Edition - November 2024

TOPICAL NEWS

EDITORIAL

What do we talk about when we talk about wheat?

Highlighted articles

CROP MANAGEMENT

Warming up the engines for an openended small-grain crops harvest

PEST MANAGEMENT

Diseases striking and defenses defending

MACHINERY AND AGTECH

Draper Header: an ally for the next small-grain crops harvest

Each drop counts: water efficiency in agricultura

TRENDS AND GLOBAL

CHALLENGES

Africa's potential for Argentine agriculture

CROP MANAGEMENT

Score P and set the difference in your crops

Climate, pests, and yields: a tough mix for corn 2023-24 in Montecristo

MACHINERY AND AGTECH

Digital transformation in Argentine agriculture

ALTERNATIVE PRODUCCIONES

A cup of Argentine tea, please

Industrial hemp: an opportunity for Argentine crops rotation

A world without cows, is it possible?

INSTITUTIONAL

Protecting the soil is no longer an option but a necessity

Between La Niña and the leafhopper: facing corn 2024-25

ASC: adding value to production

Vegetables on the run: why is so much food lost on its way to the table?

Agronomist, pilot, and visionary

What do we talk about when we talk about wheat?

When talking about sowing wheat, every person associates it with a different 'picture' but complementary to the rest. Talking about wheat is talking about carbon contributions to the system, coverage for the north of the country, food for the population, and foreign currency income for the domestic economy in the first half of the year.

In addition, wheat plays a key role in the financial budgets of many agricultural companies, it is crop technology for seed centers and supply companies, and it is that pretty wheat spikes landscape moved by the wind. Besides, it is great as a second-crop predecessor, as well as a synonym of constant shipping throughout most of the year. Wheat is all of this and much more, depending on the reality of each company.

Therefore, it is crucial to ‘value’ both primary production and the industrialization of wheat cultivation, responding to the various realities of the country.

This year, cultivations were performed with high expectations and supported by technologies that ensure good yields and profitability

according to the agroclimatic region. Time was the main character in all different areas. Until 15-20 days ago, it seemed that we would not attain a good domestic harvest due to drought and high temperatures, but the rainfall in many areas improved conditions for a large part of the affected crops.

Nevertheless, Argentine wheat is still on the way to being harvested, with mixed results. This will be an opportunity to learn from the applied agronomy in each plot and to improve both physical and economic outcomes.

It is increasingly important to think as a chain and to work in teams to boost crops and businesses. The focus should be on satisfying the demands of our buyers while also seizing new opportunities that may emerge in domestic and foreign markets.

Agr. Engr. Gastón M. Therisod

Partner Companies

STAFF

RESPONSIBLE EDITOR

President of Aapresid

Marcelo Torres

DEPUTY DIRECTOR OF PROSPECTIVA

Paola Díaz

EXECUTIVE EDITOR

Rodrigo Rosso

WRITING AND EDITING

Antonella Fiore

CONTENT MANAGEMENT

María Eugenia Magnelli

PROOFREADING AND EDITING

Lucía Cuffia

TRANSLATION

Laura Cudugnello

LAYOUT AND DESIGN

Daiana Fiorenza

Chiara Scola

COORDINATING MANAGER

Tomás Coyos

PROSPECTIVE PROGRAM

Rodrigo Rosso

Antonella Fiore

Lucía Morasso

Delfina Petrocelli

Sofía Colalongo

RESOURCES GENERATION

Matías Troiano

Alejandro Fresneda

ASSISTANT DEPUTY DIRECTOR

Carolina Meiller

Elisabeth Pereyra

Laureana Uboldi

Victoria Marcuzzi

COMMUNICATION

Florencia Novau

Matilde Gobbo

Florencia Cappiello

Elina Ribot

Magalí Asencio

Agustina Vacchina

Delfina Sanchez

CHACRAS SYSTEM

Andrés Madias

Suyai Almirón

Magalí Gutierrez

Lina Bosaz

Ramiro Garfagnoli

Solene Mirá

PEST MANAGEMENT NETWORK

Eugenia Niccia

Juan Cruz Tibaldi

Matías D´ortona

AAPRESID REGIONALS

Carla Biasutti

Virginia Cerantola

Bruno De Marco

Joel Oene

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAM

Mailén Saluzzio

Federico Ulrich

AAPRESID CERTIFICATIONS

Juan Pablo Costa

Rocío Belda

Eugenia Moreno

Myrna Masiá Rajkin

ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE

Cristian Verna

Vanesa Távara

Dana Camelis

María Laura Torrisi

Mariana López

Daniela Moscatello

Samanta Salleras

Julieta Voltattorni

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

Macarena Vallejos

STRATEGIC PROJECTS PUBLIC POLICIES

María Florencia Accame

María Florencia Moresco

Jorgelina Traut

SECRETARY

Karen Crumenauers

Each drop counts: water efficiency in agriculture

Plant science seeks to produce more food with less water, a vital approach to confronting water shortages, ensuring food security, and protecting the environment.

By Hugo Permingeat

Technological Prospective Committee of Aapresid

Agriculture is being challenged with optimizing water usage in the context of growing scarcity and climate change. In Europe, higher incidence of droughts is expected, particularly in spring and summer, posing a threat to crops. Understanding how plants use water is crucial to finding ways to reduce its consumption without jeopardizing yields. Sustainability in agriculture requires reducing water usage in many regions, enabling greater yield per drop of water used.

Legal constraints over the use of water are an issue in numerous countries and must be addressed without losing production, especially in irrigated areas, which represent 18% of the cultivated land, but produce between 40% and 45% of the food worldwide. The lack of water for irrigation would severely impact food supply globally. In addition, large quantities of water are lost through outdated or poorly installed irrigation systems, that is why enhancing these techniques is essential for maximizing production per drop of water used. The integration of agricultural, physiological, biotechnological or genetic methodologies, and agriculture engineering will help achieve this goal (Geilfus et al., 2024).

Understanding how plants use water is crucial to finding ways to reduce its consumption without jeopardizing yields.

Plants' life cycle depends on continuous— not constant—absorption of water; whereas necessary quantities vary depending on the species, crop variety, and the plant's development phase. However, only 10% of absorbed water is used for tissue growth, while 90% is lost through transpiration. Many times, the lack of water limits crops' yield, a phenomenon known as ‘yield gap’ (Geilfus et al., 2024).

Understanding the physiological mechanisms that regulate growth and water consumption is crucial to optimize their usage in crop production. Moreover, it is important to understand how plants respond to water shortage, particularly on the field, to identify opportunities and limitations in their conservation. As a key metric, yield quantification achieved per unit of water can be expressed as 'water use efficiency' (WUE), 'water productivity', or 'biomass-to-water ratio'. In plant science, WUE and transpiration efficiency are two main indicators of produced biomass—from CO2 units to biomass grams—per unit of water, whether it be through transpiration or evapotranspiration, in a time scale ranging from sub-seconds to the crop's entire cycle (Vadez et al., 2023).

The term 'efficiency’ can also be extended beyond biomass and be expressed in units of yield, income, calories, energy, food value, or proteins per each unit of water used. This approach adds a socio-economic angle to the notion of WUE by offering a broader perspective within the agricultural system.

WUE is applicable in many spatial scales: basin, estate, field, plant and leaf. It solely refers to the

Water requirements varied throughout the crop's development, emphasizing the importance in adjusting irrigation accurately.

water used to obtain economic or biological yield, covering the whole aboveground biomass or, more rarely, the total biomass. The WUE can also include or exclude direct evaporation from the topsoil and plants, a process known as 'transpiration efficiency'.

WUE can also be measured on different time scales, from days and months to whole growing cycles. On a leaf or plant scale, the relationship between CO2 net assimilation and transpiration is known as 'instantaneous WUE' or 'assimilation-totranspiration ratio', typically measured in a matter of seconds or minutes.

WUE in irrigation agriculture: losses and adjustments

In irrigation systems, it is essential to consider water loss due to evaporation, dam leakage, and distribution in the field. It is globally estimated that 30% of water is lost during storage and transfer. Runoff and drainage losses may account for another 44%, meaning that barely between 13% and 18% of available water for irrigation is actually used in plant transpiration.

Water requirements varied throughout the crop's development, emphasizing the importance in adjusting irrigation accurately. If water supply

does not attend to these needs, efficiency decreases, affecting both the productivity and sustainability of agricultural systems.

Improving WUE involves optimizing water use not only for leaves and plants but also for species, agriculture, hydrology, estates, and landscapes. It is also about maximizing the socio-economic returns of water, considering its monetary benefits as well as long-term environmental sustainability to ensure its preservation for future generations (Valdez et al., 2023).

How to increase water efficiency in plants

Increasing WUE in crops—understood as the amount of carbon assimilated per unit of water lost—could increase water consumption in agriculture. Water loss in plants is inevitable: leaf stomata have to open up to allow CO2 intake, enabling water vapor release at the same time.

WUE tends to improve with the increase of atmospheric CO2 concentration and before stress levels caused by mild droughts. Additionally, it diminishes due to nitrogen limitation or when

Plant breeding improvements

All across the past century, plant breeding has used the influence of environmental factors over WUE, developing crops capable of growing earlier or later in the season, when climate conditions are colder and more humid. As a result, WUE and yields were improved (Wientjes & Seijger, 2024).

Plants' adaptation to maintaining their water balance allows for: i. maintaining water absorption; ii. reducing losses; and iii. optimizing photosynthesis. Wientjes & Seijger (2024) crop genetic research describes three approaches to improve WUE.

The first addresses genetic modification through the development of genetically modified plants.

evaporation demands of the surrounding atmosphere increase—when the air is dryer, warmer, and windier.

Climate change in crops' WUE is hard to determine. On the one hand, increasing current CO2 levels enable greater carbon assimilation per unit of water lost. However, when the temperature for the crop rises above optimum, carbon fixation slows down.

One of the authors worked on the overexpression of protein PsbIIS (Photosystem II Subunit S), which, under high light conditions, guides excitation energy toward PSII, thus protecting the plant from photodamage. This modification reduced stomatal conductance under high light conditions without affecting CO2 net assimilation and increased WUE. Recently, Turc et al. (2024) also used PsbIIS overexpression in tobacco, demonstrating that under drought stress (60% field capacity), WUE improved by 15% under high light conditions for the genetically modified lines. Moreover, these plants consumed less water without significantly losing biomass compared to non-modified plants. Controlled crops that use less water during drought conditions represent a great advantage.

The second approach considers that crops' forefathers evolved under much lower CO2 and temperature levels than current ones; both factors are expected to keep on increasing. This suggests that crops’ WUE might not be optimized for current climatic conditions. One possible solution is to change the plant’s canopy structure to ensure more vertical leaves, enabling lower leaves to receive more light and, therefore, perform more photosynthesis. As vapor pressure deficit is lower for this canopy position, it is anticipated that WUE will increase.

The third approach focuses on the variation of WUE among different genotypes. There is a potential risk associated with the selection of these genotypes, as they often show less resistance to drought and lower biomass production. Nevertheless, this approach has been successful in the case of bread-making wheat in Australia, where there are varieties with higher grain yield under drought conditions (Wientjes & Seijger, 2024).

A fourth approach, proposed by Nguyen et al. (2023), focuses on stomata engineering to improve CO2 capture and WUE. Stomata often open up to light and when CO2 demand is high, closing up when the light and photosynthetic

activity diminish. However, every time stomata are open, water is lost through transpiration. This constant exchange between transpiration and CO2 intake to feed photosynthetic activity, suggests an existential challenge for the plant. Stomatal guard cells must find the equilibrium between absorbing enough CO2 for photosynthesis and avoiding tissue drying, adjusting the opening of the pores according to environmental and endogenous signals.

More than two decades after the development of drought-resistant wheat Drysdale with lower stomatal density, the stomatal engineering approach has expanded, offering significant improvements. Although many of these

advances have not yet been tested in the field, they promise substantial gains without compromising disease resistance or other aspects. These progresses emerge from a revolution of molecular tools in precision engineering for genetic structure, transcriptional regulation, and cell physiological monitoring. Consequently, they offer new opportunities to address WUE, the mechanics of stomata, and their connections with plant growth and biomass production (Nguyen et al., 2023).

Combining technological advances and sustainable practices trace the path toward a more resilient agriculture, as well as a more efficient use of water. However, for these solutions to be effective, it is essential for them to be accompanied by public policies that promote their adoption, together with training programs for farmers.

In summary, improving water efficiency in agriculture is an unavoidable task to ensure a future with sustainable food production, most of all in a world with increasingly limited water resources. With the support of technological innovation and proper resources management, it is possible to move toward an agriculture that not only responds to current needs but also preserves water for the future. Toward

REFERENCES

Check the references by entering www.aapresid.org.ar/blog/revista-aapresid-n-235

Protecting the soil is no longer an option but a necessity

The protection of the soil was the protagonist at Aapresid streaming Levantando la Perdiz. Experts emphasized that maintaining soil health not only enhances productivity, but also confirms that both the environment and profits can go hand in hand. Practices like notill farming are essential, but, what else can we do?

One of the last episodes of Levantando la Perdiz was focused on a crucial resource for agricultural production and environmental balance: the soil. Marcelo Arriola, agricultural engineer and consultant, Esteban Ciarlo, technical supervisor at Fertilizar, and Haydee Steinbach, professor of the Fertility and Fertilizers course at FAUBA, shared their knowledge on soil health, its indicators, and its impact on productivity and the environment.

To the left, degraded soil; to the right, healthy soil. Soil health is clearly reflected in agricultural productivity.

Soil health

Steinbach defined soil health as "the ability of the soil to function as a vital ecosystem to sustain plants, animals, and human beings."

According to Ciarlo, it implies that the soil can perform functions of interest for mankind, from the primary ones like food production to secondary ones, such as carbon capture for climate change mitigation.

Arriola emphasized that soil health depends on maintaining its physical, chemical, and biological properties, which are directly related with organic matter (OM) levels. If good levels of OM are conserved, the soil will remain productive and will enable the improvement of food quality.

Soil health involves chemical, biological, and physical aspects. Organic matter content influences the presence of compacted or laminated structures, which limit water capture and productivity.

Soil health indicators

Part of the debate focused on the indicators determining soil health. Steinbach mentioned that carbon (C) is the indicator par excellence, as it reflects the soil’s ability to store nutrients and maintain a favorable structure for plant growth. Moreover, he highlighted the importance of other indicators, such as bulk density, phosphorus, and pH, which offer a complete overview of the soil’s conditions.

