks to Dr. George Jeronimidis, whose illuminating guidance help shape our ideas throughout the course. A special thanks to Mohamed Makki, whose spearheading research and guidance provided invaluable support. Sincere gratitude towards our tutors, Dr. Lidia Badarnah, Antiope Koronaki, and Alican Sungur, for their insightful conversations and tutorials. A special acknowledgement to my M.Arch team mates, who’s significant contributions are integral to the thesis. Finally, my sincerest gratitude to mom, and dad, whom provided me unconditional support and continues to believe in me. - Tilong (Tim) Fu Graduating M.Sc

BIOPNEUMATIC STRUCTURES A new synthesis of pneumatic architecture and biodynamic response

Architectural Association School of Architecture Emergent Technologies and Design 2017-2018

Course Director

Dr.

Michael Weinstock

Studio Master

Dr.

Elif Erdine

Emeritus Professor

Dr.

George Jeronimidis

Studio Tutors

Dr.

Lidia Badarnah Mohamed Makki Antiope Koronaki Alican Sungur

Candidates

Tilong Fu M.Sc Rita Stella Roesch Diaz

M.Arch

Yufeng Zhai

M.Arch

Table of Contents

Abstract Human activity and climate change have caused desertification across the globe, many of these areas spawn new architectural strategies for adaptation in the extreme climate. This research interrogates the new ‘plastic revolution’ of Almeria, to examine both advantages and disadvantages of their expanse of greenhouses, and its economic and environmental impact. Bio-Pneumatic Structure explores the overlap between biomimetics and pneumatic architecture, to derive integrated strategies for improving the current horticulture industry in Almeria. These strategies will feature rapid light-weight assembly, climatically responsive hydro and thermally integrated system, to sustain food production in arid conditions. Genetic algorithm and Fluid dynamics will be employed to design a farm prototype while studying new pneumatic actuation strategies. Furthermore, long term urban settlement and subsystems will be developed to address the transition from temporary to permanent settlement.

1. Introduction

2. Domain 2.1. Context 2.1.1. Desertification 2.1.1.1. Overview 2.1.1.2. Climatic Impact 2.1.1.3. Social Impact 2.1.2. ‘Mar de plástico’ of Almeria 2.1.2.1. Overview 2.1.2.2. Site Analysis 2.1.2.3. History 2.1.2.4. Population 2.1.2.5. Climate 2.1.2.6. Crop Analysis 2.1.2.7. Water Overexploitation 2.1.2.8. Plastic Pollution 2.1.2.9. Greenhouse Inefficiency 2.1.3. Greenhouse Taxonomy 2.2. Conclusion 2.2.1. Problems and Solutions 2.2.1.1. Water Overexploitation 2.2.1.2. Plastic Pollution 2.2.1.3. Greenhouse Inefficiency

3 5

3. Methodology

4. Research Development 4.1. Solutions in Nature 4.1.1. Stoma 4.1.2. Prairie Dog 4.2. Solutions in Architecture 4.2.1. Pneumatic Structures 4.2.2. Passive System 4.2.3. Desalination System 4.2.3.1. Double Slope Solar Still 4.2.3.2. Seawater Greenhouse 4.3. Fabrication Strategy 4.3.1. Overview 4.3.2. Material Research 4.3.2.1. Greenhouses Materials 4.3.2.2. Pneumatic Structures Materials 4.3.2.3. Material Properties 4.3.2.4. ETFE Material Properties 4.3.3. Fabrication

65 67

5. Design Development 5.1. Past Experimentations 5.1.1. Design Ambition 5.1.2. Experimentation 5.1.3. Evaluation 5.2. Computational Design strategy 5.2.1. Computational Design Ambition 5.2.2. Strategy 5.3. Single Airbeam FEA 5.3.1. FEA Set-up 5.3.2. Observations 5.3.3. Conclusions 5.4. Section Design 5.4.1. Experiment Set-up 5.4.2. Observations 5.5. Genetic Algorithm 5.5.1. GA experiment 1 Set-up 5.5.2. GA experiment 1 Observations 5.5.3. GA experiment 2 Set-up 5.5.4. GA experiment 2 Observations 5.5.5. GA Objective Space 5.5.6. Elimination and Cluster Logic 5.6. Cluster CFD 5.7. Hydro-thermal Labyrinth 5.7.1. Labyrinth Design 5.7.2. Labyrinth Performance 5.7.3. Observations 5.8. Physical Experiment 5.8.1. Experiment and Approaches 5.8.2. Physical Experiment 5.8.2.1. Brief

93 95

5.8.2.2. Experiment 1 5.8.2.3. Experiment 2 5.8.2.4. Experiment 3 5.8.2.5. Experiment 4 5.9. Beam Distribution 5.9.1. FEA SET-up 5.9.2. Conclusion 5.10. Thermal Analysis 5.10.1. Experiment Set-up 5.10.2. Conclusion 5.11. Surface Rationalization 5.11.1. Experiment Set-up 5.11.2. Conclusion 57

99 101

105 107

115 117

119

123 127

6. Design Proposal 6.1. Architectural Proposal 6.2. System 6.2.1. System Proposal 6.2.2. Adaptation System 6.2.3. Comparative Performance Time-line 6.3. Actuation System 6.3.1. Component Specification 6.3.2. Actuation Time Frame

133 135 137

7. Conclusion 7.1. Ventilation Post-Analysis 7.2. Crop Yield Improvement 7.3. Evaluation of Ambition 7.3.1. Greenhouse Inefficiencies 7.3.2. Water Over-exploitation 7.3.3. Plastic Pollution 7.4. Further Studies

147 149 151 153

8. References 8.1. Bibliography 8.2. Image & Data Reference

159 161 167

145

155

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

Desertification, one of the looming consequences of global warming, has begun its permanent impact on the face of earth. According to research, various regions on the planet, such as the south of Spain, are desertifying at an alarming rate, with predictions that the area will be reduced to desert by the end of the century. Unless extreme measures are taken, the Mediterranean region will be impacted irreversibly. International efforts have been made to implement solutions to reduce carbon emissions around the around. The Paris climate deal aims to limit the rise of temperature to 1.5 degrees at maximum. However, this is only in the ideal scenario. We must take into account all possible paths of future carbon emission, especially the worst-case scenario, when global temperatures would rise nearly 5 degrees. Deserts would expand across southern Spain. Mediterranean vegetation would soon replace deciduous forests in the ecological catastrophe. The existing economy of southern Spain primarily consists of greenhouse agriculture. The current mode of crop production is not prepared for dramatic shift in climate. As fresh water sources are being used up, the effects of desertification would be substantially amplified. Dramatic shift in agricultural practices in the region is imperative, to ensure the survival of the crop industry of southern Spain, an economic artery of the country.

DOMAIN

Domain

Desertification

Domain

Desertification

2.1. Context

2.1.1. Desertification 2.1.1.1.

Overview

Desertification is the process of ecological degradation through which extensions of land that were fertile and productive are transformed into deserts. This can take place in different areas, but above all, it usually takes place in fertile areas that are intensively exploited for activities such as agriculture, livestock grazing, mining and deforestation, until they are exhausted. Because of this, the soils become infertile and lose their productive capacity totally or partially. This results in them losing their vegetation cover, and being eroded even more quickly by wind and water. This process is also known as aridization.The human being is the main cause of the desertification of the soils in the planet, because with its activities it contributes or accentuates this process.

Non affected areas or very low sensitive areas to desertification Low sensitive areas desertification Medium sensitive areas to desertification Sensitive areas to desertification FIG. 01.1. Desertification Global Map “Miller Projection”

FIG. 01.2. Desertification Europe Map

SOURCES. “Significado de Desertificación.” Significados. Accessed May 20, 2018. http://www.significados.com/desertificacion/.

SOURCES. “Map of Sensitivity to Desertification and Drought in Southern Europe.” Accessed September 18, 2018. https://www.eea.europa.eu/

“Causes, Effects and Solutions of Desertification.” Conserve Energy Future (blog), August 23, 2015. https://www.con-

themes/soil/desertification/map-of-sensitivity-to-desertification-and-draught-in-southern-europe/image_view_fullscreen.

serve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-of-desertification.php.

Domain

Desertification

Domain

Desertification

Climate Change

Overgrazing

Taking Land Resources

Farming Practices

EFFECTS

CAUSES

Urbanization

Poor Water Quality

Difficulties in Farming

Overpopulation

Flooding

FIG. 01.3. Desertification Causes and Effects

Desertification can also be a natural process in which a region passes, gradually, to become, for different reasons, all natural, in what we know as a desert. There are other factors that can cause desertification, this includes deforestation, urbanization, over drafting of groundwater, natural disasters, and climate change.

SOURCES. “Significado de Desertificación.” Significados. Accessed May 20, 2018. http://www.significados.com/desertificacion/. “Causes, Effects and Solutions of Desertification.” Conserve Energy Future (blog), August 23, 2015. https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/ causes-effects-solutions-of-desertification.php.

Desertification directly affects groundwater reserves, topsoil, surface runoff, plant, animal and human populations. With this comes water scarcity, which can limit the production of crops, wood, forage and much more other services can be provided to communities.

SOURCES. “Causes, Effects and Solutions of Desertification.” Conserve Energy Future (blog), August 23, 2015. https://www. conserve-energy-future.com/causes-effects-solutions-of-desertification.php.

IMAGE SOURCES. “Free Stock Photos · Pexels.” Accessed July 15, 2018. https://www.pexels.com/.

Domain

2.1.1.2.

Climatic Impact

Desertification

Desertification is known to be associated with biodiversity loss, which contributes to a global climate change through the loss of carbon sequestration capacity and an increase in land-surface albedo. The biological diversity is involved in most of the services provided by dryland ecosystems and is negatively affected by desertification. And something extremely relevant is that vegetation and its diversity of physical structure are an important key in soil conservation and in the regulation of surface runoff, local climate and rainfall infiltration. The variety of plant species are able to produce physically and chemically different litter components, together with a diverse community of macro and micro decomposers, which contribute to soil formation and nutrient cycling.

Domain

DESERTIFICATION Reduced carbon sequestration into above -and below- ground carbon reserves

Decreased plant and soil organisms’ species diversity

Reduced primary production and nutrient cycling

Reduced soil conservation

Soil erosion

Increase in extreme events (floods, droughts, fires, etc.)

The diversity of vegetation species is compatible with both wildlife and livestock, and all plants support primary production, which ultimately provides firewood, fiber, food, and sequesters carbon, regulating the global climate. The excessive exploitation of vegetation leads to losses in primary production and, therefore, also to a reduction in carbon sequestration. It is the interruption of the interrelated services provided jointly by the biodiversity of dryland plants, which is a key trigger for desertification and the various manifestations,that includes the loss of habitats for biodiversity. Desertification affects global climate change through the loss of soil and vegetation. Dryland soils contain more than a quarter of all organic carbon stocks in the world, as well as almost all inorganic carbon. Desertification without obstacles can release a significant fraction of this carbon into the global atmosphere, with important feedback consequences for the global climate system. It is estimated that 300 million tons of dryland carbon are lost in the atmosphere each year as a result of desertification (approximately 4% of total combined global emissions from all sources).

Desertification

Reduced structural diversity of vegetation cover and diversity of microbial species in soil crust

Reduced carbon reserves and increased CO2 emissions Loss of nutrients and soil moisture

Climate change Increases and reductions in species abundances

Biodiversity loss Change in community structure and diversity

In the next diagram the relation between desertification and climate change is made including the main issue that lnks them which is the biodiversity loss. “The major components of biodiversity loss (in grey) directly affect major dryland services (in blue). The inner loops connect desertification to biodiversity loss and climate change through soil erosion. The outer loop interrelates biodiversity loss and climate change. On the top section of the outer loop, reduced primary production and microbial activity reduce carbon sequestration and contribute to global warming. On the bottom section of the outer loop, global warming increases evapotranspiration, thus adversely affecting biodiversity; changes in community structure and diversity are also expected because different species will react differently to the elevated CO2 concentrations.”

SOURCES. Adeel, Zafar, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, and World Resources Institute, eds. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Desertifica-

Grey: major components of biodiversity involved in the linkages. Blue: major services impacted by biodiversity losses. FIG. 01.3. Linkages and Feedback Loops among Desertification, Global Climate Change, and Biodiversity Loss

SOURCES. Adeel, Zafar, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, and World Resources Institute, eds. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Desertifica-

tion Synthesis ; a Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Washington, DC: World Resources Inst, 2005.

“Scientific Facts on Desertification.” Accessed June 3, 2018. https://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/index.htm.

Domain

2.1.1.3.

Social Impact

Desertification

In the drylands, people are more dependent on ecosystem services for their basic needs than any other ecosystem. A variety of resources depend on the growth of the plants, such as firewood, crops, and construction materials, but the growth of the plants also depend on the climate that determines the availability of water. It is normal for the supply of the ecosystem services to fluctuate, especially when it comes to the drylands, but the continuous reduction in the levels of all services over a prolonged period constitutes desertification. People in the drylands have found ways to cope with periods of shortages that last up to many years, but if the shortage lasts too long, at some point their resources and adaptation strategies may be overwhelmed with irreversible consequences. The ability to cope with scarcity of services for large periods of time can be increased by other factors, such as demographic, and economic and political factors, in this case the ability to migrate to unaffected areas. As well as the time lapse between stress periods in the area.

Domain

Desertification

Downward spiral leading to desertification

Approach to avoid desertification

Human Factors

Political and economic instability

Demographic Economic Socio-political Science and technology

Overgrazing and expansion of cropped areas

Political stability and economic prosperity

Improved crop and livestock production

Reduced vegetation cover

Large-scale expansion of irrigation

Small-scale irrigation of high-value crops

Soil, water, range conservation and imrpoved technology

Increased soil erosion

Salinization

Low salinization risk

Reduced soil erosion

Climatological factors -Climate change -Drought

Reduced biological productivity

Increased biological productivity

Poverty, emigration, and reduced human well-being

Improved human well-being

Desertification can directly affect all categories of ecosystem services: - Provisioning: food, forage, fiber, and fresh water. - Regulating: water purification and climate regulation. - Cultural: recreation and cultural identity. - Supporting: soil conservation. When faced with desertification, people have responded by converting more pastures into cultivated land, or by using more and more low-productivity land for cultivation. As policies to promote alternative livelihoods are generally not in place, people often migrate to other areas, to other cities or even to other countries. These migrations sometimes exacerbate urban sprawl and can cause socio-political problems.

FIG. 01.4. Schematic Description of Development Pathways in Drylands

In the next diagram it is shown how drylands can be developed in response to changes in key human factors. The left side of the diagram shows developments that lead to a downward spiral of desertification, and the right side shows developments that can help prevent or reduce desertification. In the latter case, land users respond to tensions by improving their agricultural practices on the lands currently used. This leads to an increase in the productivity of livestock and crops, to the improvement of human welfare and to political and economic stability. Both avenues of development occur today in several dryland areas.

SOURCES. Adeel, Zafar, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, and World Resources Institute, eds. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Desertifica-

tion Synthesis ; a Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Washington, DC: World Resources Inst, 2005.

“Scientific Facts on Desertification.” Accessed June 3, 2018. https://www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/index.htm.

