Early Years Bulletin, Fall 2014

Early Years Bulletin

Fall 2014 vol 2, no 1

Focus on Infants & Toddlers editors: Laura Hooks & Nur Tanyel

A Mother’s Questions: Deeper Understandings of Language Acquisition

by Laura M. Hooks and Kela F. Goodman, University of South Carolina Upstate

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ecently, I was approached by a mother whose pediatrician said her toddler may need to be evaluated by a speech therapist. The mother was concerned and wanted to know more about the process of language development and how a parent might support it. This article provides an overview of language acquisition theories and the expected timeline for typical development. It is representative of a mother’s questions and can prove helpful to caregivers and the parents with whom they work. The first question this mother asked was one many parents ask, “What should I expect? When should my infant/toddler begin talking?”

Caregivers can help inform parents’ understanding of language development. Language begins well before the first words are spoken (Berk, 2010). Even newborn infants can communicate with their parents and caregivers. They are able to let their parents know they are in need—if they are hungry, need a diaper change, are otherwise physically uncomfortable, or need emotional comfort.

It does not take long for a mother or father to be able to tell the difference between a hungry cry and a cry that indicates the need for a diaper change. These very basic, early forms of communication are the beginnings of language development. Parents should know that their role in supporting this early language is to respond

Contents p. 6

Children’s Books p. 9 Exploring

Children’s Interests in Science p. 11

to their infants’ The Reggio Emilia cries by meeting Approach their needs—feed them if they are hungry, change their diapers, or comfort them. This builds infants’ confidence in their ability to communicate and their trust that their caregivers will take care of their needs.

During the first three years of life, infants and toddlers grow and develop rapidly. The complex development of language is easy to observe as they mature. Infants start communicating their needs and wants with cries and facial expressions; by the time they are 3 years old, they are speaking in simple sentences. They pass various milestones along the way and parents marvel at each new word.

Language Acquisition Theories Noam Chomsky (1965) theorizes that humans possess an innate language acquisition device (LAD) that, when supported by predictable interactions of a language support system (LASS), allows children to learn how to communicate. Sociocultural theorist Lev Vygotsky (1978) continued on p. 2 . . .

Early Years Bulletin . . . continued from p. 1 understood the acquisition of language as a complex interaction between the child and those with whom he/she interacts. He believed that the use and understanding of language develops through children’s interactions with more competent individuals, and coined the term “zone of proximal development” (ZPD) to explain how we learn from significant others.

For example, a father invites a toddler to help plant flowers. The father explains each step in the process and provides reinforcement for the words the toddler uses and also expands on the simple sentences initiated by the toddler. The father guides the toddler as he learns about plants while increasing his vocabulary and ability to communicate. This guidance is referred to as “scaffolding” and is used to help children reach the next level in thinking. Scaffolding occurs in any area of development; with language development, it refers to experiences that involve both receiving and expressing language in an effort to communicate.

Environmental and cultural influences affect language acquisition. We learn to speak (and read and write) because we use language for a wide range of functions, not just one or two. We speak to inform, to imagine, to regulate our environment, to ask why or wonder, to ask for things, to bring attention to ourselves, and to interact with others. When caregivers and parents understand this range of functions in language, they may recognize how an infant/ toddler uses language in previously unexpected or unacknowledged ways.

Parents’ and caregivers’ expectations of a child’s communication help them interpret an infant’s gestures,

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sounds, and expressions as meaningful—and they begin to narrate the infant’s actions. This talk, or narration, provides a model of language structure and the turntaking of conversation. Infants/toddlers will eventually use single words to express whole ideas, called telegraphic speech. An attentive adult mediates the meaning by considering the circumstances within the environment. So, infants/toddlers may learn the use of words and sounds before they pronounce those words and sounds correctly and the caregiver’s response to their attempts may either reinforce their usage or make them hesitate to try again. Infants/toddlers learn that words are labels for things and that words are used in a certain order after they learn what function the words have.

Developmental Guidelines South Carolina’s Infant and Toddler Guidelines (2008) include descriptions of receptive and expressive language. Each is important to toddlers’ development of social communication and lays the groundwork for early literacy. Receptive language refers to the understanding of someone’s effort to communicate. Infants and toddlers can understand what someone is saying or trying to communicate long before they are able to use that language for themselves. Expressive language is the ability of a child to communicate their thoughts to someone else. Social interactions and communication with parents and caregivers help to support receptive and expressive language development.

The achievement of specific developmental language milestones follows a pattern that is basically the same for all infants and toddlers. The timing of these milestones varies depending upon the child’s

Milestones in Language Development 2 months 6 months 12 months 13 months 18 months 24 months

Coos Babbles; establishes joint attention with caregiver Babbling expands; includes sounds and patterns of spoken community language Comprehends 50 words Expresses 50 words Expresses 200 words; combines 2 words

Adapted from Berk (2010, p. 213).

Figure 1

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environment and the culture in which they learn. At 2 months of age, infants coo and make vowel sounds; by 4 months, they become interested in turn-taking games such as peek-a-boo. From 6 months on, infants include consonant sounds in their babbling and will repeat syllables. By 8 months, infants will recognize names of familiar people and objects. During this time of development, it is important for infants to hear language all around them. They need to be talked to and provided words for their wants and needs. For example, when an infant points to their bottle, the caregiver can respond with, “Oh, you want your bottle.”

