STUDY GUIDE
Esther Nelson Stanford Calderwood General & Artistic Director David Angus Music Director John Conklin Artistic Advisor
June 12, 2020
Dear Learner, Boston Lyric Opera invites high school and college students, as well as life-long learners of any age to engage with our operas beyond the stage. While we cannot welcome you into the theater to enjoy this rich and dramatic art form together, we are pleased to offer you this Study Guide to learn about George Frederic Handel’s opera, Giulio Cesare . We’ve included insights into the opera’s history with connections to contemporary culture. Boston Lyric Opera’s mission is to build curiosity, enthusiasm, and support for opera. Opera is an art form that often contains big, difficult emotions, and BLO engages our community in many ways using opera to discuss these emotions that describe our human condition. This Study Guide is one way in which we inspire learners like you who want to dig deeper—whether you are operacurious, or an opera-lover. While the experience of seeing and hearing live, professional opera is second to none, we must pause for the moment. Meanwhile, we encourage you to explore the world of the opera at your home, in your virtual classroom, or on your own by visiting our digital platform [ insert: opera ] for a variety of new ways to engage. If you would like additional resources for learning about opera, please reach out to our Education staff at education@blo.org. Sincerely,
Rebecca Ann S. Kirk, M.Ed. Director of Education Programs
TABLE OF CONTENTS GIULIO CESARE SYNOPSIS
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HIGH VOICES
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THE BAROQUE SPIRIT
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FERTILE GROUNDS FOR OPERA
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GERMAN BORN, LONDON BOUND: GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL
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OPERA SERIA
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GIULIO CESARE
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THE REAL STORY
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LISTEN UP!
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GIULIO CESARE RESOURCES
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HISTORY OF OPERA: AN OVERVIEW
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THE SCIENCE AND ART OF OPERA
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NOTES TO PREPARE FOR THE OPERA
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STUDY GUIDE
Giulio Cesare SYNOPSIS
While this opera is based in historical events, the details of the story are largely fictional.
Painting of Julius Caesar by Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1625 4
GIULIO CESARE SYNOPSIS
CHARACTERS All of these characters are based on real people confirmed by the historical and archeological record.
ROMANS Giulio Cesare (Julius Caesar), countertenor (historically castrato) Supreme commander of Roman Empire Curio, bass-baritone Tribune of Rome Cornelia, contralto Widow of Pompey Sesto (Sextus), soprano Son of Pompey and Cornelia
EGYPTIANS
Bust of what is believed to be Cleopatra, c. 50 B.C. – 30 B.C. , Brooklyn Museum
Cleopatra, soprano Queen of Egypt Tolemeo (King Ptolemy XII), countertenor (historically castrato) King of Egypt, Cleopatra’s brother
Achilla (Achillas), bass-baritone
King Ptolmey’s counselor and Commander of his forces
Nireno, countertenor (historically castrato) Cleopatra’s servant and confidant
GIULIO CESARE SYNOPSIS
5
ACT I
Egypt. 48 B.C. The day after Julius Caesar defeats his political opponent, Pompey, in a decisive military victory. Caesar is celebrating his victory with General Curio in Alexandria. Pompey’s wife, Cornelia, visits Caesar and begs him to spare her husband’s life. Caesar decides to grant him mercy. Just then, the King of Egypt, Ptolmey, and General Achillas arrive and present Caesar with Pompey’s head! Even as Caesar is wary of Ptolmey, he agrees to a private meeting in the king’s quarters at nightfall. As Cornelia mourns her husband, her son Sextus vows to avenge his father’s murder. In the palace, Cleopatra plots to take sole possession of the throne from her brother, Ptolmey. Her servant, Nireno, informs her of Pompey’s fate, and Caesar’s reaction. She schemes to ally with Caesar against their common enemy. Meanwhile, Achillas informs King Ptolmey of Caesar’s disgust and wariness of the King’s honor, and proposes to murder Caesar, if he can have Cornelia in payment. Fearing Caesar and the strength of Roman Empire, King Ptolemy agrees to the deal.
While Caesar is presiding over Pompey’s funeral rites at camp, Cleopatra joins disguised as Lydia. She find Caesar and tells him she is a handmaiden in the palace, born noble, but betrayed by the king. Caesar is captivated by her, and agrees to become allies to secure their empires. Cornelia says a final goodbye to her dead husband, while Sextus plots to kill King Ptolmey. Still in disguise, and now on the same side, Cleopatra pledges her support and offers Nireno’s assistance in sneaking Cornelia and Sextus into the palace. As Caesar reluctantly meets with King Ptolmey, Cornelia and Sextus, having gained entrance to the palace, attempt to kill the king. He quickly disarms and imprisons the pair. Achillas offers Cornelia her freedom in return for her body. She refuses, and Sextus says goodbye as the guards separate them.
Depiction of Caesar giving Cleopatra the throne of Egypt, painting by Pietro de Cortona, 16th c. 6
GIULIO CESARE SYNOPSIS
ACT II
While Cleopatra (disguised as Lydia) enchants Caesar with her singing, Nireno gives him a message to go to her later that night. Imprisoned, Cornelia fights off increasing advances from both Achillas and King Ptolmey. She desides to take her fate into her own hands and end her life, just as Nireno arrives with her son, freeing them both. Nireno explains the king’s plan to add Cornelia to his harem as his newest concubine. They plot to go along with King Ptolmey’s expectations so as to catch him by surprise when he is most vulnerable. Just as Caesar joins Cleopatra in her quarters, Curio interrupts their tryst to inform them that the king’s assassins are searching for Caesar. Fearing for his life, Cleopatra reveals her true identity and begs him to escape. Caesar vows to uphold his honor and fight, while Cleopatra prays to the gods to protect him, realizing that she’s fallen in love.
Engraving of Ptolemy XIII of Egypt based off a medallion found dated to 1st c B.C., Élisabeth Sophie Chéron (1648 – 1711).
Aerial view of Nile River as it borders Egypt. GIULIO CESARE SYNOPSIS
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ACT III
When King Ptolmey summons Cornelia from his harem to join him in his private quarters, Sextus ambushes the couple and attempts to kill him. However, Achillas swiftly disarms Sextus again and declares war. Rumors fly that Caesar has drowned in the Nile after he fled the palace. Cleopatra arrives at the Roman camp to rally Caesar’s army to march on the king’s palace. As King Ptolmey prepares his own troops, Achillas discovers King Ptolmey plans not to keep his promise and take Cornelia for his own. Achillas declares his new allegiance to Cleopatra. The armies clash and the Alexandrians defeat the Romans taking Cleopatra captive. On the beach of the
Map of Alexandria, 30 B.C., from William Shephard’s 1911 Historical Atlas 8
GIULIO CESARE SYNOPSIS
Nile, Caesar washes ashore, alive. Nearby, Sextus and Nireno find Achillas dead. Sextus and Nireno find Caesar, and the three regroup to storm King Ptolmey’s palace. In prison, Cleopatra vows to face death with honor, by her own hand, just as Caesar rescues her. Cleopatra combines her forces with Caesar’s they attack the unsuspecting king, who believes he is victorious. Sextus finally delivers a fatal blow and frees his mother. Victorious at last, Caesar crowns Cleopatra the rightful Queen of Egypt and the lovers celebrate.
