Architext 2 by Ariel Univeristy -Architecture School

School of Architecture Ariel University Center of Samaria

CREDITS

FROM THE EDITOR

Editors

My discourse is not meant to disperse

differences and turns our attention to the

ARCHITECTURE, ECOLOGY, AND ETHICS

Itzik Elhadif

forgetfulness, to rediscover at the heart

layering of discourse.

Edna Langenthal

PROF. DAVID LEATHERBARROW

of things their moment of birth. It is not

Board of Editors Prof. Marcel Mendelson Dr. Ruth Dorot Beni Reuven Levy

meant to create a memory of the origin or

Positioning is expressed through action and

of the truth. On the contrary, its role is to

experience. Some reach it through words,

AFTER ETHICS AND AESTHETICS

create differences…”

others through materials, both motivated

PROF. ALBERTO PEREZ-GOMEZ

Michel Foucault

by optimism, by the ﬂicker of hope that they

BUILT UPON LOVE: ARCHITECTURAL LONGING

A CONTEMPORARY CITY OF THREE MILLION

Architext, a journal of the School of

communicate both with contemporaries

INHABITANTS

Architecture offers a new reading on

and with those who will follow.

LE CORBUSIER

Copyediting

architecture, a viewpoint that recalls the

Meira Hass (Hebrew)

ﬁrst Divine question asked of Adam: Where

The debate on place and positioning is

ABOUT SHAPE

are you?

inherent to architectural activity and to

ITZIK ELHADIF

Michaela Ziv (English) Graphic Design | Keren & Golan Studio Print | A.R. Printing L.T.D.

invites the reader to join the discourse on

HERZL’S “JEWISH STATE”, AS A UTOPIAN PLAN

Cover Illustration | Corpos Network

himself, to look inwards and examine the

architecture as a ﬁeld that exists within

GILEAD SCHWEID

context in which he lives and acts, while

difference, from an interpretative viewpoint

School of Architecture

at the same time liberating himself from

which

Ariel University Center of Samaria

the deep immersion in familiar objects

architectural discourse.

POB: 3 Ariel

and sights. What is needed to do this is a

outside the ﬂow of immediate experience. Eating from the Tree of Knowledge creates a gap that enables the question which opens

/ 66

PROF. DAVID LEATHERBARROW

ARCHITECTURE BETWEEN PAST AND FUTURE

/ 68

PROF. DAVID LEATHERBARROW

/ 14

/ 73

BENI REUVEN LEVY

JERUSALEM, THE CAPITAL OF ISRAEL: / 22

any writing about it. This second edition

viewpoint that enables observation from

SEMINAR WITH

/ 74

A TEST CASE FOR WHAT IS A CAPITAL CITY?

This question requires man to reposition

Israel 40700

NEGEV COUNTRY

can excite, enlighten, change, motivate and

Edna Langenthal Itzik Elhadif

CONTENTS

reveals

the

layered

nature

PEOPLE, DONKEYS, WHEELS AND STAIRS YAEL DANIELI LAHAV

/ 42

/ 57

SANNY GISPAN

PORT IN AN URBAN ISLAND

/ 77

GILAD NETZER

CITY OF DAVID - SILWAN

/ 79

LIAD MALCHI

NEGEV COUNTRY

/ 83

BENI REUVEN LEVY

AGRICULTURE AND RESIDENCE IN THE

/ 85

SHADOW OF THE AQUEDUCT - EIN BOKEK, DEAD SEA

up between two poles. In the Biblical story,

FINAL PROJECT

the question “Where are you?” is not only

HILKI AMRANI

about physical location, but also an ethical question along the continuum of good and evil. The question about the relative location of a person opens up where there is space for it, one that stresses and creates the

ARCHITECTURE, ECOLOGY, AND ETHICS PROF. DAVID LEATHERBARROW

views are far from clear. Nor is it immediately

responsibilities is already apparent in what

But here, too, we need to beware of uncritical

apparent how manifestations of the two –

I’ve said about the management of supplies

assumptions. Habits of this sort were not only,

the city and nature – can exist as aspects of

and servants, or of the building’s alterations

or not primarily, those that were performed

one continuum.

for seasonal change. Ancient economics

repetitively, even if they were repeated, for that

involved good housekeeping for one’s family

was a secondary or derivative characteristic

Ecology is a word that derives from an an-

and for others as both groups existed together

of the ethical in its original sense. More

cient Greek term, oikos, which signiﬁed the

in the natural world. To some degree, this is

important than the repetitiveness of habits

household. The ancient art of economics

still true today, ecology means participating

was their appropriateness. Dwelling practices

involved techniques of domestic stewardship.

in the common good of the whole.

became habitual because they were most

As we know from Xenophon’s famous treatise

Edward Hopper, Table for Ladies, 1930

often found to be suitable for the kind of

Oeconomicus, economy of this sort organized

The ancient Greeks also had a name for

life individuals choose to live in particular

a well-run house or farm. That book was

conduct of this sort – I mean the sort of

circumstances, practices that were proper

essentially a treatise on estate management,

behavior that characterized one’s ways of

or suitable in situations that regularly

ranging over a wide spectrum of topics,

managing one’s own affairs and interacting

recurred. Here, the accent is on the typicality

such as the arrangement and storage of

with others – and that term was ethos.

of the situation, not the repetition of the

furnishings and supplies, the hiring of slaves,

When hearing that word our tendency

the cultivation of soils, and the management

these days is to immediate translate it into

of one’s family. In short, economics for the

its English language derivative, ethics, and

Recurring performances or practices are

Greeks was the discipline that allowed a

then assume that the original term meant

also what architectural design seeks to

performance.

person or family to keep a well-ordered

something like morals or a code of conduct.

accommodate. With this observation I do

Two visions of our common world compete

puts man at the center of things), in the

Yet, I suspect that anyone who gives this

domicile, given limited means, energy, and

Ecological ethics, we might assume, would

not mean to state anything original or

with one another in contemporary archi-

second, biocentrism (which puts man in the

alternative more than a little thought would

time. This usage emerged in English as

elaborate such a code, as is the case with

controversial. A basic premise of all that I

tecture. The ﬁrst assumes that the city or

context of other living things, as if there were

realize the choice is a false one – at least in our

early as the 15th century and survived intact

William McDonough’s manifestoes for eco-

will say is that architecture gives durable

the urban environment presents us with

no center but a widely extended range). The

ﬁeld. In truth, architecture cannot be either

until the 19th, when the management of

logical architecture, for example. It is true

dimension and expression to the typical

what is common, and commonly held to be

conﬂict between these alternate conceptions

artiﬁcial or natural because each built work

the monetary affairs began to dominate

that conduct was signiﬁed by the ancient

practices of our lives. In our professional

good. Contrasting sharply with this notion

takes institutional form in the opposition

is necessarily both. For this reason, I think,

economic discussions, and the modern

word, but to grasp its real import we need

discourse – more or less from antiquity to

is the idea that the environment is what

between individual experience and scientiﬁc

we are compelled to seek ways of avoiding

science of economics came into being. Given

to envisage a more local, particular, or non-

the present – this principle has been one of

we all share, that the natural world is the

understanding, still more broadly, between

the choice, at least of not being disoriented

this long tradition, it would be wrong to

normalized sense of behavior than our

the primary aspects of architectural order.

comprehensive framework of what all people

subjectivity and objectivity. In architecture the

by it, of not reducing architecture to either,

conclude that this knowledge only governed

sense of ethics typically implies; also, one

From the time of the ancient Greeks to the

and things hold in common. Behind these

corresponding distinction would be between

as strident versions of formalism (art for its

the management of the self or individual

that acknowledges the cultural constitution

present architects have developed a fairly

visions are two interpretations of human

art and nature, the ﬁrst seen as a domain of

own sake) and environmentalism so often

family, as it does now, for the term oikos also

of patterns of behavior. An adequate

reﬁned vocabulary for this condition; think of

existence; in the ﬁrst, there is the world-view

unpredictability and originality, the second of

do. Escaping the alternative is not simple,

pertained to an individual’s relationships

translation of the Greek term might be habit

all the terms that provide shades of meaning

normally called anthropocentrism (which

regularity or law.

however, for ways of balancing these two

with others. Perhaps that extended range of

of dwelling.

for the Latin word decorum and its Greek

antecedent prepon.2 Décor for Vitruvius

And I will say more, that attention to the

by what measure are we able to say this or

odd, but it will become clearer if you think of a

determinations in view of the person and the

cladding that lines the walls all around, the

was the principle by which one could judge

horizon of prosaic affairs, praxis, provides a

that construction or invention is appropriate?

person’s health. A measure of the ﬁrst kind is a

world in which he or she lives. Equilibrium of

mirrors above the picture rail, the lights

that the form of a building was appropriate

key to the conﬂict or alternative to the bio-

Certainly, we can turn to other criteria of

thermometer. It is brought to the person by a

the individual includes participation in the

hanging from a coffered ceiling, and the grid

for its use. But the term also had currency

and anthropocentric worldviews. Perhaps

judgment: aesthetic interests, technical efﬁ-

family member or doctor and used to measure

economy of the whole.

of black and white ﬂoor tiles that covers the

outside our ﬁeld. In fact, architecture writers

this will be a controversial argument, for

ciency, or other reasons. While important, for

temperature. Used once on a son or daughter

seem to have borrowed these words from

much of the current embrace of ecological

the moment I would like to put these kinds of

the parent can use the same instrument

Can we envisage similar sorts of measure in

authors on rhetoric in particular and on the

consciousness suggests otherwise: that

assessment temporarily out of play because I

on herself. With this usage in mind we can

architecture? Are there external and internal

other arts in general. But the term also had

awareness of the environment can be

want to focus on the issue of measure itself.

describe the thermometer as an objective

measures? I think so and want to suggest

If some of what I’ve described seems

currency outside of art, for any thing or any

used to reorder the ways we live our lives,

Considering this topic broadly, there are two

measure. The natural sciences, especially

that all judgments about appropriateness

beyond the interests of the two at the

act could be considered with respect to its

that ecological consciousness should even

sorts of measure that can and should be

in the modern world, rely on these sorts of

or suitability are of this second sort. If this

table it is because we tend to think of the

appropriateness or ﬁt: celebration was an

determine the character of buildings in

distinguished from one another.

measure as the basis for their truth claims,

can be shown we have, I think, a key to the

situations of our lives, situations such as

appropriate response to victory, repayment

the future. I do not want to diminish the

as if truth and certainty were the same thing.

connection between ethos and oikos, for the

a meal, as essentially personal. I want to

to debt, fabric was a ﬁtting choice for shirts,

importance of this consciousness, only

First there is a kind of measure that involves

Returning to medicine, it is also possible, and

matter of limits or suitable measure binds

suggest something different; that even the

leather for shoes, and so on. The key was that

say that the real test of its relevance is its

conformity to some external standard, some

according to the ancient Hippocratic texts

the two together.

simplest of situations depends on ambient

decisions of suitability were always made

congeniality to matters of ethos.

rule or norm that could be applied to a wide

wise to ask the person feeling unwell what

ﬂoor – all elements give the interior a vivid sense of modest and purposeful urbanity.

conditions, topography, or extended terrain

range of phenomena or instances. This can

she or he believes to be the problem; this is

To clarify how the internal measure of an

that is relevant because it is saturated with

circumstances. The concept has also survived

I’ll proceed with a question: on what basis

be called a standard of relative comparison.

to say, whether he or she feels warm or cold,

architectural setting arises out of typical

implications and traces of related human

into modern thought, as I’ve said. Yet today

do we judge the settings in which we live

Here one may think of a yardstick or a scale

for example, and how much so. To make this

forms of behavior let me brieﬂy describe

affairs. Such a ﬁeld or structure has the power

other terms are used with more frequency in

to be appropriate, proper, or ﬁtting? Are

of some sort. The fact that any object can be

determination the person has to measure

a typical urban event. In Edward Hopper’s

to integrate an extended vicinity, in this case

architecture, especially the idea of character.

determinations of this sort essentially per-

sized with these instruments makes them

him or herself, for the standard against which

Table for Ladies (1930) a man and a woman

an urban location.

Rather than speak of decorum or even of

sonal? To some degree the answer to this

external to the object being measured.4

a person judges his or her current state is the

face one another over a table at the edge of

suitability, we say a setting has the right

question must be yes. But oikos, as we’ve seen,

The second kind of measure I have in mind is

condition in which he or she feels normal

a restaurant interior. It appears some wine

The positions and qualities in the architecture

character when its dimensions, forms, and

was a principle of order that pertained to not

one that is pertinent only to the phenomena

or most able to live a desired sort of life. Let

is on the table, maybe a pot of coffee. There

I’ve described assume the existence of differ-

materials are appropriate for a given event

only the individual but also to the collective.

under consideration. If the ﬁrst was external,

me proceed with this distinction. Measure

are also several unoccupied tables, a woman

ences and distances between the setting’s

or situation.

Is this still true, is the good of the community

this one is an internal sort of measure. Let me

in the ﬁrst place results from the gathering

dressed in black behind a nearby countertop

constituent elements. Each position or quality

concretely, in view of given and particular

also part of judgments about what is proper

turn to the ancient Greeks again. When Plato

and ordering of a range of data according

and register, also a waitress dressed in white

possesses something others nearby lack. This

My purpose in this short study is to suggest

in a setting or architectural conﬁguration? If

differentiated two sorts of measure in The

to a standard of comparison. In the second,

reaching into the front window display of

means difference promotes mutuality, or

that ethos, so deﬁned – and I’ll say a little

so, would this be an essentially conservative

Statesman he relied on two different words,

a range of examples is not decisive but the

fruit, while looking out the window into the

can do, by virtue of reciprocal lack. Now my

more about it – is the key to oikos. Rendered

stance, suggesting that the primary task of

metron and metrion; in the ﬁrst a procedure

full scope or totality of a person’s actual life.

street. Neither the pair in conversation nor

important point: less light, less transparency,

in more familiar vocabulary, I want to

architecture is to afﬁrm the status quo? Is

or instrumentality was brought to the object

Recalling what I said earlier about oikos as a

any of the others is prominent in the interior.

and less width would alter and weaken the

argue that reﬂection on dwelling habits

there not a critical dimension to architecture

or event to be measured, in the second a

principle that governed one’s self and one’s

Likewise for the architecture, a principle of

operation of this setting, or any other for

will help us discover the real import and

and to architectural invention? If, in turn, this

procedure or process was brought to the

relationship to others, I can say that this

tacit serviceability governs the elements: the

that matter. Likewise, more of each would

applicability of ecological understanding.

is so, the ﬁrst question remains unanswered:

object by the object itself. I’m sure this seems

second sense of measurement also makes

expanse of glass at the front, the wooden

disturb the workings of the place, making this

BUILT UPON LOVE: ARCHITECTURAL LONGING AFTER ETHICS AND AESTHETICS PROF. ALBERTO PEREZ-GOMEZ

interior less like a restaurant than a cafeteria,

tecture is nothing other than a determination

human affairs could be the city, but it could

Can we imagine an architecture that is both

innovations resulting from sophisticated

was a term associated with the Judeo-

for example. This “less and more” is what

of the more or less of materials, dimensions,

also be ecology, for in the radical order of our

beautiful and contributes to the common

computations, and the notion of merely

Christian God as Creator, and sometimes

determines the setting’s character.

and

lives the two, I think, are really the same.

good? Given our complex world, burdened

serving

with the Bishop or the Abbot that may be the

natural

phenomena

they

are

client

through

codes

by environmental degradation and social

professional deontology. Ethics cannot be

patrons of a building enterprise. At the time

In view of differences and distances I’ve

dwelling practices. Again, ethos is the key to

Notes

inequity, the question of architecture’s con-

tabulated and made into a rigid code - it is

of the Renaissance, despite the associations

mentioned, can we not say that such an event

oikos. Put differently, and perhaps polemically,

1. On this point and many others that follow

tribution to humanity’s well being is not

not a matter of correct versus incorrect.

sometimes put forward between architecture

has its own internal measure? Here internal

policy determinations based on objective

I am indebted to the now classic study of

an obvious one, but it seems to have an

means particular not insular, for the dining

measures of too much and too little in the

the relationship between architecture and

urgency that it lacked during the earlier,

To unpack this hypothesis I believe we must

always remained distinct in approach and

event depends as much on the street and

use of resources weaken design by removing

more optimistic phases of modernity. Our

ﬁrst recognize the historical complexity of our

methods of representation, and included the

the kitchen as the table around which the

it from its essential horizon of reference, the

central modern institutions have become

discipline: both shifting with cultural changes,

design of machines, fortiﬁcations, gardens,

two sit. If we see the table as a setting with

typicalities of human affairs.

problematic. Democratic national govern-

and in some ways also remaining the same.

stage-set designs and ephemeral structures,

ments act like police states and corporations

Though the questions are similar, architecture

as well as buildings.

operate like pathological criminals. Should

provides diverse answers appropriate to

architects design comfortable hospitals

speciﬁc times and places. It is naïve to

Indeed, a more careful appraisal of our archi-

identify our shared tradition of architecture

tectural traditions and their changing political

appropriate for the enactment of typical

ethics, Karsten Harries, The Ethical Function of Architecture (Cambridge, Mass., 1997). 2. Hans Georg Gadamer has addressed this topic in several publications. Most relevant

a particular character, mood, or style, can we

for the points I’d like to make is The Enigma

with painting and sculpture, architecture

not say that such an ethos measures the right

Let me conclude by summarizing ﬁve points I

amount of light, materials, and dimensions

have tried to make:

according to its own standard, as does the

1) the opposition between anthropocentric

“appropriateness” or “ﬁttingness” of treatment

more concerned with business than with

health of a person? If so, my suggestion would

and biocentric worldviews loses its force

or therapy. Among the many studies of prepon/

healing, or well-detailed prisons that will

with a chronological collection of buildings,

and epistemological contexts, suggests a

be that all of the typical and essential events

when the style and equilibrium of human

decorum in art and architectural theory, most

never hold the real criminals that destroy

understood as useful creations, whose main

different way to understand architecture’s

of our lives have an ethos or measure of this

affairs are seen to require participation in

useful I think is Alste Horn-Oncken, Über das

the environment or exploit and decimate

signiﬁcance was to delight through more

“universe of discourse - operating in the realm

sort; for each of them we can be fairly exact

widely ambient phenomena and conditions

Schickliche (Göttingen, 1967).

the economic and social fabric of the world?

or less irrelevant aesthetic ornament. This

of what Giambatista Vico called in the early

about how much light, air, dimension, and

(the environment – both built and un-built);

3. see Gadamer, The Enigma, 98-99, 108, 132-133;

deﬁnition, associating architecture with the

1700’s “imaginative universals.” Architecture

material (of one kind or another) is enough,

2) human affairs (dwelling situations) have

also useful on these points is Werner Marx, Is

I would like to open a space to meditate on

Fine Arts, dates only from the 18th century,

may then be understood as a discipline that

how much is proper to the situation. In the

their own measure, the practical economy

There a Measure on Earth (Chicago, 1987). The

what might be an appropriate architecture

and hardly does justice to the broad changing

over the centuries has seemed capable of

same way we can determine the appropriate

of which allows for determinations of lack,

changing concepts of measure in the history of

for our world, for a global civilization that

historical deﬁnitions of the ﬁeld in human

offering humanity, through widely different

permanence of the element or the setting.

surplus, and appropriate measure;

continues to actualize a crisis that has been

civilization. A few simple examples may shed

incarnations and modes of production, far

Such determinations are, I think, a large part

3) the science of ecology is too theoretical,

brewing since the European industrial

some light upon this observation. In Ancient

more than superﬂuous pleasure or a tech-

and political revolutions of the eighteenth

Greece, for instance, there was no word for

nical solution to pragmatic necessities.

century. My wager is that architecture has

architecture. There was, however, a word to

Architecture is manifest in those rare places

indeed something speciﬁc to contribute:

name the architect, meaning the principal

that speak back to us and resonate with

Beauty matters and coincides with the

craftsman. The architekton’s responsibilities

our dreams, it incites us to real meditation,

of what design projects. Design judgment,

and because of that risks irrelevance unless it

then, indicates instances of economy and its

incorporates into its horizon of understanding

opposite, waste.

a robust contemporary ethics; 4) the dependency of the part on the whole

of Health (Stanford, 1996) where the related issues are discussed under the headings of

science are set out in several studies by Stephen Toulmin. 4. I have discussed this topic at some length in consideration of the role of the “canon” in architectural theory and design; see “Adjusting Architectural Premises,” Practices 5/6 (1997) 174-184.

Does ecology represent an alternative un-

inaugurates a spread of mutual involvements

common good, but this equation has to

included the crafting of defensive weapons,

derstanding? Perhaps you will have already

that gives to the entire landscape a potential

be understood properly and modulated

wondrous bronze sculptures, ships, textiles

opening up the "space of desire" that allows

guessed my answer is no. And I want to say

for widespread economy, and

by a sense of responsibility that goes far

and some buildings. During the European

us to be "at home" while remaining always

more: ecological understanding in archi-

5) a name for this extended economy of

beyond global planning, gestural formal

Middle Ages, on the other hand, Architect

"incomplete" and open to our personal death,

personal

thought

and

imagination,

unveiling a glimpse of the sense of existence

desire. Thus Vitruvius declares that besides

is inseparable from the experience of the

also the space of architecture, their place in

towards truth, (pt)eros provides the wings.

Eros and the imagination are inextricably

and revealing our limits.

solidity and commodity, the main quality

poem itself. The moment of recognition

the universe and in the civic world.

Beauty is truth incarnated in the human

linked. This is more than a physiological

of architecture is venustas. This has been

is embedded in culture, it is playful by

realm; it is a trace of the light of Being that

fact. Our love of beauty is our desire to be

My discussion leads by necessity to the

translated as beauty by later theoreticians,

deﬁnition, and is always circumstantial.

