Rachel Borovska - Wind woven

Wind woven

Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Introduction

Urban heat islands pose a significant challenge in today’s cities, and the need for cooling and preserving biodiversity are pressing issues. While efforts to combat urban heat islands often revolve around interventions like de-paving, greenifying and reclaiming space for green-blue networks, the impact of ventilation for cooling is frequently overlooked in design. Stemming from a deep fascination with the thermodynamic performance of wind this project aims to rectify this oversight by focusing on understanding wind behavior and patterns in our everyday environment, using weather, climate, and atmosphere as design mediums.

City outdoor spaces are essential as they attract pedestrian traffic, host outdoor activities, provide habitats and shelters, and contribute to the liveliness and quality of urban life. One of the key factors influencing the quality of outdoor spaces is the urban microclimate.

URBAN ATMOSPHERE

Urban ventilation encompasses the airflow through a city, which is affected by factors such as building heights, street layouts, and topography. Insufficient urban ventilation can lead to elevated levels of air pollutants, exacerbate the urban heat island effect, and have a detrimental impact on the health and overall comfort of the population. It can also cause damage to city infrastructure and result in a decrease in species diversity and the loss of precious habitats in terms of ecology.

Urban areas and their outdoor spaces have diverse structures and specific morphological features. They are situated in landscapes with varying levels of humidity and ecology, and are surrounded by larger landscape structures that influence the local climate of each city. The unique morphology of urban environments influences their climates. For instance, city wind patterns can pose challenges but also offer opportunities. They can help ventilate and cool urban areas or swiftly move through the city. All elements, including landscapes and building volumes, and their arrangements, contribute to creating distinct wind flow patterns and microclimates.

Through delving into multiple scales, this research-by-design project is dedicated to uncovering the conditions necessary to enhance the cooling capacity of wind, starting from two primary wind directions. In the Netherlands, the southwesterly winds typically bring strong cold winds, peaking from autumn to spring. Conversely, during summer, warm air from the east can exacerbate the urban heat effect if it’s unable to surpass urban obstacles such as closed streets, densely built or planted areas.

TESTING GROUND

Wind patterns are explored as a design tool along the 8km long railway corridor site of Breda, stretching from east to west. Railway corridors play a crucial role in ventilating urban environments due to their expansive linear profiles and open surfaces, making them essential in shaping the local climate. They also serve as crucial ecological corridors providing extensive linear migration routes for various wildlife and generate airborne trails for seeds. Paired with the ventilating capacity of the railway, the areas surrounding this 8km stretch are transforming, providing an ideal testing ground for landscape architecture and urbanism disciplines to explore and implement various landscape interventions and cooling compositions.

Rather than treating these design areas as blank slates, they are seen as integral elements contributing to ventilation, (airborne) ecology and cooling principles. They are infused with wind as a medium, composing a green wedge that weaves through the existing context and structures, connecting neighborhoods through a biodiverse, ecological network. A park-like necklace woven by wind alongside the railway strip of Breda.

“Our environment is not a composite object comprising of closed, hermetic spaces, but a place that is very much exposed to the seasons, prevailing weather, climatic variations, and meteorological shifts.”

JP Thibaud

Source: Breathe Investigations into our atmospherically entagled future

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Table of Contents

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Analysis criteria to determine wind streams

Comparative analysis

“Macro scale”

Geography

“Mesoscale”

Stream

Location

Orientation

Topography

Location

Orientation

Topography

Roughness

Spatial configuration

Position of the city between landscape types

Soil types

City Morphology

“Micro scale”

Stream

Location

Orientation

Topography

Roughness

Wind flow patterns & Spatial and qualitative criteria

New city development

Open & Closed

Two season approach Voids Obstacles

Interconnectedness

Diversification of biotopes

Variety of densities

Continuity & Perforation Habitats

Areas under transformation

Wind flow patterns & Spatial and qualitative criteria

Open & Closed

Variety of densities

Obstacles

Roughness

Parallel Perpendicular Oblique Voids

Continuity & Perforation

Habitat

Programme

Forests

Agriculture/ Grasslands

Wetlands

Meadows

Dunes

Brooks

Barriers

Entry points

Corridors

Accelerators

Infrastructure

Neighbourhood typology

Green-blue infrastructure

Thermodynamic performance/ identity

Humidity

Evaporative cooling

Heat capturing capacity

Free convection

Radiant cooling

Stream network

Filters Filters

Park structure composition

“Park necklace”

Ecological stepping stones

Corridors

Routing

Entry points

Crossings

Nodes

Patches

Gradients

Accelerators

Performance

Evaporation

Funneling

Dispersion

Sheltering

Acceleration

Cooling/ Heat mitigation

Pollination

Reduction | Dispersion of air pollution

Preservation of landscapes of importance

Microscale composition

“Microclimate”

Planting type

Planting density / porosity

Building height

Building mass

Corridor width

Materialisation

Micro Topography

Evaporation

Funneling

Dispersion

Sheltering

Acceleration

Cooling/ Heat mitigation

Pollination

Reduction | Dispersion of air pollution

Preservation of landscapes of importance

Humidities of Breda’s surrounding landscapes

Breda is located at the meeting point of various landscapes and streams that flow into and impact the city. The area is rich in vegetation, national parks, and diverse landscapes. It is part of the Van Gogh National Park, and includes the Zuiderwaterlinie with its city fort. To the north, it is bordered by Biesbosch and sits at the junction of the River Mark and Weerijs.

Breda was established at the convergence of the Aa and Mark brooks. The area had ideal conditions for early urbanization, with a water system suitable for drinking, transportation, and defense, along with fertile land. The walled Nassau city evolved into a center for food and technical industry, and later expanded to include a wide range of production and service industries. Throughout its history, the city has maintained a military presence.

The urbanization strategy is based on three types of landscapes: the network of stream valleys on the sandy soils in the south, the flood zone with seepage areas in the middle, and the complex river clay landscape in the north. This results in a highly desirable urban environment intertwined with a diverse landscape.

In the west area the groundwater levels can occur between 80120cm below ground level, while the east par is lower laying and the groundwater levels can reach up to 40-80cm below ground level.

On the north we see more peaty soils. They belong to hydroclay soils; loamy and clay soils in which periodic high groundwater levels can occur. The soils consist of a clay cover that changes into peat between a depth of 40-80cm.

Groundwater levels

Topographies

Humidities

The landscape of Breda slopes down from south to north and ends in a low-lying plain. There is a 34 meter drop from Merksplas (just across the border with Belgium) to Breda.

