TOPICAL NEWS
EDITORIAL
From having fine initial rainfall to depending on reserves.
SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURE
Nanofertilizers: tiny in size, gigantic in impact
MARKETS
Grain on the rise or on the low? Market perspectives for the 2024-25 season.
CROP MANAGEMENT
Mapping the quality of soybean in Argentina
ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION
Chia seed in fashion.
LIVESTOCK FARMING
The hotter the sun… the more the livestock suffers.
AGRICULTURE AND CULTURE
Our very own invention: small-scale rural contractors
EDITORIAL From having fine initial rainfall to depending on reserves
Agricultural production in Argentina faces considerable challenges. International fluctuating prices, high production costs, and the fragile financial situation are some of the obstacles we growers have to deal with.
Cultivation planning becomes essential to mitigate risks and ensure profitability. Strategy and cover methods are necessary to protect our lands from market variations and climate risks.
Within my region—Jovita, Córdoba Province— soybean is still one of the main outputs, although this year sunflowers are in abundance. Given the costs and the market value, diversifying with this crop resulted in an interesting option.
The season started with good rainfall rates; however, crops are currently beginning to feel the lack of water and the stress generated due to high temperatures. Precipitation forecasts are scarce
at a domestic level, and the impact of La Niña phenomenon is becoming significantly notable. For the time being, crops have to rely on stored reserves in the soil profile.
One of the uncertainties at the beginning of this season was the farmland intended for corn. Some doubts arose from whether to maintain it or reduce it because of the leafhopper predicament. However, as the sowing date approached, the possibility of this pest reaching South Córdoba diminished. I was assigned one of the many trap points of Aapresid and up until now, I have not recorded their presence.
Reports from the domestic monitoring network of Dalbulus maidis show a moderate advance from NEA—Northeast Argentina—to the east of the country, although several specialists had already advised that the impact and damages would not be comparable to those of last season. Among the primary factors, climate was crucial: unlike winter 2023, winter 2024 registered a significant increase in frosts and low temperatures that lasted
up to September 2024. Late corn could face some problems in the northeast area of Córdoba if the leafhopper advance intensifies.
This 2025, the Argentine agricultural sector still faces the challenge of increasing productivity and competitiveness in an increasingly demanding global market. Investing in technology and innovation, improving efficiency in the use of resources, reducing costs, and employing sustainable agricultural practices are essential duties. It is also key to heed pre-season soil analyses. Recently, we have taken more nutrients than we replenish with fertilizers, and this surely requires a change.
Aapresid member, Regional Laboulaye, Córdoba.
Gerardo Gutierrez
Agricultural producer.
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Nanofertilizers: tiny in size, gigantic in impact
Nanofertilizers (NFs) are revolutionizing agriculture by offering a more efficient and eco-friendly alternative to conventional fertilizers. However, their massive adoption requires assessing their biosecurity and establishing clear regulations.
By Dr. Hugo Permingeat
Technological Prospective Committee of
Aapresid
In the past fifty years, alongside the green revolution, agriculture has widely relied on chemical fertilizers, enabling a substantial increase in productivity. These fertilizers contain a combination of three primary and essential nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are vital for plant growth. Nevertheless, their excessive use induces temporary changes in the soil pH, eliminates beneficial microorganisms, and stresses plants ability to absorb nutrients (Gade et al., 2023). Thus evidencing the need for researching new fertilization techniques able to ensure constant and safe food supplies.
Within this context, nanotechnology has given place to a variety of innovative materials applicable in agriculture, such as nanopesticides, nanofertilizers, and nanosensors, becoming an essential tool to achieve sustainable food production worldwide (Day & Sadhukhan, 2024). Nanoparticles provide nutrients directly
NFs dissolved in the soil are absorbed and, because of their large size, their solubility is usually greater than conventional fertilizers.
to the plant, preventing losses toward the soil or the underground water. Moreover, they improve photosynthesis, absorption, and translocation of nutrients, the accumulation of photosynthate, and the resistance to pests and pathogens, contributing to higher yields without compromising soil quality (Gade et al., 2023).
NFs contain essential macro and micronutrients and act as conventional carriers of chemical fertilizers, facilitating the effective delivery of nutrients. It has been proven that NFs are more effective than conventional chemical fertilizers due to their unique mechanisms of action. In sandy soils, nanocompounds fertilizers release 78% more nitrogen than granular ones. In addition, NFs are capable to pierce directly into the cells, reducing energy costs and increasing their efficiency (Semenova et al., 2024).
