Magazine 95, raw materials (eng)

“Measuring recycling on the basis of monetary value” PROF. DR. P.C. REM, CHAIRHOLDER RESOURCES & RECYCLING

THEME: RAW MATERIALS PST PLANT INSTRUMENTAL IN ACHIEVING RECYCLING TARGETS

IS THERE LIFE AFTER STEEL?

NUMBER 8 - AUTUMN 2015

IN THE PICTURE Photography Jack Tillmans

Measurement is knowledge.

For that reason, ARN carried out three shredder trials in 2015. For each trial, ARN collected 400 end-of-life vehicles, that were then processed in the regular manner by a shredder. The resultant materials – including the post-shredder waste – were then weighed to give ARN a clear insight into the performance of the entire recycling chain. The shredder trials are also important for ARN in ensuring compliance with the regulations imposed by the EU and Dutch government.

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95

CONTENTS P4 Prof. Peter Rem, professor of Resources & Recycling

P10 BMW’S BELIEF IN CARBON FIBRE P14 From waste to raw materials; municipalities on the road to the circular economy

p17 Dossier

Raw Materials P27 Ad Lansink’s column about the circular agenda

P28 TATA STEEL SEES A FUTURE FOR STEEL P34 IS REACH (CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES LEGISLATION) PREVENTING INNOVATION IN RECYCLING? P40 News

P42 95 IN BRIEF P44 Academy of Architecture experiments with waste

STRATEGIC RECYCLING Recycling is generally well organised in the Netherlands. Producer organisations comply well with the statutory objectives, guided in part by legislation. ARN also plays its part; the volume of waste caused by old cars has declined substantially. We ensure that valuable raw materials are given a new lease of life. But creating a genuine circular economy remains an enormous challenge.

Too often, recycled materials are used for lowvalue applications. On the other hand, downcycling often marks the start of new developments that can make waste streams sufficiently pure. We therefore still have a lot of work to do to close the cycle, bearing in mind the costs and the CO2 footprint that are also inherent to recycling. This is why it is good news that for several years now scientists like Peter Rem have been seriously engaged with this interesting and important topic. But also, for example, that large manufacturers like Tata Steel are collaborating closely with automotive industry in an effort to make further progress. An interesting example is the course being taken by BMW, with models constructed mainly from carbon fibre such as the BMW i3 and the BMW i8. What will this mean for the future of steel producers? And what new uses can we at ARN find for these materials? One way or another, it is clear that the recovery and recycling of raw materials is high on the political agenda, and we intend to continue our efforts to help minimise the volume of waste that is landfilled or incinerated. In time, recycling will even become a strategic element of the overall supply of raw materials within Europe. The still young recycling industry will therefore undoubtedly grow enormously in the future and account for a larger share of the market economy. That will be an important driver of new, smart processes that will make recycling even more profitable. It is a pleasure to be able to play a part in that process.

Arie de Jong, CEO ARN

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PROFESSOR CASE BESCHRIJVING OF RESOURCES & RECYCLING PETER REM

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PROFESSOR OF RESOURCES & RECYCLING PETER REM

Garbage studies At the moment, recycled materials account for approximately 15% of the total value of the supply of raw materials in Western Europe.

Within 20 years, half of the raw materials used in the region should come from recycling. As Professor of Resources & Recycling at TU Delft, Peter Rem, with his team of researchers, dedicates himself to discovering innovations that will help meet that ambitious target.

With outstanding results.

Text Rob de Boer Photography Maarten Corbijn

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PROFESSOR OF RESOURCES & RECYCLING PETER REM

W

ith Peter Rem’s appointment as Professor of Resources & Recycling at the beginning of 2012, TU Delft was responding to the wishes of the Dutch government to make a contribution to the EU’s target of generating half of the raw materials processed in Europe from recycling within 20 years.

His new chair in Resources and Recycling immediately confronted Rem with a huge challenge: to research and develop new technologies capable of increasing the share of Europe’s raw materials produced through recycling. With his background as a physicist in the faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences at TU Delft, it is a subject that has engaged Rem’s attention for a long time. For example, with a colleague he developed a new method of classification that was able to separate fine bottom ash in incinerators and the non-ferrous metals it contains, such as aluminium and copper, very efficiently and without the use of chemicals. In 2008, this method, which Rem patented, was licensed to Inashco, a company whose workforce has since grown from one employee to 250 and which now operates worldwide.

That sounds good. Would you not have preferred to market the invention yourself?

“There are people who can do that, but my ambitions lie elsewhere. In my current role, I am concerned with the scientific aspect of the story, but also with the implementation of new technology in society and raising political awareness. The problem for scientists is that fully developing an innovative technology often takes too long. It also requires a lot of money. The challenge for me lies mainly in bringing together scientists, industry and the board of the university in a joint effort to transform a new concept into an innovation. That is how I see the role of the university.”

You were appointed as Professor of Resources & Recycling almost four years ago. Can you tell us what contribution the chair has made to achieving the EU’s objectives in this field?

“When we started, our stated aim was to create innovations capable of producing new raw materials from waste with an annual financial value of 10 billion euro within 20 years. That is less ambitious than it seems when you consider the total volume that is needed. At present we produce 60 billion euro worth of raw materials from recycling in Europe, and that figure will have to rise by a further 120 billion euro if we are to achieve the target of 50%. To give you an example: Inashco’s technology can produce new raw materials worth roughly a billion euro every year. We will therefore have to take a totally different approach to recycling. We are talking about a totally new industry that is expected to generate around 600,000 jobs, p06 - 95 autumn 2015

and it will all have to come from innovations by companies and universities in Europe. That is precisely why I am so pleased that they have joined forces.”

A new industry. It sounds like a modern form of mining.

“You could certainly look at it like that. There is a reason why a concept like urban mining is receiving so much more attention, although recycling calls for totally different technologies than mining. I know from my background in physics that the discipline offers a great many new possibilities. However, separating diverse products in such a way that we can re-use half of the materials remains a complex process. We are also often talking about very small particles. There is already technology that is capable of doing this, but it is very different from the machines that are currently used. We still have a long journey full of innovations ahead of us.”

So how realistic is the EU’s target of generating half of the total value of raw materials from recycling within 20 years?

“Just as realistic as John F. Kennedy’s ambition when he said in the early 1960s that the United States would be the first country to put a man on the moon. Expressing such a target is the essential first step in achieving it, since it is immediately clear what steps have to be taken and what obstacles have to be overcome to reach your goal. I am personally convinced that it is possible. Recycling has existed for a very long time, but we only started doing it systematically in the 1970s. We are also making relatively rapid progress. At the beginning of 2000, recycling only accounted for 3% of the raw materials in Europe in terms of value, which is a negligible amount. But ten years later recycling’s share had already grown to 15%. That growth has ensued mainly from the realisation that recycling requires its own technology and research. ”

You refer to the financial value of raw materials rather than volumes. Is that a conscious choice?

“Yes. At a certain point the political choice was made to express recycling performances in terms of volume. That decision was connected with the intention to eliminate landfill sites. It was a good starting point for recycling, but it is now time to make the transition to expressing performance in terms of value. That is now the trend. We are all agreed that we want to recover as many raw materials as possible from a product in order to make new products from them. Naturally, we also want to be able to measure the results, but there are many different ways of doing that. How you measure something depends on what you intend to do with the results. u

PROFESSOR OF RESOURCES & RECYCLING PETER REM

C.V. Peter Rem P.C. Rem is a professor at TU Delft and holds the chair in Resources & Recycling.

There are 14 people working in his research group, including PhD students and post-doc researchers, who have a fully-equipped Recycling Laboratory.

Peter Rem earned his PhD with a thesis on the subject of superconductors and formerly worked in the petrochemical industry. He has published academic articles for physics journals on subjects such as superconductors, neutron spectroscopy, mechanics and electrodynamics and on applied science relating to mineral processes and recycling. Peter Rem holds more than a dozen patents relating to process technologies and equipment. Roughly half of them are already used in industry.

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PROFESSOR OF RESOURCES & RECYCLING PETER REM

For example, if you are concerned about the ecological footprint of a product and its component materials, it makes more sense to also measure the footprint of the recycled raw materials. You can also investigate how much energy it takes to recycle raw materials and how much energy you can save by using them in a new product. At TU Delft we advocate using a mix of all those factors, so we propose measuring recycling on the basis of an economic value expressed in euros. That gives a balanced impression of the effect of recycling in terms of new jobs, fewer imports and energy saving. In this way, everyone knows what is meant and everyone can see what the efforts to recycle yield in financial terms. For example, we can see that Dutch households spend a lot of time separating plastic waste but that it only generates a few euro per capita in raw materials on an annual basis. This method of measuring might also have become outdated in 20 or 30 years’ time if the targets have been met. By then we might find that other factors are more important and will have to reformulate our political wishes accordingly. At present, however, Europe is concerned with value and a strategic supply of raw materials.’

Do you not expect that linking recycling and financial value will be counter-productive? Market actors could reach the conclusion that new raw materials are cheaper.

“The opposite is more likely. If recycling is not cheaper than mining, it won’t be done anyway. That is how market forces work and one of the reasons why we are not concerned with the question of whether developing a new technology is complex, but whether it is economically feasible. Is it possible, and what will it cost? Those are the key questions we address in our research.”

Many sectors are already performing well in terms of recycling. Are there still industries that could quickly do more?

“There is a lot more that could be done in the building sector, for example. In the last four years we have developed an installation with which concrete can be recycled to a high standard.

It is worth the effort, since concrete consists largely of cement, which accounts for 10% of total worldwide emissions of CO2.