Thus it follows that architecture’s disclosure

mortals can seldom contemplate directly.

whole and to be holy, beauty transcends the

valorisation of the poetic imagination of the

but the Latin word for beauty is pulchritudo,

When successful, architecture allows for par-

of beauty and meaning is ephemeral, yet it

In other words: it is the purposefulness of

contradiction of necessity and superﬂuity;

architect: a controversial position for our

more connected to hygiene. Vitruvius used

ticipation in meaningful action, conveying

has the capacity of changing one’s life in the

nature mimetically reﬂected by an artefact.

it is both necessary for reproduction, and

world of complex, interrelated environmental

venustas instead, clearly to connote the

to the participant an understanding of his

vivid present - exactly like magic, or an erotic

Following from this reading of Plato, Gadamer

crucial for our spiritual well-being, the

problems, in which planning and democratic

quality of Venus - the goddess of love: thus

or her place in the world. In other words,

encounter. Like falling in love, it strikes a blow

has argued that while we can be deceived by

deﬁning characteristic of our humanity.

consensus seems to be the obvious answer. In

architecture must be able of to seduce and

it opens up a clearing for the individual’s

that reveals reality as is (Socrates). Thus, it

what only seems wise, or what merely appears

Contrary to the view that there exists an

other words, from my point of view to speak

inspire desire.This was still clearly understood

experience of purpose through participation

can be said to embody knowledge, but rather

to be good, even in our world of appearances

irreconcilable contradiction between the

of architecture as a mere product of social

during the Renaissance by most architects

way,

than clear logic, it is knowledge understood

all beauty is true beauty, because it is in the

poetic imagination and an ethics based

or economic forces misses the point. While

and theoreticians: it is a quality altogether

architecture offers societies a place for

in the Biblical sense: a carnal, fully sexual

nature of beauty to appear. This is what makes

on rationality and consensus, it is the lack

granting the collaborative nature of our

different from formal composition in the

existential orientation and its meaning is

and therefore opaque experience of truth.

the beautiful distinct among ideas, according

of imagination that may be at the root

discipline, a personal imagination with deep

sense of modern aesthetics. Architecture, in

bounded by time. Vitruvius provides a ﬁne

For this reason its “meaning” can never be

to Socrates. This Platonic formulation is of

of our worse moral failures. Imagination

cultural roots has been at work in the most

this sense, has been also conceived and built

example when he describes the manner

objectiﬁed, reduced to functions, ideological

course challenging for our epoch of cultural

is precisely our capacity for love and

moving architecture from the past. As I have

after the Baroque period and during the

in which the theatre, that paradigmatic

programs, formal or stylistic formulas. And

relativism. Indeed, it is easy to dismiss taste

compassion, for both “recognizing” and

suggested, the products of architecture in

last two centuries, by the likes of Piranesi, Le

ancient institution, conveys its sense to the

this is particularly important for modernity,

as merely subjective, participating in local,

“valorizing” the other, for understanding the

the Western tradition have been varied, and

Corbusier, Kiesler, Gaudi and Hejduk, among

spectators as they participate in the event

for it seems that whenever buildings become

historically determined norms. Yet, when we

other as myself, over and above differences

included more than buildings: the so-called

others, but it usually appears as a practice of

of the dramatic representation. The circular

“idols” (or signposts—like the logo of a

move beyond aesthetics, taste takes its place

of culture and belief. Thus in my book I

daidala of classical antiquity, the objects

resistance, often in the form of theoretical

plan of the building is mimetic of the cosmos,

corporation or a national government) they

among other forms of phronesis, Aristotle’s

argue for building an architecture upon

made by the mythical Dedalus, included

projects, against the more conventional

its twelve divisions generating the parts

lose their capacity for ediﬁcation. They should

“practical wisdom,” grounded in the habits

love, understood both as erotic seduction

ships, temples and deceptive war machines,

understanding of architecture as either

of the building emulate the order of the

rather allow us to see through to meaning

and values which we share with others in

and as brotherly compassion. Imagination is

all put together from small parts through

functional or ornamented building.

zodiac, and proportional harmony is crucial.

precisely by not restricting it, in themselves

a particular cultural and linguistic context,

both, our capacity for truly free play, and our

Yet the meaning of the building is not given

meaning no single thing.

and that appear with utmost clarity and

faculty to make stories and to partake from

certainty as long as we trust perception as

the language and vision of others.

carefully crafted joints. Vitruvius continued

cultural

institutions.

this

this tradition in the ﬁrst architectural theory

Most crucial to works of architecture in

as an aesthetic experience (in the reduced

text that has reached us, dating from the ﬁrst

the sense that I evoke is not the capacity to

sense of modern aesthetics): it is not in the

In connection with this example it would be

a ﬁnal arbiter of truth. Such self-evidence,

century CE, and includes sundials, machinae

communicate a particular meaning, but

details, the materials, or our experience as

a good place to invoke Plato and argue that

manifested in the poetic artefacts and stories

And yet, unreﬂective intuitive action, often

and buildings as the three main products of

rather the possibility of recognizing ourselves

voyeurs. Rather it is only conveyed “when

beauty, as a form of deeply shared cultural

of our traditions, can produce judgements

associated with the personal imagination,

architecture. The Greeks qualiﬁed all these

as complete, in order to dwell poetically

the spectators sit, with their pores open” in a

experience, understood as a priori meaning

that are no less rational for being grounded

does not sufﬁce and is indeed dangerous.

artefacts made by the architect as thaumata,

on earth and thus be wholly human. This

performance, and the whole event becomes

in cultural worlds, is a fundamental category.

in prudent understanding. These works

Contemporary humanity must assume a great

because their main purpose was to convey

recognition of wholeness is not merely one

cathartic: a puriﬁcation that allows for the

This is the experience that produces catharsis

of architecture, art and poetry are indeed

responsibility, for in fact, unlike our ancestors

wonder, both fear and admiration, a form of

of semantic equivalence, rather it occurs in

spectators to understand, through their

in the theatre. In Phaedrus the experience

capable of moving us, they transform our life

until the seventeenth century, we effectively

beauty grounded in eros, ultimately sexual

experience, and like in a poem, its meaning

participation in the space of drama which is

of beauty is a vehicle for the soul to ascend

and ground our very being.

make history. We have the technological tools

to destroy the world, and this not necessarily

Let me emphasize the crucial role of a

can never fully predict the work’s meaning.

for contemporary practice. This is essentially a

what matters and can change our life. Needless

understanding depends on difference rather

through war. The technological project goes

theory based on historical interpretation for

It is the “others” that decide its destiny and

history for the future, one meant to enhance

to say, this hermeneutic understanding is

than on homogeneity.

hand in hand with the self-evidence of

an ethical practice. The architect must act

its ﬁnal signiﬁcance. Despite this apparent

our vitality and creativity, rather than one

equally applicable to our engagement with

human-generated change, a particularity

responsibly, and language plays a crucial role,

limitation, understanding that there is a

that may immobilize us through useless

other synchronic cultures and should be, at

I am convinced that the stakes for change are

of the Western (originally Christian) project

allowing him or her to articulate a position.

phenomenological continuity between think-

data, an immoderate respect for the old for its

all levels, present in the education of design

very high. Our built environment is pregnant

that

professionals.

with ambivalent meanings exacerbated

Thus

The production of precise working drawings

ing and making, between our words, in our

own sake, or unattainable idealized models.

history - our diverse stories, as varied as our

and speciﬁcations does not sufﬁce. And let’s

particular language, and our deeds, is still

The architecture and words that express the

cultures - is what we share as a ground for

add a few remarks about the particularities

our best bet. What we control, and must be

praxis of other times and places must be

The

action, together with an indeterminate,

of language. While we must acknowledge

accountable for, is our intentions. Despite

understood in light of relevant contemporary

architecture is not unlike literature and

somewhat inﬁrm more-than-human world

that words and deeds never fully coincide,

the usual saying dismissing good intentions

questions, yet with full consideration of the

ﬁlm, addressing the questions that truly

pathologies and political crises. We need to

that appears forever fragmented. We don’t

this is to be celebrated rather than deplored.

in view of “real” deeds, well-grounded

cultural context of their makers. Thus the

matter for our humanity in culturally speciﬁc

question the assumed neutrality of techno-

share, like our more distant ancestors, a

This opaqueness of language characterizes

intentions are crucial and rare in the modern

process of interpretation, appropriating that

terms, revealing an enigma behind everyday

capitalism and the false values that often

cosmological ground, a perception of the

the very nature of human communication,

world, and imply a whole style of thinking

which is acknowledged as truly distant,

events and objects. The cultural speciﬁcity

ground our way of living and producing

universe as a fundamentally changeless

never coincidental with the Word of a god for

and action, a past life and thick network of

makes it possible to render their voices into

of practices in our global village is therefore

such as the unceasing pursuit of ever more

totality, limited and straightforward. Only

whom to name is to make. Like the making

connections with a culture, far more than

our own speciﬁc time and politics, rather

absolutely

technologies

efﬁcient means while always postponing an

by grounding the architectural imagination

of technical artefacts, the possession of

what an individual is capable of articulating

than assuming a universal language at work,

contribute to homogenization, praxis in-

accountability of ends. Architects, seeking in

in historical precedent can it realize its

symbolic, multivocal languages, is among

at the surface of consciousness, or through

or a progressive teleology. The aim is to read

volves much more than technical means

their work a coincidence of the good and the

capacity to create compassionately and

the most precious gifts that makes us

one particular product. This is the nature

“between the lines” and with courtesy, the

and scientiﬁc operations - it concerns values,

beautiful, should have a vital role to play in

negotiate the nearly inﬁnite possibilities

human, perhaps more precious than our

of an ethical practice guided by practical

world of the work, and the world in front of the

articulated through the stories that ground

the survival of human cultures.

for production, in view of our now real

approximations to an ideal, scientiﬁc or

philosophy or phronesis, by prudence, in the

work; acknowledging that the human pursuit

acts and deeds in a particular culture. This

cultural diversity, and the proliferation of

mathematical universal language. As George

sense of Aristotle.

of meaning is present above other motivations.

practical wisdom is conveyed primarily

instrumental methodologies and computer

Steiner has eloquently stated, our over three-

This means bracketing the cynical tendencies

through oral transmission, in conventional

software, capable of endless innovation.

and-a-half thousand distinct languages for

Prudence is a rhetorical skill, based on

of Marxist or feminist scholarship that sees

apprenticeship. Varied but culturally speciﬁc

Our post-modern condition may now

a single species, often in close proximity to

historical understanding, one that has little

power and deceit behind most historical

practices are capable of poetic expression

reveal the futility of Utopia and the early

each other and mysteriously diverse, and

to do with formal descriptions and stylistic

artifacts. Yet, hermeneutics also engages a

precisely through the speciﬁcity of languages.

modern ideal of progress, yet to project

capable of speaking poetically in ways that

classiﬁcation. It is essential for the de-

critical dimension, seeking to understand how

Each diverse poetic articulation of a shared

inherently means to propose, through the

always enrich our experience of reality, is

velopment of a coherent praxis: To articulate

these architectural works may respond to the

more-than-human world contributes to our

imagination, a better future for a society;

the ultimate enigma which no evolutionary

a political position with regards to a given

questions of our present humanity. A critical

rich human heritage, and is always accessible

theory of man can ever reduce.

task. History in this sense provides guidance,

hermeneutics rejects the historical ﬂattening

to others through translation, which is

has

become

inherently

universalized.

ethical

practice,

by the mock impartiality of technology. As poetic

and

critical

crucial. Though

dimension

since it engages alien artefacts to tell us their

and homogenization of deconstruction and

nothing less than the fundamental condition

mindless search for consumable novelties

No matter what we produce as architects, once

stories through a hermeneutic process, one

proposes the valorization of experiential

of human understanding. Local architectural

disconnected from history.

the work inhabits the public realm, it is truly

that acknowledges as positive the potential

content, the mystery which is human purpose

practices are like valuable endangered species,

beyond our control. An expressed intention

bias implicit in the questions that are crucial

and the presence of spirituality. To account for

and must be preserved, for paradoxically true

and this should not be equivalent to a

such, buildings play a crucial role in forming, not

increasing,

our

psychosomatic

A CONTEMPORARY CITY OF THREE MILLION INHABITANTS LE CORBUSIER

fundamental questions. I have used two

SITE

kinds of argument: ﬁrst, those essentially

A level site is the ideal site [for the con-

human ones which start from the mind or

temporary city (Figure 1)]. In all those places

the heart or the physiology of our sensations

where trafﬁc becomes over-intensiﬁed the

as a basis; secondly, historical and statistical

level site gives a chance of a normal solution

arguments. Thus I could keep in touch with

to the problem. Where there is less trafﬁc,

what is fundamental and at the same time be

differences in level matters less.

master of the environment in which all this

The river ﬂows far away from the city. The river

takes place.

is a kind of liquid railway, a goods station and a

In this way I hope I shall have been able to

sorting house. In a decent house, the servants'

help my reader to take a number of steps

stairs do not go through the drawing room –

by means of which he can reach a sure and

even if the maid is charming (or if the little

certain position. So that when I unroll my

boats delight the loiterer leaning on a bridge).

plans I can have the happy assurance that his astonishment will no longer be stupefaction

POPULATION

nor his fears mere panic.

This consists of the citizens proper; of sub-

Proceeding in the manner of the investigator

urban dwellers; and of those of a mixed kind.

in his laboratory, I have avoided all special Contemporary city perspective

cases, and all that may be accidental, and I

(a) Citizens are of the city: those who work A contemporary city [ Figure 1 ]

and live in it.

have assumed an ideal site to begin with.

(b) Suburban dwellers are those who work

My object was not to overcome the existing

in the outer industrial zone and who do not

The existing congestion in the centre must

completely uncompromising. There were no

state of things, but by constructing a

decide in which direction the forthcoming

garden cities are suggested, or it is decided to

come into the city; they live in garden cities.

be eliminated.

notes to accompany the plans, and, alas! - not

theoretically watertight formula to arrive

battle is to be waged. For the desire to rebuild

suppress the tramways, and so on. And these

everybody can read a plan. I should have had

at the fundamental principles of modern

any great city in a modern way is to engage

decisions are reached in a sort of frantic haste

business parts of the city but bring up their

The use of technical analysis and archi-

to be constantly on the spot in order to reply

town planning. Such fundamental principles,

in a formidable battle. Can you imagine

in order, as it were, to hold a wild beast at bay.

families in garden cities.

tectural synthesis enabled me to draw up

to the fundamental questions which spring

if they are genuine, can serve as the skeleton

people engaging in a battle without knowing

That beast is the great city. It is inﬁnitely more

my scheme for a contemporary city of three

from the very depths of human feelings. Such

of any system of modern town planning;

their objectives? Yes that is exactly what is

powerful than all these devices. And it is just

To classify these divisions (and so make

million inhabitants. The result of my work

questions are of profound interest and cannot

being as it were the rules according to which

happening. The authorities are compelled

beginning to waken. What will tomorrow

possible

was shown in November 1922 at the Salon

remain unanswered. When at a later date it

development will take place. We shall then be

to do something, so they give the police

bring forth to cope with it?

recognized types) is to attack the most

d'Automne in Paris. It was greeted with a sort

became necessary that this book should be

in a position to take a special case, no matter

white sleeves or set them on horseback,

of stupor; the shock of surprise caused rage in

written, a book in which I could formulate the

what: whether it be Paris, London, Berlin, New

they invent sound signals and light signals,

We must have some rule of conduct.

such a classiﬁcation would deﬁne the areas

some quarters and enthusiasm in others. The

new principles of Town Planning, I resolutely

York or some small town. Then, as a result of

they propose to put bridges over streets or

We must have fundamental principles for

to be allotted to these three sections and

solution I put forward was a rough one and

decided ﬁrst of all to ﬁnd answers to these

what we have learnt, we can take control and

moving pavements under the streets; more

modern town planning.

the delimitation of their boundaries. This

the

transmutation

these

important problem in town planning, for

would enable us to formulate and resolve the

quiet and fresh air, not stale air.

realized, it becomes as much a matter of

(b) At the ground ﬂoor level of the buildings

metro stations gives us the necessary unit

"storeys" below the arterial roads for fast

following problems:

The towns of to-day can only increase in

construction as are the houses with which it

there would be the complicated and delicate

for the distance between streets, though this

trafﬁc, would run the tubes leading to the four

1) The City, as a business and residential

density at the expense of the open spaces

is customary to ﬂank it, and the bridges which

network of the ordinary streets taking trafﬁc

unit is conditional on the speed of vehicles

furthest points of the garden city suburbs, and

centre.

which are the lungs of a city.

carry it over valleys and across rivers.

in every desired direction.

and the walking capacity of pedestrians. So an

linking up with the metropolitan network…

2) The Industrial City in relation to the Garden

We must increase the open spaces and di-

The modern street should be masterpiece

average measure of about 400 yards would

At a still lower level, and again following

Cities (i.e. the question of transport).

minish the distances to be covered. Therefore

of civil engineering and no longer a job for

west, and forming the two great axes of

give the normal separation between streets,

these two main axes would run the one-way

3) The Garden Cities and the daily transport

the centre of the city must be constructed

navvies.

the city, there would be great arterial roads

and make a standard for urban distances. My

loop systems for suburban trafﬁc, and below

of the workers.

vertically.

The "corridor-street" should be tolerated no

for fast one-way trafﬁc built on immense

city is conceived on the gridiron system with

these again the four great main lines serving

The city's residential quarters must no longer

longer, for it poisons the houses that border

reinforced concrete bridges 120 to 180 yards

streets every 400 yards, though occasionally

the provinces and running north, south, east

Our ﬁrst requirement will be an organ that

be built along "corridor-streets", full of noise

it and leads to the construction of small

in width and approached every half-mile or so

these distances are subdivided to give streets

and west. These main lines would end at

is compact, rapid, lively and concentrated:

and dust and deprived of light.

internal courts or "wells".

by subsidiary roads from ground level. These

every 200 yards.

the Central Station, or better still might be

this is the City with its well organized centre.

It is a simple matter to build urban dwellings

arterial roads could therefore be joined at

This triple system of superimposed levels

connected up by a loop system.

Our second requirement will be another

away from the streets, without small internal

TRAFFIC

any given point, so that even at the highest

answers every need of motor trafﬁc (lorries,

organ, supple, extensive and elastic; this is the

courtyards and with the windows looking on

Trafﬁc can be classiﬁed more easily than other

speeds the town can be traversed and the

private cars, taxis, buses) because it provides

THE STATION

Garden City on the periphery. Lying between

to large parks; and this whether our housing

things. To-day trafﬁc is not classiﬁed – it is

suburbs reached without having to negotiate

for rapid and mobile transit.

There is only one station. The only place for

these two organs, we must require the legal

schemes are of the type with "setbacks" or

like dynamite ﬂung at hazard into the street,

any cross-roads.

Traffic running on fixed rails is only justified

the station is in the centre of the city. It is the

establishment of that absolute necessity, a

built on the "cellular" principal.

killing pedestrians. Even so, trafﬁc does fulﬁl

if it is in the form of a convoy carrying an

natural place for it, and there is no reason to

protective zone which allows by extension, a

THE STREET

its function. This sacriﬁce of the pedestrian

The number of existing streets should

immense load; it then becomes a sort of

put it anywhere else. The railway station is the

reserved zone of woods and ﬁelds, a fresh-air

The street of today is still the old bare ground

leads nowhere.

be reduced by two-thirds. The number of

extension of the underground system or of

hub of the wheel.

reserve.

which has been paved over, and under which

If we classify trafﬁc we get:

crossings depends directly on the number

trains for suburban trafﬁc. The tramway has

The station would be an essentially sub-

a few tube railways have been run.

(a) Heavy goods trafﬁc.

of streets; and cross-roads are an enemy

no right to exist in the heart of the modern

terranean building. Its roof, which would be

DENSITY OF POPULATION

The modern street in the true sense of the

(b) Lighter goods trafﬁc, i.e. vans, etc., which

to trafﬁc. The number of existing streets

city. If the city thus consists of plots about

two storeys above the natural ground level

The more dense the population of a city, the

word is a new type of organism, a sort of

make short journeys in all directions.

was ﬁxed at a remoter epoch in history. The

400 yards square, this will give us sections

of the city, would form the aerodrome for

shorter the distances that have to be covered.

stretched-out workshop, a home for many

perpetuation of the boundaries of properties

of about 40 acres in area, and the density

aero-taxis. This aerodrome (linked up with

The moral, therefore, is that we must increase

complicated and delicate organs, such as gas,

the town.

has, almost without exception, preserved

of population will vary from 50,000 down

the main aerodrome in the protected zone)

the density of the centres of our cities, where

water and electricity mains. It is contrary to

Three kinds of roads are needed, and in

even the faintest tracks and footpaths of

to 6,000, according to whether the "lots"

must be in close contact with the tubes, the

business affairs are carried on.

all economy, to all security, and to all sense

superimposed levels:

the old village and made streets of them,

are developed for business or for residential

suburban lines, the main lines, the main

to bury these important service mains. They

(a) Below ground there would be the street for

and sometimes even an avenue… The result

purposes. The natural thing, therefore, would

arteries and the administrative services

LUNGS

ought to be accessible throughout their

heavy trafﬁc. This storey of the houses would

is that we have cross-roads every ﬁfty yards,

be to continue to apply our unit of distance

connected with all these…

Work in our modern world becomes more

length. The various storeys of this stretched-

consist merely of concrete piles, and between

even every twenty yards or ten yards. And this

as it exists in the Paris Métro today (namely,

intensiﬁed day by day, and its demands affect

out workshop will each have their own

them large open spaces which would form

leads to the ridiculous trafﬁc congestion we

400 yards) and to put a station in the middle

THE PLAN OF THE CITY

our nervous system in a way that grows more

particular functions. If this type of street,

a sort of clearing-house where heavy goods

all know so well.

of each plot.

The basic principles we must follow are

and more dangerous. Modern toil demands

which I have called a "workshop", is to be

trafﬁc could load and unload.

The distance between two bus stops or two

Following the two great axes of the city, two

these:

1. We must de-congest the centres of our

their goods stations.

In the great central open space are the cafés,

museums of art and industry, public services,

perfection and modern outlook.

For nowadays the only building that can be

cities.

All around the city is the protected zone of

restaurants, luxury shops, halls of various

county hall.

A simple phrase sufﬁces to express the

undertaken must be either for the rich or

2. We must augment their density.

woods and green ﬁelds.

kinds, a magniﬁcent forum descending

The "jardin anglais" (The city can extend here,

necessities of tomorrow: WE MUST BUILD IN

built at a loss (as, for instance, in the case of

3. We must increase the means for getting

Further beyond are the garden cities, forming

by stages down to the immense parks

if necessary).

THE OPEN.

municipal housing schemes), or else by jerry-

about.

a wide encircling band.

surrounding it, the whole arrangement pro-

Sports ground: motor racing track, racecourse,

The layout must be of a purely geometrical

building and so robbing the inhabitant of all

4. We must increase parks and open spaces.

Then, right in the midst of all these, we have

viding a spectacle of order and vitality.

stadium, swimming baths etc.

kind, with all its many and delicate im-

amenities. A motor-car which is achieved by

At the very centre we have the station with its

the Central Station, made up of the following

plications.

mass production is a masterpiece of comfort,

landing stage for aero-taxis.

elements:

DENSITY OF POPULATION

The protected zone (which will be the property

Running north and south, and east and west,

(a) The landing platform; forming an aero-

(a) The skyscraper: 1,200 inhabitants to the

of the city), with its aerodrome.

The city of to-day is a dying thing because

built to order (on an "interesting" site) is a

we have the main arteries for fast trafﬁc,

drome of 200,000 square yards in area.

acre.

A zone in which all building would be

it is not geometrical. To build in the open

masterpiece of incongruity – a monstrous

forming elevated roadways 120 feet wide.

(b) The entresol or mezzanine; at this level

(b) The residential blocks with set-backs: 120

prohibited; reserved for the growth of the city

would be to replace our present haphazard

thing.

At the base of the sky-scrapers and all round

are the raised tracks for fast motor trafﬁc: the

inhabitants to the acre. These are the luxury

as laid down by the municipality: it would

arrangements, which are all we have today,

If the builder's yard were reorganized on the

them we have a great open space 2,400

only crossing being gyratory.

dwellings.

consist of woods, ﬁelds and sports grounds.

with a uniform layout. Unless we do this

lines of standardization and mass production

yards by 1,500 yards, giving an area of 3,600

The forming of a "protected zone" by continual

there is no salvation.

we might have gangs of workmen as keen

square yards, and occupied by gardens,

halls and booking ofﬁces for the tubes,

system, with a similar number of inhabitants.

purchase of small properties in the immediate

The result of a true geometrical layout

and intelligent as mechanics.

parks and avenues. In these parks, at the

suburban lines, main line and air trafﬁc.

This great density gives us our necessary

vicinity of the city is one of the most essential

is repetition. The result of repetition is a

The mechanic dates back only twenty years,

foot of and round the skyscrapers, would be

(d) The "basement": here are the tubes which

shortening of distances and ensures rapid

and urgent tasks a municipality can pursue.

standard, the perfect form (i.e. the creation of

yet already he forms the highest caste of the

the restaurants and cafés, the luxury shops,

serve the city and the main arteries.

inter-communication.

It would eventually represent a tenfold return

standard types). A geometrical lay-out means

working world.

housed in buildings with receding terraces:

(e) The "sub-basement": here are the suburban

Note. The average density to the acre of Paris

on the capital invested.

that mathematics play their part.

The mason dates… from time immemorial!

here too would be the theatres, halls and so

lines running on a one-way loop.

in the heart of the town is 146, and of London

Industrial quarters: types of buildings

There is no ﬁrst-rate human production that

He bangs away with feet and hammer. He

on; and here the parking places or garage

(f) The "sub-sub-basement": here are the main

63; and of the over-crowded quarters of Paris

employed

does not have geometry at its base. This is of

smashes up everything round him, and the

shelters.

lines (going north, south, east and west).

213, and of London 169.

For business: skyscrapers sixty storeys high

the very essence of Architecture. To introduce

plant entrusted to him falls to pieces in a

with no internal wells or courtyards…

uniformity into the building of the city we

few months. The spirit of the mason must be

The skyscrapers are designed purely for

precision, balance and good taste. A house

business purposes.

THE CITY

OPEN SPACES

Residential buildings with "set-backs", of six

must industrialize building. Building is

disciplined by making him part of the severe

On the left we have the great public

Here we have twenty-four skyscrapers capable

Of area (a), 95 per cent of the ground is open

double storeys; again with no internal wells:

the one economic activity which has so far

and exact machinery of the industrialized

buildings, the museums, the municipal and

each of housing 10,000 to 50,000 employees;

(squares, restaurants, theatres).

the ﬂats overlooking immense parks on either

resisted industrialization. It has thus escaped

builder's yard.

administrative ofﬁces. Still further on the

this is the business and hotel section, etc., and

Of area (b), 85 per cent of the ground is open

side.

the march of progress, with the result that the

The cost of building would fall in the

left we have the "Park" (which is available for

accounts for 400,000 to 600,000 inhabitants.