‘Mar de plástico’ of Almeria Known by many as the ‘ sea of plastic’ , the region of Campo de Dalías in Almeria, South Spain, features a endlessly far-reaching expanse of plastic greenhouses. The plastic roofs of these structures glisten in the southern sun and its breath-taking scale can be seen in space as a white patch on Earth’s surface.

IMAGE SOURCES. Google Maps. Accessed July 25, 2018. https://maps.google.com/.

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

2.1.2. ‘Mar de plástico’ of Almeria 2.1.2.1.

Overview

Almeria is a province in the South of Spain, that is very well known for their intensive agriculture. Agriculture has been the driving force of the economy of Almeria since the 60s, and the most representative products are: tomato, pepper, eggplant, zucchini, melon, watermelon or cucumber; roses, chrysanthemums, carnations, cut flowers, and ornamental plants. Its main exponent is found in the so-called “Campo de Dalías”, which is the largest area of green houses in the whole world, and includes the municipalities of Dalías, Berja, El Ejido, up to Adra or in Vícar, La Mojonera and Roquetas de Mar. This model has also been called the “Campo de Nijar”. In the 40s, El Ejido had only about twenty houses, but the growth reached such a point that now 12,000 families live in the greenhouses, which are 70% family farms. Although the first tests were made in 1963, a documentary by Cajamar explains that the true greenhouse boom came ten years later. Almeria is a great example of a response to a desertification area, where in the 40 years they were abandoned lands and without any use, their inhabitants were resorcefull and found a way to make these lands productive with different agricultural methods. More and more inhabitants moved to the area to work in the lands, and today it is known as the orchard of Europe, when more than 50% of fruits and vegetables sold in Europe come from Almeria “Mar de Plastico”.

2.1.2.2.

Site Analysis

Almeria is located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, in the autonomous community of Andalucia, Spain. Almeria is a mountainous providence descending from the Sierra Gádor, which is a part of Sierra Nevada Mountain Range, and merges into the Mediterranean Sea with a coastline of 200 km of beaches. More than 69 percent of its area is over 300 meters and rises up to 2,519 meters above sea level. “The mountains of Almeria provide a protective boundary against cold northerly winds and winter storms, and help provide Almeria with the warm winter months that make the horticulture industry viable(Tout 1990). Immense parts of the province are mountainous semi-desert, with arid lowlands and dry creek beds.” Almería, due to its strategic location, open to the Mediterranean, has hosted different civilizations during its history.

Almeria Providence Other Areas of Greenhouses Almeria City El Ejido, Vicar, Roquetas

MURCIA

GRANADA

Warm Mixed Forest

Almeria Present Day

Desert

Almeria Worst Case Scenario

Temperature Deciduous forest

Almeria Best Case Scenario

SOURCES. País, Ediciones El. “Por qué el Mar de Plástico se llama así.” Verne, September , 2015. https://verne.elpais.com/verne/2015/09/23/articulo/1443003299_631218.html. “Agricultura intensiva de la provincia de Almería.” Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre, August 23, 2018. https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agricultura_intensiva_de_la_provincia_de_Almer%C3%ADa&oldid=110133064 IMAGE SOURCE.“Climate Change Rate to Turn Southern Spain to Desert by 2100, Report Warns | Environment | The Guardian.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.theguardian. com/environment/2016/oct/27/climate-change-rate-to-turn-southern-spain-to-desert-by-2100-report-warns.

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Almeria Province Map

SOURCES. “El Milagro de Almeria, Espa;a: A Political Ecological of Landscape Change and Greenhouse Agriculture” Robert Tyrell Wolosin.Accessed May 20, 2018. Bachelor of Science, Texas State University - San Marcos, Texas, 2006. “Provincia de Almería - Web Oficial de Turismo de Andalucía.” Accessed May 21, 2018. http://www.andalucia.org/es/destinos/provincias/alme-

El Ejido

Las Norias

Roquetas del Mar

Montainous

Topography Map Almeria is a mountainousprovince with 69 percent of its area over 300 meters and rising to 2519 meters in the

Planar

Sierra de Gador, part of the Sierra Nevada Mountain range.It descends from the Sierra de Gádor, to merge with the Mediterranean between extensive beaches. The formal constructions are located

Sloped SOURCES. “Base Cartográfica de Andalucía. Instituto de Estadística y Cartografía.” Accessed September 18, 2018. http://www.juntadeandalucia. es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/bcadescargas/.

mostly on the planar areas, while the greenhouses occupy mostly mountainous and sloped areas. 17

El Ejido

Las Norias

Roquetas del Mar

Roads Map

Main Road

Almerias roads are composed basically by main roads, and secondary roads. As it can be observed, the main roads

Secundary Roads

are located in the center, and specifically in the planar areas, wheremost of the formal constructions are situated. Meanwhile the secondary roads are located all around the area, and most of them connect the main roads to the greenhouses. 19

SOURCES. “Base Cartográfica de Andalucía. Instituto de Estadística y Cartografía.” Accessed September 18, 2018. http://www.juntadeandalucia. es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/bcadescargas/.

El Ejido

Las Norias

Roquetas del Mar

Small Houses

Formal Construction The construction in Almeria is mostly located in the planar areas of the region,

Recreational Areas (parks and pools)

a good porcentage of them conecting to the main roads. The construction in Almeria is conformed

Industry

by small houses, recreational areas, like sport fields, parks, and pools which most of them are private. Also includes a lot of industry which includes packing areas, ports and energy plants, like solar energy and gas. And last would be buildings in general which include residences, comerce, hotels, schools, and other public services. 21

Buildings (residence, comerce, public services, etc.)

El Ejido

Las Norias

Roquetas del Mar

Hydrology Map

Rivers

Almerias hydrology is composed by numerous natural rivers coming from the mountainous areas, lagoons which

Artificial Ponds

are closer to the beach side, and thousands of artificial ponds which serve as water containers for irrigation of the crops in the greenhouses.

Lagoons

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

Other Countries

Other places from Spain

2.1.2.3.

Population

Almería is the most populated municipality in the homonymous province, with 195 389 inhabitants (95,044 men and 100,345 women) and a population density of 659.63 inhabitants / km² as of January 1, 2017. Its role as a center is noteworthy neuralgic of the metropolitan area of Almeria (with a total of 260,360 inhabitants) and as one of the poles of the conurbation that would include this area and those of El Ejido and Roquetas de Mar, to which the municipalities of Vícar, La Mojonera could be added and Enix (with a total of 476,119 inhabitants). And the number of inhabitants keeps growing, specially in the case of inmigrants which are usually the ones working in the greenhouses. A total of 17,614 immigrants aboard 803 boats arrived on the Andalusian coast in 2017, which was an increase over 2016 of 185.2% in people and 94.5% in boats, since in the past there were 6,175 people rescued in 423 vessels.

Andalucia

Almeria Municipality

Almeria Province

Demography of Almeria

In Almeria the Moroccans registered in the province exceed 50,000. In recent years, more than 3,000 North Africans have settled in Almería on average. Thus, in localities such as El Ejido some 18,000 reside. Other urban centers with a notable presence of Moroccan immigration are the capital, Vícar, La Mojonera, Roquetas, Adra and Níjar.

Population Pyramid of Almeria

Population Growth in Almeria

GRAPH SOURCES. “Almería, segunda provincia española con mayor porcentaje de extranjeros.” ALMERÍA HOY (blog). Accessed May 31, 2018.

GRAPH SOURCES. “Habitantes Almería 1900-2017.” Accessed June 1, 2018. https://www.foro-ciudad.com/almeria/almeria/habitantes.html.

http://www.almeriahoy.com/2017/05/almeria-segunda-provincia-espanola-con.html. «Cifras de población referidas al 01/01/2017». Cifras Ofi-

“El Número de Migrantes Llegados En Patera a Andalucía Aumentó Un 185% En 2017.” Accessed June 1, 2018. http://www.europapress.es/anda-

ciales de Población de los

lucia/noticia-total-17614-inmigrantes-llegan-patera-costas-andaluzas-2017-1852-mas-2016-20180102144245.html.

Domain

Context

Domain

2.1.2.4.

History

Context

Almeria was once an area known for streams, forests, and a wide array of plant and animal life is now parched, cracked, and shade less. The environmental degradation on the landscape has very complex consequences, with changes that lasted from Roman occupation until the collapse in the table wine industry. “One of the keys to transformations in Almería was the relationship between foreign forces controlling the province of Almería and the use of resources available and profit from the extraction of these resources. Foreigners and foreign entities took these resources to international markets and sold them without any reinvestment back into Almería.” The history of Almeria shows a timeline of recurring modifications on the landscape either directly by powerful foreigners or indirectly through local-global markets for resources like mining, wool, silk, food etc. The Romans and Moorish occupants subjected the land to farming and crop techniques that were unknown to Almería, so the landscape was altered to accompany these changes. Even when Almería was not directly ruled by foreign powers, Almería’s resources were in demand by international markets, and extraction of resources was kept at unsustainable levels. The extraction of all of those resources eventually led to land degradation from open mines, soil erosion from terraced farming, the stripping of Almería’s lowland forest, and possibly causing a climatic shift to a more arid climate (Picón et al 2001, Latorre 2001). Almeria and the Mediterranean regions are “the best and most tragic example of how mankind has removed the foundations for his existence through the overexploitation of natural resources” (H. Walter quoted in Picón et al 2001). Almeria has long been an area of resource extraction on a local-global scale. Greenhouse agriculture is the most recent phase of exploitation on the landscape and profitable industry for international and national forces.

Almeria’s Aerial Photograph Greenhouses

IMAGE SOURCE. “The Plastic Mosaic You Can See From Space: Spain’s Greenhouse Complex - Bloomberg.” Accessed June 1, 2018. https://www.

SOURCES. “El Milagro de Almeria, Espa;a: A Political Ecological of Landscape Change and Greenhouse Agriculture” Robert Tyrell Wolosin.Ac-

bloomberg.com/news/features/2015-02-20/the-mosaic-you-can-see-from-space-spain-s-massive-greenhouse-complex.

cessed May 20, 2018. Bachelor of Science, Texas State University - San Marcos, Texas, 2006.

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

Coper and Bronze Age 4,000 BCE - 1,000 BCE Firewood First known historical landscape changes by humans.

Recovery Period

Roman Empire 0200 BCE - 0500 Multiple Dry farming exportation of minerals such as lead and silver. Reports of enormus wooded surfaces and forest vegetation.

2.1.2.5.

Climate

0500 - 0711 Environment experiences a recovery period.

Reconquista 1492 - 1850 Multiple Terraced farming, wool and silk, intensive mining. Reports of no trees in lowlands. Possible climatic shift.

Greenhouses

Moorish Occupation 0711 - 1492 Agriculture Citrus fruits and almonds based on an extensive system of irrigation.

Table Grapes 1860 - 1950 Agriculture Dry farming with limited irrigated farming.

1950 - 2018 Agriculture 80,000 acres of greenhouses.

Tourism

Technology

1990 - 2018 Construction Completition for coastal lands and water between greenhouse agriculture and tourism developers

1998 - 2018 Multiple Solar and wind power for energy use. Desalisation for fresh water for crops. Robots for grafts and multiple other jobs in the crops.

FIG. 02.2. Temperature Chart Almeria

Almería is positioned as the most arid city in Europe and one of the most arid of the Mediterranean Basin. Almeria’s climate is a transition between the warm arid climate (BWh) and the warm semi-arid climate (BSh), according to the Köppen Climate Classification. With an annual precipitation slightly less than 200mm, with an average of 25 days of rainfall per year, and a humidity of 65%. Also there is little monthly thermal amplitude; the temperatures oscillate between 17°C and 9°C in January and 31°C and 23°C in August. In summer months the temperature can rise to over 40°C due to the masses of hot air coming from the Sahara, and also is the only city in Continental Europe that has never registered frost, since the historical minimum is +0.1°C.

History Timeline Almeria SOURCES. “El Milagro de Almeria, Espa;a: A Political Ecological of Landscape Change and Greenhouse Agriculture” Robert Tyrell Wolosin.Accessed May 20, 2018. Bachelor of Science, Texas State University - San Marcos, Texas, 2006. IMAGE SOURCES.“Injerobots.” Accessed July 9, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/6699-robot-injerto-090218. “How Local Communities Are Turning Vacant Lots into Thriving Urban Farms — Stone Pier Press.” Accessed July 9, 2018. https://www.stonepierpress.org/goodfoodnews/vacantlotstourbanfarms. “The Alhambra in Granada: Photo Gallery | Spain.Info GCC.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.spain.info/gcc/en/images/alhambra-generalife-granada/.

SOURCES. “Atlas.Pdf.” Accessed May 31, 2018. http://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/divulgacion/publicaciones/Atlas-climatologico/Atlas.pdf. Meteorología, Agencia Estatal de. “Almería Aeropuerto: Almería Aeropuerto - Valores extremos absolutos - Selector - Agencia Estatal de Meteorología - AEMET. Gobierno de España.” Accessed May 31, 2018. http://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_ex-

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

The wind condition of Almeria presents itself as a unique climatic condition. An analysis of the wind direction distribution reveals the predominance of eastern and western winds. The south of Spain is dominated by an East and West current called Levanter and Vendavel respectively. Such a condition has given to a predictable and constant wind condition. Looking through the wind speed records of the past 10 years, the winds usually fluctuate between 4-8 m/s, and rarely does it pass 8 m/s. Thus such condition can be favourable to the construction of large-span structures without the high risk of wind-loads. At the same time, the contant nature of the bidirectional winds can be more easily adapted by geometric interventions, where strong winds can be addressed directly with wind-adapted geometries for both directions. Furthermore, there is a potential for shifting morphology that may only require to be adapted to 2 main directions. While it is typical for winds to be omnidirectional and mercurial, rendering wind-adapted architecture rather difficult to achieve pragmatic results, the constant wind condition of Almeria posits a potential for architectural response to adaptation of wind. To examine the validity of a long-term architectural intervention, the frequency and nature of the winds’ directional changes are analyzed, where hourly winds are plotted into a three day cycle of a chosen period during the research. The hourly winds reveals a slow shifting of directionality, while a 24-hour frame can feature up to 2-3 directional changes. As directional changes only happens 2-3 times a day, it presents an ideal setting for adaptable architectural actuation to occur , as 2-3 times a day is within a reasonable amount of energy expenditure to shift a buildings wind adapted direction.

IMAGE SOURCES. Google Maps. Accessed July 25, 2018. https://maps.google.com/. GRAPH SOURCES. Windfinder.com. Windfinder.com. Accessed September 18, 2018. https://www.windfinder.com/windstatistics/almeria.

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

Climate Diagram For a further analysis on the Almeria’s climate was done by overlaying

As it can be seen from the diagram even though Almeria is considered

four of the most important climate parameters that need

to have a very hot climate, various fluctuations occuor on the

to be taken into consideration for the proper

temperature (red) around the year, which is directly

growth of the crops.

linked to the amount of daylight hours (orange) that increase from May to August.

SOURCES. “Clima El Ejido.” meteoblue. Accessed August 2, 2018. https://www.meteoblue.com/es/tiempo/pronostico/modelclimate/el-ejido_espa%c3%b1a_2518494

“Average Weather in El Ejido, Spain, Year Round - Weather Spark.” Accessed August 2, 2018. https://weatherspark.