The trick therefore is to convert end-of-life concrete into new concrete without those CO2 emissions. A first installation based on our test set-up is now being installed at Strukton in Hoorn. It is located adjacent to a plant operated by Heidelberg Cement, which processes the recycled material into new mortar. A new apartment complex was recently built with a car park constructed from recycled concrete. In other words, it is economically viable. That is clever, since the recycling process must not cost more than around six euro a ton. You can only achieve that with large volumes, with an installation that can recycle 150 to 200 tons an hour. Concrete recycling has the potential to deliver new raw materials worth around three to four billion euro a year in Europe. That would be a major step forward, but it will require parties in the concrete chain to form partnerships and no arrangements have yet been made in that regard.”

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From the outset ARN has devoted a great deal of effort to establishing a strong chain of dismantling companies and shredders.

It has also made a lot of progress with the post-separation of shredder waste at the PST plant. What are your feelings about this approach?

“Car recycling is a good example of what is possible if the government sets specific targets for an industry and assigns responsibility for meeting them to a particular party. ARN quickly realised that you need both a good chain and technology if recycling is to be worthwhile and economically viable. The Netherlands is a pioneer in Europe with the approach it has taken and now also has a real say in this field. One reason for that is the fact that the Netherlands is a small country where car dismantling companies have always been highly visible, which has given greater urgency to the search for a solution than in a country with more space.”

To what extent are you engaged in a search for new applications for recycled raw materials? Or do you concentrate purely on developing technologies to improve recycling?

We are purely concerned with the recycling of materials. However, a recycled material sometimes differs fundamentally from the primary material and then we also explore potential uses for it. Mortar based on recycled concrete is an example of that. For technical reasons it hardens more quickly, making it ideal for pre-fab applications. Otherwise, we concentrate on the processes and technologies relating to recycling.

Are you also searching for solutions to make streams of recycled materials purer?

“Indeed we are. We currently focus mainly on plastics. The problem with recycling plastics is that there are so many different polymers. We are currently investigating whether we can improve methods of separating them by using sink/float technology in a liquid with varying densities. We have already applied for a patent for this method. This is also a worthwhile field of research, since perhaps two billion of the 85 billion euro worth of plastics used in Europe every year comes from recycling, so there is a lot of room for improvement there. Increasing the purity of material flows is also important for adding value. At present, at the end of many processes there is a residue comprising many different materials. They could also be recovered, although those last few percent are the most difficult and most expensive to retrieve. But the necessary innovations will come. The hard work starts now.” t

PROFESSOR OF RESOURCES & RECYCLING PETER REM

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CAR MANUFACTURER

BMW i: smart use p10 - 95 autumn 2015

CAR MANUFACTURER Text Rob de Boer Images BMW

of carbon fibre 95 autumn 2015 - p11

CAR MANUFACTURER

With the launch of the BMW i3 in 2013 and the BMW i8 in 2014, BMW i introduced two cars that are totally different to what we have grown accustomed to from the Bayerische Motoren Werke. The BMW i3 is fully electric and for the body of both cars BMW uses a carbon fibrereinforced plastic, which makes the car lighter and therefore more fuel-efficient. But can this material be recycled?

The launch of the BMW i3 and BMW i8 marked the inception of the BMW i range of models. With this new, ecological sub-label the German car manufacturer has taken a step towards electric mobility. In the process, BMW i looked beyond the use of new technology and also designed the development and production processes with sustainability in mind. For example, BMW claims that, on average, production of the new models in the Leipzig plant consumes half the quantity of energy and 70% less water than the production of its regular models. BMW also devoted special attention to the re-use and recycling of materials in developing the i-models. For the interior of the BMW i3, for example, it used various recycled materials, with the seats being made entirely from recycled Polyethyleneterephtalat (PET). Recycled plastics also account for 25% of the interior work. According to BMW, this demonstration of environmental awareness yields a CO2 footprint that is approximately 30% lower over the entire life cycle including sourcing, production, and recycling of the BMW i3, and approximately 50% lower if the owner drives entirely on green energy.

Planning for recycling

It is important to BMW that sustainable mobility does not come at the expense of the familiar ‘Freude am Fahren’. This partly explains why in developing the BMW i3 and BMW i8 the company devoted a lot of attention to the weight of both models. To save as much weight as possible, for the body BMW developed a composite material based on plastic and carbon fibre. A frequent complaint is that this so-called CFRP – or carbon fibre-reinforced plastic – is difficult to recycle. However, advances are also being made in that area. According to BMW, there are now various ways of responsibly recycling the bodies of the two cars at the end of their useful life. “To start with, as a manufacturer we naturally have to comply with the EU requirements for recycling. Therefore, at least 85% of the weight of the cars we bring onto the market under the i-label also has to be recyclable. We therefore already planned for the recycling of the materials at the early design stage”, says Steffen Aumann, head of BMW Recycling. “Furthermore, BMW does not think of recycling simply as an obligation imposed by the government. Several years ago BMW made the strategic decision to include sustainability as an p12 - 95 autumn 2015

integral aspect of the life cycle of our cars. That extends to the entire value chain, from the materials that are used and production to the use of the vehicles and their ultimate recycling. This holistic approach is an important pillar under the i-label.”

Small-scale experiments

That sounds good, but still does not explain whether the CFRP used by BMW is recyclable. Steffen Aumann replies by referring once again to the fact that some parts of the BMW i3 and BMW i8 are already composed of recycled plastic. In addition, the cars have only recently come on to the market and it will therefore still be a long time before they have to be dismantled and recycled. “Admittedly, it is not yet possible to produce a full body from recycled CFRP, which can be done with steel or aluminium, for example. However, it will be twelve years before the bodies of these cars are being sent for recycling in larger numbers. By then we will have established new applications for this material. We are already conducting small volume processing with dry and wet fractions of CFRP. We know from this that after recycling this raw material can be re-used to produce smaller die-cast parts that need to be very sturdy.

Tests have shown that those parts can be lighter, smaller or more robust than conventional die-cast parts. The use of this material also has to be seen as just part of a greater whole for BMW i. The BMW i3, for example, has a far smaller CO2 footprint than a car like the BMW 118d, which was voted the World Green Car of the Year just a few years ago.”

The right mix of materials

Naturally, BMW also uses materials other than CFRP in the production of the two i-models. For example, the chassis of the BMW i3 is made to a high extent from recycled aluminium. The use of new plastics therefore does not mean that BMW is abandoning materials such as steel and aluminium altogether. “BMW does not regard the development and use of light-weight plastics as a goal itself,” Aumann continues. “Our policy has always been to use the right materials in the right place. The driving properties of our cars are our priority. We make no concessions in that regard. We set out to create the optimal balance between driving pleasure, fuel consumption, comfort and acoustics for each of our models. For

CAR MANUFACTURER

‘Admittedly, it is not yet possible to produce a full body from recycled CFRP, which can be done with steel or aluminium, for example’

the new BMW 7 Series, for example, comfort and the acoustics are of utmost importance whereas for the BMW i3, the focus was to compensate for the weight of the battery pack. Accordingly, every model has its own mix of materials.”

our recycling partners. We also anticipate growth in the use of carbon fibre in the automotive industry in the longer term, in which case the market will automatically produce new, cheaper technologies for largescale and responsible recycling.” t

Cooperation with recycling partners

BMW’s marketing of the BMW i3 and BMW i8 is as unusual as the cars themselves. BMW has appointed roughly half of its dealerships as BMW i Agents, whose task will be to act as a sort of broker in selling the cars.

In other words, a customer will buy a new BMW i3 or BMW i8 directly from the factory and the dealer will receive a fixed commission from BMW. In this way, BMW considers to maintain tighter control over the sale of the i-models. Is it conceivable that the company will ultimately also take charge of the recycling of its own products? “There are various possible scenarios,” Aumann replies. “One of the considerations is that perceptions of the concept ‘premium’ are changing. More and more people nowadays associate ‘premium’ strongly with sustainability. In that respect, one of the possible options is that we will recover raw materials from end-of-life BMWs ourselves. However, that will require a further review of our procedures and the existing forms of collaboration with

Second life for battery pack

The BMW i3 has a lithium-ion battery pack consisting of eight separate modules. Each module can be replaced individually so that the entire pack does not have to be replaced if one is faulty. In theory, the batteries have a longer life than the car itself. In the ‘battery 2nd life”project, therefore, BMW is exploring the possibilities of recycling the high-voltage batteries, for example by using them to store renewable energy generated in residential environments. On this field , BMW has formed pilot-projects with various partners, e.g. the energy company Vattenfall.

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PRODUCT INFORMATION

From 10 to 5 million tonnes of residual waste by 2024

No waste

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PRODUCT INFORMATION

When it comes to the reuse of raw materials, with a recycling performance of 96 percent, ARN is clearly on the right track. But how are other sectors performing?

The VANG project (Van Afval naar Grondstof - From waste to raw materials) looks promising. The initiative by the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment (I&M) hopes to encourage Dutch municipalities to take the necessary steps towards achieving a circular economy. The ambition is to have reached 75 percent waste separation by 2020, while at the same time reducing the volume of residual waste per person from 250 to 100 kg.

Text Menno Timmer Images Hollandse Hoogte

The aim of the From waste to raw materials programme is to encourage the transition towards a circular economy.

As the name suggests, in a circular economy, the cycle is turned into a complete circle, with waste as raw material for new products. A growing proportion of residual flows – previously waste – is acquiring an economic value, and as such can be reused as raw materials. The Ministry of I&M aims to promote this process, as the circular economy can play an important role in preserving natural resources, ensuring the security of supply of raw material, and encouraging the economy. The policy is aimed at halving the amount of material lost each year from 10 to 5 million tonnes. The amount of residual waste per head of the Dutch population must be reduced to on average 100 kg per person per year, by 2020.

