Exhibition texts "IBERIANS" by Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig

Exhibitions texts

IBERIANS

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Exhibitions texts

The section texts are marked with Iberian characters. The object legends are numbered. Audioguide stations symbol. 2 are marked with the

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Ground Floor

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Basement

IBERIANS The Iberian Peninsula (today’s Spain and Portugal) was inhabited in the 1st millennium BC by numerous peoples of different origins. The west and centre of the peninsula was settled by Celts, while the south (today’s Andalusia) and the whole of the east coast, as far north as Languedoc in southern France, was occupied by a variety of tribes nowadays referred to collectively as “Iberians”. At the intersection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, where indigenous traditions encountered external influences from the Orient, a fascinating culture developed between the 6th and 1st centuries BC. This exhibition, a collaboration between the Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig and the Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, presents the latest discoveries about the Iberians. “It is said, indeed, that the whole region beyond the Rhône (...) was referred to as ‘Iberia’ by the Greeks of old. Nowadays, however, the boundary is set at the Pyrenees and the terms ‘Iberia’ and ‘Hispania’ are used interchangeably for the same country.” Strabo, Geographica III, 4, 19 (63 BC – AD 23)

“For Iberia resembles a cowhide, stretched lengthwise from west to east and widthwise from north to south.” Strabo, Geographica III, 1, 2 (63 BC – AD 23)

CHRONOLOGY Late Bronze Age 1200 - 800 BC Bronze Age culture in the south-west of the Iberian Peninsula Early Iron Age (800 – 550 BC) 10th century BC Phoenician explorations Late 9th century BC Phoenician enclaves in Huelva and la Rebanadilla (Málaga) Early 8th century BC Foundation of ʾgdr/Gadeira (Cádiz) First half of 8th century BC Foundation of first Phoenician settlements in the south of the Iberian Peninsula 814 BC Foundation of Carthage by the Phoenicians 753 BC Foundation of Rome Around 725 BC Arrival of the Phoenicians on Ibiza From the 7th century BC Apogee of Phoenician expansion; Orientalising, “Tartessian” culture Around 600 BC Foundation of Massalia (Marseilles) by the Phocaeans Early Iberian period (550 – 400 BC) Early 6th century BC Urban boom in the south of the Iberian Peninsula Around 550 BC Foundation of Emporion (Empúries) by the Phocaeans Around 500 BC End of the “Tartessian” culture From the 5th century BC Earliest evidence of Iberian writing Iberian period (400 - 175 BC) 4th century BC Apogee of the Iberian culture 264 – 241 BC First Punic War between Carthage and Rome 229/226 BC Foundation of Carthago Nova by the Punic Hasdrubal 219 BC Conquest of Saguntum by the Punic Hannibal 218 BC Roman landing in Emporion 218 – 202 BC Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome 197 BC Establishment of the Roman provinces Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior From 195 BC Romanisation of the east and south of the Iberian Peninsula Late Iberian period (175 – 10 BC) 155 - 153 BC Roman expeditions against the Celtiberians 133 BC Conquest of Numantia by Rome 123 BC Conquest of the Balearic Islands by Rome 82 – 72 BC Sertorian War on the Iberian Peninsula 49 – 44 BC Caesar and Pompey fight each other on the Iberian Peninsula 19 BC The entire Iberian Peninsula is under Roman rule

1 Statue of a she-wolf, part of a funerary monument (?) Necropolis of Cerro de los Molinillos, Baena (Córdoba) 200 – 100 BCE Museo Íbero de Jaén 2 THE PREHISTORIC BACKGROUND Recent palaeogenetic research suggests that the Iberian people evolved from contacts between local populations and other continental groups during the prehistoric period (5th to 2nd millennia BC). There is evidence dating from as early as the 3rd millennium BC of societies with complex social structures that processed metal ores (copper) and maintained loose contacts with North Africa and the Near East. These contacts are attested by imported raw materials like ivory. 1. Schist idol plaque Schist, 3000 – 2000 BCE Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig 2.– 3. Idols in human form Ivory, 3000 – 2000 BCE Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig 3 THE FIRST IBERIANS The Iberians were not an immigrant people. Researchers today believe they were a local population that developed gradually over time. In the 7th century BC, Iberian society was already showing signs of growing complexity. There is evidence for the emergence of princes who occupied seats of power apart from the ordinary population and enjoyed privileged contacts with Phoenician traders. In exchange for valuable raw materials, especially metal ores, they obtained wine amphoras and luxury commodities. Examples of the goods enjoyed by this emerging upper class have survived in their graves. 1. Chains with animal-shaped pendants Bronze, 600 – 450 BCE Necropolis of Mianes, Santa Bàrbara (Tarragona) Museu de les Terres de l’Ebre 2. Knife Iron, 600 – 400 BCE Necropolis of Mianes, Santa Bàrbara (Tarragona) Museu de les Terres de l’Ebre 7

3. Phoenician bowl with a tall foot Clay, 650 – 550 BCE Sant Jaume - Mas d’en Serrà, Alcanar (Tarragona) Museu de les Terres de l’Ebre 4. Beaker Clay, 650 – 550 BCE Sant Jaume - Mas d’en Serrà, Alcanar (Tarragona) Museu de les Terres de l’Ebre 5. Necklace Bronze, 600 – 450 BCE Necropolis of Can Canyís, Banyeres del Penedès (Tarragona) Museu del Vendrell 6. Belt buckle Bronze, 600 – 450 BCE Necropolis of Can Canyís, Banyeres del Penedès (Tarragona) Museu del Vendrell

Who were the Iberians?

THE DIVERSITY OF IBERIAN TRIBES Strictly speaking, the Iberians were not a homogenous ethnic group. They can be seen, rather, as a mosaic of different tribes that shared some aspects of their way of life and differed in others. Their names have been handed down to us mostly by Graeco-Roman writers, whose reports of individual tribes are often tendentious and highly prejudiced. Across a wide territory, a multitude of different factors shaped the emergence and development of Iberian culture, sometimes in very different ways. One important influence was contact with traders and colonists from the eastern Mediterranean region – initially the Phoenicians and later the Greeks. The diversity of the Iberians was also reflected in the variety of non-Indo-European language and writing systems they used. “For, on one hand, the nature of the land, for reasons of aridity, remoteness or wildness, does not admit of numerous towns and, on the other hand, the way of life and activities of the people suggest nothing of the sort: for those that live in villages are wild people and most Iberians belong to this category.” Strabo, Geographica III, 4, 13 (63 BC – AD 23) 4 THE INDIGETES “From here on is the territory of the wild Indigetes. They are an uncivilised people, a wild people, only interested in hunting, frequenting the haunts of wild beasts.” Rufius Festus Avienus, Ora Maritima 160–163 (4th century AD) Iberian vessel Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 9

