Habitat survey techniques- Quokka, Setonix brachyurus by AmyAlexandraMarsden

Quokka- Setonix brachyurus Management and Reintroduction Amy Marsden 180187122

(So Adorable Quokka! Wildlife Photographer Shares Cute Photos of ..., n.d.)

Context

1. Introduction 2. Ecological Overview 2.1 Physical Characteristics 2.2 Habitat Needs 2.3 Food Sources 2.4 Behaviour 2.5 Reproduction 2.6 Population Dynamics 3. Current Conservation and Strategy Status 3.1 Global 3.2 Within Australia (Local) 4. Threats 5. Reintroduction of native habitats supporting native fauna, flora and wildlife 5.1 Site studies 5.2 Rehabilitation of past Setonix brachyurus Habitats (Perth to Busselton) 5.3 Sustainable Tourism (Rottnest island) 5.4 Groundwater trends, New possible swamp areas 6. Summary Figures References

Abbreviations

SB- Setonix Brachyurus WA- Western Australia DEC- Department of the Environment and Conservation IBRA- Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia SF- State Forest NR- National Park AFLP- amplified fragment length polymorphisms ICNU- International Union for Conservation of Nature DEWHA- Department of the Environment, water, Heritage and the Arts CALM- Department of Conservation and Land Management, Western Australia (Changed to Department of Environment and Conservation in July 2006) SPP- Species Pluralis DAFWA- Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia

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Amy Marsden 180187122

Quokka- Setonix brachyurus Management and Reintroduction

1. Introduction Quokka, Setonix Brachyurus (SB), a small wallaby part of the Marcopdidae Family (Quokka (SB) Recovery Plan (RP), 2020) and play a crucial role in the food chain in the form of prey. SB stays in the same location all year- round; located in Western Australia (WA) and two islands just offshore (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). Covering a small home range size, mainland SB ranging 71.4 ha in the Southern Forest, 6.39 ha in the Northern Harrah and 1.91 +- 0.23 ha on Rottnest island (Hayward et al., 2004). The SB is currently at risk, a decrease in the population contributed by several factors such as lack of habitat, food resources, increased human influence and increased tourism and its associated development (Phillips, 2016). This report is discussing the ecological overview, management and possible future habitats for SB to gain a better understanding of the animal and management to aid preservation.

2. Ecology Overview

2.1. Physical Characteristics

Figure 4

SB is one of the smallest Macropodidae (Wallaby) species set apart from other Macropodidae species as it is the only species within its genus (ADW, 2020). Their physical characteristics are distinguishable by coarse, bushy brown fur and lighter underbelly (ADW, 2020), a small head with a naked black nose, rounded ears along with a ‘smile’ mouth as shown in figure four. SB is a hunched with short arms (ADW, 2020) enabling it to reach low vegetation such as grasses and heath, (Shield, 1958; Kitchener, 1972; Poole et al., 2014). Their feet are ranging between 100-200mm and strong hind legs leading onto a short tail ranging from 25.8-31cm long (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). Overall their body size from head and body is around 400-540 mm (as shown in figure two) (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020) and their weight varies between gender, adult males weigh 2.7 to 4.2kg and female adults 1.6- 3.5kg (De Tores PJ, 2007).

There are genetic variations of allozymes between the island and mainland SB restricting the gene flow across the species created by sea-level changes creating island separation (Sinclair, E., 2001).