SOURCES. “El Ejido, Andalucia, Spain Weather Averages | Monthly Average High and Low Temperature | Average Precipitation and Rainfall Days | World Weather Online.” Accessed August 2, 2018. https://www.worldweatheronline.com/el-ejido-weather-averages/andalucia/es.aspx.

com/y/38210/Average-Weather-in-El-Ejido-Spain-Year-Round.

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

2.1.2.6.

Crops Analysis The 6 most important crops in the region were selected for a further

the right microclimate for each one of them. When it comes to the economic

research and analysis, which were overlaid in this diagram to

being used for each crop, but that amount is not necessarily connected

compare the different plant parameters, climate parameters

to the production or price. A good example is the tomato, which is

and economic information, for each one of the crops. As it can be seen from the diagram each one of the crops has different climate parameters to be consider for a proper growth, which means they need to be

information it can be understood that there is a different amount of land

the crop that is occupying the most amount of land, but is the third one with the biggest production, following pepper and watermelon, but again in the price the tomato is the most expensive by kilogram.

SOURCES.“Costes Tomate.” Accessed July 10, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/5515-costes-tom-100417.

Ferre, Francisco Camacho.

“pimiento bajo invernadero,” n.d., 17 Food, Colaboradores Journey of. “Soy de Temporada.” Accessed July 10, 2018. https://soydetemporada.es Food, Colaboradores Journey of. “Soy de Temporada.” Accessed July 11, 2018. https://soydetemporada.es. . “Pepino.” Vegacañada, July 11, 2018.

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

There is a great variety of tomatoes such as cherry tomato, tomato beef or green tomato, and during the spring many different types of tomato are planted, especially green, which has been directed a lot more in recent years for the national market. The best season for the tomato is in spring which is a time of the year with good amount of hours of daylight and also has the right temperatures and humidity levels for this crop. The height of this plant is around 1.80m to 2.40m, and the best harvesting time is around 120 to 170 days. When it comes to the economic information in the last year more than 10,836 hectares of land were used for this crop, as well as a production of 537,602,747 kilos, and sold at €0.99 per kilo.

There are different types of peppers in Almeria, Italian, spicy, and the most commercial the sweet pepper, also called California, which is the most popular in the European market. The best season for the pepper is in winter which is a time of less daylight and also the right temperatures and humidity levels for this crop. The height of this plant is around 0.50m to 2.50m, and the best harvesting time is around 90 to 150 days. When it comes to the economic information in the last year more than 9,270 hectares of land were used for this crop, as well as 664,340,000 kilos of pepper were produced, and sold at €0.86 per kilo.

SOURCES. “Cherry_HortInt.Pdf.” Accessed July 10, 2018. http://aulavirtual.agro.unlp.edu.ar/pluginfile.php/14584/mod_resource/content/0/cher-

SOURCES. “Pimientos Todo El Año. Agricultores Que van a Un Solo Cultivo | Joseantonioarcos.Es.” Accessed July 10, 2018. https://joseantonioar-

ry_HortInt.pdf.

cos.es/2016/08/19/agricultores-pimientos-almeria/ “Hortoinfo Pimiento.” Accessed July 10, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/informes/

“Hortoinfo Tomate.” Accessed July 10, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/informes/cultivos/5897-inf-tomate-2017. “Costes Tomate.” Ac-

cultivos/6011-inf-pim-2017. Ferre, Francisco Camacho. “pimiento bajo invernadero,” n.d., 17 “Variedades de Pimiento En Almería - Publica-

37cessed July 10, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/5515-costes-tom-100417. “Campaña de Tomate Primavera En Almería.” Seminis, July

ciones.Poscosecha.Com.” Accessed July 10, 2018. http://publicaciones.poscosecha.com/es/pimiento-tomate/108-variedades-de-pimiento-en-al-

Domain

Context

Domain

This crop has a creeping and very branched radicular system. Currently, more than 90% of the watermelon plantations are grafted in order to avoid neck and root problems. There are different types of watermelons, white, mini, black with seeds or without, and more than 50% of the production is destined for export. The best season for watermelon is in spring which is a time of the year with good amount of hours of daylight and also has the right temperatures and humidity levels for this crop. The best harvesting time is around 100 to 150 days, and when it comes to the economic information in the last year more than 9,208 hectares of land were used for this crop, as well as a production of 558,000,000 kilos, and sold at €0.35 per kilo.

There are different types of cantaloupe depending on their place of origin and their cultivation characteristics, but in Almeria, the most common variety is toad skin, and is one of the largest types of melons, with an average weight of 2.5kg. The best season for the cantaloupe is spring which is the time of the year that has the right temperatures and humidity levels for this crop, but when it comes to the daylight spring has more hours of daylight than what is needed for the cantaloupe, so it is important take shading into consideration for this crop. The best harvesting time is around 70 to 100 days. When it comes to the economic information in the last year more than 2,042 hectares of land were used for this crop, 93,500,000 kilos of cantaloupe were produced, and were sold at €0.42 per kilo.

SOURCES. “Hortoinfo Sandia.” Accessed July 10, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/6900-costes-cult-sand-160418.

SOURCES. “1337161080melon_baja.Pdf.” Accessed July 11, 2018. https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/export/drupaljda/1337161080melon_baja.

“La sandía, ¿cómo cultivarla? Por María Pérez, técnica agrícola.” portagrano.net. Accessed July 10, 2018. http://www.portagrano.net/home/detallenoticia.php?idnoticia=386.

Food, Colaboradores Journey of. “Soy de Temporada.” Accessed July 10, 2018. https://soydetemporada.es.

Context

pdf. Food, Colaboradores Journey of. “Soy de Temporada.” Accessed July 11, 2018. https://soydetemporada.es.

Domain

Context

Domain

There is a wide variety of cucumbers, these types are divided depending on the area where they were grown, some of the Almeria cucumbers are the Borja, Pradera or Benito. To obtain a plant whose fruits are adapted to the market and the area of cultivation, the choice of the variety is very important, some aspects to take into account are the length of the fruit and the uniformity. The best season for cucumber is in spring which is a time of the year with nice amount of hours of daylight and also has the right temperatures and humidity levels for this crop. The best harvesting time is around 75 to 90 days, and when it comes to the economic information in the last year more than 5,026 hectares of land were used for this crop, and had a production of 438,870,000 kilos, and was sold at €0.44 per kilo.

Zucchini is a fleshy berry, without central cavity, and is green or yellow. The skin is smooth and very sensitive to chafing. It is elongated, cylindrical and with a very short peduncle. Usually to improve the quality of the fruit it should be guided, although there are types of zucchini that cannot be guide do to the weight of the zucchini. The best season for the zucchini is fall which is the time of the year that has the right temperatures and humidity levels for this crop, this crop also requires high daylight which during fall it is ok for the plant parameters. Summer is actually the season with more hours of sunlight but during that season the farmers usually don’t plant any crops to let the soil recuperate. The best harvesting time is around 45 to 65 days, and when it comes to the economic information in the last year more than 7,863 hectares of land were used for this crop, 445,057,000 kilos of zucchini were produced, and were sold at €0.68 per kilo.

SOURCES. “Hortoinfo Pepino.” Accessed July 11, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/informes/cultivos/518-cultivo-del-pepino.

SOURCES. “Hortoinfo Calabacín.” Accessed July 11, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/3462-prod-ue-calabacin-120815.

“Costes Pepino.” Accessed July 11, 2018. http://www.hortoinfo.es/index.php/5602-costes-pep-080517.

“22-Cultivos-Horticolas-Al-Aire-Libre.Pdf.” Accessed July 11, 2018. http://www.publicacionescajamar.es/uploads/cultivos-horticolas-

“Pepino.” Vegacañada, July 11, 2018. http://www.vegac.com/pepino.

al-aire-libre/22-cultivos-horticolas-al-aire-libre.pdf.

Context

“Calabacín.” Vegacañada, July 11, 2018. http://www.vegac.com/calabacin.

Domain

Context

Desertification

Domain

2.1.2.9.

Issue

Context

Water Overexploitation

Water Over-exploitation Horticulture industry is water intensive consumptive industry. In Spain, Agriculture takes up the more than 60% percent of the nation’s water usage [1]. By province, Andalusia province where the project is located, ranks the first in term of surface water and second in groundwater usage. Within the desertification context, Horticulture industry in El Ejido is totally dependent on the of surface water and extraction groundwater due to the lack of precipitation. Local aquifer is fossil aquifer, which is renewable fresh water resource. The over extraction of the groundwater is so called ‘water mining’. This has imposed high water stress in the region, according to United Nation’s water survey.

Almeria “Mar de Plastico”

Context as a response to Issue

According to the report by WWF [2], The consequence of the water mining, could be summarized as following: In the natural water cycle, healthy aquifer charges the local surface riverbed. Low water level of the local aquifer will alternate the charging direction resulting the surface water being drained thus intensifying the groundwater mining. This positive feedback accelerate the desertification. Lower groundwater level will also induce the costalline ground brackish water infiltrating to the aquifer contamination. Quantitative relation demonstrate the extent of the issue can be described using Ghyben-Herzberg Principle,’every unit depth (m, ft) drop in the water table, there will be a corresponding 40 unit depth rise in the fresh water-sea water interface.’ [3]

Water Overexploitation

Plastic Polution

Greenhouse Inefficiencies

Main Problems in Context Source. [1] M.Ramon Llamas,Garrido,Alberto,Lessons from Intensive Groundwater Use in Spain: Economic and Social Benefits and Conflict. Department of Geodynamics, Complutense University of Madrid, Department of Agricultural Economics, Technical University of Madrid. [2] WWF(World Wildlife Fund) Adena,Illegal water use in Spain,Causes,effects and solutions, May 2006. [3] “Coastal Aquifers; Groundwater at Sea - Geological Digressions.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.geological-digressions.com/coastal-aquifers-groundwater-at-sea/. P54-55 Graph Source. Water Usage in Spain Chart redrew based on Spain’s groundwater use summary(estimated from several sources)(Source: Llamas et al., 2001) Water Usage by Province Chart redrew based on Descriptive elements of irrigation in Spain(in hectares). (Source: MAPYA, 2001) Water stress in European river basins:European Environment Agency, http://www.eea. europa.eu/data-and-maps/ figures/water-stress-in-europe-2000-and-2030 ) Section diagram redrew based on information from “Coastal Aquifers; Groundwater at Sea - Geological Digressions.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.

Water Stress Index Map Water Usage in Spain

Water Usage by Province

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

30,000 Tons of Plastic

2.1.2.8.

Plastic Pollution

Although plastic manufacturing and recycling companies has been slowly establishing around the region, it still does not come near to address the overwhelming amount of plastic waste. The greenhouses in Almeria produce around 30,000 tons of plastic waste per year. (1) The non-recycled plastics are either piled up or burned. Observation on the coast of El Pozuelo have been made where plastic waste piled up calf-high. Plastic waste has made an ecological impact when it blocked the riverbeds or ended up in the ocean. In 2013, The death of a sperm whale found on the south coast of spain had been linked with Almeria when it was found to have swallowed 17 kg of plastic which was dumped into the ocean. The 80,000 acres of plastic greenhouses covering Almería’s two greenhouse growing areas, the Campo de Dalias and Campo de Nijar. Greenhouses in Almería produce 30,000 tons of plastic and one million tons of organic waste per year (The Olive Press 2007b; Webster 2001).

Burned

Landfield Dumped in the Ocean

Recycled Ciclogro collects 15,000 tons of plastic / year, across Andalucia.

IMAGE SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic Analysis, (2016). Nisen, A et al. “L’éclairement natural de serres” Edition I. (1969)

Domain

2.1.2.9.

Greenhouse Inefficiencies Orientation

Domain

Context

A principle geometric parameter that should be controlled is the geometry and orientation of the greenhouse. Greenhouses in Almeria are oriented to maximize solar exposure and adapt to moderate wind-speeds to enable ventilation. Transmissivity rates are affected by various greenhouse geometry and orientation. Nisen et al (1969) published findings of transmissivity rates of various types of greenhouses, along with different orientation. With consideration of winter seasons in Almeria, at a latitude greater than 30 degrees, East-West orientation is superior in radiation coverage than N-S. In addition, in terms of effectiveness of ventilation, roof slopes that are perpendicular to wind direction provides better ventilation than parallelly oriented ventilation. Thus, to abstract the observation, the ideal conditions for solar and ventilation performance should be provided by a geometric intervention that maximizes solar coverage of winter season, and maximizes ventilation efficiency by orienting to the wind.

Height

Context

Another parameter that greatly effects greenhouse performance is the height. Almeria industry is continuously improving greenhouse prototypes to accommodate greater heights. Greater heights, due to their greater volume, can offer greater thermal inertia and chimney effect, which means better ventilation. It also allows more ceiling mounted equipment and larger range of indoor farming tools. This is greatly advantageous in the continuous effort to increase greenhouse efficiency and sustainability. At the same time, major design obstacles obstruct this ambition. A higher volume presents a higher wind-load, demanding better structural system to address the issue. Also, conventional green heating/cooling methods require much higher energy consumption for a much larger volume. Thus, to strive for larger height and volume, it is pertinent to address the higher structural and energy demands.

0.8 0.7 0.6

MMER

SPRING/SU

High thermal inertia

0.5 R

INTE MN/W

0.4

AUTU

0.3

Low thermal inertia

0.2

Poor ventilation

0.1

LIGHT TRANSMITION LIGHT TRANSMITION

Allows ceiling mounted

0.0

Equipment

0.0

Low Structural Stability

0.1

Demand

0.2

Lower Energy

0.3 AUT

0.4 0.5 0.6

Better ventilation

UMN

SPRIN

G/SU

MME

Consumption WIN TE

Higher Structural Stability Demand Higher Energy Consumption

0.7 0.8

SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic

Analysis, (2016).

Nisen, A et al. “L’éclairement natural de serres” Edition I. (1969)

Domain

Context

Domain

Context

2.1.3. Greenhouse Taxonomy

Currently the Horticulture indutry use extensively the flat or pitched roof greenhouses with plastic film cover supported by steel frame structure.

Flat-Roof(Parral Plano)

Several iterations and improvement has been proposed and adopted during the past 50 years. The general trend of the improvement has been focusing on increasing the height and reducing the interior structral columns. Both solutions can improve interior ventilation and allowing more equipments be to installed or used inside the greenhouses. frame strucutre vertical structural support building envelope

wire grid&rope horizontal flexible plastic

cover material

steel brace

rigid plastic glass

carbon-dioxide enrichment system

wall mounted system natural ventilation system

greenhouse

ventilation system

roof mounted system insect screen

forced ventilation system

Height

2.5m Column Grid

air heating system heating system

advantage • It is very cost effective. • It can adapt to different plot shapes as well as uneven terrain. • It provides uniform light.

floor heating system water heating system shade cloths

shading system

thermal screen darkening screen

evaporative water cooling system

pad and fan system fog system

Material • paneling: polyethylene (PE), 5m 5m • 4.5m structure: pine eucalyotus logs,galvanized iron,rolled iron, double layer galvinzed wire grids

3x3m

Disadvantage • 2x6m It has a large number of obstacles inside, 3x4m so free space is scarce. 8x5m • Ventilation is poor when the width is greater than 30 m, which happens in most cases. • Installation of roof vents openings is difficult. • It is not particularly rainwater- and airtight, which causes high humidity • inside and possible crop damage from dripping during rainy • periods as well as high heat loss from indoor air leakage. • Its lack of airtightness prevents the incorporation of climate control • techniques.

