'Exploited Or Empowered?' What impact does the male gaze have on women through fashion media? by Abi Haigh

Acknowledgements

Exploited or Empowered?

What impact does the male-gaze have on women through fashion media?

May 2021

A case study submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for BA (Hons) Fashion Management & Communication

Sheffield Hallam University

I would like to express my gratitude towards my tutors, especially Paul Luke for supporting, and guiding me throughout my studies.

Exploited Or Empowered

Abi Haigh

A kind thankyou to Mia Sakai for participating as part of my primary research conducted for this study. I would also like to thank all the contributors who partook in my questionaires as an essential part to my studies findings. In addition, i would like to express my appreciation and thanks towards my mum and dad for their continued support throughout my university studies. As well as a thankyou to my boyfriend for guiding me through my final year.

Contents

5 Key Words

Methodology

8-9

12-15

Chapter 2

18-21

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

8-9

Fig.2

Abstract

Chapter 1

Conclusion

Bibliography Fig.3

Image References

Appendices

Fig.4

Acknowledgements

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Fig.1

Contents

Abstract

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The secondary research will conduct on the use of books, articles, magazines, and online journals.

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Through various forms of fashion media, the fashion industry is one of the main determinants to influencing how the male gaze views women. This dissertation will examine how the male gaze hypothesis contributes to women’s exploitation and how it impacts women in fashion media and society. This will be followed by analysing the correlation between the exploitation and empowerment of females through fashion media, with an understanding, research and analysis into how the male gaze sexually objectifies the female body and equates a women’s worth to her body’s appearance.

Five Key Words

Previous research found that both men and women perceived sexualised women to lack certain human qualities such as mental capacity and moral status. Therefore, a combination of both primary and secondary research will be undertaken to complete this dissertation. The primary research will consist of approaches such as interviews, surveys, online questionnaire, observations and focus groups.

Methodology

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This dissertation will outline how the impact of the male gaze is one of the main pressing problems women face when it comes to fashion media and societal appearances; and will build a wide understanding of whether this exploits or empowers women. The four chapters investigate and explore the following: the sexual objectification through male-gaze and feminist perspectives; an insight into raunch culture and the endorsement of sexualisation; the physical and psychological effects media has on women and finally if the sexualisation of women can be accredited as empowerment. The objectification and stigma surrounding the female form became 8

an issue due to the way, predominantly males, perceive women through fashion media. The sexualisation of women now dominates the creative industry through film, advertisements, media, arts and mainly photography. Fuelling the fire for males, is the way their imaginations run at unimaginable speed and create certain demoralising ideologies of women based on appearance. This visual feast the creative industry provides for the male gaze to objectify, emphasises the importance of power for women in empowering state of well-being. Is it the viewers and interpreters, or the creators of this stereotype image, the reasoning behind this stigma women appear to hold?

Proving that you are hot, deserving of desire, and necessarily trying to evoke lust, is still entirely women’s work. Is it not enough to be good, wealthy, and just accept what women have collectively accomplished to this day; or pursuit the risk of independence in society once more. A focus upon secondary research methods was undertaken using a wide variety of books, articles, journals and magazines. These research findings are pivotal to gain an understanding into the way previous academics have approached similar concepts within the male gaze, exploited and empowered bracket. Due to this particular topic being controversial, it is imperative to provide an unbiased opinion based on a range of opinions, and findings, so a breadth of reading is vital. Furthermore, information used has been sourced from qualitative and quantitative data, found in many of the secondary research methods. To be able to support the points made, quantitative data findings are key to increase the impact of a given point in a concise manner. In addition to this, another form of secondary reading of the opinionated form is analysed, in particular – Ariel Levy: Female chauvinist pigs, women and the rise of raunch culture. Her findings and opinions on raunch

culture has formulated key motives for debate throughout. However, there were limitations found regarding primary and secondary research particularly in regard to access to articles in relation with fashion to this topic.

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“In a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female. The determining male gaze projects its phantasy on to the female form which is styled accordingly. In their traditional exhibitionist role, women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness.” – (Mulvey, 1975)

Following from this, a variety of primary research was undertaken. Two initial surveys were conducted to gain an insight from both male and female perspectives, as well as age range, social and political viewpoints. This was very beneficial to be able to gain a public view on issues regarding each chapter, holding the intention to explore the results further and combine with previously conducted secondary research. In addition to this, a large interview was proved significantly helpful. The Photographer interviews, Mia Sakai, from a fashion background and as a woman, was able to shed insight into her perspective on this topic. Her unique ideology towards this matter was fascinating and is a driving force for her current works. It was important that this source in particular was selected as an opinion leader in order to gain a crucial insight into her methods of working and experience she has gained as a female photographer.