5 THE LAIETANI “Scipio set sail from the mouth of the Rhône, passed the Pyrenees and landed at Emporion. There, he disembarked his army. Beginning with the Laietani, he subjected the whole coast as far as the River Ebro to Roman rule.” Livy, Ab Urbe Condita XXI, 60 (59 BC – AD 17) Iberian jar with handles Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6 THE CESSETANI “The territory of the Cessetani, the River Subi, the colony of Tarraco, founded by the Scipios as Carthage was by the Carthaginians.” Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae III, 21 (AD 23–79) Iberian bowl Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Fontscaldes, Valls (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7 THE ILERCAVONES “Then the territory of the Ilercavones and the River Iber, important for merchant shipping. The Greeks called the whole of Spain ‘Iberia’ after this river.” Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae III, 21 (AD 23–79) Iberian jug (oinochoe) with painted decoration Clay, 500 – 200 BCE San Antonio, Calaceite (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 8 THE SEDETANI “Outstanding amongst these men were the Sedetanian soldiers, with their gleaming breastplates. They dwelt by the icy waters of the River Sucro, outside the high citadel of their city, Saetabis.” Silius Italicus, Punica III (1st century AD) 10

Lid of an Iberian vessel Clay, 200 – 100 BCE Cabezo de Alcalá, Azaila (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 9 THE EDETANI “From [New Carthage] to the River Ebro is about as many miles. These coasts were occupied by the Edetani.” Strabo, Geographica III, 4, 13 (63 BC – AD 23) Lid of an Iberian vessel Clay, 325 – 275 BCE Necropolis of El Castellar, Oliva (València) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 10 THE ILERGETES “Then Scipio set out for the territory of the Ilergetes, who had been abandoned by the instigator of the revolt. Attacking with his hostile army, he drove them all to Atanagrum, their capital city.” Livy, Ab Urbe Condita XXI, 61 (59 BC – AD 17) Iberian vessel (kalathos) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Tossal de les Tenalles, Sidamon (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 11 THE BASTETANI “The distance between Mount Calpe, one of the Pillars of Hercules, and Carthago Nova is said to be 2,200 stadia. This coast is said to be inhabited by the Bastetani, also known as the Bastuli.” Strabo, Geographica III, 4, 1 (63 BC – AD 23) 1. Iberian vessel (kalathos) Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Necropolis of Cerro del Santuario, Baza (Granada) Duran Vall-llosera Collection 2. Iberian vessel (kalathos) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE South-east of the Iberian Peninsula Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 11

12 THE CONTESTANI “Then Contestania and the colony of Carthago Nova, from whose headland – known as the Promontory of Saturn – the crossing to Caesarea, a town in Mauretania, is a distance of 197 miles.” Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae III, 19–20 (AD 23–79) Iberian jug (oinochoe) Clay, 150 – 50 BCE Archena (Murcia)

What have the Phoenicians got to do with the Iberians?

PHOENICIANS ON THE IBERIAN PENINSULA Despite its peripheral location at the very edge of the ancient world, the Iberian Peninsula was an important place for cultural interaction and trans-Mediterranean exchange. The Phoenicians, who occupied the eastern coast of the Mediterranean (today’s Lebanon and Syria), played an important role. Phoenician city-states like Tyre and Sidon were constantly on the lookout for new markets for their goods and, above all, for raw materials, particularly metal deposits. The Iberian Peninsula, which was rich in metals, became a target for Phoenician expansion efforts. Trading posts founded on the south coast, either as new quarters in existing settlements (Huelva) or as new foundations (Gadeira/Cádiz), formed the basis for an exchange which lasted for several centuries. These active contacts not only brought material goods to the Iberian Peninsula, but also technological inventions, like the fast potter’s wheel and specialised metal-working techniques, as well as the Phoenician alphabet, which formed the basis for the Iberian script(s). “Over the years, thanks to trade, the Phoenicians achieved great prosperity, founding many colonies, some on Sicily and the neighbouring islands, others in Libya, Sardinia and Iberia.” Diodorus, Bibliotheca Historica V, 35, 4 (1st century BC)

“For nowhere in the world have gold and silver, and even copper and iron, ever been found in such quantity and quality.” Strabo, Geographica III, 2, 8 (63 BC – 23 AD) 13 THE PUNIC PEOPLE The Greeks gave the collective name “Phoenicians” to the inhabitants of the city-states of Sidon, Berytus and Tyre. The Romans latinised the name to Poeni/Puni and used it to refer to the Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean under the aegis of Carthage. Nowadays, the early inhabitants of Carthage are often

referred to as “Phoenicians”, while the adjective “Punic” is reserved for the city and its people from the 7th century onwards, when they began to develop their own independent politics and culture. 1. Punic female bust with inset arms Clay, 600 – 400 BCE Necropolis of Puig d’es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Necklace Glass beads, 500 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Hellenising Punic female bust Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Necropolis of Puig d’es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Hellenising Punic protome in the shape of a female head Clay, 600 – 400 BCE Necropolis of Puig d’es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Incense burner (thymiaterion) in the shape of a female head Clay, 300 – 100 BCE El Bordissal, Camarles (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya This small female head, made from a mould, is identified as an incense-burner based on the hollow for holding the aromatic materials. Vessels like this originated in the western Mediterranean region, almost exclusively in areas of Punic influence. The headdress, adorned with fruit and ears of corn, suggests the Greek fertility goddess Demeter, who became assimilated with the Punic goddess Tanit from the 4th century BC onwards. Most incense-burners are found at sacred sites, although examples have also been uncovered in funerary and settlement contexts. We cannot say what associations these foreign images held for the Iberians, but we can assume that they represented some of their own deities, which are unknown to us. 14 PUNIC ARTEFACTS While Punic traded goods are found in many Iberian excavations, the thirty-year rule of the Carthaginians left very few archaeological traces. The most impressive are the ones attesting to the Phoenician – later Punic – presence on Ibiza, for example at the necropolis of Puig d’es Molins and the sanctuary at Es Culleram. 14

1.–2. Punic protomes in the shape of a head Clay, 600 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Puig d'es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Punic male statuette Clay, 600 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Puig d’es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Grimacing Punic mask Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Mas d’en Gual, El Vendrell (Tarragona) Museu del Vendrell 5. Punic pendant in the shape of a bearded head (face bead) Glass paste, 400 – 300 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

Were there Greeks on the Iberian Peninsula?

THE GREEK COLONY OF EMPORION Emporion (today’s Empúries, Girona) lies on the coast of Catalonia, in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula. The settlement was founded in the early 6th century BC by inhabitants of Massalia (Marseilles), which was itself a colony that had been founded a generation earlier by Greeks from the city of Phocaea in Asia Minor. The name “Emporion” was derived from the Greek term meaning “trading post”, indicating the settlement’s original role. Imitating the procedure of the Phoenicians, who built their initial settlements on easy-to-defend sites like islands or peninsulas, the old city of Emporion (the palaiopolis) was constructed on the offshore island of Sant Martí d’Empúries. The leap to the mainland was made in the late 6th century BC with the founding of the neapolis or “new city”. Emporion was an important interface between the Greek and Iberian worlds. The Greeks had a much smaller presence on the Iberian Peninsula than the Phoenicians, who built numerous settlements. “Next along the coast is Emporiae, a city partly inhabited by natives, partly by Greeks descended from the Phocaeans.” Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae III, 22 (AD 23–79)

15 FINDS FROM EMPORION 1. Greek funerary inscription Limestone, 100 – 1 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Translation: “Thespis, (son) of Aristoleos, from Massalia, greetings to you!” 2. Iberian pouring vessel (askos) in the shape of a bird Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Female statuette Clay, 600 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Attic black-figure ointment flask (lekythos) Clay, 475 – 450 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Ointment flask (aryballos) Glass paste, 600 – 300 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Ointment flask (amphoriskos) Glass paste, 600 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

Can we read and understand the Iberian script?