Greenhouse System Taxonony SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic Analysis, (2016). Nisen, A et al. “L’éclairement natural de serres” Edition I. (1969)

Domain

Context

Domain

Pitch Roof(Raspa y Amagado)

Height

4.5m Column Grid

2x6m

Context

Asymmetric Roof

Roof angle: 6 o~ 20 o 5m

Roof angle: 6 o~ 20 o

Height

2.5m

6.5m

4.5m

Column Grid

Material • paneling: polyethylene (PE), • structure: pine eucalyotus logs,galvanized iron,rolled iron, double layer galvinzed wire grids Advantage • Cost effective • Good unit volume and greater thermal inertia. 8x5m stack effect. • 3x4m Higher height improve air circulation through • It’s better resistant to wind load. • It can accommodate irregular geometry of the terrain • It’s well adapted for non-trellised crops.

6.5m 5m Material • paneling: polyethylene (PE), • structure: pine eucalyotus logs,galvanized iron,rolled iron, double layer galvinzed wire grids Advantage • The sides of the cover have different inclination angles to enhance the capture of solar energy.

3x3m

12x6m

2x6m

3x4m

8x5m

12x6m

Disadvantage • The more increased the angle, the better the interception of solar radiation, although it requires greater structural strength. SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic

SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic

Analysis, (2016).

Nisen, A et al. “L’éclairement natural de serres” Edition I. (1969)

Domain

Context

Domain

Pitch Roof(Raspa y Amagado)

Asymmetric Roof

Industrial scale Greenhouse. to stretch and hold the plastic sheets

Height

5m Column Grid

8x5m

6.5m Material: • paneling: polycarbonate (PC) wall, PEfor roof structure: galvanized steel with 2.5m • 4.5momega profile

Material: • paneling: 4mm glass x 1.125m panel length • structure: Steel

Height

Advantage • Increasing popularity due to the increase height to enhance lateral ventilation • Improved microclimate control variables ability due to water and airtight • Large span provide space for machinery to operate • Higher height improve air circulation • Allow12x6m installation roof mounted ventilation. • Barrel vault distribute brighter and even light. Flexible usage:some module allowed 3x3m • 2x6m to be used as storage or receiving 3x4m area. Disadvantage • High cost • Plastic cover requires mechanical opening control due to its loose attachment to the structure.

SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic

Context

6.5m

Column Grid

Roof Angle:22 o Advantage: • Retain heat in winter

8x5m

12x6m

Disadvantage: • It’s ideal for cold areas especially the Netherlands. not frequently used in Almeria. because it’s not well adapted in harsh summer condition in arid area. • High cost

SOURCES. Valera, D. L., L. J. Belmonte, F. D. Molina-Aiz, and A. López. “Greenhouse agriculture in Almería.” A Comprehensive Techno-Economic

Analysis, (2016).

Nisen, A et al. “L’éclairement natural de serres” Edition I. (1969)

Domain

Conclusion

Domain

Conclusion

2.2. Conclusion

2.2.1. Problems and Solutions The principle strategy of the research is to solve the 3 fundamental problems by creating an integrated solution of a new greenhouse system. Each solution will work in synthesis to address greenhouse inefficiencies, water over-exploitation, and

2.1.1.1.

Water over-exploitation

2.1.1.2.

Plastic pollution

2.1.1.3.

Greenhouse Inefficiencies

To address the increasing salination of the region, various desalination systems will be explored to be integrated with greenhouse system. Ambition will be aimed towards the net positive production of fresh-water, reversing the net consumption

A more integrated production process will be examined. Strategies to increase material longevity will be explored, with a potential to increase volume to plastic ratio through geometric strategies, and to limit multi-material joints by implementing homogenous material construction.

The primary inefficiency to be addressed is geometric. Orientation and height will be explored to maximize chimney effect and reduce microclimate fluctuations. As greater volume presents greater wind-loads new structural systems will be developed to address wind load and wind directional changes. A morphologically adaptable prototype will be explored. Typical greenhouses provide singular climatic condition, while a variation of crops is produced in Almeria. Another factor to ameliorate greenhouse performance is to provide adaptability to different crop conditions. To implement control of humidity and microclimate, systems of humidity and hydro-thermal heating/cooling control will be explored.

IMAGE SOURCE. Photographer: Bernhard Lang . “The Plastic Mosaic You Can See From Space: Spain’s Greenhouse Complex - Bloomberg.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.bloomberg. com/news/features/2015-02-20/the-mosaic-you-can-see-from-space-spain-s-massive-greenhouse-complex.

METHODOLOGY

Methodology

Methodology Overview

Component Design Experiment

Finite Element Analysis Karamba

2D Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD) Autodesk CFD

Methodology Finite Element Thermal Analysis Therm

3.1 Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm Genetic Algorithm is a power computational design method to sort through a large quantity of data to provide a pool of optimal solutions based on the designated objectives. In the research, a design logic is created to be implemented with GA. As the multiplicity of design objectives are needed for the basis of constructing our design, it is advantageous to utilize multi-objective evolutionary algorithm. In the research Grasshopper Octopus will be used. 3.2 Finite Element Analysis

Multi-Objective Generative Algorithm

3D Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD)

Finite Element Analysis is utilized to analyze structure performance of the inflated pneumatic beam. In order to simulate inflation behavior of the membrane material, both internal pressure and external atmospheric pressure were applied on the surface in addition to the standard structural loads such as gravity and wind load.

Octopus Autodesk CFD

Finite Element Analysis Architectural System Development

Planarize Force Driven Mesh Relaxation

Karamba Kangaroo

Genetic Algorithm Phenotypes

FEA on Air Beams

3.3 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

2D Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD) Heat Transfer Mode

3D Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD)

Autodesk CFD

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a computational finite element simulation tool to simulate and numerically calculate the fluid flow. The tool was used in order to understand the dynamic behavior of the fluid flow specifically indoor air movement and heat transfer of water passive cooling system, it’s used both in early stage design experiments as well as post design evaluation. CFD is mainly being utilized in this research to inform design decisions by predicting and quantifying performances of design results. In further detail, CFD is utilized to calculate velocity of winds, surface pressures, and efficacy of wind distribution. It is also utilized to calculate thermal transmittance of design results.

Analysis & Evaluation

Methodology Overview

Methodology

2D simulation Due to its heavy computation time of CFD analysis, at the early stage of the design development, 2D simulation were carried out to compare different building section to extract design principles of aerodynamic shapes. 3D simulation After the GA Algorithm, generative results(3D surfaces) were analyzed in CFD. Interior air flow velocity were used as post evaluation criteria in order to select best solution. Static pressure on the exterior surface were also used as an input for structure analysis using Finite Element Method. To simplify the calculation, estimation of wind load exerted on the structure were based on the maximum value of static pressure. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculation To calculate U-factor (overall heat transfer coefficient) of the air beams and surface membrane, Finite Element Thermal analysis software THERM were used. Planarize Force Driven Mesh Relaxation Surface rationalization were simulated in the Particle-spring engine Kangaroo. Planarize force was applied on the mesh springs. Planar mesh faces were created when the vertice was coplanar. The simulation ended when the whole mesh faces were planarized or surface fold itself and created pleats. In this case it means the rationalization were not successful.

CFD 3D Simulation

THERM U-Factor Calculation

Planarize Force Mesh Relaxation

IMAGE SOURCES. THERM U-Factor Calculation: https://windows.lbl.gov/software/therm Planarize Force Mesh Relaxation: Brütting, Jan, Axel Körner, Daniel Sonntag, and Jan Knippers. Bending-Active Segmented Shells, 2017.

RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

Research Development

Solutions in Nature

Research Development

Solutions in Nature

4.1. Solutions in Nature

4.1.1. Stoma

4.1.2. Burrow Ventilation of Prairie Dog The stoma, or stomata mechanism is a plant leaf ’s natural mechanism of adapting to different climatic conditions. They are microscopic openings mostly located on the bottom of leaves. When enough water is absorbed by the leaf, the stomata pressurizes and opens, and when it lacks water, the opening shrink and closes. Both the natural reaction to humidity and the actuation by pressurization yield potential in design. In strategies of actuation in adaptive architecture, typical mechanical systems require large of energy and are costly to manufacture. In the pressurized actuation system, such as the stomata, air is the primary compressional element. This allows the easy access and channeling of such element. It also holds thermal dynamic properties that can be further explored and potentially integrated with climatically adaptive elements.

Wind-oriented design can be found throughout nature, but one of the most architecturally applicable system is the burrows of the Black-Tailed Prairie dogs (C.Ludovicaianus). It is observed that they produce intricate burrow systems of on average 14m in length, 2 meters in depth, and two to three entrances. Few researches show the CO2 levels within the burrow is within the level of survivability. The drop of CO2 level is accounted for by the natural ventilation system that the burrow creases. Burrow mount of the prairie dog ranges in form and height, from narrow to wide, from high to low. Such morphologies create a difference in pressure when the wind sweeps by. The high amount of negative pressure created then pulls the air out, effectively creating a natural ventilation system.

SOURCE. “Stomata.” Anjung Sains Makmal 3. March 05, 2012. Accessed September 19, 2018. https://anjungsainssmkss.wordpress. com/2012/02/14/stomata/.

Research Development

Solutions in Nature

Research Development

Solutions in Nature

4.1.3. Abstracted Concept of Fluid Dynamics To study the morphological conditions required to spawn and accentuate the negative pressures which generates natural ventilation, such as that of the prairie dog, the existing field of study of fluid dynamics holds a myriad of principles that link morphology and pressure difference. One key concept is the calculation of the drag force. In any typical study of objects traveling through wind, the drag force is the essential force which acts in inertia to the force of the traveling object. The drag force creates negative pressure. Thus, in the case of the prairie dog tunnel, the hole which creates negative pressure holds a sprouting morphology, which directs the wind upwards, and creates large drag. Car and aerospace engineering all share the same goals of reducing drag force, as it slows down the vehicle. In our circumstance, we are working in reverse. We are aiming to create and accentuate the condition of negative pressure; thus, the goal is to increase the drag force. The drag equation is as follows: F = 1/2Pu^2CA Where F is the drag force, A is the area, p is the density, u is the velocity, and C is the drag coefficient. While being affected by area (A), density of fluid (p), and flow velocity(u), the form alone plays a large factor. This is where the drag coefficient proportionally affects total drag force. The drag coefficient is a unit-less measurement that differs depending on the morphology.

In the above diagram, each shape is shown to possess a different drag coefficient. But the relationship of drag force to morphology is rather complex. So this suggests the utilization of CFD to simulate wind conditions on various form would be efficient in further study.

Research Development

Solutions in Architecture

Research Development

Solutions in Architecture

4.2. Solutions in Architecture

4.2.1. Pneumatic Structures “The air structure is the most efficient structural form available to date ... no other type of structure has the potential of providing free-span coverage for so large an area ... as the air structure is constructed if light-weight, flexible materials, it can be made easily portable and lends itself readily to the design of demountable or removable structures.” Walter Bird, 1967 Frei’s soap bubbles

4.2.2.1.

Otto’s pneumatic structures

Frei Otto, one of the most prominent architect and thinker on light-weight structures, has conducted significant studies and experiments on pneumatic structures in the 1950s-60s. One of the advantages of pneumatic structures is its structural performance while being very light-weight. Otto started his first key research on pneumatic forms through investigating soap-bubble formations in a variety of boundary conditions. Plaster cast is then applied to capture the resultant forms. Due to the light-weight feature of pneumatic architecture, Otto envisioned various large-span utopian enclosed city projects, with much influence from Buckmininster fuller.

Present Day

While it is efficient to design pneumatic architecture in the large scale, as discussed, certain restrictions of greenhouse architecture however conflict with the largespan potential of Otto’s pneumatic architecture. The height and volume restriction for harvesting economic crops disallows for the classic dome-shaped morphology. It is pertinent to adapt a new greenhouse structure that utilizes the conflicting parameters to create a comprehensive solution.

Some calculations of the research indicates that enclosed pneumatic structure can span up to 800m. This was proven advantageous for large public spaces, with economic and stable construction. This was realized on a smaller scale, during Expo ‘70 in Osaka, as the U.S. Pavillion designed by Walter Bird and David H. Geiger. It featured a low-profile air-supported roof constrained by steel cables and a compression ring. In 1971, Frei, Arup, and Happold worked together to design a two-kilometer city in the arctic. Frei discovered that large structures required lower internal pressure than small structures. This makes pneumatic architecture suitable for large scale. The light-weight materials also makes it ideal for transportation to remote locations.

SOURCE. McLean, William ( William F.),Air structures,London : Laurence King Pub., 2015.

IMAGE SOURCE Roland, Conrad. Frei Otto-Structures. Longman, 1970. SOURCE. McLean, William (William F.),Air structures,London : Laurence King Pub., 2015. “GreenHouse Film SHOUMAN.” Accessed September 19, 2018. http://www.shouman.com/greenhouse.html.

Research Development

4.2.2.2.

Fuji Pavilion

Solutions in Architecture

Architect: Yutaka Murata Mamoru Kawaguchi Location: Osaka, Japan Year: 1970 Program: Fair building Area: 3369 m² Material: PVC neoprene vinylon

The Fuji pavillion for Expo 70 was the largest pneumatic structure of its time. It is circular in plan and 50m in diameter. Its unique architecture features 16 tubular arches with 4 m diameters each. The construction of this project used neither iron, steel, concrete nor wood, making it one of the earliest robust example of pneumatic architecture. The global geometry is the result of combining multiple tubular arches of varying height and distance between footings. This aggregation method results in a fluidity in form, while keeping each component’s geometry simple and easy to manufacture.

Research Development

4.2.2.3

Duol Air-supported Structure

Solutions in Architecture

Architect: Duol Location: Slovenia Year: unknown Program: Sports facility Area: 700 m² Material: Polyethene

The Duol air-supported structure is a single membrane structure supported by the internal pressure. It is a unique case of pneumatic architecture, where no structural members are necessary. These structures are commonly called pressostatic balloons. The air-supported system offers a cost-effective solution, but also provides rapid deployment, ideal for temporary structures. Structure can be designed with single, double and even triple membrane, with the latter offering greater start-up cost but lower running cost due to smaller heat loss.

The pneumatic structure is inflated at the pressure of 7.8kPa, it can also increase to 24.5 kPa during storm events. This ability to adapt to higher wind load requirement is especially beneficial in extreme environments. It would be worthwhile to design a self-reactive system to incorporate this shift in structural capacity, for reacting to the designated climatic conditions.

IMAGE SOURCE Johnny Times. (2018). Expo 70, Fuji Group Pavilion, Air Dome - Johnny Times. http://www.johnnytimes.com/expo-70-fuji-group-pavilion-airdome/ SOURCE. McLean, William ( William F.),Air structures,London : Laurence King Pub., 2015.

IMAGE SOURCE Duol Accessed September 18, 2018. https://duol.eu/products/tennis-air-dome. SOURCE. McLean, William (William F.),Air structures,London : Laurence King Pub., 2015.