(gardens, sports grounds).

Residential

cost of building is still abnormally high.

proportion of 10 to 2.

further logical development of the heart of

The residential blocks, of the two main types

Of area (c), 48 per cent of the ground is open

principle, with "hanging gardens", overlooking

The architect, from a professional point of

The wages of the labourers would fall into

the city).

already mentioned, account for a further

(gardens, sports grounds).

immense parks; again no internal wells. These

view, has become a twisted sort of creature.

deﬁnite categories; to each according to his

On the right, and traversed by one of the

600,000 inhabitants.

are "service-ﬂats" of the most modern kind.

He has grown to love irregular sites, claiming

merits and service rendered.

arms of the main arterial roads, we have the

The garden cities give us a further 2,000,000

that they inspire him with original ideas for

The "interesting" or erratic site absorbs every

warehouses, and the industrial quarters with

inhabitants, or more.

getting round them. Of course he is wrong.

creative faculty of the architect and wears him

buildings

the

"cellular"

Educational and civic centres, universities, Garden cities: their aesthetic, economy,

out. What results is equally erratic: lopsided

university buildings.

prisms.

abortions; a specialist's solution which can

Then suddenly we ﬁnd ourselves at the feet

And in every direction we have a varying

only please other specialists.

of the ﬁrst skyscrapers. But here we have, not

spectacle; our "gridiron" is based on a unit

We must build in the open: both within the

the meagre shaft of sunlight which so faintly

of 400 yards, but is strangely modiﬁed by

city and around it.

illumines the dismal streets of New York,

architectural devices! (The "set-backs" are in

Then having worked through every necessary

but an immensity of space. The whole city

counterpoint, on a unit of 600 X 400).

technical stage and using absolute ECONOMY,

is a Park. The terraces stretch out over lawns

The traveller in his airplane, arriving from

we shall be in a position to experience the

and into groves. Low horizontal buildings

Constantinople or Peking as it may be, sud-

intense joys of a creative art which is based

lead the eye on to the foliage of the trees.

denly sees appearing through the wavering

Where are now the trivial Procuracies? Here

lines of rivers and patches of forests that clear

is the city with its crowds living in peace and

imprint which marks a city which has grown

THE CITY AND ITS AESTHETIC

pure air, where noise is smothered under the

in accordance with the spirit of man: the

(The plan of a city presented here is a di-

foliage of green trees. The chaos of New York

mark of the human brain at work.

rect consequence of purely geometric con-

is overcome. Here, bathed in light, stands the

As twilight falls the glass skyscrapers seem

siderations.) A new unit on a large scale

modern city [Figure 2].

to ﬂame.

(400 yards) inspires everything. Though the

Our car has left the elevated track and has

This is no dangerous futurism, a sort of

gridiron arrangement of the streets every

dropped its speed of sixty miles an hour to

literary dynamite ﬂung violently at the

400 yards (sometimes only 200) is uniform

run gently through the residential quarters.

spectator. It is a spectacle organized by an

(with a consequent ease in ﬁnding one's way

The "set-backs" permit vast architectural

Architecture which uses plastic resources for

about), no two streets are in any way alike.

perspectives. There are gardens, games and

the modulation of forms seen in light.

This is where, in a magniﬁcent contrapuntal

sports grounds. And sky everywhere, as far

symphony, the forces of geometry come into

as the eye can see. The square silhouettes of

play.

the terraced roofs stand clear against the sky,

Suppose we are entering the city by way of

bordered with the verdure of the hanging

the Great Park. Our fast car takes the special

gardens. The uniformity of the units that

elevated motor track between the majestic

compose the picture throw into relief the

skyscrapers: as we approach nearer we see

ﬁrm lines on which the far-ﬂung masses

the repetition against the sky of the twenty-

are constructed. Their outlines softened by

four skyscrapers; to our left and right on

distance, the skyscrapers raise immense

the outskirts of each particular area are the

geometrical façades all of glass, and in them

municipal and administrative buildings; and

is reﬂected the blue glory of the sky. An over-

enclosing the space are the museums and

whelming sensation. Immense but radiant

on geometry.

View of the city sky-scrapers [ Figure 2 ]

A city made for speed is made for success.

View of The City Central Station, Flanked by Four Sky-Scrapers

ABOUT SHAPE ITZIK ELHADIF

“Every individual, ﬁnds himself living his

The attempt to deﬁne our world (an ever-

serves as the primary channel of human

ability to draw, and translate the concrete

different clothes during the week or on the

life while moving from one point to another.

growing concept) and to turn it into a part

communication.

ﬁgures into lines. According to Giorgio

Sabbath, to a party, for work, for a holiday

There are those amongst them who write

of our collective memory - even though this

Vasari drawing (disegno) - the line - was the

and so on. In other words, the external - or

down their thoughts, which do not necessarily

may be an artiﬁcial and unnatural process

Judaism sought to create the concept of

foundation of Art.

the garment - is a kind of mask (2), which has

have any connection between them. Every day

- leads one to presume that, ultimately,

an abstract deity - a concept later adopted

I need a path and an axis to guide me towards

it will have perfected itself to become

by Christianity, which quickly added a

Claude Monet and the other Impressionists

my objective. The forms that are generated

completely harmonious and correct. Our

human form. Islam retained the principle

who followed, took it one step further until

as I move seemingly create a conglomerate

ability to encompass and to embrace

of abstraction but, as with Judaism, formal

the line, especially the contour line, was

Proportion is the ratio between the length,

which is perceived as something easier for

naturally

elements such as writing, symbols, mosques

completely eliminated. But, reacting to that,

width and height of the whole; between the

me to recognize, to make it unique, and to

deﬁnition, which results in reﬁnement of

and minarets also crept in.

the line was reinstated by the Symbolists,

whole and its parts, and of each part, as if a

return to - and, perhaps in so doing, to create

the speciﬁcation, spiraling and converging

such as Paul Gauguin (Photograph No. 1) and

whole in itself, and also between the whole

an environment commensurate with my

towards a precise deﬁnition. Throughout

There is no great difference between the

his colleagues, who turned this into a style

and others. Thus, for instance, in reverse

abilities. I see a spider spinning a web around

history,

and

forms made from one element, or from a

of its own which they called Cloisonisme.

order, proportions between parts of the

its axis; the web keeps growing, taking the

perhaps our perceptions in terms of

combination of several shapes - also known

Ultimately, the border of the colored area

ﬁnger, between the ﬁngers and the palm,

form of a veil spreading out and becoming

vision, understanding, emotional response

in English by the Latin name ‘composition’

was visualized as being an outline and

the palm and the arm, the arm and the

an obstacle, a trap. There is something

and

become

(com = together + ponere = to place). But at

conversely, a contour was perceived to outline

body, and the body and others.

beautiful about webs that are woven, as

more sophisticated, and accordingly, the

the same time it is possible to refer to the

a colored border. Similarly, referring to and

if they had been designed to map routes,

deﬁnitions and experiences of our world

actual doing, such as the composition of

differentiating between form and content

The term ‘proportion’ itself contains two

and settings, or a drawing that expresses

change and adapt. On the one hand,

a picture - again, without differentiating

was like a garment that can be replaced,

Latin words: one ‘pro’, which means ‘in favor

presence... the accumulation of my scribbles

while perfecting tools and deﬁnitions, the

whether or not the description includes a

hence the phrase 'took on’/‘discarded’ the

of’, and ‘portio’, which means ‘slice’, ‘part’,

look like shadows around a campﬁre. While

discussion and the search create a profusion

number of elements, or only one. Moreover,

shape. Externality has two meanings, one of

‘portion’. That is, prior division, since the word

examining, clarifying

honing, the

yet, on the other hand, they also create the

the differentiation between composition and

which is negative: ‘heart and mind are not

‘pro’ in Latin also signiﬁes ‘for’, ‘support’;

scraps pile up like a tower, or sometimes a

conceptual modiﬁcation that is reduced to

coincidence, complete chaos, turmoil and so

alike’, and the second, the similarity between

that is to say, a positive concept, and it is

monument; there are times when it seems

purity and clarity. The need for discussion

forth, has disappeared from normal discourse;

the two, which is positive; thus ‘having a

understood that proportion is the correct

that something is taking shape; and at other

and the desire to deﬁne form, its functions

it has faded slowly into a human tendency to

form’, meaning an honorable man. The

division, or the proper separation, indicating

long moments, I am drowning in the ocean

and its uses and so on, lead us to lay the

ﬁnd order in every phenomenon - the ‘natural

double meaning originates with the feeling

a type of judgment (good taste, etc.).

of the air I use and I cannot grasp the shapes

foundations, as well as to acknowledge

order’ of things or, in Greek, ‘cosmos’.

that the external affects the internal: a man

The third meaning, primarily geometrical, is

that hold me, like the rings around the wine

form and its applications.

dressed as a soldier feels and acts as a soldier;

any portion or ratio between numbers, sizes,

A contour, since the era of cave and rock

so with a judge, a policeman, a banker,

and so on. That is, proportion as a neutral

drawings, has served as the means for visual

a laborer and so on; whereas changing

and abstract concept. The word proportion, as we understand it, does not necessarily have any connection with the human

and

necessitates

humanity

functional

has

needs

discussion

changed

have

and

barrel. When I see reality it is usually for

always been used as an element that creates

maintenance, sometimes for pleasure, and

The word ‘form’ has several meanings, all

less than that, for recognition”.

of which relate to the visual; sometimes

communication. The Renaissance artists in

the external form is also an expression of

Tuvia Avraham (1).

only indirectly, by means of speech, which

Florence characterized themselves by their

the inner essence, which is why we wear

the change.

[ 1 ] Paul Gauguin, Self Portrait With Yellow Jesus. 1890

[ 2 ] Leonardo Da Vinci, Vitruvian Man. 1492

body unless this is explicitly stated, as was

straight lines, except for the circle which is

the foundation of the universe.

indicated in the example above (ﬁnger,

perceived to be both geometric and natural

If one is to discuss the Bible, the number

hand, arm, etc.), or in certain sentences such

(the sun, the moon, the pupils of the eye

of shapes is even smaller: point, straight

as “the chair, table, etc. are not proportional

and so forth). At the same time, many

line, circle and rectangle. The triangle is,

to the human body”. But when the reference

believe that the basic shape of bodies of

apparently, quite rare and this word was

is to the relationship between a person and

which the universe is composed is also a

not required. According to interpretation,

any aspect of his environment, the concept

consequence of the expression of mystery

the point appears to mean a small spot

used is ‘scale’. Proportions can also be

and sanctity. The word geometry is from the

or globule. For instance, “points (studs) of

expressed in geometrical or mathematical

Greek for land measurement (geo = earth,

silver”. The straight line primarily appears

ratios, such as in numbers. But as expected,

metron = measurement) an interpretation

in the Bible ﬁguratively, as one that deviates

these change emotionally from culture to

associated with agriculture. A harvester,

neither to the right nor to the left, is not

culture, from period to period, and from

hunter or shepherds, out in the open, do not

curved, such as a track, a route, a person,

place to place (Photograph No. 2).

need measurements. This need appeared

justice and so forth. At any rate, the terms

witness by the various types of ornaments

[ 4 ] Catal Huyuk, Turkey. 6000 B.C

ﬁrst in Naharayim and in Egypt. Here, after

‘line’ and ‘point’ appear until today as some

used by ‘modern’ prehistoric man (25

The weak point in all of the formulae

rivers overﬂowed, they had to delineate the

of the most popular adornments.

thousand years BCE, Photograph No. 4)

pertaining to proportions stems from the fact

boundaries of ownership for cultivation

that they are all rigid. The “Golden Section”

[ 3 ] The Parthenon, Ictinus and Callicrates. 448-432 B.C

plots anew.

‘Modulor’ is based, is a multiplication and

Certain proportions appear pleasant, stable,

the proportions are quite different from

Geometry, as we know it today, is based on

division of constant numbers, whereas the

stretched, interesting, etc. However, these are

the ‘human’ concept. The columns of the

and perhaps even older than that - the

1. Circle and rectangle. Shapes that appear

spontaneous formation in which people

in the Bible in connection with holy vessels.

gathered. That same circle also served for

Thus, for example, the phrase “it was round

construction, as indicated by the remains

the perception that developed in Greece

all about” (Kings 1, 7:23) referring to a vessel

of foundations discovered by archeologists,

that stood in the Temple and was referred

and also the form of construction that still

(4:6) rectangle on which Le Corbusier’s

measurements of the human body are not

emotional, personal and social reactions. It

temple are about 1.9 meters in diameter

starting from the seventh century BCE,

constant. What is more, in visual art, especially

is perhaps possible to determine statistical

and about 10.4 meters in height. The height

summarized in Elements written by Euclid,

to by the name “Sea”. The rectangle appears

exists, starting with the northern regions

twice, also in reference to holy matters “

(igloo), the Mongolian yurt, American

in architecture or any three-dimensional body,

criteria but these, too, will become anchored

of the stairs at the foot of the building is

who lived in Alexandria around the year 300

the proportions change in accordance with the

in time, place and society. It is possible to

about 58 cm. The disadvantage is that this

BCE. The meaning of the term ‘geometric

the altar shall be foursquare” (Exodus 27:1),

Indian teepee and through to Africa. All

“a square round about” (Ezekiel 45:2) when

these examples relate to nomadic societies or ones in transition to permanent abodes.

location of the observer. During ancient times

‘measure’ masterpieces in order to discover

is just one component amongst many and,

shape’ normally indicated a small group that

it was already understood that the proportions

the seemingly ‘correct’ proportions. The

it should be noted, is not as fundamental as

included the straight line, the rectangle, the

describing the holy place within the Temple.

it was previously thought to be.

triangle and the circle. Later on, of course,

The importance of these quotations is

of statues must be coordinated in accordance

proportions of the Parthenon (Photograph

with their location. The higher the statue, the

No. 3) in Athens are considered to be the

additional forms were included such as the

due to their relative antiquity - antiquity

The rectangle ﬁrst appeared in building

longer the legs look in relation to the body, and

pinnacle of the Classical period in ancient

Geometric form is consciously connected

pentagon, the hexagon and the octagon.

which, perhaps, has a certain measure of

construction when the ﬁrst cities appeared

especially to the head - a distortion caused by

Greece, and it is also common for the

to concepts such as ratio, efﬁciency and,

The word ‘meaning’ refers here also to the

emotional expression.

(6000 BCE). It is possible that the transition

The circle is, in all likelihood, the oldest,

from building in the form of a circle, to a

being the form taken from nature, as borne

rectangular form, is connected with the

perspective. The measurements must be of

‘human’ scale of the building to be referred

usually,

form.

emotional aspect. From this, perhaps, the

inverse proportion to the perspective.

to. However, a close inspection reveals that

In other words, forms are composed of

belief also derives that geometric bodies are

differing

from

natural

[ 5 ] Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae. 1300-1250 B.C

growth in population and the need to

same site (13th century BCE) was like a dome

‘cupula’. In English it is usual to call a ‘kipa /

the square with the circle - in terms of

crowd closer together into some sort of

in the shape of a bell. This tomb, know as

cap’ “dome”, the word which means, in its

emotional response to the intensity of

defense system (walls, houses, stone and

the 'Treasury of Atreus', is the most famous

Latin source, “home”, and in Italian, “church”

inner space - in one of the illustrious

wood fences and so on). Round houses leave

one (Photograph No. 6). Similar tombs of

- in other words, the house of G-d (such as

buildings. The Church of Hagia Sophia in

spaces. Rectangular ones can be connected

various sizes were built (between 1600 and

a temple or a synagogue). From this we

Constantinople (Istanbul) was built (32-527

to each other with no space at all (in

600 BCE) - most of them, apparently, for the

deduce a certain afﬁnity between the Greek

CE) at the time of Justinian, and presented a

Çatalhöyük the entrance was through an

rulers - around the Aegean Sea basin, from

‘tholos’ - a word that sounds very much like

geometric solution (Photograph No. 9).

opening in the roof, Photograph No. 5).

Crete through the Bosphorus Straits.

‘tel’ (hill) in Hebrew and Arabic, and which

Once rectangular building started, this

[ 6 ] Tholos at Delphi

is normally artiﬁcial. Anyway, particularly

Particular reference to the circle appears

shape took over everything: the ziggurats

The term ‘tholos’ (Photograph No. 7) does

from the formal aspect, this is important as

in Islam (763 CE), when a ‘new’ Caliphate

in Aram Naharayim; the tombs in Egypt in

not relate only to underground tombs, but

it shows the symbolic intention.

government center in Baghdad was designed

the form of a square hill (mastaba); and in

also to the round structures encircled by

the Bible, as was mentioned, in the form

columns, normally with a roof in the form of

With the rise of Christianity, geometry

tradition. But all precedents, even the Persian

of the altar. The square and the straight

a dome or a cone, built during the classical

has been given dimensions of religious

ones as in the Baghdad original, were razed

line became the characteristics of the

and Hellenistic periods in Greece, and at the

and spiritual symbolism on a national

to the ground when Persia was conquered

permanent settlement and the agricultural

start of the Roman Empire (600 BCE to 135

scale. A round building topped by a dome

by the Mongols (13th century). During that

era: the furrow, the orchard and the road.

CE). These were used as meeting rooms, for

symbolizes death, and is therefore suitable

same period the Islamic builders created

Afterwards, in the general form of the

rituals, memorials and as monuments that

for the burial of saints; the octagon

two new shapes based on the circle: one, in

pyramid complexes and the shape of

contained tombstones. Thus, for example,

symbolizes memory. At the same time they

the west, was the horse-shoe arch (there are

the base of the pyramid itself and so on,

the “Yad Absalom” monument in Jerusalem

also started building churches in the shape

those who believe that this originated with

continuing through the temples of the New

(Photograph No. 8, ﬁrst century CE) which

of a cross. The somewhat late appearance

the Visigoths who ruled in Spain prior to the

Kingdom period, and until today (3).

combines a square building with a round

of this phenomenon was, in all likelihood,

Moslem conquest). The second shape, in the

cone-shaped roof.

connected to the time needed to abolish

east, was the pointed archway created where

The dome, the foundation of which is also a

[ 8 ] Hagia Sophia, Anthemius and Isidorus. 532-537 A.D

- a shape that was probably taken from Persian

the punishment of cruciﬁxion for criminals

two identical arches with centers slightly

circle, appears for the ﬁrst time in the ‘royal

The Latin word for ‘dome’ is ‘cupula’, which

(337 CE), until the start of this form being

apart meet. As a result of this it is possible to

tholos’ tombs discovered in Mycenae (16th

means ‘cup’. The explanation is that the root

used to symbolize Christianity.

reach a uniform height when the columns are

century BCE), despite the fact that this was

of this word is ‘cupa’, which is a container or

not really ‘a true dome’ but, more accurately,

basin, and ‘cupula’, which is a small vessel.

The need to bridge the gap between the

stones that had been placed horizontally,

In Hebrew the original meaning of the word

octagonal and the circular cupula, not to

The geometry which integrates rectangles

covered with ash and chiseled from the

‘kipa’ (cap) is the top of a palm tree. Thus,

mention the square, led to the development

and circles reached the west with great

inside in order the create the form of a

‘kipa / cap’ is metaphorically the top of a

of various methods of ‘puckering’ at the

fanfare at the start of the Renaissance (15th

dome. Another underground tomb at the

house, but also phonetically close to the Latin

corners, until pendentives fully integrated

century). The Baroque (17th century) and

[ 9 ] Borromini, S. Ivo. 1642

situated at diverse distances.

[ 7 ] Avshalom's Shrine (Yad) 1st century

the Rococo (18th century) are, undoubtedly,

clearly the shape of a triangle.

the peak of the celebration of circular

other freer shapes, such as Bedouin tents,

expressions of shape whose names derive

but these are unusual and rather rare.

from the theory of mechanics:

shapes (circles, ellipses and ovals), both in

One of the characteristics of modern style,

- Static - ‘statikos’ which in Greek means

three-dimensional building and in two-

during the greater part of the 20th century,

The Art-Nouveau style that ﬂourished

‘causing to stand’, referring primarily to

dimensional ornamentation (Photograph

was the transition to square shapes, while

towards the end of the 19th century, up to

construction engineering, where every

No. 10). But, as expected, every celebration

almost completely rejecting the circle

the First World War, even created a turning

movement is in some danger of collapse.

comes to an end - returning to the basic

and the triangle. But, here too, there have

point in the image of architecture by

Thus, figuratively, also ‘stable’, balance’,

square and circle of the neo-classic - a

been a number of exceptions, such as Erich

combining traditional geometric shapes

‘equilibrium’, etc.

style that rules for a hundred years (1750-

Mendelsohn in the 1920s, the ‘free-ﬂowing

with the free forms of vegetation. The

- Dynamic - ‘dunamis’ in Greek means ‘power’

1850). In other words, until the appearance

Streamline’ style in the 1930s, and Frank

connection of that style to crystalline forms,

or, metaphorically, causes movement, such

of Romanticism in architecture, which

Lloyd Wright in the 1940s. Later on, from

appeared for the most part in the design

as an engine, including the movement that

reverted to the style of the Gothic period.

the 1950s, circular forms slowly started to

of glass roofs. One of the ﬁrst attempts to

it creates.

appear - at ﬁrst with great hesitation and

create ‘Alpine architecture’ - or ice crystals

- Kinetic - ‘kinetikos’ in Greek, which is the

The triangle - This ﬁrst appeared as a

perhaps with even a hint of apologetics

- was undertaken by Bruno Taut during

movement itself, separate from the power

conscious and deliberate form in connection

- probably due to the efﬁciency and the

World War I. Similar combinations were

that is required to operate it, including speed,

with the building of the Pyramids in

economics. Triangles were also added

made post-war by his colleagues from the

acceleration, etc.

ancient Egypt (2600 to 2000 BCE). It is my

to this in the 1960s, especially on roofs.

“Glass Beads” Group (Glässerne Kette),

humble opinion that nobody knows why

Eventually, during the 1970s, there was an

amongst whom were Hermann Finsterlin,

The

the building of the Pyramids started, and

intensiﬁcation of Post-modern pluralism,

brothers Hans and Wassili Luckhardt, and

visual art started in the 1910s with the

why it stopped. Whatever the reason, the

according to which all forms are worthy to

Hans Scharoun.

Futurist

form disappeared for a long period of time,

an equal degree.

appearance

Movement

these

terms

(Photograph

in [ 10 ] Giacomo Balla, Speed of a Car Plus Light. 1913

No.

11), whose aspiration it was to present

metaphorically, from one realm to another

view, Cubism, despite its innovation, was

except, perhaps, for the tops of obelisks.

The same source of inspiration would

the machine and the speed, or in other

is usually problematic, since the meanings

static and thus outdated, and anchored

Triangles have been an inseparable part of

Natural Geometry. The development of the

appear again after World War II, among

words industrialization, as an expression of

often change beyond recognition. Static, as

in old perceptions. It is doubtful whether

probably all sloping roofs built since pre-

microscope and the camera discovered a

a number of designers - amongst them:

modernity. From this, too, the referral to

a condition of relaxation, for an entity that

today, in retrospect, anyone would perceive

historic times, in countries where there

world full of wonders - crystals in geometric

Henry Buckminster Fuller, who developed

concepts from the realm of technology and

is not moving, is quite clear when we are

Cubism as being static. In other words,

is wood is suitable for construction, rain

shapes beyond all imagination. Their

the ‘geodesic dome’, composed of a mesh

mechanics - words which are also taken

speaking of mechanics or building. Not so,

the label ‘static’ was, and has for the

and snow - anywhere from Japan to Great

importance was especially prominent in

of triangles (tetrahedron); Prof. Alfred

from the Greek: ‘technikos’ meaning artistic

apparently, in most of the static visual arts

most part remained, a type of judgment - a

Britain. Reinforcing this theory is the term

architecture - a ﬁeld identiﬁed with the

Newman, whose goal was to ﬁnd alternative

or artiﬁcial, from the root ‘techne’ meaning

(painting, sculpture, photography, etc.). This

typical attitude towards all new styles and

for building, ‘tectonics’, which in Greek

straight line and basic geometric forms

shapes in nature to replace the tyranny of

art, and ‘logos’, meaning ‘reasoning’; and

means that the signiﬁcance here differs

movement, from those that preceded them.