To make things clear: residual waste is by definition that which remains once all valuable recyclable flows have been removed, through pre or post-separation. The Netherlands recycles approximately 80% of all residual flows, or ensures their usable application. Each year, we produce approximately 60 million tonnes of waste, and 50 million tonnes are therefore returned to the cycle.

The remaining 10 million tonnes of residual waste must be halved, to just 5 million tonnes of residual waste by 2024. There are already sufficient useful applications for

residual waste; for example the glass and paper industry in our country already relies almost entirely on recycled flows. Almost 50 percent of all plastics are returned to the chain for example in the form of new soft drink bottles, and more than 80 percent of glass packaging is reused in new bottles and jars.

Lower waste collection charges

So what results has the VANG project achieved so far, and to what extent are municipalities in fact required to join in the initiative? Information from the Ministry of I&M suggests that around 400 municipalities in the Netherlands are responsible for collecting and processing waste. This implies that there are major discrepancies in the methods employed and performance achieved by the municipalities. “Until a few years ago, there was little central government policy on this issue, and hence little progress,” explained a Ministry spokesperson. The volume of waste was gradually rising, and waste separation and recycling performance remained almost unchanged.

The municipalities themselves called for more coordination. This call was heard, and in practice meant that Central government helped enable municipalities to learn form one another, while supporting individual municipalities apply and develop knowledge of waste and recycling.” u

‘More and more waste substances are becoming worth money’

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PRODUCT INFORMATION

‘More than 80 percent of glass packaging is reused in new bottles and jars’

Municipalities are invited to participate voluntarily.

Practice has shown that municipalities that operate a sound waste policy and separate more, enjoy lower costs and as a result lower waste collection charges; a clear and immediate result. “The municipalities themselves have also demonstrated their ambition by joining the Ministry in developing a vision on waste, that goes hand in hand with an equally ambitious implementation programme. That programme can count on broad support among the municipalities”, explained I&M.

Dual profit

‘A sound waste policy leads to lower costs and lower waste collection charges’

One of the key principles behind the VANG project is that better separation must not result in higher waste collection charges for the population. The ‘polluter pays’ principle is fully enforced. For municipalities this is an essential trigger for achieving the ambitions set by I&M. At the same time, more and more waste substances are becoming worth money. For municipalities, that fact represents a dual profit; both financial and environ­ mental. In addition to the cost aspect, the partners also face the challenge of taking up their own social responsibility. Experience from practice has shown the Ministry that better waste separation often also leads to more employment opportunities and local opportunities for innovation.

Encouraging the right behaviour

Naturally, achieving the VANG targets depends on the cooperation of individual citizens. The next obvious question is how cooperative are they? Are citizens in fact sufficiently willing to consistently separate waste and reduce their domestic waste flows, and what

encouragement is available to them to make them take part? According to the Ministry, the separation of paper and glass has become fully accepted; if the process is made easy enough, it is self-evident for people to join in.

Waste separation needs to offer households an advantage, for example in the form of lower waste collection charges. It is all about empowerment and encouraging the right behaviour. There is of course a difference if people live in a block of flats in a city, in a rural area or in low-rise accommodation. Part of the VANG programme is to organise pilot projects to investigate the circumstances in which people do separate their waste correctly, for example in high-rise accommodation.

Chain approach

Separating waste is one thing, but even waste separation will not necessarily lead to less waste at the end of the chain. What can the Ministry do about that situation?

How can Central government and municipalities ensure less waste per citizen? The policy at I&M is primarily aimed at preventing waste, for example by working together with the packaging industry to examine the amount of packaging produced. According to the Ministry, the knowledge and commitment of every link in the chain will be needed, including individual citizens and municipal authorities. In relation to all chains where their intervention is meaningful, municipalities and Central government will take the initiative of investigating how best to deal with raw materials throughout the chain. It starts at the front end of the chain with sustainable products. But at the end of the chain, consumers have a role to play too. “Not thoughtlessly disposing of items, or purchasing items that are thrown away soon afterwards can make a huge contribution to preventing the creation of waste,” argued the Ministry.

Improved use of raw materials

Over the coming period, the greatest challenges lie in tackling the chains. Within its VANG programme, the Ministry is therefore encouraging cooperation between the chain parties. A chain is currently being established, for example, for nappies and incontinence products. In other chains, such as soft drink cartons, plastics and textiles, it is hoped that cooperation will lead to better use of raw materials, in the future. At the end of the day, VANG aims to smooth the path for better made products, which can subsequently be better used, and at the end of the cycle better separated and collected, in such a way that the raw materials are recovered. t p16 - 95 autumn 2015

RAW MATERIALS

PST PLANT:

THE UNMISSABLE LINK

CASE STUDY: RAW MATERIALS 95 autumn 2015 - p17

RAW MATERIALS

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CASE COLUMN STUDY

Since 1 January 2015, every member state of the European Union has been obliged to recycle 95% of the weight of an end-of-life car. At least 85% of materials must be recycled, while the balance up to at least 95% can be achieved with recovery, for example by energy recovery from incineration. The Netherlands already met these requirements in 2013 and 2014 and will probably do so again in 2015.

Thanks to the PST plant in Tiel.

Text Yvonne van der Heijden Infographic Michel Giezen Photography Maarten Corbijn

“Without the post-separation of shredder waste at the PST plant, the Netherlands would not comply with the European obligations for car recycling,” says Hans van de Greef, the director of ARN Recycling.

“The reason for this is that roughly 20% of an end-of-life car’s weight remains as shredder waste after it has been dismantled and shredded. It is impossible to comply with the requirement to recycle 85% of an endof-life car if that waste is incinerated or landfilled.”

Van de Greef points out that the official figures for ARN’s recycling performance in 2013 and 2014 showed that post-separation was essential to increase the recycling percentage. “In 2014 the total recycling rate was 86.1%, with an additional 9.9% recovery. The PST plant accounted for 2.1% of the recycling of materials and 4.4% of the energy recovery. The year before, ARN reported a total of 86.0% recy-

cling and 9.9% recovery, including 1.7% recycling and 4.3% energy recovery by the PST plant.”

The secret

The secret of the PST plant lies in its advanced and complex separation installation. Van de Greef: “With mechanical separation, there are a great many steps involved in recovering raw materials from shredder waste that comes mainly from cars. Those steps include sieving, which involves separating materials on the basis of particle size and separating materials in air or liquid on the basis of density and magnetism. This leaves end fractions, such as plastics, fibres, minerals and metals, including copper, aluminium and iron.”

The aim of the PST plant is to process at least 40,000 tons of shredder waste a year. “That is the total annual volume of shredder waste u

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RAW MATERIALS

That the statutory target was achieved two years ago is partly due to a LIFE+ subsidy of one million euro that ARN received from the EU in 2011

from end-of-life cars in the Netherlands. In 2014, we recycled 40% of the shredder waste supplied to us. Before the PST plant went into operation, that waste would have been incinerated or landfilled.”

LIFE+ subsidy

That the statutory target was achieved two years ago is partly due to a LIFE+ subsidy of one million euro that ARN received from the EU in 2011. “The LIFE+ subsidy enabled us to scale up the PST plant from the test phase to a fully operational facility,” says Van de Greef.

ARN used the subsidy to gradually implement technical improvements in all of the processes in the PST plant. The modifications included changes in the feed system, the installation of a different type of pump and the use of alternative, more durable materials.

“The improvements have increased the efficiency of the production line.

With more stable production, we can process a larger volume of shredder waste, and therefore produce more useful end products, each year,” says Van de Greef. “Expansions of the separating line have also significantly improved the separation of materials, which results in purer end products with a higher quality and greater value.”

Overcoming obstacles

Van de Greef and his team had to overcome quite a few obstacles during the construction and commissioning of the PST plant, ranging from finding a stable volume to feed into the production line to separating copper wires from the plastic fraction. The greatest challenge, says Van de Greef, was that the team had to design, build and commission an entirely new production line for the large-scale processing of car shredder waste from 11 different locations.

“There are other companies in Europe, mainly shredder companies, that have invested in the development of technologies to recover valuable materials from shredder waste. Their systems use elements from our production line, but the production line as a whole, built with the specific aim of meeting the 95% recycling target, is unique,” explains Van de Greef.

Furthermore, the people who would have to operate the machines had no experience in the recycling industry. “It has been a steep learning curve for everyone concerned in the last few years. Getting the production line up and running was a question of trial and error. You have to remember that 170 different units are operating simultaneously in the plant and they all have to be synchronised.”

Major advances thanks to LIFE+ subsidy

ARN has made major progress in optimising the processing line, partly thanks to the LIFE+ subsidy. “A tremendous amount of time has been devoted to finding the correct settings for all of the units to ensure that the entire production process runs smoothly,” says Van de Greef.

“A complicating factor is that the composition of the material streams deliv­ ered to us by the 11 shredder companies is always different. The LIFE+ subsidy has played a crucial role in enabling us to stabilise production.”

The improvements that were made have had a positive environmental impact. Primarily, according to Van de Greef, because they have increased the efficiency of the production line. “With more stable production, we can process a larger volume of shredder waste each year. That yields more useful end products and simultaneously reduces u

LIFE+ en ARN LIFE+ is a European Union programme that provides subsidies for the development and implementation of projects to support the EU’s nature conservation and environmental policies. LIFE+ has three pillars: nature and biodiversity, information and communication, and environment policy and governance.

