History and Archaeology at the Mann-Simons Site (2012) by Columbia Archaeology Program

HI S TORYAND ARCHAEOLOGY ATTHEMANNS I MONSS I TE

J a k o bD.Cr o c k e t t

Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n

Co py r i g htÂ© 2012b yHi s t o r i cCo l umb i aFo unda t i o n S o meRi g ht sRe s e r v e d.Thi swo r ki sl i c e ns e dunde rt heCr e a t i v eCo mmo ns At t r i but i o nNo nCo mme r c i a l No De r i v s3. 0Unpo r t e dLi c e ns e .Tov i e wac o pyo f t hi sl i c e ns e ,v i s i tht t p: / / c r e a t i v e c o mmo ns . o r g / l i c e ns e s / by nc nd/ 3. 0/ .

Fo ri nf o r ma t i o nc o nt a c t : Hi s t o r i cCo l umb i aFo unda t i o n 1601Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t Co l umbi a ,S o ut hCa r o l i na29201U. S . A.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS THE compl e t i o no fa nyl o ng t e r m pr o j e c ti sde pe nde ntupo nt he c o nt r i but i o nso famul t i t udeo fi ndi v i dua l s .Ia mi nde bt e dt oRo bi n Wa i t e s ,Ex e c ut i v eDi r e c t o ro fHi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n,a ndJ o hn S he r r e r ,Di r e c t o ro fCul t ur a lRe s o ur c e s .No to nl ydi dt he yl e tmedi g ho l e sa ndpl a c el a r g epi l e sdi r ta l lo v e rt he i rpr o pe r t yf o rt woy e a r s( a nd wa i ta no t he ry e a rf o rt heg r a s st og r o w ba c k ) ,s i mpl yput :t hi spr o j e c t wo ul dno tha v eha ppe ne dwi t ho utt he i rs uppo r ta ndwi l l i ng ne s st ot a k ea c ha nc eo n my i de a s .Fr o m t heb e g i nni ng ,Ro bi ns a w po t e nt i a li n a r c ha e o l o g yf o r( r e ) i nt e r pr e t i ngt heMa nnS i mo nsS i t e ;o v e rt hey e a r ss he t ur ne dt ha tpo t e nt i a li nt oo ppo r t uni t i e sf o rpa r t i c i pa t i o na nde duc a t i o n t ha tg owe l lbe y o nda r c ha e o l o g y .Thi spr o j e c two ul dbea ni mpo v e r i s he d v e r s i o no fwha ti ti swi t ho utJ o hn' ss uppo r ta ndf r i e nds hi p.Myt hi nk i ng e x pa nde da ndi mpr o v e di mme a s ur a bl edu r i ngt hema ny ,ma nyho ur so f c o nv e r s a t i o nsweha v eha do v e rt hepa s ts e v e ny e a r s . Wo r dsf a l ls ho r to ft hec o nt r i but i o nsa ndi mpa c tme mb e r so fmy di s s e r t a t i o nc o mmi t t e eha do nmyt hi nk i ng :Ke nKe l l y ,AnnKi ng s o l v e r , J o a nnaCa s e y ,EdCa r ra ndKi mS i mmo ns . Thec o mpl e t i o no ff i e l dwo r ki n2005i sadi r e c tr e s ul to fJ o s e ph Cr o c k e t t ' st i mea nde f f o r t s .Thee x t e nto ff i e l dwo r kc o mpl e t e di n2006 a nd2007wo ul dno tha v eha ppe ne dwi t ho utt hehe l po fHe l ĂŠ naFe r g us o n. J o s e phJ o hns o nwa sa ni nt e g r a lpa r to ft he2012e x c a v a t i o ns .Iha dt he pr i v i l e g eo fdi r e c t i ngt hr e ef i e l ds c ho o l sa tt hes i t edur i ngMa y2006 ,Fa l l 2006a ndMa y2007 .Amul t i t udeo fi ndi v i dua l sv o l unt e e r e di nt hef i e l d a ndl a b.The i rha r dwo r k ,i nt e r e s ta nde x c i t e me ntma def o rab e t t e r pr o j e c t . Lo ng t e r m pr o j e c t sdono tha ppe nwi t ho utf undi ng .It ha nkt he f o l l o wi ngo r g a ni z a t i o nsf o rt he i rf i na nc i a ls uppo r t :Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi a Fo unda t i o ns uppo r t e dt hi spr o j e c twi t hmo ne ya ndr e s o ur c e ss i nc et he be g i nni ng ;t heUni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i naDe pa r t me nto fAnt hr o po l o g y s uppo r t e dt hepr o j e c twi t ht hr e es umme rr e s e a r c hg r a nt s ;TheHuma ni t i e s

iii

Co unc i lS C,a Na t i o na lEndo wme ntf o rt he Huma ni t i e spr o g r a m, pr o v i de df undi ngf o rt hef i r s ts e a s o no fe x c a v a t i o n;a ndt heHe nr yFr a nc i s du Po nt Wi nt e r t hur Mus e um g r a nt e d me a Mc Ne i lDi s s e r t a t i o n Fe l l o ws hi pf o rr e s i de nts t udydur i ngf a l l s e me s t e r2007 . Io weade e pa ppr e c i a t i o nt oKe l s e yHa nr a ha n,whopa t i e nt l y l i s t e ne dt oe ndl e s si nc a r na t i o nso fi de a sc o nt a i ne d he r e i n,a nd Ma r k Cr o c k e t t ,whono to nl yv o l unt e e r e dhi st i me ,k no wl e dg ea nds k i l l st o bui l dt heg ho s ts t r uc t ur e s ,butt a ug htmet obec ur i o usa bo utt hewo r l d a ndne v e rs t o pl e a r ni ng .

CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i i FI GURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i 1 I NTRODUCTI ON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 THEMANNS I MONSF AMI LY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3 I NHERI TED CI RCUMS TANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4 ARCHAEOLOGYATMANNS I MONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 5 THELUNCH COUNTER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 6 PROPERTY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 7 TECHNOLOGYAND I NFRAS TRUCTURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 8 FI REARMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 9 MEDI CI NESAND ALCOHOL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 10 CATS, DOGS, RACCOONSAND ACHI CKEN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 11 HEALTH AND S ANI TATI ON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 12 MANUFACTURI NG HI S TORY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 APPENDI XA. S UMMARYOFARTI FACTS , FEATURE12 T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 I NDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

FI GURES 11403RI CHLAND S TREETTODAY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2AGNESJ ACKS ON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3HATTI E( J ACKS ON) RI CHARDS ON. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 41872BI RD' SE YEVI EW MAPOFCOLUMBI A, S C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 51407RI CHLAND S TREET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 61904MARI ON S TREET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 71904S ANBORN F I REI NS URANCEMAPOFCOLUMBI A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 8MANNS I MONSHERI TAGETOURI S MS I TE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 9FI ELD S CHOOL, MAY2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 10ADVERTI S EMENTFORRI S I NG S UN S TOVEP OLI S H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 11PLACEMENTCARD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 121998EXCAVATI ON UNI TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 13S HOVELTES TPI TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 14EXCAVATI ON UNI TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 15S I TES TRATI GRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 16LUNCH COUNTEREXCAVATI ONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 17LUNCH COUNTEREXCAVATI ONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 18THOMASHOUSTON I NCANDES CENTLI GHTBULB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

19LUNCH COUNTERBRI CKDRAI N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 20EXCAVATI ONSOFTHEORI GI NALHOUS E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 21S ANBORN F I REI NS URANCECOMPANYMAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 22FRONTYARD PLANTI NG S PACESAND WALKWAY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 23FI ELD S CHOOL, MAY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 24CI RCAMI D1890STRASH PI T. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 25S TOREI NL OWERWAVERLY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 26AMMUNI TI ON US EOVERTI ME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 27COCKED AND LOADED . 22CALI BERPI S TOL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 28PHARMACEUTI CALBOTTLESOVERTI ME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 29PHARMACEUTI CALV. ALCOHOLBOTTLESOVERTI ME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 30S KELETON OFS MALLDOG BURI ED I N THEBACKYARD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 31S KELETON OFACHI CKEN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 321403RI CHLAND S TREET, EARLY1 970S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 33GHOSTSTRUCTURESATTHEMANNS I MONSS I TE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 341904MARI ON S TREETGHOS TS TRUCTURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

vii

CHAPTER1

I NTRODUCTI ON ON t heno r t he a s tc o r ne ro fRi c hl a nda ndMa r i o ns t r e e t s ,i ndo wnt o wn Co l umbi a ,S o ut hCa r o l i na ,s i t saf u r ni s he dho us es ur r o unde dbyawhi t e pi c k e tf e nc e .Noo nel i v e st he r e .To ur i s t st a k eg ui de dt o ur so ft heho us e ; ne i g hbo r ho o dr e s i de nt st a k ea dv a nt a g eo ft heg r e e ns pa c eb e hi nd( Fi g ur e 1) .Fe wne i g hbo r ho o dr e s i de nt sha v ee v e rbe e ni ns i de .Mo s tl o c a l sk no w t heho us eha ss o me t hi ngt odowi t hAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns ,butf e wc a nr e c o untmo r et ha nt heo ne l i nehi s t o r yt ha tha sb e c o met heme a ni ngo f , a nd r e a s o nf o r ,t hi sho us emus e um:“ Fo r me r l yo wne dbyCe l i aMa nni n1850 , t hi sho us ema r k e dt hebe g i nni ngo fhe rl i f ea f t e rs hebo ug hthe rf r e e do m 1 i nCha r l e s t o na ndwa l k e dt os o v e r e i g nt y . ” Ye tt heho us ea ndy a r da nd f o r me ro c c upa nt sha v et hepo t e nt i a lt ot e l lar i c ha ndnua nc e ds t o r yo ft he t ur no f t he 20 t hc e nt ur y —api v o t a lpe r i o di nAme r i c a nhi s t o r yt ha ts e t t hes t a g ef o rmul t i pl ec i v i lr i g ht smo v e me nt sa ndo urg l o ba l i z e dc ul t ur eo f 2 c o ns umpt i o nt o da y . Thi sbo o ki sba s e do na r c ha e o l o g yc o nduc t e da tt heMa nnS i mo nsS i t e .Dur i nge x c a v a t i o nspa s s e r s bywo ul do f t e na s k ,‘ Whya r c ha e o l o g y ? ’Af t e ra l l ,do c ume nt st e l lusa bo utl a t e19t ha nde a r l y20t hc e nt ur y Ame r i c ai ng r e a tde t a i l —t hes t r ug g l e so fl a bo runi o ns ,t hede v e l o pme nto f na t i o na la dv e r t i s i nga ndbr a ndna me s ,t hea dv e nta nda v a i l a bi l i t yo fho me 1

Co l umbi aMe t r o po l i t a nCo nv e nt i o na ndVi s i t o r sBur e a u,Co l u mb i a :2009Of f i c i a lVi s i t o r sGu i d e( J o ur na l Co mmuni c a t i o nsI nc . :Fr a nk l i n,Te nne s s e e ,2009) ,54 .

Fo ramo r ei nde pt hdi s c us s i o no ft het o pi c spr e s e nt e dhe r ea ndma nyo t he r s ,pl e a s es e e Cr o c k e t t ,J a k o bD. ,‘ ADe mo c r a c yo fGo o d s ’ :AnAr c h a e o l o g yo fCo mmo d i t yLa nd s c a p e si n Co l u mb i a ,S o u t hCa r o l i n a ,1870–1930( Co l umbi a :Uni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i na ,2011) . Fo rde t a i l e di nf o r ma t i o na bo utt hea r c ha e o l o g i c a le x c a v a t i o ns ,pl e a s es e eCr o c k e t t ,J a k o b D. ,Ar c h a e o l o g ya tt h eMa nnS i mo n sS i t e( 38RD1083 ) :Fi n a lRe p o r t( Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi a Fo unda t i o n,2012) .Mo r ei nf o r ma t i o nma ya l s obef o undbyv i s i t i ngt heHi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o nwe bs i t ea twww. hi s t o r i c c o l umbi a . o r g .

FIGURE 1.1403RI CHLAND S TREET,LOOKI NG S OUTH AT THEBACK OFTHEHOUS E. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

e l e c t r i c i t ya ndt e l e pho ne s ,J i m Cr o wl e g i s l a t i o na ndpo l i t i c a le x c l us i o n, t heg r o wt ho fur ba nc e nt e r s .Anddo c ume nt st e l lusmuc ha bo utt hef a mi l ywhol i v e do nt hepr o pe r t y .Wek no wBe nDe La newa sbo r ne ns l a v e d i nCha r l e s t o ni n1800a ndmo v e dt oCo l umbi abyt he1830s .Hebo ug ht t hepr o pe r t yt ha two ul dbe c o met heMa nnS i mo nsS i t ei n1843 .Hi swi f e , Ce l i aMa nn,a l s obo r ne ns l a v e di nCha r l e s t o ni n1799,wo ul dj o i nBe ni n Co l umbi aby1837.Wek no wCe l i apa s s e da wa yi n1867 ;t ha ts hehe l pe d f o undt heCa l v a r yBa pt i s tChur c hi nCo l umbi a ;t ha tt hr e eo fhe rf o ur 3 da ug ht e r smo v e dt oBo s t o na ndc r o s s e dt hec o l o rl i ne ; a ndhe rr e ma i ni ng da ug ht e r ,Ag ne sJ a c k s o n,i nhe r i t e dt heho us ea ndpr o pe r t y .Do c ume nt s t e l lust ha tAg ne s ’ sc hi l dr e nwe r ea c t i v ec hur c hme mb e r s ,Fr e e ma s o nsa nd a ppr e nt i c e di nt het a i l o r i ngt r a de .The yr a nag r o c e r ys t o r ea ndal unc h 3