Tektõn means skilled or practised. Greeks

(rectangle, triangle and circle) almost

the rectangle and which, in his opinion,

‘mechan’, meaning machine

from the norm, and from dynamics or

The concept of static, however, almost

were also the ﬁrst to build Temples with

since the dawn of civilization, in 7000 BCE.

would also be more effective.

kinetics. The ﬁrst to raise the topic of ‘static

disappeared from the treasury of accepted

gabled roofs, called a ‘pediment’, which is

Although, in fact, it is possible to denote

Static, Dynamic and Kinetic. Three

art’ were the Futurists. From their point of

expressions in the visual arts. On the

1. Static shape. The transition of the term,

contrary, we are aware that historically, the

movement is seeing in the mind’s eye. This

sometimes indiscernibly. Dynamics is how

in visual art and, consequently, ‘static’,

tension, which is a type of dynamic. That

‘static’ apparently describes a type of style

phenomenon relies on two qualities: one

we understand shapes, even if they are

created, as stated, a new point of reference

same ‘dynamic’ tension also appears in the

or state of mind which characterizes certain

which relates to a known form and which is

completely inanimate. Looking at a picture

when referring to pieces created in the past

relationships of shape, such as big-small,

creations in different periods. However,

created by memory and the other, unknown,

which is apparently static is a dynamic

as a means of action by the artists, thus, for

near-far, wide-thin, curly-straight, etc. In

when style or mood changes, the static, as

created by the imagination - often, as may be

phenomenon from every possible aspect. In

instance - Mondrian (Photograph No. 11),

these there is a kind of dialog, or discussion,

stability, tranquility, balance and so forth,

expected, simultaneously.

this regard it is sufﬁcient to follow the optic

whose distinctive style has been referred to

between the various shapes.

process, which turns what is seen into space,

as ‘dynamic balance’ (4).

is perceived as being emotionally frozen. Nonetheless, even for those same works

Verbal and visual art (drawing, sculpture,

where the observer is able to move around

The dynamic sensation can be reduced to

Kinetic shape, in its narrowest sense, is

and periods, the term ‘static’ is somewhat

literature,

perceived

visually. This is true for a portrait, a landscape

two 2- and 3-dimensional diagonal lines,

that which is revealed to us as a result of the

problematic. Forms of bodies, etc. are likely

passively. The viewer / listener does not

or still-life. In other words, everything that

where the angle between them is greater or

movement itself - a meaning that derives

to appear too stable, too balanced, too

require

rather

is seen is three-dimensional and dynamic,

smaller than 90o. Seemingly one line would

from combining the terms shape and

heavy or even, as se said, ‘frozen’ – while still

potential movement, or the illusion of

and it is also possible to deduce from this

sufﬁce but, in practice, human perception

kinetics. Hence, this apparently refers to a

having inner vitality. The apparent paradox

movement - in other words, dynamics.

what one cannot see. As far as we know, this

will generally ﬁnd the second line: the page

small group of natural phenomena, such as

stems from the fact that the term ‘static’ in

Actually, a separation occurs here between

quality is unique to humans. An outline, or

margin, horizon, perpendicular, etc. The

ﬁre and smoke, waterfalls, waves of water,

visual art does not stand alone, but in clear

the passive viewer, for whom the movement

even a row of dots, awakens the memory

same dynamic is also created by entities

steam, vegetation swaying in the wind,

or latent relation to human behavior, which

is intrinsic, and the creator, for whom the

and turns them into a tangible element,

and shapes that are perceived to be rods

and animals in movement. The artiﬁcial

is capable of standing still for only a few

active dimension is added. Every artist,

that can be seen in the mind’s eye from all

diagonal to each other. That is, once again,

kinetic forms should be added to these,

minutes at a time.

dancer, musician, painter and so on,

sides: from behind, that which occurred

at an angle that is greater or smaller than

primarily the circular ones, the numbers of

combines visual (dynamic) movement and

previously - and that which will occur later

90o. The perception of the diagonal as

which are increasing alongside mechanical

2. Dynamic shape in the visual arts is

active (kinetic) movement. There is no way

on - as if it is happening in the dimensions

dynamic probably derives from identifying

development. Nowadays, following the

interpreted as the illusion of movement. In

of knowing what comes ﬁrst, the vision or

of time and space. This ability is apparently

the form with the entity - the balance in the

introduction of the computer, another form

other words, we are not talking of ‘dynamic’

the deed. There are those for whom the

the basis from which all real or imaginary

horizontal and vertical positions, and the

of kinetic art is developing, albeit in a most

in the sense of ‘power’ or ‘movement’, as

process is hearing or seeing, and there are

senses are composed; rhythm, continuity,

loss of equilibrium when it is slanted one

limited deﬁnition - but the future of this

one would in mechanics, and certainly not

those for whom the opposite is true, ﬁrst

anxiety, surprise, humor etc. - senses which

way or another. In comparison, the dynamics

ﬁeld is still an unknown quantity.

in the ‘powers’ that at one time pertained

the internal hearing or seeing takes place.

remain partially passive but in some

decreases as the shape approaches the

drama,

actual

etc.)

are

movement, but

[ 11 ] Mondrian Piet, Composition, 1921

instances become active. Hence, we have the

circular - in other words, two-dimensional

In its accepted interpretation ‘kinetics’

Dynamics in mechanics includes movement -

The human mind is not static, not even

ability to imagine dance movement, what a

forms and bodies, in which no diagonal

refers to any shape in motion, including

at least, potential if not actual movement. In

during relaxation and sleep. This is not true

future building will look like, the route that

divergence can be identiﬁed. In comparison,

that of the observer, despite the fact that no

fact, the entire universe contains such systems

in respect of involuntary actions, such as

we intend to take and, above all, the ability

these same forms, but in 3-dimensional

actual change has taken place in the form

of movement, even if these are not visible to

breathing, heartbeat or blood circulation.

to view ourselves from outside, which is the

bodies or in 3-dimensional imaging, are

of the object being observed. This refers to

the naked eye such as the components of the

Thus, human existence, as also life itself, is

foundation of self-awareness.

identiﬁed with the rolling of a ball and

phenomenon such as sight and perspective,

atom. An expression of that same invisible

always dynamic, always ‘in motion’, though

The emergence of the concept ‘dynamic’

thus, they sometimes create a sense of

movement within the city and in space, and

to philosophy, and today pertain to science.

so forth. Logically, the inclusion of these

images disappear, since the eye doesn’t have

instances where it can be asserted that the

be born. From Greek we have borrowed the

under the name ‘kinetics’ also encompasses

enough time to absorb and process them.

combination actually has occurred. The best

word ‘organon’ which means an instrument

additional extensions since, ultimately,

A familiar example is the movement of the

known example of such an intention are the

or a work tool. Despite it being harder to

they all contain motion: ﬁrst and foremost,

fan, which transforms from being static,

blueprints for mobile buildings or towns

follow the process that leads us to identify

life itself, and resultant thereof: thought,

to appearing transparent. The dynamic

that were presented by the Archigram Group

this term with nature, this is not unusual

speech, sight and hearing - in other words,

shape correlates with how sight perceives

at the beginning of the 1960s (Photograph

in the history of both visual and verbal

all human perception which is based on a

movement: generally, pre-movement and

No. 14), as well as a number of buildings and

language. One should not confuse ‘natural

combination of past, present and future.

post-movement, although sometimes there

environmental sculpture by Calatrava.

form’ and the term ‘naturalism’, which means, more or less, faithfully recording a

are even intermediate stages. Therefore, The kinetic shape lay and, in fact, for

slow movement is perceived as a kind of

Natural form - The initial intention

sight, which is different than a process of

the most part remains in the realm of

‘ongoing dynamic' and not as 'a new image’.

apparently refers to visual phenomena

stylizing forms found in nature. ‘The natural

that originate in ﬂora, fauna and inanimate

shape, as signiﬁed in this section that refers

performance: dance, drama, pantomime,

[ 12 ] Vladimir Tatlin, Monument to the Third International. 1919

parade, ceremony - but, for several decades

The disadvantage of kinetic art is the

objects. ‘Apparently’ for two main reasons:

to the visual expression of senses, derives

now it has also represented architecture. The

kinetics itself. A picture, statue or relief

one, it is doubtful if there is any shape that

from what is seen, or daily reality - in other

concept of integrating kinetics into the other

attract the attention for a moment, until,

is not found in nature. The second - many

words, realism. In other words, the natural

visual arts, such as painting and sculpting,

eventually, one is no longer aware of it.

artiﬁcial shapes, i.e. man-made items, are

shape could also be a stylish adaptation.

appeared vaguely amongst the Futurists

Kinetic devices, motorized in one way or

also perceived as being natural. Anyway,

Nature, or the natural look, is visualized, but

prior to the First World War, emanating from

another - whether or not these can be

the deﬁnition of ‘natural form’ is an elusive

not necessarily in reality, but in shapes that

the desire for dynamism. That same idea

classiﬁed as artwork - attract constant

task due to the limitations of language as

derive from circles such as an ellipse, an oval,

was employed in Russia, by Vladimir Tatlin,

attention. As long as the expression, or

a means of expressing visual phenomena

a spiral and others that are less deﬁned, for

when (in 1921) he integrated three geometric

the movement, or both are stronger, it is

- all the more so because ‘natural form’

example roundish, curly, winding and such.

bodies in circular movement in his model

difﬁcult to ignore their presence, until

includes endless possible combinations,

‘Tower’ (Photograph No. 12).

there is no alternative but to stop them. In

some of which cannot be deﬁned and some

A hint of the emotional reference to shape

order to solve this problem, Jean Tinguely

of which have no appropriate term. For

can be found in the origin of their names:

The difﬁculty of transition from dynamics to

created miniature machines that destroyed

example, the word ‘nature’, as with so many

ellipsis, which in Greek means ‘omission’,

kinetics derives from the process of human

themselves. The ﬁrst occurrence (1960) of

other generalities, didn’t exist in its present

or ‘absence’ - in other words, ﬁguratively,

vision - a process that has been exposed by

this type unintentionally went up in ﬂames

meaning in Hebrew until the Middle Ages,

‘a missing circle’ or ‘damaged circle’. The

the development of the camera. A sequence

(Photograph No. 13).

as ‘the whole world’ (nature in general);

same reference is found in the name

psychic measurement (the nature of man);

of the Baroque style (17th century) the

of pictures passing rapidly creates the illusion of motion - thus, if the speed is

Kinetic

certain qualities (the nature of matter,

interpretation of which in Portuguese is

accelerated, one image is replaced by the

contradiction in terms. However, without

animal and vegetable).

‘irregular pearl’ - a style that is typiﬁed

next. However, if it becomes too fast, the

much effort, it is possible to discover several

The word ‘nature’ in Latin (natura) means to

by roundish shapes. The oval, a term that

architecture

apparently

[ 14 ] Archigram, Walking City, 1960

[ 13 ] Tinguely Jean, Homage to New York, 1960

originates from the Latin ‘ovum’ (egg), is a

sometimes simpliﬁed beyond recognition.

the art-nouveau style of the 1890s, which

symmetric. That is true also when a ﬂaw is

relatively new word, probably from the end

The imitation, stylized and simpliﬁed could

integrated geometry, on the one hand,

discovered which seemingly results from an

of the Middle Ages, despite the fact that

also be the ‘second or third generation’,

and naturalistic component, but also the

overly powerful external force – one which

the shape itself was also known during

much like a sign - that is, an imitation of an

stylization of vegetation, on the other.

can be interpreted as being man-made, or

antiquity. The spiral is a translation of the

imitation, a stylized style and a simpliﬁed

Greek word ‘speira’. However, until now no

simpliﬁcation. It is possible that some of

The second architect to claim organic

examples: volcanoes, cracks in the ﬁssures

clear distinction has been made between

the pre-historic geometric forms derive

architecture was Hugo Haring (Photograph

of rocks, mounds of earth which seem to be

its various shapes; such as a cylinder and a

from these. For instance, zigzag lines are

No. 15). In this case the reference is, in fact,

artiﬁcial, as opposed to natural hills.

cone, despite the fact that these are found

perhaps a stylized simpliﬁcation of waves.

to a combination of conﬁguration and

in abundance in nature and in visual art

Crosshatched lines are a continuation of the

function. The followers of Functionalism,

The integration of geomorphism into the

(snail shells, leaves, tendrils, etc.).

marks made by mats and fabrics, which were

although supporting that approach, limited

language of visual art is described as an

A spiral also suggests that terms and their

engraved into the ceramic clay. Other forms

themselves to the orthogonal alignments.

‘intervention’ - the principle of which is the

meanings change over time. Thus, for

originate in fruits, ﬁsh spines, crops of barley

Haring, on the other hand, chose to use

added value of human hands, even in the

example, the English word ‘spire’. Originally

- that same geometric abstract still evident

any shape whatsoever as long as it suited

more extreme cases of ‘non-intervention’.

the meaning was coil, i.e. spiral, which can

in various cultures around the world.

the function. Therefore, one sees in his

Thus,

as a ‘force majeure’. There are several such

for

instance,

photographing

landscape, or presenting an object, stone,

also be interpreted as signifying aspiration,

work rounded forms, sloping roofs, etc.

from which it makes sense to use that

Organic shape - The word ‘organic’ means

Another prominent architect whose work

same word to indicate the rod or ﬂagpole

from ﬂora and fauna, but it is also an integral

was similar to that of Hugo Haring is Hans

which lean towards the sculptural, but

Roberto Burle Marx, who adopted that very

constitutes a form of intervention. In

part of the whole. In other words, it is once

Scharoun - especially his design (1956 - 63)

he adopted those same shapes, especially

same biomorphic style. Amongst the last

other words, the geomorphic shape falls

again a term not necessarily connected

for the Philharmonic Concert Hall in Berlin.

when the intention was to integrate

to have favored this style, architect Frank

somewhere between the original state and

somewhat with the landscape. In respect of

Gehry is famous for his source of inspiration,

the processing or the polishing of the object.

deriving from the shape of a ﬁsh.

positioned at the top of a building.

[ 15 ] Hugo Haring, Garkau. 1924

[ 16 ] Arp Jean, Biomorphic, 1949

clay, sand, etc. in natural form, actually

An inanimate object can be visualized

with shape, but rather a synonym for

in various forms and, once again, not

nature, or the desire to merge with nature.

Biomorphic shape - The intention is an

landscape design, it appears that amongst

necessarily as it would appear in reality.

The word appears a number of times in

abstract and non-deﬁned form that is

the ﬁrst was probably Le Corbusier who,

Stone is raw and rough; sand, as an endless

architecture. Thus, for example, Frank Lloyd

typiﬁed by human limbs and plant leaves,

in the 1920s, erected these forms (trees

Geomorphic shape. In Greek ‘geo’ means

expression, has attracted man for thousands

reproduction drifts and piles up in the wind,

Wright believed that he created ‘organic

characterized by a ‘soft’ and winding

and plants), as a contrast to the geometric

‘earth’ and ‘morpho’ means ‘form’ or

of years. On one hand, we have the cave

in waves; the land in its various forms as

architecture’. Wright's intention could have

outline - resembling a drop of water or oil

shapes of his buildings. Very soon this trend

‘shape’. The concept seemingly refers only

drawings (15,000 BCE) and on the other, the

a valley, a plain, a hill or a high and lofty

been the overall shape of the building, such

as water. The term itself is identiﬁed almost

continued with parts of buildings, such as

to ﬁrm ground. But the intention here is to

megalithic monuments (2000 - 3000 BCE).

mountain; clay can assume any shape, and

as a tree whose branches spread out, or a

exclusively with the style of Jean Arp in his

the roof, asserting that they conduct a sort-

material phenomena that our awareness

While the early stone face was being worked,

liquids are as smooth and shiny as a mirror,

tower where the core is used as a pylon, or

early days (Photograph No. 16). Firstly, most

of dialog with the shapes of the clouds.

recognizes as being natural: rocks, hills,

including reliefs of animals - the later ones

or ﬂowing like streams after the rain. Of

a duality that melds the building with the

of the landscape designs in the natural or

Le Corbusier’s inﬂuence is known to have

caves, clouds and water. The geomorphic

were left in their raw form despite the fact

all these, shapes are sometimes perceived

environment. At any rate, Wright’s term

English style are based on these shapes.

been very strong in Brazil, especially with

shape will not appear to be natural if

that by then copper tools had already been

as imitations, sometimes stylized and

‘organic’ has a clear enough afﬁnity to

Secondly, there are sectors in architecture

architect Oscar Niemeyer and landscaper

it is too smooth, too geometric or too

produced. Therefore the ﬁnish, the form and

‘Natural’ stone, as a means for visual

[ 17 ] Pantheon, Rome. 118-125 A.D

the size are probably the result of emotional

Egypt, hewn in 2000 BCE. From that point

caves today is the stalactite. This shape

the King. Initially, apparently, these took the

made hills. This phenomenon is well known

perception regardless of the technology that

on it has been possible to ﬁnd natural and

was incorporated (14th century) in the

form of a number of mastabas placed one

from the church building and the monastery

was available. Likewise for the huge boulders

artiﬁcial caves used for burial, until the

dome of the 'Hall of the Abencerrajes' in

on top of the other (the Step Pyramids) that

of Mont-Saint-Michel (Photograph No. 19) in

that typiﬁed the construction in the

onset of Christianity in the Roman Empire

the Alhambra Palace in Granada, Spain

later on turned into the real pyramids.

France, through to the neo-gothic version

Mycenaean culture - “Cyclopean masonry”

- a tradition that spread east, to Central

(Photograph No. 18). But the impression

as the Greeks called them.

Asia, and west, to Rome itself. A change in

one gets is of a celestial dome rather than

The two versions, the temple hill and the

The clearest example of this phenomenon

direction started in the year 200 CE with the

a cave. It is hard to tell whether this is an

burial hill, continued for a very long time.

is found in the Japanese gardens that

start of the cult of the Persian god Mithra

immediate sensation or an explanation

Thus, for instance, the Temple Mount in

Clouds inspire many metaphors: feather

combine cultivated areas with seemingly

(6) – a ritual that included ceremonies in

since, based on the original meaning,

Jerusalem, and the Acropolis in Athens,

clouds, sheep and an inﬁnite number of

natural rock formations. Moreover, in

underground spaces excavated especially

this was an illustration of the concept

are actually hills with temples. The most

other images. But, amazingly, not all of them

order to enhance the ‘natural look’, it is

for this purpose. Some of these were

of paradise. Additionally, the stalactites

famous of burial hills are the Herodium in

appear 'natural'. That is something that

customary in Japan to immerse the stones

discovered underneath buildings in cities.

themselves appear in Islamic art in many

Israel, containing Herod's tomb; and the

every landscape or building photographer

connections, such as the ﬁnish on arches

Burial Mount of the Roman Caesar Hadrian

learns. Despite the fact that the photograph

for long periods in streams, so that the

[ 18 ] Hall of the Abencerrajes, Alhambra. 14th century

Family by Antoni Gaudí.

erosion will conceal any signs of human

Also after the rise of Christianity (312 CE) as

and niches, the purpose of which is obscure;

(now called the Castle of St. Angelo). A

doesn't lie, the clouds are likely to appear

touch. These rock formations have a

the religion of the Roman Empire, the well-

and sometimes as ornamentation or even

similar type of hill, but in the shape of a bell,

artiﬁcial or staged. It is possible that these

narrative signiﬁcance for anyone who is

known practice of digging cave formations

with a certain afﬁnity to the cave itself.

is the holy 'stupa', and others like it, which

shapes are the foundation for abstract art.

aware of their existence: thus for example,

beneath the churches, called crypts (from

were built by the followers of Buddha (the

Vassily Kandinsky 's clouds appear to be

a single rock; a dialogue between large and

the Greek 'kruptos', meaning 'hidden' or

Hill – is the opposite of the cave. A depression

2nd and 3rd centuries BCE). Another famous

vague and imaginary; Robert Delaunay's

small; discussion between large, small and

'secret'), resumed. In other words, it is

on one side and a protrusion on the other.

center of Buddhist ritual is the monolithic

clouds are round and ﬂickering and, last but

medium sized - in addition to the more

possible to ﬁnd examples of natural and

The contrast between what is hollow,

Borobudur Temple in Indonesia, which was

not least, František Kupka, whose circles turn

complicated relationships, such as the

artiﬁcial caves throughout history, until

and what is full. Also, there is an afﬁnity

abandoned after the transition to Islam.

into a play of colors.

relationship between the individuals and

nearly the end of the 9th century. But all of

between the two, and between them and

The site, which was renovated after being

the groups.

them are naturalistic imitations, or the real

stone, since normally natural caves are to

rediscovered, is a hill created (800 CE) in the

Clouds were the source of inspiration for

thing, rather than the source of inspiration

be found in mountainous, hilly and rocky

form of steps, similar to the ziggurats. On

the church designed by Danish architect

The cave - this is a geomorphic phenomenon

in an attempt to create a new synthesis.

places. The man-made hills appeared

each stair a statue was placed, and there

Jørn Utzon in the 1970s (Photograph No. 20).

that has awakened man’s emotions and

Distant allusions to this possibility can

soon after the invention of writing in the

were prayer corners for the faithful. At the

That same topic – i.e. clouds' - also appears

the imagination since the start of the

be found in the Mycenaean burial domes

Middle East (3000 BCE). In many cities in

top of the hill lay the central stupa.

in the 1990s, in the entrance hall of the

Neolithic period (14,000 BCE). This is

of the Kings, Greece (2000 BCE), and

Naharayim, a ziggurat was constructed on

evident from the cave wall paintings in

inside the Pantheon in Rome (2nd century,

France and Spain. The same phenomenon,

Photograph No. 17).

though slightly different as they are manmade, are the Tombs of the Pharaohs in

characterized in the Church of the Holy

One of the characteristics associated with

UFA Cinema Center in Dresden, designed

top of which there was a temple. The tombs

It doesn't take much imagination to discover

by the "Himmelblau" (in German, 'blue

in Egypt were square in shape (mastaba),

the connection between the shapes of

skies') Group of architects (Photograph

for each noble and his family (2600 BCE)

buildings, such as cathedrals rising above

No. 21). The topic of clouds was supposed

and soon they started building Pyramids for

the cities in the Middle Ages, and the man-

to have appeared again in the proposal by

[ 19 ] Mont Saint Michel. France

[ 21 ] Coop Himemblau, Cinema Center, Drezden. 1988

[ 20 ] Utzon Jorn, Bagsvaerd Church. 1974

Frank Gehry for a new wing at the Tel Aviv

or, at the very least, ﬂowing water or Frederic

The subjects, deﬁnitions, interpretations,

hence, it only remains to examine its

Museum of Art.

Chopin, whose sounds were, frequently

intentions

continuation in a contemporary context

quite literally, the sounds of ﬂowing water.

this article seek to clarify in words the

that leans back and clariﬁes with itself, here

In all of these, the original intention was,

The phenomenon is also evident in other

phenomenon that exists in vision and

and now, the more focused directions.

in all likelihood, to convey the sense of

directions, even abstractly, such as the shapes

in consciousness, leading to a necessary

ﬂoating, lightness, mist and other words

of the waves, which evoke a sense of power,

end, but not to the end of the discussion.

"I've always found myself grasping signs,

that signify the opposite of matter.

force, movement, tranquility, eternality, etc.

It is very obvious that shape, as with the

not to mention anchors, and introducing

Some people claim that everything is an ‘idea’

other fundamental topics, presents an

sets of stages, to connect backwards and

Water is undoubtedly the foundation of life.