Ciarlo mentioned OM as another crucial indicator evidencing the vitality of the edaphic ecosystem. The

specialist said that conducting an analysis on OM is not only effective but also low-priced and accessible, enabling farmers to obtain valuable information on their soil’s quality without incurring significant costs.

Despite the relevance of these indicators, Argentina is performing very few soil analyses. The deficit contrasts with practices in other countries, where nutrient replenishment is more frequent and systematic.

Soil sampling, vital for health diagnosis, is still an open issue in Argentine fields.

"It’s essential to keep promoting soil sampling and using it effectively. We need to replenish nutrients to improve nitrogen use efficiency and deepen biological fixation studies, which would enable us to reduce the use of nitrogenous fertilizers," Steinbach concluded.

Agriculture and climate change

Climate change, associated with high temperatures, affects plant growth directly. In this regard, Arriola emphasized that agriculture has a vital role as it works with carbon-capture crops, as well as soils that are the world’s largest carbon

Throughout the episode, the experts agreed that

The change of mindset is also reflected in Argentine farmers. Ciarlo claimed that many farmers understand that productivity and the environment run side by side, and that protecting the soil is not incompatible with profitability. In fact, those farmers adopting soil protection practices obtain better economic results than those who do not.

Challenges in agriculture

One of the greatest challenges for current agriculture is to achieve balance between productivity and sustainability.

As Steinbach explained, the soil’s overexploitation has considerably reduced organic matter levels, leading to a decrease in its natural fertility. Besides, the lack of nutrient replenishment, such as phosphorus, is a serious problem in Argentina.

Arriola pointed out that, even though the adoption of technology, as it happened with no-tillage, had a positive impact on soil health, there is still much road ahead regarding carbon accumulation. "Building organic matter is a slow process that requires time and investment," he claimed.

Arriola also said that no-till farming alone is not enough to increase soil carbon, as active vegetation is necessary for the soil to be able to absorb it. "When we travel in July and see fallow dry fields, we realize the great photosynthesis potential we're wasting," he said.

At the end of the debate, the professionals agreed on the need to abandon the idea that protecting the soil, as an investment for the future, entails losses in the present. "Sustainability is not about wasting all our money today in

order to have better soils tomorrow; it is about producing better today and improving our soils at the same time," Arriola emphasized. "Our soils respond when we care for them, and that is clearly evidenced," he concluded.

The episode's final message was clear: protecting the soil is not an option but a necessity. As farmers become aware of the importance of soil health and adopt more sustainable practices, they are not only ensuring their own profitability but also the well-being of future generations and the planet.

"Sustainability is not about wasting all our money today in order to have better soils tomorrow; it is about producingbetter today and improving our soils at the same time."

Africa's potential for Argentine agriculture

Why should the African continent have a relevant spot in Argentina's international agenda? The following analysis explores the current socio-economic conditions in Africa and underlines the opportunities that its emerging markets can offer to Argentine agriculture, employing trading strategies adapted to Argentina's specific demands.

By Isabella Nardi International Program Aapresid

Forecasting Africa's economic growth

Africa presents an economic growth rate above the world's average and above emerging and developing economies. It is estimated that its GDP will grow at an annual average of 7.4% in the next five years. Nevertheless, the African territory can not be seen as a 'unique Africa' due to its heterogeneity and economic diversity of countries and regions. Currently, Nigeria, Egypt, South Africa, Algeria, and Morocco account for 57% of the continent’s GDP, although forecasts for 2022-28 distinguish Ethiopia, Senegal, Uganda, Ivory Coast, Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania as economies with consistent growth and acceleration (Images 1 and 2).

Source: Argentine Center for International Economy (CEI in Spanish) on “Africa’s macroeconomic performance and outlook 2023” database of the African Development Bank; International Monetary Fund.

Image 1. GDP of main African economies (left); forecast of real GDP's average annual growth (right).

Source: Argentine Center for International Economy (CEI in Spanish) on “Africa’s macroeconomic performance and outlook 2023” database of the African Development Bank; International Monetary Fund.

Image 2. Africa's real GDP growing rate and forecasts.

If it is predicted that by 2050 a quarter of the world's population will be settled in Africa, and also that 10 of the world's most populated countries will be African—which is actually the world's second largest urbanized region with a growing middle class—what opportunities does this represent for Argentina's agriculture? One of the great goals of international agendas is to strengthen food systems in the American continent by enhancing farming productivity and promoting agricultural sustainability. The target is to ensure food security besides double the income of small and family farms.

Currently, 60% of the African population is living below the poverty line. However, it is estimated that 42% of its inhabitants will belong to the middle class by 2060, within a frame of reforms that broaden the access to education and health, alongside economic and demographic growth. A society with better and greater purchasing power would represent an increase in the consumption of high-quality, foreign products in African homes. As indicated by the CEI (2024), "staple food consumption per capita will grow even more, but a change in composition is expected, with

consumption stability for roots and tubers, as well as an increase in rice and corn." Nonetheless, diet diversification will continue to be slow, with a moderate per capita consumption rise of meat, dairy products, sugar, and vegetable oils.

If indicators prove that in the future there will be large dynamic trading marketplaces and a society with better purchasing power, we find a crucial access point to international trade opportunities for Argentine agriculture. The key will be to design and adapt the offer of goods and services to local conditions of production and demand.

According to the African Development Bank, in order to change their food systems and satisfy population demands, Africa will require R&D investments, agricultural machinery upgrades and new technologies for reducing postharvest and food losses. It is estimated that to transform the 18 agrifood value chains, countries would require investments of around USD 400 billion in the following ten years, with a greater need of private funding. Other studies estimate that investments should reach USD 77 billion annually, adding up to a total of USD 614 billion by 2030. Among the countries with higher investment

needs, Ethiopia, Niger, and Tanzania stand out, followed by Morocco, Mozambique, Mali, Uganda, Algeria, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, Kenya, and others.

Where will investments be centered? It is estimated that three quarters of public investment will be intended to the transformation of the African agrifood system. Firstly, to improve rural transportation infrastructure, including the construction of bridges, routes, channels, etc., by installing a proper loading and distributing system. Secondly, to favor livestock breeding, agriculture, pests and diseases control, soil and water management, extension programs, etc., which would facilitate the much hoped food security with

Currently, 60% of the African population is living below the poverty line. However, it is estimated that 42% of its inhabitants will belong to the middle class by 2060.

high-quality products. Thirdly, investments will directly provide food and nutritional support for vulnerable groups. And, finally, for infrastructure and marketing services, such as storage, mill, rural markets, etc.

Seventy percent of African countries are not mechanized and still use animal traction and hand tools for agricultural work, which opens the door for the exportation of agricultural machinery and Argentine technological packages. However, imported machinery is not designed for African soils, which would be a critical factor to optimize export strategies. African demand for agricultural machinery is currently in private hands, although there are cases in which the governments get involved in order to respond to the needs of the sector through concessional loans. Private supply, despite the elimination of duties and VAT for the export of agricultural machinery, is limited by the lengthy and bureaucratic procedures of domestic regulation.

Moreover, the digital agricultural services market in Africa is an essential core to be explored. According to the CEI, more than 90% of the sector is still unexploded, regardless of the rise in the adoption of mobile technology and the number of internet users. Consequently, it represents a market with great development potential and investment opportunities, together with a wider dissemination of advising and consulting services. Distinguished agricultural niches for digital and technological innovation investments are:

Land and soil mapping for measuring fertility through remote sensing;

Mobile applications for testing the soils and mapping their features;

"The digital agricultural services market in Africa is an essential core to be explored. According to the CEI, more than 90% of the sector is still unexploded."

Satellite and drone monitoring (climate, fields, production areas, water resources);

Mobile phones for consulting services, such as agricultural digital payments;

Information and communication technologies oriented to digital services for market analysis, price monitoring, traceability, etc.

Aadpresid

A crucial aspect is that Africa, in order to promote the development of the agricultural sector, relies on funds for AgTech incubators. The target is to shorten the gaps in the use of new technologies and to boost IoT technologies development. Yet, the aforementioned digital solutions, alongside investments and development policies, namely land tenure regulations, depend exclusively on the state. The public initiative plays a notable role in implementing the necessary changes in the food system to ensure compliance with the proposed goals in the Agenda 2063, making public-private collaboration a crucial aspect when assessing opportunities.

Even though the development of IoT technologies is in an experimental phase, the agricultural service areas employed for monitoring, controlling, and managing pests and irrigation on crops are noteworthy—smart greenhouses, production, and food safety. Big data's analytical abilities are still limited and are outsourced to specialized companies. However, its evolution and development are expected to boost machine learning, which is in an even earlier phase. Ultimately, the standardized digitalization of information, instead of data on paper, is a serious challenge for many African countries.

Indicada para sistemas intensivos con altos requerimientos nutricionales.

Tasas de crecimiento similar a las mediterráneas a la salida del invierno.

INIA Fortuna (LE 14-86)

INIA Aurora (LE 14-84)

Even though only 7% of Argentine exports of food and agricultural products are destined for Africa, this analysis shows how relevant the development of an export strategy that considers the continent’s various demands is, taking into account that 60% of the African agricultural market is centered on trading companies and foreign NGOs. Sustainability and efficiency policies in the use of natural resources on the African Agenda 2063 represent fertile ground for foreign actors to cooperate in the implementation of regenerative and sustainable practices, as well as technology transfer, like the one promoted by Aapresid.

Leveraging these opportunities requires not only a strategic approach to exportations but also publicprivate relationships that ensure technological transfer adapted to local conditions, promoting the sustainability of African food systems.

*Analysis based on data obtained from the report "Eyes on Africa" by the Center for International Economy (CEI) from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship of the Argentine Republic.

Score P and set the difference in your crops

Low phosphorus replenishment is deteriorating agricultural soils and widening yield gaps. Fertilizar AC is boosting a campaign to highlight phosphorus importance and to offer simple recommendations on its use.

Extensive farming in Argentina is performed under a temperate climate with uniform precipitation, on plain, loess grounds of high natural physical and chemical fertility. This combination, in addition to the continuous adoption of innovative process and product technologies by farmers, has promoted growing yields in major grain and forage crops. However, yield increase, and therefore resource

By Esteban Ciarlo¹,² y María Fernanda González Sanjuan¹

¹ FERTILIZAR AC

2 School of Agriculture of the University of buenos Aires - FAUBA

demands, was not proportionally accompanied by nutrient contributions that could compensate for higher outputs.

Within this context, yield levels were maintained at the expense of nutrient contributions from the soils. Nevertheless, the soil's capacity to keep supplying nutrients is not unlimited. As these nutrients are consumed, the more available fractions are lost and the more resistant ones remain—the more 'selfish'—which leads to slower, more difficult, and reduced soil nutrient availability.

Low replenishment—nutrient application through fertilizers—triggers soil deterioration and is one of the main causes of the gap between produced kilograms and those that could be produced, as revealed by the international project on production gap measurement (www.yieldgap.org).

Among the nutrients conditioning crop growth, phosphorus (P) is particularly important. It is a macronutrient required and absorbed in large quantities, which has structural and operative functions vital for plant growth. Phosphorus limitation is an almost always present condition in productive plots, except in some NEA regions, where soils contain high original amounts of P and have less agricultural history.

In Argentina, the P balance in grains—inputs minus outputs—is consistently negative. This is evidenced by the evolution of extractable P levels (Phosphorus index in crops) observed on the maps elaborated by INTA and FERTILIZAR AC in several productive areas (Figure 1). According to this study, more than 70% of the agricultural area of the Pampas region should be receiving some P doses, as it is currently below the critical frame for major crops.

"More

than 70% of the agricultural area of the Pampas region should be receiving some P doses, as it is currently below the critical frame for major crops."

Figure 1. Evolution of extractable P levels (P Bray, mg kg-1) in a) the Pampas region (Sainz Rozas et al., 2019) and b) Northeast and Northwest Argentina, or NEA, NOA (Sainz Rozas et al., 2024).

A campaign to reverse the situation

As a consequence, the need to create a campaign that acknowledges P declining in the main productive regions of the country emerges. Therefore, a campaign that works on the following axes was proposed:

1 Demonstrating P importance for plant growth.

2 Disseminating information on soil P dynamics.

3 Assisting in the use of diagnostic tools to detect P deficiencies.

4 Promoting and providing general and simple recommendations on the use of P, particularly in leguminous crops, such as soybean, where nutrient supply is especially delicate.

Instituciones que nos acompañan Institutions that accompany us

Importance of phosphorus in plant growth

Phosphorus is one of the paramount elements for life existence, present both in plant and animal tissues, including teeth and bones. The name means 'the bringer of light'—hence the word phosphorescence—which reflects P's vital importance for living beings. Phosphorus often is, after nitrogen, the second most limiting nutrient for plant growth in natural and cultivated ecosystems. This is due to P’s participation in main functions:

Constitutes functional structures— phospholipids—in cell membranes.

It is present in gene regulation as part of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

Participates in energy transference in every metabolic process as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and other derivative compounds (Figure 2). Phosphorus deficiencies in plants are directly related to energy transference and storage, which means a slow and diminished growth during the first development stages.

Source: Campaña Sumá P - FERTILIZAR.

Figure 2. Phosphorus intervention in energy transference.

Plants use the accumulated energy in ATP's phosphate groups to conduct multiple vital functions. One of the most relevant for agricultural crops is P's contribution to biological nitrogen (N) fixation from the air, a process in which N is incorporated into legume species plants, such as soybean, alfalfa, or peas. Mediated by the nitrogenase enzyme, this reaction reduces N and demands large energy quantities: 16 ATP molecules are needed per every N molecule to break the triple bond.

2

Dynamic of soil phosphorus

Soils contain different quantities of P that may be high in some cases, or very low, depending on conditions. Total soil P concentrations depend basically on how much P the material or parent rock that gave origin to it had. Human management of the soil can increase, or mainly diminish, total P levels.

Soil P is present in the form of organic and inorganic compounds. Plants take it as phosphates, which are very simple, inorganic compounds, and transform them into organic compounds accumulated within the different parts of a plant. Soils hold P compounds that, depending on their

transformation speed and accessibility for plants nutrition, can be separated into:

Inorganic compounds of slow access, present in primary and secondary minerals (no reserve methods available for plants).

