國際藝術教育學刊第十卷第一期 by amau amau

The International Journal of Arts Education

目錄 CONTENTS ii 編者序

郭禎祥

iii Editorial

Ann C. S. Kuo

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Sheng Kuan Chung 1 Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom 一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂鍾生官 21 中的社會議題討論 Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A 36 Chung Yim Lau Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group 48 重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

劉仲嚴

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum 57 Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism 博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣 81 賞與評論圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義—從 Chris Ware 的 98 作品談起 The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications 120 in Art Education：Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

Cheung On Tam Ng Mau Wai

151 不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

范睿榛

173

A Study on the Kinetic Family Drawings by Children with Different Family Structures

譚詳安吳蔚茂范銀霞賴雯淑 Yin Hsia Fan Wen Shu Lai

Ruei Jen Fan

205 編審委員 206 徵

稿

209 CALL FOR ARTICLES

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國際藝術教育學刊

主編序本期《國際藝術教育學刊》透過多元文化的交流與溝通，開拓藝術教育的視野，藉由研究者對於藝術教育的見解與意見，瞭解當代藝術教育發展，更助於多元文化意識的增長和對話。本期投稿的每位作者皆在藝術教育不同的研究上多所著墨，非常感謝他們的參與。本期發表於《國際藝術教育學刊》的學者，有美國的 Sheng Kuan Chung 教授；香港的 Chung Yim Lau、Cheung On Tam、Ng Mau Wai 教授；臺灣的范銀霞、賴雯淑、范睿榛教授。Sheng Kuan Chung 學者從後結構主義與社會符號學觀點出發，檢視藝術教育系學生如何創作與詮釋影像，帶動批判性對話，以培養學生高度的社會關懷意識。Chung Yim Lau 學者探討創意的理論、定義和相關議題作為藝術教育參考。Cheung On Tam、Ng Mau Wai 二位學者探究博物館多媒體互動導覽指南開發，能有益學生學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論。范銀霞、賴雯淑二位學者，共同執筆評析超美學於圖像敘事能提供開放思維與衍生意義的可能性。范睿榛學者透過了繪畫來瞭解兒童與家庭成員之間的互動情形或是自我對家庭的看法。最後，在付梓之際，要感謝國立臺灣藝術教育館及相關人員的支持，及每一位參與者—包括作者們的賜稿、審查委員、編輯委員及編輯小組等之辛勞，使得本期維持一貫的品質，並得以順利出刊。我們期待本期能一如往常獲得各界的支持與回響，為藝術教育的多元視野提供更廣闊的國際交流，更期盼各界對學刊繼續支持與鼓勵。

郭禎祥世界華人藝術教育學會

謹誌主席

臺灣亞洲藝術文化教育交流學會理事長

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The International Journal of Arts Education

Editorial In this issue of “The International Journal of Arts Education,” the perspective of art education has been expanded through multicultural exchanges and communication. The development of contemporary art education is understood through the researcher’s views and opinions toward art education, which benefits the growth and dialogue of multicultural awareness. The authors who submitted papers to this issue offer us insight into different research done in art education, and we thank them for their participation. The scholars published in this issue include Professor Sheng Kuan Chung from the US, Professors Chung Yim Lau, Cheung On Tam, and Ng Mau Wai from Hong Kong, and Fan Yinxia, Lai Wenshu, and Fan Ruizhen from Taiwan. Sheng Kuan Chung observes how art education students create and interpret images through post-structuralism and social semiotics, and promotes critiquing as a means to train students to have a higher awareness for social care. Chung Yim Lau explores innovative theories, definitions, and related issues as references for art education. Cheung On Tam and Ng Mau Wai explore the development of museum multimedia interactive tour guides which aids students to learn visual arts appreciation and commentary. Yin Hsia Fan and Wen Shu Lai co-authored an analysis on how ultra-aesthetics and image narratives can promote open minds and derivative meaning. Ruei Jen Fan attempts to understand the interactions between children and family members and their personal views on family through paintings. Finally, I would like to thank the National Taiwan Arts Education Center, the personnel and the participants, including the writers, the Review Committee, and the Editorial Board and Team for their hard work, so that our journal can maintain its high quality and become published. We hope that this issue can gain the support and resonance from everyone, and provide more international exchanges for diverse perspectives on art education. We

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also look forward to the continued support and encouragement of this journal.

Ann C. S. Kuo President, World Chinese Art Education Association Director, Cross Cultural Asian Art Education Association

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A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Sheng Kuan Chung Associate Professor University of Houston E-mail: skchung@uh.edu

Abstract Drawing on poststructuralism and social semiotics, this study investigates the process and nature of art interpretation as a social activity by examining how undergraduate art education students interpret the issues-driven staged photography they have constructed. Through creating and interpreting this photography collaboratively, the students are engaging in critical dialogue about social issues relevant to their everyday lives. In this study, I analyze the intertextual resources (codes) used by the students to generate meaning in creating and interpreting images, and find that the students activate different intertextual resources to decode images in correspondence with the specific issues presented in them. Photographic images, regardless of how intuitively or deliberately they are created, are likely to generate different, if not conflicting, readings dependent on the respective intertextual resources deployed by the individual readers who interpret them. Additionally, I am thereby exploring the possibility of promoting critical dialogue using issues-driven staged photography in an art education classroom to help students develop greater social awareness.

Key Words: Art Interpretation, Critical Literacy, Intertexuality, Social Issues, Social Semiotics

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國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Rapid advances in technology in recent years have greatly facilitated the production and consumption of visual imagery. Textual materials are no longer considered the dominant form of communication in a visually saturated society. This “cultural centrality of vision” (Schroeder, 2006, p. 303) calls for a critical understanding of visual practices (both presentation and interpretation) as a social activity. Poststructuralism and critical social semiotics have informed educators about meaning and how it is a socially constructed, fluid variable that changes and is changed in use (Rose, 2001). In art education, this notion has blurred the boundary between authorship/artists and readership/viewers with regard to art interpretation and triggered questions about the very nature of interpretation. In line with Barthes (1977b), who famously declared the “death of the author” and the “birth of the reader,” Barrett (1994) argued that the artist’s interpretation of his or her art is simply one interpretation among many and not necessarily more accurate or more acceptable simply because it comes from the artist. If the main purpose of art interpretation is not limited to discovering the artist’s intent, the meaning of art becomes more fluid and much broader (Barrett, 1994), illuminating the very nature of art interpretation.

Framing the Study: Interpretation, Poststructuralism, and Social Semiotics Interpretation plays a key role in meaning making and knowledge construction, entailing the making of personal connections between what we see and what we know about life (Hubard, 2007). It is through interpretation that we gain information, insight, and knowledge about art and life (Goodman, 1978). In the modern era, art has belonged mostly to a number of small, select groups in art institutions who have been given the authority to present and control it and offer speculations about it. Poststructuralists, on the other hand, have questioned any single authoritative reading of art since this limits the public’s interaction with and participation in it. If art is about communication, it requires “focused engagement with and the representation of multiple worldviews” (Sanders-Bustle, 2008, p. 14) from “both the artmaker and the art viewer” (Barnes, 2009, p. 41). A work of art is not produced by the artist alone but rather is coconstructed with the

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interpretations of the viewer as well. Art is no longer just about the material or physical aspects of presentation, but rather is a site of social interaction between artist and viewers from which meaning is shaped. Theories such as poststructuralism and critical social semiotics have opened up new terrain for examining the practices of art interpretation. Poststructuralists have questioned the notion of self as a coherent, structural entity by arguing that it comprises the tensions and conflicts of varied ideologies, and that each individual creates his or her own understanding and existence within a given context. Therefore, the meaning making of a given text can never be finished or come to a complete closure; it is always open to re-interpretation and re-construction in relation to certain variables and subject to biases and misunderstandings. At the same time, social semiotics draws my attention to the ways in which language and imagery are used in the social construction of race, gender, and class, which in turn shapes our interpretation and understanding of the outside world. Social semioticians see all texts as social action, as embedded in larger economic and cultural practices and power relations. In art education, social semiotics provides insights into the practices of art interpretation (e.g., art dialogue and writing) because it emphasizes “the social effects of meaning” (Rose, 2001, p. 70). Artworks are semiotic processes, incurring meaning through an intertextual relationship with sign systems. This study emphasizes semiotic resources instead of semiotic codes. Codes are predetermined interpretive frameworks used by producers and readers of texts. In creating and interpreting texts, we select signs with reference to what seem to be appropriate codes "in order to limit... the range of possible meanings they are likely to generate…" (Turner, 1992, p. 17). Codes help to simplify experiences for easy communication between text producers and readers. Social semioticians are concerned with who made the rules and how the rules change and might be changed. Social semioticians use resource in lieu of code to acknowledge changes and power dynamics in the visual signification between representation and interpretation (Aiello, 2006). Unlike semiotic codes, semiotic resources are

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A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

produced in the course of cultural histories coming from specific interests and purposes (Jewitt & Oyama, 2001; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001). In addition, intertexuality is a key factor in interpreting texts. According to Rorty (1992), “Reading texts is a matter of reading them in the light of other texts, people, obsessions, bits of information, or whatever, and then seeing what happens” (p. 105). In this sense, understanding art means interpreting the discourse within which the work is situated, with the understanding of intertexuality as “the way that the meanings of any one discursive image or text depend not only on that one text or image, but also on the meanings carried by other images and texts” (Rose, 2001, p. 136). The meanings of an image can never be simply self-referential or completely objective; rather, individual viewers bring their own lived-through experiences and respective funds of knowledge to the formation of these interpretations. When interpreting art collaboratively, they bring their culturally shared values and assumptions to the construction of their interpretation. Understanding the process of art interpretation is essential in art education. Interpretation entails a process of discovery and invention, a new production in itself. Art interpretations are persuasive arguments about art and can be personal or communal (Barrett, 2006). Taking a poststructuralist stance, Barrett (1994) pointed out that art attracts multiple interpretations that may be different, contradictory, and competing. It is not the goal of interpretation to arrive at a single, unified interpretation or to match the artist’s “original” intent. The interpretation of art as it occurs in educational settings should offer students different perspectives that will deepen their understanding of the art piece being examined. Barrett (2006) has further argued that photography, like any art form, is a mode of communication beyond that of affective expression. It demands interpretation to uncover its constructed meanings, either intended or unintended. Because photography has often been used to depict reality, it is often viewed as reality itself or a transcription of reality rather than as an opinionated construct carrying situated knowledge and meanings. Photographs are in fact ideological constructs representing a particular

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viewpoint of the photographer. A photograph should be regarded as a discourse anchored in social relations. Additionally, Forrester (2000) noted that despite the dominance of constructivist representational processes, only a few studies (e.g., Intraub, Bender, & Mangels, 1992; Intraub & Berkowits, 1996; McKlevie, Standing, St. Jean, & Law, 1993) have looked specifically at photographs. As he points out, essentially there are two views informing current debates in photography, one emphasizing the “realism” of the photographic image, the other focusing on the “discourses, interpretations and codes which inform recognizing and ‘reading’ a photographic image” (p. 159). This latter view was of particular interest to my research in this study. I was interested in analyzing the interpretations of photographic images and artist intentions by college students in an effort to provide suggestions for using staged photography to promote social dialogue. The study was also intended to serve as a possible instructional model for art educators interested in fostering critical visual literacy through art education. To that end, I discuss the relevant implications of a project like this for art education, suggesting the possibility of using issues-based images to promote social dialogue and foster critical visual literacy.

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Study Setting and Design This inquiry focused on a collaborative approach to art production and written interpretation by college students. A collaborative interpretation of art navigates between personal speculation and communal knowledge. Specifically I looked at how college students would work together to draw upon intertextual resources in order to create and interpret art. The participants were 20 college students (preservice elementary teachers) at a university in Texas. After learning about photography as a medium for artistic creation and storytelling, the students were evenly divided into five groups. Each group was asked to produce three staged photographs depicting scenes that would be thought provoking, mysterious, or that raised issues of greater social importance, and then write about the intent behind their photograph. The students used the school environment as their setting and were encouraged to photograph several scenes, change the C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 ○

國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

background and idea, and consider photographing each scene from different perspectives. All group members were expected to be in the scenes and to work together in playing out the ideas in the scenes. In taking each photograph, the student participants were to pay attention to the form (use of design principles) and the content (meaning) of their creations. They were also to consider setting, lighting, and the way they framed their scenes. Each group was to then choose one final photograph to share with the class for its interpretation. Within the semiotic framework and for the purpose of this study, I refer to the group who produced a particular staged photograph as the “authors” and the viewing groups as the “readers.” The type of photographs produced by the students fit the categories of interpretive and ethically evaluative photographs (see Barrett, 1986). According to Barrett (1986), interpretive photographs are explanatory, offering information about the world or living phenomena from a particular point of view. Such photographs are fictive, poetic, and metaphoric, usually using actors, models, or situations directed by the photographer (Barrett, 1986). Although interpretive photographs make explanatory claims about the world, these claims would be hard to prove with empirical evidence, and acceptance of their truth is based on a viewer’s willingness to believe them. On the other hand, ethically evaluative photographs communicate what people should become and how things should be. These photographs, such as those seen in advertising, make moral judgments by presenting that which is considered acceptable or desirable; thus, they may take political stances on promoting social justice or acceptability. Once the students in the groups finished taking their photographs, they chose one piece over which to collaborate on writing about their intent. As I observed, the members of each group looked for commonalities to synthesize their ideas about the art piece they had produced. They conversed about and elaborated on the relationships between the visual elements of the artwork on a deeper, interpretive level, as echoed by Barnes (2009) describing a similar group task: “Conversations lead [sic] to richer reflection as participants moved from the ‘personal space’ of their own perception into the ‘community space’ of wider insights” (p. 43). Collaborative writing about art creates a balance between personal and

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The International Journal of Arts Education

communal interpretation, “allowing students to follow their insights from an initial spark of understanding, to a fully executed idea” (Barnes, 2009, p. 44). Yenawine (1997) also noted that writing “involves a set of skills ranging from simple identification—naming what one sees—to complex interpretation on contextual, metaphoric and philosophical levels” (p. 1). Each group of students also interpreted the several other photographs created by their peer groups. They were asked to work collaboratively in interpreting these photographs and writing down their ideas. In creating art and interpreting it collaboratively, the students were thus given a unique opportunity to experience art production and interpretation as a social activity. For this study, I selected three photographs from three of the groups to analyze. Each data set consisted of three sources: the photograph itself, the statement of intent by the authoring group, and the interpretations by the peer viewing groups. In my analysis, I drew upon the work of Barthes (1977a) who, approaching visual communication from a linguistic lens, claimed that visual signification can be articulated in terms of denotation and connotation. The level of denotation addresses the literal meaning of an image, whereas the level of connotation corresponds to its ideological meaning as inscribed by cultural codes. Intertexuality operates at the connotation level, which is key for readers to make sense of what they see in a given text. The notion of intertextuality refers to the relationship between texts—in this case, a piece of art and its personal, cultural, and sociopolitical connections made by the author and readers—that goes beyond the literal depiction of the photograph. Therefore, in interpreting the data, I looked at each photograph in terms of its denotations and connotations as I analyzed the intertextual resources upon which the authors and readers drew in making sense of the photographs that they and the other groups had staged.

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Social Issues as Illustrated Through Staged Photography Issue 1: Heteronormativity and the Display of Public Affection by a Same-Sex Couple

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國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Figure 1. Photograph A. Statement of intent by the artists/authors (see Figure 1): After class a homosexual couple decided to walk to their car together, holding hands. . . . They were not being overly affectionate, nor were they flaunting in the ladies’ faces. They were behaving like any normal couple. Two conservative, narrow-minded, hypocritical ladies smirked at the couple because they do not believe in same-sex relationships. They also slurred gay remarks to the couple as they passed by, harassing them to no end. Had this been a man and women holding hands, there would have been no judgmental looks from the two ladies. This is an issue we see each day and is one that impacts the lives of many people. After this picture was taken, the couple confronted the judgmental ladies and [later] created a gay activist group on campus with the hopes of changing the way people view others. The photograph (see Figure 1) shows two young women walking together and holding hands as two other women stare at them. Along with the artists (henceforth the authors or the authoring group), all four viewer groups (henceforth the readers or the reader groups) pointed out the same detonation of the public display of affection between a same-sex couple. Denotational statements offered by the readers included “two homosexual girls stepped out into a public place area, and displayed their outward

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affection by holding hands,” and “as two young ladies are walking through campus holding hands, they appeared to be lesbians.” The image itself would have made little sense to the readers without the contextual and intertextual sources of information that each reader brought to the scene on his or her own. But although both authors and readers offered similar denotative observations, at the connotative level their interpretations varied, with the reader groups linking the depicted scene to personal assumptions or beliefs, heterocentric social norms, the current sociopolitical climate, or historical context. For instance, one group stated, “Even though the women staring were being rude and obnoxious, the women holding hands seemed oblivious to their actions,” while another group observed, “The two women holding hands seem to be involved in an intimate relationship.” Other statements further illustrated the use of personal assumptions: “The couple holds hands after getting out of class. As they walk to their car, they reminisce about what happened in class,” and “The girl in the brown is submissive and decides to ignore the situation.” Personal beliefs also came into play in interpreting this image, as shown in two statements: “People fight for their freedom to live their life however they choose without judgment,” and “Being in love with a person transcends gender, ethnicity, or disability.” When asked to explain their ideas in staging this photo, the authors used oppositional words centered on heteronormativity to raise important questions about issues concerning the public display of affection between same-sex couples. These words, and their implied oppositional terms, included normal/abnormal, conservative/progressive, heterosexual/homosexual, acceptable/unacceptable, pleased/disgusted, rude/nice, comfortable/uncomfortable, and status quo/political action. Coming from the view of heteronormality, the authors, for instance, equated heterosexual with “normal” in indicating that the couple behaved like a normal couple, whereas if they were a heterosexual couple, they would not have received the unwanted attention from the bystanders. Most of the reader interpretations linked the depicted scene to the current social climate, political conditions, or historical context. With respect to social climate, one group said that homosexuality is more socially acceptable today, but that people are still uncomfortable with or critical of such affection, as expressed by the two bystanders in the photograph.

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A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Another group claimed that “currently, homosexuality continues to be controversial in our society; however, our society has opened up to the idea of seeing same-sex relationships.” The image also tended to evoke a political discourse about gay issues among the participants. According to one group, Homosexuality has been publicized more in our society, but there are still many who do not believe that is the “correct” way to live. Many conservative people are fighting to limit or stop this lifestyle because they believe that relationships should be heterosexual. As another group elaborated: Our society is currently fighting between the freedom to choose who they are with and keeping the union between man and women sacred. More states will legalize same sex-marriage as time passes and people fight for their freedom to live their life however they choose without judgment. Another statement linked the depicted scene with the historical context, pointing out: In the past, this type of behavior would have been unacceptable in our society. We would have never seen a homosexual couple showing their affection publicly. They would have been ridiculed or even punished for their behavior or indecency. The intertextual resources upon which the students drew to interpret the depicted controversial scene thus included personal beliefs and assumptions, everyday experience, heterocentric social norms, the current sociopolitical climate, and historical context. The students’ interpretations pointed primarily to heteronormativity as the basis of social norms that have been constructed as “natural.”

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Issue 2: Social Responsibility

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Figure 2. Photograph B. Statement of intent by the authors (see Figure 2): After such a drastic scene that took place in the classroom, the girl flees out of the building, and sits right on the hard concrete steps. The girl that is seated on the steps has her hands covering her face, hiding the emotions she is feeling. The shadow that hovers over the girl represents the dark feelings that she is experiencing at this moment. After a few minutes have passed by, the distressed girl’s classmate comes out of the building. She sees the distressed girl but does not care what has happened to her or even try to console her. The girl immediately walks to the left side and steps down the steps. The bright burning sunlight to the left side represents the pride and dreariness that overwhelms the girl, making her insensitive to this particular situation. Now a lady walks out of the building and notices the distressed girl. As we can see, the illuminating light that reflects on the lady’s extended arm represents feelings of compassion and a sign of hope for the distressed girl. The lady calms the distressed girl and discovers that the girl’s car was towed. . . . Now here are some (thought-provoking) questions to think about: If you were to see a person who is distressed or is overcome with despair, would you extend a helping hand? Or would you look and walk the other way?

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國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

This photograph shows a young woman sitting on the steps in front of a building who has her head down while another young woman appears to be trying to talk to her. Another girl is walking down the steps not paying much attention to them. In interpreting this image, the participants employed everyday experiences and their understanding of visual metaphors while linking the scene to the current social climate and historical context. Since all participants were college students, they appeared to draw on issues happening on campus. The reader groups came up with various possible reasons for the girl to be sitting on the stairs in distress: a school-parking issue (pointed out by the authors), a breakup with her boyfriend, or poor academic performance. For instance, one group said that the girl “failed her Organic Chemistry class and cannot graduate because of this,” while two other groups indicated the girl was distraught over a breakup with her boyfriend. The participants used oppositional words to dramatize the emotions they read from the picture. Example words included shadow/light, distressed/hope, failed/successful, and sad/happy. Other keywords included breakup, ruined, devastated, sympathetic, and concerned. Additionally, the authoring group applied visual metaphors to convey a different connotational level as they associated shadow with dark feelings and light with feelings of compassion and signs of hope. The authors described the girl looking away as uncaring about the situation such that “her expression of happiness [was] shown on her face,” while “the girl that is seated on the steps has her hands covering her face, hiding the emotions she is feeling.” Descriptions from the participants (both authors and readers) led to a discussion about moral responsibility (“helping strangers in distress”) and personal safety (“trusting complete strangers”) as the authors probed. Another group had a similar interpretation: “A concerned passerby stopped to console and check on the status of [the girl’s] mental state. Another student passing by seems to have absolutely no remorse or concern with her situation.” The participants thus emphasized the contrary reactions of the two female bystanders to the girl in distress. Several statements also related this scene to the current social climate or historical context to explain the different reactions of the two female bystanders. One group stressed that “you cannot trust people because

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sometimes a good deed can turn against you,” while another stated: “In the past, there was more compassion for other’s feelings and needs. Most people would help their fellow neighbors, coworkers, or even strangers in their community because people still trusted one another.” As a different group elaborated further: Nowadays, fear controls the way we live because of the dangers our society has instilled in us because of all the violence that occurs every day. Now, it is very common for people to ignore someone who is in need of help.

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

The authors and readers all pointed out this social dilemma about helping total strangers. Issue 3: Reality Versus Appearance

Figure 3. Photograph C. Statement of intent by the authors (see Figure 3): Two young ladies are walking into the bathroom as one is walking out. There is a man sitting outside the woman’s restroom who is perceived to be staring inside. Before the two women walked into the restroom, a different woman in a wheelchair had gone into the bathroom while her boyfriend worried anxiously outside. The woman in the wheelchair required

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國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

assistance and the boyfriend was somewhat overprotective of her disability. He liked to be around her at all times to ensure her safety. The woman walking out of the bathroom assumed the man was staring at the women inside. Upset by this action, the woman went to report the man to the police, while the two women walking in assisted the handicap woman. Although angry about being questioned by the police, the boyfriend was grateful and was not harmed or arrested. The first two sentences by the authors describe the photograph well at the denotative level, which did not, however, yield substantial information about what the photograph in fact depicted. In writing down their intent, the authors focused on what was not shown, addressing the misunderstanding of the situation and, more broadly, the issue of reality versus appearance. Many different connotations were factored into interpreting this image, including personal experience. Several keywords used by the reader groups highlighted the general stereotypes behind the depicted scene; these included an eerie guy waiting for his next victim, his perverted intensions, and the assumption that he was a sexual predator. The students also used value-charged adjectives such as overprotective, staring, anxious, angry, grateful, peeking, intruding, perverted, staring, and waiting. The authors drew upon social norms, personal experience, and psychoanalysis to construct their statement of intent by describing both the scenarios of an overly protective boyfriend and an incidence of gender stereotypes associated with a man looking into a women’s restroom. Interpretations by the readers covered both these scenarios as well. Along with the authors, two reader groups deployed personal experience and psychoanalysis to interpret the scene as portraying an overly protective boyfriend. One group described the guy as “waiting for his girlfriend to come out,” while the other group elaborated: The guy in the picture is an overprotective boyfriend. He comes to school with his girlfriend everyday and follows her around to make sure she does not talk to any other men. In this picture he was watching her walk into the bathroom with her friends, who he does not like or trust. He made them

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keep the bathroom door open so that he knew everything they were talking about. The readers further drew upon social norms to judge the depicted scene. In many societies it is considered socially unacceptable for an adult male to stare into a women’s restroom; there would be less controversy if the person sitting outside the restroom were a female. One reader group commented: “The man had already been sitting there waiting for his next victim. During the picture, the girls are discussing the eeriness of the guy sitting outside the ladies room.” This was echoed by similar statements of two other reader groups: “The man is trying to eavesdrop but cannot hear them clearly. Instead he inches closer to the ladies room hoping to hear the conversation and sneak a peek,” and “It seems as though this man has perverted intensions as he is staring into the women’s restroom.”

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Findings and Implications The cases presented here show that the students activated different intertextual resources to decode and interpret images in correspondence with the specific issues presented in them. For instance, although Photograph A depicted public affection by a female couple, the students articulated general issues of homosexuality by linking the image to the broad texts of personal beliefs and assumptions, heterocentric social norms, current social climate, political conditions, religious beliefs, and historical context. Differing slightly from the intertextual resources used in Photograph A, the interpretations of Photographs B and C demonstrated the intertextual resources of personal experiences and assumptions and social norms, coupled primarily with the texts of visual metaphors and psychoanalysis, to generate narratives. As the interpretations of these three images revealed, those interlinking the current social climate, political conditions, and historical context added more relevant and deeper layers of meaning to the interpretations since they were engaging the participants further in examining their dominant views and perceptions of the issues being presented.

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國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

In this study, issues-driven images served as a catalyst for semiotic discourse and action on issues of importance to the participants living in a democratic society. As van Leeuwen (2005) highlights, what makes social semiotics distinctive is its belief that all social action is semiotic, because changes in social practices are heavily affected by changes in discursive practices and their textual renditions. The interpretations of Photograph A unraveled the prevalent heterocentric social norms and agendas held by the participants as a basis for decoding and interpretation of which they may have been unaware. This interpretive process allowed the participants to recognize how heteronormality is a taken-for-granted, naturalized standard in measuring social behavior. The unraveling of hidden or implicit beliefs and values from semiotic discourse thus has great potential for unlearning normalized beliefs and ideologies and relearning those that have been marginalized. Social semioticians claim that “the signs of articulation”(Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001, p. 41) found in texts form the basis for later articulations of the same ideological discourses into other texts. Social semiotic discourse aims to reveal systematically normalized conventions in order to promote social change. Semioticians such as Charles S. Peirce and Ferdinand de Saussure see ideology as “a set of socially constructed meanings or norms that become embedded and naturalized in the cultural fabric, to the extent that they become invisible or common sense” (Aiello, 2006, p. 92). The interpretations of the participants in this study led to further discussion about social norms and conventions. Photograph B pinpointed the social dilemma between helping strangers in distress and freeing oneself from social obligations, while Photograph C challenged the objectivity of visual evidence in spite of how explicit images may be. The participants were divided in decoding the situation of a male seated outside a women’s restroom: Although the authors of the image addressed two possible scenarios—an overly protective boyfriend or a sexual predator—most readers emphasized the latter, which was opposite the authors’ intention. The three photographs examined in this study unveiled many hidden stereotypes and biases that come with art interpretation that the participants might not have recognized. Further discourse with the participants provided

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them an opportunity to reexamine their naturalized ideologies associated with reading these images. Analytically, when it comes to interpretation, social semiotic discourse guides the reader to look at text, context, and intertexts and to speculate dynamically on related social tendencies and their political implications. From this process, to enable power to break the rules of semiotic production also means having the power to intervene and possibly change the ideological currents characterizing the public domain (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001). A distinctive characteristic of the social semiotic paradigm is its reversal or changing of dominant ideological assumptions through semiotic action.

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Conclusion From this study, I conclude that photographic images, regardless of how intuitively or deliberately they are created, are likely to generate different, if not conflicting, readings dependent on the respective intertextual resources deployed by the individual readers who interpret them. A semiotic discourse framework could help both educators and students alike recognize the nature and impact of visual imagery and its interpretation, and become more aware of the correlation between the meaning of visual culture and the specific intertextual resources used to generate meaning. In art education, educators could help students become more aware of the kinds of decisions and intertextual variables involved in making and interpreting visual imagery. More importantly, creating and interpreting issues-based staged photography could be approached as a way to promote critical semiotic discourse and social awareness. As shown in this study, each photograph offered a distinct social commentary worthy of further investigation and could be used to unravel normalized yet often unjust conventions or beliefs in order to foster a critical faculty in all participants about issues of importance to them. By recognizing that students use their own life experiences and personal values to give meaning to visual imagery, an assignment that asks them to produce and interpret an issues-driven image will necessarily unveil their value positions regarding their worldview of particular social situations. In this sense, they are not merely passive observers of visual culture, but are active constructors of meaning as persons who engage in visual projects of C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 â&#x2014;&#x2039;

國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

possibility. Creating and interpreting staged photography allows individuals to explore imagery as an agent for critical discourse and to see the power of imagery in semiotic action. Issues-driven photography offers relevant points of discussion for all participants to reflect upon and problematize taken-for-granted values and beliefs as a premise for enabling further social action.

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References Aiello, G. (2006). Theoretical Advances in Critical Visual Analysis: Perception, Ideology, Mythologies, and Social Semiotics. Journal of Visual Literacy, 26(2), 89-102. Barnes, N. S. (2009). Hands-on Writing: An Alternative Approach to Understanding Art. Art Education, 62(3), 41-46. Barrett, T. (1986). Teaching about Photography: Types of Photographs. Art Education, 39(5), 41-44. Barrett, T. (1994). Principles for Interpreting Art. Art Education, 47(5), 8-13. Barrett, T. (2000). About Art Interpretation for Art Education. Studies in Art Education, 42(1), 5-19. Barrett, T. (2006). Interpretation. In L. Warren (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography (Vol. 2, pp. 803-806). New York: Routledge. Barthes, R. (1977a). The Photographic Message. In S. Heath (Ed. & Trans.), Image, Music, Text (pp. 15-31). New York: Hill and Wang. Barthes, R. (1977b). Rhetoric of the image. In S. Heath (Ed. & Trans.), Image, music, text (pp. 32-51). New York: Hill and Wang. Culler, J. (1982). On Deconstruction. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Forrester, M. (2000). Psychology of the Image. London: Routledge. Goodman, N. (1978). Ways of Worldmaking. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. Hubard, O. M. (2007). Productive Information: Contextual Knowledge in Art Museum Education. Art Education, 60(4), 17-23. Intraub, H., Bender, R. S., & Mangels, J. A. (1992). Looking at Pictures but Rememberin Scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology- Learning Memory and Cognition, 18, 180-191. Intraub, H., & Berkowits, D. (1996). Beyond the Edges of a Picture. American Journal of Psychology, 109, 581-598. Koroscik, J. S., Short, G., Stavropoulos, C., & Fortin, S. (1992). Frameworks for Understanding Art: The Function of Comparative Art Contexts and Verbal Cues. Studies in Art Education, 33(3), 154-164.

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A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

國際藝術教育學刊

A Picture Tells a Thousand Stories: Using Staged Photography to Promote Dialogue on Social Issues in an Art Education Classroom

Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. New York: Oxford University Press. Jewitt, C., & Oyama, R. (2001). Visual Meaning: A Social Semiotic Approach. In T. Van Leeuwen & C. Jewitt (Eds.), Handbook of Visual Analysis (pp.134-156). London: Sage. McKee, A. (2003). Textual Analysis: A Beginner's Guide. London: Sage. McKlevie, S. J., Standing, L., St. Jean, D., & Law, J. (1993). Gender Differences in Recognition Memory for Faces and Cars: Evidence for the Interest Hypothesis. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 121, 209-225. Rorty, R. (1992). The Pragmatist’s Progress. In U. Eco & S. Collini (Eds.), Interpretation and Overinterpretation (pp. 89-108). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Rose, G. (2001). Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Sanders-Bustle, L. (2008). Visual Artifact Journals as Creative and Critical Springboards for Meaning Making. Art Education, 61(3), 8-14. Schroeder, J. E. (2006). Critical Visual Analysis. In R. Belk (Ed.), Handbook of Qualitative Methods in Marketing (pp. 303-321). Aldershot, UK: Edward Elgar. Turner, G. (1992). British Cultural Studies: An Introduction. New York: Routledge. Van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing Social Semiotics. New York: Routledge. Walker, S. R. (1996). Thinking Strategies for Interpreting Artworks. Studies in Art Education, 37(2), 80-91. Yenawine, P. (1997). Thoughts On Visual Literacy. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from http://www.vue.org/download/Thoughts_Visual-Literacy.pdf

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一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

鍾生官副教授休士頓大學 E-mail: skchung@uh.edu

摘要本研究從後結構主義與社會符號學觀點出發，檢視藝術教育系學生如何詮釋探討特定議題的自創編導式攝影，觀察藝術詮釋作為社會活動的過程與本質。透過集體創作與詮釋，學生得以對日常生活相關之社會議題進行批判與對話。本研究分析學生在創作與詮釋影像時，如何運用產生意義的互文資源（符碼），並發現學生會依據影像中呈現的特定議題，採用不同的互文資源來解碼影像。無論是無意或有意創造出來的攝影圖像，都可能因個別讀者援用的各種互文資源而產生不同的解讀（若不相衝突）。此外，研究者將探討在藝術教育課堂上，利用議題相關編導式攝影來帶動批判性對話的可能性，以培養學生更高度的社會關懷意識。

關鍵詞：藝術詮釋、批判素養、互文性、社會議題、社會符號學

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一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

近年來科技快速的發展也帶動視覺圖像的生產與消費。在這個視覺文化掛帥的社會裡，文字不再是主流溝通方式。這種「視覺中心主義」(Schroeder, 2006, p. 303) 更需要一種批判視覺行為（呈現與詮釋）的社會活動。後結構主義與批判性社會符號學一直提醒著教育工作者，意義其實是一種社會建構出來的流動變數，在人們使用過程中不斷改變和被改變 (Rose, 2001)。在藝術教育裡，這種觀念打破了作者／藝術家及讀者／觀看者之間的界線，並引發對詮釋本質的探討。延續 Barthes (1977b)「作者已死」和「讀者誕生」的著名宣言，Barrett (1994) 指出，藝術家對自己藝術作品的詮釋只是眾多詮釋之一，且未必因為這是藝術家自己的看法就比較正確或合理。如果藝術詮釋的主要目的不僅限於探究藝術家的創作意圖，那麼藝術的意義便可以變得更流動與寬廣 (Barrett, 1994)，並讓人看清藝術詮釋的本質。

研究架構：詮釋、後結構主義與社會符號學詮釋是產生意義與建構知識的關鍵過程，同時也顯示一個人如何連結個人的觀察與人生態度 (Hubard, 2007)。透過詮釋，我們獲得對藝術與人生的資訊、見解與知識 (Goodman, 1978)。現代藝術大多只專屬於藝術機構中的小眾，他們有權呈現和控制藝術，並賦予評價。另一方面，後結構主義者質疑任何單一的權威性解讀，因為這會阻礙大眾與藝術互動和參與藝術。如果藝術的目的是溝通，就需要「藝術創作者與藝術評論者」(Barnes, 2009, p. 41)「共同參與並再現多元的世界觀」(Sanders-Bustle, 2008, p. 14)。藝術作品不只是藝術家個人的產品，更是由眾多評論者詮釋所共同建構而成的結果。藝術不再只是呈現出來的物質或具體部分，而是藝術家與評論者之間的社會互動場域，這裡才是形成意義的起點。後結構主義和批判性社會符號學等理論已為藝術詮釋實踐開拓許多新的檢視方法。後結構主義者不認為自我是具有一貫性的結構體，而是各種意識形態交戰和衝突的空間，每個個體都是在一個既定的脈絡裡創造自己的理解方式和存在意義。因此，文本意義的形成過程永遠不會完成或完全停止，而是依據某些變數、偏見與誤解而不斷的再詮釋和再建構。同時，社會符號學讓我注意到，在種族、性別與階級的社會建構中，語言與圖像的使用方式也影響我們對外在世界的詮釋與理解。社會符號學者認為所有文本都是深植於更大規模的經濟與文化實踐和權力關係裡的社會行動。對於藝術教育而言，社會符號學可幫助我們探索藝術詮釋行為（如藝術對話與書

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寫），因為它相當重視「意義的社會效應」(Rose, 2001, p. 70)。藝術作品是符號表意過程，透過與符號系統的互文關係而產生意義。本研究將強調符號性資源，而非符號性符碼。符碼是文本生產者與讀者使

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

用的先決性詮釋架構，在創造與詮釋文本時，我們挑選出看似適當的符碼作為符號，「以便限制......符號產生之意義的範圍」(Turner 1992, p. 17)。符碼可簡化經驗，使文本生產者與讀者更容易溝通。社會符號學者關切誰是制定規則的人，以及規則如何改變與被改變。他們提出以資源代替符碼的觀念，目的是想瞭解再現與詮釋兩者之間的視覺表意過程中，出現哪些變化與權力關係 (Aiello, 2006)。不同於符號學符碼，符號性資源是在文化史交錯過程中，由特定利益與目的構成的產物 (Jewitt & Oyama, 2001; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001)。此外，互文性是詮釋文本的關鍵。如 Rorty (1992) 所言，「我們其實是透過其他文本、人物、興趣、資訊片段或任何事物來閱讀文本，看看到底發生什麼事」(p. 105)。因此，理解藝術意謂著詮釋作品存在的論述架構，而互文性則是要強調，「任何論述性圖像或文本的意義不僅來自該文本或圖像，同時也涉及其他圖像與文本的意義」(Rose, 2001, p. 136)。圖像的各種意義永遠不可能自我指涉或全然客觀；相反的，在進行詮釋時，個別觀看者必然會帶入自己的生命經驗與既有知識。當觀看者共同詮釋藝術作品時，他們會將共同的文化價值觀與預設立場帶入詮釋建構之中。因此，理解藝術詮釋的過程是藝術教育中的重要環節。詮釋會啟動發現與發明的全新生產過程。藝術詮釋是對於藝術提出具有說服力的論點，往往充滿個人性質或集體特色 (Barrett, 2006)。Barrett (1994) 以後結構主義者的角度指出，藝術會引發多種相異、矛盾和競爭性的詮釋。詮釋的目的並非達到某種單一而共通的結論，或遷就藝術家的「原創」意圖。教育環境中的藝術詮釋應該提供學生不同的角度，以加深他們對藝術作品的瞭解。 Barrett (2006) 進一步指出，攝影和其他藝術形式一樣，不只是表達情感的方式，更是一種溝通模式。攝影需要詮釋才能顯現其中建構的意義，無論這些意義是有意或無意建構而成。由於攝影常用來描摹現實，讓人誤以為攝影足以代表現實本身，其實它只是夾帶某種情境知識與意義的自我建構而已。攝影其實是意識形態的建構產物，再現攝影師的某種觀點。我們應該把一張照片看成嵌入於社會關係中的一種論述。

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國際藝術教育學刊

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

此外，Forrester (2000) 曾注意到，儘管建構式再現過程已成為主流，但特別針對攝影的研究卻不多見 (e.g., Intraub, Bender, & Mangels, 1992; Intraub & Berkowits, 1996; McKlevie, Standing, St. Jean, & Law, 1993)。他指出，當前有關攝影的論辯主要分成兩派，一派強調攝影圖像的「寫實主義」，另一派則著重「辨識與『閱讀』照片時所牽涉的論述、詮釋與符碼」(p. 159)，本研究對於後者的角度特別感興趣。我希望分析大學生對於攝影圖像的詮釋方式以及藝術家的意圖，期盼透過編導式攝影來推動社會對話。本研究也企圖為有興趣利用藝術教育來培養批判性視覺素養的藝術教育工作者，研擬一套可行的教學模式。為此，我將探討這次計畫對於藝術教育的意涵，並建議教育工作者可透過議題相關圖像來推動社會對話並培養學生的批判性視覺素養。

研究背景與設計這次的調查對象是大學生的合作式學習法與書面詮釋結果，合作式藝術詮釋結合了個人觀察與集體知識。我將特別檢視大學生如何共同利用互文資源來創作和詮釋藝術。參與研究者為德州一所大學的二十位大學生（小學實習教師）。學生在認知攝影是藝術創作與說故事的媒介後，平分成五組，每組必須製作三張編導式照片，描繪渲染、神秘的情境，或探討重要社會議題，接著寫下這些攝影作品背後的創作意圖。教師要求學生以校園為拍攝背景，並建議他們拍攝多個場景、改變背景與概念、並考慮從不同角度來取景。所有小組參與者最好都能出現在攝影場景中，並共同實現拍攝的構想。拍攝每張照片時，學生也必須思考形式（使用設計原則）與內容（意義）的問題。同時要考慮背景、燈光和取景方式。接著，每一組必須選出一張照片與全班分享，並作為詮釋的對象。為配合符號學架構與本研究的目的，我將稱呼製作編導式攝影作品的小組為「作者」，而其他觀看的小組則是「讀者」。學生的這些攝影創作都屬於詮釋性與道德價值性攝影的範疇（參見 Barrett, 1986）。如 Barrett (1986) 所言，詮釋性攝影具有說明性，從某特定角度提供有關世界或現存現象的資訊。這些攝影作品具有虛構、詩意和隱喻性質，攝影時會利用演員、模特兒或攝影師編排的情境 (Barrett, 1986)。儘管詮釋性攝影試圖對世界提出解釋性訴求，但這些訴求很難以實證證明，因此其真實性全看觀看者是否買單。另一方面，道德價值性攝影試圖教導人們該如何為人處世。這些廣告中常運用的攝影技巧會呈現大眾願意接受或期待的事物，來

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達到道德批判的目的；因此，這些攝影也可能在宣揚社會正義或可接受度時，採取特定的政治立場。各組學生完成拍攝工作後，必須挑出一張照片並共同寫下其拍攝意圖。我

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

觀察到，每組參與者會綜合他們對自己創作照片的意見，並努力找出共識。他們會從較深刻的詮釋層面來討論和闡述作品中的視覺元素與其之間的關係，這也符合 Barnes (2009) 在觀察類似小組活動時的描述：「對話有助於產生更豐富的反思，此時參與者從自己感知的「個人空間」，走向意見更多元的「社群空間」(p. 43)。集體書寫藝術讓我們在個人與集體詮釋之間找到平衡點，「讓學生從最初的靈光乍現，發展出完整可行的概念」(Barnes, 2009, p. 44)。 Yenawine (1997) 也注意到，書寫「涉及一整套的技巧，包含從簡單的辨識（說出個人所見）到脈絡、隱喻與哲學層次的複雜詮釋」(p. 1)。每組學生也要詮釋由其他小組拍攝的幾張照片，學生必須共同詮釋這些照片，並寫下自己的想法。當學生集體創作與詮釋藝術時，等於是獲得一個絕佳的機會來體驗藝術生產與詮釋這種社會活動。本研究從這些學生創作中選出三張照片進行分析，每個資料組都包含三種資料來源：照片本身、創作小組的意圖描述以及同班觀看小組的詮釋。我將援引 Barthes 的理論 (1977a) 進行分析，從語言學的角度來思考視覺溝通問題，將視覺表意分成意指與意涵兩個部分。意指層面處裡的是圖像的表面意義，而意涵則涉及由文化符碼所銘刻的意識形態。互文性屬於意涵的層次，也是讀者瞭解文本的關鍵。互文性意謂著文本之間的關聯性（例如在本研究中，一件藝術作品的作者與讀者所產生的個人、文化與社會政治關聯性）必然超越照片描繪表象的部分。因此，在詮釋資料時，我會觀察每張照片的意指與意涵，並分析作者與讀者在詮釋自己和其他小組編導的照片時所引用的互文資源。