HIGH VOICES
Countertenors, who have the highest male vocal range, train for many years to develop their falsetto, or head voice, and sing the same notes as a soprano. The roles that countertenors perform in Baroque opera today, were traditionally written for castrati. Castrati were adult male singers who retained their pre-pubescent vocal range as a result of castration. Men who were castrated to serve specific social roles—often servants—are referred to broadly as eunuchs. The practice dates back to 2100 B.C. In the 16th Century, castrati became popular in sacred and secular music, as women were not allowed to perform in public. Opera as an art form emerged at this time, and castrati roles were often written to portray the heroic lead— especially as performances were held outdoors and high voices could be heard more clearly over the orchestra. Castrati went out of fashion around the 1830s, when composers began to write for women on the stage, and the health hazards to castration became more widely known. Today, when we interpret Baroque opera, countertenors take on the heroic male leads, while women may play young men in a “pants role.”
Portrait of Carlo Maria Michelangelo Nicola Broschi, or “Farinelli,” portrait by Jacopo Amigoni, c. 1750
Pay Day! Castrati were be paid up to 3,000 guineas a year to perform. That is about $400,000 today! .
HIGH VOICES
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THE BAROQUE SPIRIT
The Baroque Era lasted roughly 150 years, and substantially contributed to our musical language. We mark the beginning of the Baroque Era around 1600, ushered in by composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643), who is attributed with writing the first opera that became widely popular. Many composers and musicians followed him, ending with the beginning of Mozart’s career. The Baroque Era ignited different ways of thinking about music and its purpose—beyond the sacred and liturgical. The composers contributed innovative instruments, musical structures, theories, and conventions— shaping the music and opera to follow.
Growing trade and travel influenced composers as well, who began to learn and borrow from each other across regions and countries. Notable Baroque composers across Europe include Jean-Baptiste Lully (16621687) in France, Henry Purcell (1659-1695) in England, Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) in Italy.
The term Baroque comes from one of two sources—and is still disputed. The term’s most commonly accepted origin is the Portuguese barroco meaning “oddly shaped pearl;” and was cast as an insult by contemporary critics to the over-exaggeration of the art. Baroque wasn’t used as an accepted signifier of the artistic period until the 19th century. Alternatively, it may have derived from the Italian barocca, which was used to describe “an obstacle to logic.” In other words, the music and art of the time were contrary to rational thinking, evoking emotions instead. Defining the Baroque era, composers invented new compositional structures, including the concerto, sonata, suite, fugue, and the oratorio. The concept of designating a key signature for a piece of music began to be formally included in compositions (previously, it would have been agreed upon by the performing musicians). Composers began to designate specific instruments to a certain part, laying the groundwork for the modern day symphony.
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THE BAROQUE SPIRIT
Harpsichord from c. 1749.
Unfortunately, there is no way to know what Baroque music truly sounded like, because modes of recording music had yet to be invented, and so only written accounts from critics, scholars and the composers themselves exist. However, many scholars and musicians have tried to authentically recreate the original sound by being specific about the following attributes: Instruments: Some of the same instruments we know today were already invented and played widely during the Baroque period, but others such as the harpsichord—(an earlier version of a piano), lute, and viola da gamba—which looks similar to a cello but is tuned differently and has six rather than four strings—are not very common in modern orchestras. These instruments also sound very different. The instruments used in Giulio Cesare are 2 oboes, 2 violins, 1 viola, 1 harp, 1 viola da gamba, 1 tiorba (a type of lute), 1 cello, and 1 bassoon. Ensembles were also much smaller than the modern-day orchestra.
Instrument Construction: Stringed instruments were made using strings out of animal intestines instead of metal, which gave a more mellow tone to the sound. As you might imagine, the woodwinds were made entirely of wood. Today they are often made of a combination of wood and metal, or entirely metal like a flute. Instrument Tuning: In 1939, all orchestras agreed to tune their instruments to an A, which is a frequency of 440 hertz. , Before then however, there was no widely agreed upon fixed pitch standard. Therefore instruments in an ensemble would tune to each other in the moment of the performance resulting in a wide variety of possibilities. Musical Technique: Baroque music scores contained little indication of articulation, ornamentation, and dynamics— specificities in performance that composers came to notate later. Much more of the interpretation of the music was left to the ensemble players and the conductor. In addition, musicians literally created sound differently than is standard training today. For instance, string players used their bows to create vibrato, rather than their fingers.
Generally, Baroque music is characterized as one seamless, forward-moving melodic texture and mood that is expanded upon over time. Simple polyphony was heavily ornamented, and underscored by a basso continuo unrelenting through-line. The instrumentalist or vocalist performing the melody was expected to show virtuosity. Borrowed from the Italian word meaning “full of virtue”, the word began to be used in the English language during this time period to describe musicians who were exceptionally skilled. Baroque music often described the tension between religious piety and human emotion, with emerging Enlightenment values weighing in on this epistemological quandary as the decades passed. Gut strings on a violin.
THE BAROQUE SPIRIT
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FERTILE GROUNDS FOR OPERA
The early 18th century was an age of exuberance and appealed to the senses. Whether, through fashion, architecture, visual art, or music, the cultural world displayed an opulence and celebrated abundance, wealth, and prosperity. Think of pieces in an art museum like the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, where the intricate, gilded pieces with swirling brush strokes and vibrant colors catch your eye. The nobility and the Catholic Church held considerable sway over the creation of these works, as they were the primary commissioners and funders; and therefore, the content was devoted to the splendor of the divine. Baroque architecture, such as King Louis XIV’s ornate Palace of Versailles outside of Paris, France, was built to display the expansive power, wealth, and elegance of the monarch. Visual artists who were well-known during this time included Caravaggio, Rembrandt, and Rubens. The explosion of creation during the Baroque era along with the trend for powerful nobility to display their wealth through the commissioning of these works, led to the popularity of art and music during this time, and increased its access. Benefactors sponsored performances of pieces they commissioned, and opened attendance beyond their small social circles, creating large festivals and the emergence of opera houses for the general public. Music was commissioned for important occasions like high masses or coronations. Handel’s own Messiah (1741), is perhaps the most famous example.
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FERTILE GROUNDS FOR OPERA
Example of Baroque architecture, Church of Saint Ignatius of Loyola, Rome, Italy. Designed in 17th century.
Golden gate entrance to the Palace of Versailles, France.
Handel and his contemporaries, including Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), defined Baroque music through their musical contributions and innovations. They laid the groundwork for the next musical era to emerge—the Classical Era, which further structured and layered the newly invented musical forms.
Baroque in Boston Boston is home to one of the oldest historical performance ensembles in the United States, The Handel & Haydn Society. Founded in 1815, H+H is still infamous for Baroque and early Classical performances—often on historically accurate instruments.
This “early-music” faded into history for around a century until it was revived in the 20th century with renewed interest in historical performance practices. Today there are hundreds of ensembles dedicated to the performance of Baroque music. The music influenced 20th century composers, namely Ralph Vaugh as well as other musical genres, such as Jazz and Musical Theater.
HAVE YOU HEARD THIS MUSIC? Aside from Handel’s music, perhaps one of the most recognizable tunes from the Baroque period is one by German composer Johann Pachelbel composed sometime during the 17th century: his Canon in D major. Its popularity soon faded into history until musicians in the 1960s, 70s, and 80s revived it from relative obscurity hundreds of years later. It became so popular, it reached number one in the classical music charts in 1982! It has been used in soundtracks of major films, and even pop and rock bands were inspired by the structure. If nowhere else, you have likely heard it at a wedding or a funeral, as it is frequently used as part of ceremonies since the 1980s.