Organic compounds of slow access, found in plant residues with advanced decomposition rate or physically protected (no reserve methods available for plants).

Labile organic compounds ('fairly mobile'), present in fresh plant residues and microorganism biomass (no reserve methods available for plants).

N + 8H+ + 8e- + 16 ATP + Nitrogenase

Labile inorganic compounds ('fairly mobile'), found in inorganic salts in solution, high solubility precipitates, or feebly retained by soil clays.

Soluble compounds, mostly inorganic (phosphates) that are not retained and are largely accessible to plants, subject to movement by soil water.

Phosphorus is considered as an immobile or little

Source: Campaña Sumá P - FERTILIZAR.

mobile element due to the large quantity of lowsolubility fixed compounds. Profound leaching of phosphorus is rare and much of the applied fertilizers in the soil react with its components, causing non-immediate availability to plants.

Figure 3. Soil phosphorus dynamics.

Diagnosing phosphorus deficiencies 3

Soil P total content is not useful to indicate availability to plants, as a large part is so resistant that crops cannot absorb it. Roots only absorb P present in solution (water) in the soil, but this amount is very little and it is replenished several times a day in fast-growing crops. Therefore, measuring P in solution does not have much diagnostic value.

So, how do we know if there is enough soil P? One method is to measure soluble content (the truly available) jointly with the P that can be supplied from the fractions capable of releasing that soluble P.

The supply of labile inorganic types to soil solutions is dynamic, complex, and involves various compounds. To diagnose P nutritious limitations, or its response to fertilizer application, laboratory methods were developed and adjusted to extract P labile forms, a measurement known as 'extractable phosphorus'.

In Argentina, particularly in the Pampas region, where slightly acidic to neutral soils predominate, the most employed extraction method is BrayKurtz 1. Although Olsen's extraction method can be also appropriate for this type of soil, this methodology was set aside for alkaline soils or specific areas.

Extractable P measurement, despite having concentration units (ppm or mg kg-1), is an indicator of sufficiency for crops, which like any other, should not be interpreted as an isolated value. For this index to have diagnostic value, it must be contrasted—correlated—with yield or productivity values of the different crops, in order to be able to interpret the values provided by the laboratories in relation to agricultural crops' yield (Figure 4)

Source: García et al., 2014.

Figure 4. Correlation between maximum reachable yield and PBray level (mg kg-1).

The amount of extractable P is one of the most heterogeneous properties in the soil. Phosphorus' high spatial variability requires much greater sampling intensity compared to other soil variables. In agricultural areas, this heterogeneity is deepened because P is site-specifically

applied. As P has low mobility, it is common for some sites to have contrasting levels within very close distances, particularly in no-tillage systems without soil disturbance.

General and simple recommendations for phosphorus usage 4

Suggesting phosphate fertilizer applications is not unique and does not depend on a sole resolutive indicator, but integrates four strategies of good agricultural practices regarding nutrient management. These practices consider the selection of source, dose, time, and place of fertilization. For each feature, resolutive options depend on economic, strategical, philosophical, technical background, resource availability, and regulation issues. In every case, the goal is to ensure that P contributions do not limit normal crop growth, minimizing or limiting P losses beyond plant uptake.

Although the use of liquid fertilizers has increased in the past years, the most used sources of P are solid inorganics with high solubility, alongside the direct use of phosphate rock, from which all fertilizers derive, that acts as a delayed-reacting fertilizer. Crops' response is unrelated to P origins, since it requires physico-chemical and biological transformations into soluble inorganic forms in every case.

As regards doses, when noting that P levels on a specific site can limitate normal crops production, two suggestions or 'philosophies' are pondered to determine application quantities:

a) Sufficiency ('fertilizing the crop'): the purpose is to apply the minimum necessary amount to maximize application profitability, considering the effect solely for the year. This method seeks the economic efficiency of the crop when applied with P and the dose to be applied maximizes the return of the practice. However, obtained yields do not reach maximum productivity and the balance between supply and extraction is negative, reducing soil P levels.

b) Replenishment (reconstruction and maintenance, 'fertilizing the soil'): Ethe purpose is to stabilize extractable P levels in soils within non-limiting values for normal crop production. In this case, the goal is that P replenishment through fertilization exceeds its extraction by crops in order to generate positive balance.

Regarding application moments, given P's limited movement in soils, plants' intake process (dissemination), and the need of incorporating P during the early stages of plant growth, it is key for P to be available since the sowing of the crop. Consequently, independent of the employed criteria or philosophy, fertilization should be fully or partly performed before or during crop sowing.

Localized high concentrations are a regular practice in our production systems. Nevertheless, this practice should be employed cautiously because fertilizers' direct contact with seeds can affect germination and emergence through the saline effect or the presence of ammonia in ammonium phosphates.

Finally, the campaign aims at improving application diagnoses and recommendations in relevant legume crops, such as soybean and alfalfa. These crops are characterized by their high P requirements for growth, in addition to a high nutrient harvesting index. This means that a large part of absorbed P is exported in the grain and should be replenished to avoid soil's progressive degradation.

The campaign aims at improving application diagnoses and recommendations in relevant legume crops, such as soybean and alfalfa.

In the case of soybean, a maintenance strategy is advisable if P content is intermediate (extractable P between 18 and 30 mg kg-1), applying at least equal doses to the extraction expected from the crop, considering that soybean exports 5.4 kg of P per every metric ton of grain. On the contrary, if P content is low (less than 15-17 mg kg-1), it is advisable to employ fertilization with an extra amount of P besides covering that extracted by the crop, meaning a reconstructing or enriching strategy that gradually raises soil P levels.

Many years of study are showing the physical response (kg/ha) of P applications on soybean crops and, according to regular input/product ratio, they are also exhibiting positive profitability outcomes as a result of phosphate fertilization employment.

For pastures with alfalfa, P fertilization increases forage quantity, persistence, and quality, enabling major animal production per unit of surface. Pastures require P that varies depending on age, grow rate, and species composition. The highest values required per unit of produced dry matter occur during the plants' early growing stages. Phosphorus requirements also vary depending on the cutting or harvesting fashion of the forage, reaching a peak when performing mechanical harvesting for deferred grazing or reserves preparations.

Critical levels between 25 and 30 mg kg-1 of extractable P have been reported in alfalfa crops. If a fresh fertilization is decided as of the second year, it is advisable to reduce the critical threshold by 2-3 ppm. Additionally, P fertilization in pastures with alfalfa has also proven positive productive and economic outcomes in many investigations.

Warming up the engines for an open-ended smallgrain crops harvest

After some early-season setbacks, changes in context renewed farmers’ illusion. Aapresid regional members from South Buenos Aires provided an overview of the current state of wheat and barley crops and shared which aspects will be crucial to reduce harvesting losses and maximize profitability.

By: Ing. Agr. María Eugenia Magnelli

To Prospective Aapresid

The Formula 1 in wheat and barley productions

Southern Buenos Aires Province is one of the regions par excellence for wheat and barley production in Argentina due to its climate conditions favoring high yields.

Focusing on this productive area, we talked to different regional members from the Aapresid south regional offices to know the season's background and small-grain crops yield expectations. They also explained which aspects will predominate during harvesting, as well as the commercialization strategies for both cereals.

To characterize the region, agronomist and consultant Manuel Pereyra Iraola from Aapresid Regional Tandilia emphasized that doublecropping margins excel over the rest, hence, small-grain crops have great participation in rotations. According to Manuel, low winter temperatures facilitate tillering, while cool spring allows barley and wheat to reach high potential during their reproductive period.

Manuel also noted barley's nearly 5% higher yield and how it clears the plot earlier, improving

second-crops outcome. Wheat is very popular in mixed cropping, where a forage crop is often planted after harvesting. Altering wheat and barley helps sustain small-grain crop cultivations in successive years. However, the high potential

We started bad but it is getting better

Regarding this small-grain crop season, Agr. Engr. Roberto “Tiki” Kiessling, consultant, professor, researcher at the Universidad Nacional del Sur, and member of the Regional Aapresid Bahía Blanca "Ricardo Ochoa", said that he started with great uncertainty. Poor replenishment of profiles and unappealing prices were discouraging cultivations. Nevertheless, everything changed with the expected fall precipitation and the rise of wheat international prices, which encouraged the sowing of more hectares than intended.

Consultant Iván Nuesch from Regional Aapresid Las Encadenadas pointed out that small-grain crop surface maintained similar levels to previous years. He stated that, "wheat has replaced barley, boosted by the rising prices at the beginning of planting activities, which broke the balance between both cereals, establishing 60% for wheat and 40% for barley.”

of these winter cereals is offset by low secondcrop yields due to narrow frost-free windows. As a result, environment adaptations gain extreme relevance in the region's bakery products.

In 2024, according to the latest calculations of the Agriculture Strategic Guideline (GEA in Spanish) from the Rosario Stock Exchange, the domestic wheat area increased from 5.5 M ha to 6.7 M ha, defining an interannual growth of 22%. Even though this is good news, the critical period of the crop is underway with erratic precipitation conditions.

Still, not everything has been said. The entity’s estimated figures indicate that domestic wheat production is approximately 19.5 M mt, which would represent 31% more than the previous cycle with 14.5 M mt, as long as meteorological conditions support the rest of the cycle to sustain yields.

B-side of season 2024

The rising value of rents

Southeast Buenos Aires has become a highly demanded area due to yield stability, in contrast with the agricultural heartland, which was struck by two seasons of La Niña and the effects of the corn leafhopper, as explained by the member of Aapresid Regional Tandilia. "Rents are becoming impossible to pay. Only vertical integrated actors with large arable surfaces enabling great business volume have access to leased fields," he emphasized.

High prices of raw materials

According to Manuel Pereyra Iraola, this situation delayed the purchase of supplies. "There were practically no pre-seasonal purchases; the farmer waited as close as possible to the time of application to buy supplies. They were probably waiting for prices to drop, for commodity prices to increase—which has always been low-set—for the lifting of taxes like export duties and devaluation, or for improvements in financing rates, which finally came in August."

Increase of herbicides use in cultivation costs

The use of herbicides in cultivation costs grew due to the complexity in weed control.

Current progress for crops under the yellow light

"This year, small-grain crops began their cycle on optimal humidity and temperature conditions," Pereyra Iraola commented. Early cultivations, performed between late May and the first 20 days of June, germinated in record time. May was a cold month, ideal for retaining water in the profile, June was temperate, and July very cold. As a consequence, wheat crops emerged fast and tillered under low temperatures, setting the right

conditions for considerable rooting and tillering. On the contrary, because late-crop cultivations emerged much more slowly, July wheat crops took almost a month.

To reinforce this, Kiessling explained that in the Tornquist district, long cycles sown as of June did not suffer water stress, as accumulated rainfall is near the historical levels of 229 mm and has

occurred during the crop's highest water demand periods. However, he warned that plant growth was very slow due to a series of frosts.

In addition, Nuesch added: "The main novelty this season was frosts. In the areas of Puan and Carhué, they arrived a month later than usual, but they were frequent and intense from May to August. This affected both wheat and barley crops during the grass state. In barley, even plant losses jeopardizing density were observed, particularly in low areas."

As regards pests, Agr. Engr. and consultant Pablo Errazu, RTA at Regional Aapresid Tres Arroyos, warned about the problem in controlling ryegrass and crucifers in the region. Regarding health matters, he suggested day-to-day monitoring of diseases, especially in low-rotation plots or if the environment becomes more humid with rainfall. In that vein, Iraola added: "Luckily, cold weather and lack of precipitation at the beginning enabled the outstanding performance of pre-emergent herbicides, used up to advanced stages of the cycle. This favored the crop’s good health, allowing, in almost all cases, to reach the flag leaf to apply the fungicide after observing tan spot and rust in some plots."

Errazu mentioned an equally important point, crop nutrition, which is essential for our systems. "At the beginning, fertilization plans were below targets, mainly due to fertilizer price and grain value ratio at that moment. Today, the matter needs to be reconsidered to avoid low quality due to price differentials," he explained.

The bump in the road came in the last fortnight of October. Part of Southeast and Southwest Buenos Aires experienced several days of peak temperatures of nearly 35°C and erratic precipitation. As a result, crops were directly affected and sectorized yield losses can already be observed; hence, the open end toward harvesting.

"If rainfall and temperatures play along, there are good chances to achieve decent yields in South Buenos Aires."

If rainfall and temperatures play along, the representative members of Aapresid regionals agreed that there are good chances to achieve decent yields in South Buenos Aires. In Tandil, average yields are about 7000 kg/ha for barley and 6000 kg/ha for wheat. In Tres Arroyos, yields are around 4800-6000 kg/ha for barley and 4000-6000 kg/ha for wheat; in Puán, Carhué, and Tornquist, yields are close to 4000 kg/ha for barley and 3500 kg/ha for wheat.

Prepare for the harvest

In the region, harvests started in late November for barley and in early December for wheat, and are extended along the final month of the year. This season might be delayed because of the slow emergence of late varieties.

Even though there is still much road ahead, anticipation is important to maximize efficiency and avoid surprises. That is why the distinguished members from Aapresid Regionals shared some recommendations:

Ensuring a reliable contractor in advance.

People intervening in the harvesting process should be trained, whether it be with hired equipment or their own, in order to minimize grain losses and maximize efficiency.

Focusing on the technology of harvest machinery. The more updated equipment, the more losses will be reduced.

Starting the harvest with clean equipment, free of strange materials and/or seeds from different species in order to avoid the spreading of weed (crucifers, flax-leaf fleabane, etc.)

Monitoring the process and being present in the plot to adjust machinery, check losses, and ensure decent quality, particularly in malting barley.

Preparing storage alternatives. The lack of space near the harvesting period has been a big problem in the past years, that is why it is key to be organized and ready to bag the product if needed.

Monitoring grain quality to address proper production.

Business involves the proper calculation of figures

The destination of the harvested grain will depend on several aspects and the reality of each farmer and agricultural company. For Southwest Buenos Aires, the proximity to the port is a great advantage for grain crops intended for exportation due to lower shipping costs. "In Tornquist, we are 70 km and 90 km from the port," stated Tiki

Kiessling. In this region, farmers typically harvest in order to comply first with delivery obligations or to pay debts. The rest of the cereal is kept in collection facilities or silo bags as store of value, as it is an important source of funding throughout the year, similar to what happened with soybean in the Pampas heartland area.