Thec o l o rl i nei saphr a s er e f e r r i ngt ot her a c i a ldi v i di ngl i net ha te x i s t e di nt heUni t e d S t a t e sa f t e rt hea bo l i t i o no fs l a v e r y .I tr e f l e c t sadua lme a ni ng :t hef i r s tr e f l e c t sac o l o rl i ne c r e a t e dbyt hel a w,a ndt heo t he rr e f l e c t st hed ef a c t odi s pa r i t ybe t we e nl i f ef o rAf r i c a n Ame r i c a nsa ndl i f ef o ro t he rc i t i z e ns .Cr o s s i ngt hec o l o rl i ner e f e r st ot r a ns c e ndi ngt hedi v i dea nd“ pa s s i ng ”a swhi t e .Fr e de r i c kDo ug l a s sf i r s tus e dt hephr a s ea st het i t l ef o ra na r t i c l epubl i s he di nt heNo r t hAme r i c a nRe v i e wi n1881 .W. E. B.DuBo i s ,i nTh eS o u l so f Bl a c kFo l k( 1903) ,wr o t e :" Thi sme a ni ngi sno twi t ho uti nt e r e s tt oy o u,Ge nt l eRe a de r ;f o r t hepr o bl e mo ft heTwe nt i e t hCe nt ur yi st hepr o bl e mo fc o l o rl i ne . "

c o unt e r ,bo ug ht ,s o l da ndr e nt e dho us e sa ndpr o pe r t i e s .The i rde s c e nda nt sr e ma i ne da tt heho us eunt i l1970,whe nt heCo l umbi aHo us i ngAu4 t ho r i t ybo ug htt hepr o pe r t yt hr o ug he mi ne ntdo ma i n. Buto nl ya r c ha e o l o g yr e v e a l st heda y t o da yl i v e so ft hef a mi l y :wha tt he ya t e ,bo ug ht , ma de ,r e pa i r e d, ho wt he ydr e s s e d, t hes c a l eo ft he i rbus i ne s spur s ui t s ,wha t t he ys e r v e da tt hel unc hc o unt e r ,a ndho wt hi sma t e r i a lwo r l dc ha ng e d o v e rt i me .Ar c ha e o l o g ya nddo c ume nt st o g e t he ra f f o r dusa no ppo r t uni t y t oa s kno to nl yh o wt he i rma t e r i a lwo r l dc ha ng e di nt a nde m wi t hl o c a l a ndna t i o na ls o c i e t a lc ha ng e s ,buta l s owh a tt he s ec ha ng e smi g htha v e me a ntf o rt hef a mi l ya ndwh a tt he s ec ha ng e smi g htt e l l usa bo uto urwo r l d t o da y . Thi si sas t o r yo fCo l umbi at hr o ug ht hee x pe r i e nc e so fo ne Af r i c a nAme r i c a nf a mi l yt ha tl i v e do nt hi spr o pe r t yf o rne a r l y150y e a r s . I ti sas t o r ya bo ute v e r y da y ,o f t e no v e r l o o k e da ndr a r e l yt ho ug hto fo bj e c t s ;a bo utt her o l e so ft he s eo bj e c t si nda y t o da yl i f ea nde v e r y da yr o ut i ne s ;a bo uto nef a mi l y ,t he i rpo s s e s s i o nsa ndt hel o c a l ,r e g i o na la ndna t i o na ls o c i a le nv i r o nme ntwi t hi nwhi c ht he yma det he i rl i v e s ;a ndf i na l l y , i ti sas t o r ya bo utusa ndt hewa y si nwhi c hwec o ns t r uc thi s t o r y . TheMa nnS i mo nsAr c ha e o l o g yPr o j e c tb e g a ni n2005a st hea ut ho r ' sdo c t o r a ldi s s e r t a t i o na tt heUni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i na ,Co l umbi a wi t hi nt heDe pa r t me nto fAnt hr o po l o g y .Ho we v e r ,t heMa nnS i mo ns pr o pe r t y ' ss hi f tf r o m pr i v a t et opubl i cs pa c ebe g a no n29De c e mbe r , 1972,whe nRo bbi eAt k i ns o n( g r e a t g r e a t g r a ndda ug ht e ro fCe l i aMa nn) r e a da na r t i c l ei nTh eS t a t ene ws pa pe ra bo utt hei mpe ndi ngde s t r uc t i o no f t he1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e tho us ebyt heCo l umbi aHo us i ngAut ho r i t y . Kno wi nghe rf a mi l y ' shi s t o r y ,Ro bbi ebe g a nt e l l i ngpe o pl ewhyt heho us e s ho ul dbes a v e d,i nc l udi ngi ndi v i dua l sa tt heS o ut hCa r o l i naDe pa r t me nt o fAr c hi v e sa ndHi s t o r y .Ev e nt ua l l y ,t heho us ewa spur c ha s e dbyRi c hl a nd Co unt y ,t ur ne do v e rt ot heRi c hl a ndCo unt yHi s t o r i cPr e s e r v a t i o nCo mmi t t e e( RCHPC)a ndma na g e dbyt heCe nt e rf o rBl a c kHi s t o r y ,Ar ta nd Fo l k l o r e ,ane wl yf o r me de nt i t yc o mpo s e do fi ndi v i dua l si nv o l v e di nt he s i t e ' spr e s e r v a t i o n.I n1994,t heho us eb e c a met hepr o pe r t yo ft heCi t yo f Co l umbi a ,whoa ppo i nt e dHi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n( HCF)a ss t e w4

Emi ne ntdo ma i ni sa na c t i o nbyf e de r a lo rs t a t eg o v e r nme nt st os e i z eac i t i z e n' spr i v a t e pr o pe r t yo rac i t i z e n' sr i g ht st opr o pe r t ywi t hduemo ne t a r yc o mpe ns a t i o n,butwi t ho ut t heo wne r ' sc o ns e nt .Thepr o pe r t yi st a k e ne i t he rf o rg o v e r nme ntus eo rbyde l e g a t i o nt o t hi r dpa r t i e swhowi l lde v o t ei tt opubl i co rc i v i cus eo r ,i ns o mec a s e s ,e c o no mi cde v e l o pme nt .

a r d.El e v e ny e a r sl a t e r ,i nt a nde m wi t ht hea r c ha e o l o g ypr o j e c t ,a ni nt e r pr e t i v es hi f tbe g a na tMa nnS i mo ns ,amo v ea wa yf r o mt het r a di t i o na l ho us emus e um a ppr o a c hwhe r es t a t i chi s t o r i c a l“ f a c t s ”a r epr e s e nt e dt o v i s i t o r si nr o o msf i l l e dwi t hf ur ni t ur eo ft hepe r i o d,t oa na nt hr o po l o g i c a l a ppr o a c hwhe r ene wr e s e a r c hi nt os o c i a lpr o c e s s e si sc o nduc t e d,pr e s e nt e d a ndr e v i s e d.Thi sbo o ki so neo ft ho s epr e s e nt a t i o ns . Ant hr o po l o g yi sadi s c i pl i net ha ts t udi e sne a r l ye v e r ya s pe c to f wha ti ti st ob ehuma n,f r o mt hef l o wo fc o mmo di t i e sa ndt hes t r uc t ur eo f f a mi l i e st og e nde ri ns o c i e t ya ndhuma ne v o l ut i o n.Hi s t o r i c a la r c ha e o l o g y –o f t e nde f i ne da st hea r c ha e o l o g yo ft i mepe r i o dsi nwhi c hwr i t t e ndo c ume nt sa r ea v a i l a bl e–i sa na nt hr o po l o g yo ft her e c e ntpa s tus i ngt het hi ng s pe o pl el e f tbe hi nda sal e nsi nt opa s tl i f e wa y s . Apr i ma r yc o mpo ne nto fa na nt hr o po l o g i c a la ppr o a c ht ot hepa s t i sade s i r et ounde r s t a ndho wdi f f e r e nts o c i a lpr o c e s s e sma ni f e s t e di ndi f f e r e ntpl a c e sa tdi f f e r e ntt i me sf o rdi f f e r e ntpe o pl e ,a ndwha tt hi smi g ht me a nf o rpe o pl e ' sl i v e dr e a l i t i e s ,t he na ndno w.Fo ri ns t a nc e ,Edwa r d Ca r r ,a huma ng e o g r a phe r ,c o nduc t e da r c ha e o l o g i c a le x c a v a t i o nsi n Gha nat oe x pl o r el i v e l i ho o ds t r a t e g i e si nt her e g i o ne x t e ndi ngba c kne a r l y 200y e a r s .Thi se x a mi na t i o no fa r c ha e o l o g i c a lr e ma i nsa l l o we dhi mt oa ppr o a c ht her e l a t i o ns hi pb e t we e nc o nt e mpo r a r yl i v e l i ho o ds ,e nv i r o nme nt a l c ha ng e sa ndi nt e r na t i o na lde v e l o pme ntpr o g r a msf r o m ane wpe r s pe c t i v e , mo s tr e c e nt l ywi t ht heU. S .Ag e nc yf o rI nt e r na t i o na lDe v e l o pme nt( US5 AI D) . I no t he rwo r ds ,a nt hr o po l o g i s t st e l ls t o r i e so fhuma ni t yf r o m pe r s pe c t i v e sno tc o mmo nl ye nc o unt e r e d,pa r t i c ul a r l ype r s pe c t i v e se ma na t i ng f r o mi ndi v i dua l sa ndg r o upswhoma yno tha v eha dav o i c ei nt hepa s t a nddos oi nawa yt ha tt e l l suss o me t hi nga bo uto urwo r l dt o da y .Thef o l l o wi ngna r r a t i v e se x pl o r eanumbe ro fc o mmo ns o c i a lpr o c e s s e sa ndt he wa y si nwhi c ht he yi nt e r s e c t e dwi t ht hel i v e so fas i ng l ef a mi l yt ha tma de t heno r t he a s tc o r ne ro fRi c hl a nda ndMa r i o ns t r e e t si ndo wnt o wnCo l umbi a ,S o ut hCa r o l i na ,aho mef o rne a r l y150y e a r s .

Ca r r ,Edwa r d,De l i v e r i n gDe v e l o p me nt :Gl o b a l i z a t i o n’ sS h o r e l i n ea ndt h ePa t ht oa S u s t a i na b l eFu t u r e( Ne wYo r k : Pa l g r a v eMa c mi l l a n,2001) .

CHAPTER2

THEMANNS I MONSF AMI LY PASSED oni nt a c to v e rf o urg e ne r a t i o ns ,t hepr o pe r t yt ha tbe c a met he Ma nnS i mo nsS i t ewa ss ha pe dbyc y c l e so ff a mi l yc o mpo s i t i o n,s i z ea nd e nde a v o r s .I nt ur n,t he s ef a mi l yc y c l e swe r es ha pe dbyt hi ss a mepr o pe r t y . Ea c hg e ne r a t i o no ff a mi l y ,wi t hi naf e wy e a r sa f t e ra s s umi ngne who us e ho l ds t a t us ,be g a nt oa l t e rt hebui l di ng sa ndl o t s–s t r uc t ur e swe r ebui l t a ndr a z e d,g a r de ns pa c e se x pa nde da ndc o nt r a c t e d,a c t i v i t i e smo v e dbe t we e ni ns i dea ndo ut s i de–a nde a c ho ft he s epr o pe r t yc ha ng e sr e l a t e dt o c ha ng e si nf a mi l y . TheMa nnS i mo nsS i t ewa si nt e r pr e t e dus i ngdi f f e r e ntl i ne so fe v i de nc e —pr i ma r i l yhi s t o r i c a ldo c ume nt sa nda r c ha e o l o g i c a lf i ndi ng s .Hi s t o r i a nsa nda r c ha e o l o g i s t sa r ebo t hf a c e dwi t hf r a g me nt so ft hepa s tf r o m whi c ht he ywa ntt oc o ns t r uc tahi s t o r y .Wene e dt or e me mb e r ,ho we v e r , t ha tt hepa s tha sa l r e a dyha ppe ne d—hi s t o r i e sa r et hes t o r i e swec r e a t e a bo utt ha tpa s twi t hwha t e v e re v i de nc eweha v ef r o mt hepe r s pe c t i v eo f o urpe r s o na lba c k g r o unds .Bypr e s e nt i nghi s t o r ya sat i me l i ne ,Iwa ntt o ma k et her e a de rmo r ea wa r eo ft hef r a g me nt e dna t ur eo fdo c ume nt a r ye v i de nc ea ndma k emo r ee x pl i c i tt hec o ns t r uc t i v epr o c e s so fhi s t o r y . A DOCUMENTARY TIMELINE HISTORY 1799 Ce l i aMa nni sbo r ni nt os l a v e r yi nCha r l e s t o n.Ho ws heo bt a i ne d 6 he rf r e e do mi sunk no wn.Ve nni eDe a s Mo o r es ug g e s t st hepo s s i bi l i t y t ha tCe l i awa so wne dbyJ o hnS pe nc e rMa nn,J r .o fCha r l e s t o n.Ca i t l i n

6 De a s Mo o r e ,Ve nni e ,“ Or a lHi s t o r y :Ma nnS i mo nsCo t t a g e :AFr e eBl a c kCo mmuni t y : Co l umbi a ,S o ut h Ca r o l i na ”( pr e pa r e df o rHi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n,Co l umbi a , S o ut hCa r o l i na ,2004) .

Gr a ha m7 s ug g e s t st hepo s s i bi l i t yt ha tCe l i awa so wne dbyt heWi l l i a m Ma i nf a mi l yo fCha r l e s t o na ndCo l umbi a .Bo t ha r ei nc o nc l us i v e . 1800 Be nDe La nei sbo r ni nt os l a v e r yi nCha r l e s t o n.Gr a ha m8s ug g e s t s t ha tBe nma yha v ebe e no wne dbyt heDe Le o nf a mi l y( awe a l t hyJ e wi s h f a mi l yi nv o l v e di nt hes l a v et r a de )i nCha r l e s t o na ndbr o ug htbyt he f a mi l yt o Co l umbi a .Edwi nJ .S c o t t ,i n hi s1884 bo o k Ra n d o m Re c o l l e c t i o nso faLo ngLi f e , wr i t e so fBe n: Whi l eas l a v eDe La nehi r e dhi st i mea ndpur c ha s e dt wobo a t s , c o mma nde do nehi ms e l fa nde mpl o y e dha ndst owo r kt heo t he r , whi c hher a no nt her i v e r —t het woa l wa y sg o i ngt o g e t he r .Hi s c ha r a c t e rf o ri ndus t r ya ndi nt e g r i t ywa sbe y o ndr e pr o a c ha ndhe 9 c o ul dg e tc r e di tf o ra l l hea s k e d.

Li k e l yBe npur c ha s e dhi sf r e e do m wi t ht he mo ne yhee a r ne dr unni ngbo a t s ,buts of a r no s uppo r t i ng do c ume nt s ha v e be e n l o c a t e d.

FIGURE 2.AGNESJ ACKS ON ( 18311907) .( HI S TORI C COLUMBI AF OUNDATI ON COLLECTI ON)

1831 Ag ne sJ a c k s o ni sbo r n,e l de s t da ug ht e ro fCe l i aMa nn( Fi g ur e2) .Ag ne s ha dt hr e es i s t e r s ,k no wn o nl yt hr o ug h Ce l i a ' swi l la ndf a mi l yo r a lhi s t o r y( Di na h Co l l i ns ,J ul i a naMi l l e ra ndNa nc yS mi t h) . The i rbi r t hda t e sa r eno tk no wn.Fa mi l y hi s t o r yt e l l so fa l lbutAg ne smo v i ngt o Bo s t o na ndc r o s s i ngt hec o l o rl i ne .Ce l i a wo ul dha v eb e e n32whe nAg ne swa sbo r n.

Gr a ha m,Ca i t l i n,“ The o r yo faCo nne c t i o nBe t we e nCe l i aMa nna ndBe nDe La ne ” ( unpubl i s he dma nus c r i pto nf i l ewi t ht hea ut ho r , 2009) . 8 9

Gr a ha m,“ The o r yo faCo nne c t i o n. ”

S c o t t ,Edwi nJ . ,Ra nd o m Re c o l l e c t i o n so faLo ngLi f e ,1806t o1876( Co l umbi a ,S . C. :C. A. Ca l v o , J r . ,pr i nt e r ,1884) , 67.

10 1837 Ce l i aMa nni sba pt i z e da tt heFi r s tBa pt i s tChur c h. Thee nt r y l i s t sCe l i aa s“ wi f eo fa ndb e l o ng i ngt oBe nDe La ne . ”Thi si st hee a r l i e s t da t ewek no w Ce l i ai si nCo l umbi a .Thel a ng ua g es ug g e s t st ha tBe n o wne dCe l i aa tt hi st i me .