編導式攝影所傳達的社會議題議題 1：異性戀正統中心與同性伴侶公開展示情感行為：異性戀正統中心與同性伴侶公開展示情感行為

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國際藝術教育學刊

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

圖 1：照片 A

藝術家／作者的意圖描述（見圖 1）：下課後，一對同性伴侶決定手牽手走路到她們停車的地方。......她們沒有太親密的舉動，也沒有在其他女生面前大肆炫耀，舉止和一般情侶沒有兩樣。兩位心胸狹窄、保守且虛偽的女性對著這對情侶訕笑，因為她們無法接受同性戀。這對情侶走過時，她們含糊的說了些同性戀字眼，不停的騷擾她們。如果這對牽手情侶是一對男女，她們就不會有這種批判的嘴臉了。這種情形每天都會出現，也影響了許多人的生活。拍下這張照片後，這對情侶直接走向這些批評他們的女士，（後來）還在學校裡成立同性戀行動團體，希望改變大家對其他人的偏見。這張照片（見圖 1）顯示兩位年輕女性正手牽手走路，另外兩位女性盯著她們看。和藝術家一樣（作者或創作小組），其他四個觀看小組（即讀者或閱讀小組）也看出照片的意指是同性伴侶於公共場合展示情感的問題。讀者提出的意指描述包括，「兩位同性戀女孩走入公共領域，以牽手的方式表現她們的情感」，以及「兩位年輕女性手牽手走過校園時，好像是同性戀」。讀者若沒有將脈絡性和互文性資訊帶入攝影場景中，便不可能理解影像。但雖然作者與讀者能觀察出類似的意指，但在意涵層次的詮釋方式則不盡相同，讀者小組將照片場景與個人假設或信仰、異性戀中心社會常態、目前的社會政治氛圍或歷史背景連結在一起。例如，有一組寫到，「雖然瞪著別人的女子很無禮，但

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手牽手的女性似乎無視於她們的行為」，還有一組則觀察，「兩位牽手的女性似乎有親密關係」。其他的描述更表現出讀者個人的假設：「這對情侶手牽著手離開教室。她們一邊走向自己的車子，一邊回想方才課堂上發生的事」，

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

「穿棕色衣服的女孩個性較順從，決定忽視當場情況」。下面兩項描述顯示個人信仰也會影響影像的詮釋方式：「人們為了擁有選擇生活方式的自由而奮鬥，他們的選擇不應受到任何批評，」以及「愛情超越性別、族裔或身體殘缺」。當作者說明他們編導這張照片的目的時，他們使用以異性戀正統為中心的對立詞組來討論同性伴侶在公共場合展示情感的議題。這些字眼和其隱含的對立詞組包括，正常／不正常、保守／進步、異性戀／同性戀、可接受／不可接

受、喜愛／憎惡、無禮／和善、舒服／不舒服以及現狀／政治行動。例如，作者從異性戀正統中心的角度出發，將異性戀與「正常」劃上等號，說這對情侶表現得像正常情侶，而如果他們是異性伴侶，便不會遭到路人的側目。大部分讀者的詮釋方式會將眼前攝影場景與當前社會時勢、政治背景或歷史背景相連結。例如有一組提到，今日的社會越來越能接受同性戀，但人們對於這種情感仍會感到不快，甚至批判，和照片中兩位旁觀者一樣。另一組認為「在我們的社會裡，同性戀仍充滿爭議；但是，我們的社會對於同性關係已有更開放的看法」。這張照片也容易讓小組參與者提起有關同性戀議題的政治性論述。有一個小組表示：在我們的社會裡，同性戀已經公開化，但還有許多人不認為這是「正確」的生活方式。許多保守人士還在努力限制或制止這種生活方式，因為他們只承認異性戀關係。另一組進一步闡述：我們的社會正為了個人選擇伴侶的自由，以及維護異性婚姻的神聖性而展開拉鋸戰。未來同性婚姻將逐步在更多州合法化，人們為了擁有選擇生活方式的自由而奮鬥，他們的選擇不應受到任何批評。另一項描述則將拍攝的場景與歷史背景相連結，並指出：

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國際藝術教育學刊

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

過去我們的社會不可能接受這種行為，我們不曾看到同性戀伴侶公開表現他們的情感，他們會因為這樣的行為或不檢點的舉止而受到嘲笑甚至懲罰。由此可見，學生們用來詮釋這個爭議性場景的互文資源包括個人信仰與假設、日常經驗、異性戀中心社會常態、當前社會政治情勢與歷史背景。學生的詮釋方式仍以異性戀正統中心為社會常規的基礎，這些常規已被人建構成所謂的「自然」狀態。議題 2：社會責任：社會責任

圖 2：攝影 B

藝術家／作者的意圖描述（見圖 2）：在教室裡經歷慘烈的一幕後，這個女孩跑出大樓，坐在水泥階梯上。坐在階梯上的女孩雙手掩面，掩飾她的情緒，女孩身上籠罩的陰影代表她此刻晦暗的心情。幾分鐘過去了，女孩的一位同學也走出教室大樓，她看見這個傷心的女孩，但一點也不關心發生了什麼事，甚至不想安慰她，立刻和左邊的女孩交談起來，一邊走下階梯。照片左邊明亮炙熱的陽光代表這個女孩的傲慢，使她對這個特殊情況無動於衷。有一位女士走出大樓，注意到這個傷心的女孩。我們可以看到，明亮的光線反射在女士伸出的手臂上，表現出同情與關懷，也為心碎的女

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孩帶來一絲希望。女士安撫了傷心的女孩，並瞭解原來是女孩的車子被拖走了。......以下幾個（發人省思）的問題請各位思考：如果你看到一個很傷心或絕望的人，你會對他伸出援手嗎？或者只是移開視

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

線默默離去？這張照片顯示一位坐在大樓台階上的年輕女性垂頭喪氣的模樣，同時另一位年輕女性似乎想要與她交談。另一個女孩正步下台階，表現出若無其事的樣子。在詮釋這張照片時，小組參與者採用了日常生活經驗與他們對視覺隱喻的知識，同時帶入目前社會情勢與歷史脈絡。由於所有參與者都是大學生，他們的取材似乎來自大學校園裡的事件。讀者小組提出多種女孩傷心的原因：校園停車問題（由作者指出）、與男友分手、或課業表現不佳。例如，有一組表示這個女孩「因為有機化學被當掉而無法畢業」，而其他兩組則指出這個女孩是因為與男友分手而心傷。小組參與者使用對立性字眼，誇張的描述照片中的情緒。相關用字包括陰影／光線、傷心／希望、失敗／成功、悲傷／快樂。其他關鍵字包括分手、絕望、傷心欲絕、充滿同情與關切。此外，創作小組運用視覺隱喻語言來傳達一種不同的意涵，他們以陰影代表晦暗的情緒，用光線來表達同情與希望。作者描述那位視而不見、漠不關心的女孩「臉上顯示出快樂的神情」，而「坐在階梯上，雙手掩面的女孩正掩飾她的悲傷情緒」。參與者（作者與讀者）的描述文字引導我們進一步探討道德責任（「幫助悲傷的陌生人」）以及個人安全（「信賴完全不認識的陌生人」）等問題。另一組提出類似的詮釋：「一位熱心的路人停下來安慰和關心 [女孩的] 心理狀態。另一名路過的學生似乎完全無動於衷。」可見參與者強調的是兩位女性路人對傷心女孩的截然不同的反應。有多項描述也將這張照片與當前社會情勢或歷史背景連結，以解釋兩位女性路人的迥異反應。有一組強調「你不能相信別人，因為有時好心反被惡人欺」，而另一組則認為：「從前的人比較會同情其他人，多數的人會幫助自己的鄰居、同事、甚至社區裡的陌生人，因為大家彼此信任」。另一組進一步闡述：如今恐懼已操控了我們的生活，因為每天都有社會暴力事件發生，給人灌輸各種危險意識。現在就算看到需要幫助的人，卻有越來越多人選擇袖手旁觀。

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國際藝術教育學刊

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

作者與讀者都點出有關幫助陌生人的社會難題。議題 3：真實與表象：真實與表象

圖 3：攝影 C

藝術家／作者的意圖描述（見圖 3）：兩位年輕女性正走進洗手間，一位女子從裡面走出來。一名坐在女士盥洗室外頭的男性，似乎正向內窺視。在兩位女性走進洗手間前，一名坐輪椅的女性已先行進入，而她的男友正在外頭焦急等候。坐輪椅的女士需要協助，而她的男友有點過度保護她，想要隨時在她身邊確保她的安全。走入洗手間的這位女性認為這名男子正在偷窺，因為感到不安，於是向警衛檢舉這名男子，而兩位走進洗手間的女性正在協助那名殘障女性。雖然這名男友很不高興被警察詢問，但他很感謝有人幫忙女友，最後也沒有受傷或遭到逮捕。作者描述中的最初兩句話精準的描述了這張照片的意指，但卻沒有提供足夠的資訊來讓人瞭解照片所描繪的真實情況。作者寫下創作意圖時，集中描述照片中未呈現的部分，他們提到對情境的誤解，並進一步提及真實與表象的問題。

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詮釋這張照片時，帶入了許多不同的意涵，包括個人經驗。幾個讀者小組使用的關鍵字顯示出描繪場景背後普遍的刻版印象；這些關鍵字包括一位怪怪

的男子正在等候他的下一名受害者，他的變態意圖以及假設他是色狼。學生也使用了價值判斷的形容詞，如過度保護、瞪視、焦急、生氣、感激、窺視、侵入、變態與等待。

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

作者引用社會常規、個人經驗與心理分析來建構他們的意圖，描繪一名保護心過重的男友和因男性注視女性休息室的事件所引發的性別刻版印象問題。讀者的詮釋也都提到這些情境。有兩個讀者小組和作者一樣，運用個人經驗與心理分析來詮釋這個畫面，呈現出一個過度保護的男友。有一組描述這名男子「正在等女友出來」，而另一組則進一步闡述道：照片中的男子是個保護心過重的男友。他每天和女友一起上學，並隨時跟著她，以免她和其他男生說話。在這張照片裡，他正看著她與她的朋友一起走進廁所，因為他並不喜歡這個朋友，所以他要她們打開廁所門，好讓他知道她們在談論什麼。讀者還引用社會常規來批判這個畫面。在許多社會裡，無法接受成年男性注視女性廁所的行為；如果坐在廁所外的是女性，就不會引發這麼多爭議。有一個讀者小組評論：「這名男子已經坐在那裡等待下一名受害者。在拍攝的同時，女孩們正在說這名坐在女子廁所前的男性怪異的行為」。另外兩組也有類似的描述：「男子想偷聽女生的談話，但又聽不清楚。所以他又更加靠近女生洗手間一些以便聽清楚，順便還偷看了幾眼，」以及「這男子向女生洗手間裡張望，好像有點變態」。

研究發現與意涵以上呈現的這些案例顯示，學生會根據影像中呈現的特定議題，動用不同的互文資源，來解碼和詮釋影像。例如，雖然照片 A 描繪的是一對女性伴侶在公開場合的情感，學生們會擴大討論一般同性戀議題，將這張照片與眾多個人信仰與假設、異性戀中心社會常態、目前社會情勢、政治情況、宗教信仰與歷史背景都串連在一起。和討論照片 A 時使用的互文資源稍微不同的是，學生在詮釋照片 B 與 C 時顯示，他們運用了個人經驗與假設以及社會常規等互文資源，並結合視覺隱喻語言與心理分析來撰寫敘事。從這三張影像的詮釋

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國際藝術教育學刊

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

方式可見，因為帶入了社會情勢、政治情況與歷史背景，賦予詮釋更多相關深層意義，因為它們讓小組參與者在檢視個人對這些議題的主要看法與觀感時，得到較多的參與感。本研究利用這些議題相關影像作為一種符號學論述和行動的催化劑，引發民主社會參與者討論切身重要議題。如 van Leeuwen (2005) 所指出，社會符號學的特點在於，它認為所有社會行動都是符號，因為社會實踐的變化深受論述實踐與其文本表現的變化所影響。照片 A 的詮釋方式顯示，參與者抱持主流異性戀社會常規心態來詮釋和解碼，儘管他們自己不曾察覺。這種詮釋過程讓參與者瞭解到，異性戀中心論已成為衡量社會行為時，人們視為理所當然的真理與自然化的標準。因此，透過符號學論述來揭發這些隱晦不顯的信念與價值觀，我們得以打破這些常態化信念與意識形態，重新傾聽那些遭到邊緣化的聲音。社會符號學者認為，文本中「記號的接合」(Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001, p. 41) 是後續其他文本的相同意識形態論述接合的基礎。社會符號學論述試圖顯露系統性常態化的傳統思想，以促進社會改革。符號學家如 Charles S. Peirce 和 Ferdinand de Saussure 都將意識形態視為「一套深植於文化肌理中，自然化的社會建構意義或常規，它們已經完全隱形，甚至成為常識」(Aiello, 2006, p. 92)。本研究參與者的詮釋還可用來深入討論社會常規與規範。照片 B 點出幫助失意陌生人與擺脫社會責任的社會兩難問題，照片 C 則挑戰視覺證據的客觀性，無論影像意指多麼明顯。參與者在解碼一位坐在女士休息室外的男性時出現分歧意見：雖然影像的作者提到兩種可能情境（一位保護心過重的男友或一名色狼），但大部分讀者偏向強調後者，與作者的意圖背道而馳。本研究中檢視的這三張照片，揭露了參與者可能不曾意識到但已深藏於詮釋中的刻版印象和偏見。參與者透過深入討論，將可重新檢討這些已遭自然化的意識型態。從分析角度來看，社會符號學論述引導讀者在詮釋時，同時檢視文本、脈絡與互文，並彈性的思考相關社會傾向和其政治意涵。在這個過程中，啟動打破符號生產規則的力量，就等於擁有介入甚至改變公共領域主要意識形態潮流的力量 (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001)。社會符號學典範的一大特色，就是試圖透過符號學活動來翻轉或改變主流意識形態看法。

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結論無論是無意或有意創造出來的攝影圖像，都可能因個別讀者援用的各種互文資源而產生不同的解讀（若不相衝突）。符號學論述架構可以幫助教育工作

一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

者和學生共同認清視覺影像和其詮釋方式的本質與影響力，並更加認識視覺文化的意義，以及產生意義的特定互文資源之間的互動關係。藝術教育工作者可以幫助學生更清楚意識到，在製作與詮釋視覺影像時所牽涉到的各種決定與互文變數。更重要的是，創造和詮釋議題相關的編導式攝影可促進批判性符號學論述與社會意識。如本研究所示，每張照片都提供一種截然不同的社會評價，值得深入探討，也可用來揭露有失公允的常態化規範或信念，進而培養所有參與者發揮自身批評力量來關心切身的社會議題。既然認清學生會以自己人生經歷與個人價值觀來賦予視覺影像意義，那麼透過作業要求學生製作與詮釋議題相關影像，便有助於揭露他們面對特定社會情況時的看法與價值定位。如此一來，學生不只是被動的視覺文化觀察者，也是參與各種可能的視覺計畫的主動意義建構者。創造與詮釋編導式攝影讓個人得以利用批判論述來探索影像，並發現影像在符號學活動中的力量。議題相關攝影讓所有參與者都能找到相關切入點來思考和挑戰約定俗成的價值觀與信念，由此獲得採取下一步社會行動的力量。

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一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

參考文獻 Aiello, G. (2006). Theoretical Advances in Critical Visual Analysis: Perception, Ideology, Mythologies, and Social Semiotics. Journal of Visual Literacy, 26(2), 89-102. Barnes, N. S. (2009). Hands-on Writing: An Alternative Approach to Understanding Art. Art Education, 62(3), 41-46. Barrett, T. (1986). Teaching about Photography: Types of Photographs. Art Education, 39(5), 41-44. Barrett, T. (1994). Principles for Interpreting Art. Art Education, 47(5), 8-13. Barrett, T. (2000). About Art Interpretation for Art Education. Studies in Art Education, 42(1), 5-19. Barrett, T. (2006). Interpretation. In L. Warren (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography (Vol. 2, pp. 803-806). New York: Routledge. Barthes, R. (1977a). The Photographic Message. In S. Heath (Ed. & Trans.), Image, Music, Text (pp. 15-31). New York: Hill and Wang. Barthes, R. (1977b). Rhetoric of the image. In S. Heath (Ed. & Trans.), Image, music, text (pp. 32-51). New York: Hill and Wang. Culler, J. (1982). On Deconstruction. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Forrester, M. (2000). Psychology of the Image. London: Routledge. Goodman, N. (1978). Ways of Worldmaking. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. Hubard, O. M. (2007). Productive Information: Contextual Knowledge in Art Museum Education. Art Education, 60(4), 17-23. Intraub, H., Bender, R. S., & Mangels, J. A. (1992). Looking at Pictures but Rememberin Scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology- Learning Memory and Cognition, 18, 180-191. Intraub, H., & Berkowits, D. (1996). Beyond the Edges of a Picture. American Journal of Psychology, 109, 581-598. Koroscik, J. S., Short, G., Stavropoulos, C., & Fortin, S. (1992). Frameworks for Understanding Art: The Function of Comparative Art Contexts and Verbal Cues. Studies in Art Education, 33(3), 154-164.

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一張照片，千百種看法：透過編導式攝影帶動藝術教育課堂中的社會議題討論

國際藝術教育學刊

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

Chung Yim Lau Assistant Professor Hong Kong Institute of Education E-mail: chungyim@ied.edu.hk

Abstract Creativity has always been one of the most discussed topics in Western art education. Today, young people are surrounded by a wide variety of new technology and are familiar and comfortable with the use of this technology. They are able to use various types of visual media to demonstrate and express their creative ideas through popular cultural organizations such as cosplay and dōjinshi, and to share and communicate these ideas through global networking and a variety of media such as YouTube, Facebook and MSN. However, does this type of creativity precisely reflect the situation in the contemporary visual culture of Asian ethnic groups? Furthermore, can our existing theories of creativity explicate the cultural phenomena appearing in Asia today? In order to answer these questions, in this article I will discuss various theories and definitions of creativity and highlight some significant related issues. I will also present some of the findings from my recent study on Asian ethnic group creativity as examples of the creative phenomena currently appearing in the region.

Key Words: Asian Ethnic Groups, Creativity, Macro and Micro Perspectives, Visual Culture

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Creativity has always been one of the most discussed topics in Western art education. The nature of creativity is diverse. Although the contemporary definition of creativity remains vague and there is no consensus on its meaning (Sternberg, 2007), we can find a variety of theories on creativity by reviewing the history of art education. In art education, the main discussion related to the topic reflects the shift in the mainstream paradigm and the change in the philosophical underpinning of art education. One significant example is the paradigm shift from Discipline-based Art Education to a visual culture curriculum which takes into account and reflects the everyday cultural experiences of young people. One of the assumptions behind this paradigm shift, moving the emphasis from modern art to contemporary art and the media of popular culture, is that it will give young people another means of communicating with their peers in their everyday lives. This tremendous change will undoubtedly reshape our understanding of creativity in the contemporary context. Today, young people are surrounded by a wide variety of new technology and are familiar and comfortable with the use of this technology. They are able to use various types of visual media to demonstrate and express their creative ideas through popular cultural organizations such as cosplay and dĹ?jinshi, and to share and communicate these ideas through global networking and a variety of media such as YouTube, Facebook and MSN. However, does this type of creativity precisely reflect the situation in the contemporary visual culture of Asian ethnic groups? Furthermore, can our existing theories of creativity explicate the cultural phenomena appearing in Asia today? In order to answer these questions, in this article I will discuss various theories and definitions of creativity and highlight some significant related issues. I will also present some of the findings from my recent study on Asian ethnic group creativity as examples of the creative phenomena currently appearing in the region.

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

Overview of Current Issues in Creativity The modernist perspective on artistic expression had an enormous influence on the focus of early discussions about creativity. In this perspective, the main approach is to see creativity as a mode of individual C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 â&#x2014;&#x2039;

國際藝術教育學刊

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

creative self-expression (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987), and to view artists as ‘lonely geniuses’ (Parsons, 2010). Another approach has been to regard creativity as a thinking process used for problem solving (Torrance, 1977; Wallas, 1926). Since the late 20th century, however, the direction of the discussion has changed, and creativity is now considered as a form of group dynamics in which people work collaboratively and effectively to solve problems (Sawyer, 2007). Most recent discussions include drawing attention to the possible influence of the rise and fall of the middle classes on creativity. Efland (2010) borrows Florida’s (2005a) concept of the rise of creative cultures and the creative middle class to raise awareness of this issue further and to seek a possible new direction for art education. In addition to this socio-economic perspective on creativity, one particular account of creativity is reflected in media education. For instance, Duncum (2011) refers to the use of communications media in education as an effective means of facilitating learning. He agrees with Buckingham’s (2003) idea that teachers should adopt a playful strategy and set education in the context of popular culture. Significantly, from the modernist view to current accounts of creativity, most of the relevant literature mentioned above discusses creativity from the perspective of contemporary Western art education, and very few researchers have discussed it from the perspective of the creativity of Asian ethnic groups. It is, therefore, of doubtful use to apply these accounts to interpret the creativity in Asian ethnic group culture. Here, I use the term ‘macro perspective’ to describe the scenario of creativity suggested by Western art education, and the term ‘micro perspective on creativity’ to describe the creativity of Asian ethnic groups, in order to distinguish between Western views on creativity and the real world of creativity currently emerging in Asia. I consider that the terms and distinctions employed in this article will help to create an essential framework for discussion, since they make it possible to draw a line excluding discussion of macro views on creativity and emphasizing the issues raised in the article.

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Problems with the Macro View of Creativity Early theories of creativity emphasized an intimate relationship between problem and solution in a real world context. Most of these theories were concerned with looking for a practical solution to a problem. Thus, both the new way of thinking and the thinking process became the focus of study (e.g., Torrance, 1977, 2002; Wallas, 1926). Later, scholars like Sternberg and Lubart (1993) elaborated upon the intelligence dimension and found that the thinking process in creativity involves important elements of intelligence. Besides, the studies of Gardner (2006) and Runco, Dow and Smith (2006) provide further evidence that there is a thinking map and an intelligent pattern hidden in the thinking process during problem solving. Since the beginning of the 21st century, an increasing number of empirical studies have reassessed the relationship between creativity and intelligence from a scientific perspective, by examining creativity as an activity of the brain. Farley (2001) developed a genetic model to explain creative activities and emphasizes the implications for future education, while Winston (2003) investigated the functioning of the human brain and demonstrates how to make good use of our minds. From the early to the more recent studies on creativity, researchers have attempted to understand how we activate and facilitate creativity in the most effective way. They regard creativity as a thinking process, as a tool to achieve practical goals. This kind of understanding of creativity is close to the instrumentalist view, in which creative self-expression is encouraged and in which it is believed that creative outputs are the result of the maximum use of the brain during the thinking process. Another aspect of the macro perspective on creativity is to regard creativity as a socio-cultural product. Creativity has an intimate relationship with culture. The socio-cultural approach to understanding creativity broadens our vision of creativity in contemporary culture. Indeed, todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world is full of various encoded images that shape our perceptions and construct meaning (Duncum, 2002; Sturken & Cartwright, 2001). Visual culture thus comprises coded information, meaning and pleasure, and people are accustomed to obtaining these through visual technology

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Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

國際藝術教育學刊

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

(Mirzoeff, 1999). The visual technology also provides platforms such as YouTube for young people to demonstrate their creativity. Scholars like Csikszentmihalyi (1999) and Sawyer (2007) believe that creativity has a socio-cultural foundation and that this influences creative development. Csikszentmihalyi (1999) also explicates creativity as a combination of three essential elements: individual perspective, domain and field. On the other hand, when interpreting creativity from a macro perspective, we cannot ignore the influences of socio-cultural context or background. Florida (2002) considered the socio-cultural, geographical and economic aspects of creativity (Florida, 2005a, 2005b). In addition, Ray and Anderson (2000) used the term “cultural creatives” to describe late 20th century creative individuals who show respect and concern for ecology, human conditions, living conditions and quality. Although these philosophical claims interpret creativity from a socio-economic perspective, they tend to seek a more universal interpretation and overlook the perspective of Asian ethnic groups on creativity. Within this socio-economic framework, Sawyer (2007) and Paulus and Nijstad (2003) used group creativity to explain the rise of innovation through collaboration. Their studies employ the theory of group genius to break through creativity myths, exploring the socio-cultural dimension further in order to understand creativity better. Sawyer appreciates the creative power of collaboration, stating that innovative ideas can be generated through collaborative effort. Nevertheless, his group genius theory hardly envisages any interaction between group creativity and popular visual culture. Creativity in Asia expresses itself through the images seen in various forms of popular media. The images of popular visual culture reflect that culture’s influence on creativity. They also imply a particular, common aesthetic notion favored by young adolescents. If we take dōjinshi circles as an example, in the late 1990s there were over 50,000 of these circles in Japan, and the phenomenon spread quickly to other countries (Schodt, 2002). Unlike the professional image-making industry of popular visual culture, the dōjinshi groups comprised many small, amateur and self-funded independent organizations established in Hong Kong and Taiwan. According to a popular Hong Kong dōjinshi website, Douiin Hin (2001), there are 21

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registered dōjinshi groups that regularly publish work. In Taiwan, over 39 big comic and animation party events have been organized across the country at Comic World Taiwan (CWT, 2007) since 2005. At these events, various dōjinshi groups exhibit and sell their products to young adolescents. The growing number of these groups highlights the importance of understanding group creativity in popular visual culture in the Chinese context (Douiin Hin, 2001). Nevertheless, few micro-perspective studies of this type of creativity have been undertaken. The literature on the interpretation of group creativity in popular visual culture fails to account for this kind of creativity.

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

Issues related to Creativity in Asian Ethnic Groups In this section I shall describe some of the findings from my recent study on the creativity of Asian dōjinshi groups, in order to highlight various aspects of this type of creativity that are overlooked in the macro perspective on creativity. Dōjinshi are groups of amateur creators and appreciators, known as dōjinshi fans, who are interested in reading and creating manga. Brenner (2007) defines manga as comics and print cartoons. In manga, the creators depict their thoughts, feelings, suggestions and criticisms using an exaggerated stylistic method to portray characters or objects, and rewrite stories based on Japanese manga stories. Dōjinshi groups are self-funded and self-published. Although they sell their work (mainly at manga book fairs), publishing and selling dōjinshi for the sake of artistic expression and recognition remain higher goals than profit making (Shufflealliance, 2005). Although dōjinshi started in Japan, it is now gaining wide popularity in other countries and is no longer just an Asian phenomenon. However, artistic expression and appreciation in Asia are different from those in the US. For instance, Taiwanese manga creators and readers do not favour Superman but those in the West do (Xiao, 2002). For this reason, here I have only used examples from Hong Kong and Taiwan, in order to sharpen the focus of discussion and examine group creativity. One of the aims in this article is to demonstrate the paucity of existing literature related to the subject in question. Therefore, other, non-Asian groups will be excluded from the main discussion.

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Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

During 2008-10, I conducted a qualitative study that focused on how these groups interpret and express the creativity of popular visual culture (Lau, 2011). The study involved 32 individuals from two Hong Kong dōjinshi groups and five Taiwan dōjinshi groups. I will address three issues in relation to the topic from the findings of my study. The first of these concerns the aesthetic values and creativity of the Asian ethnic group. In the study, it was found that both creators and appreciators shared particular aesthetic values, social backgrounds and values in common, leading to a sense of common identity among them that in turn gave rise to creativity in the micro popular visual culture. According to members of all the groups, the groups tended to be loosely structured. Creativity was “affected by uncontrollable and controllable internal and external factors like balance of cost and revenue”, which makes creativity in the groups “predictable and at the same time unpredictable, because works are created in an atmosphere of uncertainty, where adaptations and changes are constantly being made”. The internal driving forces of creativity include “the invisible unifying force, recognition of the members’ identity, praise from peers, and values derived from popular culture”. The external driving forces of creativity include “visible achievements like participating in exhibitions, being published, and production marketing plans”. In addition, “recognition of one’s identity and receiving praise from others (buyers) make us think everything’s worth it. These activities allow us to understand ourselves better”. All the Asian groups represented a vague but concrete, morally acceptable, spiritual consensus. They did not measure value in material terms. The meaning behind the groups’ economic activities was the recognition of particular popular aesthetics and the presentation and practice of particular collective values. The findings of the study showed that group creativity was short-lived. The simple, independent and flexible management of the groups is a complex, natural, adaptive reaction to outside changes. Group creativity demonstrated the phenomenon of split-combine-split found in individual/organizational interactions. The individual appreciators, with particular aesthetic interests, continuously supported the groups and were able to come together because of the existence of these groups and their

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appreciation of creativity. Once the groups had completed the process of establishing a shared sense of identity and had agreed on particular aesthetic values, the members returned to society and waited for the next round of combination and separation. The energy from that combination and separation came from creativity itself. Guided by ethical principles, the influence of creativity formed a wave within the core of society, which spread particular aesthetics to the groups. The second issue is that of ‘autonomously creative creativity’. Here, this term is used to refer to any creativity that is of an autonomous nature. The display of particular aesthetics through the ideology of autonomously creative creativity is a rite of passage in the quest for shared values and a common identity. In the study, the groups showed that they had clear ideas of how such creativity was constructed and about the quality they wanted for their products. Creativity had to be approved by the group. It was found that group organization and creativity within the whole popular visual culture image-production process resulted in a kind of micro cultural product with a specific ideology – produced by the groups’ relatively self-disciplined, autonomous and loosely structured production process – with specific aesthetic standards and particular styles of expression, bringing life and meaning to specific small groups. It was also found that autonomously creative creativity relied on invisible organizations and an ethical spirit. One group member declared that “a particular aesthetics responds to a shared sense of identity among creators and appreciators and the formation of values and the ethical spirit of specific groups”. Sustainable creativity linked the whole body of creators and appreciators in the pursuit of self-fulfilment and a common identity. Creativity was maintained by shared values and identities, not by economics. Creativity had an autonomous nature, and, without it, concepts were unlikely to be formed, and the meaning of popular culture would collapse. Hence, creativity in the micro popular visual culture was the concept of a social practice. The formation process of this concept was also the formation process of autonomously creative creativity. Group creativity did not develop in a linear production-management-feedback route, but in a non-linear and relative way

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Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

國際藝術教育學刊

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

that integrates stability and change. Creativity was able to continue to develop as a result of its own autonomy. The third issue concerns the groups’ creativity and identity. In the study, both group organizations and appreciators established common values and a sense of shared identity through the production and sale of images. Creativity was interpreted as the realization and result of specific aesthetic ideas. One group made the following comment, “In our group, the sense of a shared identity is especially important, as it “represents the purpose and value of our existence”. If creativity left the groups, then the recognition of self-identity and values would be lost, and it would be impossible to comprehend micro popular visual culture. The groups promised to provide appreciators image products of high quality, and appreciators had expectations of the groups’ creativity. As one group member stated, creativity in the group was “fused with creators’ and appreciators’ consensus and common purpose in particular aesthetics”. Creativity was limited by the groups’ somewhat persistent ideas of popular culture. Behind this persistence, however, lay an ideology of shared identity and values, to which group creativity gave new life. Creators and appreciators manifested specific ideologies through particular aesthetics. Between them they established an anticipation of the creation – the appreciators gave the creators autonomy and freedom in the creative process, and the creators paid them back with work. The groups thus proved the existence of creativity at the micro level, opening the door to autonomously creative creativity.

Concluding Remarks Significantly, the micro perspective on creativity does not reject aspects of the macro perspective on creativity such as the cultural dimensions proposed by Efland, the problem-solving process identified by Torrance, and Duncum’s concept of social identity; however, it demonstrates a different nature and reveals aspects in addition to those covered by the existing literature on creativity. It highlights a strong and intimate relationship between organization, identity and group creativity. With this relationship, there are important issues involving group ethnicity and autonomously

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creative creativity that should be considered. Particularly, group organization plays an essential role in creativity, creating freedom of creation and concentrating on peer identity. Although the findings from my study cannot be generalized to show how creativity works in the contemporary visual culture of Asian ethnic groups, and indeed this is not the focus of discussion in this article, they obviously give rise to the concern that the existing perspective has limitations in terms of explaining the creativity of the Asian ethnic group, and that it has in fact overlooked these issues entirely. In the context of popular visual culture, group creativity allows image creators and appreciators to establish common values and a sense of shared identity for specific groups with particular aesthetics. This autonomously creative creativity carries a profound meaning for both the future development of visual culture and art education. Therefore, more research related to the micro perspective on the creativity of Asian ethnic groups is necessary in order to expand our understanding of creativity. The scope of creativity in the contemporary context should be widened to include the micro aspect. With regard to education, the micro perspective on group creativity is suggested as a model that may be used for art education. This model is divided into three components: group creativity, identity, and the popular visual cultural context. It challenges existing interpretations of creativity and will offer many benefits to art education. The interpretation of the creativity of micro popular visual cultural groups involves a re-conceptualization of creativity and art education.

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

This article is a further development of and reflects some ideas expressed in my article published in Australian Art Education, 34(2), 119-137.

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國際藝術教育學刊

Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

References Brenner, R. E. (2007). Understanding Manga and Anime. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge, UK: Malden. Comic World Taiwan (CWT, 2007). Comic World Taiwan. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from Comic World Taiwan: http://www.comicworld.com.tw/hp/index.html Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). Implications of a Systems Perspective for the Study of Creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The Handbook of Creativity (pp. 313-335). New York: Cambridge University Press. Duncum, P. (2002). Clarifying Visual Culture: Art Education. Art Education, 55(3), 6-14. Duncum, P. (2009). Toward a Playful Pedagogy: Popular Culture and the Pleasures of Transgression. Studies in Art Education, 50(3), 232-244. Douiin, Hin. (2001). Doujinshi Introduction. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from Douiin Hin: http://www.animenet.com.hk/doujinshi Efland, A. (2010). From Creative Self Expression to the Rise of the Creative Class: A Speculative Inquiry in the History of Education. International Journal of Arts Education, 8 (2), 1-17. Farley, F. (2001). A Genetic Model of Creativity and the Type T Personality Complex with Educational Implications. In M. D. Lynch & C. R. Harris (Eds.). Fostering Creativity in Children, K-8. (pp. 71-77). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class and How It's Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life. New York: Basic Books. Florida, R. (2005a). The Flight of the Creative Class: The New Global Competition for Talent. New York: HarperBusiness/HarperCollins. Florida, R. (2005b). Cities and the Creative Class. New York: Routledge. Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons. New York: Basic Books.

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Lau, C. Y. (2011). Group Creativity in the Popular Visual Culture of Asian Ethnic Groups: A Model for Art Education. Australian Art Education, 34(2), 119-137. Lowenfeld, V., & Brittain, W. (1987). Creative and Mental Growth (8th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Mirzoeff, N. (1999). An Introduction to Visual Culture. New York: Routledge. Parsons, M. (2010). Boxes and Corrals: Creativity and Art Education Revisited. The International Journal of Arts Education, 8(2), 31-41. Paulus, P., & Nijstad, B. (2003). Group Creativity: Innovation Through Collaboration. London: Oxford University Press. Ray, P. H., & Anderson, S. R. (2000). The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million People Are Changing the World. New York: Harmony Books. Runco, M., Dow, G., & Smith. W. (2006). Information, Experience, and Divergent Thinking: An Empirical Test. Creativity Research Journal, 18 (3), 269. Sawyer, K. (2007). Group Genius: The Creative Power of Collaboration. New York: Perseus Books. Schodt, F. L. (2002). Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. Shufflealliance. (Ed.) (2005). The Secret of Cosplay and Dōjinshi. Taipei: Locus. Sternberg, R. (2007). Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R., & Lubart, T. (1993). Investing in Creativity. Psychological Enquiry, 4(3), 229-232. Sturken, M., & Cartwright, L. (2001). Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. Oxford: Oxford University. Xiao, X. W. (2002). Comics Research: The Communication Perspective. Taipei: Wu Nan.

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Remapping the Creativity of Popular Visual Culture: A Perspective on the Asian Ethnic Group

國際藝術教育學刊

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

劉仲嚴助理教授香港教育學院 E-mail: chungyim@ied.edu.hk

摘要

創造力一直是西方藝術教育最常討論的主題。現今年輕人周遭圍繞許多新科技，他們對這些科技相當熟悉，使用起來也得心應手。他們能夠使用各類視覺媒體，透過角色扮演 (cosplay) 與同人誌 (dōjinshi) 等流行文化組織，來展現和表達創造的想法，並透過全球網路與 YouTube、Facebook 和 MSN 等各式各樣的媒體，來分享與傳遞這些想法。然而，這類創造力能精確反映出亞洲民族當代視覺文化的情況嗎？再者，我們現有的創造力相關理論，能夠解釋亞洲今日顯現的文化現象嗎？為了回答這些問題，本文將討論創造力的各種理論與定義，並聚焦於某些重要的相關議題。本文也將提出個人近期對亞洲民族創造力的研究，舉例說明此地區目前顯現的創意現象。

關鍵詞：亞洲民族、創造力、宏觀與微觀、視覺文化

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創造力一直是西方藝術教育最常討論的主題。創造力的本質相當多元，雖然當代對創造力的定義仍舊不明確，對於創造力的意義也沒有共識 (Sternberg, 2007)，但檢視藝術教育的歷史，會發現許多探討創造力的理論。在藝術教育領域，與主題相關的重要討論反映出藝術教育的主流典範轉移與哲學基礎的改變。典範轉移 (paradigm shift) 的重要範例，是從學科取向的藝術教育 (Discipline-based Art Education) 轉移至視覺藝術課程，此種課程考量反映了年輕人的每日文化經驗。此種典範轉移（著重的焦點從現代藝術轉移到當代藝術與流行文化的媒體）的推設原因，是此種轉移提供了年輕人另一種溝通工具，用來與同儕進行日常生活的交流。此種劇烈的改變無疑將重新塑造我們對當代創造力的了解。現今年輕人周遭圍繞許多新科技，他們對這些科技相當熟悉，使用起來也得心應手。他們能夠使用各類視覺媒體，透過角色扮演 (cosplay) 與同人誌 (dōjinshi) 等流行文化組織，來展現和表達創造的想法，並透過全球網路與 YouTube、Facebook 和 MSN 等各式各樣的媒體，來分享與傳遞這些想法。然而，這類創造力能精確反映出亞洲民族當代視覺文化的情況嗎？再者，我們現有的創造力相關理論，能夠解釋亞洲今日顯現的文化現象嗎？為了回答這些問題，本文將討論創造力的各種理論與定義，並聚焦於某些重要的相關議題。本文也將提出個人近期對亞洲民族創造力的研究，舉例說明此地區目前顯現的創意現象。

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

概述目前的創造力議題現代派對藝術表現的觀點，對早期創造力相關討論的焦點有很大的影響。這派觀點的主要態度，是將創造力視為一種個人創意的自我表現模式 (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987)，並視藝術家為「孤獨的天才」(lonely geniuses) (Parsons, 2010)。另一種態度則視創造力為解決問題的思考過程 (Torrance, 1977; Wallas, 1926)。然而，從 20 世紀末期開始，討論的方向已經改變，如今，創造力被視為一種團體動力學 (group dynamics) 的形式，人們共同合作、有效的解決問題 (Sawyer, 2007)。近期的討論大部分希望大家注意一點，即中產階級 (middle class) 的興衰對於創造力的可能影響力。 Efland (2010) 借用 Florida (2005a) 創造力文化與創造力中產階級興起的概念，期能進一步引起大家注意此議題，並為藝術教育尋找可能的新方向。除了以這種社經觀點來討論創造力，一種有關創造力的特別說明，也反映在媒體教育中。例如，Duncum (2011) 曾提出將通訊媒體用於教育，作為一種促進學習的有效工具。他同意

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重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

Buckingham (2003) 的觀點，認為教師應該採用輕鬆玩樂的教學策略，將教育融入流行文化的背景。重要的是，從現代派觀點至目前對創造力的說法，上述相關文獻大部分都是從當代西方藝術教育的觀點來討論創造力，很少有研究人員從亞洲民族的創造力觀點來討論。因此，我們懷疑這些說法是否能用來解釋亞洲民族文化的創造力。在此，我使用「宏觀」(macro perspective) 一詞來描述西方藝術教育所提出的創造力情境，並用「微觀創造力」(micro perspective on creativity) 一詞來描述亞洲民族的創造力，以區別西方對創造力的觀點與亞洲目前興起的創造力真實世界。我認為本文採用的名詞與區別方法，將有助於建立討論的基礎架構，因為這可以劃出界限，排除宏觀創造力的討論，而將焦點集中在本文提出的議題。

創造力的宏觀觀點問題創造力的早期理論，著重在現實世界背景中，問題與解答之間的密切關係。這些理論大部分關切的，都是尋找問題的實際解答。因此，新的思考方法與思考過程，變成了研究的焦點 (e.g., Torrance, 1977, 2002; Wallas, 1926)。後來，學者們如 Sternberg 與 Lubart (1993) 詳盡闡述智能維度 (intelligence dimension)，並發現創造的思考過程關係到重要的智能要素。此外，Gardner (2006) 與 Runco、Dow 和 Smith (2006) 的研究更進一步提出證據，證明解決問題時的思考過程，隱藏了思考圖 (thinking map) 與智能模式 (intelligent pattern)。從 21 世紀初開始，有愈來愈多的觀察研究將創造力視為大腦活動而加以檢驗，藉此從科學的觀點，重新評估創造力與智能之間的關係。Farley (2001) 開發一套基因模型解釋創意活動，強調未來教育的密切關聯，而 Winston (2003) 則研究人腦的功能運作，並提出善用心智的方法。從早期至近期對創造力的研究，研究人員試圖了解，我們如何以最有效的方式活化並促進創造力。他們認為創造力是一種思考過程，一種達成實際目標的工具，這種對創造力的理解接近工具主義者的觀點，鼓勵創造力自我表現，也相信創造的作品是思考過程中運用最大腦力的結果。另一種創造力的宏觀觀點，是將創造力視為一種社會文化產品。創造力與文化有密切的關係，社會文化了解創造力的方式，拓寬了我們對當代文化創造力的視野。的確，現今的世界充滿各種加密影像，形成我們的認知並構造出意義 (Duncum, 2002; Sturken & Cartwright, 2001)。因此，視覺文化包含編碼後的資訊、意義和娛樂，且人們都已習慣透過視覺科技來獲得這類資訊 (Mirzoeff,

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1999)，視覺科技也提供 YouTube 等平台，讓年輕人展現創造力。學者如 Csikszentmihalyi (1999) 與 Sawyer (2007) 則認為，創造力具有社會文化基礎，因此影響了創造力的發展。Csikszentmihalyi (1999) 也表示創造力是三項基本元素的組合：個人觀點 (individual perspective)、領域 (domain) 與行業 (field)。