Iván Nuesch said that wheat is milled and/or exported depending on the quality. Barley is particularly sought for malting quality, even though the end of the cycles are oftenly trickery and not within standard. If this happens, barley is aimed for the animal feed market instead of a malting plant

Pablo Errazu clarifies that wheat current margins are very tight. With posted prices ranging from 210 to 215 USD/t, the farmer will tend to wait for a price increase to reduce indifference gaps, unless they have opportunely secured 250 USD/t with future sales for wheat and slightly less for barley.

According to Manuel Pereyra Iraola, it is crucial to seek advice beyond estate boundaries to maximize profitability. "Generally, one does not work outdoors with the same level of considerations on production," he emphasized.

As regards marketplaces, he noticed good conditions for harvest pricing. "Domestic markets demand, droughts in Europe, as well as in a large part of the productive area—where plot potential already has a roof—and the proximity to Brazil pushing exports, could be the factors promoting prices, mostly on wheat," he predicted.

Regarding barley, the agronomist suggested monitoring quality and protein levels, with nitrogen fertilization in the spotlight. "Nowadays, there are means to put a floor in case of obtaining forage quality," he added. He also advised focusing on ensuring proper conditions for malting barley throughout the entire year. "Malting barley has been gaining off-season attention for some time now. Thus, partial sales can be made in a moderate percentage so as not to oversell; and harvesting quality can be monitored for storing it or to know the quality levels of the offered product," he claimed.

In conclusion, the RTA at Regional Aapresid Tres Arroyos reflected on: "Production efficiency will be the key for this season's businesses, and we should pay attention to every detail, from fallow lands to harvests. It is important to act according to solid decisions based on knowledge and real data from the region, in addition to consensual criteria between all intervening parties."

With such precise figures, boosting yield and maximizing grain quality for the rest of the season will be essential. Harvest efficiency is gaining unprecedented relevance: each grain reaching the hopper adds to profitability improvement. It is not a time to relax; with a little help from nature and favorable prices, we are still on time to accomplish good results.

Acknowledgements:

We appreciate Pablo Errazu, Roberto “Tiki” Kiessling, Iván Nuesch, and Manuel Pereyra Iraola for their valuable contributions to the making of this report.

Climate, pests, and yields: a tough mix for corn 2023-24 in Montecristo

The corn season 2023-24 at Regional Montecristo attained the largest cultivated surface since 2007-08, but yields averaged 4400 kg/ha similar to that of 2017-18. Besides the corn leafhopper, how much did adverse environmental conditions affect production?

By: Justiniano Achaval RTA Regional Montecristo

The season 2023-24 was the one with the largest surface of corn cultivations in our region since season 2007-08. Nevertheless, average yield was 4400 kg/ha, similar to that recorded in 201718, and only the previous season 2022-23 showed lower yields of 3800 kg/ha (Figure 1).

Although many people attribute poor yields to the corn leafhopper and stunt complex, our analysis delves into this year's challenging environmental conditions. During the critical period of the crop, such as grain filling, temperatures coincided with two moments of low precipitation: the last 20 days in January—a critical period for most of our early December cultivations; and almost no rain in March (less than 20 mm), when most of the corn

crop was in the grain filling stage. In addition to these two environmental variables, there were low sunshine hours, which affected grain's final weight.

Besides precipitation issues, we are also facing several heat waves, with more than three consecutive days with temperatures above 35 degrees. For instance, despite the highest rainfall at the beginning of the month, by late January

Figure 1. Surface and historical yields in Regional Montecristo.

we had more than six consecutive days with temperatures above 35 degrees. The situation repeated in February and March, with three to seven days of extreme heat (+35 °C) depending on the area.

In addition to this intricate outlook regarding temperatures and rainfall, sunshine hours during February, March, and April were below

the historical average for the past 15 years in our region. Owing to the sowing dates in North Córdoba, this period finds corn at the peak of the grain filling stage.

Up to the last day of November, our regional had sown only 5% of the total corn surface, 75% was cultivated in December and the remaining 20% was completed in January 2024 (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Cultivation progress and percentage of accumulated surface.

If we analyze the situation during our sowing period, we can observe that in early December we had only sown 5% of the surface intended for corn. Between the first days of December and New Year, almost 75% of the total area was cultivated, meaning that only 20% of the corn in the region was sowed during the whole of January.

When comparing these percentages with historical data, the season’s 5th percentile— which represents 5% of the lowest yields—was the only year within the past two decades that we recorded such a high yield percentage equal to 0. As regards 95th percentile, only 5% of the surface yielded above 7900 kg/ha (Figure 3)

Figure 3. Yields per Sowing Date.

Our highest yield was 11,300 kg. Last year, with the influence of the "La Niña" phenomenon, the greatest yield was 11,955 kg. Both this year and last, with the arrival of the Dalbulus maidis pest and stunt complex in our crops, we obtained null yields in some areas, considering this was a year of the "El niño" phenomenon.

In spite of the fact that our region is an irrigated area, late crops were sown on dry lands. As regards irrigation technology, we can differentiate between late season irrigation (690 hectares) and early season irrigation (200 hectares).

It is undeniable that yield diminishes as the sowing date is delayed. The Regional Montecristo, together with the CREA Movement, divided the region into 8 areas; Zone 1 being the largest one with almost 5000 hectares. Average yield in this area was 4600 kg; whereas in areas with less arable land, known as 3 North—at the foot of the sierras, west of route 9, beyond Villa del Totoral—average yield reached 6720 kg, the best average rate, even with a very reduced surface (340 hectares).

Here, we are characterized for sowing dent corn, in addition to popcorn (417 hectares with an average yield of 3600 kg/ha) and Flint corn (964 hectares with an average yield of 3300 kg/ ha). Regarding the latter, if non-harvested plots are excluded, the average yield rises to 4900 kg/ ha. The non-harvested surface was 361 hectares, representing 37% of the total arable land.

Both this year and last, with the arrival of the Dalbulus maidis pest and stunt complex in our crops, we obtained null yields in some areas, considering this was a year of the "El niño" phenomenon.

Our regional cultivates 38 corn varieties, including Flint and popcorn. Although we mentioned that temperature, rainfall, and sunlight exposure affected yield, we cannot ignore that everything we sowed in January was influenced by the Dalbulus maidis pest and stunt complex, as we cannot yet accurately estimate their impact on yield.

We believe that by monitoring the corn leafhopper and stunt complex, they can be controlled— enabling healthy corn production—in a future with genetically well-behaved materials, alongside chemical and biological products. We have suffered from the "Río IV Curse" occasionally; today, we see the leafhopper and we monitor it. The challenges to come might be climatic: temperature, rainfall, and radiation; here, there are also challenges for agricultural sciences.

Between La Niña and the leafhopper: facing corn 2024-25

The ghost of the pest that ravaged the season 2023-24 and the drought forecasts are testing farmers' plans. What strategies will be adopted in each region?

2024 started on a grim note for corn. The leafhopper rampaged across a large part of the cultivations, particularly for late and second crops. In April 2024, a survey conducted by the Pest Management Network (REM) among Aapresid members showed clear intentions to reduce this season's corn growing area, with 35% for early corn crops and 67% for late ones.

In addition, climate forecasts on a new La Niña year and delayed spring rains put a stop to early sowing. However, in recent weeks, the scenario has become more optimistic. The arrival of rains gave green light to sowing activities. Surveys of Aapresid Regional members showed that, by October 10th, the percentage of progress of

early corn cultivations was approximately of 90% in Center-north Buenos Aires and South Santa Fe, 20% in Córdoba and South Buenos Aires, and a little further back, 10% in Center Santa Fe and East Entre Ríos.

As regards the leafhopper, the latest analyses from the Argentine monitoring network of Dalbulus maidis show that the pest is subsiding and that environmental conditions would not encourage the development of the pest for next season.

Heatmap set according to the evolution of the amount of adults of the corn leafhopper, Dalbulus maidis, captured with colored sticky traps between July 15th and October 21st.

Water: determining factor

Water condition is crucial for planting decisionmaking. Guillermo Rivetti, an Aapresid farmer from the Regional Adelia Maria, west of Córdoba Province, said that water is available in this area, allowing early crop cultivations with proper humidity.

From South Buenos Aires, Guillermo Divito, an Aapresid farmer from Regional Necochea, explained that, "even though humidity in the coastal area is favorable, rainfall needs to continue further inland."

In Northern Argentina, Martín Goujon, an Aapresid farmer from Sáenz Peña, emphasized that, "unlike previous years, fall and winter brought beneficial precipitation, accumulating 150 mm between June and August, which is rare in the region."

The situation is different in Southeast Córdoba and South Santa Fe, where the lack of humidity delayed early corn cultivations. Although recent rains permitted labor to resume, water availability is still a limiting factor in the heartland region," said Germán Fogante, an Aapresid farmer at the Regional Los Surgentes Inriville.

Early planting vs. late planting

The choice between early and late cultivations varied according to the region. Rivetti aimed at expanding the surface of early corn cultivations to use fall humidity and minimize the risk of the leafhopper pest. Nevertheless, he maintains a solid opinion: "If we do not have properly humid soils that can ensure crops’ planting and their survival for at least 60 days, we do not sow." Divito chose to switch some plots to late planting to reduce water risk linked to La Niña phenomenon.

In the heartland area, Fogante pointed out that early planting was stable in relation to previous seasons, whereas late planting will probably diminish. In the north, Goujon explained that his decision will depend on the evolution of rains and the presence of the leafhopper.

Crop management

Farmers shared four key points for successful corn regardless of the region: seed quality, seeder calibration, proper nutrition, and monitoring.

Rivetti highlighted the importance of the correct selection of the hybrid: "We are definitely seeking tolerance to the Río Cuarto Curse—a viral disease—and good stability of the stalk; and this is not negotiable. Afterwards, we are particularly interested in fast-drying genetics."

As regards sowing density, everyone agreed that it is important to adjust it according to the site environment to avoid losses. In addition,

Rivetti said that he is "employing a ‘defensive’ strategy, opting for lower densities to maximize production per plant and minimize risks."

Fertilization should be adjusted according to density and type of predecessor crop, optimizing the resources in every plot, especially in areas with high climatic variability. Regarding predecessors, farmers agreed that the chosen plots for early corn planting are generally those that were previously fallow lands to conserve humidity.

In the case of late corn crops, some farmers choose plots with prior cover crops, such as

vicia, that help maintain soil structure and improve nitrogen contributions. "Most plots with late corn cultivations have cover crops as predecessors, preferably with associated species with a carbon-nitrogen ratio (C-N) more inclined toward nitrogen, thus avoiding temporary nutrient retention," Rivetti claimed. Fogante added that he prefers to associate late corn with cash crop predecessors like wheat, peas, or garbanzo beans whenever possible.

Leafhopper: strategy-conditioning insect

Even though the pest seems to be subsiding and environmental conditions are not inspiring a similar scenario to the past season, farmers are vigilant, particularly in the center and north of the country.

In the heartland area, after last years' great losses, farmers are prioritizing early cultivations to reduce the crop's exposure to the vector, as the highest transmission of the disease occurs before the eighth and tenth leaf stages.

Rivetti stated that last season's very low incidence and severity of the leafhopper in West Córdoba resulted with very few affected plots.

In East Chaco—an area historically affected by the leafhopper—Goujon’s experience was very different: "I met the pest in 2012, and it has been present yearly ever since, although never under the same pressure as last season. I have never had to apply insecticides before; it was enough with using tolerant hybrids. However, the pest's high pressure caused problems, and there was no hybrid resistant enough."

"I met the pest in 2012, and it has been present yearly ever since, although never under the same pressure as last season."

Martín Goujon, Aapresid famer in Saenz Peña, Chaco Province.

Guillero Rivetti, Aapresid farmer, Regional Del Campillo in West Córdoba.

All farmers agreed on the need to thoroughly monitor the pest and conduct precautionary insecticide applications when population increases are detected. "After each treatment, monitoring through tracking plates is crucial to adjust control measures depending on the amount of adults present," Fogante added.

Guillermo Divito, Aapresid farmer, Regional Necochea.

ASC: adding value to production

With more than 10 years of experience, ASC certification by Aapresid connects quality, sustainability, and transparency, placing Argentine products in world markets and predicting future demands.

By Rocío Belda Aapresid Certifications

Aapresid’s Agricultural Sustainability Certification (ASC) is a third-party certification that, aligned with the institution, aims at answering the problem of producing more and better food, fibers, and energies without neglecting the balance between the economic, ethical, and environmental variables of our society.

ASC ensures the transparency and traceability of production systems, as well as their value chains, with quality products grown under sustainable practices that consider the environment, resources, and society. Thus, it responds to the demand of world markets by introducing

Argentine products to the world and creating value through domestic and international recognition.

With more than 10 years of experience, ASC is an existing innovative quality management system design by Aapresid that is attracting attention every year thanks to the team enriching it.

Certified farmers, auditors, implementers, specialist technicians, and peer institutions joined forces to update and create a cutting-edge certification protocol, always with the prospective view that characterizes the means promoted by Aapresid.

JOINING

ASC, 5th review, 2024 format

Agricultural Sustainability Certification, 5th review, 2024—launched earlier this year— includes new incorporations that strengthen and assist markets and farmers' needs, such as C footprint calculations through fast and userfriendly platforms. In addition, there are company governance indicators that favor professionalism and management efficiency.

Governance: A company is an organization made up of a group of people. Companies often emerge as sole proprietorships and are gradually transformed into numerous corporate structures or legal persons, enabling them to continue with their activities. To function efficiently, a company should be constituted professionally. Hence, management plays a strategic role in contributing to the value of the company throughout various generations.

The quality management system ASC requires not only tacit commitment from the management, but also their active participation on continuous improvement processes to ensure a valuable model that considers the interests of all companyrelated groups.

Carbon footprint: Greenhouse gas (GHG) estimations in agricultural production are increasingly demanded information by standards. It is the starting point to understand emission patterns in production and to define strategies for their reduction.

One way to obtain data is through carbon footprint estimation by product—measuring GHG quantity per ton of harvested product—and by creating a GHG inventory that includes emissions within a field.

Both indicators include direct and indirect gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Farmers should estimate GHG inventory by season and carbon footprint by ton produced per hectare, employing updated methodologies aligned with 2006 IPCC Guidelines and its 2019 Refinement. Therefore, a PUMA v1.2.0 calculator from the PUMA Platform was proposed.