1840 The Fe de r a lCe ns usl i s t sa “ Be n Dl e o n” a sa f r e e Af r i c a n Ame r i c a na ndhe a do f ho us e ho l di nCo l umbi a .“ Dl e o n”i sac l o s ema t c h f o r“ De Le o n, ”t he f a mi l y Gr a ha m s ug g e s t sma y ha v eo wne d Be n. Ac c o r di ngt ot hec e ns us ,Be no wne dt hr e ee ns l a v e di ndi v i dua l s .Na me s , a g e s ,e t c .o ft hee ns l a v e dwe r eno tl i s t e di nt hec e ns us ,butc o mbi ne dwi t h t hepr o pe r t yt r a ns f e ro f1843 ( be l o w) ,i ti spr o ba b l et ha tt het hr e e i ndi v i dua l sa r eCe l i a , Ce l i a ' sda ug ht e rAg ne sa ndBe n' sda ug ht e rMa r y . 1843 1Fe br ua r y ,t heMa nnS i mo nspr o pe r t yi st r a ns f e r r e di nt oBe n De La ne ' sna me . Ar e q ue s tdi s c o v e r e dbyDe a s Mo o r er e a ds : IBe nDe La nedohe r e by ,r e q ue s to fJ a me sS .Gui g na r dt or e t a i n i nhi sha ndsOneha l fo fa na r e ao fLa ndi nCo l umbi ab yt wo hundr e do fe i g htf e e to nLumb e ra ndMa r i o nS t r e e ta ndo ne hundr e da ndf o urf e e tl a ndo nRi c hl a ndS t r e e ti nc l udi nga l lt he bui l di ng sno wo c c upi e dbymy s e l fa ndf a mi l yf o rt heus eo fmy wi f eCe l i a ,c o mmo nl yc a l l e dCe l i a{ }dur i nghe rl i f ea nda f t e rhe r de a t hf o rt heus ea ndbe ne f i to fMa r ymyda ug ht e ra ndt he da ug ht e ro fVe nusBr o wnaf r e ewo ma no fc o l o r_a ndAg ne st he 1 1 da ug ht e ro fs a i dCe l i a .

Noo t he ri nf o r ma t i o ni sa v a i l a bl ec o nc e r ni ngBe na ndVe nusBr o wn’ s da ug ht e r ,Ma r y . Appa r e nt l y , Be nwa sno tAg ne s ' bi o l o g i c a lf a t he r . 1850 Fe de r a lCe ns us i ndi c a t e s Ce l i a Ma nn o wne da ne ns l a v e d i ndi v i dua l —a 70y e a ro l d wo me n who s e na me i s no tk no wn.A

Fi r s tBa pt i s tChur c ho fCo l umbi a ,Re c o r dBo o k ,18091940( WPATr a ns c r i pt ,S o ut h Ca r o l i ni a naLi br a r y ,Co l umbi a ,1940) . 11

De a s Mo o r e ,“ Or a l Hi s t o r y . "

pur c ha s e / t r a ns f e rda t ei sno tk no wn.Fr o m t hi swek no wCe l i ai sf r e eby1850 . 1853 Ha t t i e J a c k s o n i s bo r n, da ug ht e ro fAg ne sJ a c k s o n( Fi g ur e 3) . Ha t t i ewo ul df i r s tma r r yMr .Ri c ha r ds o n ( f i r s tna me unk no wn)a nd l a t e r ma r r y Ri c ha r dWi l l i a ms( b.1860) ,wi t hwho m s hewo ul d ha v ef o urc hi l dr e n.Ha t t i ei s k no wnt hr o ug hr e a le s t a t et i t l es e a r c he st o ha v ebo ug hta nds o l dmul t i pl er e s i de nt i a l pr o pe r t i e si nCo l umbi a . FIGURE 3.HATTI E( J ACKS ON) RI CHARDS ON ( B. 1853) . ( HI S TORI CCOLUMBI A FOUNDATI ON COLLECTI ON)

18531858 Dur i ng t hi s pe r i o d, Ag ne sma r r i e sWi l l i a m“ Bi l l ”S i mo ns .J .F. Wi l l i a msde s c r i be sBi l la s ,“ a no l df r e e ne g r o . . .[ a nd]ame mbe ro ft hef a mo usJ o eRa nda l lb a nd,t ha tt ur ne do ut o na l l o c c a s i o nswhe r eaba ndwa sne e de d. ”

1860 Ag ne sJ a c k s o n,hus ba ndBi l lS i mo nsa ndt hr e eo fhe rf i r s tf o ur c hi l dr e na r el i s t e da sl i v i nga tt her e s i de nc eo fJ o eRa nda l l . 1861,1863 Endo f y e a ra c c o untbo o k so fpl a nt a t i o no wne rS a l l y Be nt o nl i s tpa y me nt sma det oCe l i aMa nnf o rbo a r di nge ns l a v e dpe o pl e o nhe rpr o pe r t y . 1865 Ag ne sJ a c k s o nmo v e sba c kt ot he1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e tho us e wi t hhe rmo t he r .I ti sunk no wni fBi l l S i mo nsmo v e dt he r ea swe l l . 1865 Re v .C.H.Ca r e y ,ami s s i o na r ywi t ht heHo meMi s s i o nS o c i e t y , a l o ngwi t hRe v .Wi l s o nCa r r ,wa ss e ntt oCo l umbi ab y1865t o“ g a t he r 1 2 s c a t t e r e dBa pt i s t s . ” TheRe v e r e ndus e dt hepr o pe r t yo f“ S i s t e rCe l i a Ma nn' s ho me ”f o rc hur c h s e r v i c e sa f t e rt he Af r i c a n Ame r i c a n 12

De a s Mo o r e ,“ Or a l Hi s t o r y . ”

c o ng r e g a t i o na ba ndo ne dt heFi r s tBa pt i s tChur c ho fCo l umbi a( s i t eo ft he f i r s tCo nf e de r a t eS e c e s s i o nCo nv e nt i o ni n1860) .The s eme e t i ng sf i r s tl e d t ot hef o r ma t i o no ft heCa l v a r yBa pt i s tChur c ho fCo l umbi a ,a ndl a t e r , Zi o n Ba pt i s tChur c h,Fi r s tCa l v a r yBa pt i s tChur c ha nd t heS e c o nd Ca l v a r yBa pt i s tChur c h. 1867 Ce l i aMa nns i g nshe rwi l lwi t ha n' X'o n25Aug us t .S heha sf o ur r e q ue s t s : Fi r s t . -Ide s i r et ha ta l lmyj us tde b t sb epa i d,S e c o nd. -Tomy t hr e eda ug ht e r s ,Towi t ,Di na hCo l l i ns ,J ul i aAnnMc Me l l e na nd Na nc yS mi t h,Ig i v et we nt yDo l l a r se a c ht obepa i dt ot he m by myEx e c ut r i xa ss o o na spr a c t i ba bl e[ s i c ]a f t e rmyde a t h,Thi r d. Tomyda ug ht e rAg ne sJ a c k s o nwhoha sa l wa y sl i v e dwi t hme ,I g i v ea ndbe q ue a t ht heHo us ea ndLo ti nwhi c hIno wdwe l lwi t h t hea ppur e nt a nc e s[ s i c ]t he r e t o ,t o g e t he rwi t ha l lt her e s ta nd r e s i dueo fmyEs t a t eb o t hRe a la ndPe r s o na lt ohe ra ndhe rhe i r s f o r e v e r .Fo ur t h. -Ia ppo i ntmyda ug ht e rAg ne sJ a c k s o n,t he Ex e c ut r i xo ft hi smyl a s twi l l a ndTe s t a me nt .

1867 Ce l i aMa nndi e so n8S e pt e mb e r .Thel o c a lne ws pa pe rDa i l y Ph o e ni xpubl i s he sano t i c et hef o l l o wi ng da y ,r e a di ng :“ De a t ho fa Re s pe c t e dCo l o r e dWo ma n. —Ce l i aMa nn,a no l da ndr e s pe c t e dc o l o r e d nur s e ,whowa spr e s e nta tt hebi r t ho fma nyo fo urc i t i z e ns ,de pa r t e dt hi s l i f ey e s t e r da y . ” 1 3 1872 Bi r d ' sEy eVi e w Ma po fCo l u mb i a ,S o u t hCa r o l i na( Fi g ur e4) . Thi si st hef i r s tde pi c t i o no fs t r uc t ur e so nt hepr o pe r t ya ndt heo nl y de pi c t i o no ft heho us ei nwhi c hBe nDe La nea ndCe l i aMa nnl i v e d.

18721880s Thes t r uc t ur ea t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ti sbui l t( Fi g ur e1) . 18721880s Thes t r uc t ur ea t1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ti sbui l t( Fi g ur e5) . 13

Dr i e ,C.N.Bi r d ’ sEy eVi e wo ft h eCi t yo fCo l u mb i a ,S o u t hCa r o l i n a.C. N.Dr i e , Ba l t i mo r e , Ma r y l a nd,1872 .

FIGURE 4.BI RD' SE YEVI EW MAPOFCOLUMBI A, S OUTH CAROLI NA, BYC. N.DRI E, 1872.( COURTESYOFTHELI BRARYOFCONGRES S )

18721880s Theho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e ti sbui l t( Fi g ur e6) . 18851905 Cha r l e sa ndJ o hnL.S i mo ns ,s o nso fAg ne sJ a c k s o n,a r e o c c a s i o na l l yl i s t e di nt heCi t yDi r e c t o r i e sa st a i l o r sf o rRo be r tJ .Pa l me r ,a pr o f e s s i o na lt a i l o rwi t hs ho psi n Co l umbi aa nd Wa s hi ng t o n,D. C. 1890 Be nDe La nedi e si nCha r l e s t o n,S C,o n28J ul y( a g e90)o f' Va l . Di so fHe a r t ' a nd' dr o ps y ' ( f r o m de a t hc e r t i f i c a t e ) .Hei sl i s t e da sl i v i nga t 14 4Wi l s o nS t r e e t ,Cha r l e s t o n, f o ro v e r20y e a r s . 1891 J o hnL. S i mo nso pe nshi sf i r s tr e s t a ur a nt ,al unc hc o unt e ra t1401 Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t . 18991903 Al l e nWi l l i a ms( as ho ema k e r ) a nd J .B.Ca r r o l l( a f ur ni t ur er e pa i r pe r s o n) ,l i v e da ndo pe r a t e ds ho psa t1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t . Al l e n Wi l l i a ms wa sr e l a t e dt o Ri c ha r d Wi l l i a ms ,Ha t t i eJ a c k s o n' s

Gr a ha m,“ The o r yo faCo nne c t i o n. ”

FIGURE 5.1967PHOTOGRAPH OF1407RI CHLAND S TREET, THEEAS TERNMOS T LOT THE MANNS I MONS FAMI LY OWNED.I MAGE COURTES Y OF THE COLUMBI A HOUS I NG

AUTHORI TY

hus ba nd.The yma yha v eb e e nl i v i ng / wo r k i ngt he r ee a r l i e r ,a st heCi t y Di r e c t o r i e sbe f o r e1899a r es o me wha ti nc o ns i s t e nt . 1900 Fe de r a lCe ns usl i s t s13pe o pl el i v i nga t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t , i nc l udi ng16y e a ro l dma i dMi nni eTho mps o n. 1904 Thef i r s tS a nb o r nFi r eI ns u r a n c eMa po fCo l u mb i ade pi c t i ngt he pr o pe r t i e so wne dbyt heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yi spr o duc e d( Fi g ur e7) .

FIGURE 6.1967PHOTOGRAPH OF 1904MARI ON S TREET,A S ECOND RES I DENCE OWNED AND OCCUPI ED BYFAMI LYMEMBERS. THEHOUSEAT 1403RI CHLAND S TREET I STO THERI GHT. ( I MAGECOURTES YOFTHECOLUMBI AHOUS I NGAUTHORI TY)

19041905 J o hnL.S i mo nsr unsag r o c e r ya t1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t pr o pe r t y . 1906 Cha r l e sS i mo nst a k e so v e rt heg r o c e r ybus i ne s sa t1407Ri c hl a nd S t r e e tf r o m hi sb r o t he rJ o hn. Her unst heg r o c e r yunt i l hi sde a t hi n1933. 1907 Ag ne sJ a c k s o n di e s .Cha r l e sS i mo nsa ppo i nt e da se x e c ut o ro f e s t a t e ,wi t hi ns t r uc t i o nst o“ s e l lf o rc a s ht ot hehi g he s tbi dde r ,a f t e r a dv e r t i s e me nto nc eawe e kf o rt hr e ec o ns e c ut i v ewe e k si no neo ft heda i l y 1 5 pa pe r spubl i s he di nt hes a i dc i t yo fCo l umbi a . ” Ha t t i e( J a c k s o n) Ri c ha r ds o n,Ag ne s ' e l de s tda ug ht e r ,pur c ha s e st hee s t a t ef o r$1 , 500. 00 . 1908 Ha t t i e( J a c k s o n)Ri c ha r ds o ns e l l st he e s t a t et o Cha r l e sf o r 1 6 $1, 000 . 00. 15

La s tWi l l a ndTe s t a me nt ,Ri c hl a ndCo unt yCo ur t ho us e ,Es t a t eo fAma ndaL.S i mo ns , Apr i l 19 ,1960 .

1914 Cha r l e sa nd hi s wi f e Ama ndaa do ptBe r ni c eCo nne r s , t heda ug ht e ro fAma nda ' ss i s t e r EmmaFr a nk l i n,whopa s s e da wa y f o runk no wnr e a s o ns .S hewa ss i x y e a r so l d. 1925 Mi nni e Tho mps o n( a f o r me r ma i d) mo v e si nt ot he ho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e ta sa r e nt e r .S hel i v e st he r eunt i lt he e a r l y1940s . 1960 Ama nda S i mo nsdi e s . Be r ni c e Co nne r si nhe r i t st he e s t a t e , c o ns i s t i ngo f : 1l o t ,1bui l di ng $20, 000 1403Ri c hl a ndS t . FIGURE 7.DETAI LFROM THE1 904 S ANBORN F I REI NS URANCEMAPOF COLUMBI A. THERED BOXOUTLI NESTHE PROPERTYTHEFAMI LYOWNED FROM AT LEAS T1 843TO 1970 .RI CHLAND S TREET RUNSEAS TWES TALONG THEBOTTOM; MARI ON S TREETRUNSNORTHS OUTH ALONG THELEFT. ( I MAGECOURTES YOF S OUTH CAROLI NI ANAL I BRARY, UNI VERS I TY OFS OUTH CAROLI NA, COLUMBI A)

1l o t ,2bui l di ng s $5, 000 1407& 1407½Ri c hl a ndS t . 1l o t ,1bui l di ng $5, 000 1904Ma r i o nS t . 1l o t ,1bui l di ng $4, 000 N. 19t hS t . , Phi l a de l phi a ,PA Ho us e f ur ni t ur e , f i x t ur e s , a ppl i a nc e sa t1403 Ri c hl a nd S t . v a l ue da t$500 . 00.$5. 00 t o t a l 1 7 c a s hpr o pe r t y .

Bur r ,J ul i aTa y l o r ,An I nq u i r yi n t ot h eMa nnS i mo n sHo u s e ,( Ma s t e r ’ sThe s i s , De pa r t me nto fHi s t o r y , Uni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i na ,Co l umbi a ,1977) . 17

La s tWi l la ndTe s t a me nt ,Ri c hl a ndCo unt yCo ur t ho us e ,Es t a t eo fAma ndaL.S i mo ns , Apr i l 19 ,1960 ,Bo x1009#20179.

FIGURE 8.THE MANNS I MONS S I TE AS A HERI TAGE TOURI S M S I TE.( HI S TORI C COLUMBI AF OUNDATI ON COLLECTI ON)

1970 27 J ul y ,Co l umbi a Ho us i ng Aut ho r i t yt a k e so wne r s hi po f pr o pe r t yv i ae mi ne ntdo ma i nf o rc o ns t r uc t i o no fl o wi nc o me ,s e ni o r a pa r t me ntc o mpl e x . 1978 Theo nl ys ur v i v i ng bui l di ng o nt heMa nnS i mo nspr o pe r t y be c o me saho us emus e um ( Fi g ur e8) . 1979 Fi r s ta nnua lAf r i c a nAme r i c a nJ ubi l e eo fHe r i t a g ehe l do nt he pr o pe r t y . 1996 Ci t yo fCo l umbi aa ppo i nt sHi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o na s s t e wa r do ft het he nc a l l e dMa nnS i mo nsCo t t a g e . 1998 Be r ni c eCo nne r sdi e sa tt hea g eo f90.S hewa st hel a s tpe r s o nwho l i v e da t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t .