2.2. Habitat needs

SB are attracted to Agonis swamp habitats with dense vegetation such as Taxandria juniperina, T. Linearifolia, melaleuca lanceolata, haka nitida, beaufortia sparsa and gahnia trifida (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). Swamps are the critical habitat for SB protecting from predators, a freshwater source and shade from the heat through plants such as Gahina Trifida’s (ADW, 2020). SB are found in shrubland habitats which are at risk of fire as the early onset of a bushfire provides them with a diet of new growth vegetation with a higher nutrient content (ADW, 2020). They require a mosaic of recently burnt areas along within unburnt regions, which the forest habitats WA provide (Quokka (SB) RP (RP), 2020). The SB live in four critical areas in WA, the Southern Forest (Karri regeneration area), the Northern Jarrah Forest, Swan Coast Muddy Forest and Rottnest Island. The characteristics of these areas and link to SB population are a combination of factors generic to specific habitats including: • Number of Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) meat baits delivered per hectare, seeing the more baits, the more quokka presence (De Tores PJ, 2007) • Possessing large areas of Taxndia Swamp burnt 15-19 years previously (De Tores PJ, 2007). The growth rate of planting after fires needs to be quick (De Tores PJ, 2007) • Distribution of species dependent on swamp and creek line vegetation (De Tores PJ, 2007) • Dense vegetation allowing colonies to create runways (150mm high by 100mm wide) to allow movement through the undergrowth away from predators (Richardson, 2012). The SB colonies on Rottnest Island have adapted to a particularly harsh habitat covered by low tussock grasses with clumps of native and introduced shrubs. These conditions were initially dense tree cover of Callitris, Acacia and Melaleuca shrubs, due to bushfires and firewood collection in the 1800s this was demolished (Richardson, 2012). Changing the SB habitat from easy dense vegetation cover to a competitive habitat.

Figure 5

2.3. Food sources

SB is mostly a browsing herbivore, favouring leaves and stems such as Eucalyptus Huilfylei, E. Jacksonii, Lepidosperma effusum and Anarthria scabra (SB, RP, 2020). Their diet includes succulents, shrubs, grasses and sedges; containing water ensuring SB do not need to drink large quantities of water linked to seasonal dry periods throughout the year (SB, RP, 2020). Preferring new young growth, resulting in adaption for browsing leaves and stems (Richardson, 2012). On the mainland, the population feed on a wide variety of dicotyledonous shrubs such as Thomasia spp., Dampiera hederacea, Mirbelia dilatata and Agonis Linearifolia (Richardson, 2012). When their preferred dietary needs are not possible, they eat a wide range of food sources; seeds, berries and other fruits (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020), small amounts of fungi, grasses, poor quality sedges and shrubs (Richardson, 2012). This a requirement due to the food source sparsity (especially on Rottnest island) at the end of summer. Available vitamin E and antioxidants that combat membrane peroxidation are low (in summer), resulting in poor body conditions (Richardson, 2012).

2.4. Behaviour

SB are known to live more than ten years in the wild (Nowark 1999) and displays a range of behavioural challenges. Males occasionally fight other males over females or food sources (ADW, 2020); The heavier the male, the more dominant in the social hierarchy (ADW, 2020). SB live in small colonies; on the mainland, they live in smaller colonies consisting of family groups of one or two dozen individuals in comparison to Rottnest island where they live in large groups of up to 150 individuals (ADW, 2020). Although they live in colonies, SB is not particularly social animals (ADW, 2020). SB are nocturnal, when they seek freshwater, food and shelter.

During dry seasons they expand their living and feeding areas to be closer to freshwater (ADW, 2020), climbing trees to reach food sources vital during draughts, with their movement resembling a bounding gait interspersed with hopping (The Australian Museum, 2019).

2.5. Reproduction

Female SB are polyoestrous (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020) choosing which male they mate. If the female approves the male, she will groom him, signalling that she is interested in reproducing, usually spending two breeding seasons together (ADW, 2020). Peak breeding occurs between January and March when the weather is cooler. Females produce one offspring after a month gestation period, followed by the Joey moving to the mother’s pouch for about 175 to 195 days (ADW, 2020). Joey’s reach maturity around day 389(Quokka (SB) RP, 2020).

2.6. Population dynamics

Around the time of European colonial settlement (1830’s onwards), SB habited a broad area with a distribution area of around 41,200km2 in WA (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). A substantial population decline occurred in the 1930s (Hayward et al. 2005a) followed by an unknown decline in 1980 to 1992, seeing a reduction of more than 50% on the mainland in the last century (de Tores et al. 2007) (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). The mainland population has suffered a further recent drastic decline in distribution and abundance (Alacs et al., 2009), this is due to disease, predation and habitat fragmentation (Alacs et al., 2009). Mainland species are significantly different from each other concerning population dynamics and genetics due to the preferred mesic habitat and reduced rainfall in the area (Alacs et al., 2009), that spread over a broader landscape as visible in figure 5 which also demonstrates SB population have been able to maintain colonies linked to native fauna.