NFs dissolved in the soil are absorbed and, because of their large size, their solubility is usually greater than conventional fertilizers. Besides, they are more effective in comparison with conventional ones; they can reduce nitrogen losses due to processes like leaching, emissions, and long-term absorption by soil microorganisms.
Some studies have analyzed the use of extendedrelease nano-encapsulated fertilizers. For instance, nanoparticles of biodegradable chitosan polymer (~78 nm) have been employed for the controlled release of NPK sources, such as urea, calcium phosphate, and potassium chloride. Other materials like kaolin or biocompatible polymer nanoparticles are also successfully employed for this purpose (Semenova et al., 2024).
Nano-bio-fertilizers (NBFs)
Biofertilizers have arisen as a renewable, complementary, and ecological source of nutrients for plants, becoming a viable alternative against chemical fertilizers. Being mainly microorganism-based, these formulations can be applied on the surface area of the plant, the soil, or the seeds to promote growth by supplying essential nutrients. These include several groups, like nitrogen fixation agents, phosphorus solubilizers and mobilizers, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and mycorrhizal biofertilizers.
However, their use faces limitations: short service life, specificity for certain crops, instability in the field due to soil and environment characteristics, limited availability of beneficial microflora, susceptibility before hostile environments, and the need to apply high doses. To overcome these obstacles, nanomaterial-based fertilizers have been developed and studied. Because of their optics properties dependent on size, their surface-volume ratio, and their controlled release of micronutrients, biofertilizers are an appealing alternative to chemical fertilizers. These are created by reducing biofertilizers to a nanometric scale (1-1000 nm) and coating
"NFs are more effective than conventional chemical fertilizers due to their unique mechanisms of action."
growth promoting bacteria or micronutrients with polymers in a process known as nanoencapsulation. Materials like chitosan and zeolite are the most employed, as they improve the absorption of nutrients and minimize losses during application.
Biofertilizers offer numerous benefits, including the increase of native microflora, enzymatic activity, and crops' resistance to diseases. They raise the plant's tolerance to stress in the rhizospheres, reducing up to 30% nutrients immobilization. Furthermore, they generate less environmental impact and are more stable,
profitable, and eco-friendly, owing to their ability to reduce nutrient loss caused by leaching, gasification, and erosion.
Despite the advantages, NBFs have disadvantages as well, such as the lack of technical expertise, production methods requiring much labor, and the need to assess risks before their large-scale commercial use (Gade et al., 2023).
How are NFs absorbed and carried through the plant?
Nanoparticle capture, translocation, and aggregation in plants depends on factors like species, age, growth environmental conditions, and physico-chemical properties of nanoparticles, including their functionalization, stability, and application method. Nanoparticles enter the plant tissues through the roots or above-ground parts. Their size, shape, and interaction with cell walls are determinants for absorption. Cell walls act as a barrier limiting the passage of particles larger than 5 to 20 nm, known as size exclusion limit. As a result of the functionalized nanoparticles in the
surface, the size of the pores either gets bigger or a new pore is induced in the cell wall, enhancing nanoparticle absorption.
Other possible mechanisms for the absorption of nanoparticles involve the union of transporter proteins associated with aquaporins, ion channels, and complex formation with membrane transporters, root exudates, or endocytosis.
Nanocarriers protect encapsulated nutrients from soil filtration and retain them around the roots. Encapsulated compounds can enter the soil network through hydrogen bonds, molecular forces, surface tension, or viscous forces, thus broadening their spatial scale.
In foliar applications, nanoparticles penetrate through stomata, trichomes, or cuticles of leaves. When entering the cell through any of these means, they can move in an apoplastic or symplastic manner, using the vascular system for their transportation. They can also move from cell to cell through plasmodesmata (Gade et al., 2023; Dey & Sadhukhan, 2024).
Not everything is a bed of roses
Although nanoparticles offer numerous benefits, they can also generate adverse effects if they are used above certain concentration amounts. Their impact depends on their own unique physico-chemical properties and are directly related with nanoparticles availability in the plant and the soil around it. The unnecessary release of these particles into the environment can intensify their interaction with the ecosystem's flora and fauna, triggering oxidative stress and disrupting plant growth regulation.
To address these challenges, it is vital to develop detection and characterization techniques globally accepted. Additionally, it is necessary to establish permissible limits for their use, considering the application method. Further research and funding are imperative for a better understanding of the interaction between nanoparticles and both environmental compounds and epigenetic factors. This involves deep knowledge of manufacturing, detection and characterization, application methods, dose optimization, monitoring of their release into the ecosystem, and risk assessment (Gade et al., 2023).