THE LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT OF THE IBERIANS Iberian was a non-Indo-European language that disappeared as a written language more than two thousand years ago. Despite the efforts of researchers and the fact that a rough phonetic transcription of the texts has been created, it remains essentially incomprehensible, because there is no surviving, closely related language. It has been possible, however, to glean information about some aspects of Iberian from comparisons with similar, contemporary inscriptions in known languages, and personal names are easily identifiable, thanks to parallels in Latin inscriptions. Iberian was written in three different scripts depending on the region: north-eastern script, south-eastern script and the Graeco-Iberian alphabet. The great majority of surviving inscriptions are in the north-eastern script. The north-eastern and south-eastern scripts both consisted of a combination of letters and syllable signs and descended from a common ancestor: the Phoenician alphabet. The Graeco-Iberian alphabet, on the other hand, represented the sounds of spoken Iberian in Greek letters. The Iberian script was in use from the 5th to the 1st century BC. “The Iberians employ the art of writing, but not in a single form. They also speak more than one language.” Strabo, Geographica III, 1, 6 (63 BC – AD 23)

16 Funerary stela with Iberian inscription Sandstone, 200 – 100 BCE Santa Perpètua de Mogoda (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: -]śtaneśe[intaneś ebanen.au ŕuninkika oŕdinse ikika. siba ntin 17 Funerary stela with Iberian inscription Stone, 200 – 100 BCE Cabanes (Castelló) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: Ildiŕbigis en: seldar ḿi 18 LEAD TABLETS The longest Iberian inscriptions have been found on lead tablets. Thanks to Greek parallels, we know that some of these were letters about trading activities. These would originally have been rolled up, with the name of the recipient on the outside. Others may have been bookkeeping records, listing people’s names with the corresponding sums of money. 1. Tablet with Greek inscription (replica) Synthetic resin Original: 530 – 500 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya This lead tablet belongs in the category of private letters. Lead sheets were used for writing, because they were easy to inscribe with a stylus, yet durable. This example was found at Emporion and was originally rolled up. Writing in the Ionian dialect, the author of the letter is issuing trading instructions. 19

1 [–]ὠς ἐν Σαιγάνθηι ἔσηι, κἄν[–] [–] Ἐμππορίταισον οὐδ ἐπιβα[–] νες ἤ ἔκοσι κοἶνος οὐκ ἐλα[–]δ[–] 4 [– Σαιγ]ανθηῖον ὠνῆσθαι Βασπεδ[...]π[–] [–]αν ἄρσαν παρακομίσεν [..] εν[–] [–]ωνι τί τούτων ποητέον [..]ν[–] [–]α καὶ κέλευε σὲ Βασπεδ[..] ἐλκ[εν–] 8 [εἴρεσ]θαι [εἴ] τις ἔστιν ἕλξει ἐς δ[.]οστ[–] [–ἠ] μέτερον . κἄν δύο ωἶσι, δύο προ[έσ]θ[ω–] [διπ]λ[ό]ος δ’ ἔστω . κἄν αὐτὸς θέλη[ι–] [–τὤ]μυσυ μετεχέτω . κἄμ μὴ ὀ[–] 12 [–]τω κἀπιστελάτω ὀκόσο ἄν[–] [–]ν ὡς ἄν δύνηται τάχιστα[–] [–κεκ]έλευκα . χαῖρε. 1 (You have to take care) to be in Saiganthe, and if... ... for Emporitans, but not for passengers... ... more than twenty, and wine not for... 4 ... (that) the cargo that was in Saiganthe and that Basped bought ... put to sea to transport goods also in... ... what should we do with all this... ... and invites Basped to tow you 8 ... (ask) if there is someone who will tow our... ... of our (cargo ? ship ?); and, if there were two, let him send two... ... but let him be the one (responsible?); and, if on his part, he wants... ... let him share half; but, if he does not agree... 12 ... let him stay there and send me a letter saying how much... ... as soon as possible for him... ... Here are my errands. Farewell. 2. Tablet with Iberian inscription Lead, 300 – 200 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: uśtalar : ordinbeŕeteŕeikin : śalaiaŕgisdeŕokan : śalir [:] o III : neitiniunstir : aiuniguŕskate :

3. Animal-shaped vessel (askos) with Iberian graffito Clay, 500 – 300 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: neitiniunstir anbaikabalika ilbikon +ŕkelki koen [–] ekiaŕakerbikir [–] ban auskeikaŕ 19 INSCRIPTIONS We know of more than two thousand – often very short – Iberian inscriptions, on a variety of different surfaces. Many of these are the names of owners inscribed on ceramic vessels, or place names stamped on coins. There are also funerary inscriptions on stone stele, religious inscriptions on cave walls, seal stamps on amphoras and painted inscriptions on pottery. 1. Attic black-figure cup (kylix) with Iberian graffito Clay, 500 – 400 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: ]letaŕ 2. Attic black-glazed plate with Iberian graffito Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Tossal de les Tenalles, Sidamon (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: kuleśuŕir 3. Fragment of an amphora (ostracon) with Iberian graffito Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: [.]+Igitibaś lauŕsu : turin aluŕtileis bilotigeŕei 4. Bowl with Iberian inscription Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: sosian 21

INSCRIPTIONS ON COINS Iberian coins bear legends in the Iberian language with the name of the place where they were minted. Often, however, these mints cannot be precisely pinpointed. 5.– 7. Iberian coins (from the Undikesken mint) Bronze, 200 – 50 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 8. Weight with Iberian inscription Stone, iron, 400 – 200 BCE Puig Castellar, Santa Coloma de Gramenet (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Transcription: ustainabaŕarban INTERVIEW JOAN FERRER I JANÉ Universitat de Barcelona What language did the Iberians speak and how was it written? They spoke a non-Indo-European language, like Basque. It has been proposed that in some territories, such as Catalonia, it was merely a language of commerce, but it was used as the vernacular, as it was also used in personal and religious inscriptions. Also, there is no trace of any other language and the impact on toponymy is similar throughout the territory. The Iberian language was written using three scripts: north-eastern, south-eastern and Greco-Iberian. 95% of texts use north-eastern, which, like the south-eastern, is a hybrid, with alphabetic and syllabic signs, and they share an ancestor derived from the Phoenician script. Can we decipher the Iberian language? Yes and no. The inscriptions can be transcribed, we know the value of the signs, but we can’t translate them, as we don’t have any similar languages. Even so, the parallels with other coetaneous epigraphs and the analysis of texts allow us to make progress in deciphering them. From the parallels with Latin, we can identify personal names, such as Sakaŕisker and Iskeŕadin, and from repetitions in cave paintings, the name of divinities, such as Balkar and Urdal. Some common nouns can be identified because they always appear on the same object, such as śalir on coins and baikar on small vessels. Some verbs stand out for their morphological complexity, such as eŕoke, typical of commercial texts. Because of its use in product marking, egiar must mean “made by”.