Topography Breda

Topography Breda

Topography Breda

low-lying plain. There is a 34 meter drop from Merksplas (just across the border with Belgium) to Breda. Most of the territory consists of sandy soils with a radial structure of stream valleys. Almost all streams flow in the direction of the city center and converge in the canals. The water flows via the Mark through the plain on the north side of Breda, which is relatively wet and consists of peat and marine clay.

High sandy soils

Low Peaty soils

Soils

The diverse soils in the area create a wide range of vegetation habitats in the city and can also have specific thermodynamic effects. In the southern part of the city, you can see streams of sandy soils formed around brooks, stretching towards the center. The soil is made up of nutrient-rich humus layers that transition into a nutrient-poor layer of cover sand.

The forests surrounding Breda lay mostly on enk soils and podzols. This soil type occurs in sandy landscapes that were formed in the Pleistocene. These soils were createdd by the deep litter system in which the soil was fertilized with animal manure and turf. In enk soils, plants root up to the C-horizon which sstarts from 0-80cm depth.

Laarpodzols have mostly the characteristics of hydrosoils - which means that they have been periodically saturated by water. The name laarpodzolgronden is derived from the toponym laar, which stands for an often somewhat lower-laying open space in the forest.

On the north we see more peaty soils. They belong to hydroclay soils; loamy and clay soils in which periodic high groundwater levels can occur. The soils consist of a clay cover that changes into peat between a depth of 40-80cm.

Beekeerdgronden

Beekeerdgronden

Hoge zware enkeerdgronden

Moerige eerdgronden Waarveengronden Drechtvaagronden

Laarpodzol

Laarpodzol

Diversity of vegetation

The variety of soils in the area is an opportunity for a diversity of biotopes within the city. Breda is composed by akkers en beemden i.e. low lying clay areas served for water retention and raised sandy zones, originally created for drainage purposes. This opens a scala of various vegetation types and habitats, from wet grasslands to sandy forests.

Marsh marigold grasslands are found on moist to wet, moderately nu trient-rich, mineral- and base-rich soils, especially in stream or river valleys, which can briefly flood in winter and also have a high ground water level in summer.

Due to gradients in the characteristics of the site, transitions to other vegetation types often occur, such as acidic peat (ms), meadowsweet scrub (hf), moist dune pans (mp) or to dune grassland.

Marsh grasslands are generally grasslands rich in species and flow ers with a very well-structured herb layer containing grasses, grassy plants and herbs. The tree and shrub layer are absent, and the moss layer is usually limited.

The Breda landscape slopes down from south to north and ends in a low-lying plain. There is a 34 meter drop from Merksplas (just across the border with Belgium) to Breda. Most of the territory consists of sandy soils with a radial structure of stream valleys. Almost

Veenmosrietland, Borstelgrasland, Blauwgrasland, Dotterbloemgrasland en Grote Zeggeverbond

In de goed ontwikkelde Blauwgraslanden met Klokjesgentianen komt het Gentiaanblauwtje voor. Deze sterk bedreigde soort is zowel afhankelijk van de waardplant (Klokjesgentiaan) als het voorkomen van een aantal knoopmiersoorten (Bossteekmier en Voor deze soorten is een gradiënt in zowel vocht als begroeiing van belang (V1a).

Blauwgrasland Dotterbloemgrasland Pinus sylvestris, Quercus rubra, Fagus sylvatica Quercus robur Heather

High sandy soils

Biotopes

Breda is surrounded by a mosaic of grasslands and agricultural fields and framed by forests mainly at its outskirts to the South and West.

On the north it is surrounded by low lying polders with high ground water levels, river clay landscapes and wet peat areas. Within th city the majority of green is positioned along infrastructure. Several smaller park patches are radially organized and scattered in the urban fabric of breda. Brooks Aa and Mark enter the city from the South.

Landscape / Biotopes

A16

/ Biotopes

Liesbos

Teteringse Heide

Haagse Beemden

Mosaic of grasslands, agricultural

Climatopes glossary:

Forest climatope: tempered temperature fluctuations, constant relative air humidity, retaining heat during night and keeping cool during the day

Water climatope: Water bodies larger than 50m, tempering effect The atmospheric humidity is higher, there is more wind because water surfaces do not intercept wind

Open landscape climatope: large open fields, openness sky factorheat radiates quickly at night, no obstacles, these areas are important ‘producers’ of cold airflows

Park climatope: more extreme temperature fluctuations, bigger sky factor allows warmth to radiate at night, shadows & evapotranspiration, park like structures often important ‘producers’ of lower air temperatures, can enhance ventilation

Garden city climatope: low building density of up to three building layers with trees in them, fairly tempered temperature

City periphery climatopes: more built up than garden cities, uup to five building layers, ventilation is slowed by the buildings and planting

City climatope: historical centers, limited vegetation and limited cooling, clear heat island effect

City center climatope: very densely built up with massive and partly high rise buildings, hardly any vegetation, strong warming during the day and limited cooling during the night

Industrial climatope: intensive heat characteristic, residual heat from the production activities heats up these areas in addition to solar radiation, roofs cool down rather quickly, streets and enclosed areas remain warm for a long time

Railway climatope: large, open areas of at least 50m wide, gravel becomes very hot during the day but because of the large sky view factor it cools down more quickly during the night, large open areas can help

Source: Weather in the City, Sanda Lenzholzer, p.56-61

A climatope map portrays the various climate zones present within a city. Sanda Lenzholzer’s research defines climatope maps as a representation of the ‘climatope concept,’ which indicates that different areas and districts within a city exhibit distinct microclimatic characteristics. This includes factors such as the impact of building structure, vegetation, soil surfaces, and human-made heat in different parts of the city. The urban building structure, density, and types of vegetation and materials play a crucial role in determining climatope classification.

The city center of Breda and the area extending northward alongside the river are the most susceptible to overheating on a city scale. This is largely attributed to the presence of industry along the riverbank and the historical center located at the core of the radially shaped city. Both of these areas are predominantly paved and have minimal vegetation.

Climatopes

Climatope map / urban ventilation

Source: MarshW. M.2010Landscape Planning Environmental Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Climatic conditions vary across different sectors of a city due to surface cover, solar radiation, airflow, and air pollution.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

down only runways, long down

Roughness

reduced wind speed and change in its direction while passing through the canopy.

On the other hand, low-growing vegetation like ground cover or shrubs may have minimal effects on wind patterns as the wind can move over them relatively freely. Nevertheless, even low-growing vegetation can create pockets of still air that benefit plant growth and help reduce air pollution in urban areas.