FIGURE 9.UNI VERS I TYOFS OUTH CAROLI NAF I ELD S CHOOLS TUDENTSEXCAVATI NG THEBACKYARD AREADURI NG MAY2 006. ( PHOTOGRAPH COURTESYOFKI M CAVANAGH)

1998 Fi r s ta r c ha e o l o g yc o nduc t e da tt hes i t ebyChr i sCl e me nto ft he S o ut hCa r o l i naI ns t i t ut eo fAr c ha e o l o g ya ndAnt hr o po l o g yo nbe ha l fo f HCF.Two hundr e da ndf i f t ys q ua r ef e e twe r ee x c a v a t e d. 2005 Ma nnS i mo nsAr c ha e o l o g yPr o j e c ti ni t i a t e d( Fi g ur e9) . 2010 Ma nnS i mo nsCo mmuni t yEng a g e me ntPr o j e c ti ni t i a t e d. 2011 TheMa nnS i mo nsCo t t a g ei so f f i c i a l l yr e na me dt heMa nnS i mo nsS i t et ob e t t e rr e f l e c tt hee x t e nto ft hef a mi l y ' spr o pe r t y . 2012 “ Gho s ts t r uc t ur e s ”i ns t a l l e da tt hes i t e .

CHAPTER3

I NHERI TED CI RCUMS TANCES I N 1852,Ka r lMa r xWr o t e ,“ Me nma k et he i ro wnhi s t o r ybutno to f t he i ro wnf r e ewi l l ;no tunde rc i r c ums t a nc e st he yt he ms e l v e sha v ec ho s e n butunde rt heg i v e na ndi nhe r i t e dc i r c ums t a nc e swi t hwhi c ht he ya r edi 1 8 r e c t l yc o nf r o nt e d. ” Hema ya swe l lha v ebe e nde s c r i bi ngt heAme r i c a n S o ut ha ndt hes o c i a le nv i r o nme ntwi t hi nwhi c ht heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l y me mbe r sma det he i rl i v e s .Thepr o bl e ma t i cna t ur eo fs o c i a lr e l a t i o nsi n S o ut hCa r o l i na ,a ndt heS o ut hi ng e ne r a l ,wa si nde e ds t r uc t ur a l ,c e nt e r e d o ni s s ue so fAf r i c a nAme r i c a ne nt i t l e me nt s ,c ul t ur a lc i t i z e ns hi pa nds t r uc t ur a lv i o l e nc e —o f t e npl a y e do utt hr o ug ht hema t e r i a lwo r l di nt hef o r m o fc o mmo di t i e s . Ent i t l e me nt shi ng eo nape r s o n' sa bi l i t yt oa c q ui r edi f f e r e nt' s e t s ' o fc o mmo di t i e s —l i k epr o pe r t y ,buta l s ol i k ef ur ni s hi ng s ,c l o t hi ng ,f o o d a nds he l t e r .Cha ng e si nl e g a la nds o c i a ls t r uc t ur e st ha ta f f e c ta ni ndi v i dua l ' sa bi l i t yt oa c q ui r edi f f e r e ntc o mmo di t i e s–o neo ft heo bj e c t i v e so f J i m Cr o ws e g r e g a t i o n–a l t e rt ha ti ndi v i dua l ' se nt i t l e me nt .Whi l ee nt i t l e me nt shi ng eo na c c e s st or e s o ur c e s ,a c c e s st or e s o ur c e si saf unc t i o no fc ul t ur a lc i t i z e ns hi p.Cul t ur a lc i t i z e ns hi pde f i ne sl e v e l so fa c c e s st or e s o ur c e s f o rdi f f e r e ntc a t e g o r i e so fi ndi v i dua l s —bei ti nt e r mso fr a c e ,c l a s s ,g e nde r o ra nyo t he rwa yas o c i e t ydi v i de si t s e l f .Thi si swhyBo o k e rT.Wa s hi ngt o nwr o t ei n1899t ha t“ Thema t e r i a l ,v i s i bl ea ndt a ng i bl ee l e me nt s[ o f 1 9 c i v i l i z a t i o n]… t e a c hal e s s o nt ha ta l mo s tno t hi nge l s ec a n. ”

Fe r nba c h,Da v i d,Ka r lMa r x :Ca p i t a l ,Vo l u meI I I( Ne wYo r k :Pe ng ui nBo o k s ,1992) , 146. 19

Wa s hi ng t o n,Bo o k e rT. ,Th eNe g r oa n dt h eS i g nso fCi v i l i z a t i o n( Tus k e g e e ,Al a ba ma : No r ma l S c ho o l S t e a m Pr e s s , 1899) ,3 .

Ma nnS i mo nswa spa r to ft hi sl a r g e rpa t t e r no fpo we r ,c o nt r o l a ndma t e r i a l i t yi ns o ut he r nhi s t o r y ;ahi s t o r i c a lpa t t e r nt ha tc a nbeunde r s t o o dt o da ya ss ubj ug a t i o no ra ss e l f de t e r mi na t i o n.Bo t he x i s t e da ndbo t h de f i ne de a c ho t he r . Thet y peo fs i t e , v a r i e t i e so fa r t i f a c t sr e c o v e r e d,de g r e e s o fpr e s e r v a t i o n,a nds oo nc a ni nf l ue nc ewhe t he rweunde r s t a ndt hes t o r y o ft hepa s tt hr o ug hs ubj ug a t i o no rs e l f de t e r mi na t i o n.Butpe r s pe c t i v ea l s o de pe ndso nwha tt hei nt e r pr e t e rwa n t st hef o c ust ob e .Thef o c uso ft hi s bo o ki ss e l f de t e r mi na t i o nwi t hi nt hec ul t ur eo fs ubj ug a t i o nt ha te x i s t e di n t heS o ut hf r o mt hee ndo fRe c o ns t r uc t i o n( l a t e1870 s )t oj us tbe f o r et he Gr e a tDe pr e s s i o n( l a t e1920 s ) .Idos of o rt wor e a s o ns :f i r s t ,t hev a s tma j o r i t yo fa r t i f a c t sr e c o v e r e dwe r ede po s i t e ddur i ngt hi spe r i o d;a nds e c o nd, s t o r i e so fs e l f de t e r mi na t i o n–s uc c e s ss t o r i e s–a r es o me wha tr a r ebut muc hne e de d.Theq ue s t i o nt husbe c o me s :wha thi s t o r ydi dt heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yme mb e r sma k ef o rt he ms e l v e swi t hi nt hec i r c ums t a nc e st he y i nhe r i t e d? Dur i ngt hee a r l y18t hc e nt ur y ,pl a nt a t i o nsdo mi na t e dS o ut hCa r o l i na ,s o c i a l l ya nde c o no mi c a l l y .Andno ts ur pr i s i ng l y ,s o c i a lc a t e g o r i z a t i o nwa sde f i ne dbyr a c e .Thi si sape r i o dc ha r a c t e r i z e dbyg r e a tma t e r i a l di f f e r e nc e sb e t we e nbl a c ka ndwhi t ei ndi v i dua l s ,buta l s oat i mewi t hf e w l e g a ldi s t i nc t i o ns —e x c e pt ,o fc o ur s e ,t ha to nepe r s o nc o ul do wna no t he r . Ma t e r i a ldi f f e r e nc e sa r ef o undi nq u a n t i t i e so fi t e ms ,butmo r es i g ni f i c a nt l y ,di f f e r e nc ewa si nt e r mso ft y p e so fma t e r i a l s–wa t t l e a ndda ub dwe l l i ng sv e r s usf r a mec o ns t r uc t i o no rCo l o no wa r e( ac o a r s ee a r t he nwa r e v e s s e lt y pe )v e r s usEng l i s hc e r a mi c s ,f o ri ns t a nc e–t ha tv i s ua l l ya nds y mbo l i c a l l ydi f f e r e nt i a t e dt hee ns l a v e df r o mt hepl a nt e r s .S t a r t i ngi nt hee a r l y 19t hc e nt ur ya ndc o nt i nui ngt hr o ug ht hemi d19t hc e nt ur y ,di f f e r e nc ei n t het y pe so fma t e r i a l spo s s e s s e dbybl a c ka ndwhi t ei ndi v i dua l sde c r e a s e d. Thi sc ha ng ewa sc o upl e dwi t har a di c a li nc r e a s ei nt henumbe ro fl e g a l di s t i nc t i o nsa nd c o nt r o l so nb e ha v i o rpl a c e d upo ne ns l a v e da nd f r e e Af r i c a nAme r i c a ns .S l a v eho us e swe r ei nc r e a s i ng l yo ff r a mec o ns t r uc t i o n, a r r a ng e da l o ng“ s t r e e t s , ”a ndr e s t e do nbr i c kpi e r s ;Co l o no wa r epr o duc t i o nde c r e a s e dwhi l eEng l i s ha ndAme r i c a npr o duc e dc e r a mi cdi s he sbe c a memo r ec o mmo n.I nnowa ydoIme a nt oi mpl yt ha tt he s ema t e r i a l c ha ng e si na nywa ya l t e r e ds o c i a ls t a t uso rt hr e a t e ne dt hee s t a bl i s he dhi e r a r c hy .Qui t et hec o nt r a r y .Ia ms i mpl yma k i ngt heo bs e r v a t i o nt ha ta sma t e r i a lc ul t ur ec a met os ha r emo r ec o mmo na l i t i e si nt e r mso ft y p e s–a sdi f f e r e nc eb e t we e nt y pe sde c r e a s e d–t he r ewa sa ni nc r e a s ei nl e g a ldi f f e r e nt i a t i o n. 17

Thi si sa ni mpo r t a ntc o r r e l a t i o nt ono t e ,be c a us ea tt hee ndo ft he t heCi v i lWa r ,t heS o ut hwa sl e f twi t ht hi sma t e r i a lc o mmo na l i t y ,butt he l e g a ldi s t i nc t i o nswe r ewi pe da wa y( i nt he o r yi fno tpr a c t i c e ) .Re c o ns t r uc t i o nha db e g un.I nS o ut hCa r o l i na ,124de l e g a t e s( 67o fwho m we r e Af r i c a nAme r i c a n)wr o t eane ws t a t ec o ns t i t ut i o ni nJ a nua r y ,1867 ,g r a nt i ngs uf f r a g er i g ht st oAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns .Twomo nt hsl a t e r ,r e s i s t a nc eo n t hepa r to fwhi t eS o ut hCa r o l i ni a nswa sg r e a te no ug ht ha tt heU. S .Co ng r e s sa bo l i s he dt hes t a t e ' sg o v e r nme nt .ByApr i l1870 ,Af r i c a nAme r i c a ns ha ds uc c e e de di nho l di ngt hema j o r i t yo fa l lRi c hl a ndCo unt ya ndCol umbi aCi t yo f f i c e s .Buts e e mi ng l y ,no ta l lwhi t eS o ut hCa r o l i ni a nswe r e o v e r l ywo r r i e d:“ Wec a nc o nt r o la nddi r e c tt heNe g r o e s , ”wr o t eS o ut h Ca r o l i napl a nt e rWa deHa mpt o ni n1867 ,o neo ft hewe a l t hi e s ti ndi v i dua l si nAme r i c a ,“ i fwea c tdi s c r e e t l y ,a ndi nmyj udg me ntt hehi g he s tdut y o fe v e r yS o ut he r nma ni st os e c ur et heg o o dwi l la ndc o nf i de nc eo ft he 2 0 Ne g r o .Ourf ut ur ede pe ndso nt hi s . ” Ha mpt o n' se f f o r t st oc o nt r o lt he Af r i c a nAme r i c a nv o t ef a i l e d,butpo l i t i c a lc o nt r o lwa sq ui c k l yr e t ur ne dt o whi t es o ut he r ne r sj us t20y e a r sl a t e r ,whe nPr e s i de ntHa y e sk e pthi sc a mpa i g npr o mi s et or e mo v ef e de r a lt r o o psf r o mt heS o ut ha nda do pta ha nds o f fpo l i c yi fhewe r ee l e c t e d.On1Ma y ,1887,hema det heo r de r a ndRe c o ns t r uc t i o ne nde d. Po s t Re c o ns t r uc t i o nwa sat i meo fAf r i c a nAme r i c a ndi s e nf r a nc hi s e me ntt hr o ug ho f f i c i a la nduno f f i c i a ldi s c r i mi na t i o n.Pr e v a l e ntr a c i s t t ho ug hti nt heS o ut hi se v i de nc e di nt hewa ys o mewhi t ehi s t o r i a nswr o t e a bo utt hee ndo fRe c o ns t r uc t i o n.“ Af t e rt hede s o l a t i o no ft hewa r ,i nt e r e s t i na r tna t ur a l l ys uf f e r e df o rs o mey e a r s , ”wr o t ehi s t o r i a nHa r r i e tM.S a l l e y o fCo l umbi ai n1936,“ butwi t ht h er e s t o r a t i o no fwh i t ec o nt r o l ,t hei ndo mi t a bl es pi r i to fCo l umbi a nss o o na s s e r t e di t s e l fa ndg r a dua l l yt he r e 2 1 wa sar e v i v a lo fi nt e r e s ti n”a r ta ndmus i c( e mpha s i sa dde d) . W. B.Na s h, apr o mi ne ntAf r i c a nAme r i c a nme mb e ro ft heS o ut hCa r o l i naRe publ i c a n pa r t y ,o bs e r v e dt ha tRe c o ns t r uc t i o na ndmi l i t a r yr ul ei nS o ut hCa r o l i na ha dl i t t l ee f f e c to ndo mi na ntwhi t ei de o l o g y —whi t eS o ut he r nswe r e“ no t 22 c o nq ue r e d—no tc ha ng e d. ” 20

Mo o r e ,J o hnH. ,Co l u mb i aa ndRi c h l a ndCo u nt y :AS o u t hCa r o l i n aCo mmu ni t y ,17401990( Co l umbi a :Uni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i naPr e s s ,199 3 ) , 219. 21

S a l l e y ,A.S . ,“ Phy s i c a lGr o wt h, ”i nCo l u mb i a :Ca p i t a lCi t yo fS o u t hCa r o l i n a :17861936,e d.He l e n K.He nni ng ,e di t o r ,363 372 ( Co l umbi a ,S C:Co l umbi aS e s q ui Ce nt e nni a lCo mmi s s i o n,1936 ) , 186. 22

Mo o r e ,Co l u mb i aa ndRi c h l a ndCo u n t y , 253.