“HOT” “SIZZLING”

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Fig.5

Fig.7

Fig.6

“REAL GIRLS” 10

Chapter 1

“To discuss key factors of sexual objectification through male-gaze and feminist perspectives”

The key aspects of sexual objectification by both male gaze and feminist viewpoints are explored in chapter to obtain a concise understanding of the effect this has on culture in the fashion industry. Sexual objectification happens when a person is perceived as a sexual object, or when their sexual characteristics and physical attractiveness are separated from the rest of their personality and existence as an individual and reduced to instruments of pleasure for another person (Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr, 2010). Frivolous fashion culture promotes to women and girls the harmful myth that their values are based on how sexy they appear to others. “So, if modern society is queuing up for a glimpse of a gleaming thigh, a nipple...and shimmering bosoms, does that make it right? Is it an accurate depiction of the woman? Is that the woman in the picture… Do media and fashion design-

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Fig.8

“Objectionable form of commodity fetishism, and the conviction of the majority of secondwave feminists that fashion is an arena in which women… display themselves in order to gratify male desire.”- (Haworth, 2016)

ers and producers even think about these things?” (ACFODE, 2021). The female body is often inevitably dominated by social expectations and the commodification of the body by industries such as fashion, media and entertainment. The overly manipulative essence of appealing to high sexual impulses to market fashions, products, and trends or to promote in advertising therefore downplays the woman’s role and reputation in society and has long-term implications for women in general (ACFODE, 2021). Although sexualisation and sexual objectification are often used synonymously, they are two distinct definitions. Mass media often portrays both sexes as sexual objects in an objectified fashion. Sexualisation is, in reality, a phenomenon that implies attention to the appearance of individuals, whereas sexual objectification is characterised as the portrayal of an individual as a mere body object to others’ sexual desires.

Chapter 1

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Sexualisation - This can be defined as a focus on the sexual appeal of a person whose value is solely based on her sexiness (Fasoli et al., 2017). It is paramount to be aware of the different degrees of sexualization that can be observed depending on the attention and emphasis reserved to a specific body part or the extent to which the target is portrayed as provocative and sexually ready. The suggestion that sexualization could be quantified, and although it does not necessarily imply objectification if particularly enhanced it may lead to perceiving a person as a sexual object.

“Sexual objectification theory postulates that many women are sexually objectified and viewed as an object to be valued for use by others. Sexual objectification oc-

curs when a woman’s body or body parts are picked out and removed from her as an individual as she is seen solely as a physical object of male sexual desire” (Aycock & Bartky, 1992). Sexualisation has four elements, according to the FPA task force on the sexualization of girls: the equation of a person’s worth with his or her sexuality, beauty characterised as sexiness, sexual objectification - seeing women as objects to be used for sexual gratification, and the imposition of sexuality. To count as sexualisation, only one of these elements must be present (Karsay, Knoll and Matthes, 2017). There are many negative effects of the common representation of women as objects, including decreased mind Attribution, dehumanisation, and decreased sense of agency perception. The association between body fixation on objectification and reduced expectations of a woman’s mental capacity and moral status has been shown across several lines of study, including cognitive visual analysis and inversive effects dehumanization research (Kellie et al., 2019). Given that both men and women often misinterpret revealing clothing as a sign of promiscuity, even though that this perception is wrong, opponents of promiscuity may objectify sexualise women because they think sexualised women are more likely to participate in casual sex, resulting in objectifying assessments of women’s mental capability and moral standing in this situation. When asked in a survey ‘Do you think you can manipulate men with clothing?’ 59.2% of women said yes, following with 78.9% agreeing that ‘if you wear clothes which are more provocative, then men are more likely to give you attention.’ Besides, women in the media are often subjected to sexist commentary by men, such as the use of depressing or manipulating terms to characterize women, lewd remarks on women’s body parts, and catcalling and abuse (Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr, 2010). More specifically for women, research