Announcement for Handel & Hayden Society 1861 Christmas Concert, featuring Handel’s Messiah.
DISCUSS: How does Baroque artists’ work influence arts and culture today? 13
GERMAN BORN, LONDON BOUND: GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL
Over his lifetime, George Frideric Handel composed 42 operas—all but one in Italian, 25 oratorios, more than 120 cantatas, 18 concerti grossi, and 12 organ concertos, as well as immeasurable trios and duets, arias, chamber music, liturgical pieces, odes and serenades. His contributions to Baroque music were vast and he earned the praise of churches, nobility, and public patronage alike with his virtuosic combination of German-influenced lush harmonics, with structure, all while balancing strong emotiveness.
established a home there in 1711. London was full of successful playwrights, offering Handel a great amount of source material, yet opera was still foreign to audiences there. In 1719, the first Italian opera company, The Royal Academy of Music, was founded under Queen Anne’s patronage with Handel as the Master of the Orchestra, a position he held when he wrote Giulio Cesare.
Handel was born in Saxony on February 24, 1685. Handel showed an early interest and aptitude for music, yet his father forbade any “meddling with musical instruments” in the home, and pushed him toward the study of law. In spite of this, Handel persisted in his musical study, and at age 17, was appointed organist at his local church, launching his career. Soon after, he moved to Hamburg to play in the orchestra and while there, composed three operas—including his debut opera, Almira (1705) when he was only 19. Word of Handel’s talent solidified his career by ensuring a steady stream of commissions and wealthy patronage. He moved to Italy in 1706, establishing his opera career there as well, and subsequently introducing Italian opera to the London stage—his opera Rinaldo, when he Portrait of G.F Handel, by Balthasaar Denner, 1726
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GERMAN BORN, LONDON BOUND: GEROGE FRIDERIC HANDEL
newly colonized lands, all under an empire steeped in faith in the monarchy and God. “My lord, said Handel, ‘I should be sorry if I only entertained them, I wish to make them better” –James Beattie, Lawyer & critic, 1780
Postcard of London, 1751
LOCATION, LOCATION! We now call the King’s Theatre in London, where many of Handel’s operas premiered, Her Majesty’s Theatre—presently home to a long-running West End show, The Phantom of the Opera.
Handel’s early style resembled the earliest Italian operatic conventions, with his opera Agrippina (1709) marking the beginning of his opera seria compositions. Handel was also prolific; composing five operas in one year (1724-25): Ottone, Flavio, Giulio Cesare, Tamerlano, and Rodelinda. As far as subject matter, his operas often constituted of a love story within the dramatization of an ancient tale—biblical or otherwise. He was fascinated by other lands and cultures—influenced no doubt by growing British exploration and colonization of Asia—as exemplified in Orlando (1733), one of several of operas he set in Persia. Handel’s lifetime was dominated high society intrigue, political affiliations with nobility, and overseas trade in
In 1727, Handel was commissioned to write the anthem for King George II’s coronation. The oratorio he wrote, Zadok the Priest, has been used for every English coronation since. After finishing his final opera, Deidamia (1741), he transitioned completely into writing oratorios—some of which are to this day, the most lasting and frequently performed vocal music in English. An oratorio tells a story like an opera using similar mythological or biblical sources, but is performed in a concert hall without scenery, costumes, or staging. Some of Handel’s oratorios included Israel in Egypt (1739), Hercules (1744), and the Messiah (1741), the latter of which he wrote in only 24 days! “Handel had this power…you may despise what you like, but you cannot contradict Handel” – George Bernard Shaw, Playwright and Poet, 1918.
Handel lived the rest of his life in England as a citizen. He died at age 36, and is buried in Westminster Abbey under a statue of himself holding a score of his beloved most recognizable oratorio, the Messiah. Even as he was born German, Handel is widely accepted as an English composer, and rests next to famous Englishmen including Isaac Newton and Charles Darwin. His operas and oratorios are the most enduring and beloved of all his works, and he is known forever for introducing opera to the British people.
DISCUSS: What famous musicians or other artists can you think of that are claimed to be from a certain place, even if they were born elsewhere and chose to build their life away from their home country? 15
OPERA SERIA
Drawing of Baroque theatre in Austria, late 18th century.
Handel’s operas dominated the stages well into the 18th century and have defined the opera seria genre. Composer and theorist Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) who is attributed to writing the “first” opera—or at least the first one that has stood the test of time—premiered L’Orfeo in 1607. Monteverdi fueled a movement with the primary intention being dramatic impact. Music would no longer be to just delight, but used instead to morally and politically instruct through storytelling to inspire empathy. Early opera seria that influenced Handel’s work included Francesco Cavalli’s Giasone (1649), who for the first time separated the aria and recitative into two distinct musical forms; and Henry Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas (1683), the first opera in English.
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OPERA SERIA
FUN FACT: The great Roman orator Cicero defined oratory as to “delight and instruct” through connecting to people’s emotion, often in a political context.
The subjects of opera seria were inspired by ancient Greek, Roman, and biblical heroes, and often took place in “exotic” change were to are lands. Plots are centralized around six main characters and feature political intrigue, disguises, and seduction. The central conflict is often between love and duty, while underscoring moral messages that virtue should be celebrated and sin forgiven. Characters express deep and often conflicting emotion—a word choice - too much “character” in sentence that continues to characterize opera even as operatic conventions evolve.
Opera seria featured big dramatic arias, especially for the castrati, and later, sopranos, which were favored over duets and choruses. The voice, regarded as the most nuanced instrument, is showcased as the most powerful for oration. The alternating recitative and da capo aria structure defines Handel’s style specifically, among opera seria composers. The recitative is lightly underscored, and the da capo aria has full orchestral support. The meaning of the text and the musical expression is more closely considered, with poetic language and musical dramatization accentuating each others possessive meaning. During a da capo aria, time stops and allows for a character to expand upon the emotional moment, not unlike a soliloquy in Shakespeare’s works. While by today’s standards, opera seria may seem excessively long and repetitive, theater-goers of Handel’s day treated a night at the opera as one might watch a movie at home today. Spectators often socialized, snacked, and moved about the space to visit friends, which is why this
powerful aria moment was meant to capture their attention and take in the singer’s extreme emotion. The da capo aria is a very specific form that follows a set structure of A,B,A. The first section (A) sets the mood, and the character lays out situation and how he or she feels about it. The second section (B) highlights a conflicting feeling, bringing up another side to the issue and the character as they process emotions. The final section (A) returns to the original melody of the first section, but the emotion is heightened as the full complexity of the situation is digested. The singer expresses this through the addition of ornamentation—improvised embellishments that shows off the singer’s specific virtuosity. In fact, the third section, referred to as the “da capo” translates to, “from the head” or “from the top.” You might recognize this musical form as it has continued to dominate musical songwriting through the emergence of many genres including jazz, blues, and even popular music.
Illustration of a performance of Handel’s Flavio, John Vanderbank, 18th century.