Is there a relationship between the Iberian language and Basque? It is highly likely, because the Iberian numerals correspond almost exactly with Basque numerals, something almost exclusive to related languages. Also, Iberian numerals combine with each other around the bases 10, abaŕ, and oŕgei, 20, and they appear in contexts conducive to their presence. Even so, it may be that neither Iberian nor Basque were

unitary languages, but dialect continuums, with variations in adjacent areas that were more significant in more distant dialects and that were perhaps connected by transitional forms of speech. However, this relationship has not been productive for interpreting texts, perhaps because of the enormous distance of more than fifteen centuries that separates the last Iberian texts from the first texts in Basque. 20 Iberian amphora Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 21 Punic amphora Clay, 500 – 300 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 22 IBERIAN POTTERY It was through contact with the Phoenicians that the potter’s wheel reached the Iberian Peninsula. Imitations of Phoenician vessel forms were crucial for early Iberian wheel-thrown pottery production, expanding the pottery repertoire that had been in use since the Late Bronze Age (end of the 2nd millennium BC). Sometimes the characteristic red slip of Phoenician pottery was also adopted. 1. Iberian vessel with handles Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian vessel with handles Clay, 475 – 225 BCE Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Iberian funerary urn Clay, 350 – 250 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Phoenician funerary urn (“Cruz del Negro” type) Clay, 700 – 500 BCE Necropolis of Can Piteu - Can Roqueta, Sabadell (Barcelona) Museu d’Història de Sabadell 23

5. Vessel with bull’s head, imported from central Europe Clay, 600 – 400 BCE Tossal Redó, Calaceite (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 23 1. Iberian pouring vessel (askos) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian vessel (dinos) Clay, 425 – 375 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Punic pouring vessel (askos) Clay, 400 – 100 BCE Necropolis of Puig d'es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Attic black-glazed pouring vessel (askos) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Puig d'es Molins, Ibiza (Islas Baleares) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 24 1. Iberian deep bowl Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2.–3. Iberian bowls Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Attic black-glazed bowl with stamped decoration Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5.–6. Attic black-glazed bowls Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Necropolis of Cerro del Santuario, Baza (Granada) Duran Vall-llosera Collection

In the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Attic vases were imported to the Iberian Peninsula in large quantities. Some Iberian potters

were inspired by these foreign shapes. The decoration of their vessels, however, remained largely free from foreign influence. 1. Iberian wine-mixing vessel (krater) Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Necropolis of Cerro del Santuario, Baza (Granada) Duran Vall-llosera Collection 2. Attic red-figure wine-mixing vessel (krater) with banqueting scene Clay, 350 – 300 BCE South-east of the Iberian Peninsula Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 26 1. Iberian one-handled beaker Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian biconical jug Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Iberian bowl with tall foot Clay, 400 – 300 BCE San Antonio, Calaceite (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Iberian bowl with tall foot Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Iberian hand-formed bowl with handles Clay, 250 – 195 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Iberian bowl with tall foot Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7. Attic black-glazed bowl Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 25

8. Attic black-glazed wine cup (skyphos) Clay, 425 – 400 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 9. Attic red-figure bowl Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Necropolis of Cerro del Santuario, Baza (Granada) Duran Vall-llosera Collection 10. Attic black-glazed bowl Clay, 410 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (218–201 BC) In the 3rd century BC, tensions between Rome and Carthage, the two most important military and trading powers in the Mediterranean region, erupted in the First Punic War (264–241 BC), which ended in Roman victory. Twenty years later, the Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca took revenge. He set out from Qart Ḥadašt (Cartagena), his base of operations on the Iberian Peninsula, intending to attack Rome. First, he besieged the Iberian city of Saguntum, which was allied with Rome; then he crossed the River Ebro, prompting Rome to declare war on Carthage. In 218 BC, Roman troops landed at Emporion and, in 216 BC, they defeated Carthaginian forces near what is now Tarragona. Meanwhile, Hannibal had crossed the Alps with infantry, cavalry and elephants. From 218 to 216 BC, he pursued a successful campaign against Roman troops in Italy, but after defeats at Syracuse and Capua, he sought refuge in North Africa in 211 BC. Simultaneously, Publius Cornelius Scipio triumphed in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. Scipio was sent to North Africa, where he defeated Hannibal at Zama in 202 BC, finally deciding the conflict in favour of Rome.

THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (218–201 BC) 237–219 BC Military presence on the Iberian Peninsula. Division of spheres of influence between Rome and Carthage. 226 Ebro Treaty between Rome and Carthage. 219 Siege of the city of Saguntum by the Carthaginian general Hannibal. 218 Hannibal crosses the River Ebro, the Pyrenees and the Alps. Rome declares war. Battle of Ticinus. Battle of the Trebia. A Roman army under Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio lands at Emporion. 217 Hannibal besieges the Roman army at Lake Trasimene. Publius Cornelius Scipio lands at Emporion with reinforcements. 216 Roman victory at the mouth of the Ebro. Hannibal besieges eight Roman legions at Cannae (Apulia). 215 The brothers Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio are victorious at the Battle of Ibera (Catalonia). 211 Battle of the Upper Baetis. Carthaginian victory and death of the Scipio brothers. 210 Publius Cornelius Scipio, son of the dead general of the same name, later known as Scipio Africanus, assumes command of Roman troops on the Iberian Peninsula. 209 Conquest of Carthago Nova by Scipio. 208 Battle of Baecula (Jaén). Scipio is victorious over Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal. 206 Battle of Ilipa (Andalusia). Roman troops, led by Scipio, are victorious. Gades (Cádiz) falls to Rome. End of Carthaginian rule on the Iberian Peninsula. First Iberian revolt, led by the Ilergetian princes Indibilis and Mandonius, against the Roman presence on the Iberian Peninsula. 205 Second Iberian revolt. Death of the brothers Indibilis and Mandonius. 202 Battle of Zama (North Africa). Rome victorious under Publius Cornelius Scipio. Carthage capitulates. Scipio receives the honorary title “Africanus”. 197 Division of Roman territories on the Iberian Peninsula into two provinces: Hispania citerior and Hispania ulterior. Iberian revolts. 195 Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder supresses the Iberian revolts. 28

THE END OF IBERIAN INDEPENDENCE The confrontation between Rome and Carthage convulsed the Iberian Peninsula. In the year 197 BC, the victorious Romans divided Spain into two provinces, while the Iberians in the north-east rebelled against their rule. Two years later, Consul Marcus Porcius Cato succeeded in defeating the rebels, who were forced to abandon their towns and villages. The Romans founded new towns and the Iberians gradually adopted Roman customs. Despite strong opposition by the other tribes on the Iberian Peninsula, Rome was able to complete its conquest by the end of the 1st century BC. The local cultures finally disappeared, pushed out by the language, religion and laws of Rome. 27 1. Eight drachmas (minted at Emporion) Silver, 400 – 300 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2.–3. Punic coins Bronze, 218 – 100 BCE La Palma, L’Aldea (Tarragona) Generalitat de Catalunya 4. Punic arrowhead Bronze, 250 – 150 BCE Aixalelles, Ascó (Tarragona) Generalitat de Catalunya

What was Iberian society like?