Roughness

A roughness map for wind is a tool used in meteorology, urban planning, and wind engineering. It represents the surface roughness of a landscape, which significantly impacts wind flow patterns. Surface roughness refers to the various obstacles on the ground, such as buildings, trees, and terrain features, that affect how wind moves over an area.

The map categorizes different types of land surfaces based on their roughness characteristics. Typically, these classifications range from smooth surfaces such as water or open fields (low roughness) to densely built urban areas or forests (high roughness). Each surface type is assigned a roughness length, which measures the height of obstacles that impact wind flow.

Breda is surrounded by a blend of open areas (crops, agricultural fields, grasslands) and dense areas such as forests. The railway line, running from west to east, serves as a significant transportation corridor due to its extensive flat surface. Its position within the urban area gives it the potential to direct prevailing winds passing through the city.

belonging to landscape agricultural fields, wetlands sandy

The skirt of Breda

The skirt of Breda is surrounded by a landscape belonging to cultural-historical heritage. Amongs important landscape elements are classical hedgerows dividing agricultural fields, and patches of dense vegetetation, old reclaimed wetlands and polders, forests, wetland brook habitats and sandy reforested heather landscapes.

Source: topotijdreis.nl

wetlands (beemden) with foresty patches

interrupted lines of hedgerows dry forest patches reclaimed polders forest edges brooks

continuous hedgerow sequence of patches

continuous hedgerow system of lines and patches

2.

1.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ventilation corridors

According to the analysis of wind speed measurements at a height of over 10m, the average wind speed in Breda is 6.76m/s. Typically, Dutch cities experience an increase in wind speed during the winter months compared to other seasons.

In December, January, and February, there are noticeable spikes in wind speed, which can be categorized as instances of extreme wind speeds.

The predominant wind direction is SW, while during the summer months, we observe a dominant warm wind from the NE and E side.

Prevailing wind during July-August 2022 Average 6.76 m/s

Prevailing wind direction

Study on “streams” and wedges in Breda

Large-scale interventions are often more effective for ventilating cities. In Breda, we can use streams that go through ‘hot areas’ such as the brooks leading towards the city, large infrastructural streams like roads and railroads, and areas with mostly empty factory, business, and office buildings.

To make the best use of the temperature difference between cooler and warmer areas, this project focuses on the east-west stream. It is well-positioned between different types of landscapes, crosses city peripheries through the city center, reconnects woodlands in the periphery to support ecological connections, and connects urban parks. It serves as an air corridor and is central to all the streams.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Wind streams

Average 5.1-8.6m/s

Prevailing annual wind direction above 10m, Breda, year 2022 source:NASA/https://power.larc.nasa.gov/da ta-access-viewer/

Based measurements wind speed generally increase compared

There and February extreme

The prevailing summer flowing Average

Prevailing wind during July-August 2022

Prevailing wind direction

Potential streams that could positively impact the ventilation of the city of Breda

Natuurplas

Park Overbos

‘t Zoet

Krogten

Steenakker

Emmer Zuid

Doornbos Linie

Waterakkers

Tetteringsebossen

Block/Filter/Protect/Slow down

Dispersing

Block, filter, slow down

What tree species?

Direct/Accelerate/Cool off

Direct, accelerate, cool

Seasonal approach

The average wind speed in Breda is 6.76m/s, based on the analysis of average annual wind speed measurements exceeding 10m. Typically, most Dutch cities experience an increase in wind speed during the winter months compared to other seasons. Notably, spikes in wind speed are observed in December, January, and February, resembling instances of extreme wind speeds. The prevailing wind direction is southwest, while during the summer months, there is a dominant warm wind flowing from the northeast and east.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind woven

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Stream under transformation

New city developments

Densification

New developments

Densities / Areas under transformation

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

space/fields/brownfields

Necklace park intertwining voids, public parks, leftover and infrastructural green. Improving habitat connectivity, helping preserve distinctive landscape(s), contribution to air exchange and temperature regulation.

From voids towards a necklace

Necklace park

Voids

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind

“Wind

woven” Regeneration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

The Breda region along the west-to-east railway is currently undergoing substantial urban development initiatives with the primary aim of revitalizing and interconnecting disparate sections of the city.

The overarching objective is to reintegrate the north and south parts of Breda while breathing new life into existing urban spaces which can be currently seen as voids and lefotver spaces. This transformative process involves gradually converting current commercial and industrial areas into new residential and workspace zones, seamlessly integrating them into the existing urban framework.

The railway itself serves as a pivotal starting point for this strategic development. Cutting through diverse environments such as city outskirts, open landscapes, dense city centers, and industrial/commercial zones, it presents a unique opportunity.

The railway is envisioned as more than a mere transportation element; it is strategically positioned to counteract urban heat islands. Acting as a cool air transportation and ventilation corridor, it aims to target vulnerable areas and contribute to climate mitigation efforts.

A distinctive feature of this approach involves harnessing the power of wind in the urbanization strategy. By experimenting with methods to shield, filter, channel, and disperse winds along the railway, a novel opportunity has emerged.

The outcome of this innovative strategy is the regeneration of voids within the urban landscape and the fortification of a resilient ecological network. This signifies a forward-thinking and holistic urban development plan that not only addresses climate challenges but also enhances the city’s environmental sustainability and livability.

legenda

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

3 interventions

The project divides the railway track into three areas based on their location within the city. The western area is most affected by strong winds and requires protection and filtering measures.

The center of the stream is an area undergoing transformation called ‘t Zoet. The potential of this area as a disperser was explored through its green-blue network and built area composition.

Filtering

Dispersion

The east stream is essential for welcoming summer’s warm winds. It plays a crucial role in funneling and continuously channeling the winds, while also cooling them down through canopies and water surfaces.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024

Rachel Borovska

Funneling

The West area of Breda’s wind stream is the most exposed to prevailing southwestern winds. Building upon the existing tree framework, houtwallen that were originally established as protective tree lines for the protection of fields and filtering wind streams, the plan further elaborates on the composition of outdoor rooms, carefully shaped by the placement of new trees. This approach not only reinforces the existing green structure but also enhances the creation of diverse sheltered spaces. The introduction of new trees complements the existing ones.

Topography is raised along the lines of the new tree structure. The design of these outdoor rooms serves a dual purpose. Firstly, it provides wind protection, ensuring that the urban space is shielded from strong gusts. This deliberate placement of trees and layered planting helps disperse wind energy and minimizes its impact on the surroundings, creating a more comfortable and inviting atmosphere for residents and visitors alike.