From 6 months to 18 months, infants and toddlers learn to comprehend names and show an understanding of an adult’s simple request. For example, a parent or caregiver may say, “It is time to eat, you will need to sit in your seat.” A child at this age understands they need to go to their seat and sit down and will do so if they are hungry. That does not mean that they will always follow requests, but they do know what is meant and will often do so. From 16 to 36 months, toddlers understand more complex statements regarding current situations. For example, when a parent or caregiver says, “It is time for a nap and you need to pick out a book to read,” the child can go and select a book and return to his naptime place. Their spoken vocabulary expands during this time from about 50 words to 200 words (see Figure 1).

In circumstances when a pediatrician recommends a speech evaluation, parents often ask, “What caused the need for a speech therapist?” It is important for parents to understand that, as with all domains of development, language development occurs at different times and rates for different children. A certain range of time is considered typical. When development falls outside of that range, it does not necessarily indicate a disability but intervention may be necessary. Early intervention refers to facilitating a child’s development by providing changes within their environment or by providing services that will enhance the areas of development. By providing attention to both the child and the parents or caregivers, the child should receive what he/she needs to move ahead. Speech therapy is one form of early intervention designed to address specific needs of language development.

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Considerations of Environmental/Cultural Influences Many factors influence the time at which certain language skills develop. The following are possible factors that parents/caregivers can consider when thinking about language development.

• Children who grow up in poverty sometimes experience a delay in many areas of development, including language. Children in poverty may not have exposure to a variety of experiences and materials that give meaning to language.

• It is important for infants and toddlers to have verbal interaction, the more the better. Infant/toddlers whose verbal interactions are limited to caregiving times, such as diaper changing, will have less opportunity to hear and try to mimic that interaction.

• Typically, girls develop language a bit earlier than boys. It is not unusual for boys to be on the later end of the developmental range.

• Younger siblings may talk a bit later than an older sibling, especially when the older sibling talks for their younger brother or sister.

• Twins tend to develop language later than single births.

• Infants/toddlers whose physical development is soaring ahead may lag behind with language development at first.

• Infants and toddlers who are beginning to show an interest in potty training may demonstrate less interest in language.

• Any time there is a major change in an infant/toddler’s typical routine or environment, they are likely to stall or regress in development and this is especially true regarding language. Some examples of these changes include a move to a new home or a change in caregiver. Traumatic events, such as the death of a family member or an accident that requires intense medical care, can influence language development.

• A change of family make-up can impact language development. This can be the addition of a sibling, a grandparent moving in with the family, or a separation in the family because of military service or divorce.

• Simple changes to daily routines or schedules can also influence language. continued on p. 4 . . .

Early Years Bulletin . . . continued from p. 3 Any of these situations can delay language development as infants/toddlers get to know and make sense of their new surroundings. As toddlers focus on life events and try to make sense of their changing world, their focus is diverted from communicating and talking.

A third question parents ask is, “What I can do about it? How can I help, not just who can I call?” Parents want to know what to do themselves to support language development. See Figure 2 for seven conditions for natural learning that have implications for parents/caregivers as they provide support and set up environments to support learning language (Cambourne, 1988).

The first of the seven conditions is immersion in a literate environment where word play, reading aloud, and talking with children not at them is practiced.

The second condition is demonstration, modeling language for expressing feelings, naming things, and using words to meet needs. Children will mimic what they see and hear as they learn when and where to use each language demonstration. Engagement in language learning depends on the purpose of activity, interest of the child, and attention of the caregiver to the child’s interest. For example, a toddler might notice an ant and the parent watches with the toddler and then talks about the ant. This joint attention to an object provides an example of language that has meaning for the toddler. Infants/ toddlers are more likely to pay attention and try to use

Cambourne’s Conditions of Learning (1988) • • • • • • •

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language when the parent gives attention to whatever the child is interested in at the moment. Parents/ caregivers create expectation, a fourth condition of language learning, as they ask questions and provide opportunities for infants/toddlers to use language with meaning. The choices infants/toddlers make as to when and to whom they talk and learn are how they take responsibility in the process. For example, a toddler may gesture by pointing, make a facial expression, or say one or two words to meet a need.

When left to the child, these decisions help him or her take responsibility in learning to use language.

Accepting approximations is a condition for language learning. As children make attempts to communicate, adults accept their approximations and provide correct models without correcting specific errors. For example, when a toddler says, “I goed to the potty,” the caregiver accepts the approximation and attends to the meaning of the speech and says, “Yay! You went to the potty!” Finally, the last condition is employment, or using language with meaning to interact. Employment is meaningful practice in the most common routines where language accompanies and/or reinforces the words we use to get what we need, what we are interested in, and how we want to express ourselves.

Infants/toddlers’ first words are typically the names of those who care for them, the names of things that they like, and gestures such as waving bye or blowing kisses at times that give routines meaning.

Recommendations for Parents/Caregivers The following recommendations are intended to provide guidance for parents/caregivers as they create and support an environment that encourages infants and toddlers to explore and use language: • Accept close approximations when children attempt to mimic or talk. Their ability to reproduce mature sounds will come with practice.

• Expect children to hear and participate in mature conversations. They will learn the importance of timing and response.