IBERIAN SOCIETY Excavations of cemeteries have revealed far-reaching changes, beginning in the 6th century BC. Compared to the preceding periods, the number of burials appears to have decreased considerably, indicating that the elaborate cremation rituals seen earlier were now restricted to only a few individuals. So-called “warrior graves” appeared in Catalonia and Valencia, where the deceased were buried with jewellery, bronze vessels and weapons. In the south of the Iberian Peninsula, monumental funerary monuments appeared. All this is interpreted as evidence of the emergence of an aristocratic ruling class. In a hierarchical society of this kind, most of the population found itself at the bottom of the pyramid, with the lower class consisting of a great mass of farmers and livestock breeders. There is evidence of the intensive appropriation of agricultural surpluses by the elites, but we know little about the degree of autonomy or servitude experienced by peasant families. Many were also artisans and, in times of conflict, served as soldiers and sometimes as foreign mercenaries. 28 VOTIVE OFFERINGS The Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (MAC) has one of the best-documented collections of Iberian bronze statuettes. The figures come from cave sanctuaries in the south and south-east of the Iberian Peninsula, where they were displayed as votive offerings. As well as attesting to cultic practices in these sanctuaries, their great number and variety make them an important source of information about the dress, jewellery and weaponry of the Iberian population. Votive statuettes Bronze, 400 – 50 BCE Sanctuaries of Cueva de la Lobera, Castellar (Jaén) and La Luz, Verdolay (Murcia) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 30

29 THE WEAPONS OF THE IBERIAN WARRIORS Iberian warriors used a number of different defensive and offensive weapons that varied by region. Defensive equipment consisted of a helmet (leather or metal), a cuirass or a breastplate, greaves and a round or oval shield. Offensive weapons included spears, daggers and various types of sword. Spears, which could be wielded or thrown, were important tactical weapons. The lightest – javelins – could be thrown long distances. Heavier types included the soliferrum, made entirely of iron, and spears with wooden shafts and long iron tips. Arrowheads were usually made of bronze and could also be used for hunting. Lead projectiles were fired from slings. “When the Iberians drew their swords, having thrown their iron spears and javelins, the battle, so to speak, began afresh. No longer were they being wounded unexpectedly by unseen shots from afar; instead, in close combat, all hope rested on their courage and physical strength.” Livy, Ab Urbe Condita XXXIV, 14, 11 (59 BC – AD 17) 1. Sword (“La Tène” type) Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Spearhead Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Spearhead Iron, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Spearhead Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Can Garrofa, Aiguaviva (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Iron spear (soliferrum) Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Can Garrofa, Aiguaviva (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

6. Breastplate (cardiophylax) Bronze, 400 – 200 BCE Can Garrofa, Aiguaviva (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7. Shield boss Iron, 300 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 8. Spur Iron, 500 – 200 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 9. Slingshot Lead, 300 – 200 BCE Sant Miquel d’Olèrdola, Olèrdola (Barcelona) Puig Castellar, Santa Coloma de Gramenet (Barcelona) Emporion/Empúries, L’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 10. Iberian curved sword Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya The curved sword or falcata was a popular offensive weapon in the Iberian world between the 5th and 1st centuries BC, particularly in northern Andalusia and the south-east of the peninsula. With its sharp point and curved, asymmetrical blade with a single cutting edge, it resembled Balkan, Italian and Greek prototypes. The hilt was different, however, being shaped like a horse’s head, a bird or a griffin. Some blades were adorned with longitudinal grooves. The most magnificent were inlaid with silver. 30 Stele with armed horseman and spearheads Limestone, 200 – 50 BCE San Antonio, Calaceite (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

31 Stele with armed horseman “Palermo Stele” Limestone, 200 – 50 BCE Palermo (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 32 Funerary urn with images of warriors Clay, 325 – 275 BCE Necropolis of El Castellar, Oliva (València) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 33 JEWELLERY AND ACCESSOIRES 1. Belt buckle Bronze, 550 – 450 BCE Necropolis of Puig de Serra, Serra de Daró (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Belt buckle Bronze, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Espleters, La Salzadella (Castelló) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3.–4. Fibulae (“La Tène” type) Bronze, silver 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Puig de Serra, Serra de Daró (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Earrings Gold, 400 – 300 BCE South-east of the Iberian Peninsula Duran Vall-llosera Collection 6. Neck ring (torque) Bronze, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Espleters, La Salzadella (Castelló) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

34 Vessel with hunting scene “Vaso Cazurro” Clay, 100 BCE – 100 CE Empúries (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya This vessel was found in one of the Greek cemeteries at Empúries and acquired on the art market in the early 20th century by Manuel Cazurro. Its main motif is a stag-hunting scene, framed by geometric designs. The vessel has always been controversial, not only on account of its unusual shape, but also because its iconography is practically unknown in the Iberian world. Wide-ranging hypotheses have been suggested. Could the vase have been directly influenced by classical Greek pottery of the 5th century BC? Is it a very late example of Iberian or Celtiberian material culture? Or might it even be a modern fake? (This last theory has since been disproven.)

How did the Iberians make a living?

AGRICULTURE AND ARTISANRY

The variety of the Iberian world is evident, amongst other things, in the economic strategies adopted by different regions. Crop cultivation and animal husbandry were common everywhere, but there was also clear regional diversification. Spacious grain stores have only been found in certain regions of northern Iberia and can be explained by specialisation in surplus grain production, some of it destined for export. The olive-oil mills uncovered in Edetani settlements in today’s Valencia region indicate a concentration on olive cultivation and wine-growing. In the west, animal husbandry must have played an important role. Mineral and metal processing, including of lead and silver, may have been the main economic basis of regions like Ilercavonia (in the lower Ebro Valley) and, especially, the south of the Iberian Peninsula. There was probably also a high degree of specialisation in textile and pottery production. Particularly noteworthy is the evidence of rotary querns, which optimised the efficiency of grain milling. The earliest known examples from the Mediterranean area – dating from the late 6th to the early 5th centuries BC – come from Iberian sites. The most highly specialised artisans, like potters and goldsmiths, may have worked full-time at their crafts at the behest of the ruling classes. 35 Iberian vessel for brewing beer Clay, 250 – 200 BCE Molí d’Espígol, Tornabous (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

36 MILLSTONES 1. Rubber Stone, 400 – 200 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Rubber Stone, 700 – 400 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Hand-turned rotary quern (handstone and lower, stationary stone) Stone, 500 – 300 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 37 1. Iberian vessel Clay, 250 – 75 BCE Archena (Murcia) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian vessel Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Molí d’Espígol, Tornabous (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Iberian funerary urn Clay, 200 – 50 BCE Villaricos (Almería) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 38 TEXTILE PRODUCTION 1. Spindle whorl Clay, 400 – 100 BCE Molí d’Espígol, Tornabous (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Spindle whorl Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Tossal de les Tenalles, Sidamon (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

3. Spindle whorl Argile, 200 – 100 BCE Sant Miquel d’Olèrdola, Olèrdola (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Spindle whorl Clay, 500 – 300 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Loom weight Clay, 400 – 200 BCE San Antonio, Calaceite (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Loom weight Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Tossal de les Tenalles, Sidamon (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7. Loom weight Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Coll de Moro (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 39 METALWORKING 1. Disc-shaped lead ingot Lead, 300 – 200 BCE Turó de la Rovira (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Ingot Silver, 500 – 400 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Furnace nozzle Clay, 600 – 400 BCE El Piuró del Barranc Fondo, Maçalió (Teruel) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Casting mould Sandstone, 400 – 300 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

5. Mould for pieces of jewellery Stone, 400 – 50 BCE Tossal de les Tenalles, Sidamon (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Bead mould Clay, 400 – 350 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7. Anvil Bronze, 400 – 200 BCE Sant Miquel d’Olèrdola, Olèrdola (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 40 1. Iberian funerary urn Clay, 200 – 50 BCE Peal del Becerro (Jaén) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian vessel (kalathos) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Iberian wine jug (oinochoe) Clay, 375 – 200 BCE Sitges de Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. One-handled Iberian vessel Clay, 400 – 200 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Iberian bowl Clay, 300 – 50 BCE Villaricos (Almería) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Iberian bowl Clay, 300 – 100 BCE Fontscaldes, Valls (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

What advantages did ironworking bring?