ASC structure

The protocol integrates these productive, environmental, social, and corporate aspects with the purpose of adding value to agricultural companies. This added value is intended for making companies more attractive and valuable for clients, tenants, suppliers, contractors, employees, investors, and the society— represented by national, provincial, and local governments—in addition to supporting our fellow citizens as consumers and neighbors. ASC also considers the interest of future generations, who are currently demanding agricultural companies to guarantee that the origin of fieldgrown products are biodiverse, safe, verifiable, transparent, and traceable.

Agricultural Sustainability Certification offers the means to achieve professional, efficient, and sustainable agricultural and corporate management through knowledge and the analysis of information. For instance, undertake activity records, quality indicators of involved natural and human resources, as well as environmental, social, and productive efficiency indicators.

International recognition

ASC is a globally recognized quality management protocol, supported by its homologation with the European Feed Manufacturers’ Federation (FEFAC), which provides competitive advantages for products destined to Europe, even more so since the latest regulations will come into full force by 2030.

"The protocol integrates these productive, environmental, social, and corporate aspects with the purpose of adding value to agricultural companies."

In summary, ASC implies improving efficiency and effectiveness, and, as a consequence, the profitability of agricultural companies, anticipating all kinds of contingencies and also, the possible opening of new markets or other business opportunities.

For the agricultural company implementing ASC, it means identifying internal strengths and weaknesses, improving processes and

Why to certificate?

To generate trust before consumers demanding to know how we produce.

To put value on the professionalism of leader companies in the sector.

To ensure the company's future sustainability.

To increase productivity due to productive processes continuous improvement, drawing the attention to hidden costs and minimizing environmental and occupational risks.

To reduce uncertainty and strengthen resilience before volatile environments.

To guide investment decisions.

To guarantee responsible management for stakeholders—contractors, tax authorities, suppliers, etc.

reducing hidden costs as a result of a continuous improvement. Additionally, it promotes suppliers and clients' loyalty, as well as external recognition and positioning granted by social audit.

Aapresid's protocol certifies companies and ensures the community that productive processes are responsibly managed with long-term visions.

How to obtain ASC?

If you want more information about implementing the ASC protocol, you can contact Aapresid Certifications:

Juan Pablo Costa - Program Manager: costa@ aapresid.org.ar | (+54) 9 341-7230063

Rocío Belda - Team member: belda@aapresid. org.ar | (+54) 9 341-6180047

Eugenia Moreno - Team member: moreno@ aapresid.org.ar | (+54) 9 341-7230060

Myrna Masiá Rojkin - Team member: masiarojkin@aapresid.org.ar | (+54) 9 3413631201

Diseases striking and defenses defending

Foliar diseases represent a constant threat for wheat and barley yields. A test conducted on various sites in Southeast Buenos Aires reveals the efficiency of seed treatments and foliar fungicides in controlling them.

By Faberi A.J.¹, González Abba, H.², Pontaroli L.², Divito G.², Nuñez M.²

¹Faculty of Agricultural Sciences UNMdP; ² Aapresid. Email: faberi.ariel@inta.gob.ar

Foliar diseases in winter grains are the main limiting factor of biotic-based yield in Southeast Buenos Aires (SEB). In wheat, the most typical are the tan spot (Drechslera tritici-repentis), stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis sp. tritici), and leaf or brown rust caused by Puccinia triticina (Figure 1). In barley, the primary disease is net blotch caused by Pyrenophora teres f. teres (Figure 2).

To prevent the damages causing foliar diseases in wheat and barley, there are cultivars available with different health profiles, where some are resistant to certain diseases (Couretot et al., 2023; Campos & Dietz, 2024). However, many of them are vulnerable and are the most cultivated in SEB. Consequently, fungicides for both seed and foliar treatments are a necessary tool to control these diseases.

Seed treatments are a useful method to reduce the infestation of seed-transmitted pathogens and to protect the crop against those perpetuating in the soil, such as D. tritici-repentis and P. teres f. teres. Formulated treatments involve active ingredients with different modes of action, broadening the control spectrum, improving effectiveness, and reducing the risk of pathogens resistance. As regards carboxamides, they also extend protection over the leaves, preventing spot and rust infections during the first stages of the crop. Biological agents, like Trichoderma,

are distinguished because of their effectiveness against pathogens in wheat and barley, and because they reduce resistance risks due to their multiple modes of action.

Among foliar fungicides, triazoles/triazolintione, strobilurins, and carboxamides are the chemical groups most employed for wheat and barley. These compounds complement different properties regarding mechanisms, modes of action, and mobility within the plant, allowing control of the pathogen in several stages of its cycle. Mixing these fungicides can widen the control spectrum, provide protective, fungistatic (healing) and/or antisporulant action, extend the protective effect, and reduce resistance risks.

Although different seed and foliar treatment formulations usually offer acceptable control levels, assessing their efficiency in various environments is useful to detect possible control

Figure 1. Tan spot, stripe rust, leaf rust in wheat, and net blotch in barley.

failures and study if all methods present similar effectiveness in each environment. In 2023, seed treatments tests (Table 1), along with foliar applications in wheat and barley (Table 2) were conducted in Balcarce, Necochea, and Tandil cities (Figure 2). Studied varieties were Andreia for barley, in addition to Fresno (seed treatment) and Baguette 620 (foliar) for wheat.

2. The three locations where tests on seed treatments and foliar fungicides were conducted in 2023.

Figure

Table 1. Seed treatments in barley.

Table 2. Foliar treatments in barley and wheat. Application Z3.9 - Z4.1

The 2023 agricultural cycle in SEB started with acceptable precipitation levels, but later, it went through a drought period, which partially limited the development of fungal diseases.

The seed treatment test on barley evidenced numerous disease situations between the cities, with net blotch being the prevailing one. Necochea presented the highest incidence (28%) and severity (15%) in the control crop; whereas all treatments showed a decrease in both parameters. In Balcarce and Tandil, incidence and severity were very low, with no evident effect of seed treatments. In Balcarce, the presence of scald (Rhynchosporium commune) was observed together with leaf rust (Puccinia hordei), with higher incidence in the control crop compared to seed treatments, with non-existent incidence for rust and very low for scald.

For seed treatment tests in wheat, tan spot was the prevailing disease, particularly in Tandil, with an incidence rate of 23% and severity of 15% in the control crop. In every case, seed treatments significantly reduced tan spot's incidence and severity. Stripe rust was only detected in Balcarce, with 15% incidence and 5% severity rates. Treatments formulated with carboxamides showed a reduction of the disease in comparison with the others.

Foliar fungicide treatments applied in Balcarce significantly reduced the incidence of the net blotch in several foliar strata (Figure 4)

Figure 4. Incidence rate (%) of net blotch caused by Pyrenophora teres f.sp. teres in flag leaf—Hoja Bandera in Spanish—minus 3 (HB-3) and HB-4 (13 days after application) and HB-2 (32 days after application) in barley under various treatments. Treatments: 1. control crop; 2. orquesta ultra; 3. fidresa (biofusion); 4. festio triple pack; 5. gold leaf. Same letter above each column inside each sheet indicates non-significant differences between treatments (p > 0,05).

In Tandil, as in Balcarce, incidence was lower under fungicide treatments compared to the control crop. Tandil recorded leaf rust (Puccinia hordei), and every treatment showed solid protection for the crop against this disease.

In wheat, the most distinguished result was stripe rust control in Tandil, where even with high initial incidence levels of 50%, the disease stopped and pustules present in HB and HB-1 were controlled. Treatments with fungicides showed control percentages over 90%, with controlled lesions

caused by stripe rust, in addition to a higher percentage of green leaves compared to the control crop. This shows that all formulations had an eradicating and fungistatic effect on the disease.

"Seed treatments, both in barley and wheat, prove to be effective in plots with greater disease pressure."

Final comments

Seed treatments, both in barley and wheat, prove to be effective in plots with greater disease pressure and/or underlying conditions for its development. In the case of stripe rust, carboxamides in studied seed treatments protected the crop in the early stages, reducing the source of secondary endogenous inoculum within the plot.

For barley, foliar fungicides applied relatively late protected the crop in two assessed environments. Although leaf rust of barley is not currently a greatly relevant disease, every treatment showed high control potential. These results have been recently presented at the Plant Protection Congress (Faberi et al., 2024).

For wheat, every formulation proved a clear antisporulant effect, but it is essential to apply them when the first infection spots appear in order to prevent diseases from affecting the leaves that define yield.

REFERENCES

Check the references by entering www.aapresid.org.ar/blog/revista-aapresid-n-235

Draper Header: an ally for the next small-grain crops harvest

Side by side with an Argentine company through and through, we will convey the benefits of Draper Headers and how to adjust them to reduce grain losses during wheat and barley harvesting, even in heterogeneous crops.

By: Ing. Agr. María Eugenia Magnelli

To Aapresid Prospective

Harvesting is one of the most important tasks on the productive agenda. It is the time of collecting yields, the fruit of the technological, input, and process investments, alongside months of hard work and commitment. Is the phase of setting the revenues that the farmer and our country are seriously needing; therefore, it must not fail.

Warming up the engines to face the next small grain harvesting, we share the economic benefits of Draper headers from Piersanti company. Besides, we will enlighten you about everything you need to know for the proper functioning of the header, aiming at optimizing efficiency, reducing grain losses, and maximizing the quality of the harvested cereal.

High-performance headers made in Argentina

Established in Noetinger, Córdoba Province, Piersanti has been developing technology to improve harvest quality for over 5 years. In 20027, they were pioneers in Latin America by developing Draper-type canvas header belting

Draper Header DF 2000, Piersanti Premium proposal

Draper headers have the distinctive feature of using canvas conveyor belts instead of the conventional auger, enabling the harvester to achieve a more homogeneous and uniform

with flexible and floating cutterbar. Currently, it is one of the leading companies in this sector, still manufacturing and updating conventional headers.

feeding. This feature increases the operative capacity and minimizes pre-threshing effect, significantly reducing losses per header.

Draper headers use canvas conveyor belts instead of the conventional auger, ensuring a more uniform material input, improving operative capacity, and reducing losses per header.

Benefits of Draper systems

Lower losses per header

Savings of up to 20% in fuel

More working hours per day

Greater performance of the harvester

Better grain handling

Lower maintenance costs

Adaptable for all machines

The portfolio of Persanti Draper headers includes the DF 2000 model in the Premium line. The equipment is fit for cutting, windrowing, and collecting crops like wheat, barley, soybean, beans, and legumes. It is available in several cutting lengths ranging from 25 to 45 ft and is adaptable for Class 5 harvesters and up.

Technical features

Draper system of fixed canvas with flexible and floating cutterbar, which increases durability by blocking the access of dirt.

Orbital reel that contributes to a more uniform and smooth delivery of the material.

Transport carts with reinforced tube structure.

Adjustment of the cutting angle of the header through hydraulic cylinders controlled from the cabin of the combine.

Adjustment of the cutting bar angle through electric actuators, enabling better performance of the entire cutting system.

Mechanical control of the side canvases by means of square boxes.

The header is an essential component of the combine, as its performance outcome is directly linked to the machine's proper functioning.

Toward more efficient harvesting

This small-grain season was marked by ups and downs regarding water replenishment in the profiles. In several productive regions of the country, precipitation was below the average or did not cover the needs during critical periods. In addition, there were some frosts that affected wheat and barley growth. This scenario creates an heterogeneous map on small-grain crop conditions at the time of harvesting, with plots presenting lower development and productivity.

Cutterbar

Most headers used in Argentina for smallgrain crops harvesting have a flexible cutterbar (soybean). For small-grain crops, the bar should be rigidly positioned at the top

Cutting sections should be made with fine teeth in good conditions all over the rim.

Blades guard have to be whole and in good condition with an angular-sharp rim, not round. Control cutterbar adjustments regarding blade guards. During the left-to-right movement, the sections must reverse when their vertex aligns with the finger of the blade guard.

Maximizing efficiency and reducing losses are always the primary targets in every harvest, but in this cycle 2024, they are gaining even more relevance. The header is an important component of the combine because the outcome is directly linked to its functioning. To ensure the header's proper functioning during the harvesting of wheat, barley, and other similar crops, we suggest to consider the following adjustments:

Adjust pick-up guards until attaining a light of 0.5 mm between the lower part of the section and its support in the finger of the blade guard.

Selecting cutting height according to the state of the crop and agricultural conditions.

Adjust the cutterbar inclination so it works parallel to the ground.

For low-height crops, it may be necessary to use the cutterbar in the flexible mode to improve the cutting and collecting of wheat spikes.

Reel

Adjust height so push bars with retractable fingers work at the same height as spikes, avoiding them falling to the ground in front of the cutterbar.

Place the reel in its front-to-back position, slightly behind the cutterbar.

Regulate the reel speed to be 10%-15% faster than the advancing of the combine, ensuring the cut material is pushed toward the conveyor belts.

For lower height crops, position the reel as low as possible to ensure spikes move toward the conveyor belt and avoid them falling.

Conveyor belt (canvas)

Control labor tension to avoid damages and dirt accumulation.

Adjust the speed of labor to guarantee a uniform delivery in the central part of the header, avoiding side material piling up or overlapping in the middle. Material should enter the feeder as two separate rows.

In situations with low quantities of material, as it may happen this season, adjust the speed of the side canvas according to your own needs.

Acknowledgements:

We appreciate Julio Beltramino and Valeria Piersanti— director at Piersanti—for their contributions to this article.

Result-harvesting data

The integration of advanced technologies in the agricultural sector allows for reduced operative costs and increased productivity in a sustainable manner. In this regard, it is worth highlighting the latest progress in precision agriculture applicable to every stage of the crop.

Por John Deere

Precision Agriculture in every productive phase

Precision Agriculture's ecosystem of solutions enables farmers to attain more efficient and profitable management in every phase of the productive cycle. Through advanced technology, such as real-time data collection and analysis, automatic guidance tools, and integrated digital platforms, precision agriculture facilitates the adjustment of agricultural practices to the specific needs of each plot.

Below is a description of the primary technologies for every productive phase:

Opening analysis and planning. Implementing management techniques, environment adaptation, and agricultural practices optimize the operation. Defining necessary management, application, and technology strategies helps increase productivity and reach a competitive advantage based on data analysis from prior cycles.