Research Development

Solutions in Architecture

Research Development

Solutions in Architecture

vegetat

concret

4.2.2. Passive System

passive glass façade

4.2.2.

Davies Alpine Greenhouse

Project Information Height: 10m Interior floor area: 96m2 Location: London, UK

concrete wall

Client: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Architect: Wilkinson Eyre Architects Structural Engineer: Michael Barclay Partnership Environmental Engineer: Atelier 10 Completed: March 2005

vegetation soil

Completed in March 2005, Davies Alpine greenhouse in Kew Garden London is an innovative sustainable greenhouse project featuring natural ventilation and cooling system. It is designed by Wilkinson Eyre Architects in collaboration with environmental engineer practice Atelier 10.

concrete slab passive cooling labyrinth

In order to provide dry and bright high altitude mountainous microclimate(constant 10oC temperature) for the alpine plant species to grow and reproduce, natural ventilation is used as main microclimate mediation method.

Axonometric Diagram

Davies Alpine House Exterior

First, the building height was design 10m tall in order to utilize the stack effect and cross ventilation effect.

Davies Alpine House Interior

Second, there’s an passive cooling strategy applied, according to Peter Davey, inspired by the principal of termite mound ventilation. An 80m long concrete block labyrinth was constructed 3m beneath the ground level. This passive cooling design could be considered as a reversed ancient Roman hypocaust. Incoming air is first drawn into the labyrinth to be cooled using thermal mass of concrete before being redistributed in the atrium. It will be exhaust through the opening on the apex using stack effect. At night time, the cooler exterior air was drawn into the labyrinth to dissipate heat accumulated in the concrete mass. Combined with mechanical shading system, the interior temperature of the greenhouse summer daytime summer summer cooling daytime daytime cooling cooling

summer night summer summer cooling night night cooling cooling

winter heating winter winter heating heating

Can be maintained around the targeted 10oC. System Operation Diagram

Davies Alpine House Labyrinth

IMAGE SOURCES. interior exterior images:http://www.wilkinsoneyre.com/projects/royal-botanic-gardens-kew-masterplan labyrinth images:https://daviesalpinehouse.weebly.com/

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In terms of energy consumption, 0.7kWh/m3 is theoretically the minimum energy required to desalinate the sea water. The energy consumption of various techniques ranges between 3 to 15 kWh/m3.

exc

However, Current industrial scale centralized desalination plants are limited to the industrial or urban usage due to the high infrastructure investment and high energy consumption. Utilizing desalinated water for irrigation purpose is only feasible when applied on high value crops.

To provide alternative fresh water resource for local horticulture industry and reduce ecological impact of agricultural activities, research on the sea water desalination. Classification on the all the possible desalination techniques reveals that the by physical property, the techniques can be divided into phase change/non phase change techniques. An review on the major industrial scale desalination techniques indicates that Reverse osmosis is most frequently used desalination technique. Membrane technologies represent the main non phase change techniques, they are more productive than the techniques which involves in the phase change however, the phase change desalination techniques offer opportunities of co-generation(e.x. Electricity generation) or integration of other systems(cooling or heating system).

multi-s

ffec

ap or c

Desalination Sytem

ica lv

4.2.3

Overview

therm

c electri

l ica m e ch

the

Solutions in Architecture

mechanical

Research Development

Solutions in Architecture

Research Development

Desalination Techniques Overview

As suggested by M. Schiffler, more practical approach for individual farms is to integrate small scale decentralized brackish water desalination. [1] Potential renewable energy such as wind or solar energy should be integrated into the system to minimize the energy consumption. Solar energy can be integrated into the desalination process by direct solar distillation or indirect solar desalination(coupling with RO techniques, solar energy is converted to electricity). Wind energy can be integrated into the RO technique to generate electricity. After the initial investigation, solar distillation technique was chosen as it’s ideal for small scale decentralized desalination process using renewable energy. It’s could be integrated into the greenhouse system and being combined with cooling or heating system.

Desalination Techniques Market Share SOURCES.[1] [2] Schiffler, Manuel. “Perspectives and Challenges for Desalination in the 21st Century.” Desalination, Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries, 165 (August 15, 2004): 4. [4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse [5] https://seawatergreenhouse.com/ [5]Sablani, S. S., M. F. A. Goosen, C. Paton, W. H. Shayya, and H. Al-Hinai. “Simulation of Fresh Water Production Using a Humidification-Dehumidification Seawater Greenhouse.” Desalination 159, no. 3 (November 5, 2003): 283–88. Kabeel, Abd Elnaby, Z.M. Omara, Fadl Essa, and Abdelkader Abdalla. “Solar Still with Condenser – A Detailed Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (June 1, 2016).

GRAPH SOURCES.desalination Desalination Techniques Market Share chart data based on: Henthorne, Lisa. “Desalination – a Critical Element of Water Solutions for the 21st Century,” n.d.:50.

Research Development

4.2.3.1

Double Slope Solar Still

4.2.3.2

Seawater Greenhouse

Solutions in Architecture

Research Development

Solutions in Architecture

According to Kabeel et al. study, for double slope solar still with built in condenser, the theoretical daily production capacity of the system is 7 kg/m2.

Seawater greenhouse is one type of solar distillation and microclimate control system combined horticulture technique developed specifically for arid areas. It was first invented by the British inventor Charlie Paton in early 1990s. Several greenhouses using this techniques has been installed in Middle east and Australia. The technique can be summarized in two phase: 1.Cool seawater is first pumped into the greenhouse to humidify and cool down the incoming air Case study 1: Double Slope Solar Still

2. The humidified air will be evaporated to vapor by solar radiation and condensed to produce fresh water. The excessive humid air will be released to the exterior crop field to mediate the exterior microclimate. According to Sablani S. S et al.’s study, daily fresh water productivity estimation of an 200m(width)x50m(depth) seawater greenhouse is 125m3/d with 1.16 kWh/m3 energy consumption rate.

condenser

evaporative wall soaked in brine

The study also suggests that a shallow dimension is favored in order to improve fresh water productivity and reduce energy consumption. This is compared with the productivity of the same area but deeper greenhouse 50m(width)x200m(depth) 58m3/d 5.02 kWh/m3.

sea water input

sea water return

fresh water irrigation

fresh water storage

Case study 2: Seawater Greenhouse

SOURCE. Schiffler, Manuel. “Perspectives and Challenges for Desalination in the 21st Century.” Desalination, Desalination Strategies in South Mediterranean Countries, 165 (August 15, 2004): 4. “Seawater Greenhouse - Wikipedia.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawater_greenhouse. “Seawater Greenhouse.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://seawatergreenhouse.com/. Sablani, S. S., M. F. A. Goosen, C. Paton, W. H. Shayya, and H. Al-Hinai. “Simulation of Fresh Water Production Using a Humidification-Dehumidification Seawater Greenhouse.” Desalination 159, no. 3 (November 5, 2003): 283–88. Kabeel, Abd Elnaby, Z.M. Omara, Fadl Essa, and Abdelkader Abdalla. “Solar Still with Condenser – A Detailed Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (June 1, 2016).

IMAGE SOURCES. Double Slope Solar Still: Kabeel, Abd Elnaby, Z.M. Omara, Fadl Essa, and Abdelkader Abdalla. “Solar Still with Condenser – A Detailed Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 59 (June 1, 2016).

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

4.3. Fabrication Strategy

4.3.1. Overview In order to have a fabrication strategy, it is important to first have a clear idea of the final goal, in this case is a greenhouse that instead of beign constructed with traditional materials or structures, it is beign proposed to use a pneumatic structure. Said greenhouse is also gonna be composed by different systems, one of them beign a desalination system, and another one is an air cooling system, among others. In this point the fabrication strategy must be focused on the main structure to then focus on the details of fabrication of said systems. When it comes to both greenhouses and pneumatic structures it is necesary to research the precedents, to understand how both of them are fabricated, and to do so first is important to focus mainly on the materials that are beign used, because when the material is defined the fabrication method of said material will be studied to understand if it is apropiate for the main structure fabrication.

IMAGE SOURCE Roland, Conrad. Frei Otto-Structures. Longman, 1970. “GreenHouse Film || SHOUMAN.” Accessed September 19, 2018. http://www.shouman.com/greenhouse.html.

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

4.3.2. Material Research 4.3.2.1.

Greenhouses Materials

The design of a greenhouse can have a big impact in the proper growth of the crops as well as an energy efficient consumption. As it was presented in the greenhouse architecture, one of the main goals is to create a free span in the interior, but when traditional materials are used, is a very difficult goal to achieve.

4.3.2.2.

Pneumatic Structures Materi-

The traditional greenhouse is mainly composed by a structure and a cover, for the structures many materials are used, wood aluminium and galvanized steel. And for the covers, there are a lot more options depending on the design, crop, and budget. The cover materials can be divided into:

To select the perfect material for a pneumatic structure it really depends on the purpose of the building, there is a great variety of materials that can be used for a construction of a pneumatic structure. This materials can be elastic or a bit more rigid, but always with enough flexibility to create a component that can be inflated. Another important fact of the material selection are the isotropic and anisotropic materials, the isotropic materials can show ductility and strength in any direction, while the anisotropic materials can only demonstrate ductility and strength in certain directions.Some isotropic materials can be plastic films or rubber membranes, while the anisotropic can be woven fabrics. The most used materials for pneumatic structures can be divided in:

- Glass Composed Materials: Glass

- Rubber:

Fiberglass

Neoprene Hypalon

- Rigid Plastic:

Butyl

Polyethylene Panel Polycarbonate

- Composite Fabrics (fabrics coated with another material, like ruber on a fabric):

Acrylic

Polyester Nylon

- Flexible Plastic: EVA (Ethyl Vinyl Acetate)

- Flexible Plastic:

PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)

PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene)

Polyethylene Plastic Roll

PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)

ETFE (Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene)

Polyethylene Plastic Roll ETFE (Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene)

Glass

Polyethylene Panel

Fiberglass

EVA

PVC

Polycarbonate

Polyethylene Plastic Roll

Neoprene

Acrylic

ETFE

Hypalon

PTFE

Butyl

PVC

Polyester

Polyethylene Plastic Roll

Nylon

ETFE

SOURCE. “How To Choose A Greenhouse Material • Insteading.” Accessed August 2, 2018. https://insteading.com/blog/greenhouse-materials/..

SOURCE. “Construction Materials.” Accessed August 3, 2018. http://ae390a3.weebly.com/construction-materials.html. “ER_IAM_DIFA_T1_NielsWouters_LowQ.Pdf.”

“Greenhouse Covering Materials Comparison - Which Is Best?” Accessed August 2, 2018. http://www.homemadehints.com/greenhouse-covering-materials-com-

Accessed August 3, 2018. https://iam.tugraz.at/studio/w09/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/ER_IAM_DIFA_T1_NielsWouters_LowQ.pdf.

parison/

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

In the next graphic the results of a durability test of 3 materials is presented. As it can be understood for the results, PVC demostrated the least durability, followed by the Polyolefin (PE/EVA/PE), and the one with the best results is ETFE. ETFE went about 10 Mpas down in the course of 18 years, while Polyolefin and PVC went down more 15 Mpas in around 5 years.

4.3.2.3.

Material Properties

FIG. 01.4. Schematic Description of Development Pathways in Drylands

In the next graphic the results of a light transmittance test of 3 materials was presented, as it can be understood for the results, in this case ETFE was tested with two materials that are wellknown for their great light transmittance in this case glass and polycarbonate, to prove is the right material for a greenhouse. Polycarbonate of 3mm had good results but still was the one with less light transmittance from the 3 materials, glass of course is wellknown for the best light transmittance, and had a higher result than ETFE in one part of the test results, but in the end ETFE prove to be the material with the best light transmittance.

PVC

Polyethylene Plastic Roll

ETFE

After doing a separate research on the materials that are being used for greenhouses, and the ones that are being used for pneumatic structures, there was a small number of materials that were repeated on both of them. This result means that those materials have the perfect combination of flexibility to be used for a pneumatic structure, and protection and light transmittance for a greenhouse. After selecting those three materials, Polyethylene Plastic Roll, PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride), and ETFE (Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene), more research is being conducted to choose only one of them as the final material for the biopneumatic structure, that not only has great light transmitance, but also has great structural properties and duranility.

FIG. 01.4. Schematic Description of Development Pathways in Drylands

After a lot of research ETFE proved to be the right material for the biomimetic structure, having great durability results, as well as an excelent light transmittance, which is one essential resource in greenhouses.

SOURCE. “Advantages of ETFE Film Structure: MakMax (Taiyo Kogyo Corporation).” Accessed September 17, 2018. https://www.makmax.com/ business/etfe_advantages.html.

Research Development

4.3.2.4.

ETFE Material Properties

Fabrication Strategy

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

ETFE is an excellent covering material for a greenhouse, or in this case also a pneumatic structure, because not only is strong and very lightweight, it also has a great durability and great light transmittance, as it was shown in the previous graphics. When ETFE is compared with glass, it proves to be a better insulator, a lot more resistant to the weathering effects of sunlight and it weighs less than 1 percent than a piece of glass with the same volume. A great example of this material being used for greenhouse architecture is the Eden Project, were the material used as pneumatic panels, which are composed by three layers of ETFE welded along the sides with a steel structure holding and connecting them to one another. This ETFE panels provide a great insulation without decreasing the amount of sunlight that shines through. For the production process of the ETFE first the cutting patterns are generated from a 3D geometry, then a CNC machine cuts those patterns, and then they are preassembled in the right order and welded in special ETFE welding machines. Once the panels are assembled all other details are added, such as air supply valves. When it comes to the energy compsuntion the pneumatic ETFE panel cushion systems are generally supplied by one or more inflation units, each unit consists of two air compressors forming a backup system to guarantee the structural stability. But the fabrication and transportation to site compared to other similar cladding material very little amount of energy is consumed. And also is easily recyclable, old elements or waste from the fabrication process can be remoulded into new products, such as wires and tubing components. ETFE is also very simple to repair because this material can be welded, so when it comes to tears it can be easily fixed by welding replacement patches over the affected area. And another great fact about this material is that this material doesn’t expand or shrink when heated, it can resist temperatures of up to 270°C because of its very stable molecular bonding, and is fire retardant.

SOURCE. “ETFE Film Fabric Facades & Roofs | Porte Cochere Solutions.” Accessed August 18, 2018. https://www.makmax.com.au/etfe/65.

SOURCE. “ETFE Properties.” FluorothermTM (blog). Accessed September 17, 2018. https://www.fluorotherm.com/technical-information/materials-overview/et-

“How the Eden Project Works.” HowStuffWorks, May 3, 2001. https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/conservation/conservationists/eden.htm.

fe-properties/. “Free Eden Project Wallpaper and Desktop Background Image Downloads.” Accessed September 18, 2018. https://www.edenproject.com/wallpa-

“Structural Film.” samuel fournier. Accessed August 18, 2018. http://www.liwe.ca/structuralfilm/. “ETFE - Designing Buildings Wiki.” Accessed August 18, 2018.

per-downloads.

https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/ETFE.

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Pneumatic Architecture 4.2.2.3.