Fig.9

suggests that sexualised women are seen as deficient in mental and moral ability, and as a result, they are seen to be less capable, less human, and perceived to suffer less in sexual assault (Kellie et al., 2019). This can amount to any of these feelings of guilt, anxiety, depression and internalisation of the opinion of the observer which can contribute to self-objectification. An example of this is when asked ‘Have you ever made a remark towards or about someone because of their appearance, i.e, “dumb blonde” stereotype’, 43.5% of women answered yes, whilst the remaining 13% checked maybe. For instance, when asked to select a partner to complete a mathematical test, males but not females who completed a sex target activation task concentrated more

on attractiveness than competence. As a consequence, the sexual openness of a woman or, more importantly, her perceived sexual openness can cause her to be judged objectively by men and women. Appearance is an influential aspect of many social judgments and biases including perceived personality traits and professional success (Kellie et al., 2019). Exposure to sexually objectifying media that imposes on women’s attractiveness in appearance with examples such as advertisements and other types of media, like movies and music videos convey to women that if they participate in such ways, they would be hot, sexy; and both admired and desired by men, which is one way that sexual objectification can influence a woman’s prosperity (Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr,

2010). This type of media often impacts women’s views of themselves as objects or accessories for men to admire and is related to the idea of self-objectification. Sexual objectification through both the male-gaze and feminist perspectives has amounted to a major impact through all media types, escalating the stigma surrounding women and their image. Leading on from this, the above factors discuss how both the male and female impact of sexual objectification coincide with one another. Therefore, showing that the media has a great influential impact on women from their peer’s sexual objectification and self- objectification. 15

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Sexual Objectification – A means to reducing a person to a body or body part and treating him or her as an entity. It implies being perceived and treated as a tool for others use, being considered interchangeable with others, being inert, being viable, being denied autonomy and knowledge, and being perceived as an object owned by someone else. Hence, it’s relationship with the denial of mental capacity and identity as an individual becomes a passive and interchangeable tool for the gratification of others. (Fasoli et al., 2017). One of the most ubiquitous ways of sexually objectifying a woman is their visual inspection of her body. (Civile et al., 2016). In a survey question asking, ‘do you think that men exploit women?’ 84.3% of women agreed with that statement, whereas 15.7% disagreed.

Chapter 1

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Fig.11 Fig.10

Chapter 2

Fig.12

“To explore the insight into the endorsement of sexualisation.” 18

For what culture considers natural, advertisements will set the gauge for this culture. The media can increase power structures that degrade and damage women and make assumptions based on gender stereotypes seeming trivial. Several studies support the notion that the use of sexual content in advertisements can increase the advertising effectiveness and ultimately sell products/ goods (Carvalho & Azevedo, 2018). In mainstream advertising and popular culture, sexual images of women have shifted, depicting females as actively embracing, celebrating and enjoying sex-object status. However, in a survey asking women ‘Does raunch culture, as a woman, make you feel liberated or exploited?’ 68.1% of women out of 69 respondents felt exploited by ‘raunch culture’. This is now embedded in the empowerment debate and the idea that positive self-identity can be founded on the reclaiming of the sexualized portrayals that have tried to challenge contemporary feminism (Coy & Garner, 2010). The following concepts are often portrayed through postfeminist media culture: women should use their bodies for benefit as a means of influence, the value of individual preference, makeovers as self reinventions, an emphasis on male-female biological differences. Consequently, the agreed notion of self-sexualisation and power of seduction that women hold is a

preferred response as this trend feeds their scopophilia behaviour (Carvalho & Azevedo, 2018). The Freudian notion of scopophilia is “the pleasure of looking at the body of another” (Carvalho & Azevedo, 2018). When film embraces the conventions of advertising, the scopic desire is intensified. Kilbourne (1999) summarised the focus of advertising: “[...] [it] fetishizes products, imbues them with an erotic charge [...]” (p. 271). Ultimately, clear and explicit fetishization, particularly in terms of gender, is essential to this scopic gaze in advertising (Carvalho & Azevedo, 2018).