(in Greek: 'ﬁgure' or 'shape'), while others claim

elusive problem in the tangibility which is

create a stable and comfortable route by

It is no wonder, therefore, that it is an endless

that everything is a phenomenon – tangible,

more than a semblance. Shape lends itself

which to continue my forward progress. I

source of metaphors, just like the ever-

virtual or imaginary, whether it originates

to deﬁnition, and primarily its exterior

have come to terms with shape as a suitable

ﬂowing springs and streams. Moreover, water

in physical evidence or in visualization.

boundaries and internal connections, but

infrastructural solution which derives from

is perhaps the best example of multi-sensory

There are those who have set everything on

mainly, the reciprocal relations between

something else, or which allows another

phenomena: sight, hearing (sound) and

movement or on the amorphous but, in fact,

them and their inﬂuences.

thing to be molded into it. There is something

touch (dampness). The topic is very familiar in

everything – including the absence of shape,

The formalistic discussion, whether it

seductive about shapes, something mocking

music, for example, Franz Schubert, many of

the shape itself, and all the rest - is a kind of

relates to words, or to a deﬁned pattern, will

and encompassing, as if they want us to dig

whose compositions evoke the image of rivers

judgment and desire.

necessarily lead to a spiritual clariﬁcation;

inside them and discover that they are not

and

illustrations

raised

an end to themselves, but are a bridge. As my writing, and my lines accumulate into a communicating pattern, so do the hands of a clock appear, encircling the excavation of the site, the forms throughout the generations until the end of the blowing wind. A plant, like a budding plant, grows in

multiplying

forms,

chained

its

sophistication and ﬁghting for its liberty". Tuvia Avraham (1)

HERZL’S “JEWISH STATE”, AS A UTOPIAN PLAN GILEAD SCHWEID

Notes:

earliest example of an urn used for the ashes of

ABSTRACT

based on planning which had taken place

and organizational planning, and some

1. Tuvia Avraham, artist, painter. Founded and

the dead, which were customary amongst the

Theodore Herzl is the person who, more

between 1899 and 1904, and the utopian

components of the program are comparable

directed a college of Art and Design from 1982

Greek Etruscans for about a thousand years. Thus

with essential components of urban plans

-2007

too the revival, in modern day, of the tradition for

than anyone else, is perceived to have

visions that inﬂuenced the cities designed

been responsible for shaping the Zionist

by Le Corbusier and Raymond Unwin, who

conceived by some of the other utopians

Movement and for concentrating the

designed Letchworth - the ﬁrst ‘garden city’.

at that time; other components - perhaps

urns in which to keep the ashes of the deceased 2. The mask is the symbol of the Greek god

urns that are round and obviously have emotional

of wine, known by the name Dionysus, (or

signiﬁcance, both in the past and in the present.

in Roman mythology known as Bacchus).

because of the particular problem Herzl

efforts that created the infrastructure which eventually made the establishment

In the introduction to his book The Jewish

was dealing with - were indeed unique.

The consequence of this is that festivals of

4. In practice, nearly every form contains within

of the State of Israel possible. Herzl’s ﬁrst

State, Herzl declares that this book is not

drinking and debauchery are held in his honor

it the basis of dynamics. This phenomenon is

major undertaking in this connection

utopia, but rather a practical plan that

INTRODUCTION

(Bacchanalia and orgies), which often included

especially prominent when the form is ‘stretched’

was writing the book The Jewish State (i)

could feasibly be implemented. People

Theodore Herzl is perceived to be the father

disguises, similar to the Jewish Purim festivals.

and seemingly aspires to return to the condition

which was published in 1896. The book

who had analyzed his writings in the past

of the Jewish State. He ﬁrst presented

But, also theater performances with masks, the

of equilibrium, or as close to that as possible. Thus, for example, the Egyptian obelisks, the minarets

enjoyed

was

actually referred to his book Altneuland

his vision to establish an independent

one tragic and the one comic. In other words, the person wearing a mask can portray any image.

of Islam, the narrow and high spaces in churches

widely distributed and translated into a

(ii) which had been written as a novel, as a

state for the Jewish people in his book

Just as wine can change one’s personality, so can

from the Gothic period. Moreover, the relatively

variety of languages, and comprised one

sort of utopian presentation of The Jewish

The Jewish State which was published

a mask or a costume.

low spaces create a sense of motion, or ‘escape’

of the primary motivations behind the

State. In light of Herzl's declaration, and

in 1896. In the introduction, Herzl states

Therefore it is appropriate that the Latin word

- in other words, dynamics, facing outwards;

establishment of the Zionist Movement.

based on utopian thought in comparison

that the book is not utopia but rather a

with the other European thinkers of that

realistic and calculated plan which could

Herzl was an educated Jew who attained a

time, it seems appropriate to examine The

Doctorate of Law and was knowledgeable

Jewish State, and examine whether this

declaration raised three central dilemmas.

in urban issues such as the effect of

was, indeed, utopian planning.

The ﬁrst: why the hesitation about calling

‘persona’ signiﬁes a personality, but it also

dynamics that originates with the human craving

means a function and a mask. Nowadays actors

to identify, both emotionally and physically, with

do not appear with masks; and masked balls,

whatever grows and with whatever is still.

when the participants behaved however they wanted to, have almost disappeared. On the other hand, we will sometimes note that a person is acting a chosen role, or one that has been appointed for him. As William Shakespeare said: “all the world’s a stage.”

immediate

recognition,

implemented

without

delay.

This

the plan “utopian”? The second: is this

development patterns on the price of land. The period during which he wrote his book

Analyzing The Jewish State and comparing

essentially a utopian plan, or can its

The Jewish State and, thereafter, Altneuland

it with the other visions of utopian

features be considered utopian? The third:

(1902) - between the last decade of the 19th

planning it does, indeed, appear that it

what is the status of this plan in relation to

century and the ﬁrst decade of the 20th

can be referred to as a ‘utopian plan’. But

other contemporary plans of action which

century - was a very active period in terms of

Herzl’s utopian plan does not deal entirely

purported to deal with different types of

time and space provide no explanation other

utopian writing connected with planning.

with settlement planning. This is due to

settlement solutions?

than the claim made by psychologist Carl Jung

Especially noteworthy in this respect is

the necessity of taking into consideration

the book by Ebenezer Howard Garden

the various organizational and political

To try and answer these questions one

Cities of Tomorrow published in 1902, and

matters related to the restoration of a

must ﬁrst deﬁne utopia and examine the

The Industrial City by Tony Garnier, which

Homeland for the Jewish people. However,

connection between that and Herzl’s plan.

was published in 1917. Garnier’s book was

there is a signiﬁcant aspect of physical

Then one must try to clarify the nature of

3. The conﬁgurative traditions that leap across

regarding the existence of a collective memory for all mankind. An example of this can be found amongst the sarcophagi, all of which are shaped like a house, but only one of them is an earthenware vessel. This is apparently the

the problems that confronted Herzl, as well

of the word ‘utopia’, as it is deemed in

suggest imaginary alternatives for this

yearning (for better order, etc.). He also

forms of utopia is connected with a physical

Hippodamus’ orthogonal design, and the

as the nature of the problems that other

our times - even in light of the numerous

situation, and try to effect changes (iii). Adi

differentiates between abstract utopia

place, primarily in regard to cities and the

Roman Castrum that followed, are examples

contemporary thinkers were attempting

and diverse utopian fantasy stories that

Zur names six conditions for the existence

(detachment from reality), and concrete

design of cities.

of design that achieved a utopia of order

to address. Finally, one must analyze the

were common at that time, was of an

of utopia: (a) perfect optimal order that

utopia which is feasible, and which can

book and understand its utopian features if

unattainable quixotic plan or imaginary

cannot

inspire revolutionaries and innovators (2).

there are any.

description. In some cases, it was probably

individual such as those we are familiar

After conducting this analysis, the work

just a derogatory way of referring to

with (i.e. the individuals described in utopia

Friedman, too, claims that every individual

may be compared with other contemporary

‘whimsical’ writing.

are no different from the people we know); (c) consistency, coherence and plausibility

Utopian writing appeared long before the period when Moore coined the term. As

The term "utopia", which appeared for the ﬁrst time in the title of the book by Thomas

and control. During the Renaissance, a

THE CONNECTION BETWEEN

number of ideal / utopian cities were

UTOPIA AND DESIGN

planned, but for the most part these were

As far back as Plato’s Politeia (iv) utopia

never built. Their design was geometric and

has the ability to imagine other worlds and,

refers to a city. Although there are no clear

symmetric. The cities were surrounded by

in fact, has a utopian impulse. He claims

physical planning guidelines, determining

walls that served a double function: physical

(of the parts of utopia, the mechanisms

that successful utopias are not the stuff of

the absolute and optimal size of the city -

and ideological. These functions were to

described, etc.); (d) harmony and totality

myths, but descriptions of feasible systems

approximately thirty thousand individuals

protect the city (physical) and to keep the

early as the time of Plato, distinctly utopian

(of the described condition); (e) continual

attainable through use of political power

- constitutes quite a strong design

‘bad’ element out (ideological). One sees a

writing had already appeared in his Politeia

and constant happiness (of the people who

and so forth. It is his assertion that without

statement, together with assumptions for

potentially interesting offshoot of this idea

Moore in 1516, abounds in double-meaning.

(Republic), which describes a city inhabited

populate utopia - all of which derive from the

utopian thinking there is no way to achieve

deciding on the optimal physical conditions.

during later periods, in the closed university

The transliteration is close to the Greek

by a perfect society (1). In the most general

objective living conditions); and (f) the static

a better future (3).

Interestingly, this approximation of around

campuses

term which indicates “a good place”, but

way it is possible to determine that utopia

nature of relationships between people and

thirty thousand residents is also the optimal

in England - which were intended to

also to the Greek term meaning “no place”

presents a better alternative for the existing

in the institutions (that is, lack of change

Ashcroft maintains that in modern utopian

size in later utopian planning, for people like

safeguard the students from the “urban

(iii). Moore himself used both meanings in

social condition or, in certain instances,

that could harm the attained perfection)

theory, utopia is not another place, but

Ebenezer Howard (4) and Tony Garnier (7).

vice and moral deterioration” of the city;

his book, thus validating the dichotomous

a perfect alternative. Nonetheless, it is

(iii). This deﬁnition is, in my opinion, too

a spirit of hope in itself. Moreover, he

nature of the term. On the one hand, it

possible that there are utopias whose

harsh. Nowadays utopia is deﬁned in a less

emphasizes that whatever cannot be

Ideal cities were already planned and built

withdrew to “the purity of nature”; and the

indicates an ideal place or society; and on the

main characteristic is not social, but

binding manner and may apply also to

imagined cannot be attained; in other

during earlier times, in various areas of the

gated communities of recent years, which

other, the inability of attaining them.

rather

utopian planning-related writings and attitudes of that time.

changed; (b)

ordinary

Oxford

and

Cambridge

through to the American universities that

technological,

processes, for conditions that depict partial

words, utopia is an essential stage on the

world, such as India, China, Aram-Naharayim

are supposed to provide their residents a

even though they also embody a certain

systems, to directions of development in

path to improving reality (2).

and Central America. Usually these cities

utopian quality of life, and protect them

The Even Shoshan Hebrew dictionary

social signiﬁcance. The most prevalent

various contexts and so forth. Moreover,

constituted a model of the world as it was

from the deteriorating conditions of the

interprets ‘utopia’ as ‘an imaginary plan to

introduction of utopia is through various

such a utopia is not absolute but it can, at

There are different categories of utopia,

then perceived, and was in accordance with

city in general (9).

rectify... society… and so forth" and also as

kinds of literary works, but there may also

least, be partially implemented. Support

both in respect of analyzing literary utopias,

the comprehension of the local culture; and it

"an imaginary concept that cannot exist in

be other utopias - for instance, in the form

for this perception of utopia has recently

and also in general. One can refer to socio-

might have been that it was because of magical

Here it would be appropriate to discuss who

reality”. This is a stronger formulation than

of oral descriptions that are handed down,

been expressed by various modern-day

economic utopias such as the utopia of

experiences. In the absence of any written data

administered the utopia, and for whom

the wording of the term as it is implied

or by means of visual images.

philosophers. For instance, Ashcroft quotes

socialism; of religious utopias (the prophecy

about the intentions of the builders, these

it was administered. Thus, for instance,

morphological

Bloch, who claims that the utopian emotion

of ‘the end of the world’, ‘the world to come’,

cities cannot be called utopian - however, it is

during the Renaissance, the utopian cities

Herzl's reluctance to call “The Jewish State”

Almost

from

is a universal human sense of hope. Bloch

and so forth); ethical utopias, technological

not unlikely that such construction involved

were controlled by the servants of the upper

‘utopia’. Probably the more common use

criticism of the existing situation. It can

adds that utopia can educate towards

utopias and so on. One of the commonest

some kind of utopian thinking.

classes for them. As such, they were not

in Greek, and it can possibly account for

every

‘utopia’1

develops

supposed to offer a new social order, but to

These utopias were controlled by experts

through concrete physical expression but

In 1895, Herzl tried to interest two of the

The proposal raised a tremendous storm,

It is quite possible that, inﬂuenced by

facilitate an existing ideal social order. Thus,

or intellectuals, who wished to improve

rather by attacking the planning process,

wealthiest benefactors of the Jewish people,

and Herzl withdrew from it, swearing his

Hertzka’s failure and the concern that as

Filarete designed a city in which there were

the condition of the masses and the lower-

starting with the planners, the intended

Baron Rothschild and Baron Hirsch, in his

allegiance to the Land of Israel. Herzl passed

a consequence, no one would respond

different residences for each of the classes,

class population. In urban planning, various

beneﬁciaries of the planning and the

plan to establish a Jewish State. When he

away in 1904 after an illness (vi).

with appropriate seriousness to another

and Leonardo de Vinci designed a city on

attempts endeavored to solve the plight

cooperation of the public and even the very

failed at this he decided to turn to a wider

two levels, in which the upper classes lived

of the poor inhabitants of the cities, but

pretense of the physical planning design

audience and in 1896 he published his

One of the things which apparently had

Jewish State as a utopian novel in the

comfortably above - enjoying sunlight and

their hardships were quickly and strongly

in general. These utopias were generally

book The Jewish State (vi). In 1896 Herzl also

considerable inﬂuence on Herzl at the

spirit of those times, but chose to give it

air - while the lower level was intended for

intensiﬁed as a result of the industrial

controlled by a variety of specialists, and

initiated connections with the Court of

time he was writing The Jewish State – in

the guise of a systematic plan by which

the working class, and for the waste and

revolution and mass migration to the cities.

were intended to beneﬁt an assortment

the Turkish Sultan in order to try and get

terms of content as well as form - was

to solve a concrete problem: the problem

sewage removal systems (v). Further to this

At the start of the 20th century, primarily

and range of communities, such as women,

the rights to establish the Jewish State in

the book by Theodor Hertzka Freeland -

of the Jewish State (vii). It is also possible

description, it is possible to see that what

following the First World War, which left

minorities, people with handicaps, or all of

Palestine. In 1897, Herzl convened the First

A Social Anticipation, published in 1890.

that his decision to present it in such a

could have been utopia for one person,

millions

the consumers in the city in general.

Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. In

Hertzka, who was also Jewish, worked as the

technical format was deliberate, in order to

would

for

appeared in the physical design of space.

1898, he met with Kaiser Wilhelm II during

economic editor for the same newspaper,

differentiate himself from Hertzka’s vision.

another. A characteristic instance such as

Most of these utopias were controlled by

HERZL - BACKGROUND

his visit to the Land of Israel, but he achieved

sitting in an ofﬁce near Herzl’s. Hertzka’s

Nonetheless, Hertzka’s attempt to achieve

this is the dystopic design in 1787 of Jeremy

the urban planners who perceived their

Theodore Herzl was born in Budapest in

nothing from that meeting. Then Herzl tried

book was a utopian novel containing a

his utopian vision indicates that, at that

Bentham’s Panopticon. Bentham formulated

profession as a vocation on behalf of the

1860 to an educated family. The family

to appeal to the leaders of the British Empire.

description of a country located in East

time, various thinkers believed that it was

the Panopticon as a physical means to utopia

public. These utopias relied on technological

moved to Vienna when he was a youth, and

Africa where the inhabitants were united

possible to implement characteristically

through organizational control and social

progress, rationalism and socialism, and

that was where Herzl started his Law studies

In 1900, he tried to get the rights from the

into workers’ organizations and assisted

utopian visions. It is likely that choosing

policing. However, this utopia is perceived

also on “the needs of the average person”,

at the University. In 1884 Herzl was awarded

British for Jewish settlement in El Arish

by futuristic technologies such as robots,

the style through which to present the

by Foucault as dystopia - from the viewpoint

which meant equality for all regardless of

a Doctorate of Law. He worked as a lawyer

or Cyprus. In 1902 Herzl published his

so that they attained a happy and constant

utopian composition resulted from myriad

of those who were excluded or supervised

culture and differences in age, personality

for one year, and then started working as

book Altneuland, his utopian novel that

utopian

considerations by the visionary, and was not

(10). A modern physical expression of this

and so forth. Such utopias, which continued

a journalist, a writer, and a playwright.

repeated some of the concepts he had

country was not actually intended for Jews,

actually inﬂuenced by the utopian degree

question is the installation of closed circuit

to appear during the ﬁrst half of the 20th

Herzl experienced anti-Semitism for the

presented in The Jewish State six years

but for the public at large. Hertzka’s book

of the content.

television (CCTV) for various parts of the

century, directly affected urban planning

ﬁrst time in 1883 when he was a student

earlier, but here these were introduced as

had been extremely successful and, in 1893,

city and in important buildings, which

throughout the 20th century. Nonetheless,

at the University of Vienna. In 1894 Herzl

part of an imaginary story. At the start of

he had even tried to purchase a plot of land

THE JEWISH STATE AS UTOPIA

preserves the authorities’ ability to control

when it became clear that modern urban

was sent to Paris as a correspondent for the

1903, Herzl rejected the British proposal

in East Africa that would be large enough

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE BOOK

and supervise, but negatively impacts the

utopia, with its emphasis on rationalism,

newspaper he was employed by to cover

for settlement in East Africa. In August of

to start the implementation of his vision.

The Jewish State is a fairly short composition

privacy of the citizens.

functional

have

constituted

‘dystopia’

people

homeless, utopias

utopian model, Herzl did not write The

existence.

Hertzka’s

transportation

the Dreyfus Affair (vi). There are those who

that year the British made their proposal

However, the British refused to sell him

- its Hebrew translation containing only

and zoning, did not create better places

ascribe great importance to the effect that

public and, in light of that, Herzl raised the

a large area of land and the project was

60 pages. The book opens with a short

In the 19th century, utopias prevalently

but quite the contrary, process-oriented

this trial had on Herzl but others - such as

British proposal for discussion during the

suspended in its early stages (vii).

foreword written by Herzl, over half of which

became more ‘for the good of everyone’

utopias began to appear. These utopias

Shlomo Avineri - believe that the trial did

sixth Zionist Congress which took place

deals with the quality of the composition.

- or more precisely, for the good of many.

tried to imagine better conditions not

not have any real impact on him.

that same month (the Uganda Congress).

Herzl claims he is putting forth a realistic

efﬁciency,

“combination” or “construction” which could

associations and renewed settlement. The

suitability for traditional agriculture. He

market that would attract other Jews. The

would ensure its success; “travelers do not

elements of physical planning are relatively

be concretely effected, as opposed to Hertzka’s

former he calls a product of Jewish anti-

continued by discussing the new roots of

new country would, from the outset, be

produce railways but, conversely, railways

few and are general in nature.

unrealistic utopia. Later he mentions the

Semitism (of the Jewish ‘Establishment’

anti-Semitism and the Jewish response to

designed as a progressive, cultural and

produce travelers”. That is, the actual

hardships that the Jews were enduring and

trying to rid itself of poor relatives!) and

it, which only served to increased the anti-

beautiful place.

development will create the (overt) demand.

a. Physical elements: already at the start

the threat that their lives would become

the latter he calls the attempts of the

Semitism. Eventually, he claimed, external

The next chapter is entitled ‘The Jewish

of presenting the plan, Herzl refers to the

harder, calling to his readers to take action. He

‘well-intended’, but

the

pressures were creating a nation out of

After presenting the plan along general

Company’ and details the principles of the

nature of construction in the future. He

declared that, by doing so, he felt that he was

meager scope of the projects affords them

the Jewish people, and thus they have both

lines, Herzl discussed the matter of the

plan. He explains how the Company will sell

determines that this will be modern and

fulﬁlling his part in this matter.

no chance to succeed. Herzl summarizes

the possibility and the strength to create a

destination country. Herzl raised

two

Jewish property in the countries of origin

that “we shall build more boldly and more

the Introduction by stating that, through

country for themselves.

possibilities: Argentina, which is a country

without loss, how to purchase inexpensive

magniﬁcently than has ever been done”

believes

that

After the foreword, Herzl continued with

immigration to a new location, the Jews’

with vast territories and a wealth of

land in the destination country, and then he

(page 27). If we add to this his utopian

an Introduction. Here he attacks those who

material conditions will not worsen, but

The plan to establish a country was based

resources, a sparse population and good

continues with various fundamentals that

vision regarding the new technological

say that the Jews are dependent upon the

rather the opposite will be true. They will

on receiving sovereignty over a plot of

weather conditions, and which would be

relate to realizing the plan to be discussed

possibilities - those that already existed

nations they live amongst in order to make

live in homes that will be newer and more

land on the assumption that the moment

able to allocate a large area of land for the

in the next section. The following chapter

and those that would come into existence

a living. He speaks about technological

modern than those they had in Europe, they

the Jews received such sovereignty, they

Jews (and Jewish agricultural settlement

deals with social elements of transfer and

in the future, and that the Jewish State

progress and asserts that Jews would

would not have to forfeit their property, and

would be able to deal with all other related

had already started there on the initiative

settlement and includes a short reference

would rely signiﬁcantly on technology

also be willing to be employed in hard

they would be able to preserve their cultural

matters. Herzl suggested two bodies: (a) the

of Baron Hirsch): or the Land of Israel, with

to city planning which would be prepared

(pages 13 - 14, and page 66) - it is possible to

labor. He returns to the Jewish problem,

traditions as they had done in the past.