• Immerse children in a variety of experiences from which they can learn new vocabulary and have a better understanding of what is being “talked” about.

• Engage them by taking time to get on the child’s level and talk with them. Sit down on the floor or at a small

Immersion Demonstration Engagement Expectation Responsibility Approximation Employment Figure 2

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table and talk with them. Give them a chance to answer with gestures and then provide the verbal equivalents for the gestures. Parents and caregivers can also take this time to expand their vocabulary by providing more mature descriptions of what interests the children most.

• Hold children responsible for using language by asking questions that require more than a simple yes or no answer. What is it? and Where is the ___? and What do you want? require more thought and thus a more complex answer. As children gain more language, open-ended questions like “How do you know?” and “What do you think?” require them to formulate more complex answers and thus extend their language.

• Employ or interact with children, toys, and real objects to provide concrete examples of things, their names, and uses to stimulate conversations with young children.

• Finding books and websites that interest children provides a good source for discussion. The following books and websites are good examples of appropriate resources for toddlers.

The Best Books by Age: Babies, like Toes, Ears & Nose!

by Marion Dane Bauer, can be found at http://www. parents.com/fun/entertainment/books/best-babybooks/#page=4 Theorists have studied and recorded the development of language for many years. The results of their work provide groundwork for creating an environment to provide supportive interactions that encourage language learning. Caregivers can share information with parents to help them interact with their children in ways that will encourage their infants’/toddlers’ language to expand and grow.

Top 10 Wordless Picture Books, like Bill Thomson’s Chalk, can be found at http://nerdybookclub.wordpress. com/2013/03/30/top-ten-wordless-picture-books-bykristen-remenar/

References and Resources BabyNet South Carolina’s Early Intervention System. http:// scfirststeps.org/babynet/ Berk, L. (2010). Development through the lifespan. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Brown, R. (1958). Words and things. New York, NY: Free Press.

Cambourne, B. (1988). The whole story: Natural learning and the acquisition of literacy in the classroom. New York, NY: Scholastic.

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Halliday, M. (1975). Learning how to mean. London, England: Edward Arnold.

South Carolina’s Infant and Toddler Guidelines. (2008). Language and communication development. Columbia, SC. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Children’s Books

2014

by Basanti Chakraborty, New Jersey City University

Laden, Nina PEEK-A-ZOO. 978-1-4521-1175-9. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 2014. 22 pp. $6.99/£4.99.

This exciting book for young children has colorful pictures of animals peeking out of every page, piquing young children’s curiosity. Parents and teachers can spark children’s learning and creativity by engaging them with similar “peek-a-boo” pop-up projects and scrapbook activities. This book can be a helpful tool when introducing children to different perspectives on animals, colors, and the environments where these animals make their homes. Preschool and up.

Zuckerman, Andrew CREATURE COLORS. ISBN 978-1-4521-1668-6. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 2014. 20 pp. $7.99/£4.99.

This book exposes young children to the concepts of color, numbers, nature, and animal habitats through vivid pictures of animals from around the world. Teachers can explore the pictures with children, while engaging them in learning colors, building vocabulary associated with animal body parts, and exploring the geographic areas where the animals live. Encouraging children to draw their favorite animals, color and identify an animal’s habitat on a map, and write slogans to encourage protection of the animals will broaden children’s knowledge base, spark their curiosity about animal habitats, and refine their emotional feelings. This book also can be used as a tool to build family-school relationships. Families representing diverse cultures may be invited to participate in multicultural activities with their child’s class and talk about animals they know. Teachers can create a multicultural bulletin board to display pictures of the different animals that have meaning for the children’s families. Ages 2-4.

Hale, Bruce CLARK SHARK DARES TO SHARE. ISBN 978-0-06-227905-7.

New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2013. 32 pp. $17.99.

This book explores appropriate socio-emotional values using the vibrant character of Clark the Shark, whose

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thoughts gradually progress from egocentric thinking to perspective-taking about sharing. The lively pictures of sea animals in Mrs. Inkydink’s class are captivating and the rhyming sentences provide a dynamic flow for Clark’s thoughts. This story will inspire children to examine their own perceptions through make-believe and support children to empathize with other young children, problem solve at their age level, learn new socio-emotional skills, and embark upon a new level of learning/behavior. This book is worth sharing with families to educate them about young children’s gradual development and the need to be patient and to explain concepts clearly and repeatedly.

While reading this book, parents and teachers can make a conscious effort to set examples of determination, support, and caring behavior. Ages 4-8.

Rotner, Shelly & Kelly, Sheila M. YUMMY: Good Food Makes Me Strong! ISBN 978-08234-2426-9. New York, NY: Holiday House, 2013. 32 pp. $16.95.

This book is filled with information for young children and families who want to make healthy decisions about food and food habits. The colored photographs showing children eating nourishing foods and helping in the process of preparing food by following simple directions are developmentally appropriate. The one-sentence statements encourage young children to choose nourishing foods. Even though the book does not have a well-connected story line, teachers can use it to engage children in creating their own personal stories about the varieties of nutritional food they like to eat and when. Teachers can enlist the help of families to create a multicultural collection of recipes inspired by this book. Ages 3-6.