Advertisement also is associated with ‘glamour’, Gundle defined glamour as “an image that attracts attention and arouses envy by mobilising desirable qualities including beauty, wealth, movement, pleasure, fame and sex” (Carvalho & Azevedo, 2018). Do we expect a positive effect on women empowerment, as stated, ‘for young women observing glamour models as role models, the marketing of this self-sexualization as empowerment… reinforces the association of self-esteem being desired by men…’ (Coy & Garner, 2010). On the other hand, there is a very clear influence of female empowerment, because women who encounter these advertisements are aware of the use of seduction as a means of power. For a variety of purposes, sexualizing media content has been criticized. For example, increased body dissatisfaction has been linked to increased exposure to 19 sexualizing media, which has been linked

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Leading on from chapter 1, the “raunch culture” and endorsement of sexualisation through the media is analysed. This dissertation will now discuss how women are objectified through these topics, to gain an understanding of how this is impacting women’s view of themselves, and on others through a mainstream and societal lens. The objectives of this chapter are to explore the insight into raunch culture and the endorsement of sexualisation.

Chapter 2

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Fig.13

Fig.14

Chapter 2

to reinforced gender roles, and increased body dissatisfaction. Today’s mainstream media is marked by an emphasis on sexual appearance, physical beauty, and sexual appeal to others (Karsay, Knoll & Matthes, 2017).

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An example of this notion is that it can be argued that Marilyn Monroe was the sexiest woman of the 20th century, that she is a piece of history and possibly the most beloved, envied and famous woman of all time. What’s her secret? “she was a paradoxical mixture between the angelic and the seductive, domination and submission….” (Saltari, Manferto, Molinari, Goldwater & Doyle, n.d.) She was immortalised by the image in the movie ‘Gentlemen prefer blondes’, whilst singing diamonds are a girl’s best friend, and dripping with jewels and clad in a pink satin bustier dress, but this mere image was only a fraction of her true self. Hugh Hefner bought her image from the sexy miss golden dreams calendar and soon after becoming the face of playboy’s first edition, the cover of life, this began to fuel the reputation she held as a sex symbol. ‘Marilyn Monroe had sex written all over her face’ (Haworth, 2016). She was a real mistress of the slinky walk, which a sensual strut was key to the construction of a sex symbol, “I don’t know who invented heels, but all women owe him a lot” (Marilyn Monroe). The theory that “sex sells” may be one of advertisings oldest myths but her unequivocally feminine way of dressing, specifically her Jean Louis dress she wore at President Kennedy’s 45th birthday, coated in powered pink, and embellished with over 2000 crystal beads which was so closely fitted to her she had to be sewn into it, creating an affect which was so unforgettable it was later sold for over a million dollars in 1999. The eroticisation of the female body in western advertisements and its social ramifications has both its advantages and disadvantages. Although scholars have discovered that the sex sells doctrine could be incorrect, it has long been criticised in the media for promoting unattainable beauty standards. Scantily clad and unrealistically perfect female types continue to flit around television and computer screens, billboards, and the glossy pages of magazines today, from early product ads in the 1940s to hypersexualized female films in the 1990s (www.dw.com, 2021).

A variety of potential pleasures are offered in the cinema. One of them is scopophilia, the second, formed by narcissism and the constitution of the self, derives from the identification with the image, therefore determining it as ego libido. They both have little meaning in themselves, they must be attached to idealization. They all seek goals of indifference to perceptual truth, of constructing a picture idea, of eroticizing a world paradigm that shapes the interpretation of the subject and renders a mockery of empiric objectivity (Mulvey, 1975). There are situations under which gazing at oneself is a source of enjoyment, much as there is pleasure in looking at the other side of the creation. Originally in his three essays on sexuality, Freud isolated scopophilia as one of the components of the sexual impulses that operate as a driving force quite independently of the erotogenic regions. To encapsulate this chapter, it has realised that the fashion industry, in particular, is one of the most popular sources of such attitudes in the media and popular culture. The fashion industry has imposed an outdated portrayal of women and culture on the global stage across the media. Fashion is also praised for its frolicsome attitude, but if this attitude is sexist, it raises concerns. Aren’t feminists right to say that when the media depicts women in a way that shows their bodies as a show product for sale, it’s bigotry? This generational transition is no longer being portrayed as 21 fashionable. Instead, the cultural change

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“An image that attracts attention and arouses envy by mobilising desirable qualities including beauty, wealth, movement, pleasure, fame and sex” (Carvalho & Azevedo, 2018)

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23 22

Chapter 3

Leading on from the previous chapter, the investigation continues to gain further depth of understanding on the physical and psychological effects which fashion media has on women through the view of raunch culture.