Island populations are genetically depauperate due to the small population size in comparison to the mainland population, causing issues of inbreeding and genetic drifts between the species (Frankham R., 2005), figure 6 shows population sizes does not correlate to the genetic problems. Figure 6

SB is considered vulnerable this means that there is a sustainable reduction in numbers which continues to decline, the geographic distribution is limited, there is a limited number of mature individuals, and the probability of its extinction in the wild is 10% in the medium-term future.

4. Threats

3. Current Conservation and Strategy Status 3.1. Global •

ICNU Red List of Threatened Species

3.2. Within Australia (Local)

Management practices (policies, strategies, plans) that have a role in the protection of the SB include but are not limited to the following: • Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, under s269A (Quokka (SB) (RP), s178 (List of threatened species), s181 (List of threatened ecological communities, s183 (list of threatening processes). • Rottnest Island Authority Act 1987 Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA) (2008) -Threat Abatement Plan for Predation by the European Red Fox (DEWHA 2008b) -Threat Abatement Plan for Predation by Feral Cats (DEWHA 2008c) Department of Environment and Conservation (2013) . • Wildlife Management Program No. 56. Department of Environment and Conservation, Perth, WA. Policy Statement No. 3 Management of Phytophthora and disease caused by it (CALM 1998) Policy Statement No. 29 Translocation of threatened flora and fauna (CALM 1995) Policy Statement No. 33 Conservation of endangered and specially protected fauna in the wild (CALM 1991). • Department of Environment and Conservation, (DEC) Quokka Fire Management Guideline No S5

Current threats to the SB can be linked into four main categories: • Invasive and other problematic species. • Climate Change • Natural system modifications Habitat Fragmentatio • Tourism The SB is at predatory risk the arrival of the fox in the 1930s appears to be the most significant factor contributing to the historic decline in quokka numbers on the mainland (de Tores et al. 2007). Predation pressures by foxes have resulted in quokkas being restricted to more dense habitats which act as refuges from predation. Studies within the northern jarrah forest have found that while fox control may not lead to an increase in SB numbers it may lead to an increased distribution (Hayward et al. 2003, 2007). A reduction in fox density through 1080 baiting in WA may result in a corresponding increase in cat numbers (de Tores and Berry 2007). Cats were common on Rottnest Island before the 1980s with no observable effect on SB numbers. However, Dickman (1996b) suggested for species weighing between 1 and 2kg, juveniles were likely to be susceptible to cat predation. The effect of feral pigs has the potential to indirectly affect quokkas through destruction of habitat. This removes food resources from the habitat as shown in figure 7 and creates pathways which facilitate access for other feral animals, such as foxes (May and Norton 1996, Meek and Saunders 2000). Anecdotal reports suggest sites within Southwest of WA previously supported SB populations but are now unsuitable due to being disturbed by pigs (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). Figure 7 Location of threats to SB