Carr, Jan TOE SHOE MOUSE. ISBN 978-0-8234-2406-1. New York, NY: Holiday House, 2014. 32 pp. $16.95.

This book presents the tale of a young mouse who finds a beautiful theater after fleeing from a cat and other dangers. There, the mouse finds refuge in a ballet shoe be-

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longing to a dancer named Céleste. Céleste befriends the mouse and calls him Tendu. Young children will be able to empathize with Tendu as he copes with fear during his dangerous escape and they will be happy when Tendu finally finds friendship. After reading Tendu’s story, teachers can hold discussions with young children to identify various fears that affect their thinking. Children can talk about their fears, draw pictures depicting their fears, and/or share their fears with friends in class. The themes of kindness and friendship will also have great value for young children. Ages 3-6.

the cat. However, with the help of some magic sunglasses he soon feels better. He shares his good mood with his friends Squirrel, Turtle, and Alligator. At first, he thinks the magic sunglasses were the reason for the change in his mood. The wise owl doesn’t believe that magic sunglasses help anyone to see things in a new way, however.

He explains to Pete that happiness lies in seeing good in everyday events. This is an excellent book for dealing with young children’s everyday feelings and supporting their socioemotional growth. Teachers can hold brainstorming sessions with children to find out what makes them grumpy and encourage them to problem solve to resolve their negative feelings. This is a good book to share with parents for reading at home, providing them the opportunity to learn about the everyday happenings that can affect their children’s emotional state. An animated version of the story is available on the publisher’s website.

Ages 4-8.

Won, Brian HOORAY FOR HAT. ISBN 978-0-544-15903-7. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014. 40 pp. $16.99.

In this beautiful book, the story starts with an elephant waking up grumpy one day. Then he hears the doorbell and finds a surprise gift box waiting for him. When he opens the box, he finds a beautiful hat to put on his head and soon his mood changes for the better. He shares his happiness with other grumpy creatures. Eventually, the animals all have hats to wear as they form a parade. This book teaches the value of sharing and friendship. With the accompanying activity kit and video, teachers and parents can enhance children’s learning and fun. Ages 4-8.

Prelutsky, Jack SILVERMOON. ISBN 978-0-06-201467-2. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2013. 48 pp. $17.99.

This book contains 20 beautiful lullabies with soothing cadences accompanied by dreamlike pictures to ease the minds of little children as they fall asleep. The attractive color pictures and rhyming words bring children’s favorite outdoor environments indoors. Children will enjoy the illustrations of animals in lush natural settings. Teachers can share this book with family members and caregivers, who will appreciate songs to gently help children transition to sleep time. The songs include new vocabulary and concepts that the children will learn as they listen.

Teachers can use musical notations with simple melodies to sing the songs for and with kids. Ages 4-8.

Dean, Kimberly and James PETE THE CAT AND HIS MAGIC SUNGLASSES. ISBN 9780-06-227556-1. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2013. 40 pp. $17.99.

One morning, nothing seems to be going right for Pete

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McGrath, Barbara Barbieri TEDDY BEAR ADDITION. ISBN 978-1-58089-424-1. Boston, MA: Charlesbridge, 2014. 32 pp. $16.95.

The rhymes and kid-friendly language will motivate children to learn math while reading this story. Colorful teddy bears present math problems in both numbers and words, which makes it easier for primary grade children to assimilate the concept of addition. Solutions to the addition problems are provided with steps and sub-steps that children will find easy to remember and apply. Concepts such as guesstimating, sorting, vertical and horizontal equations, and place values are represented with many kid-friendly examples. The book does an excellent job with review of the concepts, supporting children’s ability to remember the essential facts and equations.

Teachers can use it as a math resource book and recommend that families use it with their children at home.

Ages 4-8.

Matley, Jiggy I LOVE YOU TOO! ISBN 978-1-61775-310-7. New York, NY: Akashic Books, 2014. 48 pp. $12.20.

This is a powerful book for young children, who need a lot of reassurance that they are loved and cherished.

Pictures of multicultural adults and children, as well as animals and environments, create a caring/emotive atmosphere for young children. The underlying theme of the book shows children that love and caring can be found in

Early Years Bulletin various ways, such as walking together, holding hands, drawing pictures together, decorating together during a holiday, or offering comfort when someone is crying.

These concepts are simply presented in a developmentally appropriate way to help children understand and apply them to their own lives. Teachers can share this book with families and parents/caregivers to encourage them to examine and practice various forms of loving and caring activities with their children. Ages 4-7.

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cal thinking and problem solving. Teachers can engage children in role playing and enacting the story to involve all children, even the shy ones, as it has “room for one more.” A good read for parents, too. Ages 3-7.

Stewart, Melissa FEATHERS: Not Just for Flying. ISBN 978-1-58089-430-2.

Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge, 2014. 32 pp. $17.95.

The simple and kid-friendly language about the benefits of feathers for birds makes this an excellent read for kids.

Readers will find fascinating pictures and information about different types of feathers and the geographic locations (United States, South America, India, Africa, and Antarctica) where these birds live. Details about how different types of feathers help birds survive in the wilderness will promote curiosity, a sense of wonder, and a desire to dig deeper to learn additional information about birds and other topics. Children will be intrigued by the comparisons of the functions of feathers with the functions of various activities or tools. Teachers can integrate the information on birds and feathers with literacy, science, social studies, and arts lessons. Children can draw pictures of their favorite birds and write stories about the birds. This is also a good book to share with families. Ages 6-9.