Secondly, the outdoor rooms offer sheltered spaces for wildlife. By carefully considering the needs of local fauna, the plan incorporates habitats within the green areas. These sheltered zones not only enhance biodiversity but also create a sustainable and balanced ecosystem within the urban environment.

The implementation of this proposal opens up opportunities for a variety of programs within the outdoor rooms. These programmable spaces can host recreational activities, and community events, or simply provide serene spots for relaxation. The versatile nature of the design allows for a seamless integration of human-centric and ecological elements, fostering a dynamic and inclusive urban environment.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind rooms West stream area

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Current situation

The current situation has interrupted

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Legenda: Existing trees Wind Stream

Complemented tree structure

Legenda: Tree structure (New + Old)

Strong (Main) Wind Stream

Dispersed Wind Stream

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024

Rachel Borovska

Wind rooms

Planting in the shape of rooms involves arranging vegetation in a way that defines enclosed spaces. These “rooms” can act as natural windbreaks by providing physical barriers that interrupt and redirect the flow of the wind. The enclosed spaces help reduce wind speed within the defined areas, creating more comfortable and sheltered environments.

Legenda:

Legenda: vortex vortex

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam

Legenda:

Legenda:

Woven

“Planting the Edges”: Planting Plan Principle for Wind Protection

The pathway system encourages you to wander through the rooms. The wind rooms are generally twice the height of a mature tree, which reduces the wind between rooms. The pathways run along the tree lines, following the terrain to provide a sheltered experience from the wind.

Legenda

Recreational paths

Legenda

Extending on the existing tree structure allowed for the creation of landscape rooms.

Fast pathways/cyclist routes New Trees Waterways

Existing Trees

Rachel Borovska

Wind rooms to retreat into

The landscape rooms in the west part of Breda create various opportunities for both human activity, enhancing biodiversity and ecology. They provide shelter from the prevailing SW wind direction for human as well as other species. The rooms include a diversity of programme or serve as ecological rooms non accessible for human interventions. These create biodiverse hubs in the middle of the park structure.

Besides human comfort, sheltering from wind is a common behaviour and aspect in landscapes for birds, amphibians and insects. Small polinators and insects such as bees and butterflies seek shelter behind rocks or behind leaves, crevices or behind tree barks. Some mammals hide in burrows, or birds in tree trunks or behind tall grasses.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024

Rachel Borovska

Sheltered from the wind

Bird nest and pollinator room

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

MAINWIND CORRIDOR

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

GICAL ROOM

“Planting the Edges”: Planting Plan Principle for Wind Protection

Planting in the shape of rooms involves arranging vegetation in a way that defines enclosed spaces. These “rooms” can act as natural windbreaks by providing physical barriers that interrupt and redirect the flow of the wind. The enclosed spaces help reduce wind speed within the defined areas, creating more comfortable and sheltered environments.

Layered planting contributes to the creation of microclimates within the landscape. The different vegetation layers create sheltered zones with varied wind speeds, temperatures, and humidity levels. These microclimates provide more suitable conditions for plant growth, animal, bird and insect shelter as well as for outdoor activities and human comfort.

The next layer consists of shrubs and bushes, which play an intermediate role in wind protection. Positioned between tall trees and lower-growing vegetation, shrubs help further break down the wind, reducing its speed and creating a buffer zone. They contribute to the overall wind sheltering effect within the landscape. Perennials and grasses make up the lower layers of layered planting. While they may not provide as much vertical obstruction, their foliage helps in intercepting and slowing down the wind at ground level.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Stream under transformation

The diversity in plant heights adds roughness to the landscape, a concept known as “vegetative roughness.” This roughness disrupts the smooth flow of wind, leading to turbulence and a decrease in wind speed. Perennials and tall grasses contribute to this roughness, especially in the lower layers of the planting. The strongest winds occur during winter and autumn seasons. Tall trees serve as the primary layer in providing wind shelter. Planted strategically, these trees and their branches act as natural windbreaks, intercepting and deflecting the upper layers of wind. They help to create a barrier that absorbs and slows down the wind, preventing it from reaching ground level with full force.

The strongest winds occur during winter and autumn seasons. Tall trees serve as the primary layer in providing wind shelter. Planted strategically, these trees and their branches act as natural windbreaks, intercepting and deflecting the upper layers of wind. They help to create a barrier that absorbs and slows down the wind, preventing it from reaching ground level with full force.

Extending on the existing tree structure allowed for the creation of landscape rooms.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

“Sculpting the City Wind Edges”

Design Principles for Urban Wind Protection

Borovska

“Sculpting the City Wind Edges”

Design Principles for Urban Wind Protection

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam

Rachel Borovska

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam

Rachel Borovska

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

“Planting

the Edges”: Planting Plan Principle for Wind Protection

Borovska

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Wind disperser. Water city

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

The center part of the wind stream along the railway strip in Breda was inspired by an upcoming proposal for the urban development of ‘t Zoet. Instead of working tabula rasa, the framework that comprises various urban axes, anchoring the area in the city by overcoming barriers and establishing connections with surrounding neighborhoods, the city center, and the station became the accelerator.

This area is a high-density development, varying in high contrast in typologies from the typologies in peripheries. The green-blue network previously oriented towards the center opened up an opportunity to tackle the core of the urban heat island. The green-blue grid is expanded to perpendicular directions too, creating a matrix of streets with waterways that can disperse wind to several directions, therefore cooling off not just the neighborhood itself but continuously running through the surrounding neighborhoods too.

In this case, the new development becomes a wind-dispersing machine providing constant cooling in the most vulnerable areas in the future. The water streets have an enhancing effect. Cool air is accelerated on the smooth surfaces of the channels while the shadows of tree canopies avoid overheating of water surfaces and worsening the urban heat effect.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Legenda: Voids Streams

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Porosity facilitates better natural ventilation within urban blocks. Openings and gaps between buildings allow for the free movement of air, promoting air exchange and reducing the stagnation of air masses. Improved ventilation is not only essential for human comfort but also for addressing air quality concerns in urban areas.