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

另一方面，從宏觀面解釋創造力時，不能忽視社會文化環境 (socio-cultural context) 或背景 (background) 的影響。Florida (2002) 則考量了創造力的社會文化、地理學與經濟學層面 (Florida, 2005a, 2005b)。此外，Ray and Anderson (2000) 則使用「文化創造力」(cultural creatives) 一詞來描述 20 世紀末期具有創造力的個人，這些人尊重且關心生態、人文條件、生活條件和品質。雖然這些哲學主張是從社會經濟觀點來解釋創造力，但都傾向尋求一個更全面的解釋，而且忽略了亞洲民族對創造力的觀點。在此種社會經濟架構中， Sawyer (2007)、Paulus 和 Nijstad (2003) 則以團體創造力來解釋經由合作產生的創新。他們的研究採用團體天賦 (group genius) 的理論打破創造力的神話，進一步探索社會文化面向 (socio-cultural dimension)，以更了解創造力。Sawyer 讚賞合作的創造力量，表示透過合作的力量就能產生創新的構想。然而，團體天賦理論幾乎沒有論及團體創造力與流行視覺文化之間的互動。亞洲的創造力，透過不同形式的流行媒體所呈現的影像來表現。流行視覺文化的影像，反映出文化對創造力的影響，也包含青少年喜愛的特定、共同的美學看法。舉同人誌的圈圈為例，1990 年代末期，日本同人誌圈的成員超過 5 萬人，這種現象更迅速擴展至其他國家 (Schodt, 2002)。不同於流行視覺文化的專業影像製造者，同人誌團體包含許多設立在香港與台灣的小型獨立組織，他們都是自籌資金的業餘團體。根據香港流行的同人誌網站「同人軒」(Douiin Hin) 2001 年的資料，定期發表作品的同人誌團體達 21 個。在台灣，「台灣同人誌販售會」(Comic World Taiwan) (CWT, 2007) 從 2005 年起在全台舉辦的大型動漫活動已超過 39 場。同人誌團體在這些活動中，向青少年展示與販售自製的產品。這些團體的數量愈來愈多，讓我們更明白，了解中文語境之流行視覺文化的團體創造力，是非常重要的 (Douiin Hin, 2001)。然而，針對此類創造力進行的微觀研究還是很少，解釋流行視覺文化之團體創造力的文獻，對此類創造力並未著墨。

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國際藝術教育學刊

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

與亞洲民族創造力相關的議題本節將描述本人近期研究亞洲 dōjinshi 的團體創造力時的部分研究發現，並集中討論此類創造力的不同層面，而這些都是宏觀研究所忽略的。同人誌是業餘創作者與欣賞者（稱「同人誌迷」）所組成的團體，喜愛閱讀與創作漫畫 (manga)，Brenner (2007) 對「漫畫」的定義為「連環圖畫與紙上卡通」。創作者在漫畫中利用誇張的文體手法來描繪角色或對象，並根據日本漫畫故事改寫劇情，表現出自己的想法、感情、建議與批評。同人誌團體皆自籌資金且自行出版作品。雖然販售作品（主要是在動漫展覽場），但是出版與銷售同人誌，較重視的是藝術表現與爭取認同而非盈利 (Shufflealliance, 2005)。雖然同人誌源自日本，但現在其他國家也廣為流行，不再只是個亞洲現象。然而，在亞洲的藝術表現與欣賞與美國並不相同，例如，台灣的漫畫創作者與讀者並不偏愛西方喜好的「超人」題材 (Xiao, 2002)。因此，本文只使用香港與台灣的例子，以突顯討論焦點並檢驗團體創造力。本文的目標之一，是要證明目前相當缺乏本文主題相關的文獻，因此，其他非亞洲族群皆不納入主要討論。 2008-10 年間，本人做了一項質性研究，集中討論這些族群如何詮釋並表現流行視覺文化的創造力 (Lau, 2011)。此研究調查了 32 名同人誌成員，分別來自 2 個香港同人誌團體與 5 個台灣同人誌團體。本人將根據研究的發現，提出三個與主題相關的議題。第一個議題是有關亞洲民族的美學價值與創造力。研究發現，創作者與欣賞者共同擁有特定的美學價值、社會背景與共同的價值觀，使他們之間產生共同認同 (common identity) 感，而反過來引起微型流行視覺文化 (micro popular visual culture) 的創造力。所有團體成員均指出，他們的團體組織並不嚴密，創造力會「受到不可控制與可控制的內在與外在因素影響，如成本與營收的平衡等因素」，使得團體創造力「可預期卻又不可預期，因為作品是在不確定的氛圍下創作，會不斷的進行改寫和變動」。創造力內在的驅動力包含「無形的同化力量、團體的認同、同儕的讚賞與流行文化衍生的價值」；創造力外在的驅動力則包含「有形的成就，如參加展覽、出版發表與生產行銷計劃」。此外，「身分的認同與獲得他人（購買者）的讚賞，讓我們覺得一切都是值得的。這些活動讓我們更加了解自己」。這些亞洲團體都表現出一種模糊卻又具體、道德上可接受的精神共識 (spiritual consensus)，而非以實質條件來測量價值，團體經濟活動背後的意義就是特定流行美學的認同，以及特定集體價值的表現與實踐。

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研究發現顯示，團體創造力是短暫的，團體簡單、獨立與彈性的管理，是一種對外在改變所產生的複雜、自然的適應反應。團體創造力證實了個人／組織互相影響下，所產生的「分 — 合 —分」(split-combine-split) 現象。擁有特定美學興趣的個人欣賞者持續支持團體，並因為這些團體的存在與對創造力的欣賞，而結合在一起。一旦團體已經完成共享認同感的建立過程，也同意特定的美學價值，成員們就會回歸社會，並等待下一回的結合與分開。此種結合與分開的能量，來自創造力本身。創造力的影響力受到道德原則指引，在社會核心形成一股浪潮，向團體散佈特定的美學。第二個議題是「自主創造性創造力」(autonomously creative creativity)，這個詞在這裡是指任何具有自主性的創造力。透過自主創造性創造力的意識型態 (ideology) 所呈現的特定美學，在追尋共享價值與共同認同上，是相當重要的大事。研究中的團體顯示，他們清楚了解創造力的構成方式與產品應達到的品質。創造力必須獲得團體認可。研究發現，團體組織與整個流行視覺文化影像製造過程中的創造力，會導致一種帶有特定意識型態的微型文化產品（相當自律、自主且生產過程結構鬆散的團體所製造），帶著特定的美學標準與特定的表現風格，將生命與意義帶入特定的小團體。研究也發現，自主創造性創造力仰賴無形的組織與道德精神。一位團體成員表示「一種特定的美學回應了創作者與欣賞者之間共享的認同感，以及特定團體的價值形成與道德精神」。能夠長久維持的創造力，連結了全部的創作者與欣賞者，以追求自我滿足與共同認同。維持創造力的因素在共享的價值與認同，而非經濟因素。創造力有自主性，而且沒了自主性，概念就不可能形成，流行文化的意義也會崩解，因此，微型流行視覺文化中的創造力是一種社會實踐 (social practice) 的概念，此種概念的形成過程，也是自主創造性創造力的形成過程。團體創造力的發展，並不是線性的生產 — 管理 — 反饋 (production-management-feedback) 路線，而是非線性與相對的路線，此路線整合了穩定性與改變。創造力也因為自有的自主性而能持續發展，第三個議題在討論團體的創造力與認同。在研究中，團體組織與欣賞者皆透過影像的製作與販售，確立了共同價值與共享的認同感，創造力被解釋為特定美學概念的實現與結果。一個團體表示：「在我們的團體中，共享的認同感特別重要，因為它『代表我們存在的目的與價值』」。如果創造力離開團體，則自我身分的認同與價值就會喪失，也不可能了解微型流行視覺文化。有的團體承諾提供欣賞者高品質的影像產品，而欣賞者則對團體的創造力抱持期待。如同一位團體成員所述，團體的創造力是「融合了創造者與欣賞者對特定美學的共識與共同目的」。團體過於堅持流行文化的想法，則會限制創

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重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

國際藝術教育學刊

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

造力。然而在此種堅持背後，有一種共享的共識與價值的意識型態，團體創造力則賦予此種意識型態新的生命。創造者與欣賞者透過特定的美學，表露特定的意識型態。他們之間建立一種創作的預期 — 欣賞者給予創作者創造過程中的自主與自由，而創作者則以作品回饋他們。因此，團體證明了微層次存在的創造力，開啟了通往自主創造性創造力的大門。

結論值得注意的是，微觀的創造力並未反對宏觀的觀點，如 Efland 所提的文化面向、Torrance 發現的問題解決過程與 Duncum 的社會認同 (social identity) 概念；然而，微觀的創造力呈現不同的性質，並揭露創造力現有文獻未涵蓋到的層面。微觀的創造力著重在組織、認同與團體創造力之間強烈且密切的關係。有此種關係，就必須考量有關團體種族與自主創造性創造力的重要議題。尤其，團體組織在創造力上扮演了重要角色，建立了創造的自由性並全心爭取同儕認同。雖然本人的研究發現，無法廣義顯示創造力在亞洲民族的當代視覺文化中如何運作，這也確實非本文的討論焦點，但這些研究發現明顯可引起注意，使其他研究人員留意現有的觀點在解釋亞洲民族創造力方面有其限制，而且實際上，現有觀點完全忽略了這些議題。在流行視覺文化的背景中，團體創造力讓影像創造者與欣賞者建立了共同價值，共享擁有特定美學之特定團體的認同感。此種自主創造性創造力對於視覺文化與藝術教育的未來發展，有著深遠的意義。因此，我們需要更多亞洲民族創造力的微觀研究，以擴展我們對創造力的了解，還應拓寬創造力在當代背景中的範圍，以涵蓋微觀層面。在教育方面，不妨以團體創造力的微觀，作為藝術教育的一種模型。此模型可分成三個要件：團體創造力、身分認同與流行視覺文化背景，挑戰了創造力現有的解釋，日後將為藝術教育提供許多助益。要解釋微型流行視覺文化團體的創造力，必須將創造力與藝術教育重新概念化 (re-conceptualization)。

本文進一步發展並反映出本人先前所作論文的部分觀點，該文發表於《澳洲藝術教育》(Australian Art Education) 第 34(2) 期，119-137 頁。

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參考文獻

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

Brenner, R. E. (2007). Understanding Manga and Anime. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge, UK: Malden. Comic World Taiwan (CWT, 2007). Comic World Taiwan. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from Comic World Taiwan: http://www.comicworld.com.tw/hp/index.html Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). Implications of a Systems Perspective for the Study of Creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The Handbook of Creativity (pp. 313-335). New York: Cambridge University Press. Duncum, P. (2002). Clarifying Visual Culture: Art Education. Art Education, 55(3), 6-14. Duncum, P. (2009). Toward a Playful Pedagogy: Popular Culture and the Pleasures of Transgression. Studies in Art Education, 50(3), 232-244. Douiin, Hin. (2001). Doujinshi Introduction. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from Douiin Hin: http://www.animenet.com.hk/doujinshi Efland, A. (2010). From Creative Self Expression to the Rise of the Creative Class: A Speculative Inquiry in the History of Education. International Journal of Arts Education, 8 (2), 1-17. Farley, F. (2001). A Genetic Model of Creativity and the Type T Personality Complex with Educational Implications. In M. D. Lynch & C. R. Harris (Eds.). Fostering Creativity in Children, K-8. (pp. 71-77). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Florida, R. (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class and How It's Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life. New York: Basic Books. Florida, R. (2005a). The Flight of the Creative Class: The New Global Competition for Talent. New York: HarperBusiness/HarperCollins. Florida, R. (2005b). Cities and the Creative Class. New York: Routledge. Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons. New York: Basic Books.

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國際藝術教育學刊

重繪流行視覺文化的創造力：對亞洲民族的觀點

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The International Journal of Arts Education

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Cheung On Tam Assistant Professor Hong Kong Institute of Education E-mail: cotam@ied.edu.hk Ng Mau Wai Instructor Hong Kong Polytechnic University E-mail: sdclive@polyu.edu.hk

Abstract This paper reports on a project involving the development of a multimedia and interactive guide that can be used in museums for the learning of visual arts appreciation and criticism. A group of seven university students conducted in-depth studies of ten selected works exhibited at the Hong Kong Museum of Art. The studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; findings concerning these artworks were organized and transformed into relevant audio, visual and textual materials in the form of a portable individual interactive guide. The guide was made available to secondary school Visual Arts students visiting the museum. Constructive learning and contextual art appreciation are the guiding principles in the development of the guide. The content of the guide is divided into two areas: 1) background information on each artwork and 2) interactive learning activities. This guide is a collaborative effort between academics, the education sector

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國際藝術教育學刊

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

and community cultural institutions, bringing benefits to each group of participants from these organizations. The paper ends with a discussion on the ways in which the guide can be improved and the benefits brought to project participants.

Key Words: Multimedia and Interactive Guide, Museum Education, Visual Arts Teaching and Learning, Mobile Technology, Art Appreciation and Criticism

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Introduction Education in Hong Kong has undergone many changes in response to waves of curriculum reform since the late 1990s (Poon & Wong, 2008). Major changes have taken place in the content of the Visual Arts curriculum and in the format of public examinations. The New Senior Secondary Curriculum (NSS), which was implemented in September 2009 for Form Four to Form Six students (ages around 16-18, equivalent to senior secondary level of the US school system), postulates ‘visual arts appreciation and criticism in context and visual arts making’ as two major ‘intertwined and inter-related strands’ (Curriculum Development Council & Hong Kong Examinations & Assessment Authority, 2007, p. 9). Making visual arts criticism a compulsory paper and incorporating critical studies into the school-based assessment, the forthcoming 2012 Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination (HKDSE) has created much anxiety among teachers regarding how art criticism should be taught and assessed (Wong, 2005). It is evident that the emphasis on art appreciation and criticism in the secondary school Visual Arts curriculum has been greatly increased. Using community and authentic resources such as artworks in museums to teach Visual Arts is also one of the strategies suggested in the NSS. Furthermore, the use of information technology for interactive learning plays an important role in the new teaching environment. Using mobile devices as a tool for teaching art criticism is an innovative way to respond to the needs of 21st century education. It is against this background that the present project was developed.

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Aims of the project The principal aim of this project was to develop a multimedia and interactive guide that could be used in museums for the learning of visual arts appreciation and criticism. A group of seven participants from the Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) conducted in-depth studies of ten selected works exhibited at the Hong Kong Museum of Art. Six paintings and four ceramic works were selected on the basis that they are part of the

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國際藝術教育學刊

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

museum’s permanent collections and represent important styles of and developments in Chinese art. The participants’ findings concerning these artworks were organized and transformed into relevant audio, visual and textual materials in the form of a portable individual interactive guide. This guide was then made available for secondary school students visiting the museum. The value of the project lies in its capacity to enhance the visual arts learning of all project participants, including HKIEd and secondary school students. Schoolteachers also benefited from the project in terms of a better integration of museum visit activities with appreciation and criticism using mobile technology. Specifically, the project aimed: 1. To foster the learning of visual arts appreciation and criticism adopting a constructivist approach at the senior secondary level. 2. To help students construct knowledge and learn about art through the use of mobile technology that makes use of multiple-sensory learning. 3. To develop a self-learning multimedia and interactive guide that has the marketing potential for museums and heritage trails realizing university-promoted ‘knowledge transfer’. 4. To initiate school-museum linkage and better use of community resources.

Application of multimedia and interactive technology in museums During the recent decade, multimedia technology has been innovatively used by museums all over the world, variously known as ‘on-line museum’, ‘multimedia museum’, ‘virtual museum’, ‘telemuseum’ or ‘computer-based (or mediated) exhibits’ (Atagok & Ozcan, 2001; Kenderdine, 2001; Reading, 2003; Staniszewski, 2000; Trant, 1998). In addition to uploading museum materials (e.g., archives, brochures and artifacts with detailed descriptions) into cyberspaces and installing digital appliances for museum visitors (e.g., kiosks), some museums have been creating effective portable devices or interactive installations such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and multimedia phones to enhance visitors’ involvement and participation (Micha & Economou, 2005; Legrady & Honkela, 2002; Vavoula et al., 2009). For example, Vavoula, Sharples, Rudman, Meek and Lonsdale (2009) initiated an experiment called Myartspace, which involved the provision of a mobile

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phone service in museum learning. During a school field trip to a museum, students engaged in inquiry learning and used their mobile phones to gather information. The collected information was then automatically sent to a website where students could view, share and present the information when they worked in the classroom or at home. Upon completion of the project, the study proposed a criterion for evaluating school museum visits and concluded that Myartspace had successfully bridged the museum-classroom gap by assisting teachers to design pre- and post-visit lessons, enabling students to create their own virtual museum with the artifacts collected from the visit, and extending the museum context into the classroom through personal and museum digital collections. Research studies on multimedia and digital interactivity fall for the most part into the categories of either evaluating the effectiveness of using these technologies in a particular way or presenting successful experiences of using the technology. As revealed from the literature (e.g., Atagok & Ozcan, 2001; Kenderdine, 2001; Lisus & Ericson, 1999; Reading, 2003; Trant, 1998), it has been widely recognized that multimedia and interactive technologies do indeed have positive effects on museum learning, and that they change the current roles of museums and create new methods of interpretation and communication in museums. For example, Micha and Economou (2005) presented a case of artists using multimedia technologies to provide a meaningful method of connecting stories and interpretations to illustrations in an interactive and user-friendly way. Kenderdine (2001) put on a virtual exhibition entitled 1000 years of the Olympic Games at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney. His project, together with other similar projects such as those of Reading (2003) and Atagok et al. (2001), demonstrated the unlimited potential of multimedia technology for use in museum development by extending the contents of the exhibition to reach much wider audiences. However, some scholars (Heath, Lehn & Osborne, 2005) note that the value of multimedia and interactive technology in connecting with single users has been over-stated at the cost of group participation. Thus, museums should be aware of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;facilitating interaction and collaboration among visitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Heath, Lehn & Osborne, 2005, p. 93) and establishing cooperative and partnership relationships with outreached organizations

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

國際藝術教育學刊

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

(Nickerson, 2004; Marty 1999) before multimedia and interactive technology are applied. These scholars also suggest building a group-participating visiting experience for each individual visitor, implementing a management structure which oversees and co-ordinates the various actions of visitors, and establishing a collaborative problem-solving and help-giving system between museum professionals and users (Heath, Lehn & Osborne, 2005; Marty, 1999). Nickerson (2004), Trant (1998) and Marty (1999) further suggest that museums and their outreached organizations should work in partnership, create opportunities for co-operative learning from each other, and use cross-linking to each organization’s website to raise their collective profile. In view of the findings of these studies, the application of multimedia and interactive technology in museum learning is not simply a matter of content or technology, but also of the social use of technology and the social construction of a museum’s contents (Reading, 2003).

Content of the multimedia and interactive guide In this project, all the content relating to the artworks were programmed into a device called iPod touch, which was then used as the multimedia and interactive guide. The guide starts by providing a brief gallery introduction and a virtual map indicating the locations of each piece of artwork. By clicking on any thumbnail image of these works on the map, users are led to a ‘background information’ page on the artwork. A menu bar then appears, highlighting various pieces of background information and students can choose to listen to any of the following: Basic Information This is a list of basic information, including the name of the artwork and the artist, the medium, measurements and the period when the artwork was created. Artist Background This refers to background information about the artist, including his/her education and training background (in particular those aspects relevant to

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his/her career as an artist), artistic style, the masters that influenced the artist and the art school that he/she belongs to. Historical, Cultural and Aesthetic Background This is a description and explanation of the aesthetic, cultural, social, political, economic, religious and/or technological background of the period when the artwork was first appreciated and created. This information will help students to understand the artist’s motivation in creating and various social and cultural factors affecting the production and reception of the work.

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Forms and Techniques This is an analysis of basic visual elements such as the colours, shapes, forms, and space of the work; of principles of organization such as balance, unity, contrast and rhythm; and of the relationships among the visual elements and the organizational principles. With the help of such information, students will gain a better understanding of the forms, medium and techniques of the artwork. Themes and Subject Matter Focusing on the expressive quality of the work, this part speculates on the meaning of the work or the message that the work conveys. It is also an exploration of the artist’s personal feelings, views, and ideas as presented in the artwork. Value and Importance This part will help students to arrive at a judgment of the artwork, considering the contribution of the artwork to the overall development of art, probably through comparison with other artworks of a similar style or on a similar topic. The appropriateness of the medium used, the level of creativity and innovation demonstrated, and the effectiveness in bringing out the content of the work are highlighted. The above background information helps students to appreciate and critique artworks in their social and cultural contexts. Each piece of information is structured into two or three levels. Students can choose to access the next level if they are interested or else they can go to other pages.

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國際藝術教育學刊

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

At the bottom of each background information page, the following applications are created so that students can engage in interactive learning about the artwork: Issues and Discussion In this section, students are able to record their replies to a question about the artwork or raise a question that they want to ask. The guide will then upload the students’ responses onto a shared database that is accessible for all guide users. Teachers can make use of such information to design follow-up lessons when the students return to school. Links This section links artworks to other artworks having similarities in the topic, background, technique or style. The placing of similar artworks on the same page will help students to make comparisons between the mediums, expressions, techniques, styles or contexts of the two artworks selected. Students are guided to look for the similarities as well as the differences between them, thus helping them to understand artworks from a broader and contextualized perspective. Responses In this section, students are able to listen to responses to the artwork by experts or peers, thus being provided with a platform for sharing, exchanging and understanding other people’s views of the work. Games and Activities Games and activities are being designed to foster the students’ learning interest. Examples of such games include changing a 2-D landscape scene into a 3-D environment so that students can see the scene from different angles, matching hairstyles with appropriate ceramic figurines, and the students recording an imagined conversation between two characters in the work.

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Figure 1. Structure of the multimedia guide.

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國際藝術教育學刊

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Figure 2. Navigation of the multimedia guide.

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Collection of data for improvement A mixed approach of using quantitative (a one-page survey) and qualitative methods (focus group interviews) was used to collect feedback from the multimedia guide users. Both methods helped to evaluate the current multimedia guide and collect data for the improvement of the guide for future development. Four secondary schools and a total of 79 students participated in the project. All of them are Form Four or Form Five students (ages around 16-17) studying Visual Arts as an elective. There are altogether five galleries in the Hong Kong Museum of Art. As the multimedia guide only features ten works from the Xubaizhai Gallery of Chinese Painting and Calligraphy (A Landscape Journey: Chinese Landscape Painting from the Xubaizhai Collection) and the Chinese Antiquities Gallery (Gems of Chinese Ceramics form the Hong Kong Museum of Art), students were asked to visit the two galleries without using the guide for half an hour. After that, they were introduced to the operation of the guide. Then they visited the galleries again and looked for the artworks featured in the guide for another half an hour. They were asked to look at no more than four artworks. A one-page survey was distributed to the students immediately after they visited the gallery. The survey was in Chinese, containing mainly questions of ordinal options. Data from the returned surveys were processed and analyzed. Three students from each school were selected randomly to attend the focus group interviews. The interviews were conducted right after the visit to ensure respondents had fresh memories of the exhibition, content of the multimedia guide and their experience of using the guide. Each interview lasted for approximately 15 to 30 minutes. Respondents were assured of confidentiality of all the content that had been discussed in the interviews. The interviews were conducted in Cantonese, the native dialect of the students, and were recorded. Discussions were then transcribed into English for writing this paper. The following questions were asked during the group interviews: 1. What are the overall feelings and comments of using the multimedia when

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

國際藝術教育學刊

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

you visit the gallery? 2. How, if there are any, does the guide help you as secondary school students to learn visual arts and art criticism? 3. What would you recommend for improvement of the multimedia guide? School

No. of surveys collected

No. of students interviewed

School A

School B

School C

School D

Total

Table 1. Number of surveys collected and number of students interviewed.

Findings Overall, results from the survey indicated that most students found the experience of using the guide satisfactory. In the interviews, the students elaborated on the usefulness of the guide and gave suggestions on how to improve it. The students in general appreciated the multimedia guide in terms of its convenience and richness of information. They perceived the experience as beneficial to their visual arts learning, but at the same time they raised a number of concerns and recommendations for improvement.

Students’ overall experience of using the guide The survey asked the students to rate different parts of the content of the multimedia guide. Five levels of satisfaction were provided. For data processing, the five levels were encoded into a scale of scores from 1 to 5. Five represents the highest level of satisfaction while one represents the lowest. Table 2 lists the ratings of all items in the survey.

Item Artist Backgrounds Historical,

Very Much Satisfied

Satisfied

Average

Dissatisfied

9 (11.4%)

35 (44.3%)

31 (39.2%)

4 (5.1%)

19 (24.1%)

40 (50.6%)

20 (25.3%)

Very Much Dissatisfied

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Cultural & Aesthetic Backgrounds Forms & Techniques Themes & subject Matters Value & Importance Interestingness Interactivity User-friendliness Helpfulness in art learning

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

11 (13.9%)

43 (54.4%)

21 (26.6%)

3 (3.8%)

18 (22.8%)

35 (44.3%)

24 (30.4%)

1 (1.3%)

20 (25.3%)

34 (43.0%)

23 (29.1%)

2 (2.5%)

23 (29.1%) 23 (29.1%) 25 (31.6%)

22 (27.8%) 25 (31.6%) 35 (44.3%)

32 (40.5%) 25 (31.6%) 13 (16.5%)

2 (2.5%) 6 (7.6%) 5 (6.3%)

1 (1.3%)

15 (19.0%)

47 (59.5%)

15 (19.0%)

1 (1.3%)

Table 2. Level of satisfaction of students using the multimedia guide.

Interestingness The results of the survey indicated that 57% of the students were satisfied with the level of interestingness and only 3% of them rated it as dissatisfied. Concerning the experience of using the guide, most students in the group interview described it as ‘interesting’ and ‘special’. The majority of them had no previous experience of using multimedia guide in museum visits. However, they found the guide innovative for it could arouse their interest and enhance their involvement in learning about the artworks. The advance technology of the guide can lead us to understand the theme of artworks created during ancient periods. Using a new technology to introduce an old object, it aroused my interest to study that particular artwork. Without the guide, I would just think that it is merely an ordinary porcelain ware with nothing special. (Student 3) The use of technology was appealing to the students. One student suggested that the guide functioned like a ‘take-along Wikipedia’ for its interestingness and interactive nature.

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Interactivity Around 60% of students in the survey indicated that they were satisfied with the interactivity of the guide. Some students in the group interview gave positive feedback on the interactive function of the guide for it enabled them to give response and listen to others’ opinion. The ‘Issues and Discussion’ part was one of the most highly rated parts. The students explained that this part allowed them to express their views about the artworks. The questions asked in the guide also provided them an opportunity to have more in-depth thoughts about the meaning of the artworks. [I like the] ‘Answering the Questions’ [part the most]. This part can help me think over the meaning of the artworks in a deeper way. Apart from this, I can answer that question by myself and it creates a chance for me to reflect more. I can also listen to the comments given by the person who uses the guide previously. I am exposed to views given by different people, which brings me towards a more thorough understanding of the work. (Student 11) Future Use Students were generally affirmative about the possibility of using the guide in the future. All students stated that they would use the guide in the future even if they were not required by the school. The main reasons were the convenience and the interactivity of the guide provided. In the survey, 36.7% of students claimed that they would definitely choose to use the guide again when visiting museums. Future Use

N=79 (%)

Definitely

29 (36.7%)

Probably

45 (57.0%)

Probably Not

5 (6.3%)

Total

79 (100.0%)

Table 3. Possibility of using the guide again.

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Usefulness of the guide Students generally agreed that the guide helped them construct a new and meaningful visual arts learning experience. Most of the students revealed that they liked the experience of visiting the museum with the guide more than that without the guide. Around 80% of students (62) expressed that they were satisfied with the guide and that the guide helped in their visual arts learning, with only 1 student (1.3%) feeling dissatisfied with the guide strongly. The reasons for their satisfaction were the abundance of information provided, convenience and the help in learning visual arts and art criticism.

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Abundance of information As indicated in the survey, students were generally satisfied with the information section. The most highly rated part was ‘Historical, Cultural and Aesthetic Backgrounds’. Around half of the students (50.6%) were satisfied with this part and 24.1% of them rated it ‘Very much satisfied’. The parts ‘Forms and Techniques’, ‘Themes and Subject Matters’ and ‘Value and Importance’ received very similar ratings. Around 67-68% of students rated these items as ‘Satisfied’ or ‘Very much satisfied’. Relatively speaking, ‘Artist backgrounds’ received a lower rating; only 56% of students were satisfied with this part. Students believed that detailed information (for example the period of time that the artwork was created) provided by the guide was necessary for writing art criticism. They also appreciated that the information could be found conveniently in the guide. Some students thought that the comments from experts and peers enriched their understanding of the content a lot. Convenience In both the survey and group interviews, students indicated that the usefulness of the guide was its convenience. Students in the interview pointed out that by clicking a few keys, pictures, explanations and background information of the artwork and the artist could be shown in the guide immediately. One student pointed out that the virtual map was quite

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

convenient for it could lead users to a particular artwork and help to design one’s own route of visit. I think it is very convenient. It helps us to understand the artwork, and also to record our comments so that other people and the teacher will know what we think about the artwork. With the help of this guide, we can view the exhibits with a focus. (Student 5) Helpfulness in learning visual arts / art criticism About one-third (31.6%) of the students believed that the guide could help them in learning visual arts and art criticism. They also believed that the guide had increased their interaction with experts and peers on the appreciation of artworks. Most of the students in the group interview agreed that the guide was beneficial for developing their skills in art criticism. Some of them pointed out that it was the information offered by the guide that was useful for art criticism. One student suggested that the explanation of the artworks were at the right level of difficulty for them to understand. Another student commented that: If we read introductions that are too sophisticated, we would probably be unable to understand. I think the level of difficulty now is adequate. When we encounter artworks and we have to write art criticism in the future, we can recall the wordings and expression that we have came across today. This surely will help. (Student 9) However, some students suggested that the information provided by the guide did not help directly in acquiring art criticism techniques unless students are well trained in such analysis and lines of thoughts during class teaching. I think the impact is not direct. First, what it offers is merely some basic information. After reading (the guide) I would have knowledge on a specific artwork. But if afterwards I do not have any practice, it would

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not help much. When it comes to the examination, we will encounter an artwork that we may have never seen before. There is no direct benefit if we don’t learn art criticism at other times. (Student 3) On the contrary, some other students affirmed the help from the guide in other ways. In the survey, students were asked to rate the items that they found beneficial to them. The items that got the highest rating by students were ‘Improve my art understanding and knowledge’ (60.8%) and ‘Explore new art learning experience’ (59.5%). One student suggested that the structure of the content could guide users to describe artworks from different points of view, such as commenting on the artwork’s history, form and value. Other students noted that they had the opportunities to reflect on as well as to talk about the artwork when they were invited to give responses right after reading the information in the ‘Issues and Discussion’ part. Item

N=79 (%)

Enhance my interest in arts criticism

41 (51.9%)

Increase interaction with peers/experts

25 (31.6%)

Improve my art understanding and knowledge

48 (60.8%)

Explore new art learning experience

47 (59.5%)

Extend the museum context to classrooms or home

22 (27.8%)

Nurture my interest in art learning

25 (31.6%)

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Table 4. Helpfulness of the guide in learning visual arts and art criticism.

Suggestions for improvement In the focus group interviews, the twelve respondents were asked to give suggestions to improve the multimedia guide. Most of the student respondents agreed that more information and pictures of artworks were needed. They also mentioned the technical problems of the guide. Technical problems and the layout design Students pointed out a number of technical problems that needed to be addressed, including poor indoor Wi-Fi connection, problems in playing the videos, navigation errors in the guide, and too low recording volume. Some

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

specific recommendations from users were raised. For instance, the size of the picture shown in the guide could be smaller and the area of menu had to be enlarged to make it easier to click. One student stated that the set-up process of the guide was time-consuming. Another respondent suggested that a protecting film was needed for the screen of the guide. The hygienic problem of earphones was raised. Some students commented on the layout design of the guide: The menu and layout of the picture for each piece of artwork is exactly the same... (What can be done to make it better?) Perhaps the design for each exhibition can be of different styles. For example, the design for an exhibition of Chinese painting and calligraphy can use black and white. And for an exhibition of modern artworks, a colourful layout can be used. (Student 7) More and better information Some students advised to increase both the quantity and quality of information of the artworks. Two students thought that some of the comments from experts were not sufficiently professional. As the guide is still in its development stage, it is normal that the information [of the artworks] is incomplete. The format and structure of the information is not problematic. But in the future, the quantity and quality of the information provided have to be improved. For the experts’ comments that I’ve listened to, to be straight forward, I think it is not so useful. (Student 12) A student pointed out that some questions in the “Issues and Discussion’ part were not related to the artwork presented. For example, the question for the work Bodhidharma ‘Do you think it is necessary for each piece of artwork to deliver a positive message?’ was a good question on aesthetics but was irrelevant to that piece of work.

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Include more photos of the artwork from different angles According to the students, adding more pictures depicting the artwork from various angles would be good for better viewing and understanding of the work. As the physical display environment sometimes posed limitations on viewing 3-dimensional works from all angles, it would be better if pictures taken from some other angles other than the front and the back views were included.

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Include more artworks It was suggested to include more pieces of artwork in the guide since students preferred to have more choices of which artwork to listen to. An advice was: (Q: How many artworks would be sufficient? Including all artworks of this gallery?) Perhaps choosing a few more in each category would be adequate. (Q: What category do you mean?) For example, we can categorize artworks according to the period of their creation such as Qing Dynasty or Ming Dynasty, and we can select a few from each dynasty. (Student 6) Some students suggested that it was not necessary for the users to listen to introductions of all the artworks included in the guide. One student suggested that the optimum number would be three to five pieces and the time of using the guide would probably last for half an hour to 45 minutes. Include more functions One student suggested adding a function of taking notes by handwriting technology and these responses could be sent to teachers. Another suggestion was adding a function that enabled users to discuss instantly with peers, for example a chatting function. It was also recommended by students that a page could be added for introducing the part of the artwork most worth watching.

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

In addition I think the guide can add a page introducing the part of the artwork that is most worth watching, accompanying with an elaboration on what we can observe from that particular part. Or to include a circle or a dot on the picture, which can be clicked to enlarge with some descriptions. (Student 4) Strengthen the focus of the guide Students raised a number of concerns if using this guide would become a compulsory component of museum field trips organized by schools. One student advised to block some of the functions in the guide so as to prevent students from being distracted. One student pointed out the primary focus of the guide was to help students understand the intended meaning of the artwork: I think the technical problems are not difficult to tackle. There are some more core concerns. It is important for students to recognize the artist’s motivation and I think the guide should help in this aspect. … The guide will be useful in particular in helping us to look at abstract art. (Student 4)

Benefits to project participants Connections with museums and schools The project was an effort to establish a tripartite relationship between cultural service providers (the museum), academics (HKIEd) and the education sector (participating secondary schools). Through actively engaging school students in a museum learning environment, the project helped to attract a museum audience, support knowledge transfer from universities and create the opportunity for pre-service as well as in-service schoolteachers to use community resources in the planning and delivery of the Visual Arts curriculum. Further collaboration is expected in making the guide an official guide of the museum, and similar guides can be developed for other cultural institutions and heritage sites.

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Benefits for secondary school student and teacher participants By placing secondary students in direct contact with artworks, the project enabled them to use the guide to learn at their own pace and to focus on what interested them. With the help of the audio, visual and textual materials supplied by the guide, students constructed their experience and knowledge of artworks on their own. The material of the guide was rich in modes of communication and appealed to multiple senses in bringing out its contents. The project had explored an alternative to the teacher-centred presentation of teaching art in the museum. It was a step towards diversifying the teaching and learning strategies in visual arts learning.

Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Benefits for HKIEd student participants The project created an opportunity for the HKIEd student participants to engage in an in-depth study of artworks. Through discussion with the project investigators and fellow participants, students had not only learnt ways to transform art historical knowledge into learnable contents but also gained experience of using mobile technology in teaching. The project had an impact on participating studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; current and future teaching. Benefits for the project investigators The project allowed the two investigators to gain the knowledge and experience necessary for the development and usage of mobile technology in teaching and learning. The project also created opportunities for the investigators to work closely with the creative industry in digital media production. The project necessitated discussion, consultation and mutual understanding between the project investigators and the professionals working on the production of the interactive guide. Linkages established with the museum and schools will create opportunities for further collaborations.

Conclusion This project assured the benefits of using multimedia and interactive technology in museums in learning about artworks. From the generally positive feedback obtained, the innovative mode of learning allows students

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

to engage in looking at artworks, thinking about the various contexts related to the work, responding in their own ways and listening to their peers’ or experts’ views. With the help of audio, visual and textual materials of the guide, students constructed the experience and knowledge of artworks on their own. The project also created an opportunity for HKIEd student participants to engage in an in-depth study of artworks. Although the guide required fine-tuning technically, the collaboration among the museums, universities and the secondary schools was worthy of further development in the future. Evaluation of the project had also helped to improve the guide and prepared for the second phrase of the project, focusing on teaching in schools.

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Reference Atagok, T., & Ozcan, O. (2001). Virtual Museums in Turkey. Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), 53 (1), 42-45. Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2007). Visual Arts: Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 - 6). Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Heath, C., Lehn, D. V., & Osborne, J. (2005). Interaction and Interactives: Collaboration and participation with computer-based exhibits. Public Understanding of Science, 14 (1), 91-101. Kenderdine, S. (2001). A Guide for Multimedia Museum Exhibits: 1,000 Years of the Olympic Games. Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), 53 (3), 45-52. Legrady, G., & Honkela, T. (2002). Pockets Full of Memories: An Interactive Museum Installation. Visual Communication, 1 (2), 163-169. Lisus, N. A. & Ericson, R. V. (1999). Authorizing Art: The Effect of Multimedia Formats on the Museum Experience. Canadian Review of Sociology, 36 (2), 199-216. Marty, P. F. (1999). Museum Informatics and Collaborative Technologies: The Emerging Socio-technological Dimension of Information Science in Museum Environments. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50 (12), 1083-1091. Micha, K. & Economou, D. (2005). Using Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) to Enhance the Museum Visit Experience. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 3746, 188-198. Nickerson, M. F. (2004). Online Multimedia Museum Exhibits: A Case Study in Technology and Collaboration. Library Hi Tech, 22 (3), 270-276. Poon, Y. K., & Wong, Y. C. (2008). Education Reform in Hong Kong: The î&#x2DC;śhrough-Road Model and Its Societal Consequences. International Review of Education, 54 (1), 33-55.

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Development of A Multimedia and Interactive Museum Guide for the Learning of Visual Arts Appreciation and Criticism

Reading, A. (2003). Digital Interactivity in Public Memory Institutions: The Use of New Technologies in Holocaust Museums. Media, Culture & Society, 25 (1), 67-85. Staniszewski, M. A. (2000). Museum as Web Site, Archive as Muse: Some Notes and Ironies of the Conventions of Display. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 6 (2), 10-16. Trant, J. (1998). When All You’ve Got Is He Real Thing : Museums and Authenticity in the Networked World. Archives and Museum Informatics, 12 (2), 107-125. Wong, S. L. (2005). Can Pen-and-paper Examination Reflect the Nature and Value of Visual Arts Education? Hong Kong Art Education, 1, 22-23. Vavoula, G., Sharples, M., Rudman, P., Meek, J., & Lonsdale, P. (2009). Myartspace: Design and Evaluation of Support for Learning with Multimedia Phones between Classrooms and Museums. Computers & Education, 53 (2), 286-299.