Bardhan-Quallen, Sudipta SNORING BEAUTY. ISBN 978-0-06-087403-2. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2014. 32 pp. $17.99 This book, with its colorful pictures, rhyming words, funny themes, and fairy tale ending of living happily ever after, has the power to captivate young readers. The dramatic beginning in which the mouse wakes up to the loud snoring of Snoring Beauty is hilarious for children.

When Prince Charming Max does not show interest in Snoring Beauty, the mouse kisses the princess to wake her up. The children will evaluate Prince Max and his behavior when he declares that he likes the castle, the throne, and the crown, but finds Snoring to be too much of a hassle. A lesson is learned about determination as mouse helps Snoring Beauty wake up and marry the prince. Children will laugh when they read about how the mouse wakes up on his own wedding night to his wife’s monstrous snoring. Teachers can encourage children to write similar funny stories using imagination and creativity. These stories can be presented at a story fair for the school. Ages 4-8.

Robinowitz, Alan A BOY AND A JAGUAR. ISBN 978-0-547-87507-1. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014. 32 pp. $16.99.

In this heart-warming autobiography, Rabinowitz narrates the story of his childhood experiences as a stutterer and how he felt that he was “broken” because he could not speak as easily as other children. Alan uses alternative ways to communicate with animals and to advocate for jaguars. Alan’s evolution from a stutterer to an advocate for a cause can inspire young children and help them feel empowered to stand up for important causes.

Families of special needs children will find the message in the book inspiring. Teachers can share this book with all families, helping them to understand diverse developmental issues that young children encounter. Teachers can use this book as a resource for helping children to understand each other and show empathy. Teachers also can encourage children to problem solve at their level by making rules for sharing and showing empathy toward others who are different. Ages 4-8.

Wheeler, Lisa FARMER DALE’S RED PICKUP TRUCK. ISBN 978-0-54424765-9. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004. 40 pp. $7.99.

This interesting book celebrates the message of inclusiveness: “There is always room for one more.” Beautiful, large watercolor-and-pencil-crayon illustrations are accompanied by rhyming animal-like sounds. The book also introduces children to a countryside landscape and anthropomorphized animals. The story describes how animals find a solution when they are confronted with problems of accommodation in a group. Young children need time to gradually develop the habit of sharing with others. This story teaches important lessons about criti-

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Ideas for the Classroom editors: Sandra J. Stone and Basanti Chakraborty

Primal Inquiry: Exploring Children’s Interests in Science

by Brian Stone, Lecturer at Northern Arizona University

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ave you ever wondered why so many students seem disinterested and disengaged when it is time to learn about science? Oh, they may seem excited at first, and even put in a good amount of effort, but the fact remains that many children find science irrelevant, frustrating, difficult, and uninteresting. To avoid this result in the classroom, the matter of ownership is crucial. Many children naturally pose questions and play with the world around them as a manifestation of their inherent curiosity. However, somewhere along the way, the process of asking questions as a direct result of personal interest is replaced by a homogenized scientific process that sees the teacher or curriculum as the owner of the question, the process, and the end result. All students do the same science at the same time, and rarely, if ever, have the opportunity to pose questions that arise out of interesting and relevant observations.

In order to truly engage children in science, teachers are encouraged to plan for a form of primal inquiry—pure questioning directly derived from a child’s interest in the natural world. For example, a child might observe a rainbow and ask, “Why is there a rainbow in the sky?” The child genuinely wants to know something about rainbows and so is the stakeholder in discovering the answer.

Engaging children at the point of their interest can provide the most powerful learning opportunities.

Questioning: The Foundation of Inquiry Curiosity. In order to nurture primal inquiry in your classroom, a little more commentary on questioning is needed. As young children develop language, they gain an ability to express their curiosity. Questions are usually directed toward more knowledgeable peers or adults. In fact, questioning uses ideational meanings, or those that show how children represent their world (Halliday, 1994).

A child might ask, “Why is the sky blue?” or “How does a

bird fly?” Questions begin to show the internalization of sensory input as well as the interpretations/beliefs of the individual. Therefore, each child is the owner/interpreter of his or her world. Fleener (2002) states the importance of this ownership in that “meaning is conveyed and transformed through language and our creative invention of ideas” (p. 11). Choice is an important factor to consider as well. Young children may choose not to pose questions, or may play with their world before ever asking questions.

Edmund Burke stated, “The first and simplest emotion which we discover in the human mind is curiosity” (Burke, 1835, p. 45). Curiosity about the world does not come from any one race, gender, ethnicity, culture, religion or socio-economic status, although these factors may shape inquiries (Wong & Hodson, 2010). Curiosity is a universal response to being present in an interesting world. Albert Einstein suggested, The important thing is not to stop questioning; curiosity has its own reason for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure of reality. It is enough if one tries merely to comprehend a little of this mystery every day. (as cited in Miller, 1955, p. 64)

Intrinsic Motivation. Early on, children have control over the questions they deem important, interesting, or relevant enough to pose to others.