Varied permeability levels allow for the creation of sheltered areas, wind-protected zones, and comfortable outdoor spaces, enhancing the overall livability of the urban environment.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

“Guiding

Wind Into the City”: Design Principles for Urban Wind Dispersal

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

“Guiding

Wind Into the City”: Design Principles for Urban Wind Dispersal

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Legenda:

Urban Wind Dispersion

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Legenda:

Legenda:

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind funneling

The development in the eastern part of Breda is strategically focused on optimizing wind flow and ensuring a continuous, uninterrupted airflow. This emphasis is particularly necessary to address the impact of easterly summer winds, which bring warmer air into the city during the summer months. The overarching goal is to combat the urban heat island effect, with ventilation identified as a pivotal element alongside the planting of trees.

Efficient ventilation is crucial for transporting evaporation and effectively cooling warm air. Cities with inadequate ventilation can experience uncomfortable warmth during summer days. The integration of vegetation and carefully planned built structures plays a key role in guiding and enhancing winds within the urban environment.

Water surfaces are recognized for their capacity to act as wind accelerators due to their smooth textures. Incorporating water features into the urban design is seen as a positive contribution to the overall ventilation system. However, it is emphasized that these water surfaces should be strategically shaded to prevent overheating.

The shadows of trees canopies cool warm air down and create perfect microclimates in combination with cool breezes in the open landscape. Another important aspect is the use of topography.

Microtopography influences sunlight exposure, with lower areas providing shade and cooler conditions, while higher spots receive more direct sunlight, affecting temperature differences within a small space. Air movement is affected, as valleys and depressions can guide airflow, facilitating the dispersion of warm air and the entry of cooler air, thereby improving ventilation. Certain microtopographic features, like small depressions or bodies of water, can collect and retain moisture, contributing to evaporation and a cooling effect in the surrounding area.

The variety of microtopographic features supports diverse vegetation patterns. Different types of vegetation provide shading, moisture retention, and transpiration, contributing to a cooler and more resilient microclimate.

Current situation

Complemented tree structure

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Courtyards, as open spaces within built environments, facilitate the natural flow of air, promoting better ventilation and replacing stagnant air with fresher, cooler breezes. This contributes to a more comfortable and breathable urban atmosphere.

Openings between blocks allow for breezes to run through courtyards and hence be cooled by tree canopies or water surfaces. Moreover, courtyards play a crucial role in temperature regulation within urban blocks. By acting as open spaces that allow for the dissipation of heat, they prevent the buildup of hot air. This natural cooling effect becomes especially beneficial during warmer periods, contributing to more pleasant conditions within the urban environment.

Bouwkunst,

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Design Principles and Strategies for Urban Wind Channeling

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Design Principles and Strategies for Urban Wind Channeling

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

of the ‘streams’

The variation in topography creates areas where wind streams can continuously flow. The cooling effect generated by water surfaces contributes to the creation of microclimates in the immediate vicinity. The cooler air over the water can influence the temperature and thermal conditions of the surrounding area. Streams allow wind to continuously fluctuate and cool off over various surfaces, under shadows, accelerate over water surfaces and transport evaporative cool air with them to other areas of the park.

Harnessing the evaporative effect in a shaded area can be achieved by sculpting the topography around water bodies to create a valley-like atmosphere. This design facilitates the passage of cool wind streams, while the interplay of tree shadows effectively moderates temperatures, resulting in a refreshing and distinctive microclimate. Creating a valley effect by raising the topography around water bodies can lead to an evaporative effect in a shaded area. This setup allows cool wind streams to pass through, while the shadows of the trees help mitigate temperatures, resulting in a cooler environment.

cold wind streams valley principle water

Certain microtopographic features, like small depressions or bodies of water, can collect and retain moisture, contributing to evaporation and a cooling effect in the surrounding area. The variety of microtopographic features supports diverse vegetation patterns.

Legenda:

“Planting

the Edges”: Planting Plan Principle for Wind Protection

The planting composition is organized in streams of layered vegetation. on the sides with shrubs and taller trees in the back. These make sure the wind streams are funnel in a “valley” shaped planting scheme.

Breezes are not only beneficial for human comfort during warm days, but it’s also an ecologically important phenomenon. Spiderwebs and seeds, floating in the breeze, butterflies, dragonflies, and certain species of ants engage in wind-driven migration. They take advantage of wind patterns to travel long distances, especially during their reproductive stages. Pollen is carried by the wind to reach other plants and seeds are released to travel long distances.

Railway corridors play a crucial role in ventilating urban environments due to their expansive linear profiles and open surfaces, making them essential in shaping the local climate. They also serve as crucial ecological corridors providing extensive linear migration routes for various wildlife and generate airborne trails for seeds.

Design Principles and Strategies for Urban Wind Channeling

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Design Principles and Strategies for Urban Wind Channeling

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Design Principles and Strategies for Urban Wind Channeling

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024

Rachel Borovska

Wind funneling composition

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam

Rachel Borovska

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Conclusion

EXPLORING THE INVISIBLE

Our cities are constantly affected by natural processes and unseen forces. They themselves are remarkable. Many of the things we do, build, create, and change in our urban environment have a significant impact on our local climates. Understanding the unseen elements such as winds, humidity, evaporation, and heat helps us to adapt. The role of wind for instance, is in regulating temperatures and dispersing heat in urban areas essential. Effective ventilation can transport warm air away from surfaces and facilitate the cooling effects of evaporation from vegetation and water bodies.

Emphasizing wind flow in the design of urban spaces can prevent heat buildup, create more pleasant microclimates, and reduce the need for energy-intensive cooling systems. When reintroducing urban ventilation as a design principle, it should be considered as an equally important element alongside green and blue spaces. While current strategies often prioritize adding green spaces and introducing water features, ventilation remains underutilized in urban planning.

WIND LIKE WATER

Guiding winds and designing for them should be as integral to urban planning as designing with water. Just as water features are used to create cooling streams and pleasant urban landscapes, wind has specific trajectories that can be studied and harnessed for urban benefits.

Understanding and integrating wind patterns into urban design can significantly enhance heat mitigation strategies. Like water, wind follows predictable paths influenced by the landscape and structures. Besides cooling, wind is an essential ecological tool, without which many species would decline.

SCULPTING WITH THE WIND

By incorporating wind patterns into design considerations, cities can enhance natural cooling, reduce the urban heat island effect, and improve overall air quality. In this project, my aim was to emphasize the importance of incorporating wind considerations into urban planning, complementing other heat mitigation strategies.

Trees and buildings both work simultaneously like barriers. By positioning them strategically, it’s posible to align with prevailing wind patterns, amplifying their cooling effects. Similarly, strategic placement of waterbodies, the sculpting of topography can optimize wind-driven evaporation and enhance cooling.