Conclusions
Nanofertilizers have been designed not only to enhance the efficiency of agricultural production but also to reduce production costs, thus becoming a low-cost alternative to conventional fertilizers. Their primary advantage is their ability to promote crops' growth and yield by using much lower concentrations than conventional mineral fertilizers.
It is important to underline that volumetric mineral fertilizers can have adverse environmental effects, such as eutrophication and residue accumulation in soil and groundwater. On the other hand, the impact of nanoparticles and nanomaterials is specific for each species and depends on the application method, size, shape, production method, and employed nanoparticles concentration.
Despite the numerous reports on NFs' high efficiency, there is still a shortage of bibliographic data on their use. Current obstacles include the lack of standardization of initial parameters in studied particles—size, synthesis methods, others—which difficult their mass production. Besides, limited research on a wide range of crops from different botanical families hinders the development of general principles for their practical application. Furthermore, it is necessary to delve into the analysis of the effects that nanofertilizers could have on both the environment and human health, taking into account their possible presence in the food chain (Semenova et al., 2024).
REFERENCES
Consulte las referencias ingresando a www.aapresid.org.ar/blog/revista-aapresid-n-238
Grain on the rise or on the low? Market perspectives for the 2024-25 season
The balance between climate, commercial, and monetary factors will be a determinant for price dynamics in the short to medium term.
By Tomás Rodríguez Zurro Coordinator of Economic Projections from Rosario Board of Trade
The Argentine agricultural sector is currently focused on the 2024-25 season, which is navigating defining stages from a productive point of view in a context of great uncertainty.
Within tight margins, scarce reserves of soil moisture at the time of sowing, and the fear of leafhopper recurrence in late crops, the corn area
interrupted the increasing tendency of the past decade, recording its first year-on-year drop in nine years, with an estimate of 7.8 million hectares (-25% inter-annual). Conversely, the soybean area increased, reaching 17.9 million hectares, the highest in eight years, alongside the expansion of land intended for sunflower and sorghum.
Rain, heat, and yields in major crop season
Spring rainfall had underpinned expectations of reaching good yields during the major crop season, with the possibility of attaining production levels among the highest in history. However, from mid-December to mid-January, rainfall did not contribute significant millimeters to aid crops during periods of high temperatures and relatively low humidity.
Although the coin is still in the air and in addition to weather uncertainties for the following few weeks, corn production in 2024-25 is estimated to reach 48 Mt, 8% lower than the previous season
As regards soybean, with no yield estimations confirmed, a production of 53 Mt is expected, which would represent an increase of 6%. Finally, a volume of 3.9 Mt and 3.2 Mt is forecasted for sunflower and sorghum, respectively, with a yearon-year increase of 5% and almost 30%, respectively.
The small-grain harvest had better results than expected, with wheat reaching 19.3 Mt and barley 4.9 Mt. Summing up other crops, which would contribute 5.7 Mt, the total outcome for the 202425 cycle is estimated at 138.3 Mt, meaning 4 Mt more than the previous season and among the highest total volumes in the past years (Figure 1)
Regardless, we must not ignore that figures for the major crop season are tentative, with the weather as a defining factor in the final production of the new cycle.
In relation to the demand for main crops, a slight drop in the domestic use between seasons is foreseen (78.5 Mt). Their use as seed or for onfarm consumption would be maintained with almost no change in relation to the previous cycle, at 19.7 Mt (Figure 2).
The decrease in local consumption responds to lower industrialization of soybean in the new season and a slight drop in sunflower crush margins. The processing rhythm of this oilseed remained at a high level in the 2023-24 season, underpinned by temporary imports. Additionally,
during the last months of the season, it is expected this tendency will continue due to the temporary reduction of export duties. However, a slight cut of 41 Mt in crush margins is forecasted for the new cycle, because of a lower import rhythm.
Exportations: a season with high volumes
Concurrently, primary grain exports are forecasted to add up to 60.2 Mt in the next cycle, 10% more than the previous one. Increases in shipments of soybean, wheat, barley, and sorghum compensate for the anticipated fall in corn exports, which are affected by lower domestic production. In addition to these figures, export estimations for vegetable oil are 8.2 Mt and by-products at 32.3 Mt, raising the total of agro-industrial exports to 100.7 Mt, one of the highest records in recent years (Figure 3).