ARN’s LIFE+ project to improve the recycling performance in relation to end-of-life cars in the Netherlands falls under the heading of environment policy and governance, because it is designed to help the Dutch government to meet its EU obligations for car recycling.

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A visit to the PST plant?

ARN is proud of its PST plant. We organise guided tours of the production line for the processing of shredder waste all year round. If you would like to visit the PST plant in Tiel, you can request further information and apply for a visit at info@arn.nl.

CASE COLUMN STUDY

R&D: Continuous guarantee of sufficient recycling “Research & Development is very important for the PST plant. Our intention is to ensure that we constantly achieve sufficient recycling. We also endeavour to save costs and increase revenues. R&D is also essential to optimise the production line.”

“A good example is the heavy plastics fractions, which contained a great many copper wires. We conducted research for a year to discover a method of separating the metals. That involves analysing which machines are suitable and investigating whether there are potential customers for your end products. In June 2015, we finally installed additional machines to recover copper, aluminium and stainless steel. This was a major investment, but we are now producing a very good copper fraction that goes directly to a copper foundry. As a result, the revenues from the heavy plastic fraction have increased by tens of euro per ton, thus proving that R&D pays for itself.”

“Another thing we do is search for possibilities for recycling the end fractions that still follow the thermal route, such as the intermediate fraction of plastics that goes to blast furnaces in Germany as a substitute for coke and oil. Our research led to the purchase and installation of three new machines to recover wood and rubber from the floating and intermediate fractions of plastics. Consequently, we produce 40% more, cleaner plastic that can be re-used as a raw material in the plastics industry. This fraction now has a positive end value. One of ARN’s priorities in the area of R&D is to further improve the separation of plastics.”

“We are currently looking for alternative high-grade applications for a mineral fraction that is currently used as a filler for road building in France. We are investigating whether smelting it into basalt to produce building materials is an option. It might also be possible to crush the glass from another mineral fraction to produce rock wool or bricks. We have not yet completed that research. Finally, R&D plays a key role in the Advanced Recycling Solutions fibre project.”

Allard Verburg Manager Business Development ARN Recycling

Advanced Recycling Solutions (ARS) “Advanced Recycling Solutions (ARS) is a project designed to find ways of increasing the recycling and reducing the incineration of materials from the PST plant. We are mainly investigating processing methods that can convert the fibre fraction into re-usable materials. Every year, 10,000 tons of fibres are recovered in Tiel from textile products in car interiors, such as seats, ceilings and dashboards.”

“We are searching for a feasible solution in a network of companies and experts from the PST plant and elsewhere. We already know what techniques can be used to compact the fibres into pellets (similar to dog feed), which can then be sold to an end user.”

“The technical challenge ARN faces is to produce the purest possible fibre, with the wood and copper residues that disrupt the process removed as far as possible. And to find a solution for the moisture-content of fibres, which varies so greatly with the seasons. The moisture content is 2% to 3% in the summer and 12% to 15% in the winter.”

“We have made so much progress that we are now looking for customers. ARS pellets could be used in a number of moulding processes, such as die casting, hot pressing and extrusion, a method in which a flexible material is forced through a matrix. The composition of the pellets depends on the wishes and specifications of the customer. We limit ourselves to four or five recipes, each of which gives the material its own specific properties in terms of aspects such as strength or flexibility.”

“Our materials can be used as a partial substitute for wood in certain products, for example for fencing poles around a field. With further development, it should in future be possible to reuse ARS pellets in the automotive industry, in which case the life cycle of fibres will be closed.”

Wim Spierings Project Manager, Advanced Recycling Solutions (ARS) 95 autumn 2015 - p21

RAW MATERIALS

1. Primary separation

PST plant

Separates shredder waste into three main flows: minerals, fibres and plastics, by sieving, grinding and blowing.

Stone • Rubber

plastics

1 3

in

4

s al er

6

fib res

m

2

5

At the PST plant in Tiel, the raw materials present in shredder waste are separated out. The result is 4 different fractions, for which the various machines in the plant have each been painted in their own colour, broadly along the following lines: metals (red), plastics (green), fibres (orange) and minerals (yellow).

En route through the plant, the material passes through no less than 170 different machines in which the waste is sieved and centrifuged, ground using hammers, and separated using a sink-float mechanism, until they are pulverised into the finest possible homogeneous particles.

3. Mineral module

The minerals are sieved into 3 granule sizes. The more even the material size the easier it is to separate out unwanted fibres and other contaminants. The 3 output flows serve as raw material for applications in road building.

Minerals

History of the PST plant 2005

2008

On 25 October 2005, it is announced that the PST plant will be built to mark ARN’s 10th anniversary.

The groundbreaking ceremony is held on 10 July 2008.

It is decided that the PST plant has to be built in anticipation of the 95% recycling obligation from 2015.

2004 p22 - 95 autumn 2015

10

Tiel is chosen as the site of the plant because of its location: in the centre of the Netherlands, on an easily accessible business park and on major routes to potential customers in Germany.

2006

The PST plant is completed.

The construction of the PST installation commences in April 2010. The first machines, hammer mills, are delivered on 8 September 2010.

2010

CASE COLUMN STUDY

The plastics contain numerous contaminants such as wood and rubber, but this flow also contains large amounts of aluminium, iron and copper.

4. Plastic preseparation module

Using a magnet, an Eddy Current and a special sieve, aluminium, iron and rubber are separated before the material is ground into the most evenly-sized particles possible Rubber • Aluminium

2. Fibre module

The supply of fibres comes from the primary module, but fibre residue is also supplied from the yellow and green modules. The copper wires are removed from the fibres using a percussion crusher.

Fibres

5. Plastic module 6. Metal module

The heavy plastic fraction and the copper wires from the fibre module are passed through a new module to remove the copper and aluminium. This is achieved using a percussion crusher that beats the copper wires into tiny balls, at which point they can be separated out on an air table.

The ground plastic is passed through a sink-float separator, which separates the plastic types from one another in 2 baths, according to their specific gravity. The output is three plastic flows: PP&PE, a blast furnace fraction and a heavy fraction that contains large amounts of copper.

Plastic PP&PE • Plastic blast furnace fraction

Copper • Aluminium • Plastic

2011 The PST plant is officially opened by State Secretary for Infrastructure and the Environment Joop Atsma on 28 April 2011. A LIFE+ subsidy is awarded in September 2011, for the period up to 1 September 2015.

The PST installation goes into operation and production commences in November 2011.

9

2014

000 000

9,000 tons of shredder waste are processed. .

2012

36

The installation for the separation of rubber and wood is installed in September 2014.

36,000 tons of shredder waste are processed in 2014.

ARN meets the 95% recycling target.

000 000

In March 2013, the input of shredder waste is adjusted in order to stabilise the production line. This plays an important role in the further growth of production capacity. From 1 May 2013, the production line starts operating around the clock, five days a week. 25,000 tons of shredder waste are processed in 2013. ARN complies with the 95% recycling target.

The installation for recovering metal is installed in June 2015.

The aim is to process 42,500 tons of shredder waste in 2015.

ARN will probably meet the 95% recycling target in 2015.

2013

2015 95 autumn 2015 - p23

RAW MATERIALS

Batteries from electric cars given a second life on Pampus

“A pilot project is being conducted with batteries from a converted E-Golf from 2008 on Pampus island. The experiment is designed to show that it is technically possible to give a second life to endof-life batteries from electric cars. Pampus is an ideal location for conducting tests because it is not connected to the national grid. Energy is supplied by solar panels and micro wind turbines, with a diesel generator providing a back-up.”

“If we can show that the solar and wind energy that is generated can be stored in second-life batteries, the generator will not have to be used so often. The batteries can then supply some of the energy for Pampus.

Midway through the one-year period of the tests, it is already clear that diesel consumption can be reduced by around 20%. ARN is collaborating in the pilot project on Pampus with network manager Alliander, Stichting Forteiland Pampus, the certification body DNV GL, the Arnhem and Nijmegen University of Applied Sciences, Eindhoven University of Technology and Amsterdam Smart City.”

End-of-waste status

“In addition to the technological challenge, the recycling of batteries also poses a legal challenge. Under the existing rules, an end-of-life bat-

tery is regarded as waste that has to be recycled and not as a product that can be re-used for a different purpose. We are calling for the legalisation of the re-use of batteries. That would require giving discarded batteries the so-called ‘end-of-waste status’. Converted end-of-life batteries would then be treated as new products and would no longer fall under the waste legislation. A second advantage of end-of-waste status is that producer responsibility would pass from the importers of cars to the party that brings the second-life battery on to the market. Killing two birds with one stone, in other words.”

“According to a carbon-footprint calculation that we made with DNV GL, the environmental burden of second-life batteries is significantly smaller than that of a new battery. They are also far cheaper. They could be used, for example, at events where local energy storage is required, such as festivals. Thousands of batteries from electric cars will reach the end of their useful life in the coming years. It would be a pity if they all disappeared into furnaces.”

More information about the project: http://amsterdamsmartcity.com/news/ detail/id/508/slug/batterij-uit-elektrische-autokrijgt-tweede-leven-op-forteiland-pampus?lang=nl

Hector Timmer Project manager ARN p24 - 95 autumn 2015

93,4%

6,6%

CASE COLUMN STUDY 100%

5

Final destination for shredder waste

Metals

Plastics < 1,1 kg/dm3

What useful materials are generated from the processing of shredder waste?