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“A male who patronises, disparages, or otherwise denigrates females in the belief that they are inferior to males and thus deserving of less than equal treatment or benefit.’” (“Male chauvinist definition and meaning, Collins English Dictionary”, 2021).

As seen in the rise of raunch culture, Ariel Levy writes how she interprets the culture to be damaging to ourselves and as women. Although this new raunch culture doesn’t mark the death of feminism, it is supposed the evidenced feminist project had already been realised. Raunch culture has now opened doors for a woman to show off her mettle. While Raunch emerged in the male realm, Levy maintains that “it no longer makes sense to blame men.” The idea of “Female Chauvinist

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In a paper released in conjunction with the exhibition “women on view: aesthetics and desire in advertising” sociologist Esther Loubradou explored the implications of sexualized ads. It’s noted the pivotal objective is to persuade the consumer and captivate attention. ‘To do so, an ad must make our brain react’ (www.dw.com, 2021). Titillating emotional regions of the brain, transgressing taboos, and catering to essential desires, sexual content “appears to have all of these components.” Although some of the more dramatic depictions belong to the fashion industry, a variety of items, from alcohol to makeup, have traditionally depicted women as subjects of lust and desire. This creates a perception of how the ideal women should be, therefore creating a psychological effect, which formulates the notion to alter our physical appearance to the way we see women in the media.

“To investigate the physical and psychological effects which fashion media has on women through raunch culture.”

Pigs” is central to Levy’s study of raunch culture, women who sexually exploit other women and themselves (Levy, 2014). This derives from the concept that a man thinks women are not of equal status, therefore titling himself as superior and becoming unequivocally sexist. Male chauvinist - ‘A male who patronises, disparages, or otherwise denigrates females in the belief that they are inferior to males and thus deserving of less than equal treatment or benefit.’ (“Male chauvinist definition and meaning, Collins English Dictionary”, 2021). If male chauvinist pigs regarded women as pieces of meat, then the alternate view is to outdo the man and become a female chauvinist pig, a woman who sexually objectifies other women. Yet how is it beneficial for women to reintroduce the stereotype of female sexuality that feminism sought to destroy? The tawdry, bawdy side of female sexuality has become so popular that it has become mainstream to associate this image with all women. What was once viewed as a sexual expression is now deemed as sexuality. 25

Power has always been exercised by those who wield authority, and it requires great responsibility. Power allows for freedom, to create and have the ability to buy and own. Power may also be physical, an analytical force, or a representation of one’s personality. Power can be seen as a physical quality more often in men, but modern women today have the same strengths as men in terms of income capacity, net worth, lifestyle choices, and material products. “Power can be defined as the ability to influence the behaviour of others by having control over their outcomes.” (Civile et al., 2016).

Playboy capitalised on this image of women and as Hugh Hefner said “embraced by young women in a curious way in a post-feminist world “(Levy, 2014). Depositing the blame onto men is no longer viable. Women are making decisions and making money behind the scenes, not just in front of the camera. Here, Playboy is a case point, as the company at large is vastly run by women, and remains the world’s top-selling men’s magazine. The desire for smut has always existed. Raunch culture has entered political life, the music industry, media, fashion, and style, but this was formerly a guilty pleasure on the periphery, almost exclusively male margins. For a movement to infiltrate political life, the music industry, art, taste and fashion as deeply as raunch culture has, it must be thoroughly mainstream, and half of the mainstream is female. Both men and women have appeared to establish a captivating allure of slutty, feminine and attractive stereotypes of women that had resurrected from an age not yet gone by. 26

Chapter 3

Fig.19 Fig.18

Referring to Kim Kardashian West’s scandal of her sex tape, before her time of the exposure would be deemed as demoralising and career-threatening, porn was something you needed to come back from, but for Mrs Kardashian West, being in porn itself was the comeback, and was the foundation to her now powerful image. The argument, however, is not what she did, but how society exploited it. Another example of this is when Paris Hilton became one of the country’s most well-known and marketable female celebrities as a result of her amateur pornography exploits (Levy, 2014). This followed with a slew of endorsement deals, which proves that sex does sell. However, as some may think her actions would exile her from society rather, on the contrary, she is raunch cultures very own mascot. Proving the point that this culture is not necessarily progressive, but it is essentially commercial. As the living embodiment of our present, prurient, collective fixations - blondness, hotness, wealth, anti-intellectualism, Paris Hilton said “my boyfriends always tell me I’m not sexual. Sexy, but not sexual” (Levy, 2014). This revolutionary set of words is the epitome of what women are trying to say, that their interest is in the appearance of sexiness, not the existence of sexual pleasure.