With this forecast on international shipping, in terms of volume and according to foreseen export prices, the contribution of the sector related to foreign currency from exportations would increase to USD 34.3 billion, USD 500 million more than the 2023-24 season.
Among the main complexes, soybean would reposition itself as the driving force of exportations, with almost USD 20 billion from grain and derivatives sales, a similar figure to the previous season. On the other hand, corn would contribute USD 6.8 billion, below the estimate for 2023-24 due to the decrease in estimated volumes.
One doubt into the future is what will happen regarding export duty matters. In the first place, it is estimated that the impact of the regulation in the upcoming season will be reflected in a change in the seasonality of producers’ sales, concentrating
a greater volume during the first months of the trading cycle. However, adjustments were not made in the total traded volume nor, therefore, in grain consumption in 2024-25.
If the reduction of export duties aliquot were to be permanently settled, producers’ sales could grow in absolute terms, diminishing the carryover for the following season, increasing the assimilation of the 2024-25 offer, and rising export volumes within the trading cycle. Nevertheless, this scenario is just a possibility and it is not considered in current estimations.
Prices: in between policies and the weather
As regards prices, the outlook is dissimilar depending on the grain and is subject to both bearish and bullish factors. In the past year, primary agricultural commodities recorded notable price drops in the futures exchange in Chicago. In nominal terms, wheat, corn, and soybean reached their lowest nominal values since 2020; in real terms, the purchasing power of grains reached their lowest level in 18 years. These tendencies respond to the recomposition of the global offer and the stabilization of supply chains after the disruptions caused first by the pandemic and later by the armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine.
A defining factor influencing the agricultural market outlook was the victory of the Republican Donald Trump in the presidential elections in the United States in early November. Throughout his campaign and after his triumph, he announced his intentions to impose new import taxes, with higher rates for countries such as China, Canada, and Mexico—key trading partners and major
purchasers of American agricultural products. This anticipates the possible worsening of the "Trade War" that marked his first mandate, since China could retaliate with duties on American agricultural exportations.
To face these tensions and to take advantage of the lowest prices on soybean and corn in Chicago since mid-October, the primary trading partners of the United States accelerated their American grain purchases to ensure their supply before Trump’s assumption and the risk of more stricter trading restrictions, which provided support to the demand. Nevertheless, during the first days of the new American administration, no announcement was made on the subject, which boosted the prices early in the year.
Primary grain exports are forecasted to add up to 60.2 Mt in the next cycle, 10% more than the previous one.
Under these circumstances, uncertainty about South American production plays a critical role, especially in Argentina. The drought affecting the core region of the country raises serious questions about expected yields for soybean and corn, which could limit the capacity to cover the large international demand. This is particularly relevant for flour and soybean oil markets because of the essential role of our country as a main exporter. In Brazil, the situation was the opposite: strong rains anticipated a record harvest for soybean, even though the excess of water raises some concerns due to reports of sprouted grains affecting the quality of the Brazilian bean.
Excessive rainfall in Brazil is also affecting the normal progress of soybean harvests in key states like Mato grosso, whose opposite side is null progress in second-crop corn cultivations, causing tension in the marketplace due to a tightening global balance sheet for grain. This increased corn prices that had started to escalate since the end of last year, approaching maximums within a year toward late January.
Finally, the appreciation of the American dollar, promoted by Trump’s victory and the expectations of an interest rate increase, adds pressure on grain prices. A stronger dollar makes American exports more expensive in relation to other origins and could redirect demand toward countries with weaker currency. However, the limited Argentine offer owing to climate factors could reduce the positive impact in the region. Thus, the balance between climate, trade, and currency will still determine the price dynamics in the short to medium term.
Soybean would re-position itself as the driving force of exportations, with almost USD 20 billion from grain and derivatives sales
Mapping the quality of soybean in Argentina
INTA and Acsoja analyze the quality of soybean in Argentina by mapping and relating geolocation and bean composition. Partial information from the 2024 report indicates that protein, oil, and profat averages exceeded those from 2021-22. Which areas were notable?
Soybean and its derivatives have won great economic relevance worldwide in the past decades as a consequence of the versatility of products deriving both from the protein and oil composing the seed. Among these, soybean flour—used for animal feed—is the main product for exportation in Argentina; whereas unrefined oil is destined for edible oil and biofuel production, both of great economic value.