ACTIVITY: Write your own da capo aria! Take inspiration from your life and explore how you would describe the emotions you felt during that time. FIERCE WOMEN
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GIULIO CESARE
Giulio Cesare in Egitto (commonly shortened to Giulio Cesare) is Handel’s most frequentlyperformed opera. It was his fifth full-length opera for the Royal Academy of Music. It was met with adoring audiences at the premiere in no small part due to the best orchestra, a librettist who specialized in the ancient material, the best castrato (Francesco Bernardi a.k.a “Il Senesino”), and a far longer period than the two to four weeks that Baroque composers normally had to produce a finished piece. These circumstances set the stage for a fully developed opera seria, with time to spare for rewrites and rearranging to create fully developed music and characters. It received 13 performances during its first run at the King’s Theatre in Haymarket, London, in February 1724, and was revived three times in Handel’s lifetime alone!
Cover of 1724 version of Giulio Cesare manuscript.
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GIULIO CESARE
Nicolo Francesco Haym was Handel’s primary librettist while in London at the Academy where he wrote Giulio Cesare. Haym was a cellist and secretary for the Royal Academy of Music. He was appointed as secretary due to his enormous success in adapting Bononcini’s Camilla, the first Italian opera at Drury Lane in London, in 1706. Apart from his post at the Academy, he was an avid antiquarian who published many volumes on customs and cultures of ancient societies. He took to his work as librettist with dedication, as the subjects of the operas aligned closely to his passions in antiquity and coincided the growing availability of ancient Roman and Egyptian artifacts. Haym adapted Giulio Cesare for Handel from a 1677 work by Giacomo Bussani, with music by Antonio Sartorio. It was very common for librettists of
Engraving of prologue from Giulio Cesare, by Thomas Lediard, 1727.
the time to use an existing work. Haym’s version, however, is annotated with ancient sources and where he strayed from fact. Subsequent productions continued well past Handel’s death. Over the years, arias were added and roles were sung by different voice types. Baroque music fell out of favor for a century or so until early 20th century opera houses rediscovered his masterworks and brought them back into popular performance. The first
time Giulio Cesare was revived in the 20th century was in Germany in 1922, by Oskar Hagen who attempted to recreate it in the most authentic way possible. Why, of all of Handel’s operas, is Giulio Cesare the most enduring? Perhaps it’s due to the familiarity of the subject matter. The story of the Roman falling in love with the Egyptian queen has been told and retold in many different media over the centuries.
DISCUSS: How would you retell the story of Julius Caesar for today’s audiences through music and theater? What would it sound like? What would the costumes look like? Where might it be set? FIERCE WOMEN
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THE REAL STORY
Handel’s opera features two of the most famous characters in history: the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, and Roman General, Julius Caesar. The story of their lives have been retold and adapted numerous times in opera, theatre, literature, film, and visual art. Handel and Haym portrayed them in Giulio Cesare as citizens of the 18th century, when ancient Roman and Egyptian history was critical knowledge for educated young men, and the history of the Roman Empire was often used as a frame of reference for contemporary political debates. Though their anachronistic lens affected how the characters were crafted, Handel and Haym more or less stayed true to history.
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The Great Roman Civil War lasted from 4945 B.C. Before becoming an empire, Rome was a Republic, the Roman government albeit mismanaged by nobles and political influencers. Three men, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, formed the First Triumvirate to combat the mismanaged government. However, when Crassus was killed, Pompey retracted his allegiance to this rebellion. Caesar—with armies at his disposal, having just conquered Gaul—crossed the Rubicon River separating his province, Gaul, from Rome. Marching on Rome, the war between Caesar and Pompey began and sparked political struggles across the Roman Empire, which included in modern day Italy, Africa, Greece, and Spain. Prior to the events told in Giulio Cesare, Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece and fled to Egypt, unaware that King Ptolmey was in the midst of his own struggle for power with his sister, Queen Cleopatra.
continuing the war on his land, King Ptolmey has Pompey killed. The battle of Alexandria and The Battle of the Nile unfold, which secures Caesar and Cleopatra’s infamy as rulers of great ancient civilizations. Caesar apparently was at first a proponent of Cleopatra sharing her rule with her brother, that is until the risk of his life became so great it required him to obtain a foothold in Egypt. And, though Cornelia’s son Sextus gets his revenge in the opera; historically, King Ptolmey dies by drowning in the Nile, not by assassination.
From here the events of the opera unfold: to exert dominance and to avoid Pompey and Caesar
Handel and Haym took liberties while adapting the story to maximize conflict, and thus, the
THE REAL STORY
Painting, Caesar and Cleopatra, Jean Leon Gerome, 1866.
emotions in their opera. Ancient sources verify the historical record of Caesar and Cleopatra, but many details have be reframed and interpreted over time with scholarly and artistic retelling. The Greek historian Plutarch, offers several clues into the two lovers’ real relationship. Caesar and Cleopatra did have a romance and they even had a child together, but the alliance was primarily political even as Caesar remained in Egypt past the events of Giulio Cesare, leaving Rome ungoverned for a while. Cleopatra had a second famous romance with another Roman, Mark Antony—a separate tale that inspired more great theater and opera from such greats as Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw.
FACT CHECK: Another notable addition in the libretto is Caesar’s famous proclamation: “Veni, vidi, vici!” or “I came, I saw, “I conquered!” Historical accounts state he, in fact, did not make this statement until a few weeks after he left Egypt.
Throughout world history, marriage for monarchs was often strategic, and purposefully political, yet it was rare for a woman to have so much agency in this political posturing. Egyptian women had more rights than Roman women and Cleopatra used this to her advantage, pursuing men for political gain. She was a powerful, unwavering ruler, and Handel gave the character of Cleopatra eight arias to illustrate the many facets of herself. Cleopatra did what the men were doing—raising armies and killing family for power, and using charm to gain favor with the public. She was cunning in attempting to edge her brother out of power even before Caesar declared her Queen; and like other great rulers, she sought loyalty in foreign ties over her own family. Characterized as intensely charismatic and seductive, she was also highly intelligent. No one knows whether she rolled herself up into a carpet, or whether she really did disguise herself to gain access to
Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra in Cleopatra, 1963.
King Ptolmey’s palace, but her political career was tactful until her end. Like other great rulers, she ended her life by her own hand, poison (many narratives say snake bite), when she lost her love, Mark Antony, and Rome took Egypt. She was very well-liked by her kingdom, which enjoyed great prosperity during her reign, and the city of Alexandria became major center for trade and industry. Julius Caesar was a charismatic politician, general, and writer. He entered politics through the military, rather than his family, and rose through the ranks. His greatest accomplishment was bringing Gaul into under the Roman control the Roman Empire, which he conquered despite them having a larger army. Caesar wrote about the Gallic Wars and The Roman Civil War in large volumes of work that offer us insight into his person, career, and influences. He was often compared to various Roman gods. Ceasar’s leadership style—popular with the masses and good with the military—has been mimicked by other autocratic leaders such as Benito Mussolini.
THE REAL STORY
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Before his assassination, Caesar reformed the Roman calendar, revived ancient cities, and offered more opportunity for Roman citizenry. Like Cleopatra, he was determined to gain political favor, and also used marriage as a way to do so. Interestingly, many artistic treatments of Caesar paint him as a merciful, clement ruler. In Handel and Haym’s libretto, he comforts Cornelia and rejects King Ptolmey’s “gift,” treating him as such, casting in a positive light. Handel and Haym make him a heroic character against an evil, scheming one. Handel’s arias written for Caesar show us his moments of human passion between his political strategizing. Historians note that Caesar’s attraction to Cleopatra was a rare moment of illogical coupling. The pair are clearly
equals, and Handel offered a rare glimpse of their passion in an otherwise calculated public and political life.