Thi spe r i o do fpo s t Re c o ns t r uc t i o na l s oma r k st hena t i o nwi dea c c e l e r a t i o no fc o ns ume r i s ma ndt hebe g i nni ng so fana t i o na lc ul t ur eo f c o ns umpt i o n.Ast hev a r i e t ya nda v a i l a bi l i t yo fc o ns ume rg o o dsi nc r e a s e d t hr o ug ho utt hel a t e19t ha nde a r l y20 t hc e nt ur y ,s ot o odi dt heo ppo r t uni t i e sf o rmo r epe o pl et oc o ns umeag r e a t e rv a r i e t yo fg o o dsi ne v e rg r e a t e r q ua nt i t i e s .Thec o mmo na l i t yo ft hema t e r i a lwo r l dwa si nc r e a s i nga ta n e x po ne nt i a lr a t e —a na c c e l e r a t i o no ft hepa t t e r na l r e a dyno t e d.I nt he Ame r i c a nS o ut h,t hi sde mo c r a t i z a t i o no fg o o ds ,ane ws o c i a lpo t e nt i a l– pa r tr e a l i t y , pa r tf a nt a s y–t hr e a t e ne dt of u r t he re r o det hema r k e r so fs o c i a l hi e r a r c hya ndbl urr a c i a l i z e dbo unda r i e s .Co mpl e t e l yi g no r i ngt heCi v i l Ri g ht sAc to f1875( t he' s e pa r a t e but e q ua l 'a c t )a nduphe l dbyt heUS S upr e meCo ur t ,t her e a c t i o ni nt heS o ut hwa sat i da lwa v eo fe v e r mo r e r e s t r i c t i v e' J i m Cr o w'l a wsde s i g ne dt or e s t r i c tf r e e do mo fmo v e me nta nd c ur t a i la c c e s st og o o dsa nds e r v i c e s .Al lo ft he s el a wsha daba s i si nt hema t e r i a lwo r l d,de s i g ne dt ol i mi tAf r i c a nAme r i c a ne nt i t l e me nt st os c ho o l s , publ i cf a c i l i t i e s ,publ i ct r a ns po r t a t i o n,v o t i ng ,e mpl o y me nt ,a ndf r e ea s s oc i a t i o n.Be y o ndf o r ma ll a wswa st he' e t i q ue t t e 'o fJ i m Cr o w.Da v i dPi l g r i m,c ur a t o ro ft heJ i m Cr o w Mus e um i nBi gRa pi ds ,Mi c hi g a n,l i s t s s o meo ft he s er ul e so fe t i q ue t t e :

 Bl a c k sa ndWhi t e swe r eno ts uppo s e dt oe a tt o g e t he r .I ft he y di de a tt o g e t he r ,Whi t e swe r et obes e r v e df i r s t ,a nds o mes o r t o fpa r t i t i o nwa st ob epl a c e db e t we e nt he m.  Unde rnoc i r c ums t a nc ewa saBl a c kma l et oo f f e rt ol i g htt he c i g a r e t t eo faWhi t ef e ma l e —t ha tg e s t ur ei mpl i e di nt i ma c y .  Bl a c k swe r eno ta l l o we dt os ho wa f f e c t i o nt o wa r do nea no t he ri npub l i c ,e s pe c i a l l yk i s s i ng ,b e c a us ei to f f e nde dWhi t e s . J i m Cr o we t i q ue t t epr e s c r i be dt ha tBl a c k swe r ei nt r o duc e dt o Whi t e s ,ne v e rWhi t e st oBl a c k s .Fo re x a mpl e :" Mr .Pe t e r s( t he Whi t epe r s o n) ,t hi si sCha r l i e( t heBl a c kpe r s o n) ,t ha tIs po k e t oy o ua bo ut . "  Whi t e sdi dno tus ec o ur t e s yt i t l e so fr e s pe c twhe nr e f e r r i ngt o Bl a c k s ,f o re x a mpl e ,Mr . ,Mr s . ,Mi s s . ,S i r ,o rMa ' a m.I ns t e a d, Bl a c k swe r ec a l l e dbyt he i rf i r s tna me s .Bl a c k sha dt ous ec o ur 19

t e s yt i t l e swhe nr e f e r r i ngt oWhi t e s ,a ndwe r eno ta l l o we dt o c a l l t he m byt he i rf i r s tna me s . I faBl a c kpe r s o nr o dei nac a rdr i v e nbyaWhi t epe r s o n,t he Bl a c kpe r s o ns a ti nt heba c ks e a t ,o rt heba c ko fat r uc k . 23  Whi t emo t o r i s t sha dt her i g ht o f wa ya ta l l i nt e r s e c t i o ns .

Co ns ume rs pa c eb e c a meas i t eo fune a s yc o nt e nt i o nbe c a us ea tt hes a me t i mewhi t es o ut he r ne r spr o c l a i me dt he i rs upe r i o r i t yo v e rAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns ,t he s es a mewhi t ebus i ne s so wne r sne e de dAf r i c a nAme r i c a nc us t o me r s .Thi sc o nt e nt i o nb e t we e nwhi t eo ppr e s s i o na ndAf r i c a nAme r i c a n a s pi r a t i o nwa se v i de nti na dv e r t i s i ng :Af r i c a nAme r i c a nswe r emo r eo f t e n 2 4 t ha nno tt heo bj e c t s ,a ndno tt hes ubj e c t s ,o fc o ns ume rde s i r e . Byt hee a r l y20t hc e nt ur y , t heg o a lo fa dv e r t i s i ngha ds hi f t e df r o m ame a nso fpr o v i di ngpr o duc ti nf o r ma t i o nt oa na t t e mptt oi nf l ue nc ebuy2 5 e r s . Onr e g i o na la ndna t i o na ls c a l e s ,t hea dv e r t i s i ngi ndu s t r ypr e s e nt e d pr o duc ta dv e r t i s e me nt st ha tbl a t a nt l yc a r i c a t ur i z e d,de me a ne da nddi s r e s pe c t e dAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns .Pr o duc t swe r ema r k e t e dwi t hna me st ha ti nc l ude ds uc hde r o g a t o r yt e r msa s“ ma mmy , ”“ pi c k a ni nny ”“ c o o n, ”a nd 2 6 “ ni g g e r . ” Adv e r t i s e me nt sc o mmo nl yf e a t ur e dAf r i c a nAme r i c a nswi t he x a g g e r a t e dphy s i c a lf e a t ur e s ,r i di c ul o usc l o t he sa nds pe a k i ngi ndi a l e c t( Fi gur e10) .Ma r k e t e r so f t e npo r t r a y e dAf r i c a nAme r i c a nsi ns ubs e r v i e ntpo s i t i o nsa ndr i di c ul e dAf r i c a nAme r i c a nswi t hs o c i a l a s pi r a t i o nsa smi mi c k i ng 27 whi t epe o pl eo rmi s us i ngt e c hno l o g y( Fi g ur e11) . Al t ho ug ht hi sdi s r e g a r df o rhuma ns e ns i bi l i t i e sdi dno te x t e ndt oa l lpr o duc t sa ndc o mpa ni e s –Ke l l o g g ’ s ,f o re x a mpl e ,be g a na na g g r e s s i v ec a mpa i g ni nt he1930st oa t 23

Pi l g r i m,Da v i d,“ Wha tWa sJ i m Cr o w? ”( J i m Cr o wMus e um o fRa c i s tMe mo r a bi l i a , Fe r r i sS t a t eUni v e r s i t y , Bi gRa pi ds ,Mi c hi g a n, ht t p: / / www. f e r r i s . e du/ ht ml s / ne ws / j i mc r o w/ wha t . ht m,2000) . 24

Ha l e ,Gr a c eEl i z a be t h,Ma k i n gWh i t e ne s s :Th eCu l t u r eo fS e g r e g a t i o ni nt h eS o u t h , 18901940( Ne wYo r k : Pa nt he o nBo o k s , 1998) . 25

S t r a s s e r ,S us a n,S a t i s f a c t i o nGu a r a nt e e d :Th eMa k i n go ft h eAme r i c a nMa s sMa r k e t ( Wa s hi ng t o n,D. C. : S mi t hs o ni a nI ns t i t ut i o nPr e s s ,1 989 ) . 26

We e ms ,Ro be r tE. ,J r . ,De s e g r e g a t i n gt h eDo l l a r :Af r i c a nAme r i c a nCo ns u me r i s mi nt h e Twe nt i e t hCe nt u r y( Ne wYo r kUni v e r s i t yPr e s s ,Ne wYo r k , 1998) . 27

Ha l e ,Ma k i n gWh i t e ne s s .

FIGURE 10.CI RCA 1 888ADVERTI S EMENT FOR RI S I NG S UN S TOVE P OLI S H." ISAY S NOW F LAKE,DATE S TOVE WASBLACKED WI TH RI S I NG S UN.DI D YOU EBER S EE DE LI KE? "MARKETERS COMMONLY PROMOTED PRODUCTS AND SERVI CES DURI NG THE LATE 1 9TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURI ESBY FEATURI NG AFRI CAN AMERI CANS,I RI S H, NATI VE AMERI CANS, CHI NES E AND OTHER MARGI NALI ZED GROUPS WI TH EXAGGERATED PHYS I CALFEATURES ,RI DI CULOUSCLOTHESAND S PEAKI NG I N DI ALECT. ( I MAGEFROM AUTHOR' SCOLLECTI ON)

t r a c tmo r ec o ns ume r st oCo r nFl a k e sbywi de l ya dv e r t i s i ngi nAf r i c a n 28 Ame r i c a n ne ws pa pe r sa ndpe r i o di c a l s â&#x20AC;&#x201D;bya nd l a r g e ,a dv e r t i s e r sha d t ur ne dt hes t e r e o t y peo fAf r i c a nAme r i c ai nt oac o mmo di t yt os e l lo t he r c o mmo di t i e s . Al t ho ug hma r k e t e r sa t t e mpt e dt or e a c habr o a dc r o s s s e c t i o no f Ame r i c a ns o c i e t yt hr o ug ha dv e r t i s i ng ,mo s tAme r i c a nsa tt het ur no f t he 20t hc e nt ur ys t i l lbo ug htunl a be l e dg o o dss uc ha ss ug a r ,f l o ur ,s a l t ,s o a p 2 9 a ndv i ne g a rf r o m bul kc o nt a i ne r sa tl o c a ls t o r e s . Af r i c a nAme r i c a nswe r e r o ut i ne l ys ub j e c t e dt os e c o ndc l a s st r e a t me nti nr e t a i le s t a bl i s hme nt s . Co nduc t i ngr e s e a r c ho nAf r i c a nAme r i c a nc o ns ume rbe ha v i o r si n1932 , Pa ulEdwa r dsno t e d: I npur c ha s i ngf o o dsi nbul ks he[ t heAf r i c a nAme r i c a nf e ma l e c o ns ume r ]o f t e nno to nl ys us pe c t ss ho r twe i g ht ,butha snowa y 28

We e ms ,De s e g r e g a t i n gt h eDo l l a r .

S t r a s s e r ,S a t i s f a c t i o nGu a r a n t e e d .

t oa s s ur ehe r s e l fa s t o q ua l i t y . No r t h a ndS o ut ht heNe g r oa l lt o oo f t e nha s be e nv i c t i mi z e db y uns c r upul o us me r c ha nt s .Br a ndsha v e c o met ober e l i e do n t o pr o v i de pr o t e c 3 0 t i o ni nbuy i ng .

Theg r o wt ha nds pr e a do fana t i o na lma s s ma r k e tbr o ug htwi t h i t br a nde d g o o ds ,i ndi v i dua l pa c k a g i ng ,ao ne pr i c epr i nc i pl e , ma i l o r de rr e t a i l e r sa nd c ha i n 31 s t o r e s . B r a n d n a m e g o o d s w e r e FIGURE 11.EXAMPLE OF A CI RCA 1 900 s t a nda r di z e d pr o duc t spr o duc e d PLACEMENT CARD DEPI CTI NG THE COMI C MOCKI NG OFAFRI CAN AMERI CANS.THES E byc o mpa ni e st owi nc o ns ume r TYPES OF CARDS WERE PLACED I N A t r us ta nds e l lmo r epr o duc t s .Asa VARI ETY OF MAS S MARKETED GOODS r e s u l t , b r a n d n a m e g o o d s o f f e r e d DURI NG THE LATE 1 9TH AND EARLY 20TH f r i c a n Ame r i c a nc o ns ume r sa CENTURI ES.OFTEN,AFRI CAN AMERI CANS A WERE PORTRAYED AS MI MI CKI NG ne wk i nd o fc o nt r o lo v e rl o c a l EUROPEAN AMERI CANS OR MI S US I NG di s c r i mi na t i o na nd a ne f f e c t i v e TECHNOLOGY. ( I MAGE FROM AUTHOR' S s t r a t e g y f o r e v a d i n g t h e r a c i s m o f COLLECTI ON) 32 l o c a l ma r k e t e r s . Whi l ec o ns ume rs pa c ewa sne v e rf r e ef r o m r a c i a lbi a s ,t hi sg r o wt ha nds pr e a do fana t i o na lma s s ma r k e tf o r e v e r c ha ng e dt hena t ur eo ft her e l a t i o ns hi pb e t we e nc o ns ume ra ndr e t a i l e r . Af r i c a nAme r i c a nsa l s of r e q ue nt l yus e dc ha i ns t o r e st oa v o i ds e c o ndc l a s st r e a t me ntf r o ml o c a lma r k e t e r s .I nt heS o ut h,c ha i ns t o r e swe r e c o mmo nl ya s s o c i a t e dwi t hs o me wha tmo r ee q ui t a bl et r e a t me nt ,s i nc e , 30

Edwa r ds ,Pa ulK. ,Th eS o u t h e r nUr b a nNe g r oa saCo ns u me r( Ne wYo r k :Pr e nt i c e Ha l l , I nc . , 1932) . 31 32

S t r a s s e r ,S a t i s f a c t i o nGu a r a n t e e d .

Mul l i ns ,Pa ulR. ,Ra c ea n dAf f l u e nc e :AnAr c h a e o l o g yo fAf r i c a nAme r i c aa ndCo ns u me r Cu l t u r e( Ne wYo r k : Kl uwe rAc a de mi c ,1999) .

I twa st r a di t i o na li nt heS o ut h,pa r t i c ul a r l yi ns ma l lc i t i e s ,f o r Ne g r oc us t o me r s ,upo ne nt e r i ngas t o r e ,t owa i tunt i la l lwhi t e pe o pl ewe r es e r v e dbe f o r ea dv a nc i ngt ot hec l e r k st oma k e k no wnt he i rwa nt s .Thec ha i nsc a mea l o ngwi t has t a nda r ds e r 3 3 v i c ef o ra l l c us t o me r sa ndc ha ng e dt hi sc o ndi t i o no v e r ni g ht .

Li k e wi s e ,byt hel a t e19t hc e nt ur y ,ma i l o r de ro ut l e t ss e r v e dt oi nt e g r a t e i ndi v i dua lc o ns ume r si nt ot hema s sma r k e ta ndpr o v i de dAf r i c a nAme r i c a nswi t ha ne f f e c t i v es t r a t e g yf o re v a di ngt her a c i s mo fl o c a lma r k e t e r s . S e a r s ,Ro e buc k ,a ndCo mpa nya ndMo nt g o me r yWa r dpr o v i de dal a r g e a r r a yo fpr o duc t sa ndg a v ea c c e s st ot hena t i o na lma r k e ta ndana t i o na l i de nt i t ywi t ho utr a c i a lde f e r e nc eo ras t o r e k e e pe r â&#x20AC;&#x2122; spr e r o g a t i v ei nde t e r 3 4 mi ni ngt heq ua l i t yo fg o o dsac o ns ume rwo ul dr e c e i v e .

33 34

Edwa r ds ,Th eS o u t h e r nUr b a nNe g r oa saCo ns u me r . Ha l e ,Ma k i n gWh i t e ne s s ; S t r a s s e r ,S a t i s f a c t i o nGu a r a n t e e d .