Jewish Federation, which would deal with

the historical importance it held for the

in advance. The last chapter discusses

arrive at a vision of future development and

scientiﬁc and political planning, and (b)

Jewish people. There was the possibility of

legal elements such as legislation, and the

building, in principle, without the necessity

be found in large numbers there is anti-

After the Introduction the general section

the Jewish community, which would work

persuading the Europeans that settlement

nature of government. Furthermore, there

of accurately demonstrating their form

Semitism and that when they move to a

begins. To start with, Herzl relates to

towards bringing the plans to fruition,

of the Jews in the Land of Israel would create

is a discussion about language, a ﬂag,

and character. This line is an expression of

new place such as America, they bring the

the Jewish problem. He states that the

both in their countries of origin and also

a type of forward guard against the Muslim

rights for minorities and so on. At the end

abstract utopian technology.

anti-Semitism with them. He claims that

situation for the wealthy Jews is bad, that

in their destination country. Departure for

east. In Herzl’s opinion, the choice would be

there is a short conclusion, which again

the root of anti-Semitism isn’t socialist or

of the middle classes is worse, and that

the destination country would be voluntary,

determined based on whichever alternative

summarizes the need for a solution to the

According to the accepted order of things

religious but, rather, national; therefore, the

of the working-class Jews is worst of all.

gradual and would continue over a period

was attainable, rather than because of any

Jewish problem.

customary in Europe at that time, Herzl

solution to the problem requires that this be

Then he adds that all the nations amongst

of decades. At the beginning it would be

preference for either of those alternatives.

related to on a national front. Herzl attacks

whom the Jews live are anti-Semites and

the poor and lower-class people who would

PLANNING ELEMENTS

classes in terms of reference - despite the

assimilation and absorption as solutions,

wish to rid themselves of the Jews. The

go and start getting the country prepared;

Next Herzl devotes a few words to the

The planning elements in The Jewish State

fundamental and legal equality between

claiming that even in places where there

solutions proposed: Jewish settlement and

laying down railway lines, paving the roads,

nature of the planning. He states that, on

are divided into two main categories:

all citizens. The homes of workers should,

is no apparent problem of anti-Semitism,

becoming agriculturalists, he dismissed as

building the bridges, doing the agricultural

the presumption that there is a latent need

(a) physical elements and (b) procedural

in his opinion, be built as cheaply as

it is teeming below the surface and will

being impractical. The ﬁrst was inadequate

cultivation and so forth. These activities

(for emigration and establishment of a new

elements. By virtue of the fact that there

possible, by the ‘Company’, i.e. the Jewish

erupt at the ﬁrst opportunity. He continues

in terms of size, and the second due to

would considerably improve the value of

national framework based on territory),

is no decision in the book regarding the

executive

by reviewing the Jewish immigration

the modern Jewish intelligentsia’s non-

the land and would create an economic

commencement of the settlement process

location of the future Jewish State, the

were to look identical, since prefabricated

claiming that everywhere that Jews are to

differentiated

between

organization.

the

These

different

houses

construction would lower the costs. This

modern neighborhoods in Israel and around

concept of the Jewish State. Additionally,

city plan beforehand, and be able to choose

Switzerland. This compromise possibly reveals

principles regarding the sale of Jewish

principle appears again about two decades

the world - decades later when plans had

Herzl proposed independent architectural

where they wish it to be located. Moreover,

a true expression of his position, but it can

property in Europe, homes, businesses and

later, both from Le Corbusier (viii), and also

generally been laid down for the area without

planning “by private contract”. For the

he adds that it is possible to preserve “little

also be interpreted as an attempt to lessen

so forth and, in exchange, purchasing land

Gropius and, thereafter, the planners of

consideration for the ‘natural conformation

wealthiest class, Herzl assumes the building

habits”, which characterized the routine life

possible objection from people who would

in the destination country, constructing

the mass housing estates in Germany and

of the land’. Herzl referred to the location of

of ‘luxury homes’ that would express their

of each different community, something

think that the need to learn a new language

infrastructure and buildings, and also

in the U.S.S.R. (5). This principle was also

synagogues, which would be visible from a

wealth, and which will be brought in at a

which is also expressed physically in

constitutes such a hardship as to prevent

the transfer of the inhabitants. Amongst

applied to a considerable degree during

considerable distance as a symbol of faith

more advanced stage (paged 37). In regard

building coffee-houses, theatres and so

them from participating in the enterprise.

other things, Herzl deals with avoiding the

mass immigration to Israel throughout the

“for it is only our ancient faith that has

to the typical homes, clearly one hundred

forth, which will be “better, more beautiful

It appears that this possibility is one which

increase of land prices in the destination

early years of the State.

kept us together” (page 33). This reference

is a very large number which can satisfy

and more agreeable” than they were in

is indeed more correct, especially in light of

country (pages 31 - 32) - matters that also

corresponded to the directions given in

adequate variety even in moderate and

their country of origin (page 55).

the fact that in Altneuland, the inhabitants

concerned other thinkers in this ﬁeld, for

the Talmud for building the synagogue “at

relatively large settlements, especially if

speak Hebrew; in other words, a new unifying

example Ebenezer Howard (5); controlling

Despite the emphasis on uniqueness, by

identity is created rather than a collection of

the prices of property offered for sale

virtue of the fact that a collection of possible

old identities in a new location.

in Europe (pages 30 - 31 and 37 - 38), and

Herzl was not satisﬁed with the principle of

uniformity. He observed that these homes

the summit of the city” (ix), as well as the

would not be humble cabins, or workers

location of churches in the European cities;

barracks as one might ﬁnd in Europe, but

however, a notation that Herzl adds after

An element with an interesting physical

types of housing has been determined that

they should be “detached houses in little

the proposed location perhaps indicates

expression appears in the chapter entitled

will, together with the laborers’ residences,

An interesting point is the idea of building

activities and economic proﬁtability for the

gardens, united into attractive groups

a national goal. In other words, using the

Local Groups, in which Herzl supports the

constitute the overwhelming majority of

large department stores. Herzl proposes

Company, as had been done, for example,

in each locality” (page 32). This concept

synagogue as a national symbol, more than

organization of entire communities of

residential buildings - and also the fact that

two arguments for this idea: the ﬁrst - it

in the development of Paris (page 32).

is comparable with and slightly prior to

it being a religious symbol in itself. Herzl also

the middle classes, which would already

the city plans will be prepared in advance

would crush peddling and small commerce,

Herzl relates to the gradual introduction

Ebenezer Howard’s ideas, which were

refers to the schools, which are supposed

take place in their residential districts in

by the Company’s designers - one perceives

perceived by the anti-Semites as a Jewish

of industry to the settlements (page

published in his book Garden Cities of

to be: “light, welcoming and attractive to

Europe. He claims that communities will

an attempt - although this is not explicitly

characteristic. The second reason he mentions

41), planning the allocation of the work

Tomorrow, in 1902 (4).

people” (page 33).

be organized and immigrate together

expressed - to create through physical means

is that this would enable immediate

force according to need, and providing

to their destination country, and in that

one infrastructure that will unite the new

adjustment for residence in an area “for

information regarding the types of factories

Later on that same page, Herzl refers to

Later Herzl considers the housing for the

way they will be able to preserve their

nation. A physical expression of a similar

people who require more reﬁned necessities

required, and so forth, in order to create

a certain environment, and states that

petite bourgeoisie, and for the wealthy.

communal structure, which is something

approach (David Ben Gurion’s ‘melting pot’),

of life” (pages 54 - 55). This proposal can also

transparency and thus promote activity

the construction will be suited to “the

With regard to the petit bourgeoisie Herzl

that has posed a major problem for every

appeared during the early days of Statehood,

be interpreted as an attempt to create a new

(page 42). Herzl presents the necessity to

natural conformation of the land”. Even

offers a double solution: ﬁrstly, replicating

large immigrant movement (page 50).

with the planning of development towns

and unifying identity.

create organized industry on the one hand

if the intention relates only to organizing

one hundred types of successful houses by

Herzl determines that each community

and cooperative settlements, enacted by

the built-up areas, this is an important

architects of the ‘Company’, each of which

will send a representative with Power of

the State’s planning entities and the Jewish

b. Procedural elements. Herzl attributed

is a need to encourage private initiatives

statement

which

Attorney to select a suitable site on which

Agency. Surprisingly, and in contrast to

great importance to the economic aspect

that will be expressed the moment the

sensitivity

and

unique homes are added to that.

developing strategies that would encourage

and, on the other, emphasizes that there

indicates

aesthetic

would have a nominal price. These would

functionally

advanced

be presented to the community to chose

to establish a city that will meet the needs

this unifying option, Herzl was in favor of

of his plan, because he recognized how

settlement starts to function (page 42). This

thinking. This is particularly important if

from, and would also function as part of

of that community, and that members of

every group maintaining its own language,

crucial it was to the successful realization

is a subtle and far-sighted view.

we examine the typical results of building

the propaganda material for marketing the

the community will accept their designated

and his basis for this was the precedent of

of the plan. He lists a number of operational

With regard to settling the country, Herzl

hours, between which there would be a

homes for the elderly where they just ‘sat

a type of inner logic, there are things in

in The Jewish State, perhaps in light of the

describes the port of Haifa as being large

stresses the need for activities that will

rest period of three-and-a-half hours (page

and waited to die’ (page 49). He was even

it which appear absurd and which drew

changes wrought by the socialist movement

and modern. When Herzl visited the Land of

be based on scientiﬁc principles and order

34). The importance of a working schedule

in favor of forced labor in “the work house”

criticism, for instance, the fact that within

during the six years between the publication

Israel in 1898, Haifa had a small mooring and

(page 59), and later, the need to conduct

such as this was of major signiﬁcance

for those who were idle and refuse to work

twenty years the Land of Israel had turned

of The Jewish State and Altneuland. An

the nearest port was Acco, although that,

“accurate, scientiﬁc investigation of all

in his opinion, and he even considered

(page 49).

from a sparsely populated wilderness into a

interesting addition is the equal right to vote

too, was primarily a restricted ﬁshing port.

of the natural resources of the country”

the possibility of symbolizing this on the

ﬂourishing and prosperous country.

that women have in Altneuland.

The British constructed the port only thirty

prior to organizing “a strictly centralized

designated country ﬂag, with seven golden

With regard to the method of government,

administration”

years after Altneuland was published. Thus

distribution

stars (representing the hours in a working

Herzl was a supporter of two systems:

Hereunder I will mention just a few of the

Also in Altneuland the innovation of

identifying Haifa as the site of a modern port

of land” (page 60). Emphasis on the

day) against a white background (page 63).

democratic monarchy, and an aristocratic

details appearing in Altneuland, which

technology is emphasized. Cars, electricity

shows interesting foresight. Apart from the

preliminary preparatory survey planning

Herzl agreed that working overtime would

republic. Herzl claimed that the former

appear as a sort of addendum to Herzl’s

and so forth are mentioned. Society is

port, the book describes a large European-

and the execution is reminiscent of one of

be acceptable, but limited that to no more

would not be feasible for the Jewish nation.

utopian perception, as expressed in The

described as being harmonious, with

style square, smooth roadways, pavements

the important points in the teachings of

than ten hours’ work per day. According

On the other hand, he considered absolute

Jewish State.

members of the three religions living in

and squares surrounded by arcades (ii).

Patrick Geddes (6).

to his doctrine ‘pregnant women will be

democracy imperfect and, therefore, he

peace, and where the Muslims citizens

Most of the descriptions duplicate things

relieved of all work’ (page 35).

favored an aristocratic republic (pages 61

In terms of settlement, Altneuland depicts

are equal partners in everything (xi). This

that Herzl was familiar with, but there was

- 62). He was highly in favor of separating

a country that has both cities and rural

is a considerable reinforcement of what

also innovation.

and

“the

Another principle Herzl states is the allocation of free land for the purpose of charitable

In connection with work, Herzl perceived

religion and state (page 62) and required

agricultural settlements. The agricultural

is said in The Jewish State, which does not

associations, and merging these institutions

there to be great beneﬁt if the entire

neutrality, and ‘a professional army … to

settlement is not mentioned speciﬁcally in

ignore the Arab presence in the country,

Herzl describes signiﬁcant amounts of

into one system that will function efﬁciently

community works. He explains that even

preserve order internally and externally’

The Jewish State. In Altneuland Herzl repeats

notwithstanding

solution

planting, so that the ‘wilderness’ that had

and economically (page 49).

handicapped people would prefer to work

(page 63).

the right to work, and the necessity of work

in which the Arabs do not develop any

characterized the Land of Israel until that

the

utopian

for all. On social matters he expands the

national aspirations of their own, but are

time had begun to blossom. As we know,

SOCIAL ELEMENTS

honor and their feelings, and also from

COMPARISON WITH ALTNEULAND

discussion and describes general health

absorbed by "the new society" as partners

planting was carried out by the Zionist

In Herzl’s plans there are a number of

the ﬁnancial aspect. He speaks of work

The

between

insurance, insurance in the case of a

with equal rights.

movement and by the British, and altered the

utopian social elements. Herzl speaks of the

that does not require skills, and cites as an

Altneuland and The Jewish State is the style

disaster, pension, support for the elderly,

importance of the work ethic. He proposes

example “relief by labor” as this had been

of writing. Whereas The Jewish State is

etc. (x). That is, the description of a modern

In terms of how it deals with religion,

Two other very interesting things appear

a seven-hour working day, separated into

put into practice at that time in Paris, in

written dryly as a plan to be implemented,

welfare state, despite the fact that at that

Altneuland also presents a separation

in Altneuland in regard to Jerusalem. The

two parts. In general, in construction,

the United States and in a number of other

Altneuland is a novel. Due to the fact that

time no such state existed.

of religion and the state, although here

ﬁrst is turning the Old City into a historic

factories etc. there would be a fourteen-

places. In his opinion this method was by far

the novel takes place for the most part in

religion is given a certain function in

preservation devoid of new building, with

hour working day. This would be divided

preferable to giving direct ﬁnancial support,

the Land of Israel - as the site on which

The new society is described as being

molding the national identity (xi).

the holy places being controlled jointly by

between two shifts, each of them for seven

which merely creates beggars (pages 35 -

the Jewish State was established, it relates

composed of small cooperatives but, despite

hours and these would again be divided

36). Herzl even perceived the employment

differently to Israel, providing a clearer

the cooperative vision, the right to private

Some of the more interesting things are

part of the vision, in various forms, was part

- i.e. the working shift would be divided

of the elderly in work that suited them as

outline for some of Herzl’s perceptions.

property is emphasized (x). Here there is a

the considerable concrete expressions of

of the guidelines of the entire master plan

into two sections, each of three-and-a-half

being constructive, and very much opposed

Whereas the novel is supposed to have

stronger perception of socialist entities than

physical planning. In Altneuland Herzl

for Jerusalem during the Mandate period

at something, both for the beneﬁt of their

ﬁrst

obvious

difference

appearance of broad expanses of the land.

members of the three religions. The ﬁrst

(7), while the second part comprised part

and vast overcrowding in the poor and

providing local solutions. The land for the

Garnier wished to deal with problems very

“New City”, and a manifest published in

professional

top-down

design

and 3

of the League of Nations’ plan in relation

wretched neighborhoods that absorbed

new cities was supposed to have been

similar to those addressed by Howard.

1914 and presumed to have been written by

technological rationality. His solution was

to Palestine, and even now could possibly

mass

villages,

purchased in an agricultural region, jointly

He, too, arrived at an ideal city size similar

him, or else he was the inspiration behind

global in nature, with global capacity - as this

resolve the problem of Jerusalem. The second

on the other. Technological innovations

by the future tenants, and thus it would be

to that of Howard and Plato - about 30

its composition.

was, indeed, implemented later on around

thing is two institutions which depict the

brought with them optimism, and gave the

possible to purchase it cheaply and avoid

thousand; however, he claimed there was

new city, the ﬁrst being the Jewish Temple

impression that technology could solve all

price speculation. The houses were meant

no absolute prohibition for future growth.

Sant’Elia dealt with the problem of social-

a kind of socialism, but brutally separated

which was partially rebuilt - without any

problems. At the same time, there was a

to be small and pleasant, surrounded by

Garnier’s plans contained three prominent

cultural permanence and decay, as he

the classes (The Radiant City). Spatially

description of the sacriﬁces being resumed

great awakening of socialism in a variety

gardens. Moreover, the centers of the towns

elements: (a) deﬁnite zoning, meaning clear

perceived it, versus the ‘new times’ with

he gave priority to vehicles. He preferred

(xi), so that it would constitute a national

of forms. That period ended with the First

were supposed to contain public institutions

demarcation between factories, residential

its

national

large buildings with large green areas in

symbol of the highest degree. An additional

World War which, among other things,

within a central park, and surrounding the

districts, education campuses, hospitals

movement. His utopian vision talks about

between, and provided for the needs of

element described in the new city is the

resulted in the need to provide fast and

residential neighborhoods there would be

and so forth; (b) a socialist attitude

obliterating everything old and building

the inhabitants to a great degree - without

‘"Hall of Peace’, a structure corresponding

cheap lodgings for the masses. The range of

a ring park, with industry and agriculture

relating to the space - any area that is not

everything anew in each generation. He

dependence on any exterior organization

to the Tabernacle, along the lines of the

these phenomena and events encouraged

situated outside that. The general plan was

a private apartment is public space open to

proposed building with modern materials,

such

League of Nations or the UN (vii). Here there

the creation of various utopian plans which

concentric, with an emphasis on the center (4).

everyone; (c) the most modern shape for the

starting with concrete and steel, through

production, both in order to economize and

is a general vision regarding the role of

attempted to deal with the crowding, the

various structures - buildings constructed

to glass and paper. He spoke of multi-

also because of his pretentious claim that

the Jewish nation, which is a transition to

noise the dirt and the social problems and

Howard speaks of top down planning. He

from concrete with ﬂat roofs, according to

levels, vertical separation between diverse

everyone had - or should have - identical

establishing an independent Jewish State,

with the necessity to build quickly and

creates a third environment which combines

modernist lines that preceded their times

functions

(5). His

needs (vii). At the same time, similar to

and is an afﬁrmation of the unique aspect

inexpensively.

(so he claims) the advantages of both village

by about two decades. The houses would be

drawings describe buildings that preceded

Herzl, he proposed different residential

and city. Politically, this is a statement of

inside gardens (7), similar to what Herzl and

their era by many decades.

conditions for the different classes, but his

Ebenezer Howard published his book Garden

moderate socialism, expressed by means of

Howard had proposed.

Cities of Tomorrow in 1902. The main issue

the land being communally incorporated and

A comparison with utopias - planning during

dealt with was the overcrowding and harsh

owned. The physical design was supposed to

Garnier’s opinion was rational-modernist.

striving forward, and this constitutes a

Raymond

the period when the book was written

living conditions of the lower classes in the

dictate better living and social conditions, and

From a social viewpoint, this was ‘soft’

special kind of utopia, where change is

Garden City near London, the ﬁrst garden

The period of the last quarter of the

large cities. He recognized that speculation

a rational general perception. The separate

socialism. Here, too, the structure was

constant. The only common denominator

city ever built following the publication of

19th century and the ﬁrst quarter of the

on the value of land was a major problem

homes are surrounded by gardens, and the

supposed to inﬂuence the quality of life. The

between Sant’Elia’s proposals and Herzl’s is

Howard’s book. Several years later, Unwin

twentieth century was an interesting

in this respect. The solution he proposed

control of land prices is highly reminiscent

solution was global, expanding as time went

the greater reliance on new technology.

published an article with the principles

period in terms of city development, as

was a network of small cities limited in both

of Herzl’s principles as they appeared in The

by. Here, too, the planning was top-down.

well as in other aspects. The results of

size and population which would create

Jewish State.

the industrial revolution were expressed

interdependent relationships. These cities

in large European cities in the form of

could exist individually, and constitute

industries and pollution, with the working

either a global solution, or be dependent

conditions being very hard, on the one hand,

on the capital city such as London, thus

immigration

from

the

of the future state and is supposed to be “a light unto the nations”.

the world. Socially, Le Corbusier advocated

modern

technology

and

transportation

the

city. He

favored

serial

proposal was by far more blatant. Sant’Elia’s perception was to be constantly Unwin

planned

Letchworth

of his perspective of utopian planning. Le Corbusier dealt with the need for new

Unwin believed in the garden cities,

Antonio Sant'Elia was an important member

architecture to suit the new times, and

but his approach was more open than

Tony Garnier published his book The

of the Futurist movement as this related

with the need for cheap and good quality

Howard’s. Therefore, his solutions were

Industrial City in 1917, based on research

to architecture. His primary contributions

building for the masses - especially

also more suitable for new towns, and also

he had conducted 15 years prior to that.

were his illustrations and plans for the

after the First World War. He advocated

for additions to existing cities. Unwin’s

approach was socialist - cooperative, but he

Howard, Garnier, Geddes (who was not

did not intend to destroy everything.

did, but also proposed various possibilities

spoke both of the common good, and also

reviewed here), Unwin and Le Corbusier.

Herzl emphasized aesthetics as something

for procedures that would lead to a different

of personal development. Unwin proposed

Sant'Elia and Le Corbusier had a strong

essential, similar to Unwin, Le Corbusier

reality, something which had been part of

systematic and physical mechanisms that

tendency towards technology.

and Sant'Elia. He spoke of harmony with the

the utopian planning since the 1970s. In

environment - similar to Geddes, Garnier

his book Altneuland, which was published

would improve community life. He favored professional design, but also accepted a

Herzl emphasized the importance of

and Unwin, and contrary to the attitudes of

six years after The Jewish State, he returns

combination with bottom-up planning.

community as a basic component of his

Le Corbusier and Sant'Elia.

to the accepted utopian literary format,

He had a relatively narrow technological

solution. Strong community emphasis can

vision, and a fairly considerable aesthetic

also be found in works by Howard and Unwin

To conclude the comparison it is, in my

more strongly expressed, but the elements

emphasis (8). In terms of open socialism,

and, to a certain extent, by Le Corbusier.

opinion, possible to determine that despite

related to the process and action are weaker

the fact that Herzl was neither a designer

than in The Jewish State.

the integration of top-down and bottom-

where physical elements proposed are

up planning and his aesthetic emphasis, he

Herzl speaks of a kind of garden city - similar

nor a sociologist, his utopian vision was

mentions some of the planning principles

to Howard, Garnier and Unwin. He is in

no less interesting or complex than that of

At any rate, Herzl’s utopian vision is one of

enumerated by Herzl in The Jewish State.

favor of constructing identical buildings for

his contemporary utopian planners, and in

the only visions that motivated a process

reasons of economy - similar to Le Corbusier

some instances, he by far exceeded them.

on such a scale, part of which has been

COMPARISON WITH THE JEWISH STATE

- but he recognizes the need for buildings

When he published The Jewish State, Herzl

designed and built independently.

realized, and sometimes even exceeded.

CONCLUSION Despite Herzl’s emphatic declaration in

preceded all of the utopian planners reviewed here. Unlike them, the main problem Herzl

Herzl refers to all levels of society, starting

the Introduction to his book, The Jewish

was dealing with was the speciﬁc problem of

with the peddlers, the beggars and the elderly,

State, that the book was not a utopia, it

the Jewish people, who were scattered and

through laborers, women and children,

nonetheless seems apparent that one may,

persecuted. Consequently, his solution was,

to the wealthy and the intelligentsia. The

in fact, refer to the book as a utopia. This

on the one hand, much broader - an entire

breadth of his social reference exceeds that

is especially true if one accepts a broader

country - and on the other, relatively modest

of his contemporary utopians reviewed in

deﬁnition of utopia, not so much as a

- suitable for the Jewish people alone. At

this work.

literary genre, but as a proposal for a better future (or a better alternative reality),

the same time, there are certain similarities between some of Herzl’s ideas and some

Herzl deals with preservation (Jerusalem,

resulting from harsh criticism of various

important thoughts by the utopian planners

in Altneuland) as opposed to Sant'Elia,

aspects of the present.

of that period.

who advocated destroying what there was and building anew, and Le Corbusier in his

Interestingly enough, Herzl doesn’t only

Herzl emphasized rational and technological

Plan Voisin. Nonetheless, it is reasonable to

present an image of a physical future - as

thinking. Rational thinking characterized

assume that both Sant'Elia and Le Corbusier

most of the thinkers of his day customarily

PEOPLE, DONKEYS, WHEELS AND STAIRS YAEL DANIELI LAHAV

Notes:

Wheels and stairs can be thought of in

In order to move with the assistance of

PEOPLE AND DONKEYS WHO PREFER STAIRS

terms of ‘the few holding the many’. The

wheels, men have paved roads - even

With the invention of stairs it was for the

wheel moves the technological system,

though they may, at times, be quite bumpy.

ﬁrst time possible to build homes with upper

the stair lies at the foundation of the

The quality of the journey depends on the

ﬂoors and to compress a large number of

tectonic system. There are lots of wheels,

quality of the wheels, and their ability to

activities on only one plot of ground. In

but also no shortage of stairs.

overcome the road conditions.

my opinion, the architecture of stairs very

At the time of writing, there are no

WHAT IF GRANDMA

builder’, and I would even dare add to this

3. Friedman. The Good City: In Defense of

technological, easy and affordable solutions

DIDN’T HAVE WHEELS...

by saying that alongside the discovery how

Utopian Thinking. International Journal of

available that will enable a seated person

Keying in the word pair ‘wheelchair stairs’ on

to use a right angle - stairs are the essence

on wheels to climb up and down stairs.

the Google search engine produced 2,540,000

of architectural thinking. Wherever one may

results. For quite some time many people

ﬁnd a staircase, man has been there.

Bibliography

1. Zur and others claim that every utopia derives

i. Benjamin Zeev Herzl, The Jewish State, Yediot

1. Horowitz I.L. Socialist Utopias and Scientiﬁc

from dissatisfaction with the existing situation,

Aharonot 1978

Socialists: Primary Fanaticisms and Secondary Contradictions. Sociological Forum Vol. 4 No.1,

but there could also be technological utopias (or 'dystopias') that stem from technological

ii. Benjamin Zeev Herzl, Altneuland, Vienna 1902

imagination, in which the social changes are a

In Hebrew: Tel Aviv. Translated by Nahum Sokolov.

consequence of the new technological world,

Ben-Yehuda Project - Internet - complete version

2. Ashcroft B. Critical Utopias. Textual Practice,

iii. Adi Zur - Altneuland: If you will it, it is no legend e. mago

2. Despite the fact that in cities in which the Jews were a minority in Europe and elsewhere,

iv. Plato - The State. Complete works of Plato.

the synagogues were generally concealed, and

Translation: I. G. Libbes Schocken Publishing

the magniﬁcence was internal rather than

House, 1968

Urban and Regional Research. Vol. 24, No. 2, 2000 4. Howard E. Garden Cities of Tomorrow.