2,5% 9,5%

88%

5

Rubber/ wood/plastics

Plastics 1,1 1,3 kg/dm3

8

7

76,5%

Minerals 38% 32%

10

0%

22

26 49,4% 50 ,6%

Fibres

12 * The figures are the results for the PST plant in 2014

22,1% 1,4%

Plastics > 1,3 kg/dm3

the quantity of shredder waste that has to be incinerated or landfilled.”

Van de Greef goes on to add that the installations for recovering metals and for removing wood and rubber from the plastic fractions have significantly improved the separation of materials. “Consequently, we can produce purer end products of higher quality, which can then be used as raw materials for new products. For example, the copper that is recovered is sent directly to copper foundries and one of the plastic fractions is used as a raw material for the automotive industry.”

The purer, higher-value end products have a positive impact on the commercial viability of the PST plant. “The investments in a screw sieve, a tumble sieve and a shaker machine are paying off. We can now recover 50% more good plastics for recycling than we could before.

Previously, a lot of recyclable plastic was lost in the fine and rough fractions in the sieve,” Van de Greef explains.

Cost savings

The technical modifications to the production line have yielded significant cost savings. Van de Greef: “The production line requires less main­ tenance. We have also switched to a system of more frequent brief shutdowns for maintenance, which we plan in advance. Consequently, better use is made of the production capacity for the actual processing of the shredder waste. Among other things, this has reduced energy consumption per ton by 26%. Another of the lessons we have learned from the improvements is to buy in alternative materials that are less susceptible to wear and tear and therefore last longer.”

30%

6

10

0%

Heavy parts

Textiles

9

Reuse

10

0%

Recovery Landfill

sell the fibre fractions at a profit. The separation of materials in the mineral fraction also costs more than it yields. We intend to make further improvement to the production line in the coming years. The aim of one of the projects we have planned is to further improve the separation of plastics. We are also constantly searching for new sales channels for the end fractions. For example, we are looking for customers for a chlorinated plastic fraction.

Van de Greef feels that a major challenge in the coming years will be to achieve a balance between the input, the shredder waste, and the output, the end products. “We will have to make further improvements to the production line in order to improve the commercial viability. An important aspect of that is finding ways of re-using materials from streams that at present are still incinerated. That is only possible by making those materials purer so that they increase in value and therefore generate a better return. Another key issue in the coming years is to reduce the selling costs of the end fractions.”

With its unique separation installation, the PST plant serves as a model in Europe for high-class recycling of shredder waste. Van de Greef: “The PST plant provides proof for governments and industries in other European countries that there is an alternative to landfilling and incineration for shredder waste, with added value. We actively share our knowledge and expertise with others; for example, we give guided tours of our production line to large numbers of visitors every year.” t

Despite the cost savings and the higher yields for some fractions, on balance the costs of processing shredder waste are still far higher than the revenues. “The sale of the fibre fraction to the cement industry and the waste incineration companies is particularly expensive. We are carrying out a series of projects which we hope will eventually enable us to

95 autumn 2015 - p25

IN THE PICTURE

Last year, ARN did its bit for the Rivierenlandlaan - Laan van Westroijen roundabout in Tiel.

The mid-section of the roundabout was finished with basalt blocks produced from recycled materials from the PST plant. The roundabout was designed by artist Jan van IJzendoorn.

Photography Maarten Corbijn

p26 - 95 autumn 2015

COLUMN

Circular agenda:

escape route from the maze of dilemmas T

he Council for the Environment has considered the question what government can do to help develop the circular economy, a question that is stagnating because the reality of the much discussed transition is proving more complex than many people realised. Insiders and outsiders have now reached the conclusion that the circular economy or at least, talking about the closing of cycles truly is a trending topic. It has however also become clear that the aims of the circular economy – the development of sustainable products and promoting sustainable consumption – are more quickly written down than they are achieved. The free market operates according to its own laws, consumers have their own personal wishes – right through to the right of ownership – and manufacturers, although willing to take responsibility, still wish to retain authority. For the time being, closed cycles are a pipedream, for socioeconomic and financial as well as for technological and scientific reasons. The government appears to have recognised the separation between dream and reality; after all, the transition to a circular economy is viewed as a strategic issue, and not as a roadmap of quick steps. Justifiably, the Council has observed that there is no elaborated future vision on the circular economy. In itself, this observation is no surprise. Anyone who knows the world of reuse and recycling also knows that closing cycles is a tough challenge. Indeed, in theory, complete closure is out of the question. Promoting the reuse of products and materials is in fact a faster route to reducing the use of scarce raw materials than a whole raft of theoretical observations about appealing but unrealistic transition models. The more extended and more effective use of products and the more efficient application of materials will make a greater contribution to sustainable development than false contradictions between the operational aspects of the waste hierarchy and theoretical visions on the circular economy. According to the Council for the Environment, the current economy is linear in structure, resulting in responsible waste processing, with the Ladder of Lansink as its underlying policy principle. Nonetheless, the Council believes that to achieve a circular economy, we need more than the ladder, namely a different approach to raw materials and a series of new economic models. The real crux of course lies in the existing economic order and all it brings with it, far more than in altered policy on raw materials use. The first three rungs of the ladder – prevention, product reuse and material reuse – are already positive and broadly accepted starting points for bringing about a new economic order, but if government wishes to create frameworks and parameters for achieving any form of circular model, major interventions will be required in the established patterns of authority in a world in which markets and governments differ fundamentally from one another. The degree of focus on the issue is reflected by unmistakable dilemmas: government control or manufacturers’ responsibility; fiscalisation or market forces; binding design guidelines or freedom of product development; a national approach or international leeway; lease society or private ownership. Put another way, the key question facing the (overly?) optimistic proponents of the circular economy is whether or not to introduce a (global) planned economy. We will be pleased when the first steps to finding an answer have been taken. The Council for the Environment has now identified an above all procedural (escape) route. The Cabinet will be encouraged to draw up a circular agenda, including strategic targets and specific actions: ‘linking a spot on the horizon to clear, sometimes specific implementation measures’, for example in high-opportunity Dutch sectors and high-opportunity chains. These words will hopefully soon be followed by actions that will lead us out of the maze of dilemmas.

Ad Lansink

Ad Lansink (1934) was a member of the Dutch Parliament for the Christian Democrat CDA between 1977 and 1998. Lansink specialised in the environment, energy and public health. Based on his interest in these fields, as long ago as 1979, he submitted a motion which would subsequently have a major influence on Dutch policy in respect of waste processing. The proposal adopted at that time is now known as the Ladder of Lansink. Following his political career, he remained active in the energy and environmental sector, for example as a Supervisory Director at Knowaste and as chairman of the Federatie Herwinning Grondstoffen (Federation for Raw Material Retrieval). Currently, Lansink concentrates on writing articles and columns, all of which are available on his website www.adlansink.nl.

95 autumn 2015 - p27

CASE BESCHRIJVING RELATION

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p28 - 95 autumn autumn2015 2015

RELATION

Nico Langerak, Tata Steel: steel is still the standard

Veni, Vidi … Ferro!

Text Menno Timmer Photography Marco Peters

Does the growing use of plastics and various other lighter and alternative materials signify that the use of steel is on its way out in the automotive industry? Or will the race to reduce CO2 emissions and fuel consumption create new opportunities for the celebrated metal, the ‘gestaalde perfectie’ in the words of Mitsubishi’s slogan, that has brought the sector so much success for more than a century?

Nico Langerak of Tata Steel has no doubts about steel’s future in the automotive industry: “Steel is unsurpassed when it comes to recyclability, crash resistance and CO2 performance during the production process.”

95 autumn 2015 - p29

RELATION

‘You have to base environmental performances on the entire life cycle’ T

o many people, steel is just steel. But nothing could be further from the truth. No two types of steel are the same, says Nico Langerak, Department Manager Application & Engineering Research & Development at Tata Steel. “The steel you find in a car and under the bonnet today did not exist 20 years ago.”

He makes the comparison with a Daf from 1970. “The strength of the steel that was used in this Dutch icon at that time measured 200 megapascal. Modern cars are made from High Strength steel of up to 2,000 megapascal. In other words, the steel is ten times stronger, which means that if you were to make the same 1970 version of a Daf with today’s steel, the car would be half the weight and far more crash resistant. The driver now has a far greater chance of surviving a head-on collision at 65 km/hour.”

Shredder scrap from steel production

Tata Steel produces 28 million tons of steel annually worldwide, of which 18 million tons is produced in Europe and seven million tons at the plant in IJmuiden.

Roughly a fifth of the steel produced in Europe is sold to car manufacturers. To produce that seven million tons of steel in this country, the company uses approximately 1.5 million tons of scrap metal, some of it from shredder material from Dutch end-of-life cars.

‘The use of High Strength steel is a must for five stars in the safety test’

According to Langerak, there have been explosive advances in steel in the last few decades, and especially in the last few years. “Weight reduction is naturally an important aspect, but another factor is the steadily stricter requirements of the Euro NCAP safety tests. To receive a five-star rating, the use of High Strength steel is a must for a car maker.” And there are numerous types of High Strength steel, he says, pointing to a strippeddown chassis of a Volvo V40 standing at the entrance to the R&D Centre. Colours are used to identify the strengths of the various types of steel.

200 grades of steel

But using High Strength steel is just one aspect. For car makers it is important that the steel is also easily workable, which is why Tata Steel has launched around 100 new steel products in the last five years. Car manufacturers can choose from no fewer than 200 grades. To illustrate, the average car contains 70 to 80 different types of steel, each of which has undergone a specific rolling or other finishing procedure. Practically no two parts in a car are made from the same type of steel.