By: Dr. Cecilia Accoroni Coordinator of the quality network of grain and oil
INTA -
From a nutritional perspective, soybean is one of the primary sources of plant protein due to its high protein content (36%-41% db) and complete amino acid (AA) composition, particularly key amino acids (KAA). The term KAA refers to the sum of lysine, methionine, cysteine, threonine, and tryptophan, which are the most relevant AA in animal production. In addition, soybean protein production requires less land and generates a smaller carbon footprint compared to the production of the same protein from animal or other plant sources. These characteristics turn the crop into a convenient and competitive option from an economic, nutritional, and environmental point of view.
at
EEA Oliveros, Santa Fe Province.
As regards soybean quality, several investigations have proved that the environment is a determining factor for protein content and AA composition, as well as their relation. While KAA and protein content of the bean show negative correlation, arginine and glutamic acid increase along with protein concentration in the seed.
In recent years, INTA, together with Acsoja, has initiated a study on the quality of soybean in Argentina, aiming at analyzing bean composition—protein content, oil, and amino acids—and generating domestic maps with all these characteristics. A distinctive feature of the study was the involvement of INTA's extension area, which collected samples from growers across the cultivated land in the country, georeferencing each plot.
There are study records on soybean quality from INTA's research programs, such as the network of soybean cultivars (RECSO in Spanish) and the stockpile surveys from the core area. Unlike these reports, this study intends to provide representative domestic information on soybean quality in Argentina, linking different regions and variables over the years.
To obtain protein and oil maps that enable differentiation of composition performance by area, a number of samples were collected proportionally to the soybean cultivated area. The first two reports were conducted during seasons 2020-21 and 2021-22, and involved 1554 samples—544 were collected during the first year and 1010 during the second. Due to the extreme drought, no study was conducted during the 2022-23 season.
In 2024, the "Red de calidad de cereales y oleaginosas de INTA" was created within the grain and oil program at INTA, which will continue the domestic data quality series on soybean. Moreover, alongside Acsoja and other institutions in the network, this will enable future assessments of the possible more complex interactions between environment, genetics, management according to the composition of the harvested grain and, subsequently, the industrial processing.
In the latest survey 2023-24, 1165 samples were collected, covering even those cultivated areas that had not yet reached minimum figures to be considered in the maps.
"A distinctive feature of the study was the involvement of INTA's extension area, which collected samples from growers across the cultivated land in the country, georeferencing each plot."
Currently, there is complete information about the first two surveys for the eight considered areas—Core area, Southwest Córdoba, North Córdoba, South Buenos Aires, Center Santa Fe, Entre ríos, NOA, NEA (Northwest and Northeast Argentina)—with data on georeference, management, genetics, and composition, like proteins, oil, profat -sum of protein + oil- and amino acids. These data enabled the elaboration of maps for both seasons according to each parameter, with their respective accumulated and differentials information. Moreover, there is partial information about the third survey performed in 2024, which adds yield information to previous data, although so far only the composition of protein, oil, and profat from the past season has been assessed.
In the 2023-24 season, mean domestic values of protein, oil, and profat (36.26% bd, 23.78% db, 60.04% db) were greater than the low records from the season 2021-22, affected by La Niña phenomenon (35.6% db, 22.3% db, 58.0% db).
Besides, the survey 2023-24 exceeded the mean oil values from the first study (23.0% db and 59.5% db) and reached those of protein (36.6% db).
By comparing mean values of protein in the eighth considered areas throughout the three seasons, it was observed that the second survey presented similar performance to the first one, except in NEA, but with lower values for all areas. The NOA area presented the highest values during two consecutive years, although this tendency changed in the last survey, when Southwest Córdoba and North Córdoba registered the highest mean values of protein, relegating NOA to fourth place. This would indicate that tendencies change year after year
As regards fat matter content, a more stable performance of mean values per area is observed, with the Core area, Center Santa Fe, and NEA recording the highest levels, while South Buenos Aires consistently presented the lowest values.
Lastly, profat, which reflects the percentage of soybean composition useful for the oil industry, is showing some stability. Even though it may show an increasing or diminishing tendency when one of the parameters composing it—protein and oil—stands out, the core area was distinguished for maintaining high-medium and stable levels.
Figure 1. Distribution per area of the mean values for soybean quality parameters in the three surveys: a) protein, b) oil, and c) profat.
The maps of accumulated values from the first two surveys emphasize, with greater color intensity, the areas with the highest values. In Figure 2, the color brown distinguishes the areas of NOA, Southwest Córdoba, and Southeast Buenos Aires, owing to their greater protein content compared to the rest of the areas. On the contrary, the core area, particularly in South Santa Fe, shows the highest oil levels. As regards profat, both the NOA and Core areas, marked in dark green, presented higher protein and oil content.