Sowing. Smart seeders ensure constant depth and proper spacing depending on the chosen dose, reducing competition among plants, maximizing production, and monitoring critical parameters. The goal is to achieve wholefield singulation—single-seed or seed-by-seed sowing—with a variation rate below 20% and at a speed that makes full use of humidity conditions during each sowing window. In corn, for instance, for every percentage point that the coefficient of variation rises over 25%, it may result in yield losses of at least 180 kg/ha.

Protecting the crop. Aplicar fertilizantes y fitosanitarios en el lugar correcto, en la cantidad recomendada y en el momento apropiado ayuda a minimizar el daño sobre el cultivo y permite monitorear el desarrollo de la labor.

Constant monitoring technologies avoid drift and evaporation. Figure 1 shows a plot applied with the same dose but at different speeds; as speed increases, the nozzle pressure rises, doubling evaporation and increasing losses. In such cases, it is advisable to change the nozzle.

Figure 1. Plot applied with the same dose of fertilizers or plant protection products. Pressure variation in the nozzle and evaporation at different speeds.

Harvesting. Obtaining better grain quality can be accomplished through automatic adjustments of the seeder, minimizing losses and recording harvesting data. This enables the synchronization of the hopper with the harvester at the time of unloading, along with a referenced register of each grain type collected for accurate decision-making.

Data value on each plot

Planning the season based on historical productivity data enables the optimization of supplies usage in each area. Harvester calibration is crucial to obtain an appropriate quantity of plants per hectare, at the proper distance and depth according to each environment, with the right humidity and fertility conditions at the time of sowing.

Smart harvesters offer a productivity increase of up to 15%—more hectares per hour—diminish fuel consumption by 5%, and maintain both grain and quality losses below 40 kg and 1%, respectively.

Managing productive data collaboratively enables more efficient management of supplies, which means higher profitability for agricultural companies and greater environmental sustainability.

Integrating advanced technologies contributes to reducing operating costs and increasing productivity. A case in point is expert warnings that help anticipate machinery problems during the operation, minimizing inactivity periods and avoiding unnecessary repairs.

John Deere’s proposal

Focusing on integrating people, intelligence, technology, and machinery, John Deere seeks to improve efficiency and profitability in a sustainable manner by applying inputs in the correct doses, at the right time, and in the right place. Among the offered technologies are:

Autopilot AutoTrac™ and guidance tool

AutoPath™: guidance systems ensuring machinery precision within the plot and referencing sowing furrows to be used in application and subsequent harvesting operations.

Sectional cutoff when sowing and variable dose: with technologies like Section Control and Rate Controller, it is possible to activate or deactivate sections automatically according to the application map, besides a variable application of seeds or fertilizers.

Digital platform Operations Center™: enables the integration of all operation data, such as machinery and plots, maintaining traceability of all performed activities during the crop cycle. As it is an open platform, it can be linked with other AgTech platforms through API.

Precision Upgrades: offers the possibility to update the equipment in use through a kit or combination of solutions that add the latest technology regarding preparation, sowing, crop protection, and harvesting.

Precision Agriculture, an ally to face current challenges

In a world with increasing environmental and food challenges, Precision Agriculture becomes essential to ensure a thriving future for the agricultural sector. The use and understanding of the benefits of technological innovation and connectivity are turning into allies to the entire value chain, and their benefits exceed the value of the required investment.

Digital transformation in agriculture is still progressing with solutions that not only increase efficiency and profitability but also promote more sustainable practices that respond to the current needs of society.

A cup of Argentine tea, please

In Argentina, the production of tea is centered in Misiones and Corrientes provinces, the southernmost region for tea plantations in the world. Through this article, we will delve more into tea's background, agricultural considerations, the impact of certifications, and the newest innovations on bioinputs.

By: Ing. Agr. Antonella Fiore Prospective - Aapresid

Although it is native to the mountain forests on the border between India and China, tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is currently cultivated in all five continents. From buds and leaves different types of tea are obtained: black, green, white, and pu-erh.

In Argentina, tea production is cored in the provinces of Misiones and Corrientes, making it the southernmost tea plantation region in the world. Most of the production is intended for export. In 2021, 72,703 mt of black tea and 2415

mt of green tea were exported, reaching a total value of USD 80,738,562.

The crop arrived in the country in 1923, in Misiones Province, so last year marked tea's 100-year anniversary. Tea started to grow in the region of Tres Capones, Misiones, where it was confirmed that natural conditions were suitable for this crop. A few years later, in 1943, the first tea drying facility was established in Campo Viera, also in Misiones.

Tea expansion across the region was driven by several factors. On the one hand, the prohibition of further yerba mate cultivation due to the regulatory restrictions forced farmers to seek productive alternatives. Additionally, the influence of import restrictions imposed by the Argentine government, which increased prices, and the tobacco crisis of the late 1950s (www. alimentosargentinos.gov.ar).

At its very peak, between 1976-1977, the cultivated surface reached 45,000 hectares, located almost entirely in Misiones. However, about 6750 hectares had already been abandoned by 2002. Nevertheless, the rusticity of the species, its high rate of natural regeneration, and its uses for various purposes prevented, in many cases, the substitution of these plantations for other types of agricultural activities.

According to the report "100 years of tea on red soils, 100 years of Misiones tea for the world", written by the Ministry of Agriculture and Production of Misiones Province, more than 4000 farmers are currently committed to tea cultivation.

globally, adopting innovations for harvesting, transporting, and unloading.

Argentine tea is internationally known for remaining translucent during cold infusion due to its high polyphenols content, color, and innocuity. Around 90% of the production is exported, while local consumption rates between 8% and 10%. In the foreign market, the product is traded mostly in bulk, with the United States (67%), Chile (8%), Germany (8%), Russia (3%), and Poland (3%) as the main destinations.

Agricultural considerations to bear in mind

Agr. Engr. Patricia Parra (Regional Economies Value Chains) said that tea has evergreen foliage, white flowers, and capsular fruits. Tea blooms in spring and bears fruit in summer-fall. In the wild, the plant can grow up to 10-15 mts high, but under cultivation, the plant is pruned to a limiting size to stimulate the generation of new buds and leaves, and to facilitate harvest.

Tea is successfully cultivated from sea level up to 2200 mts altitude, with distinguished high-quality productions above 1200 mts. The ideal climate for this isohydric species is humid subtropical, with yearly precipitation between 1800 and 2200 mm, and well-drained soils with an acidic pH of 4.5-5.5.

In Argentina, the harvesting period is extended from October to May. During fall and winter, the plant’s physiological pause is used to perform yearly, regular, or formative pruning.

Certified tea with added value

Concerning certification under certain quality standards, it is notable that 64% of the surface intended for tea cultivations is certified under the Norma RAS—Sustainable Agriculture Network, triple impact. Additionally, 47% is sealed by Rainforest Alliance, which promotes synergies among businesses, agriculture, and forest products. These certifications open the door to new markets while securing the existing ones within an increasingly competitive global context.

Currently, cultivation reaches nearly 40,000 hectares, with 95% in Misiones and the remaining 5% in Corrientes.

Tea is traded depending on the plots that companies use in mixtures, or blends, for maintaining the characteristics of each brand over time. Thus, a plot can stand out for its color but not flavor, whereas another one can have an exquisite aroma but a light color. Companies produce numerous blends to satisfy the preferences of the markets for which they are intended.

However, the value per Argentine exported kilogram is one of the lowest in the international market because tea, as well as Argentine honey, is exported in bulk with no brand or clear distinction.

21st century agriculture had arrived to Misiones

Currently, ten thousand farmers are trained in the use of biofertilizers and bioinsecticides. However, this reality did not come spontaneously. First, there was a legal framework: Misiones was the first province to have a Ministry of Ecology and to create a specific area to address Climate Change.

Furthermore, the province also promoted the production and use of bioinputs. Therefore, in 2021, Agro Sustentable was established in the Industrial and Innovation Park in Posadas. Considered a benchmark in Latin America, the

factory produces logical replacements for the inputs needed in agriculture: biofertilizers and bioinsecticides, as the owner Joaquín Basanta proudly stated.

Misiones is betting on producing quality food by protecting the soil and the environment.

REFERENCES

Check the references by entering www.aapresid.org.ar/blog/revista-aapresid-n-235

Industrial hemp: an opportunity for Argentine crops rotation

Hemp products and by-products diversity boosted global production and research. With worldwide roots and domestic projection, hemp cultivations offer Argentine farmers the possibility of diversifying crop rotation, besides promoting sustainable and regenerative agriculture.

By: Ing. Agr. Julián Pietragalla¹; Mg. Carolina Policastro¹; Ing. Agr. Santiago Chevallier Boutell²; Ing.

Agr. Javier Ignacio Delavechia³

¹ Enviroseed

² Buck Semillas

³ Ambassador to Argentina and Uruguay - Latin Ameri-

ca Industrial Hemp Association

Industrial hemp: a regenerative crop

Although its exact origin is still subject to debate, researchers agree that domestic hemp is rooted in the Asian continent. Archeological excavations performed in Japan proved that hemp seeds were already harvested at least 10,000 years ago. Moreover, prehistorical traces found in India, Thailand, and Malaysia, along with findings in present-day China, evidence that, around the year

4000 B.C., textiles with hemp fibers were already being produced.

Cannabis sativa L. is a herbaceous, fastgrowing plant, used since ancient times for folk medicine and also as a source of textile fibers. Contemporaneously, new uses for its components have been discovered, which are

nowadays employed in the phytochemical industry and as a source of cellulosic and wood fibers in the materials industry. This diversity of hemp products and by-products has promoted its worldwide production, use, and research into innovative applications.

Starting with hemp seeds, there is progress in the manufacturing of food and dietary supplements, paints, lubricants, beauty products, and balanced feed for animals. Recently, the RESFC-2023-31-APN-SCS#MS resolution has incorporated hemp seeds and their derivatives, such as oil and flour, into the Argentine Food Code (CONAL), granting importance to hemp cultivation.

The oil content in the hemp seed is highly valuable because of its benefits associated with some of its compounds, such as linoleic and linolenic acids, which are used in medicinal and beauty products, as well as for the manufacturing of paints and varnishes. After oil extraction, the remaining proteic flour has great nutritional value and can be destined for human or animal food. Moreover, whole grains are used in gastronomy and dietary supplements.

Both oil and aboveground biomass can be used as biofuels; the latter can even be transformed into biochar or other similar products.

Hemp stems have two types of fibers: the long ones, located on the fringe, and the short ones, deriving from secondary growth, placed further inside. Long fibers are employed in the production of ropes, threads, fabrics, geomantillos,

papers, and cardboards. Both types of fiber are also employed in the construction industry, for materials like bricks, hemp concrete, or agglomerate boards, providing high-quality insulating properties.

Hemp’s significance as a bioproduct increased due to the acknowledgement of its structural advantages, particularly in the European automotive industry. Its fibers have substituted materials like fiberglass, plastic, and leather in the manufacturing of auto parts. The rapid adoption of this type of fiber was due to the combination of its physico-chemical properties and their positive contributions to carbon balance in the supply chain.

Currently, there seems to be no limits as regards what can and what cannot be done with these materials increasingly replacing plastics, synthetic fibers, and other plant fibers with negative environmental impact. The advance of hemp cultivations contributes to the decarbonization of industries.

Identifying the best hemp varieties should be centered on regional industries capable of processing hemp's wide variety of products and by-products, strengthening the competitiveness

Industrial hemp: a global crop

In 2019, around 40 countries produced about 275,000 tons of gross or semi-finished industrial hemp, according to the latest available statistics. However, four countries alone represent more than half of the world's production. China leads the group, followed by France, Canada, and the United States. According to a report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), as awareness on hemp's benefits increases, the global market could reach USD 18.6 billion in 2027, almost four times more than 2020.

Investors and companies have established that sustainability is currently promoting corporate resilience, competitiveness, and the attraction of capital. In addition, there is greater awareness from consumers, governments, and corporations, supporting alternative models of development, production, and consumption that are responsible towards the environment.

of all sectors of the chain. It is crucial for genetic improvement to develop better varieties suitable for various production systems, depending on the specific use: fiber, grain, or dual purpose.

The five main tendencies, namely circular economy, biomaterials, short supply chains, plantbased food, and regenerative agriculture, are gaining relevance because they seek to respect the limits of the planet, minimizing material extraction, non-renewable energy usage, and environmental contamination, generating an opportunity for the development of hemp and its industries in Argentina.

"Manuel Belgrano—an Argentine patriotic hero—was the first to promote hemp and flax cultivations in Argentina, as he considered them essential to defend and connect the country with the world. These goals required an autonomous shipping fleet that used ropes and sails made from these fibers."

Hemp's potential in the Argentine value chain

In the 20th century, Manuel Belgrano— an Argentine patriotic hero—was the first to promote hemp and flax cultivations in Argentina, as he considered them essential to defend and connect the country with the world. These goals required an autonomous shipping fleet that used ropes and sails made from these fibers. By the mid-20th century, hemp cultivation and industry were developing, and companies like Linera Bonaerense and Algodonera Flandria, owned by Julio Steverlynck, stood out. These companies produced industrial hemp, threads, ropes, blankets, and the renowned espadrilles with jute-made soles, which were part of the daily life of Agentinian people.

Currently, hemp cultivation is regulated by the National Law No. 27.669, which seeks to promote the development of the sector, broadening the regulatory framework of the previous National Law No. 27.350. The new legislation incorporates industrial hemp seeds and derived products into domestic production and commercialization chains, in addition to those intended for exportation.

As it is a rustic crop, hemp is greatly adaptable to agro-climatic conditions; Argentina has excellent agroecological conditions for its industrial and medicinal development. Moreover, the country has great potential to incorporate hemp into their productive, agricultural, and industrial models, favored by technical and scientific expertise, which generates fertile land for the expansion of this crop.

" The employment of hemp in crop rotation can improve carbon balance and reduce the carbon footprint of farming exploitations."

Hemp’s rapid growth helps suppress weeds, minimizing the need to use herbicides, as well as breaking the cycles of pests and diseases in current cultivations. Furthermore, its capacity to sequester carbon dioxide and transform it into useful biomass makes it a valuable resource for sustainable and regenerative agriculture. The employment of hemp in crop rotation can improve carbon balance and reduce the carbon footprint of farming exploitations, facilitating compliance with emerging regulations on CO2 emissions and building solid foundations for future claims of carbon credits.