Main Material Systems Precedents

Static Structures

Dynamic Structures

Membranes

Airbeams

Component Based

Tensarity

Reactive Skins

Air Muscles/Springs

Airdome, Slovenia

Fuji Pavilion, Osaka

Eden Project, Cornwall

Tensarity Beam

Breathing Skins Project, Mandelbachtal

Adaptive Solar Facade, ETH Zurich

The main precedence selected in pneumatic architecture research is researched and integrated as a new system. The membrane type structures, such as airdrome of Duol, a Solvenian company (citation1), offers flexible and cheap membrane for covering a large span of area. The air beam type structures, such as Fuji Pavilion (citation2), offers structural support and easily programmable beam geometry. By combine the two, a new system of membrane and beam structure is proposed. In addition, some pneumatic architecture incorporates actuation, such as the Breathing Skins Project (citation3). Due to the shifting of the two prominent wind directions of the site, actuation is explored as central concept to be adapted with the membrane and air beam structure.

SOURCE. “Expo 70, Fuji Group Pavilion, Air Dome.” Johnny Times (blog). Accessed September 19, 2018. http://www.johnnytimes.com/expo-70-fuji-group-pavilion-air-dome/. “Eden Project.” Wikipedia, September 8, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eden_Project&oldid=858680640. “Tensairity Solutions | Lighter, Stronger, Better!” Accessed September 19, 2018. http://www.tensairitysolutions.com/ “Breathing Skins Technology - Breathing Skins.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.breathingskins.com/. “Home | DUOL - Air Supported Structure.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://duol.eu/.

SOURCE. Tennis Air dome. Accessed September 18, 2018. https://duol.eu/products/tennis-air-dome.http://www.kawa-struc.com/projects/projects_0302_e.htm Breathing Skins. Accessed September 18, 2018. https://www.breathingskins.com/ “Adaptive Solar Facade (ASF).” Accessed September 19, 2018. http://www.systems.arch.ethz.ch/research/active-and-adaptive-components/asf-adaptive-solar-facade.html..

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Research Development

Fabrication Strategy

Normal Polyethylene Plastic cover on greenhouses usually last from 2 to 3 season, even if is a good quality plastic it could last 1 to 4 years. With ETFE material on Pneumatic Structures, even with the hard conditions and solar expossure

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PN S C T EU O R N ST U M RU C C AT TI T O U N IC PR R O E

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4.3.3. Fabrication

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7. The ETFE Structure is transported to the land.

4. ETFE pieces go to the ETFE Welder Machine to build the structure, using a heat sealing method.

8. The land gets prepared for the construction and installation of the greenhouse.

5. Other components are added to the structure, specially air inlets and outlets, which help mantian the necessary air preassure for the structure.

9. After the land is ready, other systems and the foundation are constructed, concrete will be use for this part of the contrsuction. 10. The biopneumatic structure gets conected to the concrete foundation and systems, and is inflated.

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3. ETFE is cutted to pieces with CNC Machine.

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2. The fabric would be located in Almeria to create better job opportunities.

6. When the ETFE Structure is ready, it gets packed so that is ready for being transported to the main land where the biopneumatic structure will be located.

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Using ETFE as the main material can decrease the use of plastic significantly in the area, plus ETFE is also a RECYCLABLE material, which means that when is time to change the greenhouses, this can be recycled into cables and tubing components among others.

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

Design Development

Past Experimentations

Design Development

Past Experimentations

5.1. Past Experimentations

5.1.1. Design Ambition

5.1.2. Experimentation In the initial phase of design, the primary ambition is to optimize radiation conditions of crops. This guided towards a series of experiments that aimed to combine radiation optimization with various other parameters. The use of genetic algorithm is explored to address the multiplicity of objectives. A GA design parameter is set up to optimize for: Maximize/minimize radiation

Once genetic algorithm is utilized, a series of results enabled the creation of shell structure that exhibited maximum and minimum solar radiation catchment. This potentially created a control parameter for radiation and thermal gain of greenhouse. A pneumatic structural optimization concept is developed based on Young-Laplace formula, which is used to describe capillary pressure across two static fluids. This equation describes soap bubble formation, used in Frei Otto’s experiments.

Minimize surface area Minimize prevailing wind load Increase structural performance Since a variation of thermal condition needs to be achieved, actuation is incorporated with geometry, to morph depending on radiation needs. This is guided by the concept of actuating pneumatic architecture.

Laplace Equation

Curvature analysis

SOURCE. Laplace equation. Accessed sept 10, 2018. https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/393266c0fa438045522a30854f7f69ac1e693391 Isenberg, C. (1992). The science of soap films and soap bubbles. Courier Corporation.

Design Development

Past Experimentations

Design Development

Past Experimentations

5.1.3. Evaluation A system of climatic control is subsequently developed, where temperature adjustment is controlled by actuating between the two geometries, depending on rather high solar or low solar radiation is preferred. Moisture control is a secondary system, that adjusts humidity with ventilation and mystifies. In critical light, the activation of geometry to create different solar radiation conditions is problematic. Firstly, the system controls both solar radiation and thermal gain at the same time. The two parameters: temperature, and solar gain for crops, are separate and requires separate control. In addition sunlight is always in high demand, so the fluctuation between the solar gain is not beneficial. The thermal system is also heavily dependent on solar conditions. This means in the coldest winter times, where heating is most required for greenhouse, an insufficient amount of sunlight would not be able to regulate the temperature enough. Ventilation, as well, should be a separate parameter from humidity. As oxygen emission needs to be controlled separate from humidity. This prompts a question of powering ventilation. Due to the large volume of the microclimate system, a more sustainable ventilation method should be developed.

Previous system development

Structural analysis is also questionable, as the componentization of the geometry has not been decided. As various long-spanning pneumatic architecture is composed of air beam structure, a shift has been made towards the experimentation of implementing air beams as primary structural system. This requires a new set of structural experimentation. As a result, the experiments shifts away from prioritizing solar radiation parameter, and towards prioritizing for wind parameter. As there is a constant and predictable wind condition in Almeria, this provides opportunity to harness wind energy to power the ventilation.

Morphologically adaptive to solar radiation

Modified system development

Design Development

Computational Strategy

Design Development

Computational Strategy

5.2. Computational Strategy

5.2.1. Computation design ambition While each are beneficial in their respective regards, a key ambition in the computational design realm is to devise a form-finding logic that can integrate both computational fluid dynamics and genetic algorithm. In the most ideal case, CFD should be integrated directly as an objective for GA to optimize. However, due to the immense computational requirement of iterative fluid dynamic simulation on thousands of design solutions, it is currently unideal to directly apply this method. The experiments are conducted to find the most efficient strategy to synthesize the two computational design process.

5.2.1. Strategy The two design proponents are separated strategically, with emphasis on maximizing computational design efficiency and minimizing required computational power. As the principle strategy is wind-driven design, the initial design experiment is set up as a sectional design experiment with CFD. This allows the use of 2D CFD for optimization, which is many times faster than 3D. Next, the CFD-optimized section design is then incorporated into 3D design with GA manipulating multiple parameters in order to optimize for non-CFD related objectives. This allows fast and efficient GA computation. As multiple fit individuals are chosen based on preferences, it is reinserted into CFD to generate a final form for a specific context. The result of this design process aims to yield design results that satisfy a multiplicity of design objectives as well as wind and thermal performance.

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Design Development

Single Airbeam FEA

Design Development

Single Airbeam FEA

5.3. Single Airbeam FEA

5.3.1. FEA Set-up Before procedeing to the computational form finding experient, in order to understand the structural capability of pneumatic structure components, finite element analysis is conducted with a single arch air beam. Arc geometry was used for air beam with circular cross section. The variables are span, rise as well as polymer membrane thickness. The main challenge for pneumatic structure is the lateral force, specifically wind and snow load. Considering the local climate condition in Almeria, only wind load is considered. As indicated in the diagram (experiment setup), according to static Equilibrium, to keep the inflated membrane stable, the internal air pressure need to be equal to the addition of external load as well as gravity.

Experiment 1 Single Air beam Span FEA

Atmospheric pressure(101 kN/m2) is applied to the membrane as external pressure and correspondent internal pressure is the addition of atmospheric pressure and inflation pressure(ΔP). Both external and internal air pressure direction were set to local surface normal. Wind load were set to global X-axis, and wind load (0.1kN) is derived from the highest local wind velocity(13m/s) in El Ejido using the wind velocity-load graph.

Experiment 2 Single Air beam Rise FEA Pi G

ETFE 0.5mm

Wind Velocity-Wind Load Graph

FIG. 01.2. FEA Set Up

SOURCES. Wind Velocity-Wind Load Graph: “Wind Velocity and Wind Load.” Accessed September 19, 2018. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/wind-load-d_1775.html.

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Design Development

Single Airbeam FEA

Considering the span pneumatic air beam structure precedent (Fuji pavilion,Osaka,Japan,1970, 4m Diameter air beam covering 50m span)and typical greenhouse span(100m). We started the span test from 50m. The increment of the span is 10m.

Design Development

Single Airbeam FEA

5.3.3. Conclusion 85m span with 12m rise arch air beam will meet 1/90 span deflection criteria without exceeding 100% utilization value. It is also close to the existing greenhouse scale. The cross section used for this dimension was 3m diameter.

Main evaluation criteria: •

Maximum deflection of the beam on global Z-axis. Typically, maximum deflection allowed for beam is 1/250 of its span. In the case of greenhouse structure, the threshold is less requirement is. 1/90 was used to examine the maximum deflection.

•

Utilization of the membrane.

5.3.2. Observations Minimum membrane thickness required for the inflated air beam was 0.5mm without inducing the structure collapsing or surface rapturing. When cross section diameter is below 4m, increase of the diameter of the beam will result in the decrease the deflection. The rise increase of the arch will induce more deflection comparing to the increase of the span. This is the due to the fact that the increase of arch rise will increase the projected area under the wind load while increase on the span will keep the projected area the same. To enclose same amount of volume, larger span is preferred than higher rise. In terms of material usage, cross section dimension affect the material usage most among other dimensions. In order to reduce the material usage, smaller cross section is preferred. Experiment 1 Single Air beam Span FEA Result

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Design Development

Section Design

Design Development

Section Design

5.4. Section Design

5.4.1. Experiment Set-up

5.4.2. Observations For the main sectional design of the greenhouse, a sectional design experiment is set up. The main wind-driven objectives divide the greenhouse into two parts, where the windward side of the structure aims to minimize direct wind load, and leeward side of the structure aims to maximize ventilation effect. Thus, the previously discussed prairie dog ventilation principle as well as aerodynamic principle is employed.

Utilizing the average wind of 5 m/s, a catalogue of sectional forms are evaluated based on surface pressure. The first sets of experiments fixes a standard dome section of 15 meters height and 110 meters long, but with varying degree of “lean” towards and away from the wind. As a result the most leeward leaning form yields the least windward positive pressure and most leeward negative pressure.

In a critical light, this division of design experiment may limit the possibilities of other more complex solutions, due to the complex nature of fluid dynamics. However, since the windward side is to find the most aerodynamic form, its latter leeward side would not affect the results of the windward side. On the contrary, the leeward side may be affected by the windward side. This signifies that the design logic presents a hierarchy of priorities, where windward side is optimized first, followed by leeward side. Thus this hierarchy is set up to simply experiment and reduce unnecessary computational process.

Next series experiments tests the height variation and its effect on wind performance. Results shows the having lower height yields much less positive pressure, while the negative pressure increasing with higher height, but at a lower rate. Finally the last series of experiments tests a more advanced curvature variations, in order to address unpredictable potentials. In addition, wind velocity tests are run with a few optimal selections, with a crude internal labyrinth, to help identify wind distribution and ventilation efficiency. In the end, the most optimally performing section is chosen, with a relatively low wind ward positive pressure, a relatively high leeward pressure, and additionally, a constant and even distribution of internal ventilation.

In terms of CFD objectives, the best form presents the windward side with the least positive surface pressure, thus least wind load; the leeward side with the greatest negative surface pressure, which is the “pull” of the wind that creates natural ventilation within the structure.

Sectional set up

Sectional CFD results

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Design Development

Genetic Algorithm

Design Development

Genetic Algorithm

5.5. Genetic Algorithm

5.5.1. GA Experiment 1 Set-up With the establishment of an ideal section design, the experiment moves on to 3D form-finding. This part of the experiment utilizes non-wind related objectives, to bypass the need for computationally heavy CFD-GA integration. This approach from using CFD optimization for section, and GA for 3D form-finding allows optimized ventilation condition to be inherited into form design without a compromise. Also, the Non-wind related objectives (which will be mentioned in the following section), are all objectives closely related to the morphology in 3D. Thus, such distribution of objectives is pertinent to its 2D to 3D design process. After the Genetic algorithm is run, some issues are identified. With 4 farms having the same physical attributes, it reduces greatly the computational efficiency, however it didn’t produce a wide range of phenotypes. Even though the four greenhouse can share similar wind conditions, they are not exactly the same, and the difference should be reflected on body plan distribution. Another issue later realized is the plan of the greenhouses. If east-wind form and west-wind form do not share the same plan, then envelop-floor attachment needs to be shifted during actuation. This will greatly complicate the actuation process.

Gen 5 phenotypes

5.5.2. GA Experiment 1 Observations After the Genetic algorithm is run, some issues are identified. With 4 farms having the same physical attributes, it reduces greatly the computational efficiency, however it didn’t produce a wide range of phenotypes. Even though the four greenhouse can share similar wind conditions, they are not exactly the same, and the difference should be reflected on body plan distribution. Another issue later realized is the plan of the greenhouses. If east-wind form and west-wind form do not share the same plan, then envelop-floor attachment needs to be shifted during actuation. This will greatly complicate the actuation process.

GA experiment 1 body-plan

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Design Development

Genetic Algorithm

5.5.3. GA Experiment 2 Set-up

Design Development

Genetic Algorithm

5.5.4. GA Experiment 2 Observations

The experiment resorted to identifying two pairs greenhouses with similar wind condition: north-south pair, and East-west pair. This reduction is justified by each pair’s similar wind conditions. When predominant wind blows from east or west, the East and west morphology is aligned and experiences similar wind conditions. Similarly, the north and south morphology, experiences similar wind conditions due to its symmetrical arrangement of being the “side” unit. To ensure actuation between two directions does not affect plan, 4 genes are devised to control a quad of the entire plan, which is mirrored orthogonally to complete the plan.

The resultant phenotypes are observed to inherit much more diverse variety, including a kink that develops along the surface. At the same time, computational process didn’t increase in operation time. The low number of genes is at a reasonable minimum, where any further reduction greatly decreases phenotypic variations.