Our society values consumption over a connection. Hotness has become the cultural currency, and many people can invest a lot of time and resources to attain it. Beauty, which has been respected throughout history, is not the same as hotness. Popularity may be denoted by the word “hot.” Hot may also refer to anything that is widely discussed. When it comes to sex, though, hot means two things: fuckable and salable. Evidence that a woman consciously wants acceptance is a critical requirement for hotness first of all for women and only for women, hotness involves projecting a kind of eagerness, providing a guarantee that any recognition you get from your physicality is welcome. (Levy, 2014). Can this be interpreted as a means to attaining power, as it is probable that women are catching up with men in the traditionally masculine department of sexual opportunity? This is where the invention of female chauvinist pigs come out to play, or so to speak. They aspire to be like men and profess to dislike women who are too dependent on the presence of femininity. Female chauvinistic pigs have to love watching these women. The challenge then is to demonstrate at the same time that you are not the same as the girls in the Victoria Secret Catalogue posts, but that you approve of male affection for them, and that maybe you

two have the same sexy energy and underwear beneath all your aggression and zealous, which is conducive to the exploitation and misogyny of one’s gender.

To conclude, if the threat that a woman’s worth is based solely on her sex appeal is not demoralising enough, the deluded expectation of a more plentiful enjoyment of the sex fun might stem from a re-examination of old stereotypes, which is far worse than being objectified, it’s being out of touch. The suggestion of “why try and beat them when you can join them” (Levy, 2014). The female chauvinist pig has risen to a position of prominence. She identifies as a postfeminist. She has a great sense of humour. She understands. She doesn’t mind cartoonishly normal perceptions of female sexuality, and she doesn’t mind a cartoonishly natural reaction to them.

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Chapter 3

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Chapter 4

Women are often depicted in the media as mere sexual artefacts, but recent research has looked into the connection between exposure to such media matewrial and desire to participate in collective action (Guizzo, Cadinu, Galdi, Maass & Latrofa, 2017). We are used to being exposed to a widespread of pictures of undressed and glamorous bodies often used as decorative objects or tools to lure new customers in many Western countries. The most frequent subjects of such inclusion are female bodies. Women are more likely than men to be sexually objectified in advertisements, books, films, television, and music videos, according to content surveys (Guizzo, Cadinu, Galdi, Maass & Latrofa, 2017). Mulvey proposed that when women are visualized, they are often shown as passive, vulnerable, and

sexualized objects intended to be gazed at and, as a result, often used by the male gaze, who may be present or inferred (Mulvey, 1975). Using Sigmund Freud’s vocabulary, Mulvey clarified that fetishistic scopophilia, or the gratification derived from simply looking at something, enhances the physical appeal of the object, which is the woman and transforms it into something enjoyable in and of itself (Mulvey, 1975). In 1972, English art critic John Berger addressed how women are portrayed in contemporary advertising in the same manner as they are depicted in canonized paintings throughout history (John Berger) Berger, like Mulvey, argues that once visualized, women become the passive surveyed while men carry on the role of the

surveyors, a trend he claims was adopted by contemporary promotional campaigns from historical portraits. Gender inequalities remain profoundly ingrained in culture. They also affect not only men’s perceptions of women, but also women’s perceptions of themselves, as they have solidified over decades. When introducing the phrase “male gaze,” Mulvey was still conscious of this ultimate shift in how to combat implicit structures such as language while still trapped in patriarchal language (Mulvey, 1975). As a result, Mulvey may have been the first to investigate the existence of the female gaze in a world where women are unable to support or inherit the patriarchal male gaze’s gender roles.

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To challenge the understanding of the sexualisation of women in fashion media can be accredited as empowerment.