There is a time, much greater in amount than commonly allowed, which should be devoted to free and unguided exploratory work (call it play if you wish; I call it work). Children are given materials and equipment­—things—and are allowed to construct, test, probe, and experiment without superimposed questions or instructions. (Hawkins, 1974, p. 1)

continued on p. 10 . . .

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Early Years Bulletin . . . continued from p. 9 Closely relating to play, children manipulate ideas through the development of logic and hypothesizing. They “bend reality” based on their own interpretations (Fleener, 2002). For example, the girl who asks, “Why is the sky blue?” may also respond to her own question with, “I think God painted it blue.” This answer shows the beliefs and internal reality of the individual. The motivation for both play and inquiry are intrinsic. The process of inquiring often demonstrates an investment in an answer. As children inquire, they play around with their reality and construct knowledge for themselves.

Information. Another reason children ask questions is to become informed. Rooted in their inherent interest, the rationale for children verbalizing a question to others is to receive a response (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006). The boy who asks, “How do birds fly?” has made an observation (birds fly), and has internalized/interpreted that information to be interesting. Perhaps the boy has even played with the idea and thought, “I wish I could fly.” The ensuing question, asked of others, represents an effort to be informed. Perhaps the boy might think, “If I know how birds fly, maybe I can do it, too.” The connections between the quest for knowledge and play are personal.

The questions children ask are many, and are always personally relevant/interesting to the individual (SengChee & Lay-Hoon, 2011). Interests vary, and curiosity cannot be conformed. Ownership should belong to each child, who is also the stakeholder in the entire process of inquiry (Peters & Stout, 2006). Within the classroom, scientific inquiry is a relevant and necessary experience for all children. When teachers take and maintain control of inquiry, the curiosity of children, rooted in interest, and uniquely viewed/interpreted, can be negatively influenced.

The following ideas promote inquiry of the individual child that is rooted in personal interest and relevance.

Theme-Related Student-Directed Inquiry Question Center. Student-directed inquiry can involve a thematic unit topic wherein children pose questions under the umbrella of the overarching theme. For example, a unit on plants may involve student questions like, “Why are leaves green?” or “How do Venus flytraps work?” If you use thematic units or integrated curriculum, you must allow a time or multiple times throughout the course of the unit for children to not only pose their own questions, but also

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explore them. One idea is to have a question center within a center-based learning environment, where children think about the topic (usually science but also social studies) and create a question. The question can then be researched, or perhaps the student wants to design and test a hypothesis.

Ideas developed at the question center can lead into separate, designated time for students to research, explore, experiment, and communicate their research or results. In terms of managing such a process during the course of the thematic unit, questions can be posed at any time during centers, but an established block of time, usually toward the end of the unit, can give students the opportunity to develop Nature of Science (NoS) understandings as well as develop process skills (i.e., observing, questioning, hypothesizing, testing, etc.). For younger children, research/experiments may mean 20-30 minutes of playing with the topic materials to develop a question as their interest guides them to an understanding of a concept.

Part of the quest for knowledge involves play, and part of the construction of knowledge comes from the experience of that play in context (Bloom, 2006). For older children, an hour block or longer could lead to well-researched, projecttype products, which represent their own questions and interest in the topic. It is important to note that any projects should not be made mandatory, but rather should cater to the students’ interests and encourage an intrinsic ownership. Primal inquiry requires that the child be the owner of the question, the process, and the end result.

Open-Ended Primal Inquiry. In addition to themerelated, student-directed inquiry, provide opportunities for open-ended primal inquiry, which follows the innate, unhindered questions derived solely from a child’s own curiosity. Whereas student-directed inquiry relates to a topic or theme, primal inquiry will vary widely from child to child and contains a potent aspect of natural scientific development for children. Open-ended primal inquiry also can be contained within the question center, but may not relate to the theme. For example, if the theme is plants, then a student-directed inquiry question may be, “Why do some trees have needles and others have leaves?”

However, the student may have questions of greater interest or relevance to him. For example, the student who asked the question about leaves may be harboring questions about electricity because a storm knocked out the power to his house the previous day. Take advantage of these questions when the relevance and interest is fresh. continued on p. 13 . . .

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Early Years Bulletin

Focus on Pre-K and K editors: Jennifer Baumgartner & Cynthia DiCarlo

The Reggio Emilia Approach (REA) in Contemporary Existence

by Letitia (Tish) Walters and Rose Jones, University of Southern Mississippi

“What about a tow truck?” asked the boy in the green shirt.

“And a big white crane truck,” suggested another little boy.

“Can we use the police car?” asked the little girl. “Why would you use a police car to build a new gymnasium?” inquired the little boy with glasses. Then the pedagogista entered the conversation to probe deeper into this question by asking why, what if, and would this happen. Starting with the police car question, a hypothesis and a research study were designed. The inquisitive nature of the conversation among these 4-year-olds demonstrated that they were thinking and learning about real-life situations. As the questions and answers flow, the large group separated into individuals or pedagogista-facilitated small groups to explore and determine conclusions about creating and recreating spaces using the mentioned construction and safety vehicles. The materials used for foundation building were boxes, dirt, blocks, logs, tools, safety vehicles, and various craft materials. A visiting parent encouraged the children to think of different ways to lay a foundation for the building. A local artist volunteering in the clay, drawing, painting, and computer area had the student architects design different gym buildings. Messaging and writing were involved as they emailed and texted about purchasing orders and building permits. Some students went to the dress-up area to act out the roles of community helpers, construction workers, and food van lunch providers. The pedagogista documented her observations with sticky notes and a voice recorder that were used to prepare the class for reflection as they recreated something they had learned using a fine art medium. The atelier was waiting to facilitate artist development. The sticky notes were posted around the room to help the pedagogista remember observed data for the next day’s preparation and for possible future long-term projects that the student(s) considered during large- and small-group discussions.