GA generation 5 phenotypes

GA experiment 2 body-plan

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5.5.5. GA Objective Space Each phenotype resulted from the GA is mapped onto an objective space, with the 3 objectives mapped as length width and height domain. Phenotypes are colour-coded from red (first generation) to blue (last generation). This mapping is simultaneously running with the GA in operation. This allows the easy identification of convergence of solutions, which in this experiment roughly occurred in the 20 generation. As the non-dominated members at the pareto front began to yield very similar solutions, viability of having such high quantity decreases, thus the GA is decidedly ended at gen20. 111

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5.5.6. Elimination and Cluster logic Following the full mapping of the solutions into the objective space, solutions are discriminated and eliminated. This is done by evenly weighing each objective to create a domain of fitness values that yields the 10th percentile solutions. A box is created by the domain and solutions outside the domain box are eliminated. This results in about 100 solutions within the box, all are relatively ideal for all 3 criteria. As the next experiment is to re-evaluate 3D solutions with CFD, having more than 100 solutions is still quite computationally demanding, and many very similar phenotypes do not contribute to the diversity of solutions. Thus, a cluster logic is developed, where based on proximity, solutions with similar values are formed into a cluster. Then, each cluster selects a representative, the one that is the most balanced and averaged solution of the cluster. As the rest of the individuals are eliminated, the experiment concludes with 30 solutions, each sharing distinct phenotypic features that is prominent in that cluster group. 113

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Design Development

Cluster Analysis

Design Development

Cluster Analysis

5.6. Cluster CFD

Since the principle parameter driving the greenhouse design logic is wind, CFD is utilized again as a final filter to the selection process, making a full circle in the design process. Out of the 30 solutions, 18 distinct representatives are chosen, to narrow down number of experiment while phenotypic diversity is kept.

By calculating the area of high negative and positive pressure area, the 18 solutions are mapped onto a graph. The goal is to maximize negative pressure (for ventilation) and minimize positive pressure (wind load), thus the values are summated with equivalent weighing. Summated value = Area of negative pressure – Area of positive pressure With this equation, individual 11, with the highest summated value, is selected. This concludes the global form-finding portion of the design, with a single geometry chosen, optimized for wind, site, and crop conditions of the designated location.

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temperature(Celsius)

Design Development

Hydro-thermal Labyrinth

Design Development

Hydro-thermal Labyrinth 20

passive cooling oper 10

passive heating operation

passive cooling operation

5.7. Hydro-thermal Labyrinth

10 1

temperature(Celsius)

passive heating operation

outdoor dry bulb temperature

sea water temperature

35 1

outdoor dry bulb temperature

air temperature after labyrinth 2.8

cooling effect

sea water temperature

5.7.1. Labyrinth Design

air temperature after labyrinth

3.9 heating effect

Labyrinth is designed following closely to the mechanism of the Davies Alpine cooling labyrinth, but instead of geothermal, it utilizes stored hydrothermal energy. Labyrinth is placed at the underground level of the desalination plant. This provides the shortest distance between labyrinth and the water reservoir. Next, 4 air inlets are placed with ground cover at the nearest open ground space. An air channel connects the basement floor to the ground floor, with an air handling unit that can act as backup when natural ventilation is inadequate.

15 passive cooling operation 10 passive heating operation

passive heating operation

month 1

5.7.2. Labyrinth Performance

Labyrinth 2D CFD Heat Transfer Simulation Capacity

outdoor dry bulb temperature

2.8

cooling effect

sea water temperature

air temperature after labyrinth

3.9 heating effect

5.7.3. Conclusions Cooling capacity of the labyrinth is 2.8 oC while heating capacity is 3.9 oC. Between November to March, lowest dry bulb temperature could be optimized by this system to meet the minimum crop growth requirement. The labyrinth system requires minimum 2 oC to operate. This threshold informs the annual operation period, for passive cooling, the operation period is between May to October. For passive heating, the operation period is between November to April. Given the velocity will be accelerated as the air bottlenecked into the narrow labyrinth tunnel(17.5 times acceleration effect observed), lower air inlet velocity is preferred in order to efficiently cool down or heat up the incoming air, this is due to the fact that sufficient time is needed for heat transfer between the gas and liquid substance. According to the initial tests, most observable temperature gradient in the labyrinth when air inlet velocity was set to 0.2m/s. Labyrinth 2D CFD Heat Transfer Simulation-Temperature/Velocity GRAPH SOURCES. seawater temperature data acquired from: peratures - A-Connect Ltd. “Almería Water Temperature | Spain | Sea Temperatures.” Sea Temperature, https://www.seatemperature.org/europe/spain/almera.htm. Dry bulb temperature data acquired from: “Climate-Data.org.” Climate Sahara: Temperature, Climograph, Climate Table for El Ejido- Climate-Data.org. August 09, 2015. https://en.climate-data.org/location/37404/.

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passive heating operation

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month 0

2.8

Design Development

Physical Experiment

Design Development

Physical Experiment

5.8. Physical Experiment

5.8.1. Experimentation and Approaches

5.8.2. Physical Experiments

In the experimental phase of the project, both 2D and 3D form finding process are explored as viable computational outcomes. Various fabrication methods are explored as methods of achieving computational design results.

5.8.2.1.

Brief

For 2D computational results, the concept is to utilize 2D patterns to create 3D components by inflation and different stiffness of surface. Heat sealing is one method to create 2D patterns on two layers of plastic, in which during inflation, different patterns and orientation can provide different 3D form and actuation results. This method holds the capability of being incorporated with robotic arm fabrication. An example of such a method is the ongoing research at MIT’s Tangible Media Group called Aeromorph.

5.8.2.2.

Experiment 1

Both 2D and 3D computational results can be divided into two major categories of pneumatic components: Deformable pneumatics and non-deformable pneumatics. Deformable pneumatics utilizes the deformation of material to create inflation results. Furthermore, arranging differential in material thickness and stiffness can be utilized to alter the deformation when inflated. An example is Furl: Soft Pneumatic Pavilion from the Interactive Architecture Lab at UCL. This example incorporates a concept called soft robotics. Non-deformable pneumatics is the utilization of predetermined geometry that is of non-elastic material. In this case, pneumatic actuation cannot occur predictably just by varying pressure. Another method of actuation, having two differently predetermined geometry entangle, can result in actuation by varying the pressure of each channel, activating one shape or the other. “AeroMorph.” Tangible Media Group. Accessed September 19, 2018. https://tangible.media.mit.edu/project/aeromorph/. Mangion, Francois, and Becky Zhang. “Furl: Soft Pneumatic Pavilion.” Interactive Architecture Lab. October 05, 2014. Accessed September 19, 2018. http://www.interactivearchitecture.org/lab-projects/furl-soft-pneumatic-pavilion.

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5.8.2.3

Experiment 2

The pneumatic actuation strategy is inspired by the biomimetic concept of the stomata. As mentioned in the research segment, a stomata utilizes a change in pressure in combination to geometric arrangement to perform actuation. It is hypothesized that this concept can be highly effective in pneumatic architecture, where the structural components consists of air beams of specific pressure. By providing air beams of different geometry and arrangement, manipulating the pressure can result in actuation and configuration of different geometric outcomes. A series of experiments are devised to test the actuation concept by utilizing beams and predetermined shapes, and actuating based on difference in pressure, similar to that of a stomata.

2 pre-shaped beams, each with their own inflated geometry, is attached together. By varying the pressure, actuation is achieved, with a high degree of designed accuracy. Different beam arrangements are tested. Results show that top/bottom arrangement hinders movement. Parallel arrangement is ideal for actuation, minimizing deformation of neighboring components. Pressurization of one beam must be simultaneous with the depressurization of the other beam to ensure fluid motion.

Various methods are explored to actuate ventilation opening. The best and simplest result is achieved by adding a tertiary beam between the two main beams. Shaped with smaller curvatures, when the tertiary beam is pressurized, it forces small openings between the main beam to provide ventilation exhaust. As a result, the method successfully achieves a secondary actuation system of opening ventilation. It is observed that having smaller radius for the tertiary beam provides smoother actuation. Both single and double tertiary beams actuate successfully, thus the design opted for a single tertiary beam. 120

Design Development

5.8.2.4.

Physical Experiment 3

Physical Experiment

Design Development

Physical Experiment

Next, with the previous techniques, digitally designed morphology is translated into beam arrangements to test actuation and accuracy. The result showed successful actuation and yielded a reasonable degree of geometric precision from the digital model. As it produces the least deformation of membrane, parallel arrangement is applied to the beams, however this showed lateral instability. Therefore, lateral nonactuating beams are needed to combine with the main beams.

Physical experiment 3 -Actuating to East

5.8.2.5.

Physical Experiment 4

Last experiments test the viability of membrane attachment to beams. Membrane is constructed by interpolating global geometry into a single flat surface. The resultant membrane surface exhibited problems of wrinkling and tear. Therefore, a surface rationalization strategy needs to be utilized to address the problem.

Physical experiment 3 - Actuating to West

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Design Development

Beam Distribution

Design Development

Beam Distribution

5.9. Beam Distribution

5.9.1. FEA Set-up To distribute the air beams on the surfaces generated from genetic algorithm, Six geometrical arrangements were tested and compared using FEA. The load cases which were taken into consideration were self weight and wind load(0.1 kN). Material thickness was set to 0.5mm. Beam diameters were differentiated. 3m for east-west oriented beams, 1.5m for south-north oriented beams.

Topological Diagram

Deflection

3.8

Weight

5513

3.8

5513

numbers of joints

5513

joint complexity

3.4 16

Beam arrangement •

One point radial arrangement

•

Two point radial arrangement

•

Orthogonal lattice arrangement

•

Surface adapted lattice arrangement

•

Curvature adapted arrangement: Generated based on gaussian curvature value. Ring beams were created on the boundary curve between negative and positive curvature.

•

Principal stress pattern arrangement: generated based on the principal stress pattern of initial surface.

3.8

One Point Radial Arrangement 3.4

3.4

5568

2.5 3.8 10

•

maximum deflection on global z axis.

•

Mass of the structure

•

Numbers of joints

•

Complexity of the joints.(numbers of connected neighbor edges)

3.8 2.5

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27 1 3.4 2.9

2.9 3.4

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27 2

3.8 2.9

54 55

5513 5490 271

Weight numbers of joints joint complexity

2.9 3.4 164

50 55

5568 5068 27 2 2.6 2.5 104

45 54

2.5 2.6

5490 4510

2.6 2.5

4510 5490

27 27

3.8 2.9 46

44 50

2.9 3.8

5068 4407

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26 27

4407 5068

26 27

2.6 46

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Two Point Radial Arrangement

2.6 2.5

SOURCES. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/heat-loss-transmission-d_748.html

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Topological Diagram

Deflection 2.5 3.8

5.9.2. Conclusions Lattice grid beam arrangement has the least amount of deflection, and curvaturebased arrangement utilizes the least amount of mass. However, these two forms are only adapted to one form, meaning beam length will change when the surface is actuated. For this reason, surface adapted arrangement is chosen.

2.5 3.8

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3.4

The evaluation criteria include:

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Design Development

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Beam Distribution

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1 27

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1 27

16 4

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numbers of joints

1 27

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1 27

joint complexity

3.4 2.9 164

5568 5068

2 27

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27 27

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4 6

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27 26

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4 6

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joint complexity

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Surface Adapted Lattice Arrangement

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Topological Diagram

3.4

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Design Development 5513

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Beam Distribution

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Topological Diagram

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Topological Diagram

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joint complexity

Curvature Based Arrangement 26

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Design Development

Thermal Analysis

Design Development

Thermal Analysis

5.10. Thermal Analysis

5.10.1. Overview In greenhouse architecture, one of the most essential consideration of the building envelope is the thermal insulation property. U factor is the overall heat transfer coefficient of building components which measures the heat loss/gain through the components due to the indoor and outdoor temperature difference. Lower U factor indicates better insulation. In the air beam experiment, single layer ETFE membrane and double layer ETFE membrane with various air channel dimensions were analyzed using Finite Element thermal analysis software THERM.

2.00

1.90

U-factor(W/(m2K))

250mm solid brick wall

1.8993 1.8963

5.10.2. Experiment Set-up 1.80

•

ETFE Material property: •

Material thickness: 0.2mm

•

Conductivity: 0.24 W/m-K

•

Emissivity: 0.9

Air channel: •

Cavity model:NFRC

•

Gas fill: air

50mm concrete slab

1.70

1.60

1.4814 1.4808 1.4796

1.50

1.4783

1.4482

Boundary condition •

vertical double glazed with "Low-E" coatings and heavy gas filling

1.4759

1.4177

Interior temperature 30 oC

•

Interior membrane film coefficient: 2.05 W/m2-K

•

exterior temperature 25 oC

•

exterior membrane film coefficient: 26.4 W/m2-K

5.10.3. Conclusions

1.40

1.30

1.20

50 100

200

single layer doouble layer 0

Air channel has reduced the U factor, but this effect is only significant when the air channel width is within 50mm. While doubling the layer of ETFE membrane has negligible effect on reducing U factor.

1.3919

300

500

1000

1500

2000

Air Channel Width(mm)

U-Factor Calculation Result

Considering the material fabrication and cost efficiency, for the non-structural membrane, a 0.2mm single layer ETFE was chosen. For airbeam(2m diameter) components the U-factor are estimated to be 1.39 W/(m2K). This is sufficient

SOURCES. typical building component U-factor: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/heat-loss-transmission-d_748.html

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Domain

Surface Rationalization

Domain

Surface Rationalization

5.11. Surface Rationalization

5.11.1. Overview Due to the limitation on ETFE sheet fabrication dimensions, the surfaces need to be rationalized and segmented into smaller developable surfaces. Mesh relaxation with planarize force applied method were tested and compared.

5.11.2. Experiment Set-up

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South surface were chosen to test the various rationalization patterns due to its double curvature form. 5 tessellation patterns were tested: •

Hexagon

•

Quadrilateral

•

Rectangle

•

Offset rectangle

•

Triangle

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Tesselation Pattern

Hexagon Pattern

Evaluation criteria: •

deviation from original form

•

Total strip edge length

Force applied: •

Spring: mesh edges were converted to springs with low stiffness value

•

Planarize force: force the mesh vertices to go coplanar

•

Pull to curve: mesh edge vertices remain same position

5.11.3. Conclusions

4074

Initial double curvature surface could not be rationalized using hexagon and quadrilateral pattern with given size. Folded pleats were observed near high curvature area. Initial surface could be rationalized using both rectangle and offset rectangle patterns. However various extent deviations were observed. For the rectangle pattern, the middle part of the rationalized surface bulged upwarded and the rear part sagged. This has altered the section curve of the original surface. For the offset rectangle pattern, only the minor deviation from the global form but there were clear gaps observed between local strips.

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Tesselation Pattern

Quadrilateral Pattern

Among all the tested pattern, only the triangle pattern resulted in rationalization with acceptable deviation. Although it has longest edge length. Aerodynamic forms requires high accuracy to perform.

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Desertification

Total strip edge legnth

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Tesselation Pattern

Rectangle Pattern

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4712

6898

3895

4047

4712

6898

3895

Tesselation Pattern

Offset Rectangle Pattern

4074

4047

4712

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6898

3895

Tesselation Pattern

Triangle Pattern

131

132

133

DESIGN PROPOSAL

134

Design Proposal

6.1. Architectural Proposal

135

Architectural Proposal

Design Proposal

Architectural Proposal

The pneumatic farmhouse features a span of 110 m, housing an area of about 700 square meters cropland per greenhouse. The peak height spans up to 15 meters, holding a volume of 28’000 meters cubed. This is significantly higher to the typical Almeria type greenhouse of the same crop size, which would be around 4000 meters cubed. This yields much greater thermal inertial than the traditional greenhouse, optimal for creating micro-climate. Furthermore, tall ceiling allows the mounting of all range of additional ceiling equipment, from mystifies to lights and climatic sensors. Tall ceiling also does not prohibit the growth of tall crops such as tomatoes, and allows various farming vehicles and tools otherwise too large to be used in traditional greenhouses. Terrace farming is incorporated, terracing downwards away from the desalination plant. As fresh water is provided to the closer crops, it natural transfers into the lower and further away crops. Double air lock door systems are established between each enclosed farmhouse, allowing movement of workers without breaking the hermitic seal of microclimates. Membrane of the desalination plant offers doubly curved surface that directs water to the side channels where condensation water is collected. This water circulates into a fresh water collection tank, to be later used for farming. An air handling unit is added to the labyrinth, as a back up when natural ventilation does not occur. MEP and storage are located at the center of the Desalination plant, to service all four greenhouses.