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The International Journal of Arts Education

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

譚詳安助理教授香港教育學院 E-mail: cotam@ied.edu.hk 吳蔚茂講師香港理工大學 E-mail: sdclive@polyu.edu.hk

摘要本文針對一項企劃案提出報告，該企劃案為博物館用的多媒體互動導覽指南之開發，用於學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論。7 位大學生選定香港藝術館 (Hong Kong Museum of Art) 展出的 10 件作品進行深入研究，他們將藝術品的相關研究發現，以可攜式的個人互動導覽形式加以編排，並轉換成相關的聲音、視覺與文字資料，這項導覽指南將提供給學習視覺藝術的中學學生，在參觀博物館時使用。建構式學習與了解背景的藝術欣賞，是開發導覽指南所依循的指導原則。導覽指南的內容分成兩個領域：1) 每件藝術品的背景資料，及 2) 互動式的學習活動。此導覽指南是大學、教育部門與社區文化機構的合作成果，這些組織的參與者皆可受惠。文章最後將討論導覽指南的改良方式，以及企劃參與者可獲得的益處。

關鍵詞：多媒體互動導覽指南、博物館教育、視覺藝術的教學與學習、行動科技、藝術欣賞與評論

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博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

前言香港的教育為了因應 1990 年代末期以來的課程改革浪潮，已做出大變革 (Poon & Wong, 2008)，視覺藝術課程的內容與公開考試的形式都有很大的改變。2009 年 9 月採行的新高中課程 (New Senior Secondary Curriculum, NSS)，適用於中四至中六學生（年齡約 16-18 歲，相當於美國教育體系的高等中學），提出「背景中的視覺藝術欣賞與批評以及視覺藝術製作」為兩大「糾結交纏且交互相關的線」（課程發展委員會與香港考試評核局，2007 年，第 9 頁）。即將舉行的 2012 年香港中學文憑考試 (HKDSE)，將視覺藝術評論列為必考科目，同時將評論研究納入學校評量範圍，此點讓教師們倍感焦慮，擔心不知如何教導與評核藝術評論的成績 (Wong, 2005)。顯然，中學的視覺藝術課程明顯更加重視藝術欣賞與評論。使用社區與可靠資源（如博物館的藝術品）來教導視覺藝術，也是新高中課程建議的策略之一。再者，使用資訊科技進行互動式學習，在新的教學環境中也扮演著重要角色。使用行動裝置作為教導藝術評論的工具，是因應 21 世紀教育需求的一項創新方式。以上就是擬定本企劃案時的背景環境。

企劃案的目標本企劃案的主要目標，是要開發一套博物館使用的多媒體互動導覽指南，用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論。由香港教育學院 (HKIEd) 7 名參與者組成的團體，選定香港藝術館展出的 10 件作品進行深入研究。之所以選擇這 6 幅繪畫與 4 件陶藝品，因為他們是藝術館的固定收藏品，而且代表中國藝術的重要風格與發展。參與研究者將藝術品的相關研究發現，以可攜式的個人互動導覽形式加以編排，並轉換成相關的聲音、視覺與文字資料，然後將這項導覽指南提供給參觀博物館的中學學生。這項企劃案的價值，在於能提升所有企劃案參與者（包含香港教育學院與中學的學生）的視覺藝術學習效果。學校老師也受惠於此企劃案，因為使用行動科技可完善整合博物館參觀活動與藝術欣賞評論課程。本企劃案特別要達成下列目標： 1. 將建構式方法應用在高級中學的層級，促進視覺藝術欣賞與評論的學習意願。 2. 利用行動科技善用多重感官的學習方式，協助學生建構藝術的相關知識與學習。

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The International Journal of Arts Education

3. 開發一套自學的多媒體互動導覽指南，行銷至博物館與史跡步道 (heritage trails)，實現大學提倡的「知識轉移」(knowledge transfer) 理念。 4. 開啟學校與博物館之間的聯繫，更加善用社區資源。

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

博物館應用多媒體互動科技的方式近 10 年來，全球創新採用多媒體科技的博物館，各有不同的名稱，如「線上博物館」、「多媒體博物館」、「視覺博物館」、「電訊博物館」(telemuseum) 或「電腦式（或媒體式）展覽館」(Atagok & Ozcan, 2001; Kenderdine, 2001; Reading, 2003; Staniszewski, 2000; Trant, 1998)。除了將博物館資料（如檔案資料、手冊與附詳細說明的藝術品）上傳至網路空間，並安裝數位裝置供參觀者使用，如自助導覽機 (kiosks)，有些博物館還建立有效的可攜式裝置或互動式裝置，如個人數位助理器 (PDA) 與多媒體電話，讓參觀者更投入且更有參與感 (Micha & Economou, 2005; Legrady & Honkela, 2002; Vavoula, Sharples, Rudman, Meek & Lonsdale, 2009)。例如，Vavoula、Sharples、 Rudman、Meek 和 Lonsdale (2009) 就曾做過一項實驗，稱為「我的藝術空間」(Myartspace)，在博物館提供行動電話服務以進行學習。在學校實地參訪博物館時，學生們可學習查詢，並使用手機收集資訊，接著，收集到的資訊會自動傳送至網站，讓學生可在課堂上或家中檢視、分享與展示資料。企劃案完成時，該研究提出一套評估學校參訪博物館的標準，並下結論表示，「我的藝術空間」(Myartspace) 已成功縮短博物館與課堂的距離，協助教師設計參觀前與參觀後的課程，讓學生利用參觀時收集到的藝術品，建立自己的視覺博物館，再透過個人與博物館的數位收藏，將博物館擴展延伸至課堂上。針對多媒體與數位互動的研究調查，大部分在於評估以特殊方式使用這些科技的效果，或是展示科技使用的成功經驗。如同文獻所示（如 Atagok et al., 2001；Kenderdine, 2001；Lisus & Ericson, 1999；Reading, 2003；Trant, 1998），一般已廣泛認同多媒體與互動式科技確實對博物館學習具有正面效用，而且改變了博物館目前的角色，並建立了博物館內新的詮釋與溝通方法。例如，Micha and Economou (2005) 就曾提出藝術家使用多媒體科技的案例，提供一種有意義的方法，以使用者可方便使用的互動方式，將故事與詮釋連結至圖案上。Kenderdine (2001) 曾在雪梨動力博物館 (Powerhouse Museum) 推出一場虛擬展覽，標題為「奧運會 1000 年」(1000 years of the Olympic Games)。他的企劃案與其他類似企劃案，如 Reading (2003) 與 Atagok 等

C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 ○

國際藝術教育學刊

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

人 (2001) 的企劃案，證明多媒體技術可將展覽內容擴展延伸，觸及更廣泛的觀眾群，使博物館具有無限的發展潛力。然而，有些學者 (Heath, Lehn & Osborne, 2005) 注意到，多媒體互動科技連繫單一使用者的價值被過度誇大，因而犧牲了團體參與的部分。因此，博物館應注意「促進參觀者之間的互動與合作」(Heath et al., 2005, p. 93)，並事先與外圍組織建立合作與結盟關係(Nickerson, 2004; Marty 1999)，再採行多媒體與互動式科技。這些學者也提議為每位個人參觀者建立一種團體參觀的經驗，執行一套管理架構，監督與協調參觀者的不同動作，並在博物館專業人士與使用者之間，建立一套合作式的解答及援助系統 (Heath et al., 2005; Marty, 1999)。Nickerson (2004)、Trant (1998) 與 Marty (1999) 進一步建議，博物館與其外圍組織應該結盟，創造彼此合作學習的機會，並可交互連結至各個組織的網站，以拉高集體檔次 (collective profile)。鑑於這些研究的發現，在博物館學習上應用多媒體互動科技，不僅關係到內容或科技，還牽涉到科技的社會運用與博物館內容的社會建構 (Reading, 2003)。

多媒體互動導覽指南的內容在本專案中，所有與藝術品相關的內容皆編程至 iPod touch 裝置，然後作為多媒體互動導覽指南。導覽指南開頭先提供簡短的美術館簡介，並提供虛擬地圖顯示每件藝術品的位置，使用者點選地圖上這些作品的縮圖影像後，就可以進入該作品的「背景資訊」頁面，接著會顯示目錄欄，將背景資料的不同部分反白，學生就可以選擇聆聽下列資料：基本資料此處提供基本資料清單，包含藝術品名稱與藝術家、使用材料、尺寸與創作時期。藝術家背景資料此處提供藝術家相關背景資料，包含教育與訓練背景（尤其是與藝術家職業相關的層面）、藝術風格、影響藝術家的大師與所屬的藝術流派。歷史、文化與美學背景歷史、文化與美學背景此處說明與解釋藝術品首次受到欣賞與創作的時期，當時的美學、文化、社會、政治、經濟、宗教與／或技術背景。此部分資料將幫助學生了解藝術家的創作動機，以及影響作品製作與接受的各種社會與文化因素。

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The International Journal of Arts Education

表現形式與技巧此處分析基本的視覺要素，如作品的顏色、形狀、表現形式與空間；組織的原則，如平衡、統一、對比和韻律；以及視覺要素和組織原則之間的關係。此類資料可幫助學生更了解藝術品的表現形式、使用材料與技巧。

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

主題與題材焦點在作品的表現品質，此部分推測作品的含義或想傳達的訊息，同時也探索藝術家在藝術品中表現的私人情感、觀點與構想。價值與重要性此部分將協助學生判斷藝術品，也可能與其他風格或主題類似的藝術品進行比較，來考量此藝術品對整體藝術發展的貢獻。使用材料的適當性、展現的創造力與創新水準、以及表達作品內容的有效性，都是此部分的重點。上述背景資料可協助學生欣賞與批評其社會與文化背景中的藝術品，每部分資訊都區分成兩層或三層架構，學生可依興趣選擇存取下一層資訊，或進入其他頁面，每個背景資料頁面最下方都有下列應用程式，方便學生進行藝術品的互動學習過程：問題與討論學生可在此部分，記錄他們對藝術品相關問題的答覆，或提出想問的問題，導覽指南會將學生的答覆上傳至共用資料庫，供所有導覽指南的使用者存取。老師可利用這些資料，來設計學生返校後的後續課程。連結此部分可將藝術品連結至其他主題、背景、技巧或風格類似的藝術品，類似的藝術品會排列在同一頁面，有助學生比較兩件藝術品的使用材料、表現力、技巧、風格或背景。也會引導學生注意兩件藝術品之間的相似性與差異性，因此可協助學生從更寬廣、更符合背景的觀點來了解藝術品。答覆學生可在此部分，聆聽專家或同儕對藝術品的答覆，因而提供一個平台，分享、交換並了解其他人對作品的看法。

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國際藝術教育學刊

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

遊戲與活動遊戲與活動的部分，是為了促進學生的學習興趣而設計。此種遊戲範例，包含將平面 (2-D) 風景畫面轉換成立體 (3-D) 環境，讓學生可以從不同角度看到場景，將髮型搭配在適合的小陶像上，並可錄製藝術品兩個角色之間的想像對話。

美術館地圖

美術館簡介作品

基本資料歷史與藝術家美學背景表現形式主題與價值與文化背景背景資料與技巧題材重要性問題與討論思考問題

提出問題

連結類似主題

類似背景

類似技巧

類似風格

答覆專家答覆

同儕答覆我的答覆遊戲與活動

照相

製作影片

提出活動建議

圖 1 多媒體導覽指南的架構

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The International Journal of Arts Education

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

導覽指南的首頁

美術館地圖與特色作品

連結至其他主題或風格類似的藝術作品

問題與討論，供學生回覆與提問

目錄欄不同的背景資料選項

主題與題材，聚焦於作品的含義

圖 2 多媒體導覽指南的導航。

收集資料以利改善混合使用量化（單頁調查）與質化的方法（焦點小組訪談），收集多媒體導覽指南使用者的反饋意見。這兩種方法有助於評估現行的多媒體導覽指南，並可收集資料以便用在改良未來開發的導覽指南。 4 所中學共 79 位學生參與此企劃案，所有學生皆為選修視覺藝術課程的中四或中五學生（年齡約 16-17 歲）。香港藝術館總共有 5 個展館，由於多媒體導覽指南只有 10 件作品，來自虛白齋藏中國書畫館（風景畫之旅：虛白

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國際藝術教育學刊

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

齋收藏的中國風景畫）與中國文物展覽廳（香港藝術館藏中國陶瓷選粹），因此先要求學生不使用導覽指南參觀這兩廳，半小時後，再介紹他們操作導覽指南。然後再次參觀這兩廳，花半小時觀看導覽指南裡介紹的藝術品。要求他們觀看的作品不超過 4 件，在學生參觀後，立即發給一頁的調查表，調查表以中文書寫，主要是選擇題，調查表交回後，再處理並分析其中的資料。每個學校隨機選出 3 位學生參加焦點小組訪談，訪談在參觀後立刻進行，確保受訪者對展覽品、多媒體導覽指南的內容與使用導覽指南的經驗記憶猶新。每次訪談約持續 15 至 30 分鐘，向受訪者保證訪談中的討論內容完全保密。以學生的母語廣東話進行訪談與錄音，稍後將討論內容翻譯成英文以撰寫本論文。小組訪談時，詢問學生的問題如下： 1. 使用多媒體參觀美術館後，您的整體感覺與意見是什麼？ 2. 如有的話，導覽指南如何協助您這樣的中學學生學習視覺藝術與藝術評論？ 3. 您對多媒體指南有何改進建議？表 1 收集的調查數量與受訪的學生人數學校學校學校學校學校總數

A B C D

收集的調查收集的調查數量調查數量 21 26 17 15 79

受訪的學生人數受訪的學生人數 3 3 3 3 12

發現事項整體而言，調查結果指出，大部分學生都覺得使用導覽指南的經驗令人滿意。在訪談中，學生詳述了導覽指南的用處，也提出改善的建議。學生普遍讚賞多媒體導覽指南的便利性與豐富的資訊，他們認為這種經驗有利他們學習視覺藝術，但同時也提出幾項改善的關切與建議。

學生使用導覽指南的整體經驗調查要求學生針對多媒體導覽指南不同部分的內容進行評分。滿意度分成五級，為了進行資料分析，將這五個等級編碼成 1 至 5 分，5 分代表滿意度最高，1 分則代表最低。表 2 列出調查中所有項目的評分結果。

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The International Journal of Arts Education

表 2 學生使用多媒體指南的滿意度項目藝術家背景歷史、文化與美學背景表現形式與技巧主題與題材價值與重要性有趣程度互動性使用者友善程度對藝術學習的幫助

非常滿意

滿意

普通

9 (11.4%)

35 (44.3%)

31 (39.2%)

19 (24.1%)

40 (50.6%)

20 (25.3%)

11 (13.9%) 18 (22.8%) 20 (25.3%) 23 (29.1%) 23 (29.1%) 25 (31.6%) 15 (19.0%)

43 (54.4%) 35 (44.3%) 34 (43.0%) 22 (27.8%) 25 (31.6%) 35 (44.3%) 47 (59.5%)

21 (26.6%) 24 (30.4%) 23 (29.1%) 32 (40.5%) 25 (31.6%) 13 (16.5%) 15 (19.0%)

不滿意

非常不滿意

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

4 (5.1%)

3 (3.8%) 1 (1.3%) 2 (2.5%) 2 (2.5%) 6 (7.6%) 5 (6.3%) 1 (1.3%)

1 (1.3%) 1 (1.3%)

有趣程度調查結果指出，有 57% 的學生對導覽指南的有趣程度感到滿意，只有 3% 覺得不滿意。關於使用導覽指南的經驗，小組訪談的大部分學生都表示「有趣」與「特別」。受訪者大多數未曾在參觀美術館時使用過多媒體導覽指南，不過，他們覺得導覽指南相當創新的一點是能夠刺激學習興趣，讓他們更加投入藝術學習過程。導覽指南先進的科技，能夠引導我們了解古時候創作的藝術品主題。使用新的科技來介紹舊的東西，引起我研究特定藝術品的興趣。沒有導覽指南的介紹，我只會認為那是一件沒什麼特別的普通瓷器。（學生 3）科技的運用對學生具有吸引力。一位學生表示，導覽指南有趣與互動的特質，就像「帶著走的維基百科」。互動性調查中約有 60% 的學生對於導覽指南的互動性感到滿意，小組訪談中的某些學生對於導覽指南的互動功能給予正面的反饋，因為導覽指南讓學生能夠回覆並聆聽他人的意見。「問題與討論」獲得最高的評分，學生解釋，這個部分讓他們能夠表達自己對於藝術品的看法，導覽指南提出的問題，也給他們機會更深入思考藝術品的含義。

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國際藝術教育學刊

我最喜歡回答問題的部分，這個部分幫助我更深入思考藝術品的含義。除了這點，我還可以自己回答問題，讓我有機會反映更多意見。我也可以聆聽之前使用導覽指南的人所提出的意見，還有不同人的看法，讓我對作品有更完整的了解。（學生 11）

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

未來使用意願整體而言，學生都肯定未來可能會使用導覽指南。所有學生都表示，即使學校不要求，他們未來也願意使用導覽指南，主要的原因是導覽指南提供的便利性與互動性。調查中，有 36.7% 的學生表示日後參觀博物館時，絕對會再次使用導覽指南。表 3 再次使用導覽指南的可能性未來使用意願

N=79 (%)

一定會

29 (36.7%)

可能會

45 (57.0%)

可能不會

5 (6.3%)

總數

79 (100.0%)

導覽指南的用處整體而言，學生同意導覽指南協助他們建構一個全新而且有意義的視覺藝術學習經驗。大部分學生都表示，比起不使用導覽指南，他們比較喜歡帶著導覽指南參觀博物館。約有 80% 的學生（62 人）表示滿意導覽指南，而且導覽指南有助於他們學習視覺藝術，只有 1 位學生 (1.3%) 對導覽指南非常不滿意。學生滿意的理由是導覽指南提供大量的資料、使用方便、而且有助於學習視覺藝術與藝術評論。大量的資料如調查所示，學生大致上都滿意所提供的資料，得分最高的部分是「歷史、文化與美學背景」，約有一半的學生 (50.6%) 滿意此部分，其中 24.1% 更給予「非常滿意」的評分。「表現形式與技巧」、「主題與題材」和「價值與重要性」三個部分的得分接近，約有 67-68% 的學生給予這三個項目「滿意」

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The International Journal of Arts Education

或「非常滿意」的評分。相對而言，「藝術家背景」的得分較低，只有 56% 的學生滿意。學生認為導覽指南所提供的詳細資料（例如藝術品創作時期），對於撰寫藝術評論是必要的，對於能方便的在導覽指南上找到這些資料，學生們也很讚賞。有些學生認為專家與同儕的意見，讓他們對作品內容有豐富的了解。

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

便利性在調查與小組訪談中，學生表示導覽指南的便利性相當實用。受訪的學生指出，只要點選幾個按鍵，導覽指南就會立即顯示藝術品與藝術家的圖片、解說與背景資料。一位學生指出，虛擬地圖相當方便，能夠引導使用者觀賞特定的藝術品，有助於規劃自己的參觀路線。我覺得它非常方便，有助於我們了解藝術品，也能錄下我們的意見，讓其他人與老師知道我們對藝術品的想法。有了這部導覽指南的協助，我們參觀展覽時就更能抓到重點了。（學生 5）對於學習視覺藝術與藝術評論的幫助約有三分之一 (31.6%) 的學生認為，導覽指南能幫助他們學習視覺藝術與藝術評論。他們也認為，導覽指南增進他們與專家和同儕在欣賞藝術品方面的互動關係。小組訪談的大部分學生，都同意導覽指南有利他們發展藝術評論的技巧。其中有些學生指出，導覽指南提供的資料，對學習藝術評論相當有用。一位學生表示，藝術品的解說難度適中，剛好是他們容易了解的程度。另一位學生表示：如果閱讀太複雜詳細的介紹，我們可能無法理解，我覺得現在的難度剛剛好。當我們以後再看到這件藝術品而必須撰寫藝術評論時，就會回想到今日聽到的用字與措辭，真的很有幫助。（學生 9）但有些學生表示，導覽指南提供的資料對於習得藝術評論的技巧並沒有直接幫助，除非學生在課堂上已經受過此類分析與思考方式的完善訓練。我認為影響並不直接。第一，它只提供某些基本資料。讀完（導覽指南）後，我會了解那件的藝術品，但如果之後沒有任何練習，就不會有太大的幫助。而且考試的時候，我們會遇到從沒看過的藝術品，如 C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 ○

國際藝術教育學刊

果其他時間沒有學習藝術評論，導覽指南就沒有提供直接的益處。（學生 3）

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

相反的，有些學生認為導覽指南在其他方面可提供協助。調查要求學生針對各個項目能提供的益處給予評分，獲得學生最高評分的項目是「提升對藝術的了解與知識」(60.8%) 與「探索新的藝術學習經驗」(59.5%)。一位學生指出，內容結構可引導使用者從不同觀點描述藝術品，如評論藝術品的歷史、表現形式與價值。其他學生表示，他們在讀完「問題與討論」的資料後，有機會立刻對藝術品進行討論與答覆問題。表 4 導覽指南對於學習視覺藝術與藝術評論的幫助導覽指南對於學習視覺藝術與藝術評論的幫助項目

N=79 (%)

提高我對藝術評論的興趣

41 (51.9%)

增加與同儕和專家的互動

25 (31.6%)

提升我對藝術的了解與知識

48 (60.8%)

探索新的藝術學習經驗

47 (59.5%)

將博物館的觸角擴展延伸至課堂或家中

22 (27.8%)

培養學習藝術的興趣

25 (31.6%)

改進建議在焦點小組訪談中，我們請 12 位受訪者提出改良多媒體導覽指南的建議。大部分受訪學生都同意應該提供更多藝術品的資訊與圖片，同時也提出導覽指南的技術問題。技術問題與版面設計學生指出一些需要處理的技術問題，包括室內 Wi-Fi 連線訊號不良、播放影片不順利、導覽指南導航錯誤以及錄音容量太低。使用者也提出某些特別的建議，例如導覽指南顯示的圖片尺寸可再縮小，而目錄區應該放大，才方便點選。一位學生表示，導覽指南的設定流程太耗時；另一位受訪者表示，導覽指南的螢幕應該加貼保護膜；還有人提出耳機的衛生問題。有些學生對導覽指南的版面設計表示意見：

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目錄與每件藝術品的圖片編排完全一樣... （怎樣做會更好？）也許每件展覽品可以有不同風格的設計，例如中國書畫展覽品可以採用黑白設計，而現代藝術展覽品則使用彩色的版面設計。（學生 7）

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

更多更好的資料有些學生建議提升藝術品的資料量與品質。兩位學生認為，有些專家的意見不夠專業。由於導覽指南仍在開發階段，〔藝術品的〕資料不完整是正常的。資料的格式與結構沒什麼問題，但未來，提供的資料量與品質都必須改進。至於我聽到的專家意見都太過直接，我認為不太有用。（學生 12）一位學生指出「問題與討論」部分有些問題，其中內容似乎與呈現的藝術品不相關。例如，作品《菩提達摩》(Bodhidharma) 的問題「你認為藝術品一定要傳達正面訊息嗎？」雖然是個有關美學的好問題，但是與這件作品卻不相關。納入藝術品更多不同角度的照片根據學生的意見，增加更多藝術品不同角度的照片，讓使用者更能看清與了解作品。由於在實體展示環境中，從所有角度觀賞立體作品有時會受到限制，如果除了正面與背面照片，能再納入其他角度拍攝的照片就更好了。納入更多藝術品有人建議在導覽指南納入更多藝術品，因為學生喜歡有更多藝術品可以選擇聆聽。其中一項建議是：（問題：有多少藝術品才算足夠？要包含這個美術館裡的所有藝術品嗎？）也許從每個領域選擇幾件就可以了。（問題：你指的領域是什麼？）例如，我們可以依照創作時期來分類，如清朝或明朝，再從每個朝代選出幾件藝術品。（學生 6）有些學生建議，使用者不需要聆聽導覽指南裡所有藝術品的介紹。一位學生建議，最理想的數量是 3 至 5 件作品，使用導覽指南的時間最好是 30 至 45 分鐘。

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國際藝術教育學刊

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

涵蓋更多功能一位學生建議，利用手寫科技新增筆記功能，就可以將這些回覆傳送給老師。另一項建議是，新增與同儕即時討論的功能，就像聊天室一樣。學生也建議新增頁面，介紹藝術品最值得一看的部分。另外，我認為導覽指南可以新增一個頁面，介紹藝術品最值得一看的部分，再搭配這個部分提供詳細的說明。或是在圖片上畫圈或點，然後點選此處放大並搭配說明。（學生 4）加強導覽指南的焦點學生提出了幾點疑慮，擔心學校安排的博物館實地參觀是否會強制使用導覽指南。一位學生建議封鎖導覽指南的幾項功能，以免學生分心。一位學生指出，導覽指南的主要焦點是協助學生了解藝術品想表達的意義：我認為技術問題不難處理，有些更需要關心的核心問題，對學生而言，重要的是認清藝術家的動機，而我認為導覽指南應該提供這方面的協助。...導覽指南在觀賞抽象藝術時應該特別有用。（學生 4）

企劃案參與者獲得的益處企劃案參與者獲得的益處與博物館和學校保持聯繫企劃案努力建立三方的關係，即文化服務提供者（博物館）、大學（香港教育學院）與教育部門（參與的中學）。企劃案讓學生主動投入博物館學習環境，有助博物館吸引觀眾、支持大學的知識傳承，並為職前的與在職的學校教師建立機會，使其利用社區資源來規劃並提供視覺藝術課程。我們期望有進一步的合作，使導覽指南成為博物館的正式導覽工具，並為其他文化機構與史跡文物館開發類似的導覽指南。中學學生和中學學生和參與教師獲得的益處企劃案藉著讓中學學生直接接觸藝術品，使他們能使用導覽指南依自己的步調學習，並集中焦點在感興趣的部分。利用導覽指南提供的聲音、視覺與文字資料的協助，學生就能建構自己對藝術作品的經驗與知識。導覽指南的資料具有豐富的溝通模式，能夠訴諸多重感官同步了解內容。企劃案已探索出一套

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The International Journal of Arts Education

替代方案，取代以教師為中心、在博物館裡呈現與教導藝術的方式，邁向多樣化的視覺藝術教學與學習策略。香港教育學院的參與學生獲得的益處

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

企劃案為香港教育學院的參與學生創造一個機會，使其能深入研究藝術品。透過與企劃案研究者及參與同學的討論，教育學院的學生不只學會如何將藝術歷史知識轉換成可學習的內容，還可獲得使用行動科技進行教學的經驗。企劃案也影響了參與學生目前與未來的教學方式。企劃案研究者獲得的益處企劃案讓兩位研究者獲得必要的知識與經驗，開發行動科技並將其運用在教學與學習上。企劃案也為研究者創造機會，使其能與數位媒體製造的創意產業密切合作。企劃案迫使研究者與製造互動導覽指南的專業人士，建立討論、諮詢與相互了解的關係。建立博物館與學校之間的聯繫，也創造了進一步合作的機會。

結論本企劃案確定，博物館內使用多媒體互動科技可幫助參觀者更了解藝術品。從整體的正面反饋看來，新的學習模式能讓學生投入觀賞藝術品，思考與作品相關的不同背景，以自己的方式作出回應，並聆聽同儕或專家的觀點。利用導覽指南提供的聲音、視覺與文字資料的協助，學生就能建構自己對藝術作品的經驗與知識。本企劃案也為香港教育學院的參與學生提供一個深入研究藝術品的機會。雖然導覽指南技術上需要再做細部調整，但博物館、大學與中學之間的合作，值得未來進一步的發展。企劃案的評估也有助於改良導覽指南，並準備進行企劃案的第二階段，以學校內的教學為重點。

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國際藝術教育學刊

博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

參考文獻 Atagok, T., & Ozcan, O. (2001). Virtual Museums in Turkey. Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), 53 (1), 42-45. Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. (2007). Visual Arts: Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4 - 6). Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Heath, C., Lehn, D. V., & Osborne, J. (2005). Interaction and Interactives: Collaboration and participation with computer-based exhibits. Public Understanding of Science, 14 (1), 91-101. Kenderdine, S. (2001). A Guide for Multimedia Museum Exhibits: 1,000 Years of the Olympic Games. Museum International (UNESCO, Paris), 53 (3), 45-52. Legrady, G., & Honkela, T. (2002). Pockets Full of Memories: An Interactive Museum Installation. Visual Communication, 1 (2), 163-169. Lisus, N. A. & Ericson, R. V. (1999). Authorizing Art: The Effect of Multimedia Formats on the Museum Experience. Canadian Review of Sociology, 36 (2), 199-216. Marty, P. F. (1999). Museum Informatics and Collaborative Technologies: The Emerging Socio-technological Dimension of Information Science in Museum Environments. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50 (12), 1083-1091. Micha, K. & Economou, D. (2005). Using Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) to Enhance the Museum Visit Experience. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 3746, 188-198. Nickerson, M. F. (2004). Online Multimedia Museum Exhibits: A Case Study in Technology and Collaboration. Library Hi Tech, 22 (3), 270-276. Poon, Y. K., & Wong, Y. C. (2008). Education Reform in Hong Kong: The hrough-Road Model and Its Societal Consequences. International Review of Education, 54 (1), 33-55.

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博物館多媒體互動導覽指南之開發用以學習視覺藝術欣賞與評論

國際藝術教育學刊

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起范銀霞中國科技大學講師 E-mail: yin.hsia@msa.hinet.net 賴雯淑國立交通大學副教授 E-mail: wndylai@gmail.com

摘要數位科技改變了資訊的內在本質，也影響藝術創作並產生新的美學內涵。本文以 Chris Ware 的圖像小說作品—《吉米‧科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子》為研究文本，以文本分析為方法，循著當代科技發展脈絡下的數位藝術特質衍生之「超」的特性，以及 Lunenfeld (2000) 所提出之「超美學」概念為依據，探討圖像敘事在其影響下所呈現的新美學態勢。根據以上論述，提出「超連結特質展現」、「『超』之創作概念與形式」及「缺縫意義的填充」三個重要的理論觀點來理解和詮釋圖像小說的各種面向，此研究結果對藝術教育在理論基礎與未來之發展也有所貢獻。

關鍵詞：超美學、圖像小說、圖像敘事、藝術教育

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壹、前言

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

伴隨科技的發展，數位科技影響藝術創作並造成美學理論的轉變與演繹，新的數位藝術美學正逐漸被建構。從機械、類比時代進入數位時代，改變了資訊的內在本質，如以往紙本書籍以線性文本詮釋意義，而今網路媒體可使用多向文本，允許使用者在其中以非線性的方式建構意義。數位藝術是藝術家透過科技的工具或以科技的創作方式進行表達，藉由數位互動之特性，讓觀眾得以參與其中，開啟藝術創作的其他可能性，因而當今數位藝術已成為藝術創作者、教育者與評論家關注的重點之一。儘管數位藝術與其相關的美學逐漸受到重視，但在藝術教育的領域，需思考數位藝術普遍提供實體或虛擬場域讓觀眾參與的同時，「互動」本身被提取成為主題與內容，如何避免過度重視科技而忽略藝術本質之偏頗。因此，透過藝術引導學生掌握藝術的本質並與世界做連結，進而建構意義，是當今藝術教育重要的目的之一，數位科技的發展與文化的變遷也讓藝術教育的觀念與方式需重新被思考。在數位科技影響下，數位特質也引起傳統藝術媒材產生轉變，Taylor （2004）認為在數位時代的藝術教育必須給學生比傳統藝術教育課程更多的選擇，也要包含對科技中介世界的視覺文化的討論、探究與連結。因此本文即以由圖像、文字與畫格構成之圖像小說為研究文本，探究形式上為傳統平面印刷的圖像敘事媒體如何在當代數位藝術影響下展現出獨特的新視覺形式與美學意義，達到連結科技內涵美學與科技中介下的視覺文化之目的。敘事是一種思想經過概念化進而建構的表現，也成為理解、探究經驗的透鏡，透過說故事，我們得以對自己人生進行反思、詮釋，提供另一種進入內在反思與意義建構之過程。此外，當今藝術形式以動態影像、聲光刺激與互動效果吸引觀眾進行體驗，每日接觸的電視、電腦、電玩、雜誌、廣告等媒介，均以大量的圖像吸引我們的注意力。因此，圖文整合之圖像敘事媒體，相對於過度強調實體聲光影像之其它媒介，在當今數位藝術蓬勃發展之時更值得被加以關注。 Fairclough (1995) 指出，文本是提供證據的一大來源，文本分析能將研究的宣稱扎根於文本的詳盡特質中。因此，本文以文本分析（textual analysis）為研究方法，以 Chris Ware 的圖像小說—《吉米‧科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子》（Jimmy Corrigan：The Smartest Kid on Earth） (2009) 為研究文本，分析其中獨特的表現手法與創作形式，並以當代科技發展脈絡下的數位藝術特質衍生之「超」的特性，以及 Peter Lunenfeld (2000) 提出之「超美學」概念作分析的依據，探討圖像敘事在其影響下所呈現新美學態勢。文本分析也接近

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圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

文本詮釋，是將與某些知識傳統相連的理論價值（如美學批判）應用到文本之中，是一解讀詮釋的過程（游美惠，2000）。因而，筆者站在數位科技的內部，透過科技影響下所反射的美學特質，將傳統藝術表現的媒材與語彙（文本）和當代的美學概念（理論）作有意義的連結與詮釋，提供一條途徑來理解當代藝術的時代意涵，經由想像、參與、體驗、省思與對話，以開放式的思考，建構意義並探索進一步的可能，並提出藝術教育在理論基礎與未來發展的另一種思考與方向。

貳、圖像小說與《吉米‧ 貳、圖像小說與《吉米‧科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子》現代漫畫的概念在瑞士 1930 年代的 Rodolphe Töpffer (1799-1846) 筆下浮現與發展1。一般大眾認為漫畫是帶有對話氣球的連續圖像，這些具有連續性的畫格，依序展現，如同一種靜態的電影形式。雖然漫畫存在已超過一個半世紀，但仍相當缺乏藝術的正當性，而今，漫畫逐漸受到學術、藝術與商業的關注，漫畫（comics）底下更精細的類別─圖像小說（Graphic Novel）亦逐漸發展。圖像小說是一種結合文字與圖像的媒體，融合了時間與空間的特性，如鄭文惠（2005，p. 7）指出：「文學歸屬時間藝術範疇；圖像歸屬空間藝術範疇。文學媒介是有聲有形質，故富於傳遞敘事的時間流程；圖像的媒介是筆墨彩繪或雕刻塑模等，易於表現物件的形象、質感與動勢，而物件佔據一個空間，故屬『空間藝術』。」圖像小說與漫畫具有部份相同的特質，但至今尚未明確發展出具體定義。郭書瑄（2010）認為圖像小說的圖文形式乍看之下很像我們熟悉的漫畫，但實際上從形式到內容都有本質上的不同。他提出漫畫主要以圖像為敘述主軸，用插入的文字框和對話泡泡為輔助，而圖像小說雖有漫畫外貌，仍偏向「小說」範疇，圖像並非主要敘述的媒介。但這樣的說法未能具體區分兩者之差異，亦有多數圖像小說以圖像為敘述主軸，或漫畫在近年高度發展下已出現文字描寫較多且敘述複雜情節的作品，因此兩者之間互有存在曖昧之處。賈霸（2008）認為圖像小說：「同時兼具有漫畫的型態和小說的複雜特性。根據維基百科的解釋，圖像小說也是某種形式的漫畫，主要閱讀對象是成人，故事內容較具有文學性或探討較深奧的主題，是用圖畫來講述小說的一種介於文學與美術的作品。」Christensen (2006) 認為圖像小說是以漫畫形式述說的獨立故事，在社會研究上佔有重要位置。圖像小說發展至今受到學術研究上的重視，相關的期刊與書籍也紛紛出刊發行，如 Routledge 出版集團於 1

Leonardo De Sá (無日期)。Rodolphe Töpffer [部落格文字資料]。取自 http://leonardodesa.interdinamica.net/comics/lds/vb/VieuxBois00.asp?p=Intro

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2011 年發行《Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics》，目的在於建構圖像小說與漫畫領域學者、歷史學家、理論家與實踐者間的對話。此外，《Teaching the Graphic Novel》（Tabachnick，2009）收集了 34 篇文章探討這種新藝術形式於當代文化與教育領域上的發展。因此，這種圖像和文字並置構成的圖像敘事，看似傳統的平面出版物，卻揉合藝術、文學與創意經驗，成為突出於漫畫類型的一種新的藝術與文學形式，展現其在學術研究領域的的重要性。《吉米‧科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子》是當代漫畫家 Chris Ware 的第一部長篇圖像小說（Graphic Novel），原先連載於美國重要的非主流漫畫書籍《The ACME Novelty Library》（圖 1），此為爾後集結而成的版本，具有全彩且多至 380 頁的書籍形式，描述一位無助、不善交際且與父親疏遠數十年的主角生活與感受。此作於 2001 年獲得英國衛報的「第一本書獎」（Guardian First Book Award），也是第一本獲此獎項的圖像小說，由此可知，這不只是一本漫畫形式的圖像小說，更被認可為重要的文學形式之一。此作品為 Ware 的半自傳式（semi-autobiographical）故事，故事主角 Jimmy Corrigan 具有孤獨而天真的個性，與 Ware 具有部分相同的背景與心境感受。在現實生活中， Ware 由母親撫養成長，他表示：「你看完這本書大約需要 5 小時，約莫等於我和我親生父親曾相處時間的總和。2」可見其與父親之陌生與疏遠。而故事中的 Jimmy 自小受到父親的遺棄，和母親相依為命，三十年後，他意外的接到父親來信，邀請他一起過感恩節，Jimmy 不安地踏上這段旅程。作者和故事中描繪的主角均對父親具有期待與忐忑的心情，Ware 將自我的感受與特質投射於從事郵務的主角 Jimmy 身上，對父親充滿失落與遺憾的感受使他在故事裡將主角描繪成一個失敗者，讓觀者於縝密的畫格中尋找他的孤身隻影的形象。他以靜謐的圖像與大量重複描繪的意象呈現主角孤獨的心境（圖 2），也暗示了主角日復一日的例行生活與寂寞感受，表現了作者的思想、情感與其創作之間的緊密關係。此外，作者在看似線性敘事的故事發展中，以跳接式的敘事方式描述數代的父子關係，亦於同一頁面穿插了不同時空的敘事（圖 3），並大量採用如圖表的視覺元素組織敘事與空間（圖 4），呈現條理分明的視覺風格。Ware 所運用的敘事結構及視覺構成具豐富而多樣的特色，建立了新的圖像敘事語彙，展現其以漫畫形式呈現的新實驗風格，更新了觀眾早先對漫畫的觀感與經驗。本文將其作品的表現手法與數位藝術特質所衍生之「超美學」概念相互討論，說明在超美學影響下所產生的新圖像敘事美學。 2

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

吉米‧ 科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子[部落格文字資料]。取自時報悅讀網(2009)。吉米吉米 ‧科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子 http://www.readingtimes.com.tw/timeshtml/ad/FT0108/epaper.html

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圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

圖 1 《吉米‧科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子》原先連載於《Acme Novelty Library》

資料來源：Ware,C. (1995-1996). The Acme Novelty Archive #06. Retrieved from http://www.acmenoveltyarchive.org/item.php?item_no=21

圖 2 重複描繪的意象呈現主

圖 3 於單一頁面的分隔畫框中

角孤獨的心境

穿插不同時空的敘事

圖 4 以類似圖表的視覺元素組織敘事與空間

資料來源：陳鼐安（譯）（2009）。吉米吉米‧ 科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子（原地球上最聰明的小子吉米‧科瑞根：作者：C.Ware）。台北市：時報文化。（原著出版年：2000）

參、數位時代的超美學一直以來，人們不斷地探詢藝術與美學定義的相關問題，因此美學的定義與觀點也不斷地轉變，例如，從 Kant 主張美是一種無私的、主觀的合目的性， Clive Bell 認為有意義的形式是藝術作品的重要性質，Susanne Langer 提出藝術是創造象徵人類情感形式的象徵，一直到 Arthur Danto 提出「藝術終結」（The End of Art）的觀點，我們見證了這樣的轉變。而數位媒材的出現更全面地改變了創作形式的藝術語言與內涵，跳脫傳統環繞以「美」為主體的探究，強調藝術的開放性與互動性，逐漸打破人類對傳統藝術的定義與認知模式。在當今的數位時代，藝術創作與科技的關係緊密相扣，除了藝術家使用數位工具進行創作與呈現外，數位的特性也影響著大眾的思考模式，同時也改變了以往的藝術創作形式，如受超連結設計與互動性影響的超文本文學（ hypertext

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literature），擴張了文學創作的表現形式3。在本文所要探討的即是數位藝術特質中的「超美學」概念如何影響傳統平面印刷之圖像敘事創作與美學。 Lunenfeld (2000) 曾經提出超美學（Hyperaesthetics）概念，意指適用於動態藝術的動態美學。動態藝術是指藝術或視覺文化作品，透過電視或電腦等科技的媒體來創作、呈現。傳統的美學研究標的為固定的形式，如雕塑、繪畫等；而今在電腦科技影響下，原先被劃定的藝術範疇分類與界線已逐漸模糊，一種相異於靜態固定物件的美學被應用於動態藝術（Dynamic arts）。從 Lunenfeld 的「超美學」概念可知，在此所論及的「超美學」是一種數位科技與數位藝術的美學與特質，或因其媒材本身之特殊性而具備的多媒體性、非線性、互動性等；邱誌勇、簡瑞瑱（2007）認為數位藝術的美學思維可以從本體層次與表現層次進行論述，前者關注於數位科技的介面特性，而後者則關注於數位美學的視覺化、互動性、超文本、超媒體與重複性等表現形式上。陳冠君（2007）進一步針對互動性指出，互動性充滿體現「去主體性」的美學態度，等待觀者來填充意義。這些被提及的特質都屬於 Lunenfeld 所提出的超美學之一環。此外，在超美學詞語中的「超」（hyper）也涉及以電腦為基礎的資訊科技基本特質─超連結（Hyperlink）與超文本（Hypertext）。超文本是作為線性文本的對立物而出現的，透過超連結的使用，讀者或觀者可以從各角度切入，創造屬於自己的閱讀路徑，具有重新詮釋的機會與多向性，這個特質尤其在網際網路的發展中得到充分發展與應用。無論時代如何演進，人、藝術與科技間的關係總是相互交織的，新、舊媒體間儘管有些再現方式或概念形式的改變，但總有某些相同的內在結構。而新的科技概念對視覺文化產生影響，也引致我們再次概念化先前的藝術形式。如波赫斯的小說《歧路花園》（The Garden of Forking Paths）暗示小說自身即是一場結局萬千的迷宮，每作出一個歧出的選擇，都會在時間的位元上再拉出一個不相交的維度，導向截然不同於前的情節發展（尤美琪，2002）。這讓我們思考傳統文學的敘事方式呈現出與超文本多重連結路徑相似的內在結構— 以非線性的交互連結與建構，產生有機的意義空間，提供多重的訊息經驗。 Taylor (2004) 認為 Hyperaesthetics (Lunenfeld，2000) 指出科技媒材影響或居中調解我們的所見、所知、詮釋以及對藝術與視覺文化的分類，亦即數位藝術與其特質對既有的藝術形式產生影響。Mandelbrojt (1999) 認為科技藝術已從「童年時期的病態」進入「青年時期的熱情」，電腦等數位工具至今不再只 3

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

定義：網路文學【部落格文字資料】。取自李順興(1998 年 8 月 15 日)。定義：網路文學定義：網路文學 http://benz.nchu.edu.tw/~garden/a-def.htm

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圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

是幫助運算的工具或只是用新科技模擬、再現舊的藝術形式，而是數位科技媒體的特性已成為作品內涵的一部分，因此值得我們進一步省思其特性如何轉化為作品內涵。以下將從超美學於圖像敘事中之展現進行論述，探究傳統印刷平面媒體的圖像敘事如何被超美學與數位特質所影響，形成獨特的編排結構和視覺構成，逐步形成新的創作形式，並探討科技影響下的美學概念如何影響圖像敘事的呈現型態，進而發展出新的美學概念。

肆、超美學於圖像敘事的展現 Freedman (2003) 認為視覺技術的演進總是引發視覺文化產生質變，他以「彩繪玻璃」作範例，指出彩繪玻璃對中世紀的道德與鑑賞力有著深遠的影響，他認為彩繪玻璃改變當時與後來人們「觀看」光線、體驗空間，以及瞭解生活意義的方式。相似地，超文本的多重連結路徑也引發我們重新思考先前的藝術形式，促進我們對傳統文學的多重情節敘事再次概念化，非連續性寫作之概念在我們的思考中被重新評估與建構。本文以 Chris Ware 的作品《吉米‧ 科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子》為例，探究圖像敘事和「超」美學之關係，藉由兩者間的相互連結和論證，對 Chris Ware 作品進行具體探討，建立圖像敘事的超美學理論。如此不僅可以逐步釐清數位科技思維對圖像敘事藝術的影響，也能開拓圖像敘事的潛能，亦可能為科技媒體世界的藝術教育實踐提供另一個可能。以下從「超連結特質展現」、「『超』之創作概念與形式」及「缺縫意義的填充」三個觀點分別進行論述。一、超連結（）的特質內涵一、超連結（hyperlink）超連結（hyperlink）是數位藝術與資訊媒體的重要特徵，藉由錨點與連結路徑，讓觀者有多重連結和探索途徑。數位媒體的超連結特質將傳統敘事的線性發展轉化為多重向度，跳脫單向思考的邏輯思維。電影藝術中也可見到超連結特質的表現，例如電影導演試圖複製電腦科技超連結的多重觀看的觀點與方式，展開影片的多重敘述結構，在單一影片中的同一事件情節，由許多不同的人從不同角度、觀點、鏡頭觀察而呈現，超連結特性對當代藝術發展的影響可見一斑。張恬君（2002）指出這種超文本的條件是數位科技藝術具有的特質，改變了觀者看世界的中心化視點，重新賦予多重向度的思想方向，更將藝術創作帶入了開放性的結構。圖像敘事範疇中的漫畫或圖像小說多被拿來與電影或是文學領域作對照，因此有漫畫是無聲電影，或圖像小說是一種新的文學形式的說法。而在早期超文本的理論家也展現了對漫畫藝術的興趣，試圖將漫畫與超文本兩個領域

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做類比，將漫畫的特質置於超文本領域中進行探討，如 Calvi (2001) 探討漫畫藝術的修辭與超文本之關係。他舉日本漫畫常用的修辭技巧—分析蒙太奇（Analytical montage）為例，說明該修辭技巧如何被使用於增進超文本之理解，試圖發展超文本美學。以下本文繼而探討超連結的特質如何於圖像敘事中展現與實踐，以下從畫格（frame）、時空與心智、敘事的超連結三部分進行探究。

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

（一）畫格與超連結節點（一）畫格與超連結節點頁面上的框格不僅是漫畫做為連續藝術獨特美學的首要原則，也是創意結果的一部分。McCloud (1993)曾經將漫畫格與格之間的轉換做了六種關聯性的分類：瞬間到瞬間、動作到動作、主題到主題、場景到場景、觀點到觀點與不連貫。這些畫格間的過渡與轉換可被視為超連結的過程，是透過節點與連接路徑彼此相連。在圖像小說中，畫面上的畫格就如同一個個被定義好的節點，單一畫格代表了一個瞬間，而此瞬間又同時內含多樣資訊，藉由被作者安排好但隱而不顯的路徑相連結。Calvi (2001) 在〈超文本如何從漫畫藝術的修辭模式得益〉一文中指出，漫畫具有分析蒙太奇（Analytical montage）的特質，一個事件可以在一個單一格中被描述（因為這畫格使用結合了言辭和圖像式的資訊）或以更多畫格進行描述，就如同透過不同的攝影機角度，給予故事更多的動作、速度和從不同觀點看同樣景象的可能性。Ware 作品中的吉米幻想未曾謀面的父親的樣貌時，以十六格圖像視覺化主角的想像（圖 5），如同在超文本連結時的樹狀多節點設定（圖 6），吉米的想像透過好幾個意義組（lexias） 4 伸展，對同一事件進行詮釋，使得敘事的內容更加流暢與完整。這樣的展現手法如同超連結的連結方式，促進連結的思考與觀者的選擇，更提供各種觀看的方式。