CHAPTER4

ARCHAEOLOGYATMANNS I MONS DURING s pr i ng2005 ,Ia ppr o a c he dJ o hnS he r r e r ,Di r e c t o ro fCul t ur a l Re s o ur c e sa ndRo bi nWa i t e s ,Ex e c ut i v eDi r e c t o ro fHCF.Ie x pl a i ne d wha tt he ya l r e a dyk ne w,t ha tMa nnS i mo nsi sas i g ni f i c a nts i t et ha t ne e de df ur t he rr e s e a r c h.It o l dt he m Iwo ul dl i k et odomydi s s e r t a t i o nr e s e a r c ho nt hes i t ea ndc o nduc tmo r ee x t e ns i v ee x c a v a t i o ns .Mypr o po s a l wa st oe x c a v a t er o ug hl y500s q ua r ef e e to v e rt hene x ts i xmo nt hs .Two y e a r sl a t e r , ne a r l y2, 000s q ua r ef e e to ft hes i t eha db e e no pe ne d. PREVIOUSARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH I n1998 ,Chr i sCl e me nto ft heS o ut hCa r o l i naI ns t i t ut eo fAr c ha e o l o g ya ndAnt hr o po l o g y( S CI AA) ,o nbe ha l fo fHCF,c o nduc t e dl i mi t e de x c a v a t i o no ft heba c ky a r da r e a .Fo ure x c a v a t i o nuni t swe r eo pe ne d: t wo10x10f o o ts q ua r e sa ndt wo5x5f o o ts q ua r e s ,o r250s q ua r ef e e t ( Fi g ur e12) .Duet ot hema ni c ur e dna t ur eo ft hey a r d,t o po g r a phya nd hi s t o r i cma pspr i ma r i l ydi r e c t e dCl e me nt â&#x20AC;&#x2122; spl a c e me nto ft heuni t s .The10 x10f o o tuni t swe r ei nt e nde dt oe x pl o r et hey a r da r e ab e hi ndt hes t r uc t ur e ,whi l et he5x5f o o tuni t swe r ei nt e nde dt oe x pl o r ea r e a sc l o s e rt ot he 3 5 ho us e .At o t a lo f8 , 410a r t i f a c t s a nd7, 076g r a mso fbo newe r er e c o v e r e d f r o ma l lc o nt e x t s .Cl e me nt ' swo r kwa st hef i r s ti nS o ut hCa r o l i nat of o c us o nt hea r c ha e o l o g yo faf r e eAf r i c a nAme r i c a nho us e ho l da ndr e ma i ns , wi t ht hea ddi t i o no ft hi ss t udy ,t heo nl ye x c a v a t i o no fa nAf r i c a nAme r i 3 6 c a no wne ds i t ei nt heg r e a t e rCo l umbi aa r e a .

Ana r t i f a c ti sa nyo bj e c tma nuf a c t ur e d, mo di f i e do rus e dbyhuma ns .

Al t ho ug ht he1998a r c ha e o l o g y o f f e r e d s o me t a nt a l i z i ng c l ue s a bo utl i f ei nCo l umbi a ,bo t h10x 10f o o te x c a v a t i o nuni t swe r ea c t ua l l yl o c a t e d wi t hi nt he 1906 Ma r i o nS t r e e tpr o pe r t ybo unda r i e s a ndr e l a t eo nl yi ndi r e c t l yt ot he Ma nnS i mo nsf a mi l ywhi c h ha d o pe r a t e dt hi sa ndo t he rc o nt i g uo uspl o t sa sr e nt a lpr o pe r t i e s .The 5x5f o o te x c a v a t i o nuni t swe r e l o c a t e dwi t hi nt he1904Ma r i o n S t r e e tl o t .Unf o r t una t e l y ,duet o l i mi t e dt i me ,t hema j o r i t yo ft he 37 e a t ur e s e nc o unt e r e dwi t hi nt he FIGURE 12. DETAI L FROM THE 1 904 f S ANBORN F I RE I NS URANCE MAP OF 5x5f o o tuni t swe r eno te x c a COLUMBI A NOTI NG LOCATI ONSOF UNI TS v a t e d.No ne t he l e s s ,t he1998a r EXCAVATED I N1 998 .( MAP COURTESY OF c ha e o l o g ys ug g e s t e dt ha twi t hf ur S OUTH CAROLI NI ANAL I BRARY, UNI VERS I TY t he r ,s y s t e ma t i cda t ac o l l e c t i o nt he OFS OUTH CAROLI NA, COLUMBI A) Ma nnS i mo nsS i t eha dt hepo t e nt i a lt oo f f e rs ub s t a nt i a li ns i g ht s i nt ot hel i v e so ft hef a mi l ya nd,a c c o r di ng l y ,t hedi v e r s es o c i a lmi l i e uo f t het i me . FIELD METHODS Fo rt he2005e x c a v a t i o ns ,a na r bi t r a r yda t um a ndg r i ds y s t e m wa s e s t a bl i s he da tt hes i t ea ndo r i e nt e dt ot heCo l umbi as t r e e ts y s t e m,whi c hi s 14° 24’ we s to fma g ne t i cno r t h.Ex c a v a t i o nuni t swe r e5x5f e e ta nde x c a -

Cl e me nt ,Chr i s t o phe rO. ,Ra mo naM.Gr unde na ndJ o hnK.Pe t e r s o n,Hi s t o r ya n d Ar c h a e o l o g ya tt h eMa nnS i mo n sCo t t a g e :AFr e eBl a c kS i t ei nCo l u mb i a ,S o u t hCa r o l i n a , ( Cul t ur a lRe s o ur c e sCo ns ul t i ngDi v i s i o n,S o ut hCa r o l i naI ns t i t ut eo fAr c ha e o l o g ya nd Ant hr o po l o g y , Uni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i na ,Co l umbi a ,1999 ) . 37

I na r c ha e o l o g y ,af e a t ur ei sa na r t i f a c ts uc ha sat r a s hpi to rpo s t ho l et ha tc a nno tbe r e mo v e df r o m as i t e .

3 8 39 v a t e dbyna t ur a ls t r a t i g r a phi cl a y e r s . Ea c huni q uepr o v e ni e nc e ( s t r a t um,f e a t ur e ,e t c . )wa sa s s i g ne dauni q uede s i g na t i o n.Pr o v e ni e nc ede s i gna t i o nswe r ea s s i g ne di nt heo r de ri nwhi c ht he ywe r ee nc o unt e r e d.Fo r i ns t a nc e ,i ft heuni tnumb e ri s6 ,t he nt hef i r s tl a y e ri s6A,t hene x t6B,i f af e a t ur ei sne x te nc o unt e r e d,i two ul dbe6C,a nds oo n.S c r e e ni ngo fs o i l wa spe r f o r me dt hr o ug hÂźi nc hwi r eme s h.Pho t o g r a phi cdo c ume nt a t i o n o fa l ls t a g e so fa r c ha e o l o g i c a li nv e s t i g a t i o ni nc l ude dg e ne r a lv i e wso ft he s i t e ,wo r ki npr o g r e s sa ndde t a i l e dr e c o r ds ho t s .Pl a nv i e wa ndpr o f i l e dr a wi ng swe r ea l s opr o duc e d.

EXCAVATION STAGES Ex c a v a t i o no c c ur r e dbe t we e nJ ul y2005a ndJ une2007i nt hr e e s t a g e s ,wi t haf o ur t hs t a g eb e t we e nOc t o be r2011a ndJ a nua r y2012 .The pr i ma r yo bj e c t i v eo fa l lf i e l dwo r kwa ss t r a i g ht f o r wa r d:e x c a v a t ear e pr e s e nt a t i v es a mpl eo ft hee nt i r ea r e ac o nt i nua l l yo c c upi e dbyt heMa nnS i mo ns f a mi l yb e t we e n 1843a nd 1970wi t hi na c c e s s i bl es pa c e s( i . e .t hes i t e bo unda r i e sde f i ne dbymo de r nf e a t ur e s ,f o re x a mpl e ,t hepa v e dpa r k i ngl o t e a s to ft hes i t e ) .Theg o a lwa st oe s t a bl i s hho wt hema t e r i a lc ul t ur eo ft he f a mi l yv a r i e di nr e l a t i o nt oc ha ng e si nbo t hf a mi l ys t r uc t ur ea ndCo l umbi a ' ss o c i a l e nv i r o nme ntt hr o ug ho utt he19t ha nd20 t hc e nt ur i e s . S TAGE1 ` S t a g eIo bj e c t i v e swe r ebr o a di ns c o pea ndde s i g ne dt oa ddr e s s ba s i cq ue s t i o nsa bo utt heo c c upa t i o na ndi nt e g r i t yo ft hes i t e .Theo bj e c t i v e so fS t a g e1we r e :1)a r c ha e o l o g i c a l l yi nv e s t i g a t et ho s ea r e a so ft hes i t e t ha twe r et ob ei r r e pa r a bl ydi s t ur be d byHCF l a nds c a pi nga c t i v i t i e s pl a nne df o rl a t ea ut umn2005a nd2)de f i net hea r c ha e o l o g i c a li nt e g r i t yo f t hee nt i r eg r e e ns pa c ebe t we e nt heMa nnS i mo nsho us ea ndt hehi g hr i s e a pa r t me ntbui l di ngt ot heno r t h.

Ar c ha e o l o g i s t se x c a v a t es i t e sbyl a y e r s .S t r a t i g r a phyr e f e r st os upe r i mpo s e dl a y e r so fs o i l i nt hev e r t i c a l pl a ne .As i ng l el a y e ri sas t r a t um;mul t i pl el a y e r sa r es t r a t a . 39

Pr o v e ni e nc ei st hepo s i t i o no fa na r c ha e o l o g i c a lf i nd i ns pa c e ,r e c o r d e dt hr e e di me ns i o na l l y .

Dur i ng J ul y 2005 , t hi r t y o ne1 x 1f o o ts ho v e lt e s t 1 pi t s i nt hea r e abe t we e nt he t wos t r uc t ur e swe r ee x c a v a t e d. Di s t r i but e da l o ngag r i da t20f o o ti nt e r v a l sa c r o s st hee nt i r e ba c k y a r da r e a( Fi g ur e13) ,e a c h s ho v e lt e s twa se x c a v a t e dt oa s uf f i c i e nt de pt ht oi nt e r s e c t undi s t ur be df e a t ur e sa nd s ub2 s o i l . Thes ho v e lt e s t spr o duc e d al a r g es a mpl eo ft he s t r a t i g r a phi cna t ur eo ft hes i t ea nda s a mpl eo fs pa t i a l l ydi s t i nc ta r t i f a c t sa ndf e a t ur e sf r o ma l lpe r i o dso fo c c upa t i o n. S TAGE2

Fi gur e13.Lo c a t i o nso fS t a g e1s ho v e l t e s t pi t s .( Ma pb yt h ea u t h o r )

Fo l l o wi ng s ho v e lt e s t i ng ,S t a g e2 e x c a v a t i o nso c c ur r e di nt wopha s e s .Dur i ng t he f i r s t pha s e ,whi c ht o o k pl a c ebe t we e nJ ul ya ndOc t ob e r2005 ,f i v euni t swe r ee x c a v a t e dwi t hi nt hee a s ts i dey a r d ( Fi g ur e14,uni t s510) .The pl a c e me nto fe a c huni twa sr a ndo ml yde t e r mi ne dt opr o v i dea s t a t i s t i c a l l yv a l i ds a mpl eo ft he a r e a .Theo bj e c t i v ewa st oi de nt i f ye v i de nc eo ff e nc e s ,

As ho v e l t e s tpi t( S TP)i sas ma l lho l e ,t y pi c a l l y1x 1f e e ts q ua r eo r30c m di a me t e r ,ma de wi t has ho v e lt ode t e r mi nebo unda r yl i mi t so fas i t e ,c o l l e c ta r t i f a c ts a mpl e sa ndt e s ts i t e i nt e g r i t y . 2

S ubs o i lr e f e r st ot hel a y e ro fs o i lunde r l y i ngt o ps o i la ndo t he rde po s i t e ds o i l s .I nS o ut h Ca r o l i na ,t hes ubs o i l i say e l l o wi s hr e ds a ndyc l a y .

s t r uc t ur e sa ndo t he rl a nds c a pef e a t ur e sr e l a t e dt ot hev a r i o uso c c upa t i o ns , s uc ha st he1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ts t r uc t ur e .The s euni t spr o v i de dt hef i r s t s y s t e ma t i cv i e wo fr e s o ur c e sa tt hes i t ea nda l l o we dt hef o r mul a t i o no fa di f f e r e nts t r a t e g ye mpl o y e ddur i ngS t a g e3 . Thes e c o ndpha s eo fS t a g e2e x c a v a t i o nst o o kpl a c ef r o m Ma yt o J ul y2006 .Dur i ngMa y ,Idi r e c t e d15g r a dua t ea ndunde r g r a dua t es t ude nt sa spa r to ft heUni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i na ,De pa r t me nto fAnt hr opo l o g y â&#x20AC;&#x2122; sFi e l dS c ho o li nAr c ha e o l o g y .Wi t ht hea i do fv o l unt e e r s ,S t a g eI I f i e l dwo r kwa sc o mpl e t e da tt hee ndo fJ ul y .Thepr i ma r yo bj e c t i v eo f Pha s e2,S t a g e2wa st oe x c a v a t et wos a mpl i ngs t r a t a :t hewe s ts i deo ft he y a r da ndt hes i dey a r da r e ab e t we e nt hes t r uc t ur e sa t1403Ri c hl a nda nd 1904Ma r i o ns t r e e t s .Fi v e5x5f o o tuni t sa ndo ne2 . 5x2 . 5f o o tuni t we r ee x c a v a t e d,a swe l l a st wos ho v e l t e s tpi t s( Fi g ur e14 ,uni t s1117) . I na ddi t i o nt onume r o usi nt a c tde po s i t s ,s t r uc t ur a lf o unda t i o ns a ndab r o a da r r a yo fma t e r i a li t e ms ,t he s ee x c a v a t i o nsa l s ounc o v e r e de v i de nc eo fs e v e r es t r a t i g r a phi cdi s t ur ba nc e .I ta ppe a r st ha tdur i ngr e no v a t i o nso ft he1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e tho us ei n1974,al a r g es e mi c i r c ul a r t r e nc hwa sduga r o undt her e a ro ft heho us ee x t e ndi ngne a r l yt e nf e e t f r o mt hes t r uc t ur e .Ther e s ul twa sac o mpl e t el o s so fa r c ha e o l o g i c a li nt e g r i t yi nt hi spa r to ft hey a r d. S TAGE3 S t a g e3e x c a v a t i o nsb e g a ni nS e pt e mbe r2006a ndc o nt i nue dunt i l t hee ndo fJ une2007 .Dur i ngt hi st i me ,t woUS Cf i e l ds c ho o lc l a s s e sc o nt r i but e dt oe x c a v a t i o n.Thef i r s twa saS a t ur da y o nl yc l a s sdur i ngf a l ls e me s t e r ,2006 .Thes e c o ndc l a s swa samo r et r a di t i o na lf i e l ds c ho o l ,whi c h t o o kpl a c edur i ngMa y2007 ,wo r k i ngf i v eda yawe e k ,e i g htho ur sada y . Thes t r a t i f i e dr a ndo ms a mpl i ngs t r a t e g yus e ddur i ngS t a g e2wa sa ba ndo ne ddur i ngs t a g e3.I ns t e a d,bl o c ke x c a v a t i o nswe r ee mpl o y e d.Two20 x20f o o tbl o c k swe r el a i do ut ,wi t ha ddi t i o na luni t spl a c e dj udg me nt a l l y t oe x pl o r epr o x i ma t ea r e a s .The s ebl o c k sr e pr e s e nta64pe r c e nts a mpl eo f t hec o mmo ny a r da r e abe hi ndt heho us e sa t1403Ri c hl a nda nd1904 Ma r i o ns t r e e t s( Fi g ur e s13) . Oneo ft hei nhe r e ntdi f f i c ul t i e so fur ba na r c ha e o l o g yr e s ul t sf r o m l o ng t e r m,i nt e ns i v el a ndus ewi t hi ns ma l l ,bo unde ds pa c e s .Thi sl a ndus e pa t t e r npr o duc e samul t i t udeo fi nt r us i v ea r c hi t e c t ur a la ndno na r c hi t e c -

Fi gur e14.Lo c a t i o nso fe x c a v a t i o nuni t s .Ea c huni twa s5x 5f e e t .( Ma pb yt h ea u t h o r )

t ur a lf e a t ur e sa s s o c i a t e dwi t he a c ho c c upa t i o ne r a .Wi t hr a ndo ml ydi s t r i but e de x c a v a t i o nuni t s ,l i k et ho s eo fS t a g e2,t hedi f f i c ul t yl a y s ,l i t e r a l l y ,i n c o nne c t i ngt hedo t s .Bl o c ke x c a v a t i o nswe r eus e di nt heba c k y a r da r e at o r e v e a lpa t t e r ni ngno tv i s i bl eus i ngt heme t ho dse mpl o y e di nS t a g e2e x c a v a t i o ns ,mo s tno t a bl y ,ho r i z o nt a lpa t t e r ni ngr e l a t e dt os t r uc t ur e sa ndda y t o da ya c t i v i t i e s .