To create resilient and livable cities, it is essential to adopt a holistic approach that includes ventilation as an equually important component. Wind influences the formation of microclimates, small areas

with distinct climate conditions. By affecting temperature, moisture, and airflow, wind helps create diverse habitats that support various plant and animal species.

SEEDS AND SPIDERS IN THE AIR

Wind functions as an essential ecological stream with a crucial role in the natural environment and airborrne-ecology. As a natural transporter for seeds and pollen, wind aids in the reproduction and spread of various plant species. This process, known as anemochory for seeds and anemophily for pollen, is vital for maintaining plant biodiversity and ecosystem health. Apart from seeds and pollen, wind also disperses spores from fungi and other microorganisms, as well as small insects or spiders. This contributes to spreading species across different areas, helping to maintain ecological balance and genetic diversity.

As last, us humans are not the only ones who seek for comfort in too hot days. Fluctuating temperatures have a major impact on various biotopes and can disrupt the balance of the entire system. Breeding patterns and behavior of various species can be affected too which might lead to potential population declines, habitat loss and degradation.

As climate-related concerns are increasing in intensity and frequency, it’s important for us, landscape architects, architects, and urbanists to recognize our role in shaping the uncontrollable.

“By feeling, breathing, and touching architecture and its landscape, by opening our buildings more to the wind and sounds, a new topology of architecture could be born into something never before conceived of, in which landscape could regain a central role,”

Christophe Girot

The following pages of the appendix contain essential research materials and methods that were crucial for the completion of this graduation project.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Wind Woven

Koppen Climate Classification

The Köppen climate classification system is widely used to categorize the world’s climates based on average temperature and precipitation. The classification “Cfb” refers to a specific type of temperate climate, and it can be described as follows:

- C: Signifies a temperate or mesothermal climate with moderate temperatures and minimal seasonal variations. The coldest month has an average temperature between -3°C (26.6°F) and 18°C (64.4°F), while the warmest month averages above 10°C (50°F).

- f: Indicates a fully humid climate without a dry season, with precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year.

Köppen classification

- b: Refers to a warm summer, where the warmest month has an average temperature below 22°C (71.6°F), but there are at least four months with average temperatures above 10°C (50°F).

In summary, a Cfb climate is characterized by mild temperatures, consistent precipitation, and warm but not excessively hot summers. This type of climate is typical of regions such as parts of Western Europe (including much of the United Kingdom, France, and Germany), parts of New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

LCZ/ Legenda for Climatopes

Source: Bechtel, Benjamin, Paul J. Alexander, Jürgen Böhner, Jason Ching, Olaf Conrad, Johannes Feddema, Gerald Mills, Linda See, and Iain Stewart. 2015. “Mapping Local Climate Zones for a Worldwide Database of the Form and Function of Cities” ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 4, no. 1: 199-219. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi4010199

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Appendix

Research method 1: Simulation Houdini

An important phase while researching wind patterns involved creating wind simulations. Although Houdini is not yet an established scientific program like Envi-Met, it has proven to be a useful tool for simulating and visualizing wind patterns at various heights. The heights specified include human height (1.75m), intermediate heights between obstacles (5-10m), and higher elevations (30m), which are crucial for measuring vortices and wind disturbances around high-rise buildings or tall tree canopies.

In the specific areas studied within Breda, there were no high-rise structures in the urban fabric. This allowed for focused analysis of wind behavior without the interference of tall buildings, providing clearer insights into how wind interacts with tree canopies. Using Houdini, it was possible to simulate and observe how wind moves through these spaces, aiding in the development of strategies to optimize urban ventilation and reduce potential wind-related issues.

Wind simulation (Houdini)

Station square

legenda

obstacle/mass

strong wind velocity

medium wind velocity

low wind velocity

Wind simulation (Houdini) Area in east railway stream

legenda

obstacle/mass

strong wind velocity

medium wind velocity low wind velocity

By simulating wind patterns at human height, it’s possible to observe how wind affects pedestrians and ground-level activities. Simulations at 5-10 meters high provide insights into wind behavior between buildings and other mid-height structures, which is crucial for urban planning and ensuring comfortable living conditions.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Observation

In general, wind speeds are slowed down by obstacles. Depending on the height of the obstacle, it usually takes about 2 times the height of the obstacle for the winds to pick up speed again. As a result, areas just behind an obstacle are usually the least windy and most protected spots.

Both trees and buildings work similarly. For more precise modeling it would be important to specify the porosity of various trees!

Wind simulation (Houdini)

West railway stream

legenda

obstacle/mass

strong wind velocity

medium wind velocity

low wind velocity

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Appendix

Research method 2: Simulation Envi-Met | Location 1

During my graduation project, I utilized ENVI-met, a microclimate modeling software, to simulate and analyze the environmental impacts on a test site in Breda. This tool proved to be invaluable in helping me understand the intricate interactions between various elements of urban environments and their influence on local climates.

Through ENVI-Met it was possible to simultaneously consider factors such as buildings, vegetation, surface materials, and atmospheric conditions, providing insights into how these elements affect local temperature, humidity, wind patterns, and pollutant dispersion. It proved to be a uuseful tool to understand complex interactions between various urban elements and their impacts on local climate conditions.

3D model for simulation with applied materials such as soil, tree species, water surfaces, and building materials

Test location

Housing Block Vegetation

Disclaimer: The materialization might, in some places, differ from the actual conditions of the test location. The purpose of this model was to experiment with different material palettes and observe their thermodynamic performance.

Water surface Paving (Brick)

Potential air temperature

The PET, or Physiological Equivalent Temperature, is a thermal index used to indicate the temperature that a person would perceive in an indoor environment with no wind and a specific humidity level, assuming their heat balance were the same as in the actual outdoor environment. It is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) and provides an equivalent temperature that reflects human thermal sensation.

Observation

The simulated scenario unfolds at noon, revealing that warmth tends to cluster around the building plinth and its surrounding paved areas. Along the waterfront, the presence of vegetation diminishes the temperature by nearly 9 degrees Celsius. Moreover, the solitary tree in the courtyard plays a remarkable role in alleviating heat, both at the facade and below it.

Research method 2: Simulation Envi-Met | Location 2

The second model was tested in a larger area of crops compared to the previous model. A crop measuring approximately 300x400m was used to study the variations in a larger urban setup, which included multiple housing blocks rather than focusing on just one block. This simulation mainly focused on windspeeds and humidity.