Another invasive problematic species is Phytophthora introduced in areas where quokkas live by human activities such as forestry operations, recreational activities and mining activities along with non-human factors such as pig movement. The diversity of the disease impact is variable depending on the location and structure of the vegetation present, species such as Banksia spp and Persoonia spp are highly susceptible to the disease. The Jarrah forest is at high risk, the resulting loss of vegetation will increase the risk of predation and lack of food (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). Based on research threats from invasive and problematic species is one of the biggest challenges to conservation management. Climate change and natural system modifications are affecting the natural habitats and contributing to the threats encountered by the SB. Since the mid-1970s South West, WA has seen a dramatic decrease in annual rainfall of 10 to 20% (Timbal, 2018)(Quokka (SB) RP). The potential effect of climate change on SB distribution has been modelled (Gibson et al. 2010) and indicates a further contraction of range is likely. The pattern of decreased rainfall supports the historic decline in quokka distribution, showing distribution in the higher rainfall areas of south-west, WA since the colonisation settlements have dried out the swamp and riparian habitats, resulting in the loss of food availability and predation refuge along with changes in vegetation cover increasing higher cover increasing higher incidence of weeds, replacing native forge. (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020) Due to the popularity of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;quokka selfieâ&#x20AC;? and recreational sports in forests, tourists pose a threat to SB. Rottnest Island SB are exposed to high human visitation, a highly modified landscape with limited supply of fresh water (Edward 1983), frequent salmonella infections (Hart et al. 1986), ongoing disturbance from recreationists and associated management activities in a place actively promoted for tourism. Past and present disturbance practices such as the creation of road as shown in figure 7 and the threatened woodland community by weeds and erosion due to clearing. There have been occasional instances of cruelty to to SBs (Quokka (SB) RP).

5. Reintroduction of native habitats supporting the reintroduction of native fauna, flora and wildlife.

Through the report, there is an understanding gained that Australia's habitat was once the ideal location for SB survival. When considering potential habitats, it is essential to consider their thriving past before inhabitant disturbance (not including the Aboriginal people). Based on the evidence provided are the key management reccomendations;

5.1. Site Studies

To understand strategies for the future, we first need to understand their long term requirements in better depth, by doing this, we will be able to give long term

strategies to help and protect. Sampling a range of areas to understand the habitat needs in greater depth, gaining a better general understanding of the species allowing a better understanding of their survival needs. This will allow ecologists to support the SB in the varying locations/habitats in WA which may help to maintain and extend the colonies within the North Jarrah Forest, Swan Coast Area (Muddy Lakes) and Southern Forest on mainland WA.

5.2. Rehabilitation of past Quokka Habitats (Perth to Busselton)

Human disturbance in the last decade has resulted in a large number of areas where SB once lived are no longer suitable due to a lack of habitat and the vegetation corridors. Bringing past habitat where SB thrived would allow the stabilisation of the population in WA along with providing a more extensive range of habitats for other species. SB once lived in coastal heath and shrubland on the south-west of WA that are now cleared for urban development (Quokka (SB) RP, 2020). Management strategies are vital for maintaining population density. By taking an active adaptive management approach, requiring implementation and agreed experimental approach whereby a set of strategies and management are put in place. Spatial analysis of the Jarrah Forest should be done to understand the existing spatial analysis where created preferred mosaic and swamp areas are present or could be present (De Tores PJ, 2007). The new strategies should include a wide range of consideration in the analysis of preferred structural mosaic is established, number of new sites, number of sites where the SB population remains stable or increase in abundance, the number of site currently tough to be supporting potentially suitable habitat and the number of sites where the population mixing has been confirmed (De Tores PJ, 2007). The potential strategies for the swan coastal area are first determining the presence of SBs at Muddy Lake and Dunsborough. If the presence is confirmed, extensive monitoring should be implemented, recording any trends of increase or decrease in population (De Tores PJ, 2007). Reviewing former known SB locations on the Swan Coastal Plain should be strategically analysed to consider reintroduction to the site (De Tores PJ, 2007). Ensuring that the swamps within the area are not dried out by human influences such as draining will allow the rehabilitation of the area for quokkas increasing the mainland SB population significantly. Consdering the wide range of potential habitats from erth to Busselton shows that there are pockets of undisturbed native habitats often protected in natural parks/ reserves and these areas that would be suitable to rehabilitate small colonies of SB as current research shows SB can live and adapt especially as predator baiting takes place in the nature parks/reserves.