Roland Barthes 描述意義組(Lexias)如同意義的區塊和閱讀的單位，是一個更大且主要文本的小部分。Ironstone,P.,Leitch,C.,Onyango,A., & Unruh,C.(無日期)。Glossary :Lexias。取自 http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/700_701_web/BarthesLO/glossary.html

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圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

圖 5 十六格圖像視覺化主角的想像

圖6 吉米對父親的想像如同透過樹狀多節點的超連結方式。本文作者擷取資料來源後編製。

資料來源：陳鼐安（譯）（2009）。吉米吉米‧ 吉米‧科瑞根：科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子（原地球上最聰明的小子作者：C.Ware）。台北市：時報文化。（原著出版年：2000）（二）超時空與心智（二）超時空與心智 McCloud (1993) ×曾經指出漫畫或圖像小說中分割的畫格將時間的關係轉換為空間，他也認為漫畫中的畫格對讀者來說是心靈的框架（a frame of mind）。從時空關係來看，Eisner (1985，p. 38) 認為：「在視覺敘事中，作者或藝術家的任務是紀錄連續的經驗，並且將此呈現出來，如同從讀者的眼睛進行觀看一般。透過分解不間斷的連貫體驗，成為凝固場景的片斷，並且藉由畫格將之框住」。因此這些畫格具有時間與空間之特性，而這些被框住的場景片段就如同藝術家將超連結的節點內容設定完成，待觀者在浩瀚的文本連結中找尋適合的路徑。Ware 的作品串接不同的時空與敘事，從 20 世紀吉米與父親的相聚，之後跳接到 1893 年吉米祖父被遺棄的時空，兩條平行的故事線穿插串接不同的時空，表現時間的跳接，觀者的思維也在不同時空之間轉換，在跨越時空的敘事脈絡下，由觀者於其中尋找意義。圖像小說中的畫格被當作美學、認知與敘事形式的首要部分，有意識地使用圖像的畫格可以分析與解構概念。這些畫格的安排如同被設計過的超連結文本，將龐雜的資訊做系統性的規劃，決定資訊內容在其中如何被訴說以及其意義。人類思維的運作類似超連結的特性，當我們論及某項事物，經常會與其他相關的事物、經驗與記憶做連結，如同超連結所帶出的多重意義關係。超連結亦模仿大腦的能力，藉著指示連結、儲存和收回資訊，達到心智運作過程與超連結概念間的雙向類比。當作者用畫格組織時間、空間以呈現敘事與觀點時，正如同超連結的組織過程連結著作者的心智、記憶與思維，將結果一一呈現於畫格之節點中，再由觀者一一連結起節點以創造意義。如同 McLuhan (1999) 指出，在電器時代每件事物與每件事物發生共鳴，不以傳統線性因果思維過程的聯繫方式來產生和感知能量，而是像細胞語言可以創造出聯覺、不連續與整

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合意識的間隙。此外，無論在圖像小說或漫畫裡都充滿了隱喻與象徵，觀者可就圖像產生多種不同的詮釋，創造潛在的意義，如同樹狀超連結的開展意義。這時我們的心智進入圖像，每一個體的思考方式及生活的獨特經歷影響著詮釋的結果，如 McCloud (1993) 所述，漫畫是一個真空，進入其中我們的本體和意識被拉出，我們存在於空殼之中，讓我們在另一個領地中遊歷。但突然間可能又被文本既定的意義拉回單一節點，羅蘭‧巴特稱這種文本對圖的效應，是一種下錨（Anchoring）的作用：「文本引導讀者在意象眾多可能的意指（signified）中做選擇，使它能夠避免這些、接受那些」(Nodelman，2010)。

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

（三）敘事的超連結（三）敘事的超連結超連結的非線性（non-linear）跳躍式特質對文學範疇造成影響，產生網路文學或超文本文學（hypertext literature）等形式，超文本能提供讀者多重路徑的選擇，也催生了新型的多向閱讀行為，此特性也進一步影響圖像的敘事構成，超越了單純的線性時間與畫面所呈現的靜止空間。Ware 的作品雖與漫畫或電影一樣，具有相同連續性畫格依序呈現的特質，但亦可發現大量敘事的超連結特性，表現了看似連續但卻是分割與跳接的時間與空間。如 Ware 在描述住家附近與同伴玩捉迷藏遊戲時，以十六個畫格展現了視覺上的一致性（圖 3），看似整體的場域空間被框格分割，暗藏了半世紀前的時空。中間列的左方兩格插入半世紀前的場景，表示當時在此地遊戲只能躲藏在窪地凹洞或躲在路過的騎馬人士之後。單看各畫格代表了不同的時間點，但時間並非依照時間序列逐格前進，時間倒退到半世紀前，又在兩格後跳接回到當時，在平面上展現了時間層次。對於文本中時間序列經常突發性的跳躍，Ware 在專訪中表示：「漫畫本來就是可以前後來回翻看的，從一個觀點跳到另一個觀點，從一格跳到另一格5」。此外，在描述吉米與其祖父間平行發展、跳接的敘事線中，Ware 利用相同的高樓場景串接主角吉米工作地點對面的現代大樓與吉米祖父時期的舊高樓（圖 7）兩個不同時空。這樣的場景安排讓時空跳接與超連結展現另一種循環結構，在閱讀的同時，讓觀者產生再次探尋已造訪過之地點的錯覺，難以分辨故事的起訖點。Bennett 和 Jackson (2010) 指出，Ware 的圖像小說沒有頁碼，降低傳統敘事的連續性，並鼓勵從許多方向自由來回移動與跨越頁面的閱讀實踐。相對於多數電影或文字文本以線性發展為基礎的敘事，Ware 的圖像小說提供圖像敘事模式的其他可能性，打破以時間為安排順序的本質， 5

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圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義— 從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

並在普遍的二維圖像敘事頁面結構中，允許其敘事發展得以透過頁面畫格的結構性，打破以連續時間貫穿的線性敘事。 Ware 自己曾經表示這樣複合的故事線表現方式有點類似網頁 (Nissen， 2000)，他精細繪製的說明圖表就如同複雜網頁中相互重疊的頁面、平行發展的階層，被概括成網站地圖（site map）來呈現。Ware 將在虛擬空間中超連結的特性於單一頁面中呈現，圖 4 則將畫格加上連結的線段，以表現主角間彼此錯綜複雜的關係，將在同一頁面不同位置的畫格，透過平面化與視覺化的箭頭呈現方式傳遞相關的資訊。Ware 的作品將科技資訊的超連結概念，引入連續性的敘事媒體，藉由平面的標示來解釋圖像中主體間的相互關聯，成為一種說明性的圖示。二、「超」之創作概念與形式除了超連結特質的展現外，數位藝術超美學的創作概念與形式，也對圖像小說的構成形式與視覺呈現產生影響，如結合多種媒體於作品中呈現的多媒體性，強調創作者、作品與觀者之間的連結性，以及來自數位特性的 1 與 0 編碼、解碼過程。接續將從以上三點來探討「超」之創作概念與形式如何於 Ware 的作品中展現。（一）超媒體性─混合的新藝術形式超媒體性混合的新藝術形式數位的混生特性讓藝術家能夠將圖像、動畫、聲音等多種媒體輕易地結合並進行創作，成為多媒體的藝術形式。而 Ware 的作品亦具有此多媒體性，除了結合文字與圖像、時間與空間之外，Strauss (2001) 認為更混合了漫畫、電影、建築、音樂等多種藝術形式的創作概念。他描述 Ware 在單一頁面塞滿大量的畫格，試圖創造可以如同樂譜上的音樂記號般被閱讀的漫畫。這種混合的形式就如同在數位藝術中經常可見的跨領域合作，但不同的是，他的作品是以一種媒體來演繹多種藝術形式的特性。Raeburn（2004）也曾在書中描述 Ware 的作品與建築、音樂和詩的關係。例如 Ware 在訪談中提到：「漫畫是詩在視覺上的等同物，你在限制的空間中使用畫像」。他也認為我們體驗漫畫時可以如同演奏樂器般地一個拍子接著一個拍子（Raeburn，2004）。大小框格的劃分與並置就如同五線譜上不同拍數的音符，幾個小畫格之後出現大畫格，就如同拍數停留較久的音符，讓觀者佇足並產生深長的沉思。此外，Ware 精細地建構敘事表現的細節，呈現事件、人物與地點間的複雜關係，因此他認為我們可以如同面對建築物般地考慮漫畫的整個構成，就像看一個結構物，可以在心中轉動，立刻看見所有面向 (Raeburn，2004)。Ware

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在作品裡以多格畫面描繪主角觀看超人從對面大樓躍然而下的景象（圖 8），有從遠景、正面、背面與特寫等各種視角來描繪主角觀看的超人，如同從各角度轉動觀看建築物一般。其圖像敘事中每一個分格構成、比例，每一個視覺元素的配置、組成，都蘊藏著各種涵義和思想，就像建築物一般，透過獨特的形體、結構、尺寸、線條來訴說建築語言。此外，在圖 8 的畫格分割亦如電影的運鏡，從不同角度觀看以獲得全面性的觀照。他的作品融合音樂、詩、電影與建築等概念，可被看作具有超美學概念的「超媒體性」（hypermediacy），如李順興（2002）指出：「網頁吸納繪畫、電視、電影等媒體特色，這樣的多『媒體』現象，經過媒體融合的處理，一方面以『一種媒體來再現另一種媒體』，另一方面這些『舊』媒體存在於『新』媒體的現象。」Ware 的作品融合多種媒體特質，就如同網頁吸納多種媒體特色，將被認為是舊的音樂、詩、電影與建築概念置入圖像小說的創作中，用圖像小說這種新媒體再現舊的藝術形式概念，換句話說，是多種藝術形式或概念於圖文小說中之多重呈現。

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

（二）創作者、觀者與作品間的連結關係創作者、觀者與作品間的連結關係被視為達達主義代表人物的杜象提出了「創作者─觀眾─作品」多重關係的觀點 (1986) ，他認為：「藝術家通常不知道他自己作品的真正意義，所以觀賞者總是應該詮釋作品，參與補充完成其創作過程」。「所謂的藝術品取決於創作者與觀賞者兩方面。我認為後者和前者一樣重要」。如今，科技融入藝術，數位藝術於創作者、觀者與作品間的關係更為複雜多元，成為其重要特質之一。在 Ware 的作品中也展現了屬於超美學中創作者、觀眾與作品間複雜連結性之特質。從圖像小說具備文字和圖像兩種基本元素的媒體特質來看，可以電影中的影像與旁白或字幕類比。但不同的是，電影的觀者是在觀看敘事時間與影像被剪輯安排好的電影文本；而圖像小說的觀者可以完全地由自身控制語言（文字）的軌道與影像（圖像）的軌道，可以選擇先看文字或是圖像，並決定每個畫格需停留的時間。Wolk (2007) 即認為漫畫暗示了時間的經過，但是他們的時間經驗是被讀者控制多於藝術家。此外， McCloud (1993) 指出，漫畫中繪畫式的圖像要求我們參與其中讓它們運作，除了觀眾所給予它的，那裡沒有生命，藉由閱讀的過程與行為，讀者讓連續的圖像有了生命。Ware 的作品有著大量回憶與描述的無字頁面，僅透過圖像來呈現心境與感受，如他以多格畫格環繞吉米父親的房子，描述吉米一人在此孤獨等待的狀態（圖 9）。其中的圖像是開放和未清楚定義的，我們無法具體得知吉米當時在想什麼，讀者可投射自己的思維意義到圖像中，亦可透過創作者的眼來觀看，體驗主角的想法與感知。

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這點也是 McCloud (1993) 所指出的，對漫畫藝術非常重要的是圖像可以喚起觀者的情緒或感官回應。圖像的生命與意義於觀者的心中產生，作品、觀眾與創作者之間建立連結，相互影響，彼此對話。由此可知，平面藝術形式的圖像小說和數位藝術具有此點相同的藝術特質。

圖 7 吉米時期的現代大樓與

圖 8 分隔的畫格影像亦如電影運

其祖父時期的舊高樓對

鏡的不同視點

圖 9 以多格畫格描述吉米孤獨等待的狀態

照

資料來源：陳鼐安（譯）（2009）。吉米吉米‧ 吉米‧科瑞根：科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子（原地球上最聰明的小子作者：C.Ware）。台北市：時報文化。（原著出版年：2000）（三）圖像意義的編碼與解碼圖像意義的編碼與解碼數位藝術從創作到產出的過程與原理都來自於 1 與 0 的數位化編碼和解碼的過程，創作的結果即是將隱藏的程式原始碼藉由解碼的過程呈現，這樣的概念也在圖像小說中出現。Berger (2009) 主張攝影是對事物外貌的「引用」，繪畫則經由較多的人為因素中介，比較近似於對事物外貌的「翻譯」。也就是藝術家透過自我內在的「編碼」過程，藉由心智的運作，將客體或概念進行「翻譯」，以象徵、抽象或簡化等的藝術語言表達他所感知到的世界的各種面向。而圖像小說與漫畫都是一種將形象簡化呈現的藝術形式，所利用的圖像策略即是一種意義生成的編碼與解碼過程。因此，創作者與觀者扮演了編碼者與解碼者的角色，圖像策略成為某種程式語言。 1.編碼 Ware 作品使用的圖像（圖 10）採取類似 Otto Neurath 所提出的國際通用圖形符號系統（ISOTYPE）風格（圖 11） (Twyman，1975)，Neurath (2010) 認為 Isotype 絕無試圖取代言辭的語言，而是伴隨著文字元素的一種幫助性語言，他稱之為「像語言般的技術」。這類圖像的使用如同字母，成為另一種語言符號和評註，作為視覺資訊的來源，產生無限可能的意義組合。Ware 藉由文字和視覺圖像做為創作介面，進行意義編碼的過程，此編碼過程如 Berger

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(2009，p. 98) 所述：「每當一個輪廓在畫作中逐漸成形時，背後都牽涉繪圖者有意識地以其直覺或系統化的思考進行介入」。Ware 選擇適當的風格、符碼與象徵，將思維藉此編碼的過程以適合的視覺形式呈現，把一種意義關係從作者的世界轉換到觀者的世界。McCloud (1993) 曾說漫畫是透過簡化擴大的一種形式，因此，簡化亦是編碼的手法之一。此外，在作品裡也引入伴隨敘事主軸的圖片，如服役照片（圖 12）、旅遊明信片等，這些圖像也在敘事發展中扮演重要的角色。每張圖片不僅自己說話，也伴隨著作者、觀者的記憶與經驗，成為提供潛在意義的視覺資訊，與簡化的視覺圖像均為視覺編碼的要素之一，成為不同階層的意義生成來源。

圖 10

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

Ware 作品所使用的圖像截圖

圖 12 服役照片

圖11

ISOTYPE風格圖形

圖 10 圖 12 資料來源：陳鼐安（譯）（2009）。吉米吉米‧ 吉米‧科瑞根：科瑞根：地球上最聰明的小子（原作者：C.Ware）。台北市：時報文化。（原著出版年：2000）的小子圖 11 資料來源：Neurath,O. (2010). From hieroglyphics to isotype: a visual autobiography. North London ,Kentish：Hyphen Press. 2.解碼漫畫與圖像小說都是一種簡化表現的藝術形式，排除物象的細節，透過抽象、圖像式的影像，著重欲強調的細節，藉以增強所要傳達的意義，觀者亦藉由拆解圖像的解碼過程發掘意義。此外，「Suspense」概念在圖像小說的閱讀過程中，也扮演了重要的解碼角色，Ortony、Clore與Collins (1998)認為 suspense由恐懼、希望與「不確定的認知狀態」所構成，而我們對逐格並置

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的畫格解碼即是透過這種概念進行。我們無法知道下一格會出現什麼內容，我們抱持著期待、懷疑或恐懼的心情前進下一格，直到各階段的解碼完成。也藉著這樣的解碼過程，畫格間的縫隙讓新的意義得以產生，作品也因此完整呈現。而在解碼過程中，觀者也必須具備政治、歷史和社會等相關的普通知識，仰賴我們過去的舊經驗，或使用他們的邏輯能力，在未明確陳述的前提下推論並完整闡釋意義。因此，解碼的過程亦需要背景知識、經驗與邏輯能力，例如 Ware在作品中利用大眾熟悉的超人（Superman）漫畫角色來象徵他所期待成為的強者，但在故事發展中卻讓超人自殺般地由高樓墜下（圖7），投射出主角孤單、情感缺陷、無依無靠，且無法成為勇者的內心寫照。在此作者與讀者將圖文以一種從未知到已知的相互「轉碼」方式，達到作者與觀者間的溝通。漫畫家Alan Moore在一次訪談中認為言辭與圖像的互動存在著「言下之意」（"under-language"），他說：「讀者控制文字與圖像，更重要的是，讀者控制這兩個構成元素之間的相互作用，用一種連電影都無法達到的方式。作品中存在一種『言下之意』，既非視覺，也不是言辭，而是一種結合兩者所得的獨一效果」(Wiater & Bissette，1993)。讀者閱讀圖像小說須同時駕馭文字與圖像，從文字與圖像的編碼元素中逐步解碼，才得以完整闡釋作品意義。三、缺縫意義的填充數位藝術中的互動裝置藝術、網路藝術等，「互動性」為其普遍的特質，意義也常是開放的。觀眾在互動過程得到個人經驗、觀念與情感的啟發與轉化，藉著觀眾的參與，作品的意義才得以完整。但傳統藝術常具備或多或少的「互動性」，與數位藝術相異之處在於傳統藝術的互動多停留在觀者與作品間的心靈交流互動層次。無論是觀眾親身參與其中的「互動」，或是心靈交流的「互動」，都可被視為使作品意義更為完整的「填充缺縫」過程。在圖像小說中，無論是閱讀（文字）或是觀看（圖像），儘管讀者/觀者往往必須順著作者的思維脈絡前進，無法全然主動地建構文本，但卻傾向以「再建構」的填充方式進行意義的創造。圖像小說需要閱讀者主動且不斷地與圖文文本互動，並且填充畫格間圖溝（Gutter）的缺縫，參與敘事的創作，創造無縫的效果，從中找尋意義，並與自身的體驗和記憶連結。這樣的概念如同 Ricoeur 提出的「語意缺縫」（Semantic Lacuna）(Simms，2003，p. 65)：「當用一件事物隱喻另一件事物時，物者之間會產生意義上的缺縫，而這個缺縫，必須由作者自己填補並填入新意義」（引自賴雯淑，2008）。但在圖像小說中，缺縫填充不僅須由作者

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進行，觀者也需投入此過程。圖像小說以分割而凝結的圖像進行敘事，反映經驗、觀點與情感，分隔的畫格內容逐一連結故事的時間與情節，如同以簡化式的圖像進行思想觀念與事物間的隱喻對照。而畫格間的缺縫，藉由人類的想像力將兩個分隔的影像連結並將此轉換成單一的概念(McCloud，1993)。換言之，儘管在視覺上兩個畫格之間沒有東西，但是經驗告訴觀者那裡一定有某些東西須被填入，觀者必須在心理上從一系列片段的時刻或事物間，不斷填充畫格的缺縫以建構凝聚的敘事。當 Ricoeur 所指的「語意缺縫」被填入後，會使原有語意的「結構鬆動」或「界域模糊」，進而促成作品在內容或形式意義上的轉變或延伸（引自賴雯淑，2008）。觀者在閱讀過程必須建立畫格間常有的遺失連結，最後預料之外的關係和意想不到的新意義會浮現。如 Ware 作品中以超人貫穿整部故事，超人原先的象徵意義在此被作者填充新意義，從本是 Jimmy 的崇拜對象到超人自殺般地由高樓墜下，喪失勇者的作為。此時，原先超人所代表的意義開始鬆動與模糊，對觀者來說，原本認知的超人象徵意義也隨之轉變。 McCloud (1993，p.63) 提出「Closure」是漫畫中「觀察部分、感知全體」的現象，這也是一種填充缺縫之行動，允許觀者得以理解兩個表面上似乎無關的畫格間之互文關係和意義。因此，圖像小說不是被動的媒體，閱讀過程具有高度的開放彈性，需要觀者主動涉入與之對話，以達到意義的產生、轉變與延伸。觀者填充格與格間用空白表現的 Gutter 之間所隱藏的時間與內容，以想像力產生連結，在文字和圖像、畫格結構與缺縫間來回穿梭，透過閱讀、觀察、感覺和思考，進行意義的再建構。

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肆、圖像敘事於藝術教育的意義傳統教育對學生的訓練基本上以線性思考為基礎，是一種相對較為固定的思考訓練，常須遵循文本的原意，這樣的教育方式對學生創造力的激發顯得較為不足。藝術的媒材、形式不斷地改變，科技藝術與傳統藝術之最大差異不僅在於外在形式，其內涵本質與美學上的思考也隨之轉變，而藝術美學與思維的改變也牽動著藝術教育的發展，所以新世代的藝術教育之體系與哲學也應隨著藝術形式與美學之轉變而有新的關注與發展的趨勢。因此就藝術教育層面考量，我們應鼓勵學生透過不同的眼光看世界，取得自我的主動權與詮釋權，鼓勵發展主導事物的能力，並採取開放性的思考方式，尋找事物之間的關連性，以提煉更深入的見解和激盪出更豐富的創意來源。

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數位藝術的形式與內容經常是提出觀念性的問題或建構想像世界，滿足觀眾的探索，並參與作品的進行和意義的產生。因此超美學的價值，在於引導學生擺脫傳統文本與線性思考模式下所謂的標準答案，尋找屬於個人獨一無二的組構方式。而圖像敘事的閱讀與創作不只是自我表達或與他人的溝通，也是再次創造來自生活經驗的意義，是提供學生解讀資訊、瞭解世界的途徑之一，亦是透過文本的再建構達到反思，開啟理解自我的可能性。Berger (2009) 認為人生在世，各種意義並非在瞬間片刻產生。意義是在各種聯繫與關連中出現，並且總處於一種不斷衍生發展的狀態下。故事架構若無推衍發展的空間，也就難以建構新意義。Ware 的作品藉由畫格間的連結與敘事組織，創造了更複雜的多重畫格、多線連續的敘事創作和閱讀，打破線性的敘事方式，亦提供敘事轉換的機會，給予故事發展的空間和方向。因此超美學於圖像敘事的貢獻正是能提供開放思維與衍生意義的可能性。在圖文並置的閱讀過程中，意義隨著讀者的選擇而轉換，彼此間具有動態發展的相互作用。此外，在本研究所探究的圖像小說可被看成是現實與作者、觀者之間的辯證對話，如同透過畫框以一種漫長、連續的分格影像來觀看世界。而觀者在閱讀時不僅進入他人的世界，認識他人，並觀察自己的內心，進行反思與比較，得到自我調整的機會。如 Brunetti (2006，p. 7)指出：「當我們只是『看』漫畫時，它們似乎如同建築學的本質存在，是幾何圖案與有機形式的靜態的聚集。當我們開始去閱讀它們時，我們進入了它們的世界…，突然角色、情節和情感似乎在我們的心靈之眼活了起來。」因此，在閱讀 Ware 的作品不只是單純的閱讀，並且是啟發心靈的過程。而其透過符號、隱喻式的圖像展現敘事與情感，更能激發觀者圖文閱讀的潛能，不同觀者對此文本可能作出不同解釋，這亦類似數位科技超美學的特質之一。科技所啟發的藝術經驗可展現出藝術媒材與科技議題的種種關聯性，如同在本文所探討的圖像小說與超美學關係，可為當代藝術教育實踐提供資訊，超美學於圖像敘事不僅促進連結的思考，讓讀者或觀者具多元選擇，也創造出建構意義的各種可能與實踐。從藝術教育的觀點，儘管數位藝術所帶來的互動性與開放性成為目前藝術議題關注的重點，但圖像、敘事及圖像敘事在藝術教育也都無法輕易地被略過。在敘事部分，Morgan（2008）認為：身為人類，我們一直都在詮釋。我們在生活中經驗許多事件，試圖創造出意義。透過將某些事件以特別的順序、跨越時間線連結在一起，並且找到解釋或理解的方式，因而創造了自己的生命故事。在圖像部分，Roland Barthes 主張像素描（drawing）或繪畫（painting）這類藝術形式，它們所提供給我們的不只是對實物（reality）作類比（analogon）或真實的描述；透過藝術家的處理手法，也會隱含著對實物的註解(引自

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Nodelman，2010) 。這種從經驗事件中創造意義與朝向實物隱含意義發展的觀點，與超美學強調從各觀點觀看的多重敘述結構相似，可在其中創造屬於自己的思考意涵。而圖像敘事則以跨媒體的方式，利用文字與圖像來呈現內心，描述故事，透過逐格的聚焦視野觀看，展現內心的思維與動作，框格成為心靈的框架，可以從各角度描繪，提供事物多重樣態的風貌，也讓人察覺到這種以圖像和文字互動的方式更能夠溝通複雜的意義與想法，達到更為廣闊的藝術想像的可能性。圖畫要求的是心智而非肉眼的活動，學生可透過圖文敘事的方式，對自己的體驗進物圖文詮釋，達到 Geertz (1983) 所認為藝術作品的特質是將經驗的方式具體化；把特殊的心靈鑄模（cast of mind）以有形的物件彰顯出來，讓人們得以看見它。而圖像敘事所展現的超美學，讓我們明瞭在數位時代更需以不同角度、文本與思維切入藝術並呈現所感知到的世界之各種面向，這一議題值得藝術教育領域做更深入的探討。

圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

伍、結論 Ware 的作品改變大眾對傳統漫畫的既定印象，也重新定義漫畫並引發、拓展圖像小說的潛能，其全新的圖像敘事美學可被視為數位時代所獨有的特質。Feldman( 2003) 認為，藝術需要仰賴技術，所以它必然是個短暫的事物；唯有在藝術中的技術效果，成為內在思想的外在表現的情況下，它才有永恆的價值。因此本研究所提出之「超連結特質展現」、「『超』之創作概念與形式」及「缺縫意義的填充」三個理論觀點，說明數位時代的科技帶領我們朝向新的藝術創作和觀看方式，並促進我們思考在新時代如何看待舊的媒體，而舊媒體又如何引入新的數位概念。本文以一種新的數位美學概念引領我們重新思考與看待傳統圖像敘事的構成語彙，數位藝術所產生的超美學對圖像小說的創作、閱讀與詮釋產生影響，讓圖像敘事有了新的表現方式，也讓我們領會數位時代提供我們更多進入藝術、詮釋藝術的觀點，藝術教育有必要正視科技藝術的發展與其美學的新意涵，唯有如此，才能引領我們的學生對當前的社會、人類和文化改變作深入的思考。無論是圖像寫作或是敘事繪畫，都展現出一種人類使用敘事去指引和形塑其所經歷的生活和與他人溝通、經驗世界的方式，是一種再構意義的行動。傳統敘事被認為是一種依賴時間性與邏輯組織的形式，但當敘事中的時間性被全然打破，可透過多重超連結概念和選擇來回穿梭與跳躍，此時，觀看、思考、敘述與意義建構的方式都會改變。圖像敘事是一種將思考和詮釋視覺化的過程，圖像和文字並置構成的圖像敘事至今還是一種新的藝術、文學與創作方

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式，對觀者來說，閱讀文字的意義外，更可從圖像中發現潛在的意涵。意義不僅由生活經驗歸結而來，也會塑造生活中的其他意義和自我，擴大影響的層面，從類比轉變到數位的世界，改變了資訊的內在本質，超美學於圖像敘事可被看成藝術教育中理解經驗的一種重要工具，Ascott（2004）提出藝術家必須提供開創性的文本，使意義得以再度被建構與顯露其自身。藉由科技影響下所反射的美學特質，圖像敘事的超美學開啟觀看世界的不同方式、強調意義的開放性，允許讀者在其脈絡中創造意義。藝術教育有必要跳脫數位時代科技主導之潮流，回歸技術使用之外的美學意涵，培育學生面對數位時代下文化內涵的思考與批判能力，這是當今藝術教育的不可忽略或延緩的課題，它同時挑戰著藝術教育者去思考該如何透過藝術教育，引導學生理解藝術創作中的所具有的開放意義之重要本質。

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圖像敘事的超美學及其藝術教育意義 ─從 Chris Ware 的作品談起

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賴雯淑（2008）。威廉‧肯胥居「Drawings for Projection」之美學脈絡。國際藝術教育學刊，6 (2)，18-24。 Ascott, R. (2004). Planetary Technoetics: Art, Technology and Consciousness. LEONARDO, 73 (2), 111-116. Brunetti, I. (2006).An Anthology of Graphic Fiction, Cartoons, and True Stories. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. Bennett, J., & Jackson, C. (2010). Graphic Whiteness and the Lessons of Chris Ware's Jimmy Corrigan .ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies. 5(1). Dept of English, University of Florida. Retrieved from http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v5_1/bennett-jackson/ Calvi, L. (2001, August). Hypertext and comics: towards an aesthetics of hypertext.HYPERTEXT 2001,Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on Hypertext andHypermedia (pp.14-18). Arhus, Denmark: University of Aarhus. Christensen, L. (2006). Graphic Global Conflict: Graphic Novels in the High School Social Studies Classroom. Social Studies, 97 (6), 227-230. Eisner, E. W. (1985). Comics and sequential art. Tamarac, FL: Poorhouse. Fairclough, N. (1995). Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. London and New York: Longman Freedman, K. (2003). Teaching Visual culture: Curriculum, Aesthetics, and the Social Life of Art.New York: Teachers College, Columbia University; and Reston, VA: The National Art Education Association. Geertz,C. (1983). Art as a Cultural System.In Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (pp. 94-120). New York: Basic Books. Lunenfeld, P. (2000). Snap to Grid : A User's Guide to Digital Arts, Media, and Cultures. Cambridge, MA : The MIT Press. Mandelbrojt, J. (1999). The Aesthetic Status of Technological Art. EONARDO, 32（4）, 301-302. McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. Northampton MA: Tundra Press. Neurath, O. (2010). From Hieroglyphics to Isotype: A Visual Autobiography. North London, Kentish：Hyphen Press.

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Nissen, B. (2000, October 3) . Jimmy Corrigan: The Smartest Kid on Earth: A not-so-comic Comic Book. CNN.com. Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2000/books/news/10/03/chris.ware/index.html Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1998). The Cognitive Structure of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Raeburn, D. (2004). Chris Ware. New Haven CT: Yale University Press. Strauss,N. (2001, April 4). Chris Ware's graphic tales mine his own life and heart. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/04/arts/04WARE.html?pagewanted=2 Simms, K. (2003). Paul Ricoeur. London and New York: Routeledge Critical Thinkers. Twyman, M. (1975). The Significance of Isotype. ISOTYPE REVISITED. Retrieved from http://www.isotyperevisited.org/1975/01/the-significance-of-isotype.html Taylor, P. G. (2004). Hyperaesthetics: Making Sense of Our Technomediated World. Studies in Art Education, 45 (4), 328-342. Tabachnick,S.E. (2009). Teaching the Graphic Novel. New York, NY: Modern Language Association of America. Wiater, S., & Stephen, R. B. (1993). Comic Book Rebels: Conversations with the creators of the new comics. New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc. (The interview with Alan Moore) Retrieved from http://iat.ubalt.edu/moulthrop/hypertexts/wm/sources.htm#moore_interview Wolk, D. (2007). Reading Comics: How Graphic Novels Work and What They Mean. Cambridge, Mass: Da Capo Press. Bennett, J., & Cassandra, J. (2010). Graphic Whiteness and the Lessons of Chris Ware's Jimmy Corrigan . ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies. 5 (1). Retrieved from http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v5_1/bennett-jackson/

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The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education：：Discussing a Work by Chris Ware Yin Hsia Fan Lecture China University of Technology E-mail: yin.hsia@msa.hinet.net Wen Shu Lai Associate Professor National Chiao Tung University E-mail: wndylai@gmail.com

Abstract Digital technology not only changes the essence of information, but also influences art and brings new connotations to aesthetics. For its methodology, the study analyzes text from the graphic novel, Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth by Chris Ware and draws upon the properties of “hyper “derived from digital art in the context of contemporary technological development. Additionally, Lunenfeld's (2000) concept of “hyperaesthetics” is utilized as the framework to discuss the new aesthetics of graphic narratives influenced by hyperaesthetics. It concludes that "the quality of hyperlink", "the concept and forms of hyper" and "filling up the semantic lacuna" are three important theoretical concepts to understand and interpret graphic narratives. The result of this study can contribute to the basic theory and future development of art education.

Key Words: Hyperaesthetics, Graphic Novels, Graphic Narratives, Art Education

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Introduction With the advancement of science and technology, digital technology has created an indelible impact on the arts, giving rise to the transformation and interpretation of aesthetic theories and the gradual construction of new digital art aesthetics. Transitioning from the mechanical and analogue era to the digital age, the inherent nature of information has undergone a great change. For example, paper books had been interpreted through linear lines of text in the past. But, Internet media now uses multi-directional text to allow users to express meaning in a non-linear manner. With digital art, artists express through technological tools or creation methods, which allows viewers to participate through digital interactive features. This creates a wide range of possibilities for the arts. Hence, today’s digital art has become a focus for artists, educators, and critics. Digital art generally provides a physical or virtual field that encourages viewer participation. And, although digital art and other related aesthetics have been gradually receiving increased attention, the “interaction” itself is usually extracted as the theme or content in the field of art education. Therefore, how to prevent the overemphasis on technology and the bias of ignoring art essentials ought to be pondered. Through art, students are guided to grasp the essence of art and make connections to the world. In this way, meaning is constructed,meaning, which is considered to be one of the most important objectives of art education today. Due to technological development and cultural changes, art education concepts and methods need to be reexamined. Under the influence of digital technology, digital characteristics have also caused changes to appear in traditional art media. Taylor (2004) believes that art education in the digital era offers more choices than traditional art education curricula since it can cover discussions, explorations and connections to visual culture in the technological world. Therefore, the diagrams, texts, and frames that constitute a graphic novel serve as the objects of study to explore how graphic narrative media in the form of traditional print display unique, new visual forms and an aesthetic significance influenced by contemporary digital art. As a result, the objective

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of connecting the intrinsic aesthetics of technology with the technological intermediary of visual culture is achieved. A narrative is an expression constructed through the conceptualization of thoughts; it is also the lens through which one understands and explores experiences. Through storytelling, we are able to reflect upon and interpret our own lives, thus providing an alternative constructive process to enter a state of internal reflection and significance. Additionally, today’s art forms attract viewers to experience through dynamic images, audio and visual stimulation, and interactive effects. T.V., computer, video games, magazines, advertisements, and other media containing a great deal of graphics that we are exposed in daily life attract our attention. Hence, the condition of narrative media of integrated graphics and text, as opposed to other media that overemphasize images of sound and light, is an issue worthy of concern amongst the flourishing of digital art development today. Fairclough(1995) pointed out that text is a major source of evidence. Textual analysis can lay the roots for a study’s claims concerning the detailed characteristics of a text. Therefore, for this study, textual analysis was adopted as the research method. The unique techniques of expression techniques and creative forms in the graphic novel, Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth, by Chris Ware were analyzed. Moreover, the “hyper” properties extended from digital art characteristics amongst the context of today’s technological development are coupled with the concept of “hyperaesthetics” proposed by Peter Lunenfeld (2000), and served as a reference for analyzing and exploring the new aesthetic trend presented by graphic narratives.. Textual analysis is also similar to textual interpretation in the sense that the theoretical value associated with certain knowledge and traditions are applied in the text, constituting a process of interpretation (Yu Mei-hui, 2000). Thus, the author takes the perspective of internal digital technology to make meaningful connections and interpretations of traditional art expressions related to media and vocabulary (text) as well as contemporary aesthetic concepts (theories) to provide a way to understand the implications in the era of contemporary art. Through imagination, participation, experience, reflection, dialogue, and an open style of thought,

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meanings are constructed and possibilities are further explored, providing a new way of thought and direction based on art education theory.

Graphic Narratives and Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

Inspired by Rodolphe Töpffer (1799-1846), the concept of modern comics emerged in Switzerland in the 1930s.1. People generally associate comics with a series of continuous images that are accompanied with dialogue balloons. These continuous frames appear in sequence, like the static form of a film. Although comics have existed for more than a century, they still lack considerable legitimacy in the field of art. Comics gradually received increased attention from academic, art, and business circles, leading to the gradual development of graphic novels - a more detailed classification of comics. Graphic novels are a type of media that combines text and graphics, and are coupled with features of space and time. According to Zheng Wen-Hui (2005, p.7), “Literature falls within the scope of time art and graphics within the scope of space art. The media of literature media is both audible and tangible, so it has a flow of time to convey narratives. Graphic media includes pen and ink paintings or sculpture molds, so they easily show the image, texture, and momentum of an object. On the other hand, as objects take up space, they fall under ‘space art.’” Graphic novels and comics have identical characteristics, but their specific definitions have not yet been developed. According to Guo Shu-Xuan (2010), the graphic and text form of graphic novels are similar to the comics we are familiar with, but they are fundamentally different in terms of form and content. He states that comics mainly use graphics as the axis for the narrative, and which are then supplemented by illustrated text boxes and dialogue bubbles. On the other hand, graphic novels, despite their “comic appearance,” still tend to fall under the classification of a “novel” since graphics are not the main form of media for the narrative. However, this argument fails to distinguish the differences between the two. There are graphic novels that use graphics as 1

Leonardo De Sá (n.d.). Rodolphe Töpffer [Web blog message]. Retrieved from http://leonardodesa.interdinamica.net/comics/lds/vb/VieuxBois00.asp?p=Intro

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the axis for the narrative, or comics that contain more textual descriptions and complex plots due to a high degree of development in recent years. Therefore, an ambiguous sense still exists between the two. According to Gu Ba (2008), “Graphic novels possess complex features inherent in both comics and novels. According to Wikipedia, graphic novels are a form of comics where adults constitute the main pool of readers. The story content is based more on literature or esoteric themes. The work is a cross between literature and art, and tells the story of a novel through graphics.” According to Christensen (2006), graphic novels are the telling of a unique story through a comic form, and which occupies an important position in social studies. Since their development, graphic novels have been particularly significant in academic research. One after the other, journals and books have been published about them.. For example, Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics, published by Routledge Publishing Group in 2011, aimed to construct a dialogue amongst graphic novel and comic scholars, historians, theorists, and practitioners. Additionally, Teaching the Graphic Novel (Tabachnick , 2009) collected 34 articles to explore the development of this new art form within contemporary cultural and educational fields. Hence, the graphic narrative constituted by the combination of graphic and text may seem similar to those of printed publications. However, it actually blends art and literature with creative experiences to become a new form that stands out in the comic category, thus highlighting its importance in the field of academic research. Jimmy Corrigan：The Smartest Kid on Earth is the first lengthy graphic novel by contemporary cartoonist, Chris Ware. It was originally serialized in the non-mainstream comic book series, The ACME Novelty Library (Fig. 1), in the United States. The version that was later compiled contains 380 colored pages in a book format. The book describes the life and feelings of the protagonist, who is rather helpless and poor at socializing. He is also alienated from his father for decades. This work received the Guardian First Book Award in the United Kingdom in 2001, and was the first graphic novel to ever do so. With that said, it is not only a graphic novel in comic form, but also considered to be an important form of literature.This work is a semi-autobiographical story of Ware himself. The protagonist, Jimmy Corriga, is lonely and naive. To some extent, he shares the same background,

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mentality, and feelings of Ware. Ware was raised by his mother. On the graphic novel, he states: “It takes about 5 hours for you to finish this book, which is about equal to the total amount of time I have spent with my biological father2.” His estranged relationship with his father is obvious. In the story, Jimmy is abandoned by his father at a young age, and stays with his mother. 30 years later, he unexpectedly receives a letter from his father inviting him to spend Thanksgiving with him. With an uneasy heart, Jimmy sets off for the journey. As depicted by the author, the protagonist in the story looks forward to seeing his father despite feelings of anxiety. Ware projects his own feelings and characteristics into protagonist Jimmy, who works for the postal office. His feelings of loss and regret concerning his own father lead to his portrayal of Jimmy as a loser, enabling viewers to seek his lonesome image within the detailed frames. He presents the loneliness felt by the protagonist (Fig.2) through serene images and a mass quantity of repeated images, which alludes to the protagonist’s daily routine and feelings of loneliness. Additionally, they express the close relationship amongst the author’s thoughts, emotions, and creations. In the seemingly linear narrative of the story, the author uses a jump cut style of narrative to describe the generational relationship between father and son. On the same page, narratives from different dimensions of time and space were also illustrated (Fig.3). Further, visual elements like figures and tables were largely used to organize narratives and spaces (Fig.4), showing a coherent visual style as a result. The narrative structure and visuals implemented by Ware constitute rich and diverse features, contribute to the establishment of a graphic narrative vocabulary, display a new experimental style presented in comic form, and renew the audience’s perception and experience of comics. For this paper, mutual discussion of the “hyperaesthetics” concept derived through expressive techniques and art characteristics describe anew graphic narrative aesthetics under its influence.

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

Readingtimes (2009). Jimmy Corrigan：The Smartest Kid on Earth [Web blog message]. Retrieved from http://www.readingtimes.com.tw/timeshtml/ad/FT0108/epaper.html

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Figure 1. Jimmy Corrigan：The Smartest Kid on Earth original serialized in Acme Novelty Library. Reprinted from Ware,C. (1995-1996). The Acme Novelty Archive #06. Retrieved October 28, 2010 from http://www.acmenoveltyarchive.org/item.php?item_no=21

Figure 2. These scenes describe the character's lonely mental state via repeated images.

Figure 3. Interweave different space-time narratives in divided frames across one page.

Figure 4. The pictures organize the space and narrative by visual elements resembling diagrams.