The processing of harvested biomass has multiple industrial applications and uses for human consumption, with intrinsic value as it serves as supply in the production of biomaterials, biofuels, textile fibers, and oils for numerous domestic industries.

One of the main challenges is to identify the interaction between management per genotype and environment, in addition to bringing the technological package closer to the farmer and the industry. This is essential to guarantee a competitive and efficient production, adjusted to the regulations and quality standards governing the international marketplace.

Enviroseed: innovating with added value

Enviroseed, a company specialized in the development of sustainable solutions for the agricultural sector, focusing on genetic innovation and high-quality seed production, leads the industrial hemp R&D program in Argentina. This initiative aims to assess and validate numerous genetic varieties of the crop, ensuring not only its adaptation to Argentine climate and soils but also optimizing agricultural yields and the industrial quality of these plants. Moreover, a crucial problem is being addressed through a plan of genetic improvement: the lack of elite genetics adapted to various regions of the country.

The project is framed within a strategic alliance with Buck Semillas, a company with more than 90 years of experience in the creation of improved crop varieties like wheat, soybean, corn, and barley, among others.

The Argentine R&D program is divided into three stages, with a total length of three years starting in 2024, including validation, genetic improvement, extensive production and commercialization.

With the cooperation of the National Agricultural Technology Institute (INTA in Spanish), the program adds 12 experimental sites to the tests network (Figure 1), distributed across the country. These tests will facilitate the obtention of valuable data comparable to industrial hemp performance in numerous agroecological regions, accelerating the development of adapted and competitive local varieties in the

global market. Furthermore, this public-private collaboration will generate knowledge and skills to promote more resilient productive systems under sustainable management strategies, minimizing environmental impact and focusing on carbon flux studies.

Source: Self-made cartography, October 2024.

Both public and private experimental sites’ ongoing research is oriented toward development and innovation (I+D+i). These studies assess aspects like hemp crop productivity, fiber and seeds quality, pests and diseases resistance, as well as their environmental and agricultural impact. Data and results obtained from these sites are essential for evidence-based decision-making on the selection and improvement of varieties, and to develop optimal agricultural practices.

Anyone interested in this crop can join the project to have access to the results of this research and get an offer on certified seeds that abide by productive and environmental requirements. Farmers will be able to access a new option for their crop rotations and will position the country as a crucial actor in the industrial hemp's global value chain.

Figure 1. Distribution of the R&D program experimental sites.

Vegetables

on the run: why is so much food lost on its way to the table?

Researchers at the National University of Rosario (UNR) studied post-harvesting losses in the Horticultural Belt of Rosario and suggested strategies to reduce waste and improve productive efficiency.

By Grasso, R.¹; Ortiz Mackinson, M.¹; Rotondo, R.¹; Balaban, D.¹; Mondino, M.C.¹-²; Calani, P.¹; Legno, D.¹

¹ Course of Intensive Cultivation Systems. Horticulture. Faculty of Agricultural Sciences. UNR. CC 14 (S2125ZAA). E-mail: rgrasso@unr. edu.ar; mauricio.ortizmackinson@unr.edu.ar; rrotondo@unr.edu.ar; davidmbalaban@gmail.com; paulacalani@gmail.com; diego.legno@unr.edu.ar. ² AER INTA Arroyo Seco. E-mail: mondino.maria@ inta.gob.ar

Worldwide population growth and the increase in middle-class purchasing power in the emerging markets will boost food demand by 50% to 70% by mid-century (Bond et al., 2013; Godfray et al., 2010; Parfitt et al., 2010). However, it is estimated that a third of the produced food for human consumption—1.3 trillion tonnes—is not used. The loss and waste of food affect the sustainability of agrifood systems, as well as food and nutritional security, in three ways:

Reducing food availability.

Generating economic and income losses for the actors of the chain.

Negatively impacting the environment due to the inefficient use of natural resources and the generation of waste.

Losing food worldwide

The responsibility for losses throughout the agrifood chain often falls into one of its links, except in the case of a catastrophe. Every decision or problem may affect food's availability, quality, innocuousness, nutritional value, and costs in later stages.

Although loss and waste of food occurs all across the world, there are regional differences. In lowincome regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and Latin America, losses originate in the early stages of the chain due to problems in production. While in industrialized regions, such as North America, Europe, and Asia, waste is concentrated on distribution and consumption (Revista INTA RIA, 2013).

Food losses in Latin America and Argentina: fruit and vegetable chain

According to the FAO, 6% of world food losses occur in Latin America and the Caribbean (Figure 1). The problem is even bigger for fruits and vegetables because of their high perishability. During the harvesting, conditioning, distributing, and trading processes of vegetables, different types of losses occur:

Quantitative: when the product does not reach the consumer.

Nutritional: loss of nutrients.

Qualitative: damages affecting trading quality.

In developed countries, fruit and vegetable losses vary from 5% to 25%; whereas in developing countries they reach between 20% and 50% (Kader, 2007). The lack of infrastructure in the latter group worsens the problem, originating significant economic losses for merchants, farmers, and consumers.

Hygiene conditions when collecting, packing, transporting, and trading should be adjusted to maintain biotic contaminant levels, like microorganisms and insects, as well as abiotic ones, such as plant health products and heavy metals, within safe limits for both our health and the environment. The consumer will receive a good-quality product only if every phase of the chain minimizes the damages caused by inappropriate temperatures, moisture, or ethylene losses, in addition to extending storage periods.

Deterioration rates vary depending on the product's metabolism and, in some cases, is very fast. The main post-harvesting physiological processes are respiration and transpiration. Respiration speed reflects metabolic activity and functions as a guide to estimate the length of its commercial lifespan (Wills et al., 1999). Some products become yellowish, while others suffer changes in their composition, diminishing their commercial value and increasing their discarding. Transpiration causes more water losses, reducing weight and quality of the product (Nunes et al., 2009).

Figure 1. Loss of food per link in the agrifood supply chain in Latin America (FAO, 2014).

Vegetables commercialization chain in the Horticultural Belt of Rosario: good practices for sustainable management

The Horticultural Belt of Rosario cultivates 2929 hectares of vegetables every year (Mondino et al., 2022), supplying more than 1.5 million people through two central marketplaces. However, there is a crisis in the commercialization chain due to losses occurring during the farmer-to-consumer process.

Typical causes of loss include:

Transportation deficiency: because of both the farmer and the trader, namely lack of protection or absence of cold storage.

Use of inappropriate containers: due to materials and package type.

Deficient handling during the transfer of goods: from their original packing to another one for exhibition.

Conservation in cold storage without proper care: as it is a perishable product, damages increase over time (Mondino et al., 2007).

Ninety percent of retail supply in Rosario happens through fruit and vegetable stores, while in the rest of the country it is 70%, with 30% occuring in big supermarkets. Rosario has 2000 retail stores, mostly managed by family companies, with scarce capital and poor knowledge of post-harvesting management.

Retail stores do not commonly employ qualitymaintaining techniques. Goods are often exhibited outside shops, within the same crates they were bought in, exposed to climate and contaminant factors that contribute to their decay. Moreover, logistic problems aggravate decay: farmers transport goods in precarious vehicles, with no protection or refrigeration, normally at noon.

Food waste negatively impacts the sustainability of agrifood systems, as well as food and nutritional security. Professors from the Intensive Cultivation Systems course, from the horticultural area of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences at UNR, studied the different commercialization channels at the Horticultural Belt of Rosario, seeking to identify the causes of post-harvesting losses and their magnitude in numerous vegetables. They also assessed proposals to increase efficiency and sustainability in the sector. Below, there is a summary of the main findings in these reports.

Post-harvesting vegetable losses at the Horticultural Belt of Rosario

Lettuce:

harvest-to-consumer losses

In Rosario City, 298 hectares of lettuce are being cultivated (Mondino et al., 2022). A study quantified significant losses:

21.2% of losses occur between the harvest and the arrival to the retailer.

19% of losses occur between the arrival to the retailer and the following 24 hours, adding up to 40.2%.

Transportation in abrasive wooden crates—where lettuce sticks out of the containers or is threaded together—impacts negatively in the quality of the product (Mondino et al., 2007).

Figure 2. Lettuce plants in abrasive wooden crates (A) sticking out of the containers (B).

Artichoke: losses in the commercialization chain

In Argentina, artichoke cultivations are centered in La Plata, San Juan, and Rosario cities. Losses occur in the commercialization chain, both in quality and quantity. Among the distinguished factors are abrasive wicker containers during harvests, the lack of coverage once harvested, and the waiting time in the field before transportation. Additionally, the absence of refrigeration and conditioning of the product was evident during the selling phase.

During 4 days of assessment, a decline in the equatorial diameter of capitula was observed, as well as an increase in weight loss percentage, withering, browning, and external open bracts. There was also evidence of greater violet coloring on inner bracts, but no significant changes in browning or length of the pappus (Firpo et al., 2007).

Tomato: analysis of production, harvest, and commercialization systems

Tomato is placed third in terms of production economic value at the Horticultural Belt of Rosario (Ferrato et al., 2009). Major losses are centered during the harvesting and packing stages, where fruits are damaged by being squeezed together or sticking out of the crate (Castro 2001, Vilela & Luengo 2002; Nakama & Lozano Fernández, 2008). Moreover, transportation is performed without proper refrigeration or protection. According to Aldaz & Romero (1986), greater losses occur at the retail level because of poor management in previous stages.

Two production systems were assessed: in greenhouses and in the field. The results showed differences regarding the marks on the fruits, such as torn tissues due to compression against the edges of the crate or the operator's fingernails, along with bruises, such as softening and changes in color (Figure 2). Damages in fruits produced in greenhouses, such as marks and bruises, were lower owing to more careful management, although they presented greater weight loss after a week without refrigeration. For both systems, critical damages occur during harvesting rather than in the packing and shipping stages.

Environmental conditions and hydration in postharvesting losses of leafy, fruit, and root vegetables.

The temperature effect was assessed with and without cold storage, as well as hydration with and without a five-minute immersion in 50 ppm of chlorinated water, in different types of lettuce— butterhead, green leaf, iceberg—celery, round green squash, and carrot. Analyzed variables were:

Weight loss by discard (in percentage as regards prior day weight): elimination of broken, yellow, dehydrated, diseased leaves, and rusted stem bases in green leafy vegetables; damaged, diseased, overripe fruits of round green squash; and damaged, diseased, torn, sprouted, or browned carrots.

Weight loss or gain by water (in percentage as regards prior day weight): the result can be positive or negative, depending on evaporation and transpiration, or hydration during storing and post-harvesting washing.

Refrigeration and hydration diminish losses for every species, except in carrots and iceberg lettuce (Firpo et al., 2012). In cold storage, weight loss or gain by water was lower, although it varied depending on the species.

Figure 2. Marks (fruit on the left) and bruises (fruits on the right) on the 7th day of storing.

Post-harvest storing, hydrating, and fastening losses of leafy vegetables in retail.

Carrying on with the previous work, losses in chard, arugula, Welsh onion, leek, and chicory were studied in fall with no cold storage, in summer with cold storage, and using two bunch fastening methods—adhesive paper tape and grass or Stipa sp.

In fall:

Losses due to discard in cold storage were 19.8%, while in non-refrigerated environments reached 69.7% (Rotondo et al., 2013).

Hydration reduced losses, except for Welsh onions, which experienced rotting.

In arugula, refrigeration and hydration diminished loss and extended service life up to the seventh day of storage; without refrigeration, it was discarded by the third day.

Adhesive tape reduced discard in chicory and leek (Figure 3).

In summer:

Cold storage, with or without hydration, diminished losses and extended the storing of spinach, chicory, and arugula, with no differences between employed fastening materials.

Figure 3. Chicory bunch fastened with paper tape (A) and with Stipa sp. (B)

Post-harvesting losses in two ways of retail commercialization

This work assessed losses and damages of vegetables during retail distribution in Rosario, comparing management during winter and summer.

Conventional management: products were bought in central markets. They were transported with no protection or refrigeration. They were exhibited on shelves in their original containers with no refrigeration. There was no conditioning of the product and selection was only made in the morning or at the time of selling.

Improved management of vegetables: some vegetables came from regional establishments, where they were harvested and transported in proper conditions. Others were acquired in central markets, where they were selected and stored in cold chambers; some were hydrated. Products

were maintained on a refrigerated sales floor.

Improved management reduced weight loss by discard for every species, in both summer and winter cycles. Under conventional management, losses were high, particularly in leafy vegetables like arugula, spinach, and butterhead lettuce. On the contrary, carrots presented lower losses due to their anatomical and physiological differences.

For all assessed species and in both periods, with the exception of leek and Welsh onion, water loss was higher in conventional management than the improved one (Ferratto et al., 2012). On average, total losses due to water or discard in conventional management were 40% higher in summer and 23% in winter.

Effect of production systems and fastening methods in leafy vegetables

The study, conducted at the UNR's Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, assessed the effect of various production systems—wooden greenhouse, shade net, agrotextile floating row cover, and field—besides two fastening methods (adhesive tape and leaves in bulk) on post-harvesting losses for arugula, chard, and spinach at different times of the year. The percentages of loss by discard and weight loss by water were analyzed.

Arugula: the greenhouse presented lower losses in all three periods of the crop. Additionally, fastening with paper tape produced lower weight losses by water (Ortiz Mackinson et al., 2017).

Chard: in fall, the greenhouse and the floating row cover reduced losses by discard. During the storage period, discard increased in both fall and winter. In spring, fastening with paper tape diminished discard toward the end of the storage period. In fall, the greenhouse and the floating row cover also reduced water losses at day 3 and 8 of the storage period; whereas in spring, it decreased toward the end of the storage period (Grasso et al., 2018).

Spinach: in fall and winter, protected production systems showed lower weight loss by water in the first days of cold storage in comparison with the field system. Discard rate was lower in fastening bunches than in bulk presentation during the last days of storage in fall. In winter, there were differences between storage days, with lower discard of products in the first days of cold storage (Rotondo et al., 2019).

Final considerations

It is essential to ensure sustainable food production suitable for every consumer in the world. Currently, food loss is very high, particularly in developing countries, where it may exceed 50% for vegetables and fruits. This emphasizes the need to keep on studying management strategies that minimize losses throughout the farmer-to-consumer supply chain.

It is also necessary to become aware of the environmental, economic, and social cost that wasting more than half of the production means. This problem encouraged the team of professors from the Intensive Cultivation Systems course to investigate some aspects of the processes involved and contribute to the reality of local sectors, seeking to optimize the productive system.