Figure 2. Maps of accumulated quality parameters: a) protein, b) oil, and c) profat.
When comparing the domestic mean of KAA in the first surveys, values between 14.36% and 14.81% were registered. Moreover, a variation in the proportionality of the five amino acids composing KAA according to the area was identified. For instance, both South Buenos Aires and Core areas presented higher lysine content, whereas NOA and NEA excelled due to a higher content of sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine). When comparing both years, there is a decrease in the mean values of lysine and tryptophan in most areas, while methionine, cysteine, and threonine increased, which would indicate a compensation effect on the mean KAA values. These values were above those found in the bibliography on soybean flour, meaning an advantageous position for Argentina compared to neighboring countries.
In the 2023-24 season, mean domestic values of protein, oil, and profat were greater than the low records from the season 2021-22.
These years' analyses indicate that quality depends on several factors, emphasizing geolocation over other variables. Nevertheless, it is necessary to continue studying the seasons and the relationships between those variables in order to differentiate areas by composition and nutritional quality.
Finally, this investigation reflects the valuable interaction between growers, who contribute samples and data, and the professionals from the quality network of grain and oil—in the different extension agencies at INTA—who collect and provide data so the interdisciplinary group of specialists can subsequently perform the corresponding analyses and reports. Moreover, the interest and support from the private sector, due to its contributions to this study, are also very welcome.
Chia seed in fashion
In the past years, the increasing demand for this grain has awakened the interest of growers in the region. Specialists from INTA Salta are studying the agricultural management of the crop to maximize yield and define the best practices.
By: Agr. Engr. Antonella Fiore Prospective - Aapresid
Chia seed is a native crop to the Center and South Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua. Its high omega-3 fatty acid content and its benefits to prevent cardiovascular diseases place it as a productive alternative in Northwest Argentina (argentina.gob.ar). A team of specialists at INTA is focused on studying the crop to adjust its agricultural management to the agroclimatic characteristics of the region.
Courtesy: www.abc.com.py
Martín Acreche, coordinator of the Ecophysiology team at INTA Salta, explained that, in terms of temperature and photoperiod, chia seed presents an excellent alternative for diversifying traditional crops in the north of the country, such as soybean and corn.
However, despite chia seed’s adaptability, the cultivated surface in Argentina remains relatively low, currently reaching approximately 40,000
hectares. "The cultivated area in the region has experienced fluctuations due to climate factors, such as frosts, and variations in foreign prices," the specialist said.
Recent studies conducted by the team led by Acreche determined that a density of 21 plants per square meter and a space between furrows of 0.26 m enables a better use of the light, improves weed competition, and boosts yield.
According to the productive development institute in Tucumán province (IDEP in Spanish), there are multiple varieties of chia seeds, distinguishing white and black chia seeds in cash crops. White seeds are used for oil extraction and have greater acceptance on international markets.
Moreover, new applications for chia seed are being explored in the food industry, such as in beverages and baked products manufacturing.
Main agricultural aspects of chia seed
The crop grows under tropical and subtropical conditions and is not resistant to frosts.
As regards edaphic conditions, its growth is favored by the availability of a wide variety of nutrients and humidity, the latter being essential for achieving good germination. Once established, the seedling is prepared to resist limited water conditions. Regarding the soil, the crop develops better in sandy-loam soils, although it can also grow in well-drained clay-loam soils.
Chia seed is sensitive to day length as it is a shortday species; thus, its growth and fruiting period will depend on the latitude of the cultivation.
The first 45 days are critical due to slow growth during that period, which makes it vulnerable to weeds—mainly broad-leaved ones—in the competition for light, nutrients, and water.
"Chia seed presents an excellent alternative for diversifying traditional crops in the north of the country, such as soybean and corn."
REFERENCES
Consulte las referencias ingresando a www.aapresid.org.ar/blog/revista-aapresid-n-238
Courtesy: Diario La Nación.
7 INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT CHIA CROP
Soil: Grows better in sandy-loam soils, although it can grow in well-drained clay-loam ones. The plant is quite resistant to alkaline shallow soils and can adapt to those with different nutrient levels.
Water requirements: Needs humidity during the initial phase, but once settled, the seedling is resistant to drought.