Reprinted from Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth by Chen, Nai-An Trans. (2009). (Orig. C.Ware). Taipei: China Times Publishing Co. (Orig.publish:2000)

Hyperaesthetics in the Digital Era In the past, people probed art and aesthetic definitions related to certain issues. As a result, the definition and perspective of aesthetics have been constantly subject to change. For example, Kant asserted that beauty is a selfless and subjective purpose. On the other hand, Clive Bell believed that a meaningful form constitutes the important essence behind artworks. According to Susanne Langer, art is the creation of symbolic forms for human affection. It wasn’t until Arthur Danto proposed his perspective in “The end of art” did we witness this transformation. Similarly, the emergence

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of digital media also completely changes the language of art and the connotations of creative forms. It breaks from traditional research, which places “beauty” as its main body. Instead, the openness and interaction of art is emphasized, gradually deconstructing people’s definitions and understandings of traditional art. In today’s digital age, art creation and technology are closely interrelated. In addition to the creations and presentations made by artists via digital tools, digital characteristics have also affected the flow of thought and ideas of the general public. Meanwhile, art forms of the past have also been changed. For example, the hypertext literature with the hyperlink design and interactive influences has expanded the expressive forms of literature 3 . For this study, how the concept of “hyperaesthetics” among digital art characteristics affects graphic narrative creations and aesthetics of traditional graphic narratives is explored. Lunenfeld (2000) once proposed the concept of “Hyperaesthetics,” which refers to the dynamic aesthetics applicable to dynamic arts. Dynamic art refers to works of art or visual culture that are created and presented through T.V., computer, and other technological media. Traditional aesthetic research targets fixed forms, such as sculptures and paintings. Today, under the influence of computer technology, originally designated classifications and boundaries of art have gradually blurred, and a type of aesthetics different from that of static and fixed objects has been applied to dynamic art. From the concept proposed by Lunenfeld, it can be found that “hyperaesthetics” constitutes the aesthetics and characteristics of a type of digital technology and art, or it possesses multimedia, nonlinear, and interactive features due to the uniqueness of the media itself. and Jen RueiJian (2007) believe that the aesthetic thought behind digital art can be described on both an ontological and performance level. The former focuses on the interface characteristics of digital technology, while the latter emphasizes visualization, interaction, hypertext, hypermedia, and other forms of digital art expression. Hen Kuan-Chun (2007) further points out that interaction fully displays the aesthetic attitude of “removing subjectivity”, 3

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

Li, Shun-Xing (1998, August 15). Definition：Hypertext Literature【Web blog message】. Retrieved from http://benz.nchu.edu.tw/~garden/a-def.htm

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which allows viewers to fill in meaning. The characteristics mentioned are a part of the hyperaesthetics proposed by Lunenfeld. In addition, “hyper” in the terminology of hyperaesthetics also involves the basic characteristics of information technology - hyperlinks and hypertext. Hypertext emerged to serve as the “opposite” of linear text. Through the use of hyperlinks, readers or viewers can create reading avenues exclusively for themselves. They possess opportunity and diversity that are reinterpreted. This characteristic has been fully developed and applied throughout the course of development of the Internet. Regardless of evolving times, the relationships amongst man, art, and technology have always been intertwined. Despite the certain reemergence of methods or changes in concept and form between new and old media, some internal structures remain the same. However, the influence of technological concepts on visual culture has led us to once again conceptualize previous art forms. For instance, the novel, The Garden of Forking Paths, by Jorge Luis Borges suggests that the novel itself is a maze of a thousand possible outcomes. Every time a different choice is made, a disjointed dimension is taken out from the portion of time, leading to a plot distinctively different from a previous development (Yu Mei-Chi., 2002). This leads us to think about an internal structure that is similar to the multilink path of hypertext presented through traditional literature narratives. Tthe nonlinear interlinking and construction produce an organic and meaningful space, and provide a multitude of messages. Taylor (2004) believes that Hyperaesthetics points out how technological media influences or mediates what we see, know, and interpret, as well as our classifications of art and visual culture. That is, digital art and its characteristics have a significant impact on existing art forms. Mandelbrojt (1999) believes that technological art has entered “the enthusiasm of youth” from the “pathology of childhood.” Digital tools, such as the computer, are no longer just operated for the purposes of calculation, simulations of new technology, or the reemergence of old art forms. Instead, the characteristics of digital technology media have become a part of the connotations to a work. Therefore, how these characteristics are transformed is worthy of further reflection. The display of hyperaesthetics in graphic narratives will be described below to explore how

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the graphic narratives in traditional print media is influenced by hyperaesthetics and digital characteristics, forming a unique arrangement of structures, visual constructs, and new creative forms. Additionally, how the concept of aesthetics, under the influence of technology, affects the display pattern of the graphic narrative will be explored to develop new aesthetic concepts.

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

The Display of Hyperaesthetics in Graphic Narratives Freedman (2003) believes that the evolution of visual technology tends to elicit qualitative changes in the visual culture. Using “stained glass” as an example, he believes that it changed the way people later “viewed” light, experienced space, and understood the meaning of life. Similarly, the multilink path of hypertext also promotes us to rethink previous art forms and urges us to re-conceptualize the multiple-plot narratives in traditional literature. The concept of discontinuous writing is reevaluated and reconstructed in our mind. In this study, Ware’s work, Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth, is used to explore the relationship between narrative and“hyperaesthetics”. Through their interlinking and demonstration, Chris Ware’s work is specifically explored to establish a hyperaesthetics theory regarding graphic narratives. In this way, not only can the influence of digital technology on graphic narratives be gradually clarified, but the potential of graphic narratives can also be expanded. This provides for others possibilities in the implementation of art education in the world of technological media. This article concludes that “the quality of hyperlink”, “the concept and forms of hyper” and “filling up the semantic lacuna” three important theoretical concepts. The Quality of Hyperlink The hyperlink is an important characteristic of digital art and information media. Through the anchor and link paths, the viewer is given multiple links and avenues of exploration. The hyperlink characteristics of digital media transform the linear development of traditional narratives into a form of multidimensional logical thinking, escaping the confines of a singular method of thought.. In the art of film, hyperlink characteristics related to expression

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can also be seen. For example, a film director attempts to emulate the multiple viewing perspectives and methods of computer technology via hyperlinks to launch multiple narrative structures. In a single film, the same incident is presented through different angles, perspectives, and observations through the lens - the influence of hyperlink characteristics on digital technology art is obvious. Chang Tien-Chun (2002) pointed out that this type of hypertext condition has characteristics of digital art, which alter the viewer’s centralized viewpoint of the world, recreate a direction for multidimensional thinking, and even bring art into an open structure. Comics or graphic novels within the category of graphic narratives are often compared to films or literatures. Hence, there are some comics that are silent films, or graphic novels that act as a new form of literature. Early theorists of hypertext also displayed an interest for comic art and attempted to analogue the comic and hypertext fields. They explored this by placing the characteristics of comics in a hypertext field. For example, Calvi (2001) explored the relationship between comic art rhetoric and hypertext. He cited the rhetoric skills commonly used in Japan-Analytical montage as an example to explain how they have been used to enhance the understanding of hypertext and develop hypertext aesthetics. The display of hypertext characteristics and implementation in graphic narratives are further explored below. The exploration shall cover three aspects: frame, time/space/mind, and narrative hyperlinks as detailed below: The Frame and Hyperlink Node The frame on the page not only serves as the first and foremost principle of the unique aesthetics of continuous art, but is also a part of the creative results. McCloud (1993) made six associative classifications for the conversion of comic frames: instant to instant, action to action, theme to theme, scene to scene, viewpoint to viewpoint, and discontinuity to discontinuity. The transition and conversion of these grids can be regarded as a hyperlink process, which are connected through nodes and linking paths. In the graphic novel, the grids on the frame are like previously defined nodes, in which a single grid represents an instant, and the instant contains a diverse amount of information linked by implicit paths arranged by the

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author. Calvi(2001) pointed out in Hypertext and comics: towards an aesthetics of hypertext that comics possess the characteristics of an “analytical montage” through which a single event can be described in a single frame (because the grid uses the combination of rhetoric and graphic information) or multiple grids. Similarly, through different camera angles, a story can obtain even more possibilities, such as increased actions, speeds, and sceneries viewed from different perspectives. As Jimmy imagines the appearance of his father whom he had never met, his imagination (Fig.5) is visualized by sixteen grids. Similar to the tree node setting (Fig.6), Jimmy’s imagination runs through several lexias 4 to interpret the same incident, thereby making the narrative content flow more smoothly and comprehensively. This expressive technique is comparable to that of the hyperlink approach, which promotes linked thought, observer choice, and a provision for various viewing methods.

Figure 5. The sixteen pictures visualize the imagination of the character-Jimmy.

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

Figure 6. The structure of Jimmy's imagination to his father is similar to the hyperlink of trees’s branch nodes. Adapted from Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth, by Author.

Reprinted from Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth by Chen,Nai-An Trans.(2009).(Orig. C.Ware).Taipei:China Times Publishing Co.(Orig.publish:2000)

Barthes describes lexias as “blocks of signification” and “units of reading” (S/Z 13). Lexias are the smaller sections of a larger, master text. Ironstone, P.,Leitch, C., Onyango, A., & Unruh, C.( n.d.). Glossary : Lexias. Retrieved from http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~raha/700_701_web/BarthesLO/glossary.html

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Transcending Time- Space and the Mind McCloud(1993) once pointed out the division grids of comics and graphic novels convert the relationship of time into that of space. He also believes that readers see the frames of a comic as a frame of mind. From the perspective of a temporal and spatial relationship, Eisner(1985,p.38) considers,"In visual narration the task of the author/artist is to record a continued flow of experience and show it as it may be seen from the reader's eyes.This is done by arbitrarily breaking up the flow of uninterrupted experience into segments of "frozen' scenes and enclosing them by a frame or panel. "Thus, these frames possess the characteristics of time and space, while these framed scene fragments are like hyperlink node content settings completed by artists that wait for viewers to seek suitable paths amidst the vastness of textual links. Ware’s work connects different temporal and spatial narratives together. Jimmy and his father meeting in the 20th century are jump cut to the time and space in 1893, when Jimmy’s grandfather was abandoned. The two parallel story lines are interspersed through a temporal and spatial cascading that expresses the jump cut of time. Through this approach, the viewers’ thoughts are also converted to a different temporal and spatial setting. The viewers seek meaning in the context of transcending time and space. Frames in graphic novels are regarded as the first and foremost part of aesthetics, cognition, and narrative forms. The conscious use of graphic frames facilitates conceptual analysis and deconstruction. The arrangement of these grids is similar to the design of a hyperlink text, which systematically plans complex information and determines the significance and description of information content. The operation of the human mind is similar to that of hyperlink characteristics. When we discuss particular objects, we often associate them with other objects, experiences, and memories - multiple meanings conveyed by the hyperlink. Hyperlinks also mimic the abilities of the brain. Through the linking of instructions, storage, and recycled information, a two-way analogy can be achieved. When authors organize time and space by using grids to present narratives and viewpoints, this is similar to the hyperlink organization process, The author’s mind, memory, and thoughts are linked together to present the results one-by-one within the

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grid nodes. Then, it is up to the viewer to connect the nodes and create meaning. As McLuhan (1999) once pointed out, everything produces resonance in the electrical era. Instead of using traditional linear and causal thinking to produce and perceive energy, the language of cells can create a synaesthetic, discontinuous, and integrated gap in awareness. In addition, both graphic novels and comics are filled with metaphors and symbolism. Viewers can produce different interpretations and create potential meanings, similar to the significance of the launch of a hyperlink. This is when our mind invokes graphics of individual thinking and unique living experiences to affect the interpretation. As McCloud (1993) states, "The cartoon is a vacuum into which our identity and awareness are pulled...an empty shell that we inhabit which enables us to travel in another realm." However, one may also be pulled back to a single node by the existing significance of a text. Roland Barthes describes this text-graph effect as the “Anchoring” action: “Text guides readers to make choices among the many possibilities of signified, so as to prevent these and accept those” (Nodelman, 2010).

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

The Hyperlink of Narratives The non-linear jump characteristics influence the hypertext literary, thus producing network, hypertext, and other forms of literature. Hypertext can provide readers with a multitude of path choices and spawn new multi-directional reading behavior. This characteristic further affects the construct of graphic narratives beyond the static space presented by purely linear time and frames. Although Ware’s work is similar to comics or films in that they all possess the same sequential grid presentation, it is also found that the hyperlink characteristics of large quantities of narratives express a seemingly continuous, but, in reality, divided time and space that jumps out. While Jimmy’s friends play the game, Hide-and-Seek, sixteen grids are used to express a visual consistency (Fig. 3). The seemingly “whole” site space is divided by grids, while time and space from half a century ago are hidden within them. The scene from the past is inserted into the two grids on the left side of the middle row. To play the game on-site, one could only hide in the depressed pit or behind the horse riders. The grids each represent a

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different point in time, but the time does not progress based on a sequential grid. The time was taken back to half a century earlier through hump cutting by two grids - one returns to the time and displays the time level across a planar surface, while a frequent and incidental jump in the time sequence takes place in the text. Ware once stated in an interview that: "Comic strips let you flip back and forth in time, flip from one perspective to another, frame by frame.5 " Additionally, in the jump cut line of narrative describing the parallel development between Jimmy and his grandfather, Ware uses the same high-rise scene to connect the two dimensions of time and space: the modern building across from Jimmy’s workplace and the old high-rise building in his grandfather’s time (Fig.7). This scene arrangement allows for a temporal and spatial jump out and a hyperlink to display another type of cyclical structure. While reading, viewers can once again experience the illusion of a visited sight without being able to identify the beginning and end of the story. Bennett & Jackson(2010) point out that Ware’s graphic novel does not include page number, deemphasizes traditional narrative sequence and encourages reading practice that may move freely backwards and forwards and across the page in numerous directions. Compared to the majority of films or texts that focus on narratives based on a linear development, Ware’s graphic novels provide other possibilities for graphic narrative models and create a breakthrough in the essence of a time sequence. Moreover, in the common page structure of a two-dimensional narrative, a narrative development is allowed to break through the narratives penetrated by the continuity of time through the structure of a page grid. Ware once said that this type of compounding story line expression is similar to that of a webpage (Nissen, 2000). His carefully sketched figures and tables are like complex and overlapping web pages, and the parallel levels developed are generally presented through a sitemap. Ware presents the hyperlink characteristics in virtual space through single pages. In Fig. 4, connecting line segments are added to the grids to present the intertwining and complex relationships of the protagonist. Relevant information is 5

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Readingtimes (2009). Jimmy Corrigan： The Smartest Kid on Earth [Web blog message]. Retrieved from http://www.readingtimes.com.tw/timeshtml/ad/FT0108/epaper.html

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conveyed through planar and visualized arrows in different locations across the grids. Ware’s work introduces the concept of a hyperlink for technological information as media for a continuous narrative, and planar labels are used to explain the connection between the main subjects in the graphics. As a result, they become descriptive illustrations.

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

The Concept and Forms of Hyper In addition to the display of hyperlink characteristics, the creative concept and form of digital art hyperaesthetics have also affected the construct and visual presentation of graphic novels, such as multimedia features presented in works that combine a variety of media, the emphasis on the connections amongst the author, work, and viewer, and the “0” and “1” encoding and decoding processes that originate from digital characteristics. How the “hyper” creative concept and form are presented in Ware’s work shall be discussed in three parts. The Hyper Media-The Mixed New Art Forms Mixed digital features enable artists to easily combine multimedia formats, such as graphics, animation, and voice. In turn, the results become multimedia forms of art. On another end, Ware’s work also possesses this multimedia feature. Strauss (2001) believed that a creative concept mixes multiple art forms such as comics, films, architecture, and music, in addition to combining text, graphics, time, and space. He described Ware’s pages of grids as an attempt to create comics that can be read like musical notes of a music book. This mixed form is similar to the interdisciplinary cooperation commonly seen in digital art. The only difference is that his work interprets the characteristics of a variety of art forms through one type of media. In his book, Raeburn (2004) described the correlation that Ware’s work has with architecture, music, and poetry. Ware refers to in an interview: " comics are the visual equivalent of poetry: You're using imagery, in a limited space." He also believes that readers gain new experiences through comics, beat-by-beat, in the same manner musical instruments are played (Raeburn, 2004). The division and placement of the grids of varied sizes are like musical notes of different beat lengths on musical notations. Large grids appear after small grids, like notes C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 ○

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with longer beats, and which allow the viewer to have a deeper contemplation. Thus he thinks that we can pull back and consider the composition all at once, as you would the façade of a building. You can look at a comic as you would look at a structure that you could turn around in your mind and see all sides of at once(Raeburn, 2004). In addition, Ware intricately constructs the details of narrative expressions to present the complex relationships amongst events, people, and places. Ware mostly depicts the protagonist’s various views of Superman jumping off a building across multiple frames (Fig. 8), including a distant, frontal, back, and close-up view of Superman. This is akin to viewing the building from different rotating angles. The construct and scale of each grid in the graphic narrative, and the configuration and composition of every visual element contain various implications and thoughts, much like how buildings speak an architectural language through unique forms, structures, sizes, and lines. Additionally, the frame division in Fig.8 is like the lens of a camera for a film. Through them, comprehensive reflections can be viewed from different angles. Combined with concepts of music, poetry, film, and architecture, his work can be viewed as a “hypermediacy” in hyperaesthetic concepts. As stated by Li,Shun-Xing (2002), “Web pages absorb the characteristics of painting, T.V., films, and other media. Through media convergence processing, this ‘multimedia phenomenon,’ ‘uses one media to reproduce another media’ on one hand; on the other hand, this is the phenomenon of ‘old’ media existing within a ‘new media.’” Ware’s work is the convergence of multimedia characteristics found in such objects as web pages, which absorb multiple media characteristics. They are deemed as concepts related to old music, poetry, films, and architecture placed within graphic novel creations to reproduce concepts of artistic form through new media such as graphic novels. In other words, it is the multiple forms of art forms or concepts in graphic novels. The Linking Relation between the Creator, Viewer, and Work Marcel Duchamp, regarded as one of the foremost representatives of Dadaism, proposed the multiple relationships amongst the “creator-audience-work. (1986). He believed that: “Artists generally do not

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know the true meaning of their works, so the viewer always interprets the works and participate by supplementing and complementing the creative process.” “The so-called artwork is determined by two aspects: the creator and the viewer. I find the former and latter equally important.” Today, technology has been incorporated into art. And, in digital art, the relationships amongst the creator, viewer, and work have become more complex and diverse, making them important characteristics. The complex characteristics that link the hyperaesthetic creator, audience, and work are also displayed in Ware’s work. From the perspective of text and graphics, the two basic elements of graphic novel media, film images and voiceovers or caption are similar. They only differ in the sense that the film viewer reads a film’s text according to an arranged narrative time and editing, while the graphic novel reader can freely control the language (text) and image tracks, choose if they want to see the text or graphics first, and decide the time spent on each grid. Wolk (2007) believes that comics imply a lapse of time, but the experience of time is, to a greater extent, controlled by the reader rather than the artist. Additionally, McCloud (1993) pointed out that the painting-style of graphics in comics demand us to participate in their operation. Other than what is given by the audience, there is no life. Through their reading process and behavior, the reader can breathe life into the continuous graphics. Ware’s work contains many pages without words, yet filled with memories and descriptions. Only graphics are used to present the mind and feelings. For example, the multiple grids used to surround Jimmy’s father’s house describe Jimmy’s sense of loneliness and waiting (Fig. 9). The graphics are open, yet unclearly defined. There is no way to specifically pinpoint what Jimmy is thinking at the time. In this manner, the reader may reflect his or her own thoughts into the graphics. They can also be viewed through the vision of the creator to experience the protagonist’s thoughts and perceptions. As McCloud (1993 ) states, "The idea that a picture can evoke an emotional or sensual response in the viewer is vital to the art of comics. " This particular point leads viewers to infuse life and meaning into the graphics, the link between the audience and creator, the mutual influence, and the dialogue. Based on this approach,

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it can be found that graphic novels of a planar form of art and digital art share the same artistic characteristics.

Figure 7. The modern building in Jimmy's period contrasts with the old building in his grandfather's period.

Figure 8. The images of divided frames look like different shot's perspective in film.

Figure 9. The images in different frames describes the waiting states of Jimmy.

Reprinted from Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth by Chen, Nai-An Trans. (2009). (Orig. C. Ware). Taipei:China Times Publishing Co. (Orig.publish: 2000)

The Encoding and Decoding of the Significance of Graphics The process for the creation and production of digital art originates from the digital encoding and decoding of 0 and 1 bits. The outcome created is a presentation of the program source codes hidden throughout the decoding process. This concept also appears in graphic novels. Berger (2009) argued that photography is a “citation” of the appearance of things, while paintings involve intermediary human factors more similar to a “translation” of appearance. In other words, through an internal “encoding” process and mental operations, artists “translate” objects or concepts to express different aspects of the world perceived through symbols, abstractions, simplifications, and other art languages. On another aspect, graphic novels and comics are a type of art form that presents images in a simplified manner. The graphic strategy adopted is a type of encoding and decoding process that generates meaning. Hence, the creator and viewer play the role of encoder and decoder, respectively, and graphic strategies become a particular program language.

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Encoding The graphics in Ware’s work (Fig. 10) adopt the universal figure and symbol system (ISOTYPE) proposed by Otto Neuerath (Fig. 11) (Twyman, 1975). Neurath (2010) believes that there is no intention for Isotype to replace rhetoric language. Instead, it is a helpful language that comes with textual elements, which he calls a “language-like technique.” This type of graphic is similar to letters that had become a type of symbol or technique for language. As the source of visual information, they produce infinite possibilities to meanings. Ware uses textual and visual graphics as his creative interfaces. During the process of encoding meaning, Berger states that (2009, p98): “Whenever a contour gradually takes shape while painting, the painter consciously intervenes through intuitive or systematic thinking.” Ware chooses appropriate styles, codes, and symbols to present his ideas visually during the encoding process. As a result, heconverts relationships of meaning from the world of the author into that of the viewer. McCloud (1993) once said that comics are a form that undergoes a process of simplification and expansion. Therefore, simplification is also considered one of the approaches to encoding. In addition, pictures that accompany the axis of narrative are also introduced into the works, such as pictures of military service (Fig. 12), postcards, etc. These graphics also play an important role in the development of the narrative. Each picture not only speaks for itself, but is also accompanied by the memories and experiences of both the author and viewer. As a result, they become visual information that provides a potential significance and an element for visual encoding, such as simplified visual graphics and a source for generating different layers of meaning.

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Figure 10. The images in Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth. Figure 12. The military photo of jimmy’s father.

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Figure 11. ISOTYPE images. Figures 10,12. Reprinted from Jimmy Corrigan; The Smartest Kid on Earth by Chen, Nai-An Trans. (2009). (Orig. C. Ware).Taipei: China Times Publishing Co. (Orig.publish:2000) Figures 11. Reprinted from From hieroglyphics to isotype: a visual autobiography by Neurath, O. (2010). North London, Kentish：Hyphen Press.

Decoding Comics and graphic novels are both art forms featuring simplified expressions. They exclude the details of objects and focus on emphasizing other details through abstract and graphic images to enhance the conveyed meanings. The viewer also discovers meanings through the graphic decoding process. In addition, the concept of “suspense” in the process of reading a graphic novel also plays an important role in decoding. Ortony, Clore and Collins(1998) believe that suspense is constituted by fear, hope, and “an uncertain cognitive state”, and that our grid-by-grid decoding is indeed conducted through this concept. There is no way for us to know what content will appear in the next grid, so we proceed with expectation, doubt, and fear until the various stages of decoding is completed. The gaps between the grids also contribute to the formation of new meanings, and help present a more complete work. Additionally, during the decoding process, the viewer must also possess general knowledge pertaining to politics, history, and sociology. Based on our past experiences and their underlying logic, or under the premise of the absence of a clear statement, we infer and complete the interpretation of meanings. Therefore, the

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decoding process requires background knowledge, experience, and logic. For example, in Ware’s work, he invokes Superman, a comic book character familiar to all, to symbolize his expectations to be strong. However, the story unfolds to show Superman falling suicidally from the high-rise building (Fig. 7), reflecting the protagonist’s lonely and emotionally-deprived feelings. The inner thoughts of a brave man cannot be depicted. The author and reader engage in a “transcription” of graphics from the unknown to the known, achieving a method of communication between the two.Cartoonist Alan Moore once mentioned in an interview that the rhetoric and graphic interactions involve an “under-language”. He says, “you control the interplay between those two elements in a way which not even film can achieve. There's a sort of 'under-language' at work there, that is neither the 'visuals' nor the 'verbals,' but a unique effect caused by a combination of the two. ” （Wiater & Bissette,1993）The reader must master the text and graphics simultaneously while reading the graphic novel to gradually decode the encoded elements in the text and graphics. Only through this approach can the significance of the work be fully interpreted.

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Filling Up the Semantic Lacuna “Interaction” is a characteristic common to installation and net art.. In digital art, the significance of this is often open. During the interactive process, the audience obtains a personal inspiration transformation of their experiences and concepts. With the participation of viewers, the meanings behind works become even more complete. However, traditional art often possesses some kind of “interaction” as well. It differs from digital art only in the sense that the interaction of traditional art remains mostly in the exchange between the viewer and the work. Both the audience’s personal participation in the “interaction” and the “mobility” of the spiritual exchange are regarded as processes for “filling the gaps” and making the work more significant and complete. In graphic novels, the text cannot be fully and actively constructed regardless of the reading (text), viewing (graphics), or the reader/viewer’s approach toward the author’s context of thought.. Instead, the text has a tendency to engage in significant creation through a “reconstructive,” filling approach.

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Concerning graphic novels, it takes active and constant interactions with the graphics and texts by the reader to fill the gaps between grids, and participation in narrative construction to create a seamless experience, find inherent meanings, and link the reader’s own experiences and memories. This concept is the same as the “Semantic Lacuna” proposed by Ricoeur （Simms , 2003 , p.65）: “When one thing is used as a metaphor for another thing, the two things will produce a significance gap, and this gap has to be filled and given a new significance by the author himself” (Cited from Lai Wen-shu, 2008). However, in graphic novels, the gap filling is not only done by the author, but also the viewer’s involvement in the process. Graphic novels engage in narratives through the division and condensation of graphics to reflect experiences, viewpoints, and emotions. The content in the divided grids connect the time and plot of the story one-by-one, like simplified graphics that are used as metaphors to cross-reference thoughts, concepts, and objects. On another end, the gap between the grids are linked by two separated images and converted into a single concept through people’s imaginations. (McCloud, 1993) In other words, though nothing exists between the two grids visually, experience tells the viewer that something has to be filled there. And, the viewer must constantly fill this grid gap from a series of fragments (i.e. time and objects) within his mind to construct condensed narratives. When this “semantic gap,” as Ricoeur calls it, is filled, a “structurally loosening” or “domain ambiguity” of the original semantics will take place, facilitating the transformation or extension of a work’s content, significance, or form (cited from Lai Wen-shu, 2008) During the reading process, the viewer must reconcile a loss of connection that often takes place between the grids. Only through this way can unexpected relationships and new meanings emerge. For example, Superman appears throughout the story of Ware’s work. The original symbolic significance of Superman iss given a new meaning by the author - From being Jimmy’s idol to the victim of a suicidal fall from a high-rising building, a brave man is suddenly deprived of his supposed bravery. The significance of Superman originally represented begins to loosen and become more ambiguous. To the viewer, the original perception of the symbolic significance of Superman is also altered.

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McCloud(1993,p.63) mentioned that “closure” is the phenomenon of “observing in part and perceiving as a whole.” It is also the action of filling gaps, which allows the viewer to understand the interactive relationship and significance between two ostensibly irrelevant grids. Hence, graphic novels are not a passive form of media, as they possess a high degree of openness and flexibility within the reading process. It takes the viewer’s active involvement and dialogue to achieve the production, transformation, and extension of meaning. The viewer fills the gutters expressed as blanks with an implicit time and content. Using their imagination, they produce links as they travel back and forth amongst texts, graphics, grid structures, and gaps. By reading, observing, feeling, and thinking, the reconstruction of meanings is facilitated.

The Hyperaesthetics of Graphic Narratives and Implications in Art Education： Discussing a Work by Chris Ware

The Significance of Graphic Narratives in Art Education Traditional education is oriented toward a basic, linear form of thinking. It is a relatively fixed training of thought, and the original ideas behind texts are often followed. This educational method is considered relatively inadequate to elicit student creativity. As art media and forms constantly undergo change, the greatest difference between technological and traditional art lies not only in external forms, but also in the thinking behind the essential content of aesthetics. On another end, changes in thought related to art aesthetics also create an impact on the development of art education. So, a new generation of art education systems and philosophies should bear a new focus on developing changes in art forms and aesthetics. Therefore, as far as art education is concerned, we should encourage students to view the world through different perspectives, obtain a sense of autonomy and the right to interpretation, develop an open-minded way of thought, and seek the connection between things. In this way, views that have greater depth are cultivated and richer sources of creativity are elicited. The form and content of digital art is often associated with the proposition of conceptual questions or the construction of an ideal world, satisfying the audience’s need for exploration through participation in the ongoing work and production of its meanings. Therefore, the value of hyperaesthetics lies C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 ○

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in guiding students to rid themselves of the so-called standard answers of traditional texts and linear thought models, and to search unique methods of construction and assembly. The reading and creation of graphic narratives not only involve self-expression or communication, they also recreate meanings behind life experiences and provide routes for students to interpret information and understand the world. Through the reconstruction of these texts, a form reflection is achieved, which entertains greater possibilities towards understanding the self. Berger (2009) believes that the meanings in life are not produced in an instant. Rather, they appear from within various contacts and links, and are always in a state of continuous derivation and development. Without space for inference and development, the story framework is unable to allow the construction of new meanings. In Ware’s work, through grid linkage and narrative organization, grids featuring a greater complexity have been created, and the formation of multiple-line narratives and readings are considered breakthroughs as far as the narrative methods are concerned. The opportunity to convert narratives has also been provided to allow for space and direction in the development of the story. Therefore, the contribution of hyperaesthetics in graphic narratives lies in the provision of open-minded thinking and the possibility of derived meanings. During a reading of both the graphics and texts, meanings are converted as the reader’s choices varied. There is an interactive action that exists in the dynamic development between the two. In addition, the graphic novel explored in this study can be considered a dialectical conversation amongst the author, viewer and reality. Through the frame, a diffused and continuous sub-grid of images is used to view the world. While reading, the viewer not only enters the world of others and gets to know those others while observing their inner thoughts, but also engages in reflections and comparisons to acquire an opportunity for self-adjustment. As stated by Brunetti (2006 , p.7): “If we only “see” comics, they exist only as the original essence of architecture, which are the static aggregates of geometric patterns and organic forms. But, if we start to “read” them, we enter their world. The unexpected roles, plots, and emotions seemingly lighten up the core of our hearts.” Therefore, Ware’s work not only involves a reading, but also a process of enlightening the spirit. Through symbols and metaphorical

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graphics, narratives and emotions are displayed that can better invoke the viewer’s potential to read graphics and text. Different viewers may interpret this text differently, and this is similar to one of the characteristics of hyperaesthetics in digital technology. The experience of art elicited by technology can display various connections between art media and technological issues. Similar to the relationship between graphic novels and hyperaesthetics explored in this paper, this information is provided as a reference for the implementation of contemporary art education. Hyperaesthetics in graphic narratives not only promotes link-related thought, but also provides the reader or viewer more diversified choices and possibilities in the construction and implementation of meanings. The interaction and openness brought about by digital art that have become the current focus in art related issues, graphics, narratives, and graphic narratives should not be casually overlooked in art education. In the narrative, Morgan (2008) believes that: “As human beings, we have always been interpreting. We experience many events in life and attempted to create meaning. By linking incidents in order across the timeline, we find a way to explain or understand things and, thus, create our own life stories.” In graphics , Roland Barthes argues that art forms such as drawings or paintings provide us with not only analogies of reality or actual descriptions, but also implicit footnotes of reality through the processing of artists (Cited from Nodelman , 2010). This perspective of creating meaning from experiences and developing implicit meanings to reality is similar to the multiple structures of description from the various perspectives of hyperaesthetics. This implies that one can create their own connotations to thought. On another end, graphic narratives present the inner thoughts and descriptions of stories by means of cross-media, texts, and graphics. Through a grid-by-grid focus and view, one’s inner thoughts and actions are displayed, and the frame becomes a spiritual frame that can be depicted from various angles. Additionally, multiple forms and appearances can be provided. One also realizes that this interaction between graphics and texts can better channel complex meanings and thoughts, and thereby achieve broader possibilities for artistic imaginations. Drawings demand activities of the mind rather than those of the naked eye. Students can engage in text

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and graphic interpretation through graphic narratives to specify experiences, which Geertz (1983) believes is a characteristic of artworks. The special cast of mind is highlighted by tangible objects so that people can see it. The hyperaesthetics displayed by graphic narratives, on the other hand, allow us to understand the fact that art should be viewed from different angles, texts, and thoughts in the digital era, and that the various aspects of the world in the way we perceive them can be presented. This issue is worthy of more in-depth discussion in the field of art education.

Conclusion Ware’s work has changed and redefined people’s stereotyped impressions of traditional comics, and invoked the potential of graphic novel expansions. The new aesthetics of graphic narratives can be regarded as a unique characteristic in the digital era. Feldman (2003) believes that art relies on technology, so it must be a temporary thing. Art only becomes eternally valuable when its technological effects become external expressions of internal thoughts. Hence, the three theoretical viewpoints of “the quality of hyperlink”, “the concept and forms of hyper” and “filling up the semantic lacuna”, proposed by this study explain how technology in the digital era leads us to new methods of art and viewing. It also prompts us to think about how to treat existing media in the new era and how the existing media introduces new digital concepts. In this study, the new concept of digital aesthetics was adopted to guide us to reexamine our composition of the vocabularies of traditional graphic narratives. Hyperaesthetics produced by digital art affect the creation, reading, and interpretation of graphic novels, and give graphic narratives an alternative method of expression. This lets us understand that the digital era provides us with more viewpoints that are needed to enter interpret art. It is necessary for the field of art education to take the new implications regarding the development of technological art and aesthetics seriously. Only by doing so can we guide our students to think further on current changes to society, mankind, and culture. Whether it is graphic writing or narrative drawing, it is the display of man’s use of narratives to guide and shape life experiences, communicate

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with others, and experience the world - it is the action to reconstruct meaning. Traditional narratives are deemed a form that relies on timing and the organization of logic. However, the timing in this narrative has been completely overturned. Through the concept of multiple links, one can choose to travel back and forth. At the same time, the viewing, thoughts, descriptions, and meanings of construction methods are subject to change. A graphic narrative is the process of visualizing thoughts and interpretations. Graphic narratives constituted by graphics and text remain a new method of art, literature, and creation even today. Other than the meanings found by reading, the viewer can also discover potential implications within the graphics. These meanings not only come from a summary of life experiences, but also shape other meanings concerning life and the self. They can even draw analogies to the digital world when viewed from an extended level of influence, altering the intrinsic essence of information. The hyperaesthetics in graphic narratives can be viewed as an important tool for understanding experiences in art education. Ascott (2004) once stated that artists must provide innovative text to reconstruct meanings that reveal themselves. Under the influence of technology, aesthetic characteristics are reflected and the hyperaesthetics of graphic narratives open up new ways to view the world. This creates an emphasis on the openness of meanings and allows the reader to create meaning from the context. It is necessary for art education to break free from the dominance of technology in the digital era and return to aesthetic connotations outside the use of technology. Only through this approach can we cultivate the cultural thinking and critical abilities of students in the digital era. This is an issue in art education that must not be ignored or delayed. Simultaneously, art educators are challenged to contemplate methods of guiding students towards understanding the important nature of the open meaning of art through art education.

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不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

范睿榛助理教授國立台北教育大學 E-mail: dianafan@tea.ntue.edu.tw

摘要家庭是人類成長中最重要的人際關係，因此家庭對於兒童的人際、生活適應及情緒成長都有相當的影響性，我們可以透過了繪畫來瞭解兒童與家庭成員之間的互動情形或是自我對家庭的看法。繪畫對兒童而言，是他們內心世界與外在世界的一種溝通橋梁，也是對其所處生活情境的一種認知表現。本研究屬於實驗性研究，對象是來自於一般家庭、單親家庭、新住民家庭共三組不同家庭結構之低年級兒童，分別是 30 名，三組一共是 90 名兒童，以探討三組不同家庭結構兒童中家庭動力繪畫表現情形。結果是三組家庭的兒童在「人物間互動和動作」變項中; “父親在室內”一項以新住民家庭兒童最為顯著性且大於其他兩組，“其他人物在戶外”一項，以單親家庭兒童這組大於其他兩組；在「人物的間距、障礙物」變項中，並未在三組兒童繪畫中發現差異性；在「圖畫的樣式」變項中並未發現差異性；在「人物特徵」變項中，以單親家庭在「省略父親」、「省略母親」這兩部分都比其他兩組來得顯著；在「象徵符號」變項中，使用「遠離自己的太陽」、「電視」象徵符號表現是新住民家庭兒童的顯著性大於其他兩組，此現象與「人物間互動和動作」變項中「父室內」、「父看電視」有相當的關係。在未來的研究需增加且普遍性的選擇研究對象，研究結果將是較客觀且有效的信效度，以提供為學校或輔導機構為介入家庭治療的參考資料。

關鍵詞：一般家庭、單親家庭、新住民家庭、家庭動力繪畫

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壹、前言壹、前言時序邁入二十一世紀，時代進展之腳步日新又新，傳統社會時代的家庭，亦歷經了解構的變革，過去傳統的大家庭已演變為核心家庭及小家庭。從社會變遷中，相對的倫理觀念也隨之改變，家庭結構也產生變化，雙薪家庭增加，離婚率上升，未婚生子及單親家庭，甚至於新住民家庭也日益增加。「家庭」是人類社會中最原始的組織，也是社會結構中最基本的單位，個體從出生至成為社會人的過程中，其人格、社會化等各方面，無時無刻不受到家庭生活的影響。因此，早期的家庭生活經驗對兒童的身心發展、人際關係及人格發展具有相當重要的影響性。由於社會發展迅速，家庭結構產生變化，家庭功能也因此面臨空前的考驗，從原本農業社會的大家庭制度，被迅速發展的工商社會所影響而形成小家庭所取代，夫妻的角色及教養子女的態度，關係到整個家庭環境及成員的身心成長；然而家庭環境的組織結構與互動氣氛，直接地影響到兒童的人格與生活適應。對於兒童的繪畫心理分析與藝術治療，在國內早已蔚成一股研究風氣，許多美術教育者、一般教育工作者、與心理學家，藉著兒童豐富想像力地描述其創作作品的過程中，試著去瞭解兒童的情緒、感情、自我概念、以及在平日生活中人際互動關係。然而多年來國內對兒童的繪畫與心理層面的相關性的論文研究並不多，此外兒童繪畫通常被認為是一種課外活動或技巧性的培養。藉由繪畫來發現兒童與家庭互動狀況或是對於家庭的看法，因為繪畫對兒童而言，是兒童內心世界與外在世界的一種溝通橋梁，是一種自我表達的心理語言；他們透過認知架構，而將存在意識中的心理圖片(mental picture) 轉換為一種可說、可見、可知的形式(范瓊方，1996)。近年來國內使用 Burns 和 Kaufman(1972)家庭動力繪畫的研究較偏向個案和質的探討，對於針對不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究較欠缺。本研究使用 Burns 與 Kaufman 的家庭動力繪畫的原理原則來探討不同家庭結構中兒童之繪畫表達內容。研究目的一、是瞭解來自不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫之「人物間互動和動作」、「人物的間距、障礙物」、「圖畫的樣式」、「人物特徵」、「象徵符號表現」等內容表現的異同。二、是為日後進行更多來自不同家庭結構的參與研究對象之家庭動力繪畫的試驗性研究。三、透過了家庭動力繪畫的表現內容來瞭解兒童家庭成員互動的情形，以提供學校為輔導諮商的參考資訊。

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貳、文獻探討貳、文獻探討

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

一、家庭結構之變遷歷年來我國家庭型態一向以父母及未婚子女組成之核心家庭所占比重最大，但近年來隨著社會變遷快速，家庭結構也隨著變化，家庭功能與家庭內之角色結構及互動關係也有所不同，由行政院主計處（2005）所進行之我國家庭型態變遷表中可發現，核心家庭比率由 1988 年之 59.1％逐年下降至 2004 年 46.7％，其次的三代家庭也由 16.7％略降為 15.2％；夫婦兩人或單人所組成之小家庭成長速度最快，比率分別上升至 14.2％及 9.9％，而單親與祖孫家庭比率亦增為 7.7％及 1.2％。由於單人、夫婦兩人、單親及祖孫等家庭比例上升，平均每戶人數(戶量)由 1988 年 4.1 人降為 2004 年 3.2 人。近年來台灣單親家庭的比率有上升的趨勢，根據行政院主計處 2010 資料顯示，台灣單親家庭的數目由民國八十九年的 374，295 戶到民國九十九年的 562，306 戶，因此我們可推知台灣單親兒童與少年人數也隨之增加。離婚在目前的社會型態中已經成為一個令人關注的焦點，對兒童而言，父母的婚姻關係破裂是一種傷害，也是一種痛苦的經驗，這些不愉快的生活經驗會使兒童感到不安全、不被接受，同時也會影響兒童人格的發展及未來生活的適應。在 1980 年初期，人口外流嚴重的台灣農村，零星出現了一些菲律賓新娘。但政府對東南亞國際新娘的統計，從 90 年代之後，始有正式的官方數據。根據我國內政部統計通報（2006）結婚登記資料，外籍與大陸配偶占比率在 2003 年之前逐年升高，外籍與大陸配偶所占比率高達 31.86%；之後至 2005 年 1 月底為止，外籍與大陸配偶所占比率為 16.77%降低許多，事實上卻隱藏著另一股社會問題，那也就是這些新住民孩子在家庭教養、學校學習，社會適應等問題。在多元家庭型態的轉變裡，近二十年來新移民子女數的急增，是紓解了台灣少子化的危機；相對這些新住民的子女帶來了在教育上、與未來人力品質問題(翁麗芳、洪福財，2004)。國際新娘入境之後，首先面臨言語障礙與文化衝擊，接著生育兒女之後，許多與孩子有關生活方式、教養態度和學習方式都接踵而來的挑戰。因此新住民家庭有關子女的家庭教養、學校生活與學習適應、以及在社會中人際相處與適應等一直是存在的問題；新住民家庭承受著社會對他們的刻板印象及偏見、或忙於工作等因素，因此形成以新住民為議題的探討研究相當多，但針對新住民兒童、單親家庭兒童與一般家庭兒童以繪畫表現其家庭概念及家庭成員之間互動關係的文獻甚少。面對家庭教育與學校教育之間

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不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

的相互影響，透過繪畫來瞭解孩童對家庭成員互動的認知表達與自我在家中的自我概念是一種很自然的方式，繪畫對孩童而言是一種語言的表達。二、兒童繪畫與心理學之研究許多美術教育者、一般教育工作者、與心理學家，藉著兒童豐富想像力地描述其創作作品的過程中，試著去瞭解兒童的情緒、感情、自我概念、以及在平日生活中人際互動關係( 陸雅青，2000、2005；范瓊方，1996、2001、2004 )。最早對於兒童人物繪畫上的心理意義有非常精湛的研究是 Corrrado Ricci (1887)。二十世紀受到精神分析學派的影響，如 Freud (1938)的意象(image) 和心象(mental image)探討病患藉以夢的解析而了解其潛意識的問題；之後 Jung (1964, 1965)使用曼陀蘿 (mandala)以鼓勵病患藉著繪畫過程來抒發其內心的感受。於是 Freud 和 Jung 特別強調的潛意識(unconsciousness)象徵作用(symbolization)理念，深深地影響著一些對於兒童心理發展、兒童心理分析和兒童繪畫感興趣的美術教育或心理學家們，開始著手探究兒童繪畫與個體心理運作之間的關係，因此形成了運用兒童所繪畫的人物畫而進行心理分析和測驗。由於 19 世紀末實驗心理學的盛行，因而在 20 世紀初，歐美國家的一些心理學者、美術教育學者、教育者開始著手探討有關兒童心理發展、兒童心理分析和兒童繪畫之間的關係，因而逐漸形成了運用兒童的繪畫而發展繪畫投射測驗工具，如 Burns 和 Kaufman (1972)的家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic - Family Drawing, K-F-D) 、 Burns (1987) 的房 — 樹 — 人動力繪畫 (Kinetic House -Tree-Person) 、 Knoff 和 Prout (1985) 的校動力繪畫 (Kinetic School Drawings)、Buck(1948)的房—樹—人測驗(House-Tree-Person-Test) 以及 Naglieri、 McNeish 和 Bards(1991)的畫一個人測驗(Draw-A-Person Test)等等。 DiLeo (1973)強調兒童繪畫方面的發展層面、與性格偏差是運用繪畫來進行輔助診斷。Koppitz (1968)的研究重點放在有系統的評量 5 至 12 歲兒童所繪畫的各種人物圖畫。然而，真正把兒童所畫的內容當成「兒童畫」，且開始重視孩子畫所富有的意義，是二十世紀以後的事，因此有些心理學家以孩子的自由創作畫，為理解兒童心理的線索，開始根據不同的年齡成長，整理且探討其圖片中共同樣式和傾向，以闡述兒童繪畫發展與心理過程。因此兒童繪畫的活動不再是視覺上單純的感受，而是富有更多個體的心理層面的意義。