For some time now, the team at the Horticultural Belt of Rosario has been studying the different commercialization channels, causes, and magnitude of post-harvesting losses in numerous vegetables, as well as assessing improvement proposals to increase the efficiency and sustainability of the sector.

REFERENCES

Check the references by entering www.aapresid.org.ar/blog/revista-aapresid-n-235

A world without cows, is it possible?

This provocative question, set out by the Global Conference on Sustainable Beef, finds the answer in the current reality. Cows are not only a source of food but also the driven force of development and conservation.

By: Dr. Ing. Agr. José Martín Jáuregui

Adjunct ProfessorForajes course (FCA-UNL)

A few weeks ago I participated at the Global Conference on Sustainable Beef organized by the Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef (GRSB). The event gathered more than 200 people from numerous countries and disciplines ranging from technicians and farmers to experts in economic and social sciences. It was truly fascinating how, despite our different perspectives, we shared a common concern: how livestock farming can become increasingly sustainable.

One of the most impressive moments of the conference was during the screening of the documentary "A World Without Cows". The film brought up a provocative question: is it possible to picture a world with no cows? Without spoiling it for you, I want to convey some reasons as to why a world without cows would not only be less sustainable but also less equitable. Let’s get to the facts!

1

Not all the land on the planet is arable land

At a global extent, livestock farming occupies 77% of the land considered productive. This is one of the main arguments of those criticizing the activity: "It occupies too much land", generating 'only' 18% of the energy supply and 37% of proteins globally. Figures seem to be even more unfavourable for ruminants: they provide 16% of global proteins and 8% of calories. At this point it is necessary to make some clarifications.

According to the FAO, more than 50% of the land used for ruminants is not suitable for crops. We cannot grow wheat, soybean, or corn in these soils due to limitations, such as slopes, fertility, climate, or water availability. In these areas we can actually find natural meadows and pastures that, besides being one significant source of biodiversity, act as valuable atmospheric carbon sinks when properly managed.

Meadows and pastures, particularly polycultural ones, hold a great variety of flora and fauna essential for ecological balance. By performing a controlled grazing of ruminants, we are using resources that, otherwise, would not be used for food production. Moreover, we maintain practices contributing to soil conservation and erosion reduction, a key aspect within a context of climate change.

It is curious that many arguments against livestock farming are centered in the hypothetical competence these animals have over the food humans may consume. However, data from FAO disprove these statements. At a global extent, 86% of the ruminant diet is based on products people cannot digest, such as forages, crop residues, and by-products from the oil industry; whereas only 14% of their diet is food we could eat.

Photo 1. Steer in fescues and white clover pastures. Aldea San Antonio, Entre Ríos Province.

Here are some examples. After processing soybean to obtain oil—widely used for human consumption—a by-product called soybean expeller remains, which is not used as human food but it is an enormous source of protein for ruminants. Another interesting case is corn ethanol in the United States: almost 50% of the corn processed in the country is intended for biofuel production, and the residue from that process, known as distillery grain (Photo 2), is highly nutritious for the livestock. One hectare of corn produces 1800 L of ethanol and 1.5 mt of distillery grain.

Data show that ruminants benefit from these materials, which would otherwise become residues or by-products with no value for human consumption. 'Recycling' these residues helps improve the efficiency of the food system and reduces waste, along with the contamination these residues might generate.

Ruminants benefit from these materials, which would otherwise become residues or by-products with no value for human consumption.

Photo 2. Distilled corn grain residues used for ethanol production.

Ruminants are net contributors of protein

Fun fact: Ruminants are the only animals capable of generating more edible protein for humans than the amount they consume themselves. While pigs and chickens production systems require between 2.9 kg and 5.2 kg of edible protein to produce 1 kg of animal protein, pasture-based livestock systems use less than 1 kg, around 600 g to be precise.

How is this possible? Thanks to their digestive systems and to the microorganisms living in the rumen, ruminants can transform lowquality proteins, like those in grasses and forages, into high-quality proteins, rich in essential amino acids necessary for our bodies.

This ability to 'enhance' the protein is unique. Thus, livestock systems, in addition to small-scale pig and poultry farming, produce around 41 M mt of protein yearly and consume only 37 M mt of edible protein for humans. As a result, there is a positive net supply of 4 M tonnes of high-quality protein in the world food system.

Ruminants are the only animals capable of generating more edible protein for humans than the amount they consume themselves.

Livestock farming is sustenance to more than a billion people

Beyond figures, livestock farming is the main sustenance for around 1.3 billion people worldwide, many of them from developing countries. In arid or semi-arid regions, where cultivations are infeasible due to lack of water or poor soils, livestock farming is often the only viable productive activity.

Moreover, livestock not only represents a source of food in many cultures but also serves as a financial asset, savings, or an essential cultural element. For instance, the number of livestock heads in rural communities indicates social and economic status. It is also crucial for these populations' food security because it provides essential nutrients that are hard to find otherwise.

Livestock farming generates jobs throughout the entire value chain, from animal breeding to by-products processing and trading. This contributes to the economic and social development of whole regions, helping to reduce poverty and improving the life quality of millions of people.

In arid or semi-arid regions, where cultivations are infeasible due to lack of water or poor soils, livestock farming is often the only viable productive activity.

Well-managed grazing improves ecosystems

Contrary to what many people believe, planned grazing can have many positive effects on the environment. Well-managed pastoral systems, particularly those combining trees, grasses, and livestock, do not only enhance biodiversity but also improve soil water retention and help prevent fires by reducing fuel material.

Rotational grazing imitates wild herbivores' natural behaviour. By moving from one area to another, animals prevent overgrazing and enable vegetation recovery. In some cases, livestock trampling helps break soil crusts facilitating water infiltration and organic matter incorporation. A proper grazing management

Photo 3. Countrymen herding a flock of sheep and goats near San Martín de Los Andes city.

also contributes to carbon capture, helping mitigate the effects of climate change. Recent studies even suggest that well-managed pastures can be as efficient as forests in terms of atmospheric carbon absorption, particularly in temperate areas.

Final considerations

In conclusion, a world without cows is not only an undesirable scenario but also less sustainable and equitable than the current one. The true challenge lies not in eliminating livestock farming but in continuously improving práctices to make it increasingly efficient and eco-friendly. Cows are much more than simple producers of meat and milk. They are transformational agents of non-usable resources by humans into high-quality food, they sustain rural communities, and when properly managed, become vital allies for the conservation of valuable ecosystems.

It is crucial to continue researching and employing sustainable livestock farming practices. Technology integration, smart management of resources, and a deep understanding of ecosystems would enable us to make full use of the benefits of livestock farming while minimizing environmental impact. A world with cows is a more balanced and fair world, as long as they are responsibly managed. Instead of imagining their absence, we should work together to make their presence synonymous with sustainability and prosperity for everyone.

Agronomist, pilot, and visionary

By Lucía Cuffia

Hugo Ghio's story is marked by agricultural innovation and transformation. Many people think of him as a pioneer in notill farming and Aapresid, but he prefers to speak as a 'group', because even though he was present in the beginnings, all achievements were born out of a shared dream.

At 75 years old, Hugo Ghio keeps looking forward. Although it has been a while since he delegated his company's management to his daughters, his restless curiosity and spirit remain intact. "Are we going to talk about the future too?," he said suddenly mid-talk. He claims that there is always something new to do, discover, or improve. He is one of those people that, even while looking back, they are already thinking of the next step.

"I'm interested in knowing everything that is happening. Everything is so dynamic and changes are so profound that I don't want to miss them whenever possible," he stated.

Personal profile

Name: Hugo Osvaldo Ghio

Profession/Activity: Agricultural Engineer

Birthplace: He was born in Camilo Aldao, Córdoba Province, and grew up in the family country estate in Colonia Lago di Como. He lived in Rosario for a while and then moved to Corral de Bustos where he is currently living.

Family: Father of Magdalena (32) and Valentina (30).

Hobbies: "I very much like to play tennis. I started as an adult. It is my diversion," he says, and adds that he never misses the weekly gatherings with his tennis crew at the club.

Many people present him as one of the pioneers in the adoption of no-till farming in Argentina and of Aapresid. But Hugo does not much like the term 'pioneer' because it entails an individual approach. He prefers to talk as a group. "We were a group of farmers and professionals with the same dream and ambition, and we needed to support each other. Our driven force was pushing forward conjointly, because we saw the opportunity but we could only reach it together," he said about those 70's and 80's.

Back then, water and eolian erosion problems were massive. Hugo emphasizes this point over and over again: "It was terrible: erosion, loss of humidity and water; particularly in sloped fields, where water would runoff and be lost, like at Don Osvaldo—the family country estate he still preserves. Besides, there was the need to sow the crop immediately after harvesting." Hugo and other farmers experienced this issue first-hand,

so when no-till farming and its benefits appeared, "if I didn't take the solution, I was a fool." It was not difficult to try something new when the problem was bigger than our feeling of suspicion or fear.

The first time he heard about no-tillage was at INTA, where he undertook his final work for his degree on agriculture engineering and where he worked for a couple of years before taking charge of the family estate. "I finished my studies, and in 1977 I started working in the area of Extensión at INTA in Cañada de Gómez city.”

"I'm interested in knowing everything that is happening. Everything is so dynamic and changes are so profound that I don't want to miss them whenever possible,"

he stated.

At that moment, there was a department focused on resolving erosion. Hugo highlights the contribution of Alfredo Lattanzi, Mario Nardone, Hugo Marelli, Osvaldo Signorile and other professionals that had studied abroad and conducted the first tests in Argentina. "They opened many people's minds."

Collaborating to boost the change that ended in revolution

Twelve years went by from the first conducted tests to the appearance of Aapresid. When it became an affordable option, with weedcontrol products that were safe and practical, no-till farming adoption took off. "Eduardo López Mondo—enthusiastic technician and promoter of the first meetings—helped us integrate and be part of Aapresid," he stated.

Why collaborate? "We got together to promote the change we needed. We were a group of

In August 1977, at the first meeting about no-tilled crops carried out in Marcos Juárez, Hugo showed the results of comparative tests conducted in his own lands. "I was a kid exhibiting my work for the first time at the first meeting of no-till farming in the country."

“We got together to promote the change we needed. Aapresid provided the framework to exchange ideas and boost that change to another level."

farmers, many tenants, eager for improvement. Understanding we were not alone was crucial. Aapresid provided the framework to exchange ideas and boost that change to another level."

Everything that came afterward exceeded all expectations. Hugo insists that, "no-till farming solved an enormous problem, but nobody imagined the impact it would have nor how fast it would expand, not even the most adventurous among us at that moment."

Technicians from IPNI during a visit to the long-term fertility test.

Our union also gave place to other ambitious projects. "In 2001, the same group that founded the institution got together and created Bioceres, a company that originated from the heart of Aapresid. We started with 21 stockholders and a very low initial outlay, but 15 or 17 years later, the company got out into the world market and started to go public," explains Hugo, who has been part of the company’s Board of Directors since the beginning.

Moreover, he is a member of the Regional Los Surgentes - Inriville, and also the Chacra Valles Irrigados Norpatagónicos (VINPA), where he was

First commercial plot of soybean over wheat under no-till farming, November 1976.

"I didn't want to be just an educated farmer"

Hugo worked at INTA for seven years, first in Cañada de Gómez and later in Corral de Bustos, until his father passed away and he had to take charge of the family company.

While he was assuming the country estate management, he decided to continue working as an agronomist: "I didn't want to be an educated farmer or countryman, so I partnered with a colleague and advised farmers for 18 years; I even kept doing it on my own for a few years afterward."

Today, his daughters represent the 5th generation at the forefront of the family country estate that started with their great-grandparents when they arrived from Piedmont, Italy. To this day, Hugo still conserves a Farmall tractor that his father bought when Hugo was born. "I learned to drive in that tractor. When I was 12 years-old I already drove the harvester, and at 14 I got angry because they didn't let me go to work in the south. I wanted as much profit as possible from the equipment, but they wouldn't let me," recalls the grower, now an adult, who still seeks opportunities.

Despite his mother hardly finishing elementary school and his father barely making it to second grade, they both were clear that education was essential. Hugo attended a rural elementary school in Colonia Lago di Como, where he went by sulky. His mother, worried if the school would properly prepare him for highschool, sent him to town in 6th grade. "I was a distinguished student after a week, but it didn't last long—he laughs— because as I lived in a boarding house, I spent most of my time wandering the streets, and by August, I was a regular student again."

Later, Hugo moved to Rosario with his mother and his sister to attend highschool, while his father stayed in the countryside. There, he discovered athleticism and rugby, but the routine of going

“Life gave me much more than I had ever imagined and I could do much more than I had once dreamt as a kid.”

back to the countryside on the weekends restricted his sport career. "We were a transitional generation. Before, parents decided everything for us. I am of the generation that had never eaten a chicken leg: when I was a kid it was for the adults, and as an adult, it is for the kids," he said.

A few years ago, alongside his daughters Magdalena and Valentina.

If he was not an agronomist, Hugo said he "would be a pilot." The idea came up at 16 years old during an exchange trip to the United States, where he flew for the first time. "At 64 years old I fulfilled that dream and became a pilot. I love flying."

Sitting at his desk on the estate, while drinking a cup of mate cocido—an Argentinian tea-like infusion—"not from the little bags but with strained yerba mate," as he clarifies, he tells us that he is still participating in the company's decisions, although he has delegated a large part. "It's hard not to meddle, I sense that there is some Piedmont blood still here."

Mechanical harvesting of corn, captured in 1965.

Hugo is often travelling to Trenque Lauquen and also to Río Negro, where he discovered a challenging agriculture. "I have always performed agriculture in the central region, but in the south, I was faced with challenging conditions, where it is possible to perform a much more efficient and productive agriculture. The opportunity is enormous. The challenge is to escalate the project, ensuring basic services like electrical energy and connectivity," he says, motivated, and suggests delving into the subject in another interview, as summarizing it would not do it justice.

Looking at the past and the future simultaneously, Hugo concluded the talk with the same enthusiasm that pushes him forward. "Being a part of this team and of so many projects left me lots of valuable life lessons and experience. I learned that one must not give up before what seems impossible; determination and decision are essential." And as if making a pause to express appreciation, he left the punchline for the end: "Life gave me much more than I had ever imagined and I could do much more than I had once dreamt as a kid."