3D model for simulation with applied materials such as soil, tree species, water surfaces, and building materials

Disclaimer: The materialization might, in some places, differ from the actual conditions of the test location. The purpose of this model was to experiment with different material palettes and observe their thermodynamic performance.

Open soil Vegetation, Tree lanes Paving surface, Asphalt

A humidity model is compared in two time slots: 6:00 am in the morning and 4:00 pm in the afternoon. It can be observed that the humidity is highest in the streets with three lanes in the morning.

The morning hours may experience lower wind speeds, leading to less dispersion of moisture and thus higher humidity levels. Temperatures

Humidity 06:00 morning

The second model was tested in a larger area of crops compared to the previous model. A crop measuring approximately 300x400m was used to study the variations in a larger urban setup, which included multiple housing blocks rather than focusing on just one block. This simulation mainly focused on windspeeds and humidity.

Wind speed 12.00

in general fluctuate between day and night, with the morning being cooler and causing moisture to condense, resulting in higher humidity levels. As a result, at 16:00, the air becomes very dry, except for the humid, vegetated areas in the shadow of buildings or open soil.

Humidity 16:00 afterrnoon

Research method 3: Educated guess Wind patterns per neighbourhood morphology & Climatope

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Source: Breda Archive, Aerial view, City Centre

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Source: Breda Archive, Aerial view, Emmer Zuid

Appendix

Research method 4: Comparative Analysis | Climatope

A climatope map portrays the various climate zones present within a city. Sanda Lenzholzer’s research defines climatope maps as a rep resentation of the ‘climatope concept,’ which indicates that different areas and districts within a city exhibit distinct microclimatic charac teristics. This includes factors such as the impact of building structure, vegetation, soil surfaces, and human-made heat in different parts of the city. The urban building structure, density, and types of vegetation and materials play a crucial role in determining climatope classification.

The city center of Breda and the area extending northward alongside the river are the most susceptible to overheating on a city scale. This is largely attributed to the presence of industry along the riverbank and the historical center located at the core of the radially shaped city. Both of these areas are predominantly paved and have minimal vegetation.

The comparison highlights the different challenges that each city faces based on their structure, urban design, layout, and location within the landscape. This means that each city needs a tailored

Legenda

Breda

Legenda

‘cool’ spine

Haagse Beemden

Appendix

Research method 4: Comparative Analysis | Roughness

A roughness map is a type of map that shows the degree of rough ness or variation in land cover or terrain within a particular area. The map typically uses different colors or shades to represent areas of high and low roughness.

In the context of wind modeling and analysis, roughness maps are used to help predict how wind flows and behaves within a given area. Roughness is an important factor in determining wind speeds and turbulence, and is influenced by features such as vegetation, buildings, and topography.

A mosaic of roughness

Dense city grid

Edges of gliding surface

Measured wind speed at 10 m height

Average 6.9 m/s

The wind speed is higher in the winter months as compared to other seasons. Spikes in December, January, and February, which resemble instances of extreme wind speeds. Possible wind streams

Source: https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/

Measured wind speed at 10 m height

Average 7.59 m/s

Measured wind speed

Average 6.76 m/s

Measured wind speed at 10 m height

Average 6.76 m/s

Measured wind speed at 10 m height

Average 7.51 m/s

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Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric

Appendix

Research method 4: Comparative Analysis | Street orientation

Street orientation

The radial case

This study measures the entropy (or disordered-ness) of street bearings in each street network, along with each city’s typical street segment length, average circuity, average node degree, and the network’s proportions of four-way intersections and dead-ends. It also develops a new indicator of orientation-order that quantifies how a city’s street network follows the geometric ordering logic of a single grid. These indicators, taken in concert, reveal the extent and nuance of the grid.

The diagram is a result of OpenStreetMap data and OSMNx for modeling and visualization. The python code has been obtained from Geoff Boeing’s urban street orientation analysis.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

The Orthogonal case

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Appendix

Research method 4: Comparative Analysis | Prevailing wind direction

Wind direction

Average Average 6-10.7m/s

Prevailing annual wind direction above 10m, Den Haag, year 2022

source:NASA/https://power.larc.nasa.gov/da ta-access-viewer/

Prevailing wind during July-August 2022

In order to be able to work with the wind directions, prevailing directions need to be determined. This has been achieved through a python coding from the data of NASA on the specific locations.

Two general studies have been made - an average yearly direction and a summer season during the span of the months of July and August 2022.

Average 5.1-8.6m/s

Prevailing annual wind direction above 10m, Breda, year 2022

source:NASA/https://power.larc.nasa.gov/da ta-access-viewer/

Prevailing Utrecht,

source:NASA/https://power.larc.nasa.gov/da ta-access-viewer/

Prevailing wind during July-August 2022

Prevailing

In all study cases the prevailing SW wind direction is visible. The city with the average slowest wind is Breda, while Den Haag and Zaandam are leading in th ehighest averag wind speed.

Average 5.7-9.3 m/s

Prevailing annual wind direction above 10m, Utrecht, year 2022

source:NASA/https://power.larc.nasa.gov/da ta-access-viewer/

Average 6.5-10.3 m/s

Prevailing annual wind direction above 10m, Zaandam year 2022

source:NASA/https://power.larc.nasa.gov/da ta-access-viewer/

Prevailing wind during July-August 2022

Prevailing wind during July-August 2022

Benedito, Silvia. 2019. Atmosphere Anatomies. On Design, Weather, and Sensation. Ennetbaden: Lars Müller Verlag.

Brabant, Municipality of Breda and Province of North. 2022. “Breda’s New Sweet Promise.” ArcGIS StoryMaps. October 20, 2022. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/collections/ecc2718e77854edea2dfc98d02c973d5?item=1.

“Biodiversity impact and ecosystem services,” Government of the Netherlands, published November 11, 2022. https://www.government.nl/ topics/nature-and-biodiversity/documents/reports/2021/08/05/biodiversi- ty-impact-and-ecosystem-service-dependencies.

Boeing, Geoff, Exploring Urban Form Through Openstreetmap Data: A Visual Introduction (August 25, 2020). In: Urban Experience and Design: Contemporary Perspectives on Improving the Public Realm (pp. 167-184), edited by J. Hollander and A. Sussman. Abingdon, England: Routledge. ISBN 9780367435554., Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3680845 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3680845

Bridle, James. Ways of Being: Beyond Human Intelligence. London: Penguin UK, 2022.

“C40 Knowledge Community.” n.d. Www.c40knowledgehub.org. https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/Heat-How-to-expand-your-citys-tree-canopy-cover?language=en_US.