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Bender (1937)與 Despert (1938)兩位學者，首先對情緒困擾孩子的繪畫進行心理學上的解說。Anatasi 與 Foley (1940)相當熱衷探討有關來自不同文化的兒童自發性之繪畫與非正常的藝術表達行為，而進行文獻評量。Kuthe (1962,1964)發表三篇有關社會基模( social schema )的文章，探討人們組織社會刺激的方法，即是要求參與測驗者在毛氈布板上置放一些象徵性的男人、女人、小孩、動物與物品等圖卡，Kuthe 的結論是：「人們被允許置放這一套圖卡時，以構建其意念，是一種有組織的反應。其間顯示了一個非常強的社會基模型式，就是將人類都放置在一起，人物圖卡聚集在一起的現象是非常強烈(引自 Burns, 1982, p. 64)」。 Weinstein(1967)使用 Kuthe 的人物感覺技巧(Felt-Figure Technique)，以設計一個測驗來進行研究，研究對象是來自一般正常家庭而有情緒困擾的孩童，以探知這些兒童是如何組織其社會刺激的基模；研究結果顯示這些情緒困擾的孩子，往往把人物圖卡分開或隔離(separate or isolate)的傾向，尤其是對女人與小孩之圖卡。然而研究無情緒困擾的孩子往往會將人物圖卡聚集一起，而形成一個親密性的群體單位。因為繪畫是一種心理語言，充滿個體的想像能力，因此透過美術的活動能表現出對事物的認知經驗及視覺經驗的整合呈現。人物畫與家庭是兒童畫裡最常出現的主題，從這自然的繪畫主題內容的表達，可發現兒童的繪畫中所使用的象徵符號以表達可能性的心理語言，兒童的繪畫已經不再是單純的技巧表達了。

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

三、家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing, K-F-D)理念理念家庭動力繪畫 Burns 與 Kaufman(1970,1972)使用 Kinetic–Family–Drawing (K-F-D)的方式指導兒童畫出家中每一成員的活動性內容，且藉著兒童在畫紙上所展現的人物之間的動態情形，來瞭解孩童在家庭中與成員心理互動的現象(范瓊方， 2006)。Burns 與 Kaufman 認為個體畫出家庭成員正在活動，或是做一些事情為內容的圖畫中，可以獲知此現象在心理病理學而言，兒童的家庭繪畫的人物安排中，有太多有效的、動力的內容可以試著去瞭解兒童。家庭動力繪畫(K-F-D) 是一種投射測驗工具，從作品中可以窺知個體的互動關係，與本身在家庭中的自我概念發展狀況。家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing, K-F-D)是指核心家庭(nuclear family)中的自我在人物繪畫中的核心自我(the nuclear self)表現(范瓊方， 2006)。K-F-D 反映著個體的內在自我(inner self)；而且是非常細緻的描寫兒童時期的自我，因此 K-F-D 的分析是著重在個體與家庭成員之間的動力現象，因

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為繪畫是個體內心投射作用。藉著觀察與晤談兒童所表現的家庭繪畫中，所展現的人物特徵、成員之間的互動關係、使用的象徵符號、在繪畫空間的布局、以及成員中被省略的人物等現象，來瞭解兒童在家庭的自我概念與家庭成員的心理互動關係(范瓊方，2006)。 Burns 與 Kaufman 認為在繪畫中的樣式(Style)、動作(Action)、關係 (Relationship)三者是形成所謂動力(Dynamic)的要素。而下列五個基本要素是在剖析繪畫的基本技巧(Feder,1986，引自范瓊方，2006，頁 14-15)： 1. 樣式(Style)—內容是不是區劃式(分離式)的形式表現呢？是否畫在紙邊？用力地畫出人物圖形嗎？ 2. 象徵符號(Symbols) — 是否與佛洛依德學派(Freudian)的象徵主義有關係嗎？ 3. 動作或活動(Action) —個體家中的成員在作什麼？其他人之間的動作可以確認嗎？ 4. 身體特徵(Physical characteracteric) —人物畫的手胳臂之伸展特徵如何？是舉起來還是放在身體的前面、或是後面、或是垂下的呢？身體是否那一部分被省略呢？擦拭的頻率如何？家庭中那一位成員被省略了呢？ 5. K-F-D 的格局(K-F-D grid) —家庭成員在圖畫中的位置如何？彼此之間的關係如何？與家庭成員彼此之間的距離如何？ Burns (1982)收集許多測驗的對象在家庭動力模型( Kinetic family matrix) 的自我畫像，探知個體在家庭中是如何地看他們/她們自己，以及與不在家庭中時是如何看他們/她們自己。Burn 指出「在自我肯定的成長過程中，父母人物畫是透過內在化父母所表現的情緒和價質。如果父母的情緒和價值是積極且正面的，如此，孩子可能發展一個健康且積極正面的自我形象 (self-image)」 (p. 6)。 Burns 與 Kaufma (1972)藉著分析原則來觀察兒童之家庭動力繪畫，但因整個 K-F-D 的測驗變項非常多，但 Burns 與 Kaufman 的目標是觀察兒童之家庭動力繪畫中所蘊涵的心理層面的意義，且可協助有興趣兒童繪畫者能夠欣賞兒童的繪畫時一如閱讀一本書。運用家庭繪畫作為兒童投射性的繪畫中，Appel (1931)與 Wolff (1942)首先建議觀察兒童的家庭繪畫能夠提供人格的洞察力。其後， Hulse （1951,1952）提出有關畫一個家的研究報告，他認為請兒童畫出他的家庭可以瞭解兒童對他的家庭關係及家庭地位的覺知，接著 Burns 及 Kaufman (1970,1972)認為除了靜態的描述家中人物，若增加動態的因素，更可以看出家庭的運作，以及兒童的潛意識的動機、需求及情感的表達。

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家庭關係是人際關係中基礎的關係，因此家庭對兒童的人際、生活適應及情緒成長有著密切影響。當考慮兒童如何表達他們的人際觀點時，以家庭為繪畫主題是個很合理的起始點（引自吳武烈，2004）；此外父母的婚姻關係、人格特質、工作性質、與子女之間的依附關係、以及兄弟姊妹的情感互動；甚至於大家庭中成員的教養態度，都會影響兒童家庭動力繪畫的表現和內容解析。

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

四、家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing, K-F-D)之相關研究之相關研究家庭動力繪畫（一）國內相關研究（一）國內相關研究有關家庭動力繪畫的研究著作或探討，如范瓊方(1996)運用 Burns 和 Kaufman (1972) 的理念為主軸在國內進行試探性的探討，其著作《藝術治療：家庭動力繪畫概論》一書，更帶動了國內不少人的相關研究，如范瓊方(1998) 之「家庭動力繪畫的實驗性分析研究—探討兒童對家庭動力繪畫的認知表達」，張梅菊(1997)的「國小兒童之家庭動力畫與其家庭關係之相關研究」。卓紋君和陳瑤惠(1999)以 154 位五至六歲兒童進行家庭動力畫，探究是否能反映出和父母的關係，與兒童的社會行為。吳慧玲(1999)的「國小兒童之家庭動力圖、風景構成圖與其生活適應關係之研究」；其研究是以台南市、嘉義縣的三所國小的四、五、六年級中抽取 714 名兒童進行探討生活適應狀況與其在家庭動力圖、風景構成圖表現情形之相關，再分析適應良好兒童與適應欠佳兒童在此二種圖畫表現特徵的差異。呂淑玲(2004)選出情緒困擾兒童與一般兒童共 12 名國小四年級學童為研究對象，在情緒困擾兒童的家庭動力畫表現與敘說之分析研究，發現若要正確判斷家庭氣氛需要客觀的圖形指標，而敘說可以讓圖形指標的意涵明朗化；不同類型兒童 K-F-D 中的不適應指標各不相同。黃雅慧(2005)以 14 位母親為新移民女性之一至四年級的學童，透過「家庭動力繪畫」與「動態房子樹人繪畫」，瞭解兒童自我概念，發現新移民女性家庭次文化與兒童繪畫中自我概念表現之關係來自於家庭成員情感互動情形、新移民女性於原生家庭之藝術教育經驗、新移民女性原母國之文化傳遞對兒童繪畫中自我概念表現的形式與內容產生影響。洪瑞兒和鄭文華（2006）以五位個案進行「房子—樹—人測驗」及「家庭動力圖」探討繼親家庭國中生子女與繼父母子間互動的關係，結果發現在親子互動表現關係不良，而對於外籍繼母接受程度極低；透過投射性繪畫最能反應出個案自我逃避及衛星脫離的意象。

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謝佳礽(2007)探究一位五歲幼兒所知覺的家庭互動關係。研究發現個案與義母關係良好；手足關係是「利社會的手足互動」；對家庭環境的知覺反應出不安全感。邱敏麗、黃創華、陳瑤惠(2008)以 16 位國小外籍配偶子女的家庭動力畫，根據人物行為、風格樣式、象徵符號、人物身體特徵、格局等五項指標加以評定。研究結果歸納外籍配偶的家庭動力畫表現和家庭關係的特點並分析顯示，外籍配偶子女的家庭動力畫和家庭關係顯現有家庭連結疏離、手足互動有限、缺少滋養與快樂的家庭意象。曾雅薇(2009)以個案研究 7 位隔代教養兒童，收集二十八幅 K-F-D 作品，發現人物畫中第一個出現的及人物間距離都與兒童的親疏有關；作品中的障礙物則是表達個性上的退縮及保護自己的情感表現；從主題及內容可以看見家庭之間的互動，透過家庭動力繪畫表達內心的不安全感及對家庭溫暖的渴望。（二）國外相關研究（二）國外相關研究 Koppitz (1968)認為孩子所描述的人物畫是表現當時的家庭成員的互動關係與發展狀況；也就是呈現孩子對於在他們生活中有特殊的意義和態度。因此孩子很容易、且直接的將他對於這個家庭所形成的互動關係描繪出來。 Johnston (1975)的研究指出兒童來自於圓滿的家庭與父母離異的家庭，在 Kinetic Family Drawing (K-F-D)的表現上有相當不同的現象。Heineman (1975) 亦證實一些有嚴重情緒困擾的孩子，在 K-F-D 的樣式(style) 中的區劃式表現。然而這些的研究只能說明孩子短暫期間對於家庭互動關係之心理現象；而不是一種永久性的心理狀況。同時，兒童的家庭動力繪畫會因為家庭成員的互動關係的改變而改變。 Rabinowitz (1991)的研究是有關兒童被接納—拒絕(acceptance-rejection) 與 K-F-D 之間的關係。他發現被同儕接納的兒童畫自己比被拒絕的兒童畫與別人較接近的距離，他發現性別上的差異之因為被同儕接受的女孩與被同儕接受的男孩進行比較之結果是同儕接受的女孩把她們自己畫得與別人較接。 Rabinowitz (1992)以五年級的 55 位男孩和 61 位女孩為對象，以探討父母親人物畫的高度與同儕接納或拒絕之間的關係。結果指出被接納的女孩所畫的家庭，比被接受的男孩組所畫的家庭有更為顯著的差異。受到同儕接納和拒絕的男孩之間，他們所畫的父母親人物畫之尺寸沒有顯著的差異。被接納的女孩所畫的母親，顯著地高於被拒絕的女孩。在父親的畫像方面則沒有發現顯著的差異。Rabinowitz (1992)結論認為當評量 K-F-D 之父母親人物畫大小尺寸時是可以留意到同儕接納／拒絕一個重要項目。

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Marijcke、Veltman 和 Browne (2001)發現，使用以喜愛的某一天(Favorite Kind of Day Drawings (FKD)及家庭動力繪畫(K-F-D)的技巧是不適合為教室篩選評量而以鑑定兒童遭遇虐待的一種評量工具。他們也指出 K-F-D 也許可以為臨床上使用，因為 K-F-D 是擁有許多大量以兒童為研究的實證。但是 FKD 並不被鼓勵使用，除非是有大量的研究足以證明兒童身體上遭遇虐待的解說。因此使用繪畫為投射方法需要非常的小心謹慎，特別是對於情緒問題兒童、甚至於是虐待的兒童之鑑定工具(Joiner, Schmidt & Barnett, 1996; Tomas & Gray, 1992; Thomas & Jolley, 1998)。 Anderson(2004)以探究家中老大及老二的家庭動力繪畫的比較，研究發現，在家庭裡孩子的年齡、性別及排行會影響在家庭的知覺及扮演角色，而且當老大老二是同性別時，他們的競爭會更普遍；另外，孩子在敘述他們的家庭時是不同於他們所畫出的家庭情形。

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

（三）跨文（三）跨文化之相關研究跨文化之相關研究近二十年來歐美各國發展不同的測量工具如使用家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing, K-F-D)工具可以適用於不同的文化，因而不同文化之間的家庭結構與社會互動是很具有時代性的議題。如比較不同文化背景之相關研究有 Nuttall, Chieh,和 Nuttall(1988)研究住在北京的美國小孩，結果指出 K-F-D 可以反應文化價值以及文化規範。Chuah (1992)在比較中國—美國家庭與高加索-美國家庭研究，結論說明文化的影響，同時也證實 K-F-D 可以說明不同文化結合的過程。 Cho (1987)將台灣 10 至 14 歲兒童的家庭動力繪畫發現，台灣兒童將母親畫得最大、父親次之，自己最小，而與父親的距離又是最遙遠的，可見通常和父親較疏遠，較親近母親，將「母親」視為家中的核心；而 Fukada (1990)針對日本國小一、三、五年級兒童的家庭動力繪畫中，發現日本兒童對於父親的描繪不僅花費較長時間作畫，其比例也遠大過母親，可見日本兒童認為父親的重要性遠超過母親。以亞洲地區的兩個國家來比較，由於文化的不同，可從 K-F-D 的呈現方式中看見兒童對於父母的觀感亦有所不同。 Chartouni(1992)的研究也說明，K-F-D 測驗是一種呈現不同家庭生活型態下文化差異的有用工具。Chartouni (1992)的研究也說明 K-F-D 測驗是一種呈現不同家庭生活型態下的文化差異有用工具。由此可見，文化與文化之間的家庭結構與社會互動的議題牽涉的範圍非常廣，針對文化方面的研究而言，K-F-D 廣泛被應用，它可利用繪畫來評估家庭的互動，算是一種可信賴的測驗工具 (范瓊方，2004) 。

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從上述國內外的研究文獻發現，第一、有關國內的家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing, K-F-D)之相關研究國內的文獻的研究偏重在個案或質的研究；而不是如國外的研究以量化統計為主。第二、國內的 K-F-D 研究並非完全針 Burns 和 Kaufman 原理原則是有配合其他畫圖方式進行；對於家庭動力繪畫的目的「了解個體之自我概念和人際互動關係的發展為主( Brook, 1996, p. 23)」較少著墨。第三、國內在跨文化之家庭動力繪畫相關量化研究較為欠缺， Church 和 Katigbak (1988)也認為將西方所發展出來的評量工具或研究方法應用於其他的文化上，往往不一定能正確地描述出新文化中的現象。所以對於不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫量化探討是值得驗證的。（四）Kinetic Family Drawing 信效度之研究（四）在 1970 年即有一群研究學者們執行評估 K-F-D 信度研究，如 Mcphee 和 Wegner (1976)研究 K-F-D 的交互評估信度。研究 102 位有情緒困擾的孩童與 162 位正常兒童在家庭動力繪畫中「樣式」上的表現，由五位接受 K-F-D 訓練員，來解說 K-F-D 的樣式。信度是從.65 到.10，因此其信度的平均值為 0.87。從這些分數是以表現為區隔、底部畫線和頂部畫線等繪畫樣式上。同時 Mcphee 和 Wegner (1976)也發現 K-F-D 並不是可以區別正常孩童與適應不良的孩童之有效工具。此外另一個有關交互評估信度的研究由 Cummings(1980)所完成，是由受過 K-F-D 評分訓練的各兩位男性及女性的施測者，參考 Mcphee 和 Wenger (1976)的方法，研究對象為有行為困擾、學習障礙和公立學校孩童的 K-F-D 進行計分工作，結果是高度的交互評估信度。但是五週後再施測，卻發現 K-F-D 再測驗之間的信度並不一致。實際上 K-F-D 並不能區別情緒困擾孩童與適應良好孩童之間的差別性(Brook, 1996)。也說明家庭動力繪畫僅在評估暫時的狀態，而非持久的人格特質。 Mostkoff 和 Lazarus (1983)自行發展一套客觀評分系統，由兩位獨立評分者針對 50 名(25 位男孩和 25 位女孩)需求接受閱讀或數學之學童的家庭動力繪畫進行評分，交互評分信度範圍從 0.86 到 1.00，平均信度是 0.97。再測驗信度方面有下列九個變項呈現顯著：自己的畫像、省略身體部分或人物、手臂延展、旋轉人物、提高人物、逃避、自我身體部分的省略、障礙物、畫在畫紙背面等。此種研究結果再度支持了 Cummings (1980)認為家庭動力繪畫可反映出繪畫當時的知覺、情感，所以最好的測驗工具是能在不同情境下施測，結果亦不受影響，因此在針對家庭動力繪畫做其客觀解釋時，需更加謹慎小心。

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雖然各學者因為計分方式及變項的不同，而並沒有較高的效度，但對於「評分者信度」中卻有極高的信度。而且綜合其結果，發現 K-F-D (Kinetic Family Drawing)無法區辨對於在情緒異常與適應良好的兒童的工具，但在家人互動情況或文化與性別上的差異是較易被發現的(Brook, 1996)。此外針對國內兒童的家庭動力繪畫(K-F-D)的信度和效度的建立是值得探討的，畢竟文化的差異性對於繪畫表現的內容形式會有所影響。

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

參、研究方法參、研究方法一、研究對象本研究對象是以台北市公立國民小學低年級的孩童以立意取樣為樣本，參與研究對象分為三組：一般家庭、單親家庭、新住民家庭共三組之不同家庭結構中兒童所繪畫的家庭動力繪畫，每組兒童 30 名，一共 90 名。單親家庭孩童以與離婚的父或母同住為對象；新住民孩童以不分國籍的外籍新娘家庭。母樣本 115，因其中 15 名兒童的繪畫是以筷子人或卡通人物表現而不予以考慮，所以有效樣本為 90 名，對於參與研究的兒童是否有上過美術才藝班的經驗不在此研究考慮範圍。二、研究步驟二、研究步驟 1. 2.

3. 4.

獲得孩童之父母的同意書。在參與研究的學童之學校，找一間空教室不受干擾的情境下，以一對一的方式進行家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing, Burns, 1982)活動，在執行上沒有時間限制，是一種個別化的評量，其主要的目的在於了解個體之自我概念和家庭成員互動關係的發展。研究材料提供參與者一張如 A4(12"x 8")的空白紙張，兩枝 No.2 的鉛筆和橡皮擦。。 K-F-D 指導語：「請你/妳畫出家中每個人最常做的事，包括你/妳自己，不要畫卡通或是筷子人。」如果當個案說「我不會或我不能」的時候，需不斷給予鼓勵，直到他/她獨自完成這幅畫。完成 K-F-D 之後，馬上詢問研究對象在圖畫中的人物是誰？他們在做些什麼活動？圖畫中的一些圖案代表是什麼等問題。問話過程不超過 5 分鐘為原則。

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三、資料處理本研究參考 Burns 和 Kaufman 家庭動力繪畫解說手冊，輔以 Knoff (1983) 《家庭和學校動力繪畫系統評分手冊》 (Kinetic Drawing System for Family and School Scoring Booklet) 並參酌 Burns (1982) 《自我成長的家庭》 (Self-growth in families)、Anderson(2004) 《第一出生序和第二出生序手足家庭動力繪畫的比較》(A Comparison of Kinetic Family Drawing of Firstborn and Secondborn Sibling)，再加上依據文化考量的差異，採用范睿榛 (2009) 「家庭動力繪畫實驗性評量表」為研究分析之依據，藉以提高評分上的客觀性。編擬的評分表項目：人物之間互動關係和動作、人物的間距和障礙物、圖畫樣式、人物的特徵、象徵符號的表現。 (一) 計分方式：依據以上五個向度之計分標準評定繪畫內容中是否有出現，繪畫中若有出現上述向度內容的項目則以 1 分計算，反之則以 0 分計。 (二) 統計分析方式 1、單因子多變量變異數分析(ANOVA) 2、以單因子多變量變異數分析參與研究的兒童之家庭動力繪畫內容與形式，其人物間互動和動作、人物的間距與障礙物、圖畫樣式、人物特徵、象徵符號出現狀況。

肆、研究結果分析肆、研究結果分析根據參與的孩童之基本資料、人物間互動和動作、人物的間距與障礙物、人物特徵、象徵符號各項結果分析如下：

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表 1 人物間互動和動作單因子變異數分析摘要表人物間互動和動作

家庭模式

F值

事後比較

自己與姊妹互動

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.10 0.20 0.00

0.305 0.407 0.000

3.480*

x2>x3

母親與畫者之手足互動

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3) 一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3) 一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.00 0.10 0.00 0.13 0.50 0.50 0.77 0.33 0.90

0.000 0.305 0.000 0.346 0.509 0.509 0.430 0.479 0.305

3.222*

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3) 一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.63 0.80 0.23 0.07 0.27 0.03

父親運動

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

自己在室內

自己不與其他人互動

6.334**

x2>x1 x3>x1

15.550***

x1>x2 x3>x2

0.490 0.407 0.430 0.254 0.450 0.183

12.920***

x3>x1 x2>x3

4.778*

x2>x3

0.20 0.03 0.00

0.407 0.183 0.000

5.197**

x1>x2 x1>x3

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.87 0.87 0.57

0.346 0.346 0.504

5.476**

x1>x3 x2>x3

姊或其他

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.07 0.23 0.03

0.254 0.430 0.183

3.654*

x2>x3

其他人在戶外(如爺爺、奶奶或阿姨、叔叔、表兄妹等)

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.00 0.07 0.30

0.000 0.254 0.466

7.931***

x3>x1 x3>x2

其他人其他

一般家庭(x1) 新住民家庭(x2) 單親家庭(x3)

0.20 0.50 0.17

0.407 0.509 0.17

5.342**

x2>x1 x2>x3

人物之間沒有任何互動

父親在室內

父親看電視

*p<.05

**p<.01

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

***p<.001

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根據表 1 三組不同結構家庭的兒童之家庭動力繪畫中的人物間互動和動作的項目中，其中變項顯著性小於.001 如人物之間沒有任何互動、父親室內、其他人物在戶外最為顯著。以 Scheffe 的事後比較法，人物動作中父親在室內一項以新住民家庭兒童最為顯著性且大於其他兩組，此外其他人物在戶外一項，以單親家庭兒童這組大於其他兩組。表 2 人物的間距、障礙物之交叉分析表人物的間距、障礙物

家庭模式一般家庭

x² 新住民家庭

單親家庭

總和

與自己最近的是

(顯著性) 17.742 (.023)

父親

母親

手足

其他

與自己最遠的是

17.895 (.022)

父親

母親

手足

其他

依據表 2 發現在人物的間距中在一般家庭中是父親與畫者自己最近，在新住民家庭中是手足與畫者自己最近，在單親家庭中是母親與畫者自己最近。在一般家庭、新住民家庭、單親家庭中都是母親與畫者自己最遠。表 3 人物特徵單因子變異數分析摘要表人物特徵

家庭模式

F值

其他人物以透明式

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

3.222*

新住民家庭(x2)

0.10

0.305

單親家庭(x3)

0.00

0.000

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

新住民家庭(x2)

0.00

0.000

單親家庭(x3)

0.10

0.305

省略母親的手

164

事後比較

3.222*

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省略父親

省略母親

省略自己

*p<.05

**p<.01

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

19.333

x3>x1

新住民家庭(x2)

0.00

0.000

***

x3>x2

單親家庭(x3)

0.40

0.498

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

4.462*

x3>x1

新住民家庭(x2)

0.00

0.000

單親家庭(x3)

0.13

0.346

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

新住民家庭(x2)

0.00

0.000

單親家庭(x3)

0.10

0.305

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

x3>x2

3.222*

***p<.001

根據表 3 在三組不同結構家庭的兒童之家庭動力繪畫中的人物特徵項目中，其中變項顯著性小於.001 如省略父親角色是最為顯著。以 Scheffe 的事後比較法，單親家庭兒童最為顯著性大於其他兩組。表 4 象徵符號表現之單因子變異數分析摘要表象徵符號表現

家庭模式

F值

靠近自己的太陽

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

30222*

新住民家庭(x2)

0.00

0.000

單親家庭(x3)

0.10

0.305

一般家庭(x1)

0.00

0.000

新住民家庭(x2)

0.20

0.407

單親家庭(x3)

0.03

0.183

一般家庭(x1)

0.20

0.407

新住民家庭(x2)

0.60

0.498

單親家庭(x3)

0.33

0.479

一般家庭(x1)

0.33

0.479

新住民家庭(x2)

0.10

0.305

單親家庭(x3)

0.13

0.346

遠離自己的太陽

電視

玩具

*p<.05

**p<.01

5.197**

事後比較

x2>x1 x2>x3

5.800**

x2>x1

3.239*

***p<.001

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根據表 4 在三組不同結構家庭的兒童之家庭動力繪畫中的象徵符號表現項目中，其中變項顯著性小於.01 以遠離自己的太陽和電視的呈現為顯著。以 Scheffe 的事後比較法，在使用“遠離自己的太陽”和“電視”之象徵符號表現是新住民家庭兒童的顯著性大於其他兩組。

伍、結果討論伍、結果討論一、在不同家庭結構兒童之家庭動力繪畫的「人物間互動和動作」這一變項中，其中「自己與姊妹互動」、「母親與畫者之手足互動」、「自己不與其他人互動」、「人物之間沒有任何互動」、「父室內」、「父看電視」、「父運動」、「自室內」、「姊其他」、「其戶外」、「其他人其他」等 11 個小項都在這三組呈現顯著的差異；說明了三組家庭在「人物間互動和動作」的表現是有所不同的。二、在不同家庭結構兒童之家庭動力繪畫的「人物的間距、障礙物」這一變有關障礙物的現象在三組兒童的繪畫中並未發現差異性。但從卡方檢定 (Chi-Square Test)中發現在人物的間距中，「與自己最近的人物是」、和「與自己最遠的人物是」、這兩項以交叉分析發現了，「與自己最近的人物是」在一般家庭的兒童是以父親最高，此現象有可能是因為家庭中父親平日上班忙碌而無暇與孩子相處，而形成的一種藉由繪畫來滿足內心期許。在新住民家庭的兒童是以手足最高，在單親家庭的兒童是以母親最高。「與自己最遠的人物是」、在三組中都是以母親為最高。在單親家庭的兒童家庭動力繪畫中「與自己最近的人物是」、和「與自己最遠的人物是」都是母親，因為 30 兒童其中有 22 位是與母親同住，以母親為主的單親家庭就占單親家庭有效樣本 73%。三、在不同家庭結構兒童之家庭動力繪畫的「圖畫的樣式」一變項中在三組兒童的繪畫中並未發現差異性。孩童對於指導語的認知可能有誤解，因為 K-F-D 指導語：「請你/妳畫出家中每個人最常做的事，包括你/妳自己，不要畫卡通或是筷子人。」孩童可能誤會是以在家生活情境為主，而不是著重在「家中每個人最常做的事」的不同現象，而導致圖畫的樣式沒有多大差異。四、在不同家庭結構兒童之家庭動力繪畫的「人物特徵」這一變項中，其中「其他人物以透明式」、「省略母親的手」、「省略父親」、「省略母親」、「省略自己」等 5 個小項都呈現這三組都有顯著的差異。其中有關單親家庭在

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「省略父親」、「省略母親」這兩部分都比其他兩組來得顯著，30 兒童其中有 22 位母親是監護人且同住有密切關係。五、在不同家庭結構兒童之家庭動力繪畫的「象徵符號表現」這一變項中，其中「靠近自己的太陽」、「遠離自己的太陽」、「電視」、「玩具」等 4 個變項都呈現這三組都有顯著的差異。在三組中以新住民家庭兒童使用「遠離自己的太陽」、「電視」、最多的象徵符號，可能與「人物間互動和動作」這一變項中「父室內」、「父看電視」有相當的關係。此現象也是孩童對指導語的認知有誤解，所以孩童會以在家生活情境為主，當然在家的生活最常進行的活動就是看電視之故。本研究屬於實驗性研究，因此在未來的研究需增加且普遍性的選擇研究對象，研究結果將是較客觀且有效的信效度，以提供為學校或輔導機構為介入家庭治療的參考資料。

不同家庭結構中兒童之家庭動力繪畫研究

陸、建議陸、建議一、基於家庭動力繪畫(Kinetic Family Drawing，K-F-D)是繪畫投射工具的一種參與兒童之不同文化的差異性之結果，更需慎用 K-F-D 之解說手冊的象徵符號之意義。二、在研究中較涉及個人隱私部分如單親家庭，在執行上需要注意較敏感的小孩。三、此研究的對象可以更明確的界定，一如單親家庭的類別：父或母離婚的單親家庭；或喪父或母的單親家庭，以及這些單親家庭不包括新住民的單親家庭。此外新住民家庭可以明確鎖定地域，如東南亞配偶、大陸配偶、或歐美國家配偶等，比較其間可能性的差異。四、本研究完全以量化兒童的家庭動力繪畫內容之統整分析，若需探討不同家庭結構之兒童的繪畫與其心理現象，是需要以其他客觀的投射測驗來佐證的。且需要收集所參與研究之兒童家庭的關係。

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Koppitz, R. M. (1968). Psychological Evaluation of Children’s Human Figure Drawing. New York: Gune and Stratton. Knoff, M. & Prout, T. (1985). The Kinetic Drawing System for Family and School. Log Angeles: Western Psychological Services. Kuthe, J. L. (1962). Social Schemas and the Reconstruction of Social Object Displays from Memory. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 64, 71-74. Kuthe, J. L. (1964). The Pervasive Influence of Social Schemas. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 68, 248-254. McPhee, J., & Wegner, K. (1976). Kinetic-Family-Drawing Styles and Emotionally Disturbed Childhood Behavior. Journal of Personality Assessment, 40, 487-491. Marijcke, W. M., Veltman, B. A., & Browne, K. D. (2001). Identifying Childhood Abuse through Favorite Kind of and Kinetic Family Drawing. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 28 (4), 251-259. Mostkoff, D. L. M. & Lazarus, P. J. (1983). The Kinetic Family Drawing: The Reliability of an Objective Scoring System. Psychology in the Schools, 20, (1), 16-20. Naglieri, J. A., McNeish, T. J., & Bardos, A. N.(1991). Draw a Person: Screening Procedure for Emotional Disturbance, Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Nuttall, E., Chieh, L., & Nutall, R. (1988). View of the Family by Chinese and U.S. Children: A Comparative Study of Kinetic Family Drawing. Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 191-194. O’Brien, R. P., & Patton, W. F. (1974). Development of an Objective Scoring Method for the Kinetic Family Drawing. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 156-164. Rabinowitz, A. (1991). The Relation of Acceptance-Rejection to Social Schemata and Kinetic Family Drawings. Social Behavior and Personality,19 (4), 263-272. Rabinowitz, A. (1992). Acceptance-Rejection and Height of Parental Figures on the Kinetic Family Drawings. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 329-330. Ricci, C. (1887). The Art of Children. Italy: Bologna.

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Tomas, G. V., & Gray, R. (1992). Children’s Drawings of Topics Differing in Emotional Significance: Effects on Placement Relative to a Self-drawing. Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 1097-1104. Tomas, G. V., & Jolley, r. P. (1998). Drawing Conclusions: A Re-examination of Empirical and Conceptual Bases for Psychological Evaluation of Children from Their Drawings. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37,127-139. WeinsteinL L. (1967). Social Experience and Social Schemata. Journal of Personality, 6 (4), 429-434. Wolff, W. (1942). Projective Methods for Personality Analysis of Expressive Behavior in Pre-school Children. Character and Personality, 10, 309-330.

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A Study on the Kinetic Family Drawings by Children with Different Family Structures

Ruei Jen Fan Assistant Professor National Taipei University of Education E-mail: dianafan@tea.ntue.edu.tw

Abstract Family is the source of the most important interpersonal relationships in the process of personal growth. Family life, therefore, is highly influential in the development of a child’s interpersonal relationships, life skills, and emotions. Through drawings, we are able to understand the interaction between a child and his/her family members, or his/her perceptions of the family. For a child, drawing serves as a bridge between the inner self and the outside world. It also reflects cognitive performance with respect to a child’s living environment. The subjects of this experiment-based study are three groups of students in the junior grades (Grade 1 and Grade 2) of elementary school, with different family structures including traditional families, single-parent families, and new immigrant families. In total, there are 90 children in the three groups, with 30 children in each group. We engage in an exploration of the Kinetic Family Drawings of these three groups of children, focusing on their different family structures. In terms of the variable of “Action of and Between Figures,” the group from new immigrant families exhibits a higher level of significance than the other two groups in the category of “father is outside of the room;” and the group from single-parent families has the highest level of significance among the three in the category of “other people outside of the house.” With respect to the variable of “Distance between Figures, Barriers,” no difference has been

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identified among the drawings of the three groups of children. There is also no difference with the variable of “Styles.” Concerning the variable of “Figure Characteristics,” the group from single-parent families displays a higher level of significance than the other two groups with both “omitting the father” and “omitting the mother figure.” With the variable of “Symbols,” the group from new immigrant families has the highest significance level among the three in using symbols such as “Far Away the Sun” or “TV.” This phenomenon is highly correlated to the “father figure is in the room” and “father figure watches the TV” categories under the variable of “Action of and Between Figures ” To improve the objectivity, reliability and validity of future studies, the researcher should increase the number and diversity of the research subjects, and the researcher hopes that research results can be offered to schools or counseling organizations as helpful reference materials for relevant family therapy intervention programs.

Key Words: Traditional Families, Single-Parent Families, New Immigrant Families, Kinetic Family Drawing

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Introduction The twenty-first century is an era of increasingly rapid change. Traditional family structures have broken down, and the extended family of the past has evolved into nuclear families and small families. These social changes have been accompanied by changes in ethics and attitudes, while the change in the family structure has seen an increase in the number of two-income households, a rising divorce rate, an increase in the number of children born to unmarried mothers, and a growing number of single-parent families; there has also been a steady increase in the number of “new immigrant” families (families where one partner, usually the wife, is non-Taiwanese, typically from China or Vietnam). The family is the most ancient and fundamental form of human social organization, and represents the basic constituent unit of the social structure. During the period between an individual’s birth and their coming of age as a mature adult, the formation of his or her character and their socialization is constantly being influenced by their family life. The experience of early family life has a major impact on children’s physical and emotional development, on their development of interpersonal relations skills, and on the development of their personality. With the rapid pace of social change and the transformation that has taken place in the family structure, the family is facing unprecedented challenges in terms of its functionality. The large, extended families of the agricultural society of the past have been transformed into small families, due to the impact of the rapid evolution of agricultural society into a new, industrial/commercial society. Within the family, the roles played by the parents, and their attitude towards the upbringing of their children, are closely linked to the overall family environment and to the physical and emotional growth of the family members. At the same time, the organizational structure of the family environment, and the atmosphere within which its members interact with one another, has a direct impact on children’s personality and on their ability to adapt to changing life circumstances as they grow older. There has for some years now been a significant amount of research done in Taiwan with respect to psychological analysis of children’s drawings C NTAEC 2012 InJAE10.1 ○

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and the use of art in psychological therapy. Many art educators, other educators and psychologists have sought to leverage children’s highly imaginative creative work to explore children’s feelings and emotions, their concept of the self, and their everyday interpersonal interactions and relationships. However, relatively little research has been carried out in Taiwan regarding the relationship between children’s drawings and the psychological aspect. A further point is that children’s drawings is often viewed as merely a form of extra-curricular activity or as the acquisition of a “skill.” Drawings can be used to learn more about children’s interaction with family members and their attitudes to their family. For a child, drawing constitutes a bridge connecting the child’s inner world with the outside world; it represents a psychological language of self-expression. Using this conceptual framework, children are able to transform the mental pictures that exist within their consciousness into a format that can be seen, known, and spoken about (Fan, 1996). In recent years, many researchers adopt the theory of Kinetic Family Drawing (Burns & Kaufman, 1972) who prefer to the quantitative study and case study, but few researcher focus on the study on the representation of K-F-D by children with different family structures. Therefore, this study applies the principles of K-F-D to investigate children with different family structures. The goals of this study are: First, to understand the representation of K-F-D by children with different family structures, the differences and similar of “Action of and Between Figures,” “Distance between Figures, Barriers,” “Style” “Figure Characteristics,” and “Symbols” in the K-F-D. Second, this is a pilot study further research on the K-F-D by a larger sample of children with different family structures. Third, Through the K-F-D to realize the child’s family interpersonal relationships, provides an meaningful information for school counseling.

Review of the Literature Changing Family Structure

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For many years, the most common family type in Taiwan was the nuclear family comprising parents and their unmarried children. Recently, however, the rapid pace of social change has brought about a transformation of the family structure. This in turn has led to changes in family functions, in the roles played by family members, and in the way family members interact with one another. The Tables Showing Changes in Family Structure in Taiwan R.O.C. compiled by Taiwan’s Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics (DGBAS), Executive Yuan, show that the share of all households held by nuclear families declined steadily from 59.1% in 1988 to 46.7% in 2004. The share held by the next most common family type – the extended family with three generations living under one roof – fell from 16.7% to 15.2% over the same period, while the shares held by small households consisting of parents with no children or single people living alone rose rapidly to 14.2% and 9.9%; the shares held by single-parent households and households where grandparents are living with their grandchildren (with the parents either dead or absent) also rose, to 7.7% and 1.2% respectively. As a result of the increase in the shares of all households held by single-person households, households containing parents with no children, single-parent households and households where grandparents are living with their grandchildren, the average household size in Taiwan fell from 4.1 persons in 1988 to 3.2 persons in 2004. The last few years have seen a steady increase in single-parent households as a percentage of all households in Taiwan. According to statistics compiled by DGBAS, the number of single-parent households in Taiwan rose from347,295 households in 2000 to 562,306 households in 2010. from 548,302 households in 2005 to 702,348 households in 2007. We can therefore assume that there has been a commensurate increase in the number of children and adolescents living in single-parent families. Another major characteristic of society today is the high prevalence of divorce. From a child’s point of view, the breakup of the parents’ marriage is a source of hurt and a very painful experience; this unpleasant experience can cause the child to feel insecure and unwanted, and can affect the development of the child’s personality and its ability to cope with life in the future.

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In the early 1980s, Filipino “mail-order brides” were already starting to appear in some rural communities in Taiwan that had experienced severe out-migration (making it difficult for local men to find Taiwanese wives). However, it was not until the 1990s that the government began to compile formal statistics regarding the number of Southeast Asian women marrying Taiwanese men. According to the marriage registration data presented in the 2006 edition of the Ministry of the Interior Statistical Yearbook, the shares of all marriages where one partner was from mainland China or another country had been rising steadily until 2003, by which point such marriages accounted for 31.86% of all new marriages. As of January 31, 2005, the share of all new marriages held by marriages to persons from mainland China or another country had fallen off dramatically, to 16.77%. However, this statistic hides the fact that there are still serious social problems relating to the home life and upbringing, schooling and social adaptation of the children born into these “new immigrant” families. With the trend towards a wider variety of family types, the dramatic increase in the number of new immigrant children over the past two decades has helped to mitigate the aging of the population in Taiwan caused by the trend towards smaller families. At the same time, however, the emergence of this large number of new immigrant children has created serious educational problems, and raises concerns about the future quality of Taiwan’s labor force (Weng and Hung, 2004). When new immigrant brides arrive in Taiwan, they are faced with problems relating to the language barrier and culture shock. Then, once they have children, there are a whole slew of new challenges with respect to lifestyle, attitude towards childrearing, and learning methods. There are long-standing problems relating to the home life, school life and adjustment to school of children from new immigrant families, as well as their ability to develop interpersonal relations skills and their social adaptation. New immigrant families have to cope with the preconceptions and prejudices that society holds about them, while at the same time often experiencing low incomes and long working hours. While there has been a considerable amount of research done on issues relating to Taiwan’s new immigrants, there are very few examples in the literature of studies that use the drawings created by children in new immigrant families, single-parent

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families and traditional families to examine children’s attitudes towards the family and the forms taken by interaction between family members. Given the way that the education a child receives in the home and the education it receives at school influence one another, and the fact that, for children, drawing is a kind of language, examination of children’s drawings constitutes a very “natural” way of studying children’s perception of the interaction between family members and their own concept of self within the family.