FIGURE 15.S TRATI GRAPHYATTHES I TE. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

S TAGE4 Thef o ur t ha ndf i na ls t a g eo fe x c a v a t i o nso c c ur r e db e t we e nOc t obe r2011a ndJ a nua r y2012.Ar c ha e o l o g i s tJ o s e phJ o hns o na ndIe x c a v a t e d386s q ua r ef e e to nt hes o ut hwe s tc o r ne ro ft hes i t e( s e eFi g ur e14) . Theg o a l swe r et hr e e f o l d:( 1)mo r ef ul l yde f i net hena t ur eo fo pe r a t i o nsa t t hel unc hc o unt e r ;( 2)r e c o v e rs ur v i v i nge v i de nc eo ft heho us eBe nDe La nea ndCe l i aMa nno c c upi e d;a nd( 3)b e t t e runde r s t a ndho wt hef a mi l y us e dt hi sy a r da r e ao v e rt i me .Thi sc o r ne rwa st hel e a s tdi s t ur b e da r e aa t t hes i t ea ndt husr e pr e s e nt e daf ul lma t e r i a lr e c o r do ft heMa nnS i mo ns f a mi l y . Fi v el a y e r swe r ei de nt i f i e d( Fi g ur e15) .Thebo t t o mmo s tl a y e r , Le v e l5,r e pr e s e nt st hepr e 1870so c c upa t i o no ft hes i t e —t hepe r i o do f Be nDe l a nea ndCe l i aMa nn.Co ns i s t e ntwi t ho t he rpa r t so ft hey a r d,f e w a r t i f a c t swe r ef o und.Wha twa sdi s c o v e r e dwa st hewe s twa l lo ft he i r ho us e ,r e pr e s e nt e dbyf i v epo s tho l e sr unni ngno r t hs o ut h.Ana ddi t i o na l po s tho l e wa sdi s c o v e r e d unde r ne a t ht he Ri c hl a nd S t r e e ts i de wa l k , t ho ug htt obepa r to ft hef r o ntpo r c h.Le v e l4r e pr e s e nt st hepe r i o dbe t we e npo s t 1872( whe nBe na ndCe l i a ’ sho us ewa sr e mo v e da ndt hec ur r e ntho us ebui l t )a nd 1891 ( whe nJ o hn L.S i mo nso pe ne d al unc h c o unt e r ) .Thes pa c es e e mst oha v eb e e nus e dmuc ha si ti st o da y :a ni nt e r f a c eb e t we e nho us ea nds t r e e t ,wi t haf e wpl a nt ss c a t t e r e da bo ut .Le v e l3 wa st hee r ao ft hel unc hc o unt e r ,18911909 ,di s c us s e di nf ur t he rde t a i li n Cha pt e r5 .Wi t ht hede s t r uc t i o no ft hec o unt e ri n1909c a met heo pe ni ng 30

o ft hef r o nty a r ds pa c e â&#x20AC;&#x201D;Le v e l 2.Thea r e awa she a v i l ypo pul a t e dwi t hv a r i o us s i z e dpl a nt sa ndab r i c k l i ne dwa l k wa y .Le v e l1wa st hepe r i o d1970t o da y ,al a y e rhi g hl ydi s t ur be dbyc o ns t r uc t i o na c t i v i t i e sa f t e rt he1970 e mi ne ntdo ma i ns a l ea ndl a nds c a pi nga s s o c i a t e dwi t hmus e um a c t i v i t i e s . LABORATORY METHODS Onc eapr o v e ni e nc ewa sc o mpl e t e l ye x c a v a t e da nds c r e e ne di nt he f i e l d,t hea r t i f a c t swe r et a k e nt ot hel a bo r a t o r yf o rc l e a ni ng ,c a t a l o g i nga nd c ur a t i o n.Fo l l o wi ngi ni t i a ls o r t i ng ,a r t i f a c t sr e q ui r i ngc l e a ni ngf o ri de nt i f i c a t i o n,c ur a t i o no rdi s pl a ywe r es e pa r a t e dbya ppr o pr i a t ec l e a ni ngt e c hni q ue .Ro bus t ,s t a bl e ,l o wpo r o s i t y ma t e r i a l s ,e x c l udi ng me t a l ,we r e wa s he di npl a i n,no ndi s t i l l e dwa t e rwi t has o f t br i s t l e dny l o nbr us h.Obj e c t swi t hde l i c a t es ur f a c ede c o r a t i o nwe r eg e ne r a l l yno twa s he d,pr e f e r r i ng adi r t ya r t i f a c to v e rada ma g e do ne .Af t e rc l e a ni ng ,a r t i f a c t swe r epl a c e do n g a l v a ni z e ds t e e ls c r e e nsa nda l l o we dt oa i rdr y .Or g a ni cma t e r i a l ss uc ha s l e a t he r ,c l o t ha ndwo o dwe r el i g ht l ydr y b r us he do rno tc l e a ne da ta l l . Me t a lo bj e c t swe r edr y b r us he dwi t hny l o nb r us he so fv a r y i ng s t i f f ne s s .Gi v e nt hef r a g i l ena t ur eo fme t a lo bj e c t s ,mo s twe r eo nl yc l e a ne d e no ug ht oa l l o wf o ri de nt i f i c a t i o n.Twoe x c e pt i o nst ot hi sr ul ewe r e1)a r t i f a c t sl i k e l yt obedi s pl a y e da spa r to fHCFâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; smus e um a c t i v i t i e sa nd2) me t a la r t i f a c t sl i k e l yt oc o nt i nuec o r r o di ngi ns t o r a g ebutr e pr e s e nti mpo r t a ntf i ndi ng st husr e q ui r i ngs t a bi l i z a t i o n.Thepur po s eo fs t a bi l i z a t i o ni st o pr e v e ntf u r t he rde t e r i o r a t i o na ndr e v e a li mpo r t a nti nf o r ma t i o n.I ft hede c i s i o nwa sma det or e mo v ec o r r o s i o n,t wome t ho ds ,a l o neo rc o mbi ne d, we r eus e d:me c ha ni c a l( e . g .ha ndb r us he s ,s o f ta ndha r dpi c k s )a nde l e c 4 2 t r o l y t i c . Me c ha ni c a lme t ho dsa l o newe r eus e do nmo s tno ni r o na r t i f a c t s ,a l t ho ug hs o mebr a s sa ndc o ppe ro bj e c t sr e c e i v e dl i mi t e de l e c t r o l y t i c 4 3 t r e a t me nt . 42

S o meme t a l s ,l i k ea l umi num,de v e l o pat hi nl a y e ro fc o r r o s i o nt ha tf o r msas t a bl e , pr o t e c t i v eba r r i e ra g a i ns tf ur t he rc o r r o s i o n.Unl e s ss uc haba r r i e ro bs c ur e di mpo r t a nt s ur f a c ede t a i l s ,t he s eme t a l swe r edr y br us he do nl y ,r e g a r dl e s so fpo t e nt i a lf o rdi s pl a y . Ot he rme t a l s ,l i k ei r o n,r e q ui r es t a bi l i z a t i o nf o rpr e s e r v a t i o n. 43

El e c t r o l y t i cr e duc t i o nt r e a t me ntus e se l e c t r i cc ur r e ntt ot ur ni r o no x i de sa ndi r o nc hl o r i de sba c ki nt ome t a l l i ci r o n.Us i ngas ur pl us12vc o mput e rpo we rs uppl y ,t hea no de c o ns i s t e do fs t a i nl e s ss t e e l ,t hea r t i f a c tbe i ngpr o c e s s e dwa st hec a t ho de ,a nda15 20% s o l ut i o no fs o di um c hl o r i dewa sus e da sa ne l e c t r o l y t e .At a r g e t2Ampe r ec ur r e ntf l o wwa s s o ug ht .Af t e re l e c t r o l y t i ct r e a t me nt ,a r t i f a c t swe r er i ns e dt ho r o ug hl yi ndi s t i l l e d,de i o ni z e d wa t e r ,dr i e di na no v e n,c o a t e di n me l t e d mi c r o c r y s t a l l i ne wa xa nd pl a c e di nt o

Af t e rc l e a ni ng ,a r t i f a c t swe r el a i do uti npr e pa r a t i o nf o rc a t a l o g i ng .Auni q uec a t a l o gnumbe rwa sa s s i g ne dt oe a c ha r t i f a c to rg r o upo f a r t i f a c t swi t hi de nt i c a lde s c r i pt i v ev a l ue swi t hi nag i v e npr o v e ni e nc e .Af t e r c a t a l o g i nga ndc o ns e r v a t i o n,a r t i f a c t swe r er e ba g g e di nt ol a r g e rpo l y e t hy l e neba g sa ndpl a c e di na c i df r e es t o r a g ebo x e s . COLLECTI ON DATI NG&CLAS S I FI CATI ON Whi l et hepr o c e s so fda t i nga nys i t e ,f e a t ur eo ra r t i f a c tc a nbe c o mpl e x ,i nl a t e19t ha nde a r l y20t hc e nt ur yc o nt e x t st hec o mpl e x i t i e sa r e c o mpo unde dbyt hema t e r i a l st he ms e l v e s .Whe nc o mpa r e dt ot hel i t e r a t ur eo n17 t ha nd18t hc e nt ur yma t e r i a lc ul t ur e ,de s c r i pt i o nso fma s s pr oduc e dg o o dsma nuf a c t ur e di nt hel a t e19t ha nd20t hc e nt ur i e sa r er e ma r ka bl ys c a r c ei nt hea r c ha e o l o g i c a ll i t e r a t ur e .Addi t i o na l l y ,t he s ema t e r i a l s a r ei nma nyc a s e ss t i l lb e i ngpr o duc e dt o da y .Thus ,hi s t o r i c a la r c ha e o l og i s t so ft her e c e ntpa s tf a c eauni q ues e to fc ha l l e ng e s ,c ha r a c t e r i z e dbya br o a dt e mpo r a lr a ng ef o rma nyo ft hemo s tc o mmo nl yf o unda r t i f a c t sa nd as ho r t a g eo fpubl i s he df i ne g r a i ne dc hr o no l o g i e sa ndt y po l o g i e s . Twome t ho dsf o rda t i nga r c ha e o l o g i c a lde po s i t sa r ec o mmo nl y e mpl o y e dbyhi s t o r i c a la r c ha e o l o g i s t s .Thef i r s tme t ho d,de v e l o pe dby S t a nl e yS o ut h44,i nv o l v e sde r i v i ngame a nc e r a mi cda t ef o ras i t eo ra s s e m4 5 46 bl a g eo r ,a sMa r kGr o o v e r ha spr o po s e d,ame a na r t i f a c tda t e .Wi t h t hi sme t ho d, t heme di a nda t ef o rt hema nuf a c t ur eo fe a c hc e r a mi c( o ra r t i f a c t )t y pei smul t i pl i e dbyi t sf r e q ue nc y( f o rc e r a mi c s ,e i t he rnumbe ro f s he r dso rmi ni mum numbe ro fv e s s e l s ) ,whi c hi st he ndi v i de dbyt het o t a l numbe ro fc e r a mi ct y pe si nt hes a mpl e .Thepr o duc ti st heme a nda t eo f t hema nuf a c t ur eo fr e c o v e r e dc e r a mi c s .Al t ho ug hme a nc e r a mi cda t i ngi sa pr o v e nme t ho df o rda t i nga r c ha e o l o g i c a la s s e mbl a g e s ,pa r t i c ul a r l ya t17t h a nd18t hc e nt ur ys i t e s ,i ti sno tt heb e s to pt i o nf o rt heMa nnS i mo nsS i t e f o rt wor e a s o ns .Fi r s t ,ade po s i tt ha ta c c umul a t e do v e rape r i o do ft e n y e a r sa ndo net ha ta c c umul a t e do v e r100y e a r sc a npr o duc et hes a me

po l y e t hy l e neba g sc o nt a i ni ngdr ys i l i c ag e l i nde s i c c a t o r s . 44

S o ut h,S t a nl e y ,Me t h o da ndTh e o r yi nHi s t o r i c a lAr c h a e o l o g y( Ne w Yo r k :Ac a de mi c Pr e s s , 1977) . 45

Ana s s e mbl a g ei s( 1 )a l l t hea r t i f a c t sf o unda tas i t eo r( 2)as ubs e to fa r t i f a c t sbe l o ng i ng t o ,f o re x a mpl e , af e a t ur eo rc l a s so fa r t i f a c t s .

4 7 me a nda t e . Gi v e nt hec o nt i nuo usa ndr e c e nto c c upa t i o no ft heMa nnS i mo nspr o pe r t i e s ,t hi si sav a l i dc o nc e r n.S e c o nd,l i k ema nya r t i f a c t s ,t he ma j o r i t yo ft hec e r a mi c spr o duc e ddur i ngt hel a t e1 9t ha nd20 t hc e nt ur i e s a r es t i l li npr o duc t i o nt o da y .Ma nyo ft hec e r a mi c swo ul dha v e ,f o re x a mpl e ,a ni nt r o duc t i o nda t eo f1820( t hei nt r o duc t i o nda t eo fwhi t e wa r e ) a nda ne ndda t eo ft o da y ,pr o duc i ngame a nma nuf a c t ur i ngda t eo f1917 —ada t et ha ti sc o mpl e t e l yunr e l a t e dt ot hea c t ua lde po s i t so rpe r i o dso f o c c upa t i o n.