Carver, Steve. “(Re)creating wilderness: rewilding and habitat restoration,” in The Routledge Companion to Landscape Studies. New York: Routledge, 2012. https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/ oso/9780198844037.001.0001/oso-9780198844037-chapter-5. Challe,Tiffany. “The Rights of Nature – Can an Ecosystem Bear Legal Rights?”, published April 22, 2021. https://news.climate.columbia. edu/2021/04/22/rights-of-nature-lawsuits/.

Coutts, Andrew, and Nigel Tapper. n.d. “Trees for a Cool City: Guidelines for Optimised Tree Placement.” https://watersensitivecities.org.au/ wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Trees-for-a-cool-city_Guidelines-for-optimised-tree-placement.pdf.

Cortesao, J. et al (2018) Creating prototypes for cooling urban water bodies. WUR, HVA

Europan Brief.

Fabiano. 2017. Green Wedge Urbanism. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Fromonot Françoise, Martin Basdevant, Imbert Dorothée, Gilles A. Tiberghien, and Patrick Faigenbaum. 2020. Transforming Landscapes : Michel Desvigne Paysagiste. Basel: Birkhäuser.

Furtak,Anthony Rick.“Henry David Thoreau,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. published June 30, 2005, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ thoreau/#NatuHumaExis.

Jacobs, C., Klok, L., Bruse, M., Cortesão, J., Lenzholzer, S., & Kluck, J. (2020). Are urban water bodies really cooling? Urban Climate, 32(100607). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100607

Jackson, John Brinckerhoff. Landscapes: Selected Writings of J.B.Jackson, ed. Ervin H. Zube. Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press: 1970

Klaus Loenhart. 2017. Breathe.

Lenzholzer, Sanda. 2015. Weather in the City : How Design Shapes the Urban Climate. Rotterdam: Nai010 Publishers.

Lenzholzer, Sanda, Wiebke Klemm, and Carolina Vasilikou. 2018. “Qualitative Methods to Explore Thermo-Spatial Perception in Outdoor Urban Spaces.” Urban Climate 23 (March): 231–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2016.10.003.

Klemm, Wiebeke. Clever and cool; Generating design guidelines for climate responsive urban green infrastructure.PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, 2018.

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Krogh, Marianne. Connectedness: Encyclopedia of the Anthropocene. ed. Marianne Krogh, Copenhagen: Strand- berg publishing, 2021. Maiullari, Daniela, Marjolein Pijpers-van Esch, and Arjan Van Timmeren. 2021. “A Quantitative Morphological Method for Mapping Local Climate Types.” Urban Planning 6 (3): 240–57. https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v6i3.4223.

Mareike Krautheim. 2014. City and Wind : Climate as an Architectural Instrument. Berlin: Dom Publishers. Reed, Chris, and Nina-Marie E Lister. 2014. Projective Ecologies. Cambridge: Harvard University Graduate School Of Design ; New York.

Reinout Rutte, Jaap Evert Abrahamse, Otto Diesfeldt, Technische Universiteit Delft. Faculteit Bouwkunde, Països Baixos. Rijksdienst Voor Het Cultureel Erfgoed, and Et Al. 2016. Atlas of the Dutch Urban Landscape : A Millenium of Spatial Development. Bussum: Thoth.

Roesler, Sascha. 2022. City, Climate, and Architecture. Birkhaüser.

Roesler, Sascha, Madlen Kobi, and Lorenzo Stieger. 2022. Coping with Urban Climates. Birkhäuser.

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

“Measuring Biodiversity.” 2021. Openresearch.amsterdam. August 31, 2021. https://openresearch.amsterdam/nl/page/72549/measuring-biodiversity. “Measuring Biodiversity.” 2021. Openresearch.amsterdam. August 31, 2021. https://openresearch.amsterdam/nl/page/72549/measuring-biodiversity.

“Overzicht van Alle Bomen van Nederland.” n.d. Boomregister.nl. https://boomregister.nl/overzichtskaart-van-de-bomen-in-nederland/.

Shrestha, Himalaya Bir. 2022. “Wind Energy Physics and Resource Assessment with Python.” Medium. January 25, 2022. https://towardsdatascience.com/wind-energy-physics-and-resource-assessment-with-python-789a0273e697.

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Trees:

“ArcGIS Web Application.” n.d. Gu-Geo.maps.arcgis.com. Accessed February 26, 2024. https://gu-geo.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/ index.html?id=fc5af2aed5244703857e4e602b478178.

Biotope mapping Hamburg city example: “Geo-Online.” n.d. Geoportal-Hamburg.de. Accessed February 26, 2024. https://geoportal-hamburg.de/geo-online/?Map/layerIds=12883.

“Beleid Voor Omgaan Met Klimaatverandering | Gemeente Utrecht - Omgevingsvisie.” n.d. Omgevingsvisie.utrecht.nl. Accessed February 26, 2024. https://omgevingsvisie.utrecht.nl/thematisch-beleid/beleid-voor-omgaan-met-klimaatverandering/.

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“FIS-Broker.” n.d. Fbinter.stadt-Berlin.de. Accessed February 26, 2024. https://fbinter.stadt-berlin.de/fb/index.jsp?loginkey=showMap&mapId=k_fb_berlinbtk@senstadt.

Wind: https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/

115 Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024 | Rachel Borovska

Acknowledgements

I extend my sincere gratitude to my committee for the inspirational talks, insightful input and support.

Gert-Jan Wisse, Nikol Dietz, and René van der Velde

I also wish to express my heartfelt appreciation to both heads of the Landscape Department for their guidance and advice during my time at the academy.

Hanneke Kijne & Joost Emmerik

For keeping up with the production, fueling the days with endless conversations and especially for being the steady rock in the windy days, special thanks to

Emanuele Paladin

For simulations, opportunity to join courses and testing, for flexibility and inspiring input

Alejandro Fuentesarias

Daniella Maiiullari

To the amazing colleagues, friends, at Boom Landscape where the project reached its final outcome and to everyone who has been part of this journey, I hope this piece of work inspired you as much as it inspired me.

Wind Woven | Ecological restoration of Breda’s urban fabric through wind

Landscape Architecture Department

Academie van Bouwkunst, Amsterdam 2023-2024

Rachel Borovska

Mentor |

Gert-Jan Wisse

Committee members | Nikol Dietz, René van der Velde

Fnal examination

Additional commitee members

Ziega van den Berk, Marit Janse