By their very nature, stairs are intended

have been trying to climb up stairs with a

for two or four footed pedestrians. In fact,

personal set of wheels. So far, without any

For hundreds of years prior to the twentieth

5. Giedion S. Space, Time & Architecture: The

the body structure of people who walk on

impressive results. The existing solutions

century, donkeys and mules were the main

Growth of a New Tradition, Harvard University

their legs is constructed so that its limbs

are too expensive, too cumbersome, are

means of transportation in the eastern basin

not suitable for a wide a range of surface

of the Mediterranean. As the use of motorized

are naturally suited to climbing. Each limb

conditions, are not adaptable when trying

vehicles intensiﬁed, the use of pack animals

moves separately, and the entire body

to cope with chaotic staircases (non-uniform

decreased considerably, although it has not

maintains its balance and its ability to

tread and riser measurements along the way),

completely disappeared. The body structure

move forwards or backwards (although, the

they necessitate too high a level of skill, and

of the domestic donkey is relatively smaller

latter, perhaps somewhat less easily). This

are dependent on motion technologies with

than other pack animals (the horse, the mule

is true even when one limb is on a surface

too poor a level of efﬁciency. In short – one

and certainly the camel). Its length from tail

that is higher or more crooked than where

cannot adapt these devices inside the home,

to nose tip reaches about 160 cm, the width

the other limb is resting. Our ability to cope

in the street or, worse than that, in open areas

of the torso is about 70 cm, and its height

successfully with asymmetric conditions

- they’re just not useful.

anywhere between 95-125 cm. The donkey’s

Sonnenschein & Co. Ltd. London, 1902.

external. ” v. Erez, L. Utopia, Thomas Moore - Perception of 3. Le Corbusier produced a series of utopian

Space, Part A. e.mago 2009

solutions, starting with "The City on Poles" in the middle of the second decade of the 20th century,

vi. The Knesset website. Herzl

Press 1941

through to the 1940s. The reference here is to his main solutions, primarily The Radiant City.

forcefully expresses the spirit of ’man the

vol. 21, no. 3, p. 411-431, 2007.

as these are sometimes found in science ﬁction literature (GS)

1989.

vii. Eshed, E. The Visionary of the Jewish State.

6. Geddes P. Cities in Evolution. Williams &

Haayal Hakore 2000

Norgate, 1915.

viii Le Corbusier, Towards an Architecture (1923),

7. Garnier T. Une Cité Industrielle. George

Babel Publishers, 1998

Braziller. New York. 1969.

ix. Shabbat Tractate XI a x. I. Sivan D. - Altneuland - Roots, Vision and

8. Unwin R. in: The City Reader, 2003. 9. Turner P. Campus. M.I.T. Press, 1994.

Reality - e.mago.co.il 2005

and their connection to the trunk (torso)

head and the neck are relatively long and

for positioning the legs depends on the 10. Foucault, M. Discipline and Punish: the Birth

xi. Avineri S. If you will it, it is a legend, article in

of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan, New

Haaretz, from 2002

York: Random House. 1975

structure and function of the skeleton, the

In this article I will try to show how complicated

heavy for its modest body and spindly legs.

joints, the muscles, the nervous system and

it is for people who, as a rule or at a particular

The distance between the axis line of the front

the sense of movement (kinesthesia)2 which

time are unable to climb stairs.

legs to the axis line of the hind legs of the

we all possess.

average donkey is anywhere between 90-115 cm, something that was taken into account

when constructing step roads with a gradient

STAIRWAY STREETS IN ISRAEL

from east to west, parallel to the route of the

for an animal to stand while cargo is being

of 8% - 25% (i.e. a ratio of 1: 12 - 1: 4). A donkey

loaded or unloaded.

Not only in Fez, Morocco were roads planned

Roman Cardo and less commercial activity

lives for 40-60 years (depending on its health

according to the size of the overly-burdened

on the stairway streets situated on the slope

and breeding conditions) and is capable of

pack donkeys. In Israel too - as in many

from north to south.

ROAD GEOMETRY:

carrying a load that is very large relative to

other cities around the Mediterranean

These cities are also characterized by the fact

WIDTH, HEIGHT, GRADIENT

the size of its body. This animal is stubborn,

basin - the donkey was the standard by

that the houses are densely built, shoulder

The gradient of the staircase derives from the

which the minimum measurements of a

to shoulder, facing outwards towards the

natural topography: while the riser (height) of

but also very intelligent and highly capable of adapting to difﬁcult conditions. Because

roadway was determined Jerusalem, Acco,

streets; and, in terms of cities that permit the

the stair remains a constant of around 13cm,

of its body structure, a heavy load shifts the

Safed, Nazereth, Jaffa and other settlements

movement of carriages or motorized vehicles,

the width of the tread (foothold) is adapted to

donkey’s center of gravity too far from its

were built on hilltops or on the relatively

only the narrowest of passageways remains

the natural incline of the slope. For a narrow

balance point, which makes it hard for it to

moderate slopes of a hillside, in such a way

between the houses. Behind the façades

tread of 42cm, which is suitable for small

maintain stability on slopes. Moderate stairs

that the roadways in the settlement could

there are sometimes large open courtyards,

beasts of burden, we ﬁnd an incline ratio of

with a wide tread and a riser of 10-13 cm solve

radiate outwards. The roads used for trade

interior gardens, and quite a bit of air and

approximately 13/42 = 1:3. By comparison,

the problem, because they allow the donkey

were built parallel to the contour lines; while

light. In Jerusalem considerable efforts were

the accepted gradient for a standard and

the streets that were built perpendicular

made so that the roads situated on the

comfortable stairway, with a tread of 30cm

relatively balanced movement.

to the contour lines were constructed as

slopes were built on stairs with a moderately

and a riser of 15cm has a ratio of 1:2. A feasible

Many cities planned the dimensions of their

stairways built to accommodate the footsteps

low riser (10-13 cm), with as wide a tread as

transition for a person pushing a cart or using

streets in accordance with the dimensions

of donkeys. Initially, these were the connecting

possible. In places where it was impossible

a wheelchair is a length to height ratio of

of loaded donkeys. In 2009, Susan Orlean4

roads along which were the entrances to

for the tread to accommodate the entire

somewhere between 1:9 to 1:11 respectively, so

studied the old city of Fez in Morocco. She

residential quarters and to public buildings

foothold of a donkey (in other words, a depth

that an inclined surface 126cm long (3 stairs

claims that Fez was the largest old city in the

(religious buildings, schools, public baths, and

of 110-125 cm), the measurements of the

with a width of 42cm) makes it possible to

world. All the houses were densely populated,

overcome one stair with a height of 13cm.

so on). As time went by, when the city became

tread are reduced according to the donkey’s

its markets were crowded and the city teemed

crowded with activity or particularly, if it was

footsteps. The length of a donkey’s footstep is

with life. Orlean reported that in 2009, about

surrounded by a wall and became overly

between 37 and 42 cm. Thus, the stair module

In the Old City of Jerusalem, the width of

100,000 people in old Fez used donkeys as

congested, commerce also expanded onto

in the Old City of Jerusalem is based on 37-42

the widest streets can reach up to ﬁve meters.

their normal daily mode of transportation.

the stairway roads, although somewhat less

cm - one, two or three steps of the average

There are very few of these; for the most part

The donkeys were used as pack animals,

intensively. The exceptions were the terraced

domestic donkey. The spaces that remain

they are situated in the Christian Quarter and

to remove waste, to evacuate the sick and

market streets of Jerusalem which were

between one set of stairs and the next derive

along the length of the Eastern Wall between

the wounded, for riding, in construction, to

located on the ancient route of the Roman

from two factors - the location and width of

Zion Gate and Dung Gate. These roads were

operate devices that required the rotation of

Decomanos. Nevertheless, in Jerusalem, there

the entrances to the buildings adjacent to

constructed during a period when there were

wheels such as the grinding of millstones for

is also much more commercial activity on the

the public stairway, and the dimensions of

already harnessed carriages traveling in the

the extraction of oil, for pumping or grinding.

streets without stairs, which cross the city

the minimum space that is required in order

streets of Jerusalem, or cars. The average width

Typical pedestrian stairs at Jerusalem

of the largest roadways in the Jerusalem

with the ground reaches 95 cm. The body

degree, make it very difﬁcult to climb stairs.

market reach 3-4 meters from wall to wall,

of the cart is bigger, and the length is up to

As I have already stated, there are no widely

but when the shops are open and the vendors

120 cm excluding handles. It is customary to

affordable devices capable of imitating the

put their wares in front of the shops, as is

connect a chain with a tire to the back of the

movement of a donkey when ascending a

customary there, the public passageway that

cart, and this acts as a brake during descent -

stairway road - one wheel at a time. To start

remains is about two meters - just enough for

whoever is pushing the cart stands on the tire

with, one needs to tilt the device backwards

people to walk past others who have stopped

and this adds his weight to the weight of the

in order for the front wheel/s to climb the

to bargain and purchase. On non-commercial

load, thus slowing the speed of the cart on the

ﬁrst stair, pulling the back wheel/s behind it.

roads the average width can be as much as 2.5

descent. It is interesting to note here that the

Upward thrust of the device requires a very

meters, wall to wall; this sometimes drops to

usual measurement of the width between

strong movement if it is to roll the weight

1.5 m - exactly the width needed for a donkey

the axis of the wheels of electric scooters and

from a complete standstill to the vertical

and its rider to pass. There is no signiﬁcant

wheelchairs are very similar to each other, and

upwards movement needed to surmount the

difference between the width of those roads

also to dray carts. In wheelchairs, the distance

average difference in height (about 13 cm).

which were built along the contour lines,

between the point of contact with the ground

and the roads that are stretched as stairways

is 60-70 cm, depending on the model; in the

Descending stairs actually requires more

perpendicular to the slope.

electric scooter this measurement is between

strength for braking, because lowering

90-105 cm, depending on the model. The

the device downwards could cause an

THE END OF THE DONKEY ERA -

length of a standard wheelchair, including

uncontrollable roll down the slope of the

ADAPTING THE STAIRWAY ROADS TO

the footpads and the handles, is about 105 cm

stairway. Further downward movement could

TRANSPORTATION ON WHEELS

and the length of a standard electric scooter

also result in crashing onto the landing area.

During the 20th century, in Jerusalem and in

is 140 cm.

Acco6, the use of wooden carts / wheelbarrows

Donkey stairs at Santorini

Last, but by no means least - passenger safety.

with either three or four wheels for cargo took

Many people have wheeled mobility devices to

The roads stretch along the natural downward

root, and these replaced the donkeys - albeit

assist them with their daily life. Pushchairs for

slope of the land, taking the shortest route

their ability to carry cargo was considerably

babies, wheelbarrows for the transportation

between various focal points of the Old

less than that of the modest pack animals.

of goods, suitcase wheels and shopping

City. The road gradient is classiﬁed as being

The cart sizes are somewhat similar to the

wagons, drivers of personal transportation

between 10% (riser 11-13 cm with a tread of 125

dimensions of the donkey, and they are

vehicles with low speed such as the segway

cm), through to a gradient of 33% (riser 11-13

adaptable to the surface conditions - the

(two-wheeled scooters) and various kinds of

cm. with a tread of 37 cm). Placing a ramp on

width of the cart between the axis of the

scooters, and also those people who regularly

stairways such as these you create a contour

wheels reaches up to 67 cm. The length of the

use walkers and wheelchairs.

that is too steep, and the walking disabled

cart between the contact point of the wheels

All of these devices, to a greater or to a lesser

will have difﬁculty braking themselves on the

Typical pedestrian street at Jerusalem

way down. For this reason, on almost all of

after each set of stairs there will be horizontal

for anyone traveling in a motorized vehicle -

the roads where ramps have been installed,

platforms inserted at the side - small landings

even if it is narrow, short, and has very good

one notices the accepted practice of laying a

- where they can rest, take a break from the

surface navigation. A surface vehicle with

narrow slanted stone along the width of the

route continuity, and the rate of movement

relatively large wheels, the power to move

tread in such a way that it does not reach

there will be as slow as possible.

under difﬁcult surface conditions, and very

sequentially from one step nosing to the next.

good maneuverability, can be used inside the

In effect, this creates a path that a disabled

This ‘landing’ will also prevent children and

boundaries of ancient cities such as the type

person is completely unable to overcome

people who may be inconsiderate of others,

that I’ve described here, to evacuate the sick

without assistance, and there is no choice

from racing down the dangerous slope

and wounded, to transport heavy goods and

but to rely on the help of another person to

quickly and recklessly, on bicycles or gliders or

objects, or to empty dustbins and so forth.

push him. The ‘helper’ also needs to be able

any other type of devices that children build

to brake the mobility device and stop it from

for themselves.

running away down the stairs. In order for the

The problem is that there are no vehicles narrow enough - the width of which is the

helper to be able to overcome the steep slope,

Laying the ramp stones in a manner that

width of a laden donkey, 120 cm at most -

he will need to rest as often as possible on

will decrease the speed of wheeled mobility

that would be suitable for carrying a sick or

horizontal surfaces. That is why the sequence

devices down the slope has proved efﬁcient;

wounded person to an ambulance waiting

of the ramps should be wisely planned so that

however, that makes it much more difﬁcult

outside the system of stairway roads. The

narrowest model capable of coping with the

adapted by adding stone ramps, and also the

handrails have been installed along the sides

increases. Yet, on the other hand, the people

that they may tour around this most unique

source of income for the residents - have

donkey stairways, in which it is possible to

routes of the stairs in suitable roads adjacent

of the staircase.

moving around in dense crowds wish to

city - which really ignites ones imagination -

left the area, hasten this cycle of departure

seat a driver and, at his side, a stretcher for

to them, while - naturally - needing to bear

move freely, without having to step onto every

to the utmost of their strength, their curiosity,

since the people who live outside of this

ramp-stone in the area.

and their ability to walk around it.

unique place no longer come there to run

the wounded, is about 142 cm. wide. Until

in mind the character of the façade. Enough

Of course it was not possible to build such

the visit to Jerusalem of Pope John Paul II, no

space had to be left for one person to get

wide and convenient ramps as those built

one had even considered trying to bring a

through next to the sealed wall and to the side

for the Pope everywhere. For the past

The business owners are compelled to

forget about it. They have gradually stopped

motorized vehicle with passengers into the

of it, and also at the entrances to the shops;

two decades9 the Municipality has done

CONCLUSION

specialize in the sale of ‘lightweight’

coming there to do their marketing or for the

stairway roads of the Old City of Jerusalem.

they also had to take into consideration the

everything it can to enable wheeled mobility

Apparently it is impossible to resolve the

merchandise that can be transported by

purposes of leisure activities.

Until then, the only motorized vehicle that

activities outside the shops.

devices to be brought onto the streets, so

difﬁculty of bringing in goods and people who

handcart. The local authorities are forced

had entered the stairway roads was an

The ramps also serve the residents in the Old

that these will replace the donkeys which

cannot climb stairs alone, without bringing

to compromise on the methods of waste

This has also happened in Acco, Safed,

especially narrow service tractor (about 100

City well - they are used for car trafﬁc coming

have become undesirable because of the

in mobile devices that have enough power

removal and road maintenance, but this

Tiberias and Jaffa, and even to the Old City of

cm in width) with high wheels and thick tires

down from the inhabited heights of the city,

dirt that they leave behind, the unpleasant

to move, enough braking power, the ability

makes modernization of such services

Jerusalem. I suppose that this also happens

that had dragged a cart behind it, and had

or coming from outside the city; security and

smell, and also the distaste expressed

to remain stable while going up or down

extremely difﬁcult. The results are a sad cycle

in other cities that in the past were based

been used to transport building materials,

rescue vehicles; tractors pulling garbage

by the pedestrians who are not used to

stair roads, and also to maintain a reasonable

of deterioration and neglect of public areas,

on donkey transportation, and now they are

and for waste removal.

carts or building materials; and vehicles for

rubbing shoulders with these pack animals,

degree of security and safety and comfort for

which have become almost unmanageable.

unable to bridge their stairway roads with the

the disabled.

intelligent though they may be.

passenger with disabilities, the wounded,

LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE VISIT OF

their various errands, and they start to

use of wheeled mobility devices that are not

pregnant women or anyone who has suffered

The cycle of poverty of the residents who

adapted for comfortable and efﬁcient travel on the stairs.

POPE JOHN PAUL II DURING MARCH 2000

The dimensions of the stone ramps built

Since the time transportation moved from

a heart attack. It is also impossible to prevent

have been left behind and still inhabit an

The visit to the Western Wall in Jerusalem by

especially for the Pope, whose vehicle

donkeys to carts on wheels, the main resulting

the use of motorized vehicles that are able

area with such a low level of municipal

Pope John Paul II in March 2000 necessitated

measured nearly 140 cm wide atop the donkey

conﬂict has been the need for accessibility for

to ‘run’ along the streets at a speed that is

services is growing; as is the incidence of

If there are people who hope to revive the

considerable preparations by the city leaders.

stairs are suitable for all kinds of narrow

the owners of said wheeled devices - that is to

comparatively faster than how a pedestrian

visitors who come to the area so that they

unique texture of these ancient donkey cities

Part of the personal security setup for the

vehicles. The slope of the stone ramps is

say, the need for ramps - versus the interest of

runs, and which will ensure that public peace

may tour through the lanes on foot, but

and to include within them movement using

Pope was that he only moved from one

nearly 18%, in accordance with the dimension

pedestrians who are able to climb the stairs

is not disturbed.

neither stay in the area after nightfall nor

wheeled mobility devices - albeit narrow and

location to the other in his personal protected

of the tread of the existing donkey stairs. The

and who would like the original width of the

make any purchases there.

slow - they will apparently have to become

vehicle nicknamed “the Popemobile”8. In order

resulting ramp is too steep for anyone trying

stairs to be preserved as much as possible;

Due to the low level of accessibility for a

for the protected vehicle (built especially for

to maneuver it independently with a non-

bearing in mind what was mentioned above -

motorized vehicle, only people who are

Commerce is characterized by souvenir

of research and development. They will

the visit to the Old City) to travel along the

motorized wheelchair, but is within the realm

that the deployment of the stairs provides the

unable to remove themselves from there to

shops and stores offering local residents

have to encourage the production and sale

stairway roads leading from the Christian

of possibility for owners of personal motorized

most convenient method for normal walking.

residences with more convenient conditions

basic necessities. Almost all other types of

of devices adapted to the special surface

Quarter to the Holy sites, the only option was

mobile devices (wheelchairs, electric scooters,

have remained living within the stairway

businesses and public institutions have

conditions which also meet the requirements

to add a stone ramp to the existing stairways.

segways, and so forth). Pedestrians continue

At times when the roads are densely packed

cities. Also there are very few hotels in these

left the area due to its inaccessibility. The

of the clients who live in those places, bearing

The route was meticulously selected, and

to use the stairs that have remained on both

with visitors, the need for security and rescue

areas. Tourists prefer to sleep somewhere

fact that essential public institutions and

in mind the fact that separately, each of these

included only those roads that could be

sides of the steep ramp. Wherever possible,

forces to move around the roads quickly

where it is easy for them to get to and from, so

businesses - which might also serve as a

individuals does not have enough purchasing

united and ﬁnd a way to grease the ‘wheels’

power. The market for the product needs

including the rhythm of their wonderful

Notes:

Images:

to be global. There are enough customers

stairs. Without such devices I’m afraid

1. Torso is the anatomical name given to the

in the Old City of families with a member with

1. Source: Judy Bendel, Access-unlimited,

around the world who need these devices,

that some of the stairways will inevitably

largest portion of the human body, excluding

severe mobility limitations. The survey was

Jerusalem

but they are scattered amongst many cities,

be destroyed. Unfortunately, one already

the limbs and head. The torso includes the chest,

made possible thanks to the devotion of Sahar

and in countries which are, unfortunately,

sees how more and more stairway streets

the back and the stomach.

Shabana, who liaised between myself and the

1856-1971-N-X999

sometimes even hostile towards each other.

are being turned into sloping roads for

Source: he.wikipedia.org/wiki/

families, accompanied me during all of the

3. Source: Judy Bendel, Access-unlimited,

home visits and served as my translator - all on

Jerusalem

cars; they are losing their beauty and

2. kinesthesia, kinesthesis - the sense that allows

a voluntary basis. A description of four other

Israel, which has very few natural resources

their special characteristics; and they are

the brain to be aware of the position and the

cities is based on recurrent visits, without any

but a lot of cultural resources, landscape

endangering both the drivers of the cars

movement of the muscles in the various parts

organized survey.

and heritage, could serve as a spearhead

and the pedestrians who are somehow

of the body.

for this endeavor if they only succeed in

managing, though barely, to cope with

Source: www.infomed.co.il/glossary/g_3527.htm

understanding that unless a sophisticated

these steep ramps.

trafﬁc system is introduced into these ancient spaces, there is no chance for these attractions to grow and become accessible

Nazareth, although it is quite likely that they exist. 3. Source: http://www.donkeybreedsociety.co.uk/Page/

7. The measurement was taken with the help

AboutDonkeys

of Yossi Ben Shachar, a Magen David Adom ambulance driver who uses a Mule type of

for the tens of thousands of visitors who are

4. Source:

waiting to enter.

http://www.smithsonianmag .com/travel/

In support of what I have stated I will

Where-Donkeys-Deliver-Morocco.html#

Hanikra, the Agmon Hula site and other natural observation areas and heritage sites - where arrangements have been

tractor (ATV) 8. The custom of driving the Pope inside a protected glass cube that is assembled onto

add that, by perceiving accessibility as a resource, sites such as Massada, Rosh

6. I did not see any such carts in Jaffa, Safed and

5. During 2008 - 2009 I took part in a very

an armored ‘van’ started in 1984, after an

comprehensive fundamental survey that dealt

assassination attempt on the Pope.

with accessibility to the Old City of Jerusalem for individuals whose mobility is dependent on

9. To the best of my knowledge, the ﬁrst stone

personal devices - crutches and canes, various kinds

ramps were assembled in 1985 on David Street,

made for personal and motorized mobility

of walkers, wheelchairs and electric scooters. The

the part that descends from Jaffa Gate to Hagai

devices - have succeeded in increasing

physical survey was conducted by Dr. Judy Bendel

Street. The merchants claim that the measure of

the number of visitors tenfold. There is no

of the “Nagish leKol” Association. The results of the

the steps had also been changed, damaging the

reason why the perception of accessibility

survey were analyzed with the participation of Dr.

rhythmic structure that was suited to donkeys.

I have presented in this article will not

Judy Bendel, Dr. Avi Ramot of the Israeli Center for

However, in conjunction with the stone ramps,

also work for the ancient ’donkey cities’ in

Accessibility and myself, within the framework of

although this created a convenient route for

my position as the Accessibility Consultant to the

carts transporting merchandise, it has become

Jerusalem Municipality.

an obstacle and a problem for the many tourists

Parallel to the physical survey I also conducted a

who use the market road every year.

Israel. Sophisticated mobility devices will enable us to preserve the donkey roads for the coming generations, unchanged,

survey during those years of the living conditions

SEMINAR WITH PROF. DAVID LEATHERBARROW David Leatherbarrow is Professor of Architecture and Chairman of the Ph.D. Program at the University of Pennsylvania. He teaches architectural design, as well as the history and theory of architecture, gardens, and cities. The Seminar with Professor David Leatherbarrow was instituted and sponsored by

imagine architecture as an act of reduction.

us to discuss the relationships which allow

the Azrieli foundation, and included a talk given by Professor Leatherbarrow entitled:

You can think of the latter, if you consider

for each individual to place himself in the

Squaring the Circle, or theory that's down to earth.

architecture as a practical act of planning or as a

world, him being different or similar to other

The student's presentations were selected from 5th year B.Arch., Masters and PhD

professional discipline of constructing buildings

individuals of the surroundings.

students from all schools of architecture in Israel.

which may incorporate an aesthetic element.

In Culture and Values Ludwig Wittgenstein

The Projects were addressed by: Professor Leatherbarrow who was head of the

When we discuss architecture as meaningful

writes: “Working in philosophy - like work in

Committee for the Evaluation of Architecture Studies in Israel, who is a Professor of

space in opposition to planning which is

architecture in many respects - is really more

Architecture and Chairman of the Ph.D. Program at the University of Pennsylvania.

a tool, we don't consider architecture as a

a working on oneself. On one’s interpretation.

Dr. Eran Neuman the head of the Azrieli School of Architecture at Tel Aviv University.

system of rules that provide only a shelter.

On one’s way of seeing things...”