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his vignette provides an example of what you would see in a Reggio Emilia contemporary classroom. The Reggio Emilia Approach (REA) embraces inquiry as its pedagogical foundation. The theorists who influenced the REA pedagogy include Froebel, Piaget, Dewey, and Vygotsky. Maxine Greene’s philosophy and the Gestalt method are also included within the mix of theories.

The involved participants—children, teachers, and parents—are the critical thinkers and they are categorized individually, as well as cooperatively. Ongoing revelation of knowledge means that the children have interwoven yet cyclic patterns of observing, exploring, collecting, reflecting, analyzing, and documenting knowledge that is advanced in a socially constructed approach. Lillian Katz and Sylvia Chard identified the Project Approach and the REA as systems that help young children make fuller and deeper sense of events and experiences within their own environment.

REA is a unique combination of the child, teacher, and family that is coordinated with the surrounding culture to uncover student strengths instead of weakness. Positive student growth is associated with exposure to the inclusive and innovative atmosphere of REA. The inclusiveness of REA is a global approach that should be culturally adaptable to promote unity in any community.

Many people find similarities between Reggio Emilia and the early childhood learning theories of Maria Montessori.

Montessori’s idea of learning for children is child centered, with individualized learning, student decision-making, varied age grouping, and planned didactic materials.

American philosopher John Dewey influenced REA with the idea of theory embedded into daily practice. continued on p. 12 . . .

Early Years Bulletin . . . continued from p. 11 Dewey and Malaguzzi provided the example of a socioconstructivist approach, where the students and the school work together to produce a culture of knowledge grabbers and creators.

The REA stakeholders and participants include consiglio di gestione (parents, guardians, community residents, or instructors assisting a children’s education center); gestione sociale (community members); diverse students; exceptional students; pedagogista (specialist, resource individual, and coordinating consultant to serve school(s) or centers(s) to support the work of the teachers, develop their specialist expansion, support their connections with the families, and facilitate the relationships between the teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders); and atelieristas (teachers trained in expressive arts or visual education and in charge of the atelier). Together, these individuals create a relational, social community. With inclusion of all society members, culture is woven into the child-driven curriculum, which promotes living life together, including grocery shopping, gardening, cleaning, and cooking meals and snacks.

The REA is also inclusive in terms of assessing the children. Assessment is not done by calculating with data; rather, evaluation is done by reflecting on events and experiences. A process folio includes artifacts representing children’s drawing, sculpting, music, dance, drama, painting, or technology, which illuminate the complete story of the child’s educational and personal growth.

The atelier (art studio/craft room where children work) is expected to be a place of ongoing student collaboration and creation.

The “what” we should document, the “why” we should document, and the “how” we should document are the basic categories for proving the power of documentation.

Recommended practice suggests collaboration between the pedagogista and the children as researchers, choosing a topic, developing the topic in sequential order, and collaborating about the process. Documentation can be used as a method for creating the curriculum, assessing student growth, and providing evidence of learning to others and teacher accountability. The process folio includes the product procession in order to balance and promote holistic learning over time in a documentation portfolio.

REA relies upon a renewed sense of family and community values to bring a refreshing rigor to creative

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childhood learning. The child is first and foremost a social being, who has a voice and constructs knowledge by researching. The pedagogista and atelierista serve to facilitate and research the growth of learning by observing and analyzing the child’s intellectual, physical, social, and emotional development. The pedagogista and the children cooperate in a continual state of researching, learning, documenting, and reflecting, while integrating the arts of the culture. An important aspect of this theory is continual advancement in learning because of the documentation done by both the pedagogista and the child. The documentation provides proof of achievement to the children, with their own created visual memories and powerful evaluations for the pedagogista to use to improve and expand project ideas.

Due to the notoriety of Malaguzzi, educators around the world are interested in this approach. However, Malaguzzi does not claim total authorship for the approach. The community of Reggio Emilia—the teachers, parents, entrepreneurial associates, and children—known as consiglio di gestione, are all contributors to this pedagogy.

A common theme that has been taken from this approach is that the theory and practice are embedded together.

In other words, theory drives practice and practice drives theory. There is no separation between the Reggio Emilia theory and everyday practice in a Reggio School.

The Reggio Emilia Approach is a unique combination of the child, the pedagogista, and the family that is coordinated with the surrounding culture to ground early childhood education in a sphere of higher order thinking.

The evolving cycle of theory driving practice and practice driving theory is the provision of proof for the validation of REA. Documentation of students’ long-term projects is desirable and necessary in the REA, providing evidence of higher order thinking activities and student synthesizing methods. In conclusion, the REA embraces the notion that “It takes a village to raise a child.” The focal points are the child, the community, and its culture while being in existence in any educational environment.