Langerak stresses that in order to meet the specific p30 - 95 autumn 2015

wishes of car manufacturers Tata Steel works closely with them and their suppliers of compression equipment and installations from the design phase to ensure that the production process is optimal and that the steel’s properties are fully utilised. Even models that were only recently launched on the market are analysed in Tata Steel’s R&D lab at the request of the manufacturers to investigate whether any parts could be made even lighter or stronger and produced more cheaply.

Politics dictates

Nevertheless, a growing number of car manufacturers have started using or at least experimenting with alternative materials to some extent. Examples include the carbon light bodies of the BMWi3 or the chassis of the Audi A8 made entirely from aluminium, as well as numerous other composites, plastics and magnesium applications. But what criteria does a car manufacturer use to choose a particular material and, if this trend continues, what consequences will it have for the future of the automotive industry?

“Expensive Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics (CFRP) are in fact only to be found in the very highest segments of exclusive marques like Lamborghini”, Langerak observes. “In that class the use of super-light and very expensive materials is essential to achieve the maximum weight reduction needed to deliver above-average speeds. And the buyers have no qualms about paying more for it.”

Aluminium parts are particularly popular in the higher premium segments, he says. “The Audi A8 was the first entirely aluminium production car. Was, because in later models the manufacturer decided to return to 2,000 megapascal High Strength steel because of its better crash-resistant properties. The choice of material therefore greatly depends on the properties you are looking for, the size of the production run and the cost price. Naturally, the race to construct ever lighter vehicles, which is driven in part by the political desire to comply with the European emission requirements, also plays a role. A lot is changing in the field, but I certainly do not anticipate a breakthrough by carbon, aluminium or reinforced composites at the expense of High Strength steel in the longer term. On the contrary, steel’s potential is far from exhausted. I believe that the weight of the current generation of cars could be reduced by at least a quarter with the use of the very latest types of steel.”

RELATION

Steel’s environmental performance has improved

Furthermore, quite apart from the lower cost price, steel has a number of other significant advantages in terms of environmental protection and sustainability over the aforementioned alternative materials. Langerak: “For example, steel is fully recyclable. At best, you can produce simple road markers from carbon.

Although aluminium can be recycled, it is highly alloyed, so you can’t combine different types of aluminium.”

In addition, steel performs significantly better in terms of CO2 emissions during the production process. For example, the CO2 emissions during the production of a kilo of steel are 2 to 2.5 kilos. By comparison, 11.2 to 12.5 kilos of CO2 are released in the production of a kilo of

aluminium. The figure for magnesium is 18 to 45 kilos of CO2 and the production of a kilo of carbon FRP generates emissions of 21 to 23 kilos of greenhouse gas. In other words, steel scores better on every environmental component. “What’s more,” Tata Steel’s spokesman, Robert Moens, adds, “we have succeeded in reducing the amount of energy required to produce a ton of steel by 31% in the last 25 years.”

Ground-breaking project

There is a lot more to come, Moens feels, mentioning the ground-breaking global project HIsarna, an initiative of Tata Steel. The aim of the project is to find a new method of manufacturing liquid raw iron that eliminates an entire step in the production process (the

pre-processing of iron ore and coal). Moens: “If the project is successful, it will eventually be possible to reduce CO2 emissions by at least 20%.”

This unique and expensive project, which is being subsidised by the EU, is a joint effort by a large consortium that includes the mining company Rio Tinto, ArcelorMittal, ThyssenKrupp, Voestalpine, technology supplier Paul Wurth and 40 research institutes, as well as universities and technology companies from 15 EU countries. It will, however, be a number of years before the HIsarna technology can actually be implemented. A six-month test will start next year to investigate whether the extremely complex installation can continue to operate optimally over a longer period. That test will be followed by further long-term u 95 autumn 2015 - p31

RELATION

Conventional steel High Strength steel Aluminium Composites (carbon fibres) Magnesium Other plastics

‘Steel is entirely recyclable, unlike competing materials’

2012 30 13 1 -/- -/- 2

2030 15 40 6 2 1 2

tests before the system can finally be scaled up to an industrial scale. Moens is very optimistic: “It proves once again that steel is and will remain competitive.

Furthermore, the CO2 emissions from the HIsarna technology are not only lower, but are also so pure that they can easily be captured and stored.”

Life Cycle Assessment

In Langerak’s opinion, policy makers still guide car manufacturers in their choice of materials far too much on the basis of the amount of CO2 that comes out of the exhaust pipe. That is, he feels, a short-sighted policy.

For an objective assessment of the environmental performance and advantages of a particular material, you have to look at the entire life cycle of the car. “How much CO2 is discharged during production, how much during the car’s useful life, and how much can be recycled? Only when you have analysed all those components can you fairly measure a particular material’s ecological footprint.”

He refers in this context to the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a method of measuring the environmental performance of a product from ‘cradle to grave’. “It is an extremely complicated and complex method because in fact you also have to take account of where a product is manufactured (the aspect of the CO2 released during transport) and the energy sources that are used (coalfired power station or green energy). It is then possible that on balance an electric car produced in India could have a far greater impact on the environment than a Porsche Cayenne that is made in Germany.”

Change in emission standards

Langerak produces a number of tables and studies which clearly show that carbon fibres and magnesium actually score very badly in the life cycle because the CO2 emissions during production are very high. To make one car from magnesium, 20,000 kilos of CO2 are needed. The figure is half that for a car made from steel, or 10,000 kilos of CO2.

p32 - 95 autumn 2015

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

2012

2030

In his view, it is safe to say that the more fuel-efficient a car is, the more important the production component becomes in the life cycle. Which is logical, since the lower the CO2 emissions during use, the greater the weight to be assigned to production in an LCA. And that comes down in favour of the use of steel in the life cycle, because steel causes lower CO2 emissions than any of its competitors.

“It is of course important”, says Langerak, “how this is addressed in European legislation, which is currently based exclusively on emissions from cars. For 2020, the European Commission has stipulated a target of average CO2 emissions of 95 grams per kilometre. I expect that a change will then occur and that Brussels will set stan­ dards based on Life Cycle Assessment, which the automotive industry will follow.”

Steel is high-tech

Langerak is certain that steel will remain the standard in the future. He underlines that view with figures for the global consumption of the various types of materials in 2012 and forecasts for 2030, which show that demand for High Strength steel will treble from 13 to 40 million tons between now and 2030. Although demand for conventional steel will decline from 30 to 15 million tons during that period, that is not offset by a substantial increase in demand for the competing materials.

Only the use of aluminium is projected to grow by more in relative terms, from one million tons now to roughly six million tons in 2030. The consumption of magnesium, composites (carbon fibres) and other plastics will remain relatively low in 2030 at one, two and two million tons, respectively. The only development that could alter that scenario is the arrival of self-driving cars, Langerak suggests facetiously. “If everyone were to start driving autonomously in future, in theory vehicles would never crash, so you would no longer have to make cars crash resistant. But that is not going to happen any time soon. The future definitely lies with steel.

The volumes will increase and there will be greater demand for advanced types of steel. Steel used to be a commodity, it is now high-tech!” t

Source: Boston Consulting Group

Global demand for materials (in mln ton)

IN THE PICTURE

Together with NPSP, ARN has developed a new composite material based on minerals from the PST plant, mixed with a bio-based artificial resin and marketed under the name BlueRoots. The result is a solid, environmentally-friendly material suitable for a whole raft of applications, including this street name sign in the Kralingse Bos in Rotterdam. www.blueroots.nl.

Photography Maarten Corbijn

95 autumn 2015 - p33

GOVERNMENT

p34 - 95 autumn 2015

GOVERNMENT Text Menno Timmer Illustration Michel van de Boogaard

Flame retardants are not a problem for recycling

Harmonisation of the EU legislation on waste and REACH/POPs is needed

95 autumn 2015 - p35

3

GOVERNMENT

CI CI

2

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3 CICIX

3 4 CIX

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European legislation governing the safe use of chemical substances (REACH) and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in flame-retardant plastics does not have to stand in the way of efforts to meet recycling targets in general, and those of ARN in particular. The rules must, however, be reasonable and workable, says Lein Tange, who, as the official responsible for end-oflife activities at the European Flame Retardants Association (EFRA), a sector group within the European Chemical Industry Council (Cefic) was able, in close consultation with the Dutch and European recycling industry, to block a totally unrealistic EU proposal. A more practical proposal is currently being drafted.

CI

CI

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CI CI CI

CI C C

CCI3

CI

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CI

‘REACH could undermine the objectives of the CI End-of-Life Vehicles Directive’

CI

O CI

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CI C

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C

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The purpose of the REACH/POPs regulations is to pre1 10 and 9 certain flame-retardant vent 2chemical substances 8 plastics that contain POPs from entering the environ3 ment during their production and use. But what hapCIX 4 7 Cly to ARN, for 5 pens if these products are 6 delivered example, for recycling at the end of their useful life? To what extent does this legislation hamper efforts to meet the European target for recycling and hence conflict with the End-of-Life Vehicles Directive. And to what extent do the REACH and POPs regulations prevent innovation in the recycling chain?

Lein Tange, who is Product Stewardship Manager at ICL Industrial Products, one of the world’s largest producers of flame retardants and which has a production facility in Terneuzen, describes both regulations as extremely complex, both for producers and for the recycling industry.

p36 - 95 autumn 2015

CI

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CCI 3

CI CI

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Stricter standards

The main reason for this is that the REACH/POPs criteria are constantly changing and the standards are becoming increasingly strict. “Take the production of cars. Car manufacturers are obliged to continue supplying spare parts for a car many years after the model is no longer being produced. In practice, this can mean that a spare part to be delivered today for, let’s say, a 1990 Honda Civic, has to comply with different production requirements than when that Civic first came off the conveyor belt. This presents the automotive industry with an almost impossible challenge.”