Cycle: Lasts around 150 days between sowing and harvesting, depending on the area. The first 45 days are critical due to slow growth and the competence against weeds.
Flowering: The plant flowers during short days (+12 hour light). The absence of precipitation affecting flowers and pollen (cross-fertilization) is essential.
Fruiting: Frosts should not appear as they reduce the oil content of the grain, affecting quality. To obtain oilier seeds (+50%), it is required a daily thermal amplitude of 15°C.
Pests and diseases: Even though it is quite resistant, in subtropical areas the crop faces pests like whiteflies (TYLCV) and the fungus Sclerotinia sp, which produces a fruit—sclerotium—very hard to separate.
Harvesting: During drought periods with no rain exposure, whichcomplicates their collection and affects quality.
The hotter the sun… the more the livestock suffers
High temperatures are testing livestock production. How can we face heat waves and prevent thermal stress in bovines?
By: Dr Agr. Engr. José Martín Jáuregui Adjunct professor - Forages Course (FCA - UNL).
In recent weeks, a large part of Argentina has experienced what is known as "heat waves", with temperatures exceeding 40°C in numerous places. Despite rainfall bringing relief to some areas, it is expected that these phenomena will continue to occur throughout the summer season.
A heat wave is defined as an extended period of unusually warm weather, lasting at least three consecutive days in a large area. To be considered as such, temperatures should be above the 90th percentile of historical local series, meaning within the 10% of the hottest days recorded in that specific area and date, continuing for at least 48 to 72 hours, according to the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). These extreme events are not merely weather occurrences; they pose serious health and productivity risks. Within a context of increasing global temperatures, these weather events seem to have worsened in the past decades, originating significant challenges for production systems and society.
Bovines are particularly sensitive to high temperatures, even though their tolerance varies depending on genetics. European breeds like Bos taurus, predominant in Argentine meat production, have a relatively narrow comfort range of between 15°C and 20°C; whereas indicine breeds like Bos indicus and their crossbreed resist heat better, with an optimum range between 10°C and 27°C. Above these values, animals start to experience thermal stress.
However, environmental temperature itself does not determine the level of stress. Humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed play a paramount role. That is why the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) is employed, offering a more precise measurement. The index considers values lower to 75 as normal, but the situation becomes gradually riskier as it increases, reaching alarming levels between 75 and 78, dangerous levels between 79 and 83, and emergency levels above 84 units (Table 1).
"Humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed play a paramount role."
Table 1. Temperature-Humidity Index (THI).
Physiological response to thermal stress: the silent enemy
Similarly to other ruminants, bovines respond to rising body temperature through progressive physiological adaptations. The process starts when body temperature exceeds 39°C. At the initial stage, animals increase their breathing rhythm and heart rate to dissipate the heat, seek out shadow areas, and drink more water, while food consumption begins to decrease. In pastoral systems, this means changes in grazing patterns: animals stay in the shadows during the hottest hours of the day (10 a.m. to 6 p.m.) and feed during the cooler hours. When the heat becomes too intense, animals do not graze enough to meet their nutritional requirements.
If stress remains, animals enter in a more serious adaptation phase. Breathing becomes notably anxious and may reach 100 breaths per minute. In addition, the characteristic drooling appears, and feeding may drop by up to 35%, affecting meat production. Moreover, rectal temperature exceeds 39.5°C, and the animals spend more time laying down in groups.
In extreme cases, compensatory mechanisms are not enough, so animals enter a phase of exhaustion. Open-mouthed and with an exposed tongue (Picture 1), gasping for air becomes severe, body temperature can surpass 41°C, and they become lethargic with evident signs of dehydration. Without proper intervention, this situation can lead to death.
How to prevent thermal stress?
The first method consists of choosing the correct breed. As previously mentioned, native European breeds are less tolerant to heat than indicine ones. In many regions, crossbreeds like Brangus or Braford achieve a great balance between meat production and quality. Nevertheless, in regions with very warm weather, it is crucial to increase the indicine blood percentage to ensure environmental adaptation and to prevent heat stress.
Another essential method is providing shade. When talking about man-made shade, between 3 and 4 square meters per animal should be estimated, with structures at least 3 meters high to ensure proper ventilation. Shade nets that reduce solar radiation by at least 80% or metal roofs with spaces are valid options. Some of these artificial shades are movable, and tractors can place them in the plots that need them (Picture 2)
Picture 1. Cow and calf gasping. This is the last physiological mechanism for bovines to try to lower their body temperature.