Dr. Dafna Fisher-Gewirtzman a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Architecture & Town

Rather we understand architecture which

Following

Planning at the Technion.

reveals the way that we as human beings

worthwhile

exist in the world. These modes are poetic,

philosophy and architecture change the

political and aesthetical.

way we see things, their motivation for this

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE AND VICE VERSA From this the seminar derives its importance,

Today, in an era in which theory has become a

The application of these theories while

in space thereby creating a total work of

leading option in the architectural discourse,

deliberating on architecture brought forward

architecture, there is a danger that such

the question of how we render architecture

a two-fold situation. Although it actually

a plan tends to make the architect a kind of

meaningful is becoming central.

widened the discourse and revealed new

dictator, who, in designing an architectural

understandings, it created a difficulty in

environment, imposes on others his or her

transporting the essence of these theories

vision of how they are to live.

disciplinary crisis. It turned towards critical

into concrete space in a manner in which

Thinking about the utopian function

theories so as to broaden its interpretive

existing patterns dissolve and new ones

of architecture demands a rejection of

dimension of the architectural sphere going

are conceived. Eventually both of these

preconceived opinions about dwelling;

beyond the inter-disciplinarian analysis.

paths, architectural thought and critical

breaking through them as a plough breaks

Theoreticians,

philosophers,

theories collapsed one into the other and in

the ground.

architects and others began to interpret space

a certain way theory transformed into an

This example indicates that instead of turning

while turning to Marxists theories, gender,

implementation.

to theory in its broader sense, architecture

the

after

the

architectural

Second discourse

historians,

World

War,

suffered

globalization and other doctrines. All this in

reduced the theoretical modes which were

order to formulate the structures which space

Brought before you is a short example

conceived by thinkers from other disciplines

reﬂects and creates.

concerning theoretical thoughts of utopia.

like philosophy. They reduced it in a simplistic

When trying to realize and implement theory

way to a practical sphere, where one could then

remembering

remark while

both

change and the ways they bring it about are

EDNA LANGENTHAL SEMINAR MODERATOR

Right

Wittgenstein’s

different.

understanding the discipline of architecture as placing itself in the seam between situations.

It is impossible to literally translate the

This form of understanding deals with concepts

concepts created in other disciplines to the

and their becoming an intellectual platform

architectural sphere. These concepts must

which is the condition for opening any

go through a thorough process in order to

discussion or design process. These concepts

appear in the spatial sphere. Architecture

which deal with that which is beyond

does not need to search for a theory which

themselves - form the discussion of concrete

will provide its rules for creating space and

and particular situations which comprise

an architectural object. Instead it should

our cultural and public domain. Without

look for theories that will broaden the

this stage our planning activities are

architectural ﬁeld with meaningful ideas.

trapped only in the technical and practical sphere, without the basis for interpretation. The importance of the interpretational debate derives from the understanding that the space in which we are living in is an interpretive domain. As such, it enables

ARCHITECTURE BETWEEN PAST AND FUTURE PROF. DAVID LEATHERBARROW

Yesterday, during the ﬁrst half of the Azrieli

or interlapsing of past and present? Surely

has never been seen before. What is more,

seen under Jerusalem light. Can we, then,

they can also be understood in consideration

top, not its unseen underside. To see what is

Seminar on Architecture, students presented

intervention into ancient sites is a risky

it occurs in the historical present – now,

identify the stone of the present with that

of design projects, for there too history is

underneath one must take a step and look at

papers that introduced a set of interrelated

procedure, probably controversial too. Might

not then. Yet, the novelty of any revelation

of the past? Or should the name Jerusalem

not only what is different (one program or

the desk from a different angle. By virtue of

themes: time, movement, change, and history.

it also be necessary?

is always understood comparatively; which

Stone be reserved for what was formed ages

kind of construction succeeding another),

perspective each of us experiences the world

Because these themes were not announced

The several studies presented by seminar

is to say, with respect to something similar

ago in the dark recesses of the earth? This

nor just what is the same (the repetition of

partially. Yet, because one part suggests its

in the call for papers, it is fair to assume they

participants brought to mind a basic

that occurred some time ago – now then, as

would mean subordinating the modern

types), but what is similar (the gate to the

counterpart, each moment is an invitation to

are topics of shared concern among students

question about history. Is it a burden; and

we say when we embark on a new project

approximation to the status of an artiﬁcial

ancient city is like the door to the modern

another that follows. Invitations such as this

today. One presentation, for example,

in this country especially, because of Israel’s

or come to an unforeseen realization.

derivative. But what if the modern version

house).

inaugurate the structuring of architecture’s

discussed the use of stone in building

several traditions, ancient and modern?

Insight into similarities allows the present

were manufactured in Jerusalem, if it had

I believe there are three arenas in which

spatiality. Thus, the only way to imagine

construction, a material we naturally and

Does history encumber design, invention,

to be seen as a renewal of the past. This

different origins (manual labor not natural

these reﬂections on time and history have

and then build a spatial conﬁguration that

uncritically assume to be durable. To say that

and creative freedom? Is it something from

suggests the crossing of temporal vectors,

processes), but was “composed” in the same

great force in architecture. The ﬁrst I will

makes sense is by taking account of its

a material is durable means, of course, that

which contemporary architecture should

described above as interlapsing. For this

place? Might then the present form escape

mention is the actual experience of the

unfolding through time.

it is tough, resilient, and long-lasting; just

free itself; free itself into the present, and

to occur the past (what exists no more)

its sense of inferiority with respect to its

project. Even though moments of rest are

I have already suggested that progress

the opposite of short-lived or changeable.

then into the future? If so, how might this

cannot be present except in so far as it has

venerable ancestor?

involved in the experience of buildings,

through a building can follow different

As a result of that presentation, however, we

emancipation be accomplished? Can one

been appropriated into new conditions and

Obviously, this is not only a question about

gardens, and urban institutions, there is

speeds or paces. Some conﬁgurations

realized that in architecture durability allows

voluntarily forget the past? And might there

interests. Differences are as important as

stone, nor just about the use of new and

no reason to assume that movement is

compress time, accelerating what has been

for change – even depends on it. Stone, we

be undesired consequences to renunciation

similarities in the work of appropriation.

old materials in a country such as this;

not equally important. I mean movement

anticipated. Others arrangements extend

learned, shows time’s passing by enduring

such as this? What about the reverse

Neglect of the ﬁrst shortchanges the

this question is one that takes us to the

in an obvious and inevitable sense: from

time, delaying what one had imagined to

the transformation of its surface qualities.

position? Can the inheritance be seen

present, and ignoring the second deprives

heart of architectural concerns: how

here to there, and then to another place,

lie ahead. If you go to a building designed

Despite the fact that we tend to distinguish

positively? Does history not give this country

the present of any real basis for grasping its

history is understood through difference,

and still farther, maybe back again. Each

by Frank Lloyd Wright and pass through the

temporal, material, and

environmental

and its architecture their proper identity,

originality and relevance.

not sameness. A first premise we can

of these movements unfolds in time, not

entry sequence it seems as if the architect

concerns, duration, durability, and enduring

without which they would lose something

Is the sort of stone that is artificially

advance is the following: historical and

clock or calendar time – intervals of regular

had insisted on prolonging the approach,

are interrelated phenomena, just as they

that makes them unique?

fabricated today, so-called “composite

cultural continuity do not depend on the

length – but a time of varying speeds or

orienting you as much to the vicinity as

are cognate terms. Another presentation

What, then, is the relationship between

stone,” the same material as traditional

reenactment or reafﬁrmation of the same

degrees of delay, prompted and remembered

to your principal destination. Not only is

addressed archeological sites. Once again,

constraint and opportunity, between

Jerusalem stone, quarried from the hills

conditions because continuity depends on

by anticipations and recollections. Like

the space slow, it is tight and low. Still, the

everyday assumptions about history and

limitations

historically

beneath and near the city? At the molecular

some measure of difference when regulated

the movement of the body, there is the

consequences of these decisions are striking.

time were overturned. We discovered that

constituted conditions and the possibilities

level, stone from the factory (composed of

by the principle of similarity. The whole

movement of perception, thanks to its

Having been conﬁned for longer than one

if archeology is to have relevance today it

that are given in our time alone? Can

crushed off-cuts from the old trimming

matter hinges on how we understand the

several instruments of sensing. Perhaps the

might like during the approach, arrival is

needs to be appropriated into interests that

recollection and discovery be part of a

process) and stone from the hills are

relationships between the three great

movement involved in seeing things is the

extraordinary: the ceiling is twice the height

are different from those that gave rise to a

single effort? Throughout its long history

virtually indistinguishable. What is more,

classes of historical being: the same, the

most obvious. To perceive an object means

of the corridor and the wide interior opens

site’s early formation. What is involved in

Israel has been a place of both memory and

through careful ﬁnishing, the new stone can

different, and the similar. One can attempt to

to grasp its apparent aspects, not those that

in a way you could never have imagined.

appropriation of this kind, this cross-over

revelation. Revelation, of course, shows what

be made to look the same as the old, when

grasp these relationships theoretically, but

are hidden – the visible surface of the desk

Once you are in the main hall you see

arising

out

other passages leading to other ensembles

is our past, a public or shared history. But

shows advent and end of hours, days, and

new avenue, garden, or neighborhood in a

of spaces, each with its own delays,

as I said earlier, traces also outline future

seasons. Architecture’s task is not only to

certain part of the city. What is yet to come

accelerations, arrivals, and departures. All of

patterns of use. These steps, this table, and

provide our lives with a clear sense of where

through project making arises by virtue

this is to say that one way of thinking about

all the other surfaces that we encounter in

we are, but also when we are.

of awareness of what it has been. The "has

or working with temporality in architecture

our practical lives have a narrative function

Lastly, I want to reply to a student question

been" and "yet to come" are the two-part

is through the spatiality of movement.

by virtue of their materiality.

about what I called the crossing of temporal

framework for understanding the present.

Another way to consider architecture in

Thus far I have introduced two dimensions

vectors. One way to describe the present –

Once we adopt this style of thinking, we

time has been alluded to already in what

of temporality in architecture: the ﬁrst

this present moment – is to characterize it

overcome the feelings of inferiority with

we have said about stone: the body of the

is apparent in ambulatory or perceptual

as a former future. Grasping that conception

respect to three thousand years of history;

building itself records time. All manner of

movement and the second is inscribed in

means accepting each temporal moment’s

instead, we sense the opportunity and

ambient phenomena – weather, use, accident,

the body of the building itself. Finally, there

individuality and comparability. If

the

obligation to renew that great past. Such a

additional and alterations – saturate its

is a third dimension that couples the ﬁrst

comparative sense of the present as a former

renewal would allow creativity and assume

surfaces with traces of what happened in the

two together, the temporality of the world

future can be granted, can we take the next

responsibility: fulﬁlling one's duty to the

past. These marks also serve as invitations to

outside the work; speciﬁcally, the climate,

step; can we see the past as a recent present?

past by bringing it to life for our time.

comparable events in future.

the culture and its history. In this instance,

If so, what about the present itself? Can

Giving up this responsibility can be called bad

When you approach an old building and

like the others, we will see how works persist

it be seen an impending past, a moment

faith. Good faith or living faith, by contrast,

walk up its entry steps you can plainly see

through renewal.

that is just about to leave us? This would

involves the courage and imagination to

that for centuries others have followed the

The building, I have already said, can be

mean noticing the way it edges its way

embark on projects that have no other

same path, up the center of the stairway,

understood as a clock. Still today we can tell

into the time that once was. A comparable

obligation to forms of the past than their

for example, short-cutting the width of the

the time of day by studying the shadows cast

observation would view the present as a

renewal in the present. I say this because

landing, pausing on the arrival step. Not

on an architectural surface. Obviously, this

recent future. Likewise, the future would

without that double orientation work in

only have the steps of hundreds before you

was common before the age of mechanical

be a present to come, and a past to follow.

architecture is unbearably difﬁcult, because

polished the stone, but they have reshaped

time pieces. But even now we look to

All of this suggests that each moment in

it is either redoing what was done before, or

its proﬁles, “dishing” the treads. Traces of

buildings for a sense of natural time. All of

time indicates its own individuality and a

behaving as if the past didn't matter. Each

this kind testify to movement and therefore

the equipment installed into buildings to

set of implications – the “vectors” to which

of these dead ends is avoided in the better

time. Implied in that record are human

respond to changes in weather, seasons,

I referred earlier. Just as vestiges await

projects of our time.

interests, orientation, and desires. As ages

and climate serves both practical and

their own transformation, anticipation is

pass and the temporal horizon widens, the

representational functions. Every aperture,

nurtured by recollection. Accordingly, the

work functions less like a clock or calendar

together with its hoods, shutters, blinds,

identity of a culture and its forms of art (our

than a chronicle. In this case we do not have

vents, screens, glazings, and curtains, reveals

concern is architecture in Israel) is as much a

my movement or yours, but ours; the past

the position and path of the sun. Insofar as

history as a future. A city’s past sets the stage

to which the building’s physical body refers

this equipment is adjustable, the building

for the revelation of what is yet to come, a

“JERUSALEM SPACE“ - FINAL PROJECT STUDIO - 2009 / 2010 RATIONALE BENI REUVEN LEVY

Jerusalem, a universal city, the capital of Israel,

political, energetic, economic, philosophical,

broad horizons, professional ability, a

the potential Palestinian capital, a city with

and poetic topics which constitute a source of

worldview and creative architectural work

a long history, a concept, place and space,

inspiration for the expression and discussion

that will integrate with and impact the public

which is both inspirational and controversial;

of issues relating to ethics and aesthetics, the

agenda. These are students who will develop

a city that is abstract yet realistic, ordinary yet

physical and the metaphysical, the reciprocity

their individual ideas with the school’s

eternal; a city of its residents and its visitors...

between local, regional and global, between

encouragement as a place, and as a source

“Jerusalem Space” - the overall theme that

culture, urbanism, ecology and architecture.

of inspiration that radiates openness to

was chosen as a physical, human and cultural

The common agenda for the studio work poses

initiative and to individual ideas, within the

expanse for research and architectural

problems as well as opportunities to clarify

framework of fundamentally shared values.

expression of the various research and

expose and create something architecturally

design projects during the 2010 academic

unique, in accordance with the personal

The three following ﬁnal projects were

year - poses a challenge for every individual

ambitions of each and every student; while

chosen to represent the studio work at the

who thinks, studies and creates; who aspires

consolidating their individual worldview

Leatherbarrow Seminar.

to reﬂect and to react creatively on matters

by means of relevant, concrete, speciﬁc and

which might inﬂuence the future of this

sustainable architectural solutions.

Lecturers:

multi - dimensional place.

The studio work is designed to encourage

Arch. Beni Reuven Levy, Prof. Saadia Mandel,

‘Jerusalem space’ serves as a platform for

students who are aware of their environment

Dr. Zvi Nikomarov, Arch. Daniel Azzerad, Arch.

a variety of environmental, social, cultural,

and of events, who have critical thinking,

Oded Galron, Arch. Nati Rotem

JERUSALEM, THE CAPITAL OF ISRAEL: A TEST CASE FOR WHAT IS A CAPITAL CITY? SANNY GISPAN

How is it possible to carry on with intensive

institutions are scattered throughout the

important to residents of and visitors to

daily urban life alongside the aspect of

city and are an integral part of the densely

a leading major city?

being a capital city?

woven fabric of the city.

There exists a desire to create a deﬁned

As a result of historic, geographic and

From this understanding arose the need to

urban space at the foot of the “acropolis”

political-environment conditions, Jerusalem,

deﬁne the position of the “acropolis “of the

of the Knesset and Supreme Court and the

the capital of Israel, is the central symbol

city, (representing the government), while

surrounding government ofﬁces, which

of sovereignty of the Jewish people in its

aspiring to have it synthesize and merge

coherently integrates the new functions

homeland.

with daily urban activity.

ﬂowing into it.

The historic, holy and cultural sites of the

The acropolis, strategically positioned in the

The architectural development of the project

Jewish people have created a hub of human

city, leaves its mark on many aspects of city

has lead to the burgeoning of a vibrant

activity within the city boundaries and

life and attracts city dwellers and visitors

avenue situated along Givat Ram, while the

contribute to the uniqueness of Jerusalem

wishing to live in its shadow.

section for development of the conceptual

as a capital city and seat of government and

The

thesis centers on the area between the

law in Israel.

the city of Jerusalem have been used as a

university entrance plaza and the Israel

How is it possible to examine the aspect

strategic planning tool throughout the city;

Museum. The entire length of the avenue

of “capital city” as part of the life of a

the hills deﬁning neighborhood location,

is host to a wide range of public and social

city in general? And how is the concept of

and the surrounding valleys creating the

activities answering the diverse needs of the

government perceived in the strategy of

green areas.

residents and their visitors.

the city?

The government buildings positioned on a

The avenue is a meeting place for the “capital

In an attempt to understand how the

hill in the city center, majestically overlook

city” principles and other metropolitan values

“capitalness” affects the workings of a

the city, commanding a position of awe

which exist side by side, woven into a dynamic

city, and what part government plays in

and respect, leaving around them an area

urban tapestry.

day to day urban texture, I examined the

of intensive ongoing urban activity which

features of government in various cities

nurtures the entire city.

around the world.

How is the urban city space at the foothills

As a test case of cities with a governmental

of the “acropolis” expressed in vibrant city

aspect, I researched Athens- a city in which

life, answering the diverse and essential

religion is a central factor in government,

needs of the functioning of a city in general

and Paris- the leading city in its country.

and speciﬁcally a capital city?

In Athens the location of the Acropolis and

How is architectural development given

Agora epitomize the relationship between the

expression in the interface between

sublime and day to day. In Paris, government

“capital city” values and other values

unique

topographical

features

The 'Acropolis' location in Jerusalem

The urbanite space at the foot of the 'Acropolis'

Section through the urbanite space

Looking to the urbanite space

PORT IN AN URBAN ISLAND GILAD NETZER

Conceptual sketch

The old railroad track route from Jaffa to

how does this situation inﬂuence and affect

expanse permits the interpretation and

Jerusalem, which traveled through plains,

a place which is considered the “heart”

development of various cultures, changing

valleys and mountains and came to a stop

world-wide?

rhythms and different spaces, which all

at an important strategic point, created a

together create unique relationships.

path that wove different places together:

The railroad route penetrates Jerusalem

neighborhoods, streets, buildings, open

through its weak point and stops at its strong

Jerusalem, a city of many layers and a very

areas, nature and landscape. This path

point. A point where the desert from the east

long history has created an environment of

carried along with it values and history-

meets the sea from the west, a point where

entities that connect like patchwork.

also from overseas to the west. The railroad

the mythological Hinom Valley in the east

The railroad enters the void created in the

route created a linear pathway between

comes in contact with Emek Refaim Valley

urban area and creates a linear space that

the universal and the local and opened up

in the west; a point where a panoramic view

correspondingly connects and disconnects

onto a city and a place to which all mankind

opens out onto the Old City where holy and

the adjacent textures.

attributes great importance.

secular create a dialogue. I chose to engage in this unique expanse of

77 Intervention area

As the capital of Israel, Jerusalem constitutes

The route halts at a place which enables

space as a means to clarify essential questions

an identity not only for its residents but also

contemplation of the passage, the future

regarding ”time”, “place” and “space” related

for the entire world. The penetration of an

and interpretation of time and place. It stops

to the urban future of Jerusalem.

entity from overseas raises the question:

not only in time but also in open space. This

DEFINING THE PRESENTNESS OF THE PAST CITY OF DAVID - SILWAN LIAD MALCHI The cultural building complex

Sections and views

"In order to have 'Historical Signiﬁcance' the past has to have some Presentness of the past, not only the 'pastness' of the past. It must have a 'meaningful presence'." "We have to re-examine, re-discover and re-evaluate the past rather than investigate it. The pure historian will object, yet the pure historian creates nothing." Robert Venturi (Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture)

The question that arises from this quotation

My research unearths, examines and reevaluates

is: how can the past be present in the

yet another layer that constitutes part of local

present and how will this be expressed in

and universal daily life. I present an optimal

architectural space?

way of thinking: designing in the present for the future whilst taking the past into

Jerusalem is a city that lives in accordance

consideration as part of daily life.

with the values expressed in Venturi’s quotation on a daily basis.

What added value can this new layer bring to the environment that is so stylized in terms

The concepts of “harbor” and “port” are used

How can this phenomenon be used as an

as a metaphor for a situation laden with

opportunity for renewal and development of

values and history which integrate with the

urbanism from within?

local situation. The concept of “anchorage” characterizes arrival from afar to an end point which is also the heart and center of existing urban spaces. How does the environment react to the penetration of a foreign element?

The presence of the city is meaningful since

of its contemporary and historical period?

it is based on its historical signiﬁcance.

How can the local identity be strengthened as

For my research project, I chose to examine

a result of architectural intervention in such a

the City of David – Silwan, the ancient city

complex location?

situated adjacent to the Old City of Jerusalem and today, an archeological site composed of

What are the universal and local implications

dozens of layers of life underground.

of design in this holy location of such tremendous historical importance? And what

The depths of these layers of soil reveal some

future options emerge from such work?

of the most fascinating archeological ﬁnds, while above ground, the city is a lively center

My goal for this site is to discover and

for tourists, especially for those who live

typify a new layer that can contain a space

right on top of these antiquities.

from which new life can grow through relationships between the people in the area and between the existing physical layers

Plan bellow ground level

Longitudinal section

Plan above ground level

NEGEV COUNTRY BENI REUVEN LEVY

As part of the vision and ethical, ecological,

wide range of topics - environment, society,

The project selected for publication in this

social and cultural approach of the School

culture, energy, ﬁnance, philosophy, poetry

journal, which received also the 2010 Israeli

of Architecture in Ariel, the Negev, the

and others, and is a source of inspiration for

Design Award, is an example of the diverse

southernmost region of the state of Israel

discussion on the reciprocal relationships

high quality products of the studio.

encompassing 60% of its landmass and

between local, regional and global issues.

populated by less than 10% of its population,

The shared agenda for the studio work created

Lecturers: Arch. Beni Reuven Levy, Prof. Ram

was selected as the area for both research

a physical and mental space for clariﬁcation,

Karmi, Prof. Saadia Mandel, Prof. Gilead

and architectural expression for the various

deﬁnition and shaping of a world view, based

Duvshani, Arch. Daniel Azzerad, Arch. Oded

ﬁnal projects in the 2009 academic year.

on shared fundamental values of personal

Galron, Arch. Nati Rotem

This somewhat neglected area presents a

and professional ethics, an ecological

challenge for observation and discussion

approach to the natural and developed

of issues which are not usually part of

environment, broad professional horizons,

mainstream discourse, and as such can

social solidarity, and a desire for intrinsic

inﬂuence the consensus and show it in a

and extrinsic esthetics. These fundamental

different light.

values constitute a basis for personal, unique,

The Negev region, with its populated and

relevant and viable architectural creation,

vast natural spaces, is a starting point for

evolving from the discovery, perception and

deliberation, discussion and action over a

aspiration of every student.

View from terraces to the residents

AGRICULTURE AND RESIDENCE IN THE SHADOW OF THE AQUEDUCT - EIN BOKEK, DEAD SEA FINAL PROJECT HILKI AMRANI

Living in the desert: how can we create a

were designed for growing vines bordered by

The compositional design is of butterﬂy

place to live in a spatial environment that

low guest units for the temporary residents

wings, with the walkway serving as the joint

seemingly does not allow it?

and 3- storey apartments for the permanent

- separation between them. Each house is

ones. On the eastern slope, near the main

responsible for its own terrace, cooperating

road, lies the winery.

with the real values of Nature.

The project follows natural resources found along the creek of Ein-Bokek, and examines the human-nature relationship

The project provides additional access

in a desert environment.

to the creek and draws the walkway from the Dead Sea along the slope to

Water is the main narrative in the project

the spring, while providing safe viewing

through the use of an aqueduct – for

of floods. Upon entering the residential

irrigation and collection on the one hand,

space, water is revealed through a variety

and on the other, to create a unique language

of water trails.

that ‘sculpts’ residential space in the desert along with the experience of discovery.

The principles of this project took into account sustainability, thermal mass and

Two moderate slopes can be identiﬁed in the

natural ventilation.

topography. On the western slope, terraces

Roof plan

Shadows and sun radiation

Longitudinal section

Looking west from road 90

View to the dwelling area

Uses

Space entrance to dwellings