The problem is no less complicated for the recycling chain, he says. On the one hand, there are the regular waste flows and, on the other, there are residual fractions that remain after the recycling process, which can in turn be used as raw materials for new products. In that context, there are times when the recycling of cars

7 Cly

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GOVERNMENT

does not fall under REACH/POPs but under the waste legislation, but as soon as a customer wishes to make new products from secondary raw materials from the PST plant, the REACH/POPs legislation suddenly does apply.

Waste is not subject to REACH rules

Marcel van der Veer, the Quality and the Environment manager at ARN Recycling, explains that producers and importers of chemical substances are obliged by the REACH regulation to register those substances. And during the registration process, they are required to say whether a substance is harmful. The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) evaluates every substance that is registered and, together with the member states, decides whether to authorise the use of those chemical substances.

Waste does not fall under REACH, Van der Veer stresses. “Waste it not a substance, a mixture or an object in the context of REACH. Companies that process waste are therefore not bound by the REACH rules, but if the processing of waste results in the production of other chemical substances, mixtures or objects, the provisions of REACH do apply to them.”

He gives the example of a fibre fraction produced by ARN Recycling whose materials can be compressed.

“The fibre production and the quality of the fibre fraction are not covered by REACH, but materials produced from that fraction are. ARN and the customer therefore have to investigate the possible consequences for the new product and decide whether a file has to be compiled for the purposes of registration for the purposes of REACH.” An important element of the REACH Regulation is that producers must keep the user informed of the instructions for the safe use of the substance or the product. “Although waste does not fall under REACH, ARN does produce a Safety Information Sheet for its end fractions containing all of the information required for their safe use, storage and disposal.”

Transitional arrangement

“REACH,” Van der Veer continues, “can also conflict with the objectives of the End-of-Life Vehicles Directive, which lays down requirements for the recycling and recovery of materials released during the processing of end-of-life cars.” For example, 95% of an end-of-life car has to be recycled, of which 85% has to be achieved in the form of re-use of materials. Van der Veer: “ARN Recycling ensures that the last few percent of the mate-

rial in a car can be re-used. REACH could potentially prohibit the use of a substance present in an end fraction. That fraction cannot then be used as a secondary raw material for the production of another substance or product and that could compromise the subsidiary target of re-using 85% of the materials recovered from end-of-life cars. Although that has not happened up to now, it could occur in the future.”

Although Van der Veer endorses the objectives of REACH, he and ARN Recycling are passionate advocates of a transitional arrangement for the processing of secondary raw materials in products in order to address the problems mentioned above. Such an arrangement could, he feels, be similar to Article 4 of the POP Regulation (Regulation EC 850/2004), which provides an exemption for POPs that were already present in products before the POP Regulation entered into force.

PPM limit values

With regard to flame-retardant plastics, which are designed to provide maximum fire safety for passengers of cars, the POP Regulation makes a distinction between two categories: POPs above a particular limit value and POPs below a particular limit value. At present, waste with a POP content below the limit value can be recycled. At present, because preparations are underway to introduce new limit values in the legislation for POP HBCD, a substance that can be found in 90% to 95% of all insulating materials. It is also found in small quantities in flame-retardant foam used for acoustic insulation in cars and in the floor mats and the sparetyre holder. Furthermore, the stricter requirements for POPs above the threshold limit value apply for the processing of residual fractions into new products.

Accurate lab measurements

“The difficult thing about POPs,” Tange goes on, “is that the requirements can be so strict that the standard can already be exceeded with a quantity that is no greater than the smallest amount that can be analysed u 95 autumn 2015 - p37

GOVERNMENT in a laboratory. Consequently, any relative error in the lab’s findings can immediately indicate that the standard has been exceeded. Because the measurements in the lab are conducted on earth, such as sand and clay, rather than waste, which is a far less homogeneous material. When the requirements are so strict, it makes the analysis of parts of the waste even more complex and expensive and imposes an unnecessarily high burden on the recycling industry.” Tange qualifies the problems associated with POPs by pointing out that a cubic metre of insulating material (30 kilos), for example, contains only 1%, or 300 grams, of HBCD. By comparison, a car contains an average of 200 to 400 kilos of plastic, in which there is a maximum of 15 grams of POP HBCD. Van der Veer adds that there are not even any standards for determining the POPs content in specific shredder waste. “This means that at present it is only possible to measure POPs on the basis of a standard geared to materials such as rubble, sludge or earth. The matrix can lead to discrepancies in the results, in both a positive and a negative sense, although I do not feel they run into the thousands of parts per million (ppm). ARN Recycling itself uses ISO standards based on earth and rubble, but also carefully considers whether the chemicals to be used are fit for purpose.”

Asking an external agency to develop a standard specifically geared to shredder waste is a lengthy and expensive process.

Dead end

Tange: “With regard to recycling and POPs, Dutch industry takes the position that re-using plastics that contain POPs should be avoided as far as possible. After all, we do not want these substances to enter the envi-

ronment again. But, naturally, industry also does not want an end to recycling. It is therefore necessary to find the right balance, and that means separating the different plastics as far as possible. The problem is that there is no economically viable method of separating them into totally pure fractions. It is impossible to prevent minimal quantities of POPs from remaining in the plastics to be recycled during the process.”

In Tange’s view, the industry can in practice function perfectly well with a POP limit of 0.1 %. A stricter limit is a ‘no go’, he feels, since it would be a dead end for both the recycling sector and the environment, particularly in view of the trend towards a more ‘circular economy’ as recommended by the European Commission. In that context, Tange says he is proud that, thanks to the efforts of the recycling industry and the Dutch government, the EU proposal that was based on 10 ppm, which is effectively 0.001%, could be blocked, since it would have brought the recycling of plastics to a halt in the Netherlands and in the rest of Europe.

Alternative proposal

In the context of the Basel Convention, which lays down the technical guidelines and the limits for concentrations of POPs in plastics, a discussion is now underway about the maximum concentration of POPs that may be present in waste intended for recycling.

Meanwhile, the European Flame Retardants Association (EFRA), which forms the link between the industry, the European governments and the EU legislation, is preparing an alternative proposal. As EFRA’s represen­ tative for its end-of-life activities, Tange is working closely on that proposal with the Dutch recycling industry (including ARN) and the sector that includes the waste incineration plants.

REACH/POP’s and ARN Recycling In principle, waste does not have to comply with the REACH and POPs regulations. The situation changes, however, if end fractions from the PST plant are to be re-used as raw materials for a new product, for example. In that case, ARN Recycling’s customers, such as Galloo Plastics or Advanced Recycling Solutions (ARS), might be

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covered by this legislation, which could restrict the recycling of waste as a raw material. There have therefore already been calls in the employers’ organisation VNO-NCW for relaxation of the rules on waste in the interests of the circular economy, since, it is argued, the current rules are needlessly strict and counter-productive.

GOVERNMENT

Objections of the recycling industry

In the middle of this year the recycling industry had to say whether it had any objections to limits lower than 1,000 ppm (0.1%). “There were major objections,” says ARN’s Marcel van der Veer, “because the yields from recycled waste flows would shrink even further with that overly strict limit. Furthermore, the costs would rise disproportionately, since the volume to be recycled would decline and the non-recyclable residue would have to be incinerated. In addition, the EU proposal is totally at odds with the European target of recycling at least 95% of end-of-life cars. With a standard of 1,000 ppm and the fact that the volume of plastics in cars is growing rapidly, it would be even more difficult, and hence more expensive, to meet that target.”

Nevertheless, Tange is optimistic about the further development of the REACH/POPs legislation and the consequences for the recycling industry. He argues that POPs are not a problem for the sector, provided everyone is aware of which products plastics that contain POPs are used in and where they are. ”Together with ARN and the Dutch government, we are going to investigate which products contain the various flame

retardants and whether they pose a risk. Finally, greater harmonisation of the European legislation on waste and the REACH/POPs legislation is needed. Ultimately, what is needed is a solution that is reasonable and workable.” t

The European legislation on hazardous substances:

REACH and POP’s REACH stands for Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation (and Restriction) of Chemical Substances. The regulation lays down the rules that companies and governments must follow in relation to chemical substances. The principal objective of REACH is to guarantee a high level of safety for people and the environment during the production and use of substances.

With REACH, the burden of proving that (chemical) substances that are produced, brought onto the market and used are safe has been shifted from the government to the business sector.

Since 1 June 2008, producers (manufacturers or importers, the legal entity that first brings a product onto the European market) have been obliged to register substances, preparations and their applications unless they have followed the pre-registration procedure.

The producer is obliged to ensure that its customers are informed about the composition, risks, use etc. of its products. In principle, substances and preparations that are not registered may not be used in the EU. The automotive industry acknowledged the importance of REACH early on. A REACH Task Force was established at the initiative of

ACEA (the umbrella organisation of the European automotive industry), and in 2007 and 2008 the industry drew up an ‘Automotive Industry Guideline on REACH’ to help companies worldwide with the implementation of REACH in their operations. Version 3.1 of the guideline was launched in the summer of 2012.

The POPs Regulation relates to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which are, briefly, substances that are non-biodegradable, can accumulate in organisms (bio-accumulating) and are toxic for humans and the ecosystem. This EU Regulation (850/2004) is derived from the United Nations’ Stockholm Convention and the UNECE protocol, with the aim of removing POPs from society.