5.3. Sustainable tourism (Rottnest Island)

Whilst Rottnest Island has been developed as a nature reserve and promoted as an ecotourist area further education programmes and stricter controls by park rangers could help to limit the impact of the daily tourists. Rottnest has been a successful project in preserving, maintaining, researching the SB and despite the harsh conditions the SB have thrived. Rottnestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environment has changed dramatically due to human influence, removing a large number of trees. If the original native plants were introduced back into their habitat such as Callitis, Acacia and Melaleuca shrubs (Richardson, 2012). SB would be able to thrive as the harsh conditions would be minimised and research could continue within a more native environment. The income and interest in the SB on Rottnest supports future projects and could be used to aid implement rehabilitation on the mainland along with containing tourist interest to the Rottnest SB which have adapted to this environment and their friendly nature encouraging tourist for the famous â&#x20AC;&#x153;quokka selfieâ&#x20AC;? as shown in figure 7. This could aid minimise the impact of human influences with mainland projects.

Figure 8

5.4. Groundwater trends, new possible swamp areas

Researching into SB shows the apparent need for groundwater close to their home habitat for survival. Figure 8 shows the groundwater trends between 20072012, showing several possibilities for SB habitats. The change in the climate has created areas that would not have been able to be inhabited historically due to a lack of water. Figure 9

Some areas will need a introduction of specific vegetation to support SB, while others may already be suitable. By creating habitats around new possible Taxandria linearifolia swamp areas the increased vegetation pockets will create vegetation channels, that would increase the movement of SB and allow access to essential resources such as freshwater. Providing denser areas of vegetation also blocks access from predictors. The areas would need monitoring to ensure that the swamps not dried out by human influences such as draining thus supporting the rehabilitation of SB and development of native swamps and planting.

6. Summary

SB is not commonly known worldwide, but is a central focus point of conservation in WA, resulting in an array of maintenance/ management plans. The lack of longterm research is having an impact on the management discussion and actions; Clear management plans that potentially could work cannot be created without fully understanding the SB biological needs. Involvement and management to support the native Australian wildlife is crucial, which has resulted in the current holistic approach to policies, guidance and restrictions to aid the management of the SB. Moving forward, it is essential a lot more research into SB biological and habitat needs is considered a priority. Even though the island populations have a more inadequate habitat concerning food, water and shelter, they thrive better ( Rottnest) than mainland species. SB requires particular habitats and struggles with threats (predators/ human influence) due to the lack of time to adapt. Minimising the impacts of humans on the landscape by reducing predators, re-wilding and reducing draining of freshwater would potentially allow the SB population to thrive. Rottnest Island management efforts are much more significant due to the tourism income supporting the management and encouragement to maintain SB presence. Management that is taking place is not concerned with the growth but maintenance of numbers; meaning they are not trying to increase the biodiversity of the habitat but maintain the correct numbers to ensure tourism can still take place. Having a considerable impact on the potential growth of SB as the population growth is not supported, resulting in a large percentage of deaths in the summer. By combining the rewilding, reintroduction to suitably previous habits along with putting in restrictions to protect the SB ie more nature reserves, national parks, more conversation rangers etc.. using funding and research instigated by the Rottnest Island management programme to extend the project to the mainland. This would help to increase both the biodiversity of the living areas of the SB but help to support further colonies and preserve the species along with preservation and promotion of a native biodiverse environment. The research project has shown with further monitoring, developing native habits free from predators, promotion of ecotourism, further research over a longer period and researching from a holistic approach the SB should be able to continue to be part of WA wildlife.

Figures

Figure 1- Picture of Female Quokka with baby in Pouch eating food

n.d. 50 Quokka Facts: Smiling, Baby-Flinging, Selfie Kings .... [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com/ search?q=female+quokka+with+baby+rottnest+island&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiHwpPEnZXoAhVGZRoKHT6mAYgQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=female+quokka+with+baby+rottnest+island&gs_l=img.3...22564.24889..25196...0.0 ..0.105.1037.15j1......0....1..gws-wiz-img.aGBDS5x6Fv4&ei=clJqXofBA8bKab7MhsAI#imgrc=unkjrK7a5qHQrM> [Accessed 12 March 2020].