136

Design Proposal

System Proposal

Design Proposal

System Proposal

6.2. System

6.2.1. System Proposal The architecture of the integration of hydro-thermal labyrinth and desalination system is established as an integral function of the bio-inspired greenhouse. At the center meeting point of the four greenhouses, a desalination plant is established, with saline water reservoir dominating most of the surface area. These reservoirs will be heated in the desalination plant and evaporate. Once condensed at the edge plastic membranes, the water drips down and is collected into a freshwater channel. Fresh water is then utilized for farming.

Systems Axonometric

137

When the drawn air needs to be cooled, it travels through the cold-water channels of the labyrinth, where water is drawn directly from water streams. When the air needs to be heated, it travels through the warm—water channels of the labyrinth, where warmed water is drawn from the saline reservoir of the desalination plant. Utilizing the dichotomy 138

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System Proposal

Design Proposal

System Proposal

6.2.3. Comparative Performance Time-line The newly proposed system features an adaptation system that is much more versatile and reacts to shorter time frame changes as opposed to the conventional system. Conventional Almeria greenhouses react to temperature requirements seasonally, where they cover greenhouse with black tarp and increase ventilation during the summer and uncover greenhouse and decrease ventilation during winter. The proposed system offers temperature adaptation that is daily rather than seasonally, providing labyrinth cooling during hot times of the day, and labyrinth cooling during cold times of the night. This adaptation can also be sensitive to extreme climate conditions. Traditional greenhouses offer fixed orientation to wind, where ventilation efficiency completely depends on direction of wind. The proposed system offers wind optimized morphology, that can be actuated within the hour, providing more dynamic and rapid response to wind direction changes. In response to humidity changes, traditional greenhouses use mistifiers to humidify, which uses up fresh water resource. The new system uses humidified air from desalination plant to humidify. This in turn does not use up fresh water resource, and it utilizes renewable solar energy.

Systems adaptation diagram

6.2.2. Adaptation System As one of the main ambition is to address the variation of climatic needs of crops, as well as the shifting environmental conditions of the region, various adaptation systems are integrated in the proposal. Wind adaptation is the primary system, reacting directly to the shifting winds. The greenhouse actuates from east-wind-form to west-wind-form depending on the wind conditions. In addition, during occasional turbulent wind conditions, it retracts to neutral position: the intermediate position between the two extremes, allowing equal wind load resistance on all sides. Temperature adaptation is achieved by the labyrinth heating/cooling system. On a typical day, within the 24-hour timefr ame, the system will typically be used as cooling from around noon to 6pm and warming during 9pm-6am. This time frame is also based on the crop requirements. Such system provides constant moderation of temperature to ensure plant’s maximum survival and quickest growth in ideal conditions. Magnitude control of the labyrinth heating/cooling system is achieved by controlling the extent of ventilation. Varying the sizes of ventilation allows the halting, slowing, and quickening of the heating/cooling effect. Humidity adaptation is also incorporated, to address the seasonal humidity variation to a crop’s ideal humidity range. When internal conditions are too humid, opening ventilation to maximum capacity can quickly decrease humidity, as external humidity always falls below the range of internal humidity. When internal conditions need more humidity, the airlock doors between the farm and the desalination plant is opened, transferring humid air from the desalination plant to the greenhouses. Because the desalination plant already holds high humidity from the water evaporation process and the water in the air is desalinated and ideal for crop, using it for humidifying the greenhouse is a quick and effective process. 141

Comparative performances

142

Design Proposal

System Proposal

Design Proposal

System Proposal

6.3. Actuation System

6.3.1. Component Specification The greenhouse prototype is primarily constructed of structural air beams. A single layered ETFE membrane is attached along the exterior side of the beams. As the membrane is synclastic, it is rationalized as planar triangle components, where it is to be assembled during prefabrication and shipped to site during construction. Two main air channels operate the air beams, standard-beam channel and actuatingbeam channel. The standard-beam channel is connected to the lateral beams, which do not actuate. A constant pressure is supplied to the standard-beam channel. The actuating-beam channel hosts two sub-channels, for east and west form actuation. During actuation process, the pressurization directs from one sub-channel to the other, activating different structural air beam at different wind conditions. Since the linear and lateral beams share different air channels, they must be hermetically separated at all joints. As seen in the diagram, the node consists of two intersecting channels, and a node geometry that separates the two air channels. One channel can be activated in isolation. Due to the actuation of the beams, beam-to-floor connections is developed to allow a degree of torsional motion. End of the beam is encased with composite frame support, which is connected to rolling pin connection to the floor. Overall, all beams are rationalized into pieces ideal for fabrication. The air beam components will be prefabricated off-site, connected to each other at the nodes. Both the prefab air beam components and the membrane will be shipped to site during construction. Once foundation is laid, the air beams will lock onto the site at the pin connections. Membrane will be attached at joint area, and the entire assembly will be inflated. This construction process eliminates the use of cranes, and only uses pressurized air to erect the structure.

Components diagram

143

144

Design Proposal

Actuation System

Design Proposal

Actuation System

6.3.2. Actuation Time Frame

Time: 0 min East-form Beams: 5 kPa West-form Beams: 0 kPa

Time: 4 min East-form Beams: 4 kPa West-form Beams: 1 kPa Actuating West-wind form

Time: 8 min East-form Beams: 3 kPa West-form Beams: 2 kPa

Time: 12 min East-form Beams: 2 kPa West-form Beams: 3 kPa

Time: 16 min East-form Beams: 1 kPa West-form Beams: 4 kPa

Time: 20 min

Actuating East-wind form

East-form Beams: 0 kPa West-form Beams: 5 kPa

145

146

147

CONCLUSION

148

Conclusion

Ventilation Post-Analysis

Conclusion

Ventilation Post-Analysis

7.1. Ventilation Post-Analysis

A 3D CFD analysis is conducted as a post-analysis with the full resultant geometry including internal space and labyrinth. The experiment is set up with a eastward wind at 4 m/s, and without neighbouring quads. The resultant airflow diagram allows the analysis of air flow distribution, which in this case is relative circulated, with averaging 1 m/s wind drawn in circular motion within the structure. A calculation of air change can be conducted. Air change calculation is standard in determining the quality of ventilation in a building. The total exhaust/ minute can be calculated by multiplying the speed of exhausting air per minute with the area of ventilation. Then exhaust is divided by the room volume to obtain air change value, which in this experiment resulted to 0.236 room / min. There recommended air change for greenhouse is 1 room / min. This figure renders our experiment results significantly lower than recommended. To test viability at different conditions, a calculation is done by varying wind speeds and temperature. The result is mapped onto the graph. In conclusion, the distribution of airflow yields positive results even with optimal wind conditions and temperatures, the air change rate still falls below the recommended

SOURCE. 13, Weldon Long | Sep. Contracting Business. September 14, 2018. Accessed September 18,

SOURCE. Garden & Greenhouse. Accessed September 18, 2018. https://www.gardenandgreen-

149 2018. https://www.contractingbusiness.com/contracting-business-success/egia-cracking-code-

house.net/articles/greenhouse-articles/the-basics-of-greenhouse-ventilation/. 150

Conclusion

Crop Yield Improvement

7.2. Crop Yield Improvement

A conceptual annual harvest scheme is developed to include a new winter cycle, due to the shortening of each cycle. In Almeria, two cycles per year produces about 750 tons of tomatoes. In 3 years it would be 2250 thousand tons. The proposed system with 2.5 cycles per year, can roughly yield 2900 thousand tons of tomatoes in 3 years. Therefore using this hypothesis of crop yield, the proposed system can produce up to 217 thousand tons of tomatoes per year. The crop yield improvement is calculated only based on shortening of harvest, without the consideration of other conditions that may benefit harvest. Some examples include: Better growth conditions decreases chance for harmful fungal development, reduces pesticide use, allows tomatoes to be planted closer together. Higher ceilings allows for better greenhouse equipment to be utilized. Overall, other methods of harvest/economic improvement should be employed to better analyze the results of improved greenhouse farming. Annual harvest of crops varies depending on how ideal the climatic conditions are of that year. It is hypothesized that the proposed system, if provides ideal conditions throughout the year, it can increase yield at the end of the year. A rough calculation can be made using tomato plants, the main crop of Almeria. Each year, Almeria produces two cycles of harvest for tomatoes, a spring cycle and an autumn cycle. Each cycle goes through a series of maturing process. Starting from Germination, where seeds are planted to sprout, it can take from 5 to 12 days. The indoor sprouting can happen from 42 to 56 days. When plant reaches a certain height, they are hardened for 7 days in intermediate conditions between indoor to greenhouse. Once hardened, they are transplanted into the greenhouse, where it can take from 65-85 days to reach maturity. The overall time can range from around 120 to 160 days. It is hypothesized that the 40 days can be conserved if greenhouse provided ideal conditions at all time, hastening the maturity process.

SOURCE. “Sunshine Advanced Growing Tomatoes from Seed to Harvest.” Sunshine Advanced Growing Tomatoes from Seed to Harvest Comments. Accessed August 15, 2018.

151

152

Conclusion

Evaluation of Ambition

Conclusion

Evaluation of Ambition

7.3. Evaluation of Ambition The design proposal is initiated by the ambition to address the 3 principle problems of existing Almeria greenhouses. In the post-analysis process, a re-evaluation is conducted on the efficiency of solution for each of the 3 principle problems.

Water Overexploitation

Plastic Polution

7.3.1. Water Over-exploitation Water over-exploitation is aimed to be addressed by inverting the net negative freshwater expenditure of farms, to a net positive freshwater gain. The quantitative achievement is directly affected by the effectiveness of the integrated desalination plants. In theory, the establishment of a suitable ratio between farmlands and desalination plants can ensure a net positive gain on freshwater. This, ideally, can be controlled by a regulating body, such as the local government or industry. As net water gain is established, research should be conducted to address the transportation and distribution of freshwater to other neighboring communities and farmlands. An urban logic can be established to regulate the fresh water channels. Other methods of desalination can be further explored, such as component-based small-scale desalination, as well as other desalination principles. Overall, quantitative analysis should be conducted on the efficacy of desalination plants, and further geometric arrangements and material systems can be explored to improve efficiency.

7.3.2. Plastic Pollution Plastic pollution is arguably the least addressed issue set out in the ambition phase. As part of the computation, plastic usage is reduced by geometric intervention. However, the design proposal remains a plastic-heavy project, and plastic use is not reduced. Stronger material can increase lifespan but at a higher start-up cost. In critical light, methods of prolonging plastic life should be explored and developed. As Almeria climate features abundant solar radiation, problems of solar degradation of plastic should be prioritized. Architectural and material intervention can be developed, such as composite material that shields against solar radiation. In addition, plastic recycling system should be developed and integrated into the full life cycle strategy, holistically resolving the issue of plastic waste.

153

Greenhouse Inefficiencies

7.3.3. Greenhouse Inefficiencies Greenhouse inefficiency is arguably the most heavily addressed issue, with various architectural and systems solution directly resulting in better greenhouse efficiency and productivity. The harnessing of wind energy and natural ventilation decreases the cost and usage of HVAC systems, better for the environment and more cost effective. The harnessing of hydro-thermal energy from on-site streams decreases the cost and usage of cooling/heating systems. The added height and volume of greenhouse greatly increases thermal inertia and stack effect, allowing more efficient microclimate maintenance. As well, it eliminates the height limitation of crop growth, yielding crop at maximum capacity. Lack of height limitation also allows the use of bigger and more efficient farm equipment and vehicles, maximizing production capacity. A rough calculation shows a shorter growth cycle and higher crop yield, which results in better economic output of the greenhouse prototype. In addition, with efficiency increasing, labour needs and cost decreases. In critical light however, a new portion of the cost arises that has yet to be addressed: the startup costs and energy consumption of pressurizing air beams. With a large span of structure, the air pressure demand is high, thus potentially costly. An indepth analysis is therefore necessary for determining the net cost value of proposed system. In addition, the actuation method requires much more pressurization, and thus energy expenditure. A further study should be conducted on the effectiveness of the same system without actuation, to evaluate the cost of actuating versus the benefit of actuating the greenhouse. There may be a potential for a static greenhouse to outperform actuating greenhouse in net costs. In such case, a more effective prototype needs to be developed as a static structure.

154

Conclusion

Further Studies

Conclusion

Further Studies

7.4. Futher Studies

Water Canals

Distribution logic

For further studies an extensive analysis of the site will be continued, with the main focus on the large scale hydrology infrastructure, connection logic will be studied between greenhouses by utilizing water canals. Aggregation logics of greenhouses will be informed by the distribution of the canals.

Productive Landscape

Greenhouse

The interaction between the buildings not only would be necessary for proper use of the water, but also it raises the question of the life cycle of the greenhouses building materials and how the whole site will continue to evolve over the years, with the aim of creating an ecologically friendly and productive landscape. Taking into account the aggregation logic of the greenhouses the further research will also address the human needs in the area, specifically for the temporary workers due to their current poor living conditions. Research on the fabrication logic for the housing units as well as their aggregation logic will guide the design of human settlement.

Agregation logic

Settlement

Housing Units

Fabrication logic (pneumatic formwork)

155

156

157

158

159

REFERENCES

160

References

Bibliography

References

Bibliography

8.1 Bibliography

Principles of Pneumatic Architecture. Roger N. Dent. Architectural Press, 1971. Pneumatic Structures : a handbook for the architect and engineer/ Thomas Herzog ; with contributions by Gernot Minke and Hans Eggers. St Albans, Hertfordshire : Crosbie Lockwood Staples, 1977, c1976. Kengo Kuma : breathing architecture : the teahouse of the Museum of Applied Arts Frankfurt : Das Teehaus des Museums für Angewandte Kunst Frankfurt / Volker Fischer, Ulrich Schneider (eds.) ; [edited by the Museum of Applied Arts Frankfurt ; translation from German into English, Elizabeth Schwaiger ; editing, Volker Fischer, Thomas Menzel]. Kuma, Kengo. Basel ; Boston : Birkhäuser, c2008. McLean, William ( William F.),Air structures,London : Laurence King Pub., 2015. Roland, Conrad. Frei Otto-Structures. Longman, 1970. Hollis, James. The Eden project: In search of the magical other. Toronto: Inner City Books, 1998. Dickson, M. (2003). Frei Otto Researcher, Inventor and Inspired Instigator of Architectural Solutions. AA FILES, (50), 36-49. Hensel, Michael, and Achim Menges, eds. Morpho-ecologies. Architectural Association, 2006.

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