THE IRON AGE The gradual replacement of bronze with iron as the dominant metal at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC brought about a technological leap. Mastering iron metallurgy was a crucial milestone, particularly when applied to such important areas as agriculture. Iron tools made possible a qualitative leap in production capacity, which supported sustained population growth and, in turn, promoted the formation of an urban society. 41 TOOLS 1. Stonemason’s hammer Iron, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Billhook Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Tossal de les Tenalles, Sidamon (Lleida) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Saw Iron, 225 – 180 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Knife blade Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Illa d’en Reixac, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 42 AGRICULTURE 1. Votive statuette of a pair of oxen Bronze, 300 – 200 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 39

2. Fork Iron, 290 – 220 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Hoe Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Ploughshares Iron, 300 – 200 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

What was the status of women in Iberian society?

WOMEN IN IBERIAN SOCIETY Classical writers (like Polybius, Livy and Strabo) mention Iberian women only as war victims or in the context of marriage alliances. Their role was much broader, however, and differed according to social status. Most lived modest lives as members of peasant craftworking groups, combining their daily duties (e.g. collecting water and fuel for heating and cooking, preparing meals, taking care of home and family) with agricultural activities or the manufacture of textiles, baskets or handmade pots. Grave goods and funerary sculptures show how wealthy women dressed, arranged their hair and adorned themselves. Women are also depicted participating in official ceremonies and parades, dancing in public and playing musical instruments. Numerous bronze and terracotta figurines show the importance accorded to motherhood. 43 1. Head of a female statue Limestone, 400 – 200 BCE Sanctuary of Cerro de los Santos, Montealegre del Castillo (Albacete) Museu del Castell de Peralada 2. Head of a female statue “Kore of Alicante” Limestone, 535 – 500 BCE Alicante (?) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 44 Statuette of a female worshipper Limestone, 400 – 100 BCE Murcia Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 41

45 1. Statuette of a female worshipper Bronze, 400 – 300 BCE Sanctuary of Cueva de la Lobera, Castellar de Santisteban (Jaén) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Statuette of a woman “Dama de Castellar” Bronze, 400 – 300 BCE Sanctuary of Cueva de la Lobera, Castellar de Santisteban (Jaén) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Female votive statuette Bronze, 400 – 100 BCE Sanctuary of La Luz, Verdolay (Murcia) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Female votive statuette Bronze, 200 – 1 BCE Sanctuary of Cueva de la Lobera, Castellar de Santisteban (Jaén) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 46 “Dama de Elche” (replica) Plaster cast, Ignasi Pinazo, 1908 Original: Limestone, 500 – 300 BCE Alcudia de Elche (Valencia) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya Discovered in 1897 at Alcudia de Elche (Alicante), this approximately life-size female bust, known as the “Dama de Elche” (Lady of Elche), is the most famous Iberian artwork. Sculpted in the round, it shows an elaborately dressed young woman wearing an ornate headdress and three necklaces. One of her garments is fastened by a small penannular fibula. Her eyes were probably originally inlaid with glass paste. A few remnants of red, ochre, Egyptian blue and yellow paint were found on her jewellery, as well as traces of gold leaf on the inside of her neck. In the absence of any archaeological context, interpretation is difficult. Various hypotheses have been proposed regarding the original form of the statue (standing, seated, bust) and the significance of the hollow on the reverse (votive offering, cinerary urn). The rich headdress, necklaces and earrings indicate some sort of special status. The statue may have represented a goddess, a priestess or a woman of high rank.

47 “Dama de Baza” (replica) Stone Original: Limestone, 400 – 300 BCE Necropolis of Cerro del Santuario, Baza (Granada) Duran Vall-llosera Collection An extraordinary discovery was made in 1971, during excavations at the Iberian cemetery of Cerro del Santuario (Baza, Granada): grave no. 155 contained a sculpture of a woman, adorned with precious jewellery, seated on a winged throne and holding a bird in her left hand. An opening beneath the throne seat contained cremated ashes. Numerous grave goods were found in the undisturbed grave, including amphoras, bowls and weapons. The Iberian woman buried here unquestionably belonged to the upper class. 48 “Dama del Cerro de los Santos” (replica) Plaster cast, 1972 Original: Limestone, 200 – 100 BCE Sanctuary of Cerro de los Santos, Montealegre del Castillo (Albacete) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya This statue depicts a woman holding a vessel in her hands, about to make an offering at a shrine. She wears a long garment, a cloak with a veil and a sash. Her rich ornaments consist of a headdress, large pendant earrings, three necklaces and finger rings. The find-spot and the motif suggest that the statue was a votive offering. 49 1. Attic red-figure ointment flask (lekythos) Clay, 425 – 400 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Corinthian ointment flask (aryballos) Clay, 600 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Ointment flask (amphoriskos) Glass paste, 600 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 43

4. Ointment flask (aryballos) Glass paste, 600 – 400 BCE Emporion/Empúries, l’Escala (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Body scratcher (scalptorium) Bronze, bone, 225 – 200 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Body scratcher (scalptorium) Bronze, 200 – 175 BCE Mas Castellar, Pontós (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 50 1. Attic red-figure bowl (lekanis) Clay, 600 – 500 BCE Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Earrings Bronze, gold, 400 – 350 BCE Necropolis of Puig de Serra, Serra de Daró (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Earring Bronze, 400 – 200 BCE Puig Castellar, Santa Coloma de Gramenet (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Earring Gold, 400 – 200 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Spiral bracelet Bronze, 400 – 200 BCE Turó de la Rovira (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Fibula (“La Tène” type) Bronze, 500 – 300 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7.–8. Penannular fibulae (“omega” fibula) Bronze, 400 – 300 BCE Penya del Moro, Sant Just Desvern (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 44