THE SILVER SCREEN The rise of the film industry brought with it a new medium and fresh audiences to retell these ancient stories on screen. Classic films including Cleopatra, The Sign of the Cross, Caligula, Spartacus, and Gladiator are perhaps some of the most well-loved. America continues to use the great civilization of Rome as a touchpoint for democracy and leadership on the world stage.
Still from Gladiator, 2000.
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What aspects of Ancient Rome are most interesting or relatable to you or our present day society? How so?
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The Roots of Baroque Opera Claudio Monteverdi, 5th Book of Madrigals, Cruda Amarilli (1605) recorded by Concerto Italiano Monteverdi was considered a transitional figure between Renaissance and Baroque music. The madrigal was a popular form of music in the Renaissance era and highlighted moving harmonies between several voices. Compare this piece with Handel’s Messiah below. How is the voice used differently? Do you hear similarities? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKTQQ28sSNo
The Master of Oratorios George Frederic Handel, Messiah (1741), recorded by Mormon Tabernacle Choir Written over a hundred years after Monteverdi’s madrigal, the Messiah is Handel’s most famous oratorio performed across the globe each year. The “Hallelujah” chorus that you hear in this clip, is something you’ve likely heard before. Oratorios tell a story. What part of the story does this feel like? What in the music helps you know that? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VI6dsMeABpU
The Baroque Orchestra This playlist features professional musicians demonstrating instruments from the Baroque era. How do these instruments sound different to you than instruments you are familiar with hearing in a modern orchestra? Do you prefer one or the other? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQC4mglx5uE&list=PLa0I2f4DpWlonE2ESxBKRg8Ft-ttK4_Eh
Male High Voices Compare and contrast these two recordings. The first is Alexander, the second is Michael. What feelings does it evoke for you when you hear a male voice singing those notes?
Michael Karow, Countertenor, Dorian Vocal Festival Grand Concert, 2006. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3Kn78Fb50U
Alexander Moreschi, the last known castrato, singing “Ave Maria”, recorded in the early 20th century. How does this make you feel differently than a typical male voice? How does his countertenor voice compare to the castrato? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KLjvfqnD0ws
“Va tacito,”Act 1, Sarah Connelly as Caesar, Glyndenbourne, 2018 Listen closely for the da capo aira from Act One Giulio Cesare. What aspect of Caesar do you think this aria is portraying, a more logical side of Caesar, or more passionate one? Does it feel like the Julius Caesar you imagine in your head? Why or why not? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fieBT98DCLc
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Cleopatra’s arias from Giulio Cesare These two Cleopatra arias follow each other in the opera. What emotions, or aspects of Cleopatra’s character can you hear in the music? What change in Cleopatra’s feelings do you sense from “venere bella” to “se pieta”? How does the orchestration accompany what she is feeling? Is the aria or recitative part more interesting to listen to?
“Venere Bella”, Act 2 Natalie Dessay as Cleopatra, Metropolitan Opera, 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i7BpR_uIpWo
“Se Pieta”, Act 2, Natalie Dessay as Cleopatra, Metropolitan Opera, 2013 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzV1FNfCbbks
“Blue Skies,” (1958), Ella Fitzgerald Thinking about the arias you’ve heard above, listen to this classic Jazz standard. How does the vocalist use her voice in similar ways? Does the structure of the piece remind you of da capo aria, or does it stray from it? How does Ella ornament her vocal line? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nB-xqDZbEVQ
Baroque Then, and Now Antonio Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, Spring (1716), Itzhak Perlman conducts Israel Philharmonic One of the most enduring examples of Baroque music, as beloved now as it was when it was written. Vivaldi wrote this set of four concertos, one of the new forms that emerged during the era, as a musical interpretation of a season. What do you hear in the orchestration that makes the listener experience the sense of “spring?” What elements of Baroque music catch your attention most? The bass line? Or certain ornamentations? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKthRw4KjEg
Philip Glass, Harpsichord Concerto (2002), San Francisco Conservatory of Music New Music Ensemble Now listen to Philip Glass’ Harpsichord Concerto written in 2002. What elements of Baroque music do you hear in this piece? What other influences do you hear? How is it similar, or different from Vivaldi’s Four Seasons? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PveH9SNHKq4
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GENERAL QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR LISTENING • What instruments do you hear? • How fast is the music? Are there sudden changes in speed? Is the rhythm steady or unsteady? • Key/Mode: Is it major or minor? (Does it sound bright, happy, sad, urgent, dangerous?) • Dynamics/Volume: Is the music loud or soft? Are there sudden changes in volume (either in the voice or orchestra)? • What is the shape of the melodic line? Does the voice move smoothly or does it make frequent or erratic jumps? Do the vocal lines move noticeably downward or upward? • Does the type of voice singing (baritone, soprano, tenor, mezzo, etc.) have an effect on you as a listener? • Do the melodies end as you would expect or do they surprise you? • How does the music make you feel? What effect do the above factors have on you as a listener? • What is the orchestra doing in contrast to the voice? How do they interact? • What kinds of images, settings, or emotions come to mind? Does it remind you of anything you have experienced in your own life? • Do particularly emphatic notes (low, high, held, etc.) correspond to dramatic moments? • What type of character fits this music? Romantic? Comic? Serious? Etc.
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GIULIO CESARE RESOURCES Metropolitan Opera Giulio Cesare Study Guide and Learning Activities Full Libretto (English Translation) Early Music in Boston: Handel & Hayden Society
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GIULIO CESARE RESOURCES
BOOKS Drummond, J. D. (1980). “Opera Seria.” In Opera in perspective . Harris, E. T. (2014). George Frideric Handel: a life with friends. Schiff, S. (2011). Cleopatra: A Life. Schmidgall, G. (1977). “Handel, the Passions and Eighteenth Century Aesthetics.” In Literature As Opera
MAGAZINES Crawford, A. (2007) Smithsonian Magazine. Who was Cleopatra? Mythology, propaganda, and the Real Queen of the Nile. Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/who-was-cleopatra-151356013/
WEBSITES About Handel. Handel and Hendrix Society.
Retrieved from https://handelhendrix.org/learn/about-handel/
Classic FM. The story of Baroque opera from 1600.
Retrieved from https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/periods-genres/baroque/baroque-early-opera/
Giulio Cesare. Handel and Hendrix Society.
Retrieved from https://handelhendrix.org/learn/about-handel/opera-synopses/giulio-cesare/
Imperium Romanum. Great Roman Civil War.
Retrieved from https://www.imperiumromanum.edu.pl/en/roman-wars-and-uprisings/great-roman-civil-war/
Music of the Baroque. What is Baroque Music? Retrieved from https://www.baroque.org/baroque/whatis
Opera North. (2019) Giulio Cesare in a nutshell.
Retrieved from https://www.operanorth.co.uk/news/giulio-cesare-in-a-nutshell/
San Diego Opera Operapaedia. Handel, Giulio Cesare and Opera in 18th Century England. Retrieved from http://sdopera.org/Content/Operapaedia/Operas/JuliusCaesarinEgypt/Composer.htm
The Metropolitan Opera. Giulio Cesare Synopsis.
Retrieved from https://www.metopera.org/user-information/synopses-archive/giulio-cesare
Victoria and Albert Museum. 18th Century Opera.