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w Chapter 4

Chapter 4

them that to be modern and empowered women, they must be promiscuous? There is a possibility that women gained something from being desired and admired by men. “Marta Meana Has suggested that being desired is a central component to women’s sexual arousal; ‘being desired is the orgasm’,” (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010). It’s also a consequence of the forces they set in motion; after all, they’re the ones who began it all. To conclude, women were not created for that kind of manifestation in the twenty-first century. Women have shown their femininity is stronger and

However, women are taught from a young age that physical appearance, as described by particular, unattainable societal norms, is important, if not critical, to their self-worth. It’s often reported women enjoy being sexually admired by men. Given this paradox, it is unclear if such pleasure constitutes true sexual liberation for women or is linked to conventional feminine expectations and discriminatory values (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010). Girls and women recognize from experienced and observed behaviour surrounding sexual objectification, constituting towards the theory that sexual beauty is a core part of the feminine gender identity, and therefore a goal for which they must aspire (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010). While there are certainly several negative effects of sexualization that could discourage women from accepting it, women 32 can still encounter subjectively positive outcomes. One impor-

quo, the system remains unchanged. Similarly, though seeking and courting sexualized male attention can feel good and empowering to women, it reinforces the notion that women are valued as sexual objects. As a result, feelings of empowerment can serve to reinforce the negative effects of objectification. This sense of perceived sexual empowerment has been seen by some as positive, and indication that women are taking control of their sexuality (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010). Others, on the other hand, have disputed the essence of the sexual liberation found in raunch culture, arguing that the illusion of independence and control that comes with flaunting one’s body is a Women who support benevruse of false empowerment. olent patriarchy may prefer to So, why do some women affirm conventional gender roles claim to enjoy this encounter because they love the positive and deliberately seek out treatment that comes with bethe male gaze? Are woming elevated. However, by not en being brainwashed by challenging the gender status the mainstream, which tells

Fig.23

tant feature of sexualization is the conflation of attractiveness and sexuality. One such optimistic outcome of actively courting sexualised male attention may be increased self-esteem (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010). Women who enjoy sexualization can intentionally pursue sexualized male attention through a variety of mechanisms, such as flirting and teasing, wearing sexy clothing, and engaging in more intense self-sexualizing or trashy conduct. An example of this was the emergence of raunch culture, in which young women report loving showcasing their bodies by wearing tight tee shirts with Playboy Bunny logos and flashing their breasts for entertainment “there’s this power in being trashy” (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010).

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Fig.22

has a virtuous, yet impactful, purposeful expression; she is strong-willed, autonomous, educated, on the go and capable of so much more and should be depicted as such (ACFODE, 2021). The confident conclusion that even more women will feature in Playboy when they are being paid to do so. Although “Because I am paid to” is not the same as “I’m reclaiming my sexuality” (Levy, 2014). Can women be sexy, frisky and in control without being commodified? In certain ways, the rise of a trash culture supported by women is a backlash against their ideals of feminism, eager Arianism, and anti-materialism.

Conclusion

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Fig.24

The media is a major source of exposure towards sexualizing images, text, sounds, and experiences. Sexualisation is omnipresent across a wide variety of media styles, and are the most common types of entertainment exploitation, including music, television, print publications, video

games, social networking, fashion and beauty, according to the results of multiple content surveys (Karsay, Knoll & Matthes, 2017). The above media types can be defined as sexualising, pornography, and so-called lad media displayed in formats such as Maxim or FHm and are examples of media that

are primarily targeted at a male audience. Furthermore, this is what society readily accepts, the ideal beauty commodities and despises the women who don’t fit into this bracket. It’s worth noting that women are objectified not only by society but also by themselves.

Furthermore, the need to acknowledge how women themselves might contribute to our sexually objectifying environments in distinct ways beyond adherence to traditional gender roles as previously recognised in criteria is noted. Women also objectify women, but they are not to the exact extent

that men objectify women (Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr, 2010). Women are taught to compete against other women for appearance, and women are told to compete for objects that are valuable to them, one of which is man or rather male interest, according to feminist theory.

However, the notion that women should be respected, valued, and preserved by men seems to be a compilation of positive views toward women, but it simply helps to explain the present inequitable gender structure by implying women’s subordination to men. This concept may be another form

Conclusion

Exploited Or Empowered 36

The male gaze approves and acknowledges the sexual, physical attributes of women’s bodies, drawing in a high degree of attention. The extension of societal power into the workplace has been conceptualized as environmental power (Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr, 2010). The acceptance and approval of male gaze is one criterion for a sexually objectifying environment. As Frederickson and Roberts asserted, one of the most implicit yet undeniable ways sexualized evaluation is executed in arguably the most ubiquitous environment is through visual examination of the body refrained sexual gears as girl watching, a particular but indirect mode of sexual assault