THE SEVERED HEADS Like the Celts, the Iberians of the north-eastern Iberian Peninsula displayed the severed heads of defeated enemies as war trophies, along with their captured weapons, which were rendered unusable. The heads were exhibited in busy public places, nailed to house-fronts or town walls with long iron nails. Settlements with extensive evidence of this practice include Puig Castellar in Santa Coloma de Gramenet and the Iberian town of Ullastret. Investigations of these unusual bone remains have given us valuable information about the ancient Iberians. “They strike off the heads of fallen enemies and hang them from their horses’ necks. They take home the bloody weapons as trophies and hand them to their servants, singing a song of victory and thanksgiving. They nail the severed heads to their houses as if they were hunting trophies.” Diodorus, Bibliotheca Historica V, 29, 4 (1st century BC) 51 THE SEVERED HEADS 1. Human skull with nail Bone, iron, 300 – 200 BCE Puig Castellar, Santa Coloma de Gramenet (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Human skull with nail Bone, iron, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Human skull with nail Bone, iron, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 45

4. Sword with scabbard (“La Tène” type) Iron, 300 – 200 BCE Illa d’en Reixac, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 52 THE CAL POSASTRE MONUMENT Like other Iberian sculptures, the Cal Posastre Monument was deliberately destroyed towards the end of the 2nd century BC and its remains thrown into different graves. In the middle of the stele, there were once three enthroned figures and possibly another figure on horseback. Six male heads, possibly representing the heads of defeated enemies, adorned each side. Fragment of a monument with severed heads Limestone 200 - 100 BCE Cal Posastre, Sant Martí Sarroca (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 53 THE OPPIDUM Various types of settlement existed on the Iberian Peninsula, each with its own traditions. While most settlements in the south could be described as urban, those in the east and north-east were typically fortified villages or oppida. An oppidum was usually situated on an elevated site, surrounded by fortifications, its layout mainly dictated by topography. The essential resources for survival were supplied by the surrounding countryside under its control. 1. Iberian pouring vessel (askos) Clay, 200 – 100 BCE Turó de la Rovira (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian bowl Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Turó de la Rovira (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Iberian bowl with stamped decoration Clay, 200 – 100 BCE Turó de la Rovira (Barcelona) useu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Iberian miniature vessel (amphoriskos) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Turó de la Rovira (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 46

54 IBERIAN COINS Iberian coins were not minted on a large scale until the end of the 3rd century BC, during the period of the Second Punic War. Initially, most coins were silver, imitating the drachmas of Emporion, which were produced in great quantities to pay the Roman soldiers. 1. Coin hoard of 54 drachmas (minted at Emporion) Silver, 230 – 220 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Iberian coin (minted at Kum) Silver, 218 – 198 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 3. Iberian coin (minted at Ilturo) Bronze, 200 – 100 BCE Burriac, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Iberian coin (minted at Kese) Bronze, 150 – 90 BCE Sant Miquel d’Olèrdola, Olèrdola (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Iberian coin (minted at Untikesken) Bronze, 200 – 50 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Iberian coin (minted at Ausesken) Bronze, 200 – 100 BCE Burriac, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7. Iberian coin (minted at Iltirkesken) Bronze, 200 – 175 BCE Turó del Montgrós, El Brull (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

ULLASTRET The Iberian oppidum of Ullastret, inhabited from the 6th to 2nd centuries BC, was situated in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula, in a region with extensive economic and cultural ties to the Phoenicians, the Etruscans and, above all, the Greeks. The Greek colony of Emporion was located about 25 km north of the Iberian settlement. Ullastret consisted of two major settlement nuclei: the upper town on the hill now known as Puig de Sant Andreu and the lower town on the Illa d’en Reixac, a small island in the middle of what was once a lake, before being drained in the 19th century. The lower town was probably linked with the sea via a system of lagoons that could be navigated by flat-bottomed ships. By the first half of the 4th century BC, the two settlements occupied a combined area of over 15 hectares, enclosed by town walls, with a population that is estimated to have reached 6,000 inhabitants. Ullastret was very probably the capital of the Indigetes. ULLASTRET – A VIRTUAL RECONSTRUCTION

Thanks to the interdisciplinary archaeological investigations carried out by the Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (MAC), some in collaboration with other national and international research institutions, a great deal of knowledge about the urban and defensive structures of the settlement has been gathered over recent years, providing a solid foundation for further research into the Iberian world in Catalonia. Based on this knowledge, a virtual reconstruction of the town could be made. The result is an immersive audiovisual experience.

How did the Iberians bury their dead?

BURIAL RITUALS

The funerary rituals and burial practices of the Iberians were very complex and depended on social and regional factors. The form of burial most often documented in Iberian cemeteries is cremation. This practice continued a tradition which had begun in the north-western Mediterranean region towards the end of the Bronze Age, around 1000 BC. Not every member of society, however, was interred in a funerary urn with personal items, votive offerings and, on occasion, the crockery from the funerary meal. This type of ceremony was reserved for the elites; we do not know how the rest of the population were dealt with after cremation. Over time, the differences between the cemeteries became more and more marked. Graves ranged from simple pits dug in the ground, with minimal marking, in the north-east, to large, complex and magnificent stone monuments in the south-east. The contrast can be explained by the ideological and social differences between the respective regions. INTERVIEW CARMEN BELARTE Institut Català d’Arqueologia Clàssica Were all Iberians equal in death? No, they were not all equal in death. Iberian cemeteries, or necropolises, were cremation cemeteries. Remains were deposited in ceramic urns which were buried together with other objects. Among these, metallic items are common, such as personal ornaments, weapons, knives... Also ceramic items, such as tableware, and fabrics. The differences between tombs, such as the number of objects, could indicate differences in the wealth or social class of the buried. The categories of objects do not appear to be specific to gender. In the southern area, monuments were built on some tombs, probably according to wealth. Were all the deceased buried? Many Iberian settlements are known, but few necropolises. In Catalonia, the only ones located are close to the cities, the main settlements. This is the case of Ullastret and Burriac. What happened to those who lived in villages, farms, etc.? Not everyone was buried in the necropolises near the city, since the number of graves is much lower than the population

calculated from the settlements. It seems that cremation and burial in necropolises was reserved for a small part of the population. We do not know what ritual was used for the rest. Also, burial was mainly for adult men and women – there are hardly any young people or children. Why are there babies buried in houses? There could be several reasons. One is that children who died before a certain age could not be buried in necropolises, and were buried under the paving of the houses. But they do not appear in all settlements, which is surprising given the high infant mortality rate. Another possibility is child sacrifice, a practice that has not been confirmed, but is documented in other ancient cultures. It may also be that only children of certain families were buried in houses, perhaps according to social status. Studies such as DNA testing could determine whether there were family ties between children buried in a settlement. 55 Statue of a bull, part of a funerary monument (?) Limestone, 500 – 300 BCE Santaella (Córdoba) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 56 Statue of a bull, part of a funerary monument (?) Limestone, 500 – 300 BCE Porcuna (Jaén) Museo de Jaén 57 Statue of a man fighting a griffin Limestone, 500 – 400 BCE Porcuna (Jaén) Museo de Jaén 58 1. Apulian wine-mixing vessel (krateriskos) Clay, 325 – 275 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Spearhead Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Necropolis of Can Rodon de l’Hort, Cabrera de Mar (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 50

3. Iberian curved sword (falcata) Iron, 400 – 200 BCE Can Garrofa, Aiguaviva (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 59 Handmade lidded Iberian vessel Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Coll de Moro (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 60 Iberian funerary urn Clay, 400 – 300 BCE Castellot de la Roca Roja, Ben 61 Skeleton of a child Bones, 400 – 300 BCE Sant Miquel d’Olèrdola, Olèrdola (Barcelona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya BURIALS OF INFANTS Newborn babies who died during or shortly after birth were buried under the floors of houses and workshops – in other words, in their home environment. The mortal remains were wrapped in a bundle, sometimes accompanied by an amulet, and placed either directly in the ground or inside a vessel. These practices, typical of the east and north-east of the Iberian Peninsula, were deeply rooted in earlier cultures and survived into the 19th century in some rural districts. The most plausible interpretation is that newborns, since they had not received the necessary rites, were not yet seen as members of the community and could not therefore leave the private sphere.