Retrieved from http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/0-9/18th-century-opera/
ENCYCLOPEDIA Baroque art and architecture. In Britannica.
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/Baroque-art-and-architecture
Cox, T. (2017) Ptolemy XII Theos Philopator. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator/
Julius Caesar. Britannica.
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julius-Caesar-Roman-ruler
Opera-Online. Giulio Cesare in Egitto.
Retrieved from https://www.opera-online.com/en/items/works/giulio-cesare-in-egitto-haendel-haym-1724
GIULIO CESARE RESOURCES
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RENAISSANCE
1500
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THE HISTORY OF OPERA
BAROQUE
1600-1750
CLASSICAL
1730-1820
THE HISTORY OF OPERA People have been telling stories through music for millennia throughout the world. Opera is an art form with roots in Western Europe dating back hundreds of years. Here is a brief timeline of its lineage.
ROMANTIC
1790-1910
20th CENTURY
1900
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1598
RENAISSANCE
Jacopo Peri, a member of the Camerata, composed the world’s first opera – Dafne, reviving the classic myth.
1573
1607
The Florentine Camerata was founded in Italy, devoted to reviving ancient Greek musical traditions, including sung drama.
Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) wrote the first opera to become popular, Orfeo, making him the premier opera composer of his day and bridging the gap between Renaissance and Baroque music. His works are still performed today.
Toccata from L’Orfeo. Claudio Monteverdi Favola in musica. Reprint of the First Edition of the core, Venice 1609, via Wikimedia Commons 30
THE HISTORY OF OPERA
1689 Henry Purcell’s (1659-1695) simple and elegant chamber opera, Dido and Aeneas, premiered at Josias Priest’s boarding school for girls in London.
BAROQUE
1637
1712
The first public opera house, Teatro San Cassiano, was built in Venice, Italy.
George Frederic Handel (1685-1759), a German-born composer, moved to London, where he found immense success writing intricate and highly ornamented Italian opera seria (serious opera). Ornamentation refers to stylized, fast-moving notes, usually improvised by the singer to make a musical line more interesting and to showcase their vocal talent.
1673 Jean Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) an Italian-born composer, brought opera to the French court, creating a unique style, tragédie en musique, that better suited the French language. Blurring the lines between recitative and aria, he created fast-paced dramas to suit the tastes of French aristocrats.
Dido and Aeneas, 1747, Pompeo Batoni, via Wikimedia Commons THE HISTORY OF OPERA
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1805 Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) although a prolific composer, wrote only one opera, Fidelio. The extremes of musical expression in Beethoven’s music pushed the boundaries in the late Classical period and inspired generations of Romantic composers.
CLASSICAL
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770- 1827)
1750s A reform movement, led by Christoph Gluck (1714-1787), rejected the flashy, ornamented style of the Baroque in favor of simple, refined music to enhance the drama.
1767 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) wrote his first opera at age 11, beginning his 25-year opera career. Mozart mastered, then innovated in several operatic forms. He wrote opera serias, including La clemenza di Tito, and opera buffas (comedic operas) like Le nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro). He then combined the two genres in Don Giovanni, calling it dramma giocoso (comedic drama). Mozart also innovated the Singspiel (German sung play), featuring a spoken dialogue, as in Die ZauberflĂśte (The Magic Flute). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756- 1791)
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1853 Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) completed La Traviata, a story of love, loss, and the struggle of average people, in the increasingly popular realistic style of verismo. Verdi enjoyed immense acclaim during his lifetime, while expanding opera to include larger orchestras, extravagant sets and costumes, and more highly trained voices.
ROMANTIC
THE GOLDEN AGE OF OPERA
Giuseppe Verdi
1816
1842
Gioacchino Rossini (1792-1868) composed Il barbiere di Siviglia (The Barber of Seville), becoming the most prodigious opera composer in Italy by age 24. He wrote 39 operas in 20 years. A new compositional style created by Rossini and his contemporaries, including Gaetano Donizetti and Vincenzo Bellini, would, a century later, be referred to as bel canto (beautiful singing). Bel canto compositions were inspired by the nuanced vocal capabilities of the human voice and its expressive potential. Composers employed strategic use of register, the push and pull of tempo (rubato), extremely smooth and connected phrases (legato), and vocal glides (portamento).
Inspired by the risqué popular entertainment of French vaudeville, Hervé created the first operetta, a short comedic musical drama with spoken dialogue. Responding to popular trends, this new form stood in contrast to the increasingly serious and dramatic works at the grand Parisian opera house. Opéra comique as a genre was often not comic, rather realistic or humanistic. Grand Opera, on the contrary, was exaggerated and melodramatic.
A scene from 19th-century version of the play The Barber of Seville by Pierre Beaumarchais. Its origins in the commedia dell’arte are shown in this picture which portrays Figaro dressed in the costume and mask of Harlequin. 1884, via Wikimedia Commons
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1896 Giacomo Puccini’s (1858-1924) La bohème captivated audiences with its intensely beautiful music, realism, and raw emotion. Puccini enjoyed huge acclaim during his lifetime for his works.
1871 Influenced by French operetta, English librettist W.S. Gilbert (1836-1911) and composer Arthur Sullivan (1842-1900) began their 25-year partnership, which produced 14 comic operettas including The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado. Their works inspired the genre of American musical theater.
Giacomo Puccini
1865
1874
Richard Wagner’s (1813-1883) Tristan und Isolde was the beginning of musical Modernism, pushing the use of traditional harmony to its extreme. His massively ambitious, lengthy operas, often based in German folklore, sought to synthesize music, theater, poetry, and visuals in what he called a Gesamtkunstwerk (total work of art). The most famous of these was an epic four-opera drama, Der Ring des Nibelungen, which took him 26 years to write and was completed in 1874.
Johann Strauss II, influenced largely by his father, with whom he shared a name and talent, composed Die Fledermaus. This opera popularized Viennese musical traditions, namely the waltz, and shaped German operetta.
Richard Wagner Mikado theatre poster, Edinburgh, 1885, via Wikimedia Commons 34
THE HISTORY OF OPERA
1922
20th CENTURY
Alban Berg (1885-1935) composed the first completely atonal opera, Wozzeck, dealing with uncomfortable themes of militarism and social exploitation. Wozzeck is in the style of 12-tone music or Serialism. This new compositional style, developed in Vienna by composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951), placed equal importance on each of the 12 pitches in a scale, removing the sense of the music being in a particular key.
1911
1927
Scott Joplin, “The King of Ragtime,” wrote his only opera, Treemonisha, which was not performed until 1972. The work combined the European late-Romantic operatic style with African American folk songs, spirituals, and dances. The libretto, also by Joplin, was written at a time when literacy among African Americans in the southern United States was rare.
American musical theater, commonly referred to as Broadway, was taken more seriously after Jerome Kern’s (1885-1945) Show Boat, words by Oscar Hammerstein, tackled issues of racial segregation and the ban on interracial marriage in Mississippi.
Hammerstein and Kern Scott Joplin
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1935 American composer George Gershwin (1898-1937), who was influenced by African American music and culture, debuted his opera, Porgy and Bess, in Boston, MA with an all African American cast of classically trained singers.
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Porgy and Bess by the New York Harlem Theatre, 2009
1945
1957
British composer Benjamin Britten (19131976) gained international recognition with his opera Peter Grimes. Britten, along with Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958), was one of the first British opera composers to gain fame in nearly 300 years.
Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990), known for synthesizing musical genres, brought together the best of American musical theater, opera, and ballet in West Side Story—a reimagining of Romeo and Juliet in a contemporary setting.
Benjamin Britten
Leonard Bernstein
1987 John Adams (b. 1947) composed one of the great minimalist operas, Nixon in China, the story of Nixon’s 1972 meeting with Chinese leader Mao Zedong. Musical Minimalism strips music down to its essential elements, usually featuring a great deal of repetition with slight variations.
John Adams
TODAY Still a vibrant, evolving art form, opera attracts contemporary composers such as: Philip Glass (b. 1937), Mark-Anthony Turnage (b. 1960), Jake Heggie (b. 1961), Thomas Adès (b. 1971), and many others. These composers continue to be influenced by present and historical musical forms in creating new operas that explore current issues or reimagine ancient tales.
BLO’s production of Philip Glass’ opera, In the Penal Colony. Photo: T. Charles Erickson
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THE SCIENCE AND ART OF OPERA
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THE SCIENCE AND ART OF OPERA
WHY DO OPERA SINGERS SOUND LIKE THAT?
So Young Park as Queen of the Night Photo: Eric Antoniou
Opera is unique among forms of singing in that singers are trained to be able to sing without amplification, in large theaters, over an entire orchestra, and still be heard and understood! This is what sets the art form of opera apart from similar forms such as musical theater. To become a professional opera singer, it takes years of intense physical training and constant practice— not unlike that of a ballet dancer—to stay in shape. Additionally, while ballet dancers can dance through pain and illness, poor health, especially respiratory issues and even allergies, can be severely debilitating for a professional opera singer. Let’s peek into some of the science of this art form.
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How the Voice Works Singing requires different parts of the body to work together: the lungs, the vocal cords, the vocal tract, and the articulators (lips, teeth, and tongue). The lungs create a flow of air over the vocal cords, which vibrate. That vibration is amplified by the vocal tract and broken up into words by consonants produced by the articulators.
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BREATH
Any good singer will tell you that good breath support is essential to produce quality sound. Breath is like the gas that goes into your car. Without it, nothing runs. In order to sing long phrases of music with clarity and volume, opera singers access their full lung capacity by keeping their torso elongated and releasing the lower abdomen and diaphragm muscles, which allows air to enter into the lower lobes of the lungs. This is why we associate a certain posture with opera singers. In the past, many operas were staged with singers standing in one place to deliver an entire aria or scene, with minimal activity. Modern productions, however, often demand a much greater range of movement and agility onstage, requiring performers to be physically fit, and disproving the stereotype of the “fat lady sings.”
VIBRATION
If you run your fingers along your throat you will feel a little lump just underneath your chin. That is your “Adam’s Apple,” and right behind it, housed in the larynx (voice-box), are your vocal cords. When air from the lungs crosses over the vocal cords, it creates an area of low pressure (Google The Bernoulli Effect), which brings the cords together and makes them vibrate. This vibration produces a buzz. The vocal cords can be lengthened or shortened by muscles in the larynx, or by increasing the speed of airflow. This change in the length and thickness of the vocal cords is what allows singers to create different pitches. Higher pitches require long, thin cords, while low pitches require short, thick ones. Professional singers take great pains to protect the delicate anatomy of their vocal cords with hydration and rest, as the tiniest scarring or inflammation can have noticeable effects on the quality of sound produced.
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF OPERA
RESONANCE
Without the resonating chambers in the head, the buzzing of the vocal cords would sound very unpleasant. The vocal tract, a term encompassing the mouth cavity, and the back of the throat, down to the larynx, shapes the buzzing of the vocal cords like a sculptor shapes clay. Shape your mouth in an ee vowel (as in eat), and then sharply inhale a few times. The cool sensation you feel at the top and back of your mouth is your soft palate. The soft palate can raise or lower to change the shape of the vocal tract. Opera singers always strive to sing with a raised soft palate, which allows for the greatest amplification of the sound produced by the vocal cords. Different vowel sounds are produced by raising or lowering the tongue. Say the vowels: ee, eh, ah, oh, oo and notice how each vowel requires a slightly lower tongue placement. This area of vocal training is particularly difficult because none of the anatomy is visible from the outside!
ARTICULATION
The lips, teeth, and tongue are all used to create consonant sounds, which separate words into syllables and make language intelligible. Consonants must be clear and audible for the singer to be understood. Because opera singers do not sing with amplification, their articulation must be particularly good. The challenge lies in producing crisp, rapid consonants without interrupting the connection of the vowels (through the controlled exhale of breath) within the musical phrase.
Perfecting every element of this complex singing system requires years of training, and is essential for the demands of the art form. An opera singer must be capable of singing for hours at a time, over the top of an orchestra, in large opera houses, while acting and delivering an artistic interpretation of the music. It is complete and total engagement of mental, physical, and emotional control and expression. Therefore, think of opera singers as the Olympic athletes of the stage, sit back, and marvel at what the human body is capable of! 41
Different Voice Types
C B C B Soprano MezzoSoprano
C B
Bass The lowest male voice, basses often fall into two main categories: basso buffo, which is a comic character who often sings in lower laughing-like tones, and basso profundo, which is as low as the human voice can sing! Doctor Bartolo is an example of a bass role in The Barber of Seville by Rossini.
Contralto Tenor
C B
Baritone Bass
C
D
E
F
G
A
110HZ
D
E
F
G
A
220HZ
D
E
F
G
A
440HZ
D
E
F
G
A
880HZ
D
E
F
Opera singers are cast into roles based on their tessitura (the range of notes they can sing comfortably). There are many descriptors that accompany the basic voice types, but here are some of the most common ones:
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THE SCIENCE AND ART OF OPERA
Baritone A middle-range male voice, baritones can range from sweet and mild in tone, to darker dramatic and full tones. A famous baritone role is Rigoletto in Verdi’s Rigoletto. Baritones who are most comfortable in a slightly lower range are known as Bass-Baritones, a hybrid of the two lowest voice types.
Tenor The highest male voice, tenors often sing the role of the hero. One of the most famous tenor roles is Roméo in Gounod’s Roméo et Juliet. Occasionally men have cultivated very high voices singing in a range similar to a mezzo-soprano, but using their falsetto. Called the Countertenor, this voice type is often found in Baroque music. Countertenors replaced castrati in the heroic lead roles of Baroque opera after the practice of castration was deemed unethical.
Each of the voice types (soprano, mezzo-soprano, tenor, baritone, bass) also tends to be sub-characterized by whether it is more Lyric or Dramatic in tone. Lyric singers tend toward smooth lines in their music, sensitively expressed interpretation, and flexible agility. Dramatic singers have qualities that are attributed to darker, fuller, richer note qualities expressed powerfully and robustly with strong emotion. While it’s easiest to understand operatic voice types through these designations and descriptions, one of the most exciting things about listening to a singer perform is that each individual’s voice is unique, therefore each singer will interpret a role in an opera in a slightly different way.
Contralto Occasionally women have an even lower range that overlaps with the highest male voice. This voice type is more rare and they often play male characters, referred to in opera as trouser roles.