However, the Stockholm Convention and the EU’s POP Regulation both include an exemption for the recycling of so-called POP BDEs (a plastic that is used in East European and American cars) until 2030. The exemption is reviewed every four years and the next review is scheduled for 2017. This means that ARN may recycle plastic with a POP BDE content of up to 0.1%, as well as POP HBCDs, although no limit values have yet been fixed for the latter category.

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NEWS

Old appliances?

Take them to the

supermarket!

Plastic road surface

If it is up to KWS Infra, in the future, we will be travelling on roads produced from recycled plastic. The largest road builder in the Netherlands has been working on this revolutionary concept for the past few months.

According to Rolf Mars, director at KWS Infra, plastic offers numerous advantages over conventional asphalt, in terms of both laying and maintenance. A further advantage of the ‘PlasticRoad’ is the hollow space below the road surface, that can for example be used for installing cables and rainwater discharge pipes. However, that stage has not yet been reached.

According to KWS Infra, further research and innovation will be required before the concept can be put into production.

Driving on waste p40 - 95 autumn 2015

Consumers wishing to rid themselves of old electric appliances and broken (energy efficient) light bulbs can now dispose of these items in the Netherlands at more than 1000 supermarkets.

The supermarket chain SPAR recently joined the growing number of supermarkets that already feature collection containers in store. The collection containers are supplied by Wecycle, the organisation in the Netherlands responsible for the collection and recycling of e-waste. Europe in fact still has a long way to go when it comes to recycling electronic waste. Around one third of all end-oflife mobile telephones, computers, televisions and toasters are correctly processed.

The remainder is either dumped, illegally traded or recycled, but not in accordance with the European regulations. It has been suggested that as a result, European recycling companies are losing out on up to 1.7 billion euro in turnover, every year. The long-term goal of the EU is to ensure the responsible processing of 85 percent of all electronic waste. This aim is not only important for material reuse but also to prevent harmful substances such as lead and mercury entering the environment.

A pilot study is currently underway in the Australian town of Boroondara, using asphalt produced from 99 percent reused raw materials. Until now, asphalt roads ‘down under’ had consisted of not more than 30 to 40 percent recycled material.

As well as old asphalt, recycled glass, old car tyres and old printer cartridges will be used in the newly-laid roads. The result is a durable wearing course, better capable of resisting heavy loads than conventional asphalt. The solution was developed by the Downer Group that in collaboration with the Swiss company Ammann has designed a new factory for producing recycled asphalt.

NEWS

Ford takes to the bottle Of all plastic waste currently produced worldwide, less than 10 percent is recycled; Ford wishes to change that situation. The American automotive manufacturer plans to recycle plastic bottles for use in the upholstery of the Ford 150, thereby making the best-selling pickup truck in America a touch more environmentally friendly. Ford

intends to use a plastic developed by the recycling company REPREVE for the seat covering of its 150 model, which according to its own estimate will prevent some 500 million PET bottles ending up in an incinerator or landfill site. In the past, Ford employed the same procedure for the seat covering of the Focus Electric.

Jaguar joins the recycling

The name Jaguar is generally associated with high-performance luxury cars, and not such issues as waste and recycling.

Nonetheless, even Jaguar cannot escape from the obligation to make its cars as recyclable as possible. By 2020, every new Jaguar must consist of 75 percent recycled materials. The recent introduction of the XE by the British car manufacturer already represents a major step in the right direction.

According to the company, the XE is the most sustainable Jaguar ever built, with a body and chassis produced almost entirely from recycled aluminium. The new sedan also features a considerable proportion of reused plastics. At the start of next year, Jaguar will for the first time be tackling the SUV market, with its F-PACE. This vehicle too will be built mainly using an aluminium alloy consisting of around 30 percent recycled material.

movement

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95 SHORT

Garbage studies

4

“When we started, our stated aim was to create innovations capable of producing new raw materials from waste with an annual financial value of 10 billion euro within 20 years. That is less ambitious than it seems when you consider the total volume that is needed. At present we produce 60 billion euro worth of raw materials from recycling in Europe, and that figure will have to rise by a further 120 billion euro if we are to achieve the target of 50%. To give you an example: Inashco’s technology can produce new raw materials worth roughly a billion euro every year. We will therefore have to take a totally different approach to recycling. We are talking about a totally new industry that is expected to generate around 600,000 jobs."

BMW i: smart use of carbon fibre

10

That sounds good, but still does not explain whether the CFRP used by BMW is recyclable. Steffen Aumann replies by referring once again to the fact that some parts of the BMW i3 and BMW i8 are already composed of recycled plastic. In addition, the cars have only recently come on to the market and it will therefore still be a long time before they have to be dismantled and recycled. “Admittedly, it is not yet possible to produce a full body from recycled CFRP, which can be done with steel or aluminium, for example. However, it will be twelve years before the bodies of these cars are being sent for recycling in larger numbers. By then we will have established new applications for this material."

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PST plant: the unmissable link

17

That the statutory target was achieved two years ago is partly due to a LIFE+ subsidy of one million euro that ARN received from the EU in 2011. “The LIFE+ subsidy enabled us to scale up the PST plant from the test phase to a fully operational facility,” says Van de Greef. ARN used the subsidy to gradually implement technical improvements in all of the processes in the PST plant. The modifications included changes in the feed system, the installation of a different type of pump and the use of alternative, more durable materials. “The improvements have increased the efficiency of the production line. With more stable production, we can process a larger volume of shredder waste, and therefore produce more useful end products, each year,” says Van de Greef.

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Veni, Vidi … Ferro!

28

Langerak is certain that steel will remain the standard in the future. He underlines that view with figures for the global consumption of the various types of materials in 2012 and forecasts for 2030, which show that demand for High Strength steel will treble from 13 to 40 million tons between now and 2030. Although demand for conventional steel will decline from 30 to 15 million tons during that period, that is not offset by a substantial increase in demand for the competing materials.

95 SHORT

COLOPHON

No waste

14

Separating waste is one thing, but even waste separation will not necessarily lead to less waste at the end of the chain. What can the Ministry do about that situation? How can Central government and municipalities ensure less waste per citizen? The policy at I&M is primarily aimed at preventing waste, for example by working together with the packaging industry to examine the amount of packaging produced. According to the Ministry, the knowledge and commitment of every link in the chain will be needed, including individual citizens and municipal authorities. In relation to all chains where their intervention is meaningful, municipalities and Central government will take the initiative of investigating how best to deal with raw materials throughout the chain. It starts at the front end of the chain with sustainable products. But at the end of the chain, consumers have a role to play too. “Not thoughtlessly disposing of items, or purchasing items that are thrown away soon afterwards can make a huge contribution to preventing the creation of waste,” argued the Ministry.

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ARN is the Dutch centre of expertise for recycling in the mobility sector. It has managed the recycling chains in this sector for fifteen years. ARN has grown into a centre of expertise in the field of recycling, chain management and knowledge exchange. ARN uses its expertise to advise companies and public authorities – in the Netherlands and abroad – on a variety of issues relating to sustainability.

95 is a magazine for business relations of ARN. Publisher ARN P. O. Box 12252 1100 AG Amsterdam De Entree 258 1101 EE Amsterdam Telephone +31 (0)20 66 131 81 info@arn.nl www.arn.nl Design and production Sabel Communicatie Rembrandtlaan 24 3723 BJ Bilthoven Telephone +31 (0)88 227 22 80 info@sabelcommunicatie.nl www.sabelcommunicatie.nl Editorial board ARN Femke Jacobs, Janet Kes Editors Sabel Communicatie: Rob de Boer, Yvonne van der Heijden, Menno Timmer Projectmanagement Viona Nieuwenhuis (Sabel Communicatie) Art direction Michel Giezen

Flame retardants are not a problem for recycling

34

Nevertheless, Tange is optimistic about the further development of the REACH/POPs legislation and the consequences for the recycling industry. He argues that POPs are not a problem for the sector, provided everyone is aware of which products plastics that contain POPs are used in and where they are. ”Together with ARN and the Dutch government, we are going to investigate which products contain the various flame retardants and whether they pose a risk.”

Photographs, infographics and illustrations Maarten Corbijn (Corbino!), Marco Peters (fotograaf.nl), Michel van den Boogaard (Sabel Communicatie), Michel Giezen (Sabel Communicatie), Jack Tillmans, Aerophotostock, Dreamstime, AP Photo, Hollandse Hoogte, beeldmateriaal importeurs en betrokken organisaties.

Translation sbv anderetaal Printing Dunnebier Print, Nederhorst den Berg © Sabel Communicatie, Bilthoven 2015 Artikelen uit deze uitgave mogen worden overgenomen, zij het na voorafgaande toestemming van de uitgever en redactie. Alle informatie in dit magazine wordt met de grootst mogelijke zorg samengesteld. Mochten er desondanks onjuistheden of onvolledigheden voorkomen, van welke aard dan ook, dan kunnen de betrokken partijen niet aansprakelijk worden gesteld. Aan de in dit magazine geboden informatie kunnen door de gebruiker geen rechten worden ontleend.

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Text Rob de Boer Photography AP Photo

Pots and pans for Spitfires Recycling is nothing new. In 1940, the British public responded en masse to an appeal from the then Minister of Aircraft Production, Lord William Beaverbrook, to hand in as many aluminium pots and pans as possible. The aim of this collection campaign was to melt down aluminium for the production of Spitfires and other fighter aircraft.

In next to no time, at the 1,600 specially established collection points, the people of Britain accumulated several tonnes of aluminium. As well as pots and pans, cigarette holders, curling tongs and vehicle number plates disappeared into the foundry furnaces. Partly thanks to this contribution from the public, the Royal Air Force eventually came out victorious in the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;The Battle of Britainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.