What were the Iberians’ beliefs?

THE WORLD OF THE IBERIAN GODS We know very little about the religion of the Iberian people and the gods they worshipped. In the absence of written records, most of our knowledge is derived from archaeological finds. We must imagine the Iberian deities as having been as varied as the Iberians themselves. We know hardly anything about individual gods and goddesses, but we can assume that some were adopted from other cultures, particularly from the Greeks and the Phoenicians. Exactly what concepts the Iberians associated with these foreign, “imported” deities is not known, however. They included Demeter, perhaps as the goddess of agriculture and fertility, and the Egyptian god Bes, possibly as the protector of the home. The Iberians worshipped their deities in a variety of places, particularly in natural surroundings. Religious practices have been attested at shrines near springs or in caves (El Collado de los Jardines in Jaén or El Cerro de los Santos in Albacete), where votive offerings have been discovered, sometimes in large numbers. This practice can be traced back to prehistoric times. In urban settings, there is evidence of small temples (Ullastret or Tivissa). INTERVIEW CARMEN RUEDA GALÁN Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Arqueología Ibérica – Universidad de Jaén

What did the Iberians believe in? Iberian societies had complex belief systems. It must therefore be ruled out that Iberian religion and worship were simplistic and unsophisticated. They had a precise way of understanding their world, with a strong connection with nature. They felt defined by and interrelated with their territory. They inhabited and transformed their landscape, giving it meaning. It also had a symbolic value. They had their own mythology, of strong aristocratic character, which incorporated their relationship with divinity and with the past. These mythologies had regional variations, but there are recurring icons, like the hero facing the wolf, which we can find in examples from different territories. They also created their own explanations about death, with precise narratives that carry us to

the afterlife through different realms: through the fertile space of the sea, heroic exaltation or symbols, once again such as the wolf. We find an exceptional example in this exhibition with the Treasure of Tivissa. What do we know about their divinities? We're slowly learning more about Iberian divinities. Through archaeology, we're discovering more thanks to the study of sanctuaries, their images and offerings. We can't speak of a pantheon of gods, in the Greek or Roman style, but of a heterogeneous map of devotions connected to local territories or even sanctuaries. We don't know their names, except in a few cases, such as the deity Betatun. The female divinity took centre stage with multiple variants: as a goddess dominating different planes of the world, the celestial order, as well as different realms of nature, both real and mythical. They also used external icons such as Aphrodite, Heracles and Astarte-Tanit. A notable case, for example, is the god Bes, documented in Ullastret, which you can see in this exhibition. These foreign divinities were not incorporated directly and without filters, they were assimilated with original meanings specific to the Iberian context. Where were divinities worshipped? Iberian societies used different religious mechanisms of communication with their divinities, through sanctuaries and rituals. Sanctuaries were conceived as places of memory, special places where the supernatural became tangible and where divinity showed itself through sound or the light of the sun, in cases of hierophanies or divine apparitions, for example, as can be seen in sanctuaries such as the Cueva de la Lobera. Senses were heightened in these spaces and this is reflected in the votive images left behind, as is the case of the bronze votive offerings on display in this exhibition. These small figures pick out key moments of that relationship with the divinity: the large, open eyes that sometimes look up to the cave, eager to see, or the huge ears, longing to hear what is being revealed, or the mouth open, praying, in that precise moment of communication with the divinity. 62 1. Statuette of the Egyptian god Bes Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Head of the Gorgon Medusa (Gorgoneion) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

3. Head of the Gorgon Medusa (Gorgoneion) Clay, 300 – 200 BCE Puig de Sant Andreu, Ullastret (Girona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Male head Limestone, 500 – 200 BCE Sanctuary of Cerro de los Santos, Montealegre del Castillo (Albacete) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 63 VOTIVE OFFERINGS 1. Relief depicting a horse tamer Limestone, 300 – 100 BCE Villaricos, Cuevas de Almazora (Almería) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2.–3. Male votive statuettes Bronze, 500 – 50 BCE Sanctuary of Cueva de la Lobera, Castellar (Jaén) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Votive statuette of an infant Bronze, 400 – 50 BCE Sanctuary of Cueva de la Lobera, Castellar (Jaén) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Votive statuette of a leg Bronze, 300 – 100 BCE Sanctuary of La Luz, Verdolay (Murcia) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6. Votive statuette of a pair of legs Bronze, 400 – 300 BCE Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 7. Votive statuette of a hand Bronze, 400 – 50 BCE Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

THE TIVISSA HOARD The so-called Tivissa Treasure was found by an agricultural labourer in the Iberian settlement of Castellet de Banyoles, near the town of Tivissa, in 1927. It consists of four bowls (omphalos bowls), eleven beakers, a neck ring (torque) and a spiral bracelet with serpenthead terminals. All the pieces are made of hammered silver and are among the most impressive examples of Iberian silverware. Recent excavations carried out at Castellet de Banyoles have uncovered an urban shrine, where the silverware may have originated. In most documented cases, hoards of this type can be linked to warlike events. In the case of the Tivissa Treasure, the items were probably hidden amidst the upheavals of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), during which the settlement was destroyed. The style of the decoration reflects both indigenous imagery and foreign elements derived from the Mediterranean world. Iberian art was remarkable for its ability to absorb foreign influences and combine them with local decorative motifs. “Moreover, the generals were presented with considerable quantities of gold and silver. There were 276 golden bowls, almost all measuring a pound in weight, 18,300 pounds of unworked and minted silver, and numerous silver vessels.” Livy, Ab Urbe Condita XXVI, 47, 7 (59 BC – AD 17) 64 1. Omphalos bowl with a depiction of three war chariots (quadrigae) Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 2. Omphalos bowl with an animal head Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 55

This bowl is an excellent example of the complex world of Iberian imagery, combining indigenous elements with images of Mediterranean origin. The central boss takes the form of the head of a fierce animal with a short mane. It is surrounded by three scenes. In the top one, a deity is seated on a throne, accepting a sacrificial offering. On one side is a centaur, on the other a cowering figure. In the scene on the right, an animal is being sacrificed to a deity by a demon, assisted by two other individuals. In the scene on the left, a mounted figure with a spear and armour is hunting a lion, which in turn is attacking a wild boar.

3. Omphalos bowl with a wolf’s head Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 4. Omphalos bowl with a depiction of fishes Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 5. Drinking bowl Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Bany oles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 6.–12. Drinking cups Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya 13. Neck ring (torque) Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

14. Arm ring Silver, 250 – 195 BCE Castellet de Banyoles, Tivissa (Tarragona) Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya

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