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Study of a child drawing and psychology A large number of art educators, other educators and psychologists have sought to leverage children’s imaginative creative work to explore children’s feelings and emotions, their concept of the self, and their everyday interpersonal interactions and relationships (Lu, 2000 and 2005; Fan, 1996, 2001 and 2004). The earliest in-depth study of the psychological significance of children’s drawings was undertaken by Corrado Ricci (1887). In the twentieth century, the study of children’s drawings was influenced by the Freudian school of psychoanalysis. For example, Freud (1938) used the concept of mental image to explore the subconscious meaning of patients’ dreams. Subsequently, Jung (1964, 1965) used the mandala concept to encourage patients to use drawing as a way of expressing their inner feelings. Both Freud and Jung stress on the theory of symbolization of unconsciousness; their views exerted a powerful influence on many art educators and psychologists with an interest in child psychological development, child psychoanalysis and children’s drawing; they began to explore the relationship between children’s drawing and individual psychology, which in turn led to the use of children’s drawings of people as a tool for psychoanalysis and psychological testing. Following the rise of experimental psychology towards the end of the th 19 century, in the early years of the twentieth century some psychologists, art educators and other educators in Europe and North America began to explore the relationship between children’s psychological development, child psychoanalysis and children’s drawings, as a result of which children’s drawings gradually came to be used as a tool for projective testing. Examples of this trend include Burns and Kaufman’s (1972) research of

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Kinetic-Family Drawing (K-F-D), Burns (1987) Kinetic House-Tree-Person, Knoff and Prout (1985) study of Kinetic School Drawings, Buck (1948) House-Tree-Person-Test, and Naglieri, McNeish and Bards (1991) Draw-A-Person Test. DiLeo (1973) has discussed children’s art with emphasis on development and deviant characteristics and the use of drawings as an aid in diagnostic tool. In addition, Koppitz (1968) has focused on a systematic evaluation of multiple aspects of human figure drawings of children age five to twelve. It was only really in the late twentieth century that importance came to be attached to the wealth of meaning that children’s drawings embody. Children’s drawings began to be seen by some psychologists as providing clues for the understanding of child psychology; these psychologists began to explore the similarities in style and orientation that could be observed in drawings produced by children in each age group, and what could be learned from these regarding how children’s drawing develops, and the psychological processes involved. Children’s drawings was no longer viewed in terms of simple visual perception; it was recognized as embodying a complex array of psychological meaning. Bender (1937) and Despert (1938) have pioneered in the psychological interpretation of the art of emotional problem children. Anatasi and Foley (1940) made an early enthusiastic survey of the literature concerning artistic behavior in the abnormal and of spontaneous drawings by children in different cultures. Kuthe (1962, 1964) had published three articles on social schema that he explored the way people organize social stimuli. He used a felt-covered board upon which subjects were asked to place the “cut-outs” picture of men, women, children, animals, and objects. Kuthe concluded: “When people are allowed to place of objects cut from felt on a field, their responses are organized. There is a very strong social schema –people belong together. Human figures were grouped together to greater degree than were non human figures.” (from Burns, 1982, p.64) Weinstein (1976), using Kuthe’s Felt-Figure Technique, designed a study to test her hypothesis that emotionally disturbed children different from normal children in the manner in which they organized social stimuli. Her results in indicated the emotionally disturbed children departed from the

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typical schemata in they tended to separate or isolate human figures (especially woman/child) in the experiment. The normal children would usually group the figures together, forming a close unit. The theory of Kinetic Family Drawing (K-F-D)

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Burns and Kaufman (1970, 1972) used the Kinetic Family Drawing (K-F-D) method to guide children in depicting every member of their family engaged in some form of activity. By examining the dynamic relationship between the people depicted in the children’s -drawings, they were able to develop an understanding of the psychological interaction between children and other members of the family within the home (Fan, 2006). Burns and Kaufman felt that by getting children to portray individual family members engaged in various activities, from a psychopathological viewpoint, it would be possible to obtain a large quantity of valid content that could help to give a better understanding of the children. The K-F-D method constitutes a type of reflective testing tool; the children’s works can be used to gain insight into the interaction between individual family members, and into the development of the child’s sense of self within the family. The K-F-D self represents an expression of the self as formed in family life, i.e., the nuclear self (Fan, 2006). The K-F-D method reflects the individuals’ inner self; it constitutes an extremely detailed representation of the childhood self. Analysis of K-F-D drawings focuses on the portrayal of interaction between the individual child and other family members, taking the drawing as a reflection of the inner self. By observing, and interviewing the children about, the characteristics of the human figures portrayed in their drawings, the interaction between family members, the symbols used, the spatial layout of the pictures, and the omission of particular members of the family from the drawings, the K-F-D drawings can be used to gain a better understanding of the child’s sense of self within the family and of the psychological interaction between family members (Fan, 2006). In sense, the Kinetic-Family-Drawing (K-F-D) provides a tool for measuring family dynamic, including the development of the self within various family matrices. K-F-Ds have a special language telling us a great deal about family interactions, if we speak the language. Most of us are

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visually illiterate, however, and miss the valuable, rich, documented sources of personal and interpersonal information that are caught and fixed in K-F-Ds.) (the K-F-D how he perceives himself in his family setting. Burns and Kaufman believed that kinetic elements as style, actions, relationships. There is five basic elements as following ; it is essentially a guide for analyzing a drawing; (Feder, 1986 p. 73，Fan, 2006，14-15)： (1) Style. Does the subject compartmentalize? Edge the drawings? Underline individual figures? (2) Symbols. What traditional Freudian symbolism is present? (3) Action. What are individual family members doing? What actions can be identified between family members? (4) Physical characteristics. For each individual, what characteristics are apparent in terms of art extensions? Elevation? Which figures are in front, in back, hanging? For which members have body parts been omitted? What erasures are apparent? Which family members have been omitted entirely? (5) K-F-D grid. How are family members placed? What is their relative height? What are the distances between family members? Burns (1982) collected a large number of self-portraits by test subjects produced within the Kinetic family matrix, to explore how individuals viewed themselves within the family group, and how they viewed themselves when outside the family group. Burns (1982) points that “the self grows by the internalizing the feelings and values of the parental figures”. If the parental feeling and values internalized are positive and growth-producing, thus the child may develop a healthy, positive self image. Contrarily, if the parental feelings and values are negative and destructive, the child may develop an unhealthy negative self-image (p. 99)”. Burns & Kaufman (1972) used the principles of psychoanalysis to examine children’s kinetic drawings of family members. While recognizing the large number of test variables applicable to the K-F-D method, the objective of this research by Burns & Kaufman was to study the psychological significance of children’s kinetic drawings of their family members, a method which they felt could help those interested in children’s drawings to “read” them like a book.

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With regard to the treatment of family drawings as children’s projective drawings, Appel (1931) and Wolff (1942) were the first to suggest that examining children’s drawings of family members could enhance observational ability with respect to children’s personality. Subsequently, Hulse (1951, 1952) produced studies on family drawings, proposing that getting children to draw members of their family could help to clarify children’s perception of family relationships and of their place within the family. The earliest reports found in the literature on family drawings are those by Hulse who described a Draw-A Family Test. Later, Burns and Kaufman described a method of simple asking children to draw the members of their families including themselves doing something. It was found that the addition of action to the drawings produced more meaningful and revealing data to the self within the family matrix. Burns and Kaufman (1970, 1972) suggested that the addition of a more dynamic element to passive description of family members could help to show how a family operates, while also facilitating the expression of children’s latent motivations, needs and emotions. Family relationships are among the most fundamental of human relationships; the family thus has a major impact on children’s development of interpersonal relations skills, socialization and emotional growth. When considering how children can express their attitudes towards interpersonal relations, taking the family as a theme for drawing represents a reasonable starting point (Wu, 2004). Other factors that may influence the expression and content of children’s K-F-D drawings include their parents’ marital relations, personalities, work, and relationship with their children, the child’s emotional interaction with his or her brothers and sisters, and in some cases the upbringing and attitudes of other members of the child’s extended family.

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Overview of related literatures of Kinetic Family Drawing (K-F-D) Domestic research Studies undertaken in Taiwan with regard to Kinetic Family Drawing (K-F-D) include a 1996 publication by Fan Chiung- Fang which applies the theories of Burns and Kaufman (1972) to Taiwan in an exploratory study. Fan’s book Art Therapy: the Introduction of Kinetic Family Drawing – which

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was followed in 1998 by a further work by Fan, Experimental Analysis of Kinetic Family Drawing: Exploring Cognitive Expression in their K-F-D Drawings – encouraged a large number of other researchers in Taiwan to undertake work in this field. Examples include Elementary School Children’s Kinetic Family Drawings and their Family Relationships by Chang Mei-chu (1997), and a study by Chuo Wen-chun and Ch’en Yao-hui (1999) which used K-F-D drawings produced by a group of 154 five- and six-year old children to explore whether or not these drawings reflected the children’s relationship with their parents and the children’s social behavior. The 1999 study by Wu Hui-ling of The Relationship between Elementary School Children’s Kinetic Family Drawings, Landscape Drawings and Life Adaptation, which used a sample of 714 fourth-, fifth- and sixth-grade students in three elementary schools in Tainan City and Chiayi County to explore the relationship between the students’ life adaptation and their K-F-D and landscape drawings, before going on to analyze the disparities between the drawings products by children who demonstrated successful adaptation and those who did not. Lu Shu-Ling (2004) selected a group of 12 fourth-grade elementary school students with behavioral problems as her research subjects. Lu’s analysis of the children’s K-F-D drawings and narrative descriptions showed that objective graphical indicators are needed in order to correctly evaluate the atmosphere in a given household, and that narrative descriptions can help to clarify the significance of graphical indicators. She also found that different non-adaption indicators are needed for different categories of K-F-D drawings. Huang Ya-hui (2005) studied a group of 14 first- to fourth-grade elementary school students whose mothers were all new immigrants, using K-F-D drawings and kinetic house-tree-person drawings (K-H-T-P drawings) to try to understand the children’s sense of self. Huang found that the relationship between the new immigrant women’s family subculture and the children’s expression of self in their drawings derived from the emotional interaction between family members, the extent to which the new immigrant women had been exposed to art education as children, and the way in which the children’s expression of self in their drawingss, and the content of these

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drawings, was influenced by the new immigrant mothers transmission of her own culture to the children. Hung Jui-er and Cheng Wen-hua (2006) employed the House-Tree-Person Test and K-F-D drawings to explore five case studies of the interaction between junior-high school students and their step-parents. The results obtained in this study showed that the relationship between the children and their step-parents was generally unsatisfactory, with the children displaying a low-level of acceptance towards their foreign step-mothers; projected drawings were shown to be most effective at reflecting the children’s concepts of avoidance and satellite deviation Hsieh Chia-jeng (2007) explored the family interaction relationships perceived by a five-year-old child. The child was found to have a good relationship with the step-mother; the relationship with half-siblings was found to constitute “socially-beneficial sibling interaction”. However, the child’s perceptual reaction to its family environment displayed feelings of insecurity. Ch’iu Min-li, Huang Ch’uang-hua and Ch’en Yao-hui (2008) examined K-F-D drawings produced by 16 elementary-school-age children of foreign spouses, using five indicators – behavior of human figures, style, symbols, physical characteristics of human figures, and composition – to evaluate the drawings. Their research results, based on the analysis of the K-F-D drawings and the special characteristics of the family relationships, showed that the children experienced a sense of alienation from their families, and limited interaction with half-siblings. There was little indication that the children experienced the home as a happy, enriching environment. Tseng Ya-wei (2009) presented case studies of seven children who were being brought up by their grandparents, in which she collected a total of 28 K-F-D drawings. Tseng found a connection between the first person to appear in each child’s drawings and the distance between human figures, on the one hand, and the degree of closeness or distance in the child’s relationships with family members. The obstacles represented in the drawings were considered to represent the child’s expression of feelings of withdrawal or a need to protect oneself. The themes chosen and the content of the drawings were found to shed light on the interaction within the family;

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through the K-F-D drawings, the children were able to express their feelings of insecurity and desire for family warmth. Overseas Research Koppitz (1968) suggested that children’s drawings of human figures portrayed the interaction between family members and how this interaction developed over time; the drawings reflected those aspects of children’s lives that had particular meaning for them, and their attitudes to these aspects. Johnston (1975) demonstrated K-F-D differences in children from intact versus divorced family. Heineman (1975) demonstrated that the validity of a K-F-D style, especially the style of compartmentalization, in the K-F-Ds of siblings of severely emotionally disturbed children. However, these studies only really relate to short-term psychological phenomena relating to children’s interaction with family members, not to permanent psychological states. Children’s K-F-D drawings can also be expected to change as the composition of the family changes. Rabinowitz (1991) studied the relationship of acceptance-rejection and K-F-Ds. He also found sex differences in that peer accepted girls drew themselves closer to others as compared to boys’ drawings. Rabinwitz (1992) also examined the height of parental figures in relation to peer acceptance or rejection with 55 boys and 61 girls in the fifth grade. He pointed out that the family has greater significance for acceptance girls drew taller parental figures than boys’ drawings. It was no significance differences between peer accepted and rejected boys with respect o the size of parental figures. In sense, accepted girls drew significantly taller mothers than rejected girls did; otherwise, it was no differences with father figures. Rabinwitz (1992) concluded that it was important to note peer acceptance/ rejection when evaluating the size of parental figures in the K-F-D. Marijcke, and Veltman, and Browne (2001) found that using Favorite Kind of Day Drawings (FKD) and K-F-D drawing techniques are not suitable as classroom screening tools for the identification of the children suffering maltreatment. In addition, they pointed out that the K-F-D Inventory may be applied for some clinical use; and it is guaranteed with a lot of children. However, the use of the FKD is discouraged, until many larger researches

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results find the reasons to support the claim that identify physically maltreated children. Using the projective drawing techniques must be very cautious, especially for an identification tool for the child who is emotional problem, even child abuse (Joiner, Schmidt & Barnett, 1996; Tomas & Gray, 1992; Thomas & Jolley, 1998). Anderson (2004) stressed that a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s age, gender, and birth-order position in the family have an effect on the perception or the family and how it is portrayed in the K-F-D. Sibling rivalry appears to be more prevalent when the first- and second-born children are of the same gender. Usually, what children say about their family is different from how they draw their family.

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Relevant Cross-cultural Research Over the past two decades or so, a variety of measurement tools have been developed in Europe and North America that facilitate the application of K-F-D drawings to different cultures; as a result, cross-cultural comparison of family structure and social interaction has been attracting a great deal of interest. Examples of cross-cultural research of this type include the study by Nuttall, Chieh and Nuttall (1988), which took American children living in Beijing as the study subjects; the results obtained in this study showed that K-F-D drawings could be used to reflect differences in cultural values and cultural rules. Chuah (1992) compared Chinese-American households with white American households, confirming the importance of culture, and also confirming that K-F-D drawings could reflect the process of integration of different cultures. Cho (1987) examined K-F-D drawings produced by Taiwanese children aged 10 to 14, and found that the children depicted their mothers as the largest figures in the picture, with the father being the second largest figure and themselves being the smallest; the furthest distance between figures was that between the father and the child. These results suggest that Taiwanese children normally feel much closer to their mothers than to their fathers, and that they view the mother as being the core element in the household. Fukada (1990) studied the K-F-D drawings of Japanese elementary school children in the first, second and fifth grades. The results

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obtained in this study showed that Japanese children expanded considerably more time on drawing the father, and that the father was also depicted as being much bigger than the mother, suggesting that Japanese children their father as having much greater importance than the mother. Examination of studies undertaken in these two different countries within the Asia region demonstrates that cultural differences between countries are reflected in K-F-D drawings, which shows the differing ways the children in different countries view their parents. Chartouni (1992) showed that K-F-D testing can be an effective tool for examining cultural differences between families with differing lifestyles. The range of issues relating to family structure and social interaction within different cultures is an extremely broad one. K-F-D drawings have been widely used in research in the cultural field; the drawings can be employed to evaluate interaction within the family, and are considered to constitute a reliable testing tool (Fan, 2004). There are a number of points that can be made regarding this review of the domestic and overseas literature in this field. Firstly, a high percentage of the studies that have been undertaken in Taiwan in relation to K-F-D drawings have been either case studies or qualitative research, by comparison with the situation in other countries where extensive use is made of quantitative, statistical methods. Secondly, research on K-F-D drawings in Taiwan has often not conformed to the principles of Burns and Kaufman, who emphasize the importance of using K-F-D drawings in combination with other graphical methods; there has also been relatively little research done in Taiwan with respect to the objective advocated in Brook (1996) of using K-F-D drawings to gain a better understanding of the individual’s concept of self and the development of the individual’s interpersonal relations. Thirdly, there has been a pronounced lack of quantitative cross-cultural K-F-D drawing research in Taiwan. Church and Katigbak (1988) suggested that the application of evaluation tools and research methods developed in the West to other cultures may not be able to present an accurate depiction of phenomena existing in those cultures. There would thus appear to be a clear need for verification of the effectiveness of using K-F-D drawings for

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quantitative exploration of the impact of different family structures on children living in those families. The validity and reliability researches of Kinetic Family Drawing

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Many scholars have investigated the interrater reliability of K-F-D since 1970. As Mcphee, Wegner (1976) study interratter reliability of the K-F-D. There is 102 emotionally disturbed and 162 normal children as subjects, to study the K-F-D style representation. Five judges were trained to score K-F-Ds. Reliability scores ranged from .65 to 1.00 with a median reliability of .87. These cores were in response to compartmentalization lining at the bottom, and lining at the top drawing style. Mcphee and egner (1976) found that the K-F-D was not a valid instrument to distinguish between normal children and poorly adjusted children. Another study that investigated interrater reliability was completed by Coummings (1980). Two male and two female examiners were trained to score K-F-Ds using three objective scoring methods, one of which was used by Mcphee and Wegner (1976). Behavior, disordered, learning disabled, and public school. High inerscorer reliabilities resulted. Five week later, they retest the children but found that test-retest reliability of the KDFs were inconsistent. Eventually, the K-F-D could not distinguish between emotionally disburbed children nd well adjusted children. Therefore, K-F-D is not a permanent measure of personality traits or characteristic; it is only a temporary measurement (Brook, 1996). Realizing the lack of an objecting scoring system in the K-F-D manual, Mostkoff and Lazarus (1983) developed their own system. Fifty elementary school children (25 boys and 25 girls), selected to receive services in reading and math, participated in the study. Using two raters, interrater reliability ranged from .86 to 1.00, with an average reliability of .97. The following revealed significant test- retest reliability: self in picture, omission of body parts (self and others), arm extensions, rotated figures, elevated figures, evasions, barriers, and drawings on the back of the page. The study shows that it is possible for an objective scoring system to be developed with high interjudge reliabilityâ&#x20AC;? Mostkoff and Lazarus(1983, p.20). In agreement with Cummings (1980), the authors asserted that the K-F-D was sensitive to a

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child mood change. Using the K-F-D may be sensitive to transition in children’s personality and emotion states; it may be different interpretation of the K-F-D. It is necessary to apply the K-F-D with careful and objective explanation. Although there were many scholars have developed different scoring systems and variables for the KDF. With training, interrater reliability has been established. However, test-retest reliability evidence was weak. The K-F-D cannot distinguish between emotionally disturbed children and well adjusted children. In addition, cultural differences and sex differences were found for the K-F-D (Brook, 1996). It is necessary to consider that the reliability and validity for the K-F-D have to be established in Taiwan, eventually, the cultural differences effects the presentation of the K-F-D drawing.

Research Methodology Research Subjects The subjects of this experiment-based study are three groups of students in the junior grades (Grade 1 and Grade 2) of elementary school, with different family structures including traditional families, single-parent families, and new immigrant families. In total, there are 90 children in the three groups, with 30 children in each group. In the single-parent families, the children were mostly living with a divorced father or mother, while in the new immigrant families the mothers were women of various nationalities who had married Taiwanese citizens. The original population comprised 115 children, but the 15 children who produced drawings of stick figures or cartoon characters were excluded from the sample, leaving an effective sample size of 90. The question of whether individual children had taken art classes was not taken into account. Procedure (1) To accept children parents’ consent (2) To find a quiet room for the child in school. The drawings are obtained individually. No time limit is given. The drawings are obtained individually.

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The purpose is to understand child development: self concept and interpersonal relationships. (3) Materials: A sheet of plain white 8 1/2 inch paper is placed on the table directly in front of the participated child. Two No.2 pencils and one eraser will be offered. (4) The instructions as follows: ”He/she is asked to Draw a picture of everyone in your family, including you, DOING something. Try to draw A whole people, not cartoons, or stick people, Remember, make everyone DOING something –some kind of action (Burns, &Kaufman, 1972, p.5).” If the child says, “ I can’t “ he is encouraged periodically and left in the room until completes the K-F-D. (5) When the child completed the K-F-D, immediately, he/she will be asked “Who is the figure in the drawing?” “What is this person doing?” “What is the meaning for the symbols or content?” The inquiry process will take no more than 5 minutes.

A Study on the Kinetic Family Drawings by Children with Different Family Structures

Data analysis This study refers to an interpretative manual of K-F-D (Burns & Kaufman, 1972); as well to apply Knoff’s (1983) study “Kinetic Drawing System for Family and School Scoring Booklet”,” in addition, Burns(1982)”Self-growth in families” and Anderson’s (2004) “A Comparison of Kinetic Family Drawing of Firstborn and Secondborn Sibling” are important references. Considering to the cultural differences, this study adopts Fan’s (2009) pilot study of Kinetic Family Drawing for the basis of data analysis to have more objective scores. The score items for the K-F-D are: Action of and between Figures; Distance between Figures, Barriers; Styles; Figure Characteristics; Symbols. (1) Scoring: The standard score bases on above 5 score items whether represent on the child’s K-F-D or not. For the drawing a 0(not appear) or 1(appear) was be assigned, yielding a score for each child’s drawing that range 0 or 1, indicating the ability to represent one of 5 items in drawing, indicating the ability to represent on each content of 5 score items. (2) The way of data analysis 1. To apply one-way ANOVA.

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2. Applying one-way ANOVA investigates the contents of all participated children’s, as “Action of and Between Figures”, “Distance between Figures, Barriers”, “Styles”, “Figure Characteristics”、“Symbols”.

Results Refer to the participated children’s basic information, as well as the presentation of drawing of “Action of and Between Figures, Distance between Figures, Barriers, Figure Characteristics, Symbols”. The results of each item as follow: Table 1. The analysis of “Action of and Between Figures” Action of and Between Figures Variables The action between self figure and sister(s) figure(s)

The action between mother and self figure’s siblings

Self figure no action to others figure

No any action among figures

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Models of family

post hoc comparison

Traditional families(x1)

0.10

0.305

3.480*

x2>x3

New immigrant families(x2)

0.20

0.407

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.00

0.000

0.00

0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.10

0.305

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.00

0.000

0.13

0.346

New immigrant families(x2)

0.50

0.509

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.50

0.509

0.77

0.430

New immigrant families(x2)

0.33

0.479

Single-parent families(x3)

0.90

0.305

3.222*

6.334**

x2>x1 x3>x1

15.550 ***

x1>x2 x3>x2

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Father figure in inside room

Father figure engaged in watching TV

Father figure engaged in sporting

Self figure in inside room

Sister(s) figure or other figures

Other figures in Outside room (such as grandparents uncles or aunts)

Other figuresâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; action

*p<.05

Traditional families(x1)

0.63

0.490

New immigrant families(x2)

0.80

0.407

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.23

0.430

0.07

0.254

New immigrant families(x2)

0.27

0.450

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.03

0.183

0.20

0.407

New immigrant families(x2)

0.03

0.183

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.00

0.000

0.87

0.346

New immigrant families(x2)

0.87

0.346

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.57

0.504

0.07

0.254

New immigrant families(x2)

0.23

0.430

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.03

0.183

0.00

0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.07

0.254

0.30 0.20

0.466 0.407

New immigrant families(x2)

0.50

0.509

Single-parent families(x3)

0.17

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

12.920 ***

x3>x1 x2>x3

4.778*

x2>x3

5.197**

x1>x2 x1>x3

5.476**

x1>x3 x2>x3

3.654*

x2>x3

7.931** *

x3>x1 x3>x2

5.342**

x2>x1 x2>x3

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**p<.01 ***p<.001

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As can be seen from table1 three groups children with different family structures, their K-F-D of the item of “Action of and Between Figures,” the variables of “No any action among figures,” “Father figure in inside room,” “Other figures in outside room” had more significant. Using Scheffe post hoc comparison, it found that more significant in children of new immigrant families represented the variable of “Father figure in inside room “the action of father figure” than other two groups. Table2 The table of cross analysis of “Distance between Figures, Barriers” Distance Between Figures, Barriers Variables close to self figure Father mother sibling others far away from self figure Father mother sibling others

Models of family Traditional families(x1)

New immigrant families(x2)

Single-parent families(x3)

Total

x²

17.742 (.023) 13 10 5 1

9 5 12 4

4 10 7 5

26 25 24 10 17.895 (.022)

10 11 5 4

8 11 3 8

6 13 1 4

24 35 9 16

It can be seen that of the item of “Distance between Figures,” it could be found that children in traditional families drew self figure closed to father figure; children in new immigrant families drew self closed to sibling, children in single-parent families drew self closed to mother figure. In addition, mother figure is drawn far away from self figure among three groups.

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Table 3 The analysis of “Figure Characteristics” Figure Characteristics Variables Transparencies (visible internal organs)

Omission of mother figure’s hand(s)

Omission of father figure

Omission of mother figure

Omission of self figure

Models of family

Traditional families(x1)

0.00

0.000

3.222*

New immigrant families(x2)

0.10

0.305

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.00

0.000

0.00

0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.00

0.000

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.10

0.305

0.00

0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.00

0.000

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.40 0.00

0.498 0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.00

0.000

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.13

0.346

0.00

0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.00

0.000

Single-parent families(x3)

0.10

0.305

Post hoc comparison

A Study on the Kinetic Family Drawings by Children with Different Family Structures

3.222*

19.333* **

x3>x1 x3>x2

4.462*

x3>x1 x3>x2

3.222*

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001 As can be seen table 3 the three groups three groups children with different family structures, their K-F-D of the item of “Figure Characteristics,” the variables of “Omission of father figure”; had more significant. Using

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Scheffe post hoc comparison, the Single-parent families had more significant than other two groups. Table 4 The analysis of “ Symbols” Symbols Variables

Models of family

Self figure leaning toward the sun

Self figure drew far away from the sun

Television

Toyes

Traditional families(x1)

0.00

0.000

30222*

New immigrant families(x2)

0.00

0.000

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.10

0.305

0.00

0.000

New immigrant families(x2)

0.20

0.407

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.03

0.183

0.20

0.407

New immigrant families(x2)

0.60

0.498

Single-parent families(x3) Traditional families(x1)

0.33

0.479

0.33

0.479

New immigrant families(x2)

0.10

0.305

Single-parent families(x3)

0.13

0.346

Post hoc comparison

5.197**

x2>x1 x2>x3

5.800**

x2>x1

3.239*

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001 As can be seen table 3 the three groups three groups children with different family structures, their K-F-D of the item of “Symbols.” The variables of “Self figure far away from the sun” and “Television” had a significant. Using Scheffe post hoc comparison, the variables of “Self figure far away from the sun” and “Television” of new immigrant families had more significant than other two groups.

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Conclusion and Discussion A. The item of “Action of and Between Figures “ of Kinetic Family Drawings by children with different family structures, the 11 variables as following” “The action between self figure and sister(s) figure(s),” “The action between mother and self figure’s siblings,” “Self figure no action to others,” “No any action among figures,” “Father figure in inside room,” “Father figure engaged in watching TV,” “Father figure engaged in sporting,” “Self figure in inside room,” “Sister(s) figure or other figures,” “Other figures in outside room (such as grand-parents uncles or aunts),” “Other figures’ action,” were significantly different. According to the analysis of table 1, it demonstrated that the “Action of and Between Figures” for the three groups' had different representation. B. No significant disparities were observed between the drawings produced by children from the three different types of family background with respect to the appearance of “Barriers” under Distance between Figures and Barriers. However, when the Chi-Square Test was used to examine the distance between figures, cross-tabulation analysis with respect to “Figure closest to self” and “Figure farthest from self” revealed that, for traditional families, the “Figure closest to self” was most likely to be the father; this may reflect the fact that in most families the father is usually busy with work and is rarely at home during the week, so that the child is using the drawing to express their wish to have the father spend more time with them. In the case of new immigrant families, the “Figure closest to self” was most likely to be a sibling, while in single-parent families it was most likely to be the mother. For all three groups, the “Figure farthest from self” was most likely to be the mother. In single-parent families, the mother was most likely to be the “Figure closest from self,” but she was also likely to be the “Figure farthest from self.” Of the effective sample of 30 children living in single-parent families, 22 children (73%) were living with their mothers most of the time. C. As regards the Styles used in the K-F-D drawings of children in different types of family, no significant disparity was seen between the three groups. The children may have been confused about the instructions given, which

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told them to draw every member of the family (including the child) doing the activities that they are most commonly engaged in, and to avoid drawing cartoon characters or stick figures. The children may have thought that they were expected to draw a typical family scene, rather than showing each member of the family doing what they do most often. As a result, there was no significant difference between the styles used. D. With regard to Figure Characteristics, there were significant disparities between the three groups with respect to “Transparencies,” “Omission of mother figure’s hands,” “Omission of father figure”, “Omission of mother figure,” and “Omission of self figure.” Children from single-parent families were significantly more likely than children in other groups to omit the father figure or omit the mother figure (of the 30 children, 22 were living with the mother). E. Regarding Symbols, significant disparities were observed between the three groups with respect to “Self figure leaning toward the sun”, “Self figure drawing away from the sun,” “Television” and “Toys.” For children in new immigrant families, “Self figure drawing away from the sun” and “Television” were the most commonly used symbols; there may be a relationship here with the prevalence for this group of “Father figure inside the room” and “Father figure watching TV” under Action of and Between Figures. These results may also reflect children’s confusion about the instructions; many of the children assumed that they were supposed to draw a typical scene in the home, and the most common activity within the home for most families is watching TV. The present study took the form of experimental research. Future research in this area by the present author will use a larger number of research subjects, drawn from a wider range of backgrounds, with the aim of making the research results more objective and more reliable, so that they can serve as a useful reference for the provision of therapeutic assistance to families by schools or other institutions.

Suggestions A. Given that Kinetic Family Drawings (K-F-D) constitute a form of projective tool, when examining the results obtained for children from different

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cultural backgrounds, caution must be exercised with respect to the meaning of particular symbols as commonly described in K-F-D manuals. B. Where research touches on issues, such as whether a child belongs to a single-parent family, that relate to individual privacy, care must be taken not to upset the more sensitive children. C. The study subjects used in the present study could have been more clearly defined. For example, a single parent family could be a family where the parents are divorced and the father has moved out, where the parents are divorced and the mother has moved out, or where either the father or mother has died. Additionally, in the present study the single parent family category did not include any new immigrant single parent families. Comparison could also be undertaken of the possible variation between new immigrant families based on the original nationality of the foreign spouse (who may be from Southeast Asia, China, Europe or North America). D. The present study relied solely on integrated, quantified analysis of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s K-F-D drawings. A more thorough exploration of the K-F-D drawings of children living in families with different family structure and of the psychological phenomena reflected in their drawings would need to be supported by objective projection testing, and by the collection of more comprehensive data about the family relationships of the children participating in the study.

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隔代教養兒童之家庭動力繪畫與家庭互動關係之研究。國立曾雅薇（2009）。隔代教養兒童之家庭動力繪畫與家庭互動關係之研究隔代教養兒童之家庭動力繪畫與家庭互動關係之研究台北教育大學藝術與造型設計學系教學碩士班碩士論文，未出版，台北。 Anderson, L. (2004). A Comparison of Kinetic Family Drawings of firstborn and Secondborn Siblings. Andrews University School of Education. Anastasi, A., Foley, J. P., Jr. (1940). A Survey of the Literature on Artistic Behavior in Abnormal: III. Spontaneous Productions. Psychol Monogr. 52 (6), i-71. Appel, K. (1931). Drawings by Children as Aids in Personality Studies. American Journal of Orthopsychiary,1, 129-144. Bender, L. (1937). Art and Therapy in the Mental Disturbances of Children. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 86, 249-263. Brook, S. L. (1996). A Therapist’s Guide to Art Therapy Assessments: Tools of the Trade. Illinois: Charles C Thomas. Burns, R. C., & Kaufman, S. H. (1970). Kinetic Family Drawings (K-F-D): An Introduction to Understanding Children through Kinetic Drawings. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Burns, R. C., & Kaufman, S. H. (1972). Action, Styles and Symbols in Kinetic Family Drawings (K-F-D). An interpretation Manual. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Burns, R. C. (1982). Self-Growth in Families. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Burns, R. C. (1987). Kinetic-House-Tree-Person Drawings (K-H-T-P). PA: Taylor & Francis. Buck, J. N. (1948). The H-T-P Test. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 4, 151-159. Chartouni,T. (1992). Self-Concept and Family Relations of AmericanLebanese Children. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI. Cho, M. (1987). The Validity of Kinetic Family Drawings as Measure of Self-Concept and Parent/Child Relationship among Chinese in Taiwan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Andrews Unversity. Chuah,V. (1992). Kinetic Family Drawing of Chiness-American Children. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI.

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Jung, C. G. (1965). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York: Vintage Books. Koppitz, R. M. (1968). Psychological Evaluation of Children’s Human Figure Drawing. New York: Gune and Stratton. Knoff, M. & Prout, T. (1985). The Kinetic Drawing System for Family and School. Log Angeles: Western Psychological Services. Kuthe, J. L. (1962). Social Schemas and the Reconstruction of Social Object Displays from Memory. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 64, 71-74. Kuthe, J. L. (1964). The Pervasive Influence of Social Schemas. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 68, 248-254. McPhee, J., & Wegner, K. (1976). Kinetic-Family-Drawing Styles and Emotionally Disturbed Childhood Behavior. Journal of Personality Assessment, 40, 487-491. Marijcke, W. M., Veltman, B. A., & Browne, K. D. (2001). Identifying Childhood Abuse through Favorite Kind of and Kinetic Family Drawing. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 28 (4), 251-259. Mostkoff, D. L. M. & Lazarus, P. J. (1983). The Kinetic Family Drawing: The Reliability of an Objective Scoring System. Psychology in the Schools, 20, (1), 16-20. Naglieri, J. A., McNeish, T. J., & Bardos, A. N.(1991). Draw a Person: Screening Procedure for Emotional Disturbance, Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Nuttall, E., Chieh, L., & Nutall, R. (1988). View of the Family by Chinese and U.S. Children: A Comparative Study of Kinetic Family Drawing. Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 191-194. O’Brien, R. P., & Patton, W. F. (1974). Development of an Objective Scoring Method for the Kinetic Family Drawing. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 156-164. Rabinowitz, A. (1991). The Relation of Acceptance-Rejection to Social Schemata and Kinetic Family Drawings. Social Behavior and Personality,19 (4), 263-272. Rabinowitz, A. (1992). Acceptance-Rejection and Height of Parental Figures on the Kinetic Family Drawings. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 329-330.

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Ricci, C. (1887). The Art of Children. Italy: Bologna. Tomas, G. V., & Gray, R. (1992). Children’s Drawings of Topics Differing in Emotional Significance: Effects on Placement Relative to a Self-drawing. Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 1097-1104. Tomas, G. V., & Jolley, r. P. (1998). Drawing Conclusions: A Re-examination of Empirical and Conceptual Bases for Psychological Evaluation of Children from Their Drawings. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37,127-139. WeinsteinL L. (1967). Social Experience and Social Schemata. Journal of Personality, 6 (4), 429-434. Wolff, W. (1942). Projective Methods for Personality Analysis of Expressive Behavior in Pre-school Children. Character and Personality, 10, 309-330.

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國際藝術教育學刊編審委員 The International Journal of Arts Education 101 年第一、二期 Committee for Volume 10 Number 1 & Number 2 編輯團隊名單（依姓氏筆劃或字母順序）編主郭禎祥博士 (Chief Editor) 輯編 (Editor)

楊馥如博士

Dr. Tom Anderson, Florida State University, USA, Professor (Consultants) Dr. Michael Day, Brigham Young University, USA, Professor Dr. Bernard Darras, University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne, Professor Dr. Kinichi Fukumoto, Hyogo University of Teacher Education, Japan, Professor Dr. Jeung-Hee Kim, Gyeongin National University of Education, Korea, Professor Dr. Anna M. Kindler, The University of British Columbia, Canada, Professor Dr. Rachel Mason, University of Surrey Roehampton, UK, Professor Dr. Michael Parsons, University of Illinois, USA, Professor Dr. Lourdes Samson, Miriam College, Philippines, Humanities Department, Professor and Chair Dr. Enid Zimmerman, Indiana University, USA, Professor 顧

問

委員王雲幼 (Editorial board) 王麗雁伊彬李靜芳夏學理陳箐繡陳瓊花張中煖張曉華趙惠玲劉豐榮鄭明憲賴美鈴歐遠帆簡瑞榮

國立臺北藝術大學舞蹈學院教授國立彰化師範大學藝術教育研究所副教授國立臺灣師範大學設計研究所教授國立彰化師範大學藝術教育研究所副教授國立臺灣師範大學表演藝術研究所教授國立嘉義大學視覺藝術研究所教授國立臺灣師範大學美術研究所教授國立臺北藝術大學舞蹈研究所教授兼副校長國立臺灣藝術大學戲劇與劇場應用學系教授國立臺灣師範大學美術研究所教授國立嘉義大學視覺藝術研究所教授兼副校長國立彰化師範大學藝術教育研究所副教授國立臺灣師範大學音樂研究所退休教授臺北市立教育大學音樂系教授兼學務長國立嘉義大學視覺藝術研究所教授兼系主任暨所長

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《國際藝術教育學刊》徵稿啟事國立臺灣藝術教育館《國際藝術教育學刊》 102 年第一、二期徵稿壹、宗旨及內容《國際藝術教育學刊》乃國立臺灣藝術教育館所出版之專業國際學術期刊，其目的在鼓勵藝術教育學術研究、促進國際學術交流；提供國內外藝術教育相關研究者從事學術研究之發表園地；提昇國內藝術教育學術研究水準及品質；提高藝術教育在臺灣專業、學校及社會藝術教育之正確價值觀；提供藝術教育界相關人士及研究者在該領域理論與實務之學術研究參考資料。因此，凡屬於藝術教育研究成果論述，包括理論或方法性主題研究探討、特定研究專題之系統性綜合評論等純學術性論文，均歡迎賜稿。恕不受理翻譯文稿、報導性文章、整篇學位論文及進修研究報告等文章。貳、徵稿主題與截稿期限一、徵稿主題為上述內容所包含範圍。二、102 年第一期於 102 年 2 月 28 日截稿。三、102 年第二期於 102 年 6 月 30 日截稿。參、稿則一、稿件限中文或英文（如果可能中/英文全文兼備更佳）電腦打字，Word 存檔；自左向右橫式排列，中文以新細明體、英文以 Arial 體編輯，字型 12 級，每頁 31 行，每行 34 字。正文（連同所有圖表、注釋及附錄等）以 10 頁為下限，16 頁為上限，中英文摘要及參考書目不列入頁數計算。二、稿件要項：首頁、中英文摘要、正文及參考文獻。

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（一）首頁：首頁請附上投稿者基本資料表，包括篇名、中英文姓名、任職單位、職稱，並註明最高學歷（含畢業學校）、學術專長、通訊住址、電話號碼、傳真號碼以及 e-mail。（二）中英文摘要：首頁後依序為中文摘要（500 字以內）與關鍵詞（至多 5 個）、英文摘要（500 字以內）與關鍵字（至多 5 個）。（三）正文：摘要後為正文，含圖表、註釋、附錄。除投稿者基本資料附於首頁外，請勿在文稿中出現任何作者基本資料，以利審查之進行。（四）參考文獻：先中文再英文。中文請依作者姓氏筆畫排序，英文請依作者姓氏字母順序排序。三、文中設定號碼標寫格式為：壹、一、 (一) 1. (1) 四、圖表呈現方式以全文為單位編號，編號以阿拉伯數字撰寫，之後空一格。表之編號與標題在表「上方」，圖之編號與標題在圖「下方」。五、凡人名、專有名詞附有外來語者，請以（

）加註原文。凡引註的年

代一律標以西元。六、文獻引註格式採 APA 格式。參考文獻年代一律標示西元。主要示例如下：（一）書籍：作者（年代）。書名書名。出版地：出版者。書名 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book. Location: Publisher. （二）期刊：作者（年代）。文章名稱。期刊名稱期刊名稱，卷數期刊名稱卷數（期數），頁碼。卷數 Author, A. A. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx (xx), xx-xx. 示例亦可至國立臺灣藝術教育館之「臺灣藝術教育網」 http://www.arte.gov.tw/index.asp 查詢七、如研究專題改寫之論文，需於文後感謝原研究參與人員、獎補助單位。

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肆、稿件處理一、稿源：公開徵稿二、來稿請傳 Word 電子檔至 IJAE2013@gmail.com，亦請在主旨欄註明：國際藝術教育學刊投稿文件。三、初審由編輯小組密送兩位專家學者匿名審查，並採迴避原則，初審結果分三等級：1.通過，照原文刊登；2.通過，但須參納審核意見，由作者修改後，通過複審，再行刊登；3.不通過。若兩位審查委員之審查結果不同，則送第三人審查，或由相關專長之編輯委員判定。四、文稿將以中英文對照方式刊登。來稿經審查通過後，將通知作者，請即自行或委外進行翻譯為英文，未能配合者視同放棄。五、凡經審查通過者，需同意授權本館以紙類或數位方式發行，並得再授權國家圖書館、研考會及其他資料庫業者納入資料庫中提供服務或對外銷售。六、出刊時間：102 年度第一期預定七月五日出版，第二期預定十二月五日出版。伍、其他一、來稿請符合本刊所要求之形式要件(詳上述稿則)。本刊因編輯需要，保有刪修權。二、來稿若經採用，作者需簽署中英文著作財產權轉讓同意書。三、來稿一經刊登，即致贈作者當期刊物兩冊，不另支稿費。四、本刊文章並將全文登錄於 HyRead 臺灣全文資料庫中。退稿將致函作者，但不退還電子檔與文稿，請於投稿前自行留存原稿檔案。五、請勿抄襲、改作、一稿多投或侵犯他人著作權。凡涉及著作權或言論責任之糾紛者，悉由作者自負法律責任。

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The International Journal of Arts Education, 2013 CALL FOR ARTICLES Types of Submissions: Research papers on arts education, including arts education theories and practices, methodological studies, and systematic reviews on chosen research subjects. Translations, reporting articles, degree dissertations and research reports for training projects are excluded. Preparing the Submission: 1. The manuscript in either Chinese or English (preferably both) should be electronic-typed as 34 words a line, 31 lines a page, horizontal text flow with pagination. The body including all tables and graphs, notes, and appendixes. It should be between 10 and 16 pages, except Chinese/ English abstract or bibliography. 2. Format: (1) Cover page: basic information of the contributor is required. (2) Chinese/English abstract: Chinese and English abstracts of no more than 500 words respectively and no more than 5 key words, followed by the body of the manuscript (including tables, notes and appendixes) and bibliography. Identification of the contributor should not appear elsewhere except for the cover page. (3) The body. (4) Tables and figures should be numbered with captions above the tables and below the figures. Original spelling for proper nouns should be retained in parentheses. (5) References in text should follow the recent APA style. (6) Papers based on research projects should include necessary acknowledgement and names of the sponsors.

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3. Review Process: (1) All papers deemed appropriate for the Journal are sent to anonymously to readers and rated as (a) accepted for publication, (b) accepted for publication after revision by the author, or (c) not accepted. (2) If approved, an applicant is required to grant the library the authority to publish the work in paper or digital form and grant the National Central Library, Research, Development and Evaluation Commission, and other database operators the authority to include the work in their respective databases for service purposes or for sale to the public. (3) Deadline for Contributors: 28th February, 2013 (Volume 11 Number 1) & 30st June, 2013 (Volume 11 Number 2). (4) Volume 11 Number 1 of the Journal 2013 will come out in 5th July. (5) Volume 11 Number 2 of the Journal 2013 will come out in 5th December. 4. Miscellaneous (1) Manuscript unconformity to the above-mentioned formats and requirements will not be accepted. (2) Manuscripts are accepted with the understanding that the editor and the editorial staff have the right to make revisions. (3) Upon publication, two complimentary copies of the Journal will be sent to the contributors. (4) Authors must comply with international copyright laws and are solely responsible for any infringement or violation charges. (5) Please send the document in the format of MS Word at IJAE2013@gmail.com. And specify “Submissions for The International Journal of Arts Education ”on the title of e-mail.

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《國際藝術教育學刊》 The International Journal of Arts Education 第十卷第一期‧二○ ○一二年七月一二 Volume 10 Number 1 July 2012 出版機關出

版

者

國立臺灣藝術教育館鄭乃文

承辦單位

德明財經科技大學

主

編

郭禎祥

編

輯

楊馥如

海外稿件文宣

韓孝承

翻

陳碧珠（英文）、王迪（日文）、孫維瑄（法文）

譯

文字編輯

羅美蘭、廖敦如、張家琳、洪育蔓

美術編輯

風格

封面設計

施智仁

總

務

黃芷嫻

館

址

臺北市南海路四十七號

電

話

886-(0)2-2311-0574

傳

真

886-(0)2-2389-4822

網

址

http://www.arte.gov.tw

出版年月

中華民國 101 年 7 月

印

所

風格電腦排版影印中心

址

彰化市進德路 26 號

處

五南文化廣場：台中總店－臺中市中山路6號 / TEL：04-2226-0330(長期訂閱專線) 台北分店－臺北市銅山街1號 / TEL：02-3322-4985 網路書店：http://www.wunanbooks.com.tw/ 國家書店松江門市： 104 台北市松江路209號1樓 / TEL：02-2518-0207 國家網路書店：http://www.govbooks.com.tw

刷

地展

售

(04)727-5708

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