Women have been working with tremendous success in a man’s world for decades, and somewhere along the lines, she had to work out how to be one of the guys. In 2003 women occupied just 17 per cent of the main positions in the top 250 domestic grossing films, including executive producers, producers, directors, authors, cinematographers, and editors (Levy, 2014). Women who desired to be seen as powerful have long considered it more effective to associate with men than to be timid and lift the entire female sex to their level. Nevertheless, there is a certain kind of woman who is talented, powerful, and unrepentant, that we’ve always found difficult to characterize without using any variation of the term like a man (Levy,2014).

that cannot be stopped and is beyond women’s control (Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr, 2010). Women are objectified not only by society, but also by themselves, therefore further degrading the dignity of women. The assumption that for a woman to excel in life she must cause herself to be sexually objectified, is not the case and must be recognized by women themselves. This acceptance women have developed being the object, then find themselves trapped in the callousness, thereby having lower self-esteem, depression, and a feeling of disconnect with self and other psychological insecurities. Since the media plays such a critical aspect, it should represent women in powerful, non-destructive ways. What the media conveys to the public is subconsciously adopted by culture. Finally, society should encourage women’s holistic growth by creating an environment conducive to change. Women are recognized as a historically marginalized group in the Western world due to their lower status, power, and opportunities, contributing to overall gender equality (Guizzo, Cadinu, Galdi, Maass & Latrofa, 2017).

Fig.25

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of social control over women and their sexuality (Liss, Erchull & Ramsey, 2010). Gender roles are the set of behaviours, personality traits, self-concepts, and expectations that are organized according to cultural differences and masculine and feminine prescriptions. Sexual objective environments are an example of this. Traditional gender roles are associated with a high probability of male contact, implying a male-dominated environment in which women typically have less power than men.

Conclusion

For women, femininity is our greatest power; we’ve been led to think it’s our greatest weakness when it’s our greatest gift. Yet, feminine talents and gifts are overlooked and undervalued because they can’t be quantified. A woman is a resourceful being, she is fluid, versatile, responsive, and resilient; as she develops a close understanding of her instinctual self, she can feel and see things that provide her with greater knowledge. To rediscover and reconnect with feminine power would be idealistic, not to relinquish the power she possesses, but to establish a polarity between feminine and masculine powers. Women are trying to do it all but should we?

Exploited Or Empowered

Exploited Or Empowered 38 38

Fig.27 Fig.26

Image References

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Fig 8 – Savage Fenty show 2. (2020). [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.dailymotion.com/ video/x7wnrj5 Fig 9 – The original bad girl The baddest three. (2017). [Image]. Retrieved from https://www. theoriginalbadgirl.com/product-page/the-baddest-three-t Fig 10 - Society has a distorted perception of beauty. [Image]. Retrieved from https://i.pinimg. com/originals/cd/cd/9b/cdcd9bbd92813e9dc4d421c0f7a2394a.jpg Fig 11 – Womens Erotica. [Image]. Retrieved from https://druckundpapier.tumblr.com/ post/38531875012/vinh-pinup-art-letterpress-postcard Fig 12 – Stop sexualising nudity. [Image]. Retrieved from https://weheartit.com/entry/190566632/via/Kateryna?page=6 Fig 13 – American Apparel. [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/sex-violence-against-women-ads-2013-5?r=US&IR=T#this-american-apparel-ad-which-shows-a-faceless-woman-on-her-knees-is-somewhat-ambiguous-16 Fig 14 - Dolce and Gabbana. [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/sex-violence-against-women-ads-2013-5?r=US&IR=T#wrong-dolce-and-gabbana-consistently-triesto-market-itself-as-an-edgy-brand-this-ad-ran-in-esquire-the-company-retracted-it-after-peoplecomplained-that-it-glamorized-gang-rape-2

Fig 15 - Whorephobia. (2019). [Image]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/JacqTheStripper/status/1090751963564777472

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Fig 5 - The male gaze. (2017). [Image]. Retrieved from https://www.thecrimson.com/column/ new-romantix/article/2017/2/17/qiu-the-gaze/

Image References

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bly-high-heels-and-a-naked-female-body-hanging-from-the-ceiling-in-pieces-make-thisthe-most-disturbing-image-of-them-all-15

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Appendix Appendix

'Exploited Or Empowered?' What impact does the male gaze have on women through fashion media?

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