Mezzo-Soprano Somewhat equivalent to the lower female alto role in a chorus, mezzo-sopranos (mezzo translated as “middle”) are known for their full and expressive qualities. While they don’t sing frequencies quite as high as sopranos, their ranges do overlap, and it is a “darker” tone that sets them apart. One of the most famous mezzo-soprano lead roles is Carmen in Bizet’s Carmen.
Soprano The highest female voice. Some sopranos are designated as coloratura as they specialize in being able to sing very fast moving notes that are very high in frequency and light in tone, often referred to as “color notes.” One of the most famous coloratura roles is The Queen of the Night in Mozart’s The Magic Flute.
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THE PHYSICS OF OPERA SINGERS What is it about opera singers that allows them to be heard above the orchestra? It’s not that they are simply singing louder. The qualities of sound have to do with the relationship between the frequency (pitch) of a sound, represented in a unit of measurement called hertz, and its amplitude, measured in decibels, which the ear perceives as loudness. Only artificially produced sounds, however, create a pure frequency and amplitude (these are the only kinds that can break glass). The sound produced by a violin, a drum, a voice, or even smacking your hand on a table, produces a fundamental frequency as well as secondary, tertiary, etc. frequencies known as overtones, or as musicians call them, harmonics.
For instance, the orchestra tunes to a concert “A” pitch before a performance. Concert “A” has a frequency of about 440 hertz, but that is not the only pitch you will hear. Progressively softer pitches above that fundamental pitch are produced in multiples of 440 at 880hz, 1320hz, 1760hz, etc. Each different instrument in the orchestra, because of its shape, construction, and mode in which it produces sound, produces different harmonics. This is what makes a violin, for example, have a different color (or timbre) from a trumpet. Generally, the harmonics of the instruments in the orchestra fade around 2500hz. Overtones produced by a human voice—whether speaking, yelling, or singing—are referred to as formants. As the demands of opera stars increased, vocal teachers discovered that by manipulating the empty space within the vocal tract, they could emphasize higher frequencies within the overtone series—frequencies above 2500hz. This technique allowed singers to perform without hurting their vocal chords, as they are not actually singing at a higher fundamental decibel level than the orchestra. Swedish voice scientist, Johann Sundberg, observed this phenomenon when he recorded the worldfamous tenor Jussi Bjoerling in 1970. His research showed multiple peaks in decibel level, with the strongest frequency (overtone) falling between 2500 and 3000 hertz. This frequency, known as the singer’s formant, is the “sweet spot” for singers so that we hear their voices soaring over the orchestra into the opera house night after night.
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Prof. Tecumseh Fitch, evolutionary biologist and cognitive scientist at the University of Vienna, explains the difference between a fundamental frequency and formant frequency in the human voice. For an opera singer, the lower two formants (peaks on a graph) determine the specific vowel sound. The third formant and above add overtones that are specific to each particular singers’ voice, like a fingerprint. When two people sing the same note simultaneously, the high overtones allow your ear to distinguish two voices
A RESONANT PLACE The final piece of the puzzle in creating the perfect operatic sound is the opera house or theater itself. Designing the perfect acoustical space can be an almost impossible task, one which requires tremendous knowledge of science, engineering, and architecture, as well as an artistic sensibility. The goal of the acoustician is to make sure that everyone in the audience can clearly understand the music being produced onstage, no matter where they are sitting. A perfectly designed opera house or concert hall (for non-amplified sound) functions almost like gigantic musical instrument.
Boston Opera House – photo by John Wolf
Boston Symphony Hall, opened in 1900, with acoustical design by Harvard physicist Wallace Clement Sabine, was the first concert hall to be designed with scientific acoustic principles in mind. Each seat was mathematically designed and placed for maximum acoustical perfection.
Reverberation is one key aspect in making a singer’s words intelligible or an orchestra’s melody clear. Imagine the sound your voice would make in the shower or a cave. The echo you hear is reverberation caused by the large, hard, smooth surfaces. Too much reverberation (bouncing sound waves) can make words difficult to understand. Resonant vowel sounds overlap as they bounce off of hard surfaces and cover up quieter consonant sounds. In these environments, sound carries a long way but becomes unclear or, as it is sometimes called, wet as if the sound were underwater. Acousticians can mitigate these effects by covering smooth surfaces with textured materials like fabric, perforated metal, or diffusers, which absorb and disperse sound. These tools, however, must be used carefully, as too much absorption can make a space dry – meaning the sound onstage will not carry at all and the performers may have trouble even hearing themselves as they perform. Imagine singing into a pillow or under a blanket. The shape of the room itself also contributes to the way the audience perceives the music. Most large performance spaces are shaped like a bell – small where the stage is, and growing larger and more spread out in every dimension as one moves farther away. This shape helps to create a clear path for the sound to every seat. In designing concert halls or opera houses, big decisions must be made about the construction of the building based on acoustical needs. Even with the best planning, the perfect acoustic is not guaranteed, but professionals are constantly learning and adapting new scientific knowledge to enhance the audience’s experience.
THE SCIENCE AND ART OF OPERA
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NOTES TO PREPARE FOR THE OPERA You will see a full dress rehearsal – an insider’s look into the final moments of preparation before an opera premieres. The singers will be in full costume and makeup, the opera will be fully staged, and a full orchestra will accompany the singers, who may choose to “mark,” or not sing in full voice, in order to save their voices for the performances. A final dress rehearsal is often a complete run-through, but there is a chance that the director or conductor will ask to repeat a scene or section of music. This is the last opportunity that the performers have to rehearse with the orchestra before opening night, and therefore they need this valuable time to work. The following will help you better enjoy your experience of a night at the opera:
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NOTES TO PREPARE FOR THE OPERA
OPERA CHECKLIST Arrive on time! Latecomers will be seated only at suitable breaks in the performance and often not until intermission. Dress in what you are comfortable in so that you may enjoy the performance. For some, that means dressing up in a suit or gown, for others, jeans and a polo shirt fit the bill. Generally “dressy-casual” is what people wear. Live theater is usually a little more formal than a movie theater. Please do not take off your shoes or put your feet on the seat in front of you. Respect your fellow opera lovers by not leaning forward in your seat so as to block the person’s view behind you, and by turning off (not on vibrate) cell phones and other electronic devices that could make noise during the performance. Lit screens are also very distracting to your neighbors, so please keep your phone out of sight until the house lights come up. Taking photos or making audio or video recordings is strictly forbidden. Do not chew gum, eat, drink, or talk while the rehearsal is in session. If you must visit the restroom during the performance, please exit quickly and quietly. At the very beginning of the opera, the concertmaster of the orchestra will ask the oboist to play the note “A.” You will hear all the other musicians in the orchestra tune their instruments to match the oboe’s “A.” After all the instruments have been tuned, the conductor will arrive. Be sure to applaud! Feel free to applaud or shout Bravo at the end of an aria or chorus piece if you liked it. The end of a piece can be identified by a pause in the music. Singers love an appreciative audience! It’s OK to laugh when something is funny! When translating songs and poetry in particular, much can be lost due to a change in rhythm, inflection and rhyme of words. For this reason, opera is usually performed in its original language. In order to help audiences enjoy the music and follow every twist and turn of the plot, English supertitles are projected. Listen for subtleties in the music. The tempo, volume, and complexity of the music and singing depict the feelings or actions of the characters. Also, notice repeated words or phrases; they are usually significant. Sit back, relax and let the action on stage pull you in. As an audience member, you are essential to the art form of opera—without you, there is no show!
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