On the other hand, trees are a better grazing option for livestock and reduce temperature more effectively than man-made structures due to leaf transpiration. In forest areas, maintaining part of the arboreal stratum is an efficient strategy so livestock can have cover and shade, and to stay cool during the hottest times of the day.
Nutritional management plays an essential role as well. During periods of intense heat, it is best to diminish fiber intake—low-quality forages— and increase the digestible energy of the diet, for instance, more grain or highly digestible byproducts like wheat bran. In pastoral systems, if supplements are not available, high-quality hay bales are useful. This method, known as "cold
Picture 2. Picture of a movable shade net.
diet", helps reduce the rising temperature caused by the digestive process, which is greater when the feed is less digestible.
Furthermore, we should make sure to distribute feed supplies during the cooler times of the day, providing a portion early in the morning and the rest at sundown. Access to fresh and clean water is vital: a steer can consume more than 50 liters a day under thermal stress conditions, which is why a constant supply of clean water, and if possible, below 25°C, must be ensured.
Finally, as a general rule, animal movement during higher temperature hours should be avoided. Increased activity causes additional heat and aggravates thermal stress. Therefore, tasks like vaccination or farm transfer should be performed early in the morning, avoiding extended confinement periods that could worsen the situation.
Conclusion
Heat stress impact can appear in several ways: reduced weight gain, decreased milk production, reproductive issues— decreased fertility, increased miscarriage—and, in extreme cases, mortality. Hence, investing in precautionary measures is usually highly profitable in the medium term. The key to success lies in employing them before critical conditions start to show.
Constant monitoring of both animal behavior and THI enables the early detection of stress situations, as well as the adjustment of management measures as necessary. Experience shows that the combination of different strategies is more effective than the isolated application of single measures.
Our very own invention: small-scale rural contractors
If there is something distinguishing Argentine growers, it is their inventive capability; that is how this group of workers was born. Even though they are already a link in the productive chain here, it is still a rarely known phenomenon in other countries.
At the end of the last century, intensive farming gained momentum along with the increasing use of agricultural machinery. Therefore, significant social transformations were triggered, consolidating agricultural production as the primary economic activity in Argentina.
By: Sofía Colalongo Prospective Aapresid
Seeking higher income and profitability, small-scale farmers who owned agricultural machinery decided to leave their farms and offer their services. This phenomenon, which originated in the south of Santa Fe Province, spread rapidly. It first reached the wheat regions in the south, and afterwards, small-scale rural contractors gradually opened the roads toward other plots. They were true "nomads", travelling the country with their tools and adapting to seasonal and regional demand fluctuations.
Constant travelling is a vital aspect of this job. Transregional small-scale contractors move across distances of up to 2000 km, while regional ones work within a radius of up to 400 km. According to the National Agricultural Census (CNA in Spanish), between 1986 and 2002, the cultivated farmland outsourced in the Pampas region increased by 89%.
Credits Expoagro
The value of mechanization
Innate machinery enthusiasts, small-scale rural contractors are the main creditors of agricultural machinery and its respective inputs. Through the yearly usage of the equipment, they manage to amortize the high costs that would be unattainable for smallholders. Actually, due to their mobility, contractors can reach those smallholders who might otherwise face limited productive capacity.
Contractors’ worth lies mostly in their machinery—they have the necessary equipment for every activity—but also in their knowledge of how to use the machines. Year after year, the agtech sector makes significant progress, and
contractors are not falling behind. The challenge is to stay on the leading-edge of new technology, which is increasingly complex and expensive.
To measure this advance: old-fashioned steam engine harvesters were installed on the plot and required more than 15 operators to monitor their functioning. Today, only one person can operate a harvester.
The impact on production
Currently, contractors’ business has advanced considerably. According to the Argentine federation of agricultural machinery contractors (FACMA in Spanish), more than 60% of the labor in grain production is in the hands of small-scale rural contractors.
Many have already crossed the border and are working in countries like Bolivia, Uruguay, and Paraguay. However, this is still something rare to see outside Argentina. In countries like the United States, for instance, farmers are still in charge of all the tasks in their own fields.
In our country, small-scale rural contractors have become essential social actors in the productive system. Despite facing unfavorable conditions, contractors now carry out almost 90% of the grain harvest, 70% of the cultivation, and equal percentage in applications.
In our country, small-scale rural contractors have become essential social actors in the productive system. Despite facing unfavorable conditions, contractors now carry out almost 90% of the grain harvest, 70% of the cultivation, and equal percentage in applications.