Teacher and Parent Resources Cadwell, L. (2005). Bringing Reggio Emilia home: An innovative approach to early childhood education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Deviney, J., Duncan, S., Harris, S., Rody, M. A., & Rosenberry, L. (2005). Inspiring spaces for young children. Silver Spring, MD: Gryphon House.

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Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (2012). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Gandini, L., Hill, L., Cadwell, L. & Schwall, C. (2005). In the spirit of the studio: Learning from the atelier of Reggio Emilia. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Pelo, A. (2007). The language of art inquiry-based studio practices in early childhood settings. St. Paul, MN: Red Leaf Press.

Wurm, J. (2005). Working in the Reggio way: A beginner’s guide for American teachers. St. Paul, MN: Red Leaf Press.

REA Books are available at: www.amazon.com www.reggiochildren.it/activities/publishing/how-toorder/?lang=en Main Resource for the Reggio Emilia Approach: www.reggiochildren.it/?lang=en www.reggioalliance.org

. . . continued from p. 10 Encourage students to pose their own primal questions for immediate or future exploration. If you use a centerbased learning environment, or have a project-based block of time during the week, give students the opportunity to question and explore answers to their own open-ended questions.

Conclusion As students are able to exercise and express their own inquiries, then explore, experiment, and test their questions, a greater level of interest and engagement will be evident in their approach to science. They will be more highly motivated, and will develop NoS understandings as well as process skills. Primal scientific inquiry is necessary for children to maintain interest and develop ownership of their learning experiences.

By encouraging an inquiry approach that is personally relevant, children will be more likely to see science has meaning in their lives.

References

References C. Rapaport, personal communication, October 7, 2013.

Dodd-Nufrio, A. (2011). Reggio Emilia, Maria Montessori, and John Dewey: Dispelling teacher’s misconceptions and understanding theoretical foundations. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39(2), 235-237. doi:10.1007/ s10643-011-0451-3 Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (2012). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformations (3rd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Hewett, V. (2001). Examining the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(2), 95-100. doi:10.1023/A:1012520828095.

Rankin, B. (2004). The importance of intentional socialization among children in small groups: A Conversation with Loris Malaguzzi. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(2), 81-85.

Seitz, H. (2008). The power of documentation in the early childhood classroom. Young Children, 63(2), 88-92.

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Bloom, J. (2006). Creating a classroom community of young scientists. New York, NY: Routledge.

Burke, E. (1835). The library of standard literature: The works of Edmund Burke with a memoir. G. Dearborn (Ed.). New York, NY: G. Dearborn.

Fleener, M. J. (2002). Curriculum dynamics: Recreating heart.

New York: NY: Peter Lang Publishing.

Halliday, M. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). London, England: E. Arnold.

Hawkins, D. (1974). Messing about in science. In D. Hawkins (Ed.), The informed vision, essays on learning and human nature. Bronx, NY: Agathon Press.

Miller, W. (1955, May 2). Death of a genius. Life Magazine, 38, 6164.

Peters, J. M., & Stout, D. L. (2006). Science in elementary education: Methods, concepts, and inquiries (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 97-118).

Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Seng-Chee, T., & Lay-Hoon, S. (2011). Exploring relationship between students’ questioning behaviors and inquiry tasks in an online forum through analysis of ideational function of questions. Computers & Education, 57, 1675-1685.

Wong, S. L., & Hodson, D. (2010). More from the horse’s mouth: What scientists say about science as a social practice.

International Journal of Science Education, 32, 1431-1463.

Early Years Bulletin

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The Ten Pillars of a Good Childhood

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he Ten Pillars of a Good Childhood are a starting point that can be used to consider what a good childhood looks like today. Please use these pillars for your engagement with this decade. How are they relevant to the experience of childhood in your home, your community, or your nation? Share the Ten Pillars with others. We would like to hear your opinions about the pillars and about creative ways that the pillars have been used by you to guide policies and practices related to the experience of childhood.

• Safe and secure places for living and learning, with access to health care, clothing, shelter, and nutritious food • Strong families and loving, consistent caregivers • Social interactions and friendships • Creative play and physical activity • Appreciation and stewardship of the natural environment • Creative expression through music, dance, drama, and the other arts • Education that develops the full capacities of the child—cognitive, physical, social, emotional, and ethical • Supportive, nurturing, child-friendly communities • Growing independence and decision making • Children and youth participating in community life.

ACEI HEADQUARTERS STAFF: Diane P. Whitehead, Executive Director Michelle Allen, Operations Manager Anne Watson Bauer, Editor/Director of Publications Banhi Bhattacharya, Professional Development and Research Specialist Emebet G/Micheal, Accounting Manager Olivia Kent, Communications Manager Deborah Jordan Kravitz, Production Editor Sheri Levin, Member Relations Manager Yvette Murphy, Director of Advocacy and Outreach Nana Oppong, Director of Development Dione Walters, Membership Assistant Alyson Zimbler, Development Coordinator

Early Years Bulletin, ISSN 2333-6226, is published quarterly by the Association for Childhood Education International, 1101 16th St., N.W., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036.

Articles published in Early Years Bulletin represent the views of the authors and do not necessarily reflect positions taken by the Association for Childhood Education International.

Copyright © 2014 by the Association for Childhood Education International. No permission is needed to reproduce materials for education purposes.

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