Figure 2- Picture of Mainland quokka sizing (male)

Picture source n.d. Concern For The Future Of Mainland Quokkas - ABC News (Australian .... [image] Available at: <https:// www.google.com/search?q=Male+mainland+quokka&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=594-xYf2evIlHM%253A%252C3ZES633UNHuH1M%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kR4Ot9SpFLIlvSSjJ-0MtWoHccTqA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiA18ODnZXoAhVGQ0EAHbaFC6kQ9QEwAXoECAgQBw#imgrc=594-xYf2evIlHM:> [Accessed 12 March 2020]. Data sources Quokka (Setonix brachyurus) Recovery Plan. (2020). Western Australian Wildlife Management Program No. 56. [online] Western Australia: Department of environment and conservation. Available at: http://www.environment. gov.au/system/files/resources/4581df81-0041-4fc9-ba1b-aca7cb22246d/files/quokka-recovery-plan.pdf [Accessed 19 Feb. 2020]. Animal Diversity Web. (2020). Setonix brachyurus (quokka). [online] Available at: https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Setonix_brachyurus/ [Accessed 19 Feb. 2020].

Figure 3- Picture of Rottnest island Quokka, mainly showing facial features

n.d. The Happiest Animal. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com/search?q=rottnest+island+quokka&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiWutvQnZXoAhVOiRoKHe3rCP8Q2-cCegQIABAA&oq=rottnest+island+&gs_l=img.1.0.0i67l3j0l2j0i67j0j0i67l2j0.151526.155677..157717...1.0..0.173.1577.13j4......0....1..gws-wizimg.....0..0i131j0i10i24.tE63R2SiW00&ei=jFJqXpbEGM6Sau3Xo_gP#imgrc=pPNDx7O49UGgzM> [Accessed 12 March 2020].

Figure 4- Picture of Quokka with physical characteristics such as the ‘smile’

n.d. New Quokka Memes | Del Memes, A 1 Memes, Point Memes. [image] Available at: <https://www.google.com/ search?q=picture+of+a+quokka+smiling&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwid2OfQnpXoAhUNilwKHQVmDb8Q_AUoAXoECAsQAw#imgrc=lL35GTUHNx9uvM> [Accessed 12 March 2020].

Figure 5- Sub-populations of SB in South- West of WA Australia past and current distribution with DECs

Fauna Database, modified data using a combination of maps and accredited sources Quokka (Setonix brachyurus) Recovery Plan. (2020). Western Australian Wildlife Management Program No. 56. [online] Western Australia: Department of environment and conservation. Available at: http://www.environment. gov.au/system/files/resources/4581df81-0041-4fc9-ba1b-aca7cb22246d/files/quokka-recovery-plan.pdf [Accessed 19 Feb. 2020]. Backed up by: De Tores PJ, Hayward MW, Dillon MJ, Brazell R (2007) Review of the distribution, causes for the decline and recommendations for management of the quokka, Setonix brachyurus (Macropodidea: Marsupialia), an endemic macropod marsupial from south- west Western Australia. Conservation Science West Australia pp 2-73,

Figure 6- Estimated subpopulation size of Quokka population in 2007, looking at location, locality, esti-

mated size and dominant land tenure Quokka (Setonix brachyurus) Recovery Plan. (2020). Western Australian Wildlife Management Program No. 56. [online] Western Australia: Department of environment and conservation. Available at: http://www.environment. gov.au/system/files/resources/4581df81-0041-4fc9-ba1b-aca7cb22246d/files/quokka-recovery-plan.pdf [Accessed 19 Feb. 2020].

Figure 7- Map showing the threats to SB in the Perth Mandurah and Bunbury area

Alacs, E., Spencer, P., Tores, P. and Krauss, S. (2009). Population genetic struture of island and mainland population of the quokka, Setonix brachyurus (Macropodidae): a comparioson of AFLP and microsatellite markers. [online] ReasearchGate. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226451412_Population_genetic_structure_of_island_and_mainland_populations_of_the_quokka_Setonix_brachyurus_Macropodidae_A_comparison_of_ AFLP_and_microsatellite_markers [Accessed 19 Feb. 2020].

Figure 8- Picture of Quokka having a ‘selfie’ on Rottnest island.

Figure 9- Map showing the groundwater trends between 2007- 2012 in WA

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