The r e f o r e ,da t e sf o rde po s i t swe r ec a l c ul a t e dus i ngt hes e c o nd c o mmo nda t i ngme t ho d:byt e r mi nu sp o s tq u e m( TPQ) ,whe r et hei nt r oduc t i o nda t eo ft hel a t e s tma dea r t i f a c ti st hee a r l i e s tda t et ha tt hede po s i t 4 8 c o ul dha v ebe e nc r e a t e d. Fo re x a mpl e ,i faf e a t ur ec o nt a i ne dt hr e ea r t i f a c t s–ac r o wnc a pbo t t l ec l o s ur e( i nt r o duc e di n1892) ,a nunde c o r a t e d whi t e wa r epl a t e( i nt r o duc e dc i r c a1820)a ndag a l v a ni z e dr o o f i ngna i l( i nt r o duc e di n1901)–t heTPQ da t ef o rt hef e a t ur ewo ul db e1901;t hee a r l i e s tda t et hef e a t ur ec o ul dha v eb e e nc r e a t e d. Thec l a s s i f i c a t i o na ndc a t a l o g i ngs y s t e m us e df o rt heMa nnS i mo nspr o j e c ti samo di f i e dv e r s i o no ft hes y s t e ms e tf o r t hi nt heNa t i o na l 49 Pa r kS e r v i c e ’ sMu s e u m Ha nd b o o k ,Pa r tI I , whi c hi t s e l fi sba s e do nt he 50 c l a s s i f i c a t i o ns y s t e m pr o po s e dbyRo de r i c kS pr a g ue . Ni ne t e e nuni q ue f i e l dswe r ea v a i l a bl ef o rde s c r i bi nge a c ha r t i f a c t . Be l o wa r et woe x a mpl ea r t i f a c tc a t a l o ge nt r i e st oi l l us t r a t et hes y s t e m—ac e r a mi cs e r v i ngpl a t ea nda s o dapo pbo t t l e .Ca t a l o ge nt r i e sl i k et he s ewe r epr o duc e df o re v e r ya r t i f a c t r e c o v e r e d.Ana bbr e v i a t e da r t i f a c tl i s t i ngf o rt hel unc hc o unt e rt r a s hpi ti s pr e s e nt e di nAppe ndi xA.

Gr o o v e r ,Ma r kD. ,“ Li nk i ngAr t i f a c tAs s e mbl a g e st oHo us e ho l dCy c l e s :AnEx a mpl e f r o mt heGi bbsS i t e , ”Hi s t o r i c a l Ar c h a e o l o g y , 2001,35( 4) ,3857 . 47

Mi l l e r ,Ge o r g eL. ,Pa t r i c i aS a mf o r d,El l e nS hl a s k oa ndAndr e wMa ds e n,“ Te l l i ngTi me f o rAr c ha e o l o g i s t s , ”No r t h e a s tHi s t o r i c a l Ar c h a e o l o g y , 2000.29( 1) ,122 . 48

Mi l l e r ,e ta l . ,“ Te l l i ngTi me . ”

Na t i o na lPa r kS e r v i c e ,Mu s e u mHa nd b o o k , Pa r tI I , 2000 , www. nps . g o v / mus e um/ / publ i c a t i o ns / ha ndbo o k . ht ml 50

S pr a g ue ,Ro de r i c k ,“ A Func t i o na lCl a s s i f i c a t i o nf o rAr t i f a c t sf r o m 19t ha nd20t h Ce nt ur yS i t e s , ”No r t hAme r i c a nAr c h a e o l o g i s t , 1981, 2( 3) ,251261 .

CLAS S :

Ce r a mi c

OBJ ECTNAME:

Ta bl e wa r e ,Pl a t e ,S e r v i ng

MATERI AL:

Ea r t he nwa r e

MANUFACTURI NGTECHNI QUE:

Whi t e wa r e

DECORATI VETECHNI QUE:

Fl o wTr a ns f e rPr i nt e d

DECORATI VEDES I GN:

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l

DECORATI VEELEMENT:

Bui l di ng

COLOR:

Bl ue

PART:

Ri m

COUNT:

MNI :

WEI GHT:

n/ a

DI MENS I ONS :

Ri m di a me t e r=18i nc he s

FUNCTI ONALCATEGORY:

Ki t c he nTa bl e wa r e

MAKER' SMARK:

OTHERMARKS :

MANUFACTURI NGDATE:

18401900

DATES OURCE:

Mi l l e r ,e ta l .2000 : 13

NOTES :

Ev i de nc eo fbur ni ng / hi g hhe a t

CLAS S :

Gl a s s

OBJ ECTNAME:

Co nt a i ne r ,Bo t t l e ,S o daPo p

MATERI AL:

Gl a s s

MANUFACTURI NGTECHNI QUE:

CupBo t t o m Mo l d

DECORATI VETECHNI QUE:

Embo s s e d

DECORATI VEDES I GN:

n/ a

DECORATI VEELEMENT:

Te x t

COLOR:

Aq ua( Bl ue )

PART:

Ba s eFr a g me nt s

COUNT:

MNI :

WEI GHT:

n/ a

DI MENS I ONS :

Ba s edi a me t e r=3i nc he s

FUNCTI ONALCATEGORY:

Ki t c he nUt i l i t a r i a n

MAKER' SMARK:

Ye s

OTHERMARKS :

MANUFACTURI NGDATE:

19151923

DATES OURCE:

TheBo t t l eRe s e a r c he r sGr o up

NOTES :

Emo b s s e d“ CHERO COLA”

CHAPTER5

THELUNCH COUNTER THANKSt ot hedi s c o v e r yo fal a r g e ,v e r ywe l lpr e s e r v e dt r a s hpi t ,t he s t o r yo ft hel unc hc o unt e rc a nb et o l di nr e ma r k a bl ede t a i l .Thes t o r yhe r e i sc o nc e r ne dwi t ht heda y t o da yo pe r a t i o nso ft hec o unt e r ,o f f e r i nga g l i mps ea twha t100y e a ro l df a s tf o o dl o o k e dl i k e ,a swe l la sag l i mps e i nt owhyJ i m Cr o ws e g r e g a t i o nt o o kt hef o r mi tdi di nt heAme r i c a n S o ut h. Do c ume nt a r ye v i de nc es ug g e s t st ha tt hebui l di nga t1401Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t ,l o c a t e do nt heno r t he a s tc o r ne ro fRi c hl a nda ndMa r i o n s t r e e t s ,wa si no pe r a t i o nf o re i g ht e e ny e a r s ,o pe ni ngi n1891a ndc l o s i ng i n1909( s e eFi g ur e7,bo t t o ml e f tc o r ne r ) .Thef i r s tme nt i o no ft hebui l di ngi si nt he1891Co l umbi aCi t yDi r e c t o r y( l i s t e da t58Ea s tRi c hl a nd S t r e e t ) .Al t ho ug ht hef unc t i o no ft hes t r uc t ur ewa sno tg i v e n,t hedi r e c t o r yi ndi c a t e st ha ti twa sabus i ne s sa ndl i s t sJ o hnL.S i mo ns ,bo r n1859 , s o no fAg ne sJ a c k s o n,a st heo wne r .Dur i ngt het i met hec o unt e rwa si n o pe r a t i o nJ o hnl i v e dne x tdo o rt ohi sbus i ne s s ,a t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e t . Fr o m 1891 t o 1906,t heCo l umbi aCi t yDi r e c t o r i e sl i s tJ o hn a sa “ Gr o c e r , ”a l t ho ug hj us tt hr e ey e a r sbe f o r e ,t hedi r e c t o r yde s c r i b e shi ma sa “ Mf r .o fwa l k i ngc a ne s ,e t c . ”No tunt i l1916wo ul dhi so c c upa t i o na g a i n bel i s t e da s“ Ca neMa k e r ”a nd,i n1922a nd1925 ,a s“ Wo o dc a r v e r . ” Fr o m 1899unt i l1909,di r e c t o r i e sde s c r i bet hebui l di nga sa“ Lunc h Ro o m”( 19041905)a nda“ Co nf e c t i o ne r y ”( 19061908) .The1904S a nbo r nma pde s c r i be si ta sa“ Gr o c e r y . ”Whi l eac o nf e c t i o ne r yc o mmo nl y r e f e r st oac a ndyo rs we e t ss ho p,dur i ngt hel a t e1 9t ha nde a r l y20t hc e nt ur i e s ,c o nf e c t i o ne r ywa sac o mmo nt e r mf o rs o me t hi nga k i nt oas o da

FIGURE 16.S OUTH VI EW OFTHENORTHEAS T CORNER OFRI CHLAND AND MARI ON S TREETS. THEFOOTPRI NT OFTHELUNCH COUNTER AT 1 401RI CHLAND S TREET WAS S TI LL I NTACT,I NCLUDI NG THE S OUTHEAS T CORNER BRI CK PI ER ( UPPER LEFT) .THE TRAS H PI TI STHE LARGE CI RCULAR PI T AT BOTTOM CENTER.( PHOTOGRAPH BY THE AUTHOR) 5 1 f o unt a i ns ho p. Co ns e q ue nt l y ,ado wnt o wns t r e e tc o r ne rwo ul dha v e be e na ni de a l l o c a t i o n.

Lunc hc o unt e r sa ndo t he rr e l a t e d,s ma l l s c a l eba c k y a r d/ c o r ne r c o mme r c i a ls t r uc t ur e sa r er a r ei na r c ha e o l o g yl i t e r a t ur e ,pa r t i c ul a r l ye a t e r i e s .S e a r c he sf o ri nf o r ma t i o nbr i ngt ol i g htt woo t he rl unc hc o unt e r( c o nf e c t i o ne r y )e x c a v a t i o nsi nNo r t hAme r i c a .Thef i r s ti sa1940 s e r al unc h 5 2 c o unt e ri nLo sAng e l e s ,Ca l i f o r ni a . Thes e c o ndi sac i r c a 1890 sba c k y a r d 5 3 e a t e r yi nKno x v i l l e ,Te nne s s e e . Gi v e nt hi sl a c ko fo t he rl unc hc o unt e r a nds i mi l a rs t r uc t ur e se x pl o r e da r c ha e o l o g i c a l l y ,t heg e ne r a lde a r t ho f( but g r o wi ng )a r c ha e o l o g i c a l l y k no wn Af r i c a n Ame r i c a no wne d bus i ne s s e s , a ndt hei mpo r t a nc eo funde r s t a ndi ngt he s et y pe so fe nt e r pr i s e swi t hi nt he c o nt e x to fabur g e o ni ngna t i o na lc o ns ume rc ul t ur et ha twe ntha ndi nha nd wi t hr e g i o na l l y s pe c i f i c ,ma t e r i a l l y g r o unde df o r mso fs t r uc t ur a l r a c i s m,t heni c het hi se x c a v a t i o nf i l l si sq ui t ea ppa r e nt . 51

Ka t he r i neC. Gr i e r , pe r s .c o mm. 2007.

S o ut hCe nt r a lCo a s t a lI nf o r ma t i o nCe nt e r ,Ca l i f o r ni aS t a t eUni v e r s i t y ,Ful l e r t o n, 1999. 53

Pa t r i c kGa r r o wo fGa r r o w& As s o c i a t e s( no wTRCGa r r o wAs s o c i a t e s ) ,1994 .

FIGURE 17. PHOTOGRAPH OF THE LUNCH COUNTER TRASH PI T DURI NG EXCAVATI ON, 2006.( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

Wek ne wbe f o r ec o nduc t i nga r c ha e o l o g yt ha tt hec o unt e ro pe ne d i n1891a ndc l o s e di n1909 ,butno twhy .The1910c i t ydi r e c t o r yl i s t s J o hnS i mo nsa spr o pr i e t o ro fal unc hc o unt e raha l f bl o c ka wa y ,a t1914 Ma r i o nS t r e e t .The1910S a nbo r nma pnol o ng e rde pi c t sas t r uc t ur ea t 1401Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t .Wi t hi t sf l o o rc o v e r e dwi t hat hi nl e nso fc ha r c o a l l a de nbl a c ks o i l ,t het r a s hpi tpr o v i de sa ne x pl a na t i o nf o rt hedi s a ppe a r a nc eo ft hebui l di ng( Fi g ur e16) .Mo s to ft hebr i c k sa ndbr i c kba t sr e c o v e r e dha dac o a t i ngo fs o o to no nef a c e .The r ewe r ema nyi ns t a nc e so f me l t e dg l a s s ,a swe l la sc r a c k e dbuti nt a c tg l a s s ,i ndi c a t i nghi g hhe a tf o l 54 l o we dbyr a pi dc o o l i ng . Fl o o r / wa l lt i l e s ,a swe l la st a bl e wa r ec e r a mi c s , a l s os ho we de v i de nc eo fhi g hhe a t .I ta ppe a r st ha tt hel unc hc o unt e r c a ug htf i r ei n1909â&#x20AC;&#x201D;pr o ba bl yno te no ug ht obur ni tt ot heg r o und,but e no ug ht or e q ui r er e bui l di nga ndr e f ur ni s hi ng .S i nc eJ o hnha dmo v e d f r o m 1904Ma r i o nS t r e e tt o1912Ma r i o nS t r e e ti n1909,t woy e a r sa f t e r hi smo t he rAg ne spa s s e da wa y ,hes e e mi ng l yde c i de dt or e bui l dhi sl unc h 54

A de mo ns t r a t i v ee f f e c ti sa c hi e v e dbypl a c i ngag l a s sma r bl ei nbo i l i ngwa t e rf o ra mi nut eo rt woa ndt he ni mme r s i ngi ti nc o l dwa t e r .Thema r bl ewi l lc r a c kt hr o ug ho utbut r e ma i ni nt a c t .

c o unt e rne x tt ohi sne who us e .Fo l l o wi ngt hef i r e ,al a r g epi twa sdugb e hi nd t hes t r uc t ur e ,t heuns a l v a g e a bl eo rno nus e f ulc o nt e nt so ft he c o unt e rdumpe di n,t hepi tc a ppe dwi t hs a ndyc l a y( s ubs o i l )a ndne wt o ps o i ll a i ddo wn.Theo ut c o meo ft hi se v e nti sar e ma r k a bl ema t e r i a ls na ps ho to ft hel unc hc o unt e r —s t r uc t ur a l l ya ndo pe r a t i o na l l y( Fi g ur e17) . Thec o unt e rwa s14x14f e e ta nds e t ba c ko nl yt hr e ef e e tf r o m t heho us ea t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t .I tha dabr i c kf o unda t i o na l o ngt he f r o nto ft hebui l di nga ndpo s t i ng r o undc o ns t r uc t i o na l o ngt hes i de sa nd r e a r —t hes a mes t y l ea st heg r o c e r ya t1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t .Thei nt a c tr e ma i nso fa10i nc hpo s twe r er e c o v e r e df r o mt her e a rwa l l .I nt e r e s t i ng l y , a n1863pe nnywa sf o undc e nt e r e ddi r e c t l yunde rt hes o ut he a s tb r i c k f o unda t i o n—t her e a s o nf o rt hi si sunk no wn,buti spr o ba bl ya ne a r l i e ri nc a r na t i o no fat r a di t i o nt o da y ,t ha to fpl a c i ngac o i no rne ws pa pe rdur i ng c o ns t r uc t i o nwi t hi nawa l l o fane wbui l di ng . Thei nt e r i o ro ft hebui l di ngmus tha v eb e e nv e r ybr i g ht l yc o l o r e d. Fr o m pa i nts t i l la dhe r i ngt ot hei nt e r i o rs ur f a c e so fpl a s t e r / mo r t a r ,we k no wt hewa l l swe r epa i nt e dbr i g htr e da ndy e l l o w. Ne i t he rwhi t e , no ra ny o t he rc o l o r ,wa sf o undo na nyf r a g me nt so fwa l ls ur f a c e .Pa r to ft hewa l l s , pe r ha pst hes pl a s ha r e a sa r o undc o o k i nga r e a so re v e nt hec o unt e r t o ps , we r ef i ni s he dwi t hbr i g htg r e e ne a r t he nwa r et i l e st ha twe r ehi g hl i g ht e d 5 5 wi t ha' s pl o t c hy 'br o wnde s i g n. Atl e a s tpa r to ft hef l o o rwa sc o v e r e di n l i no l e um.Dr o pso fpa i nto nf r a g me nt so fc o nc r e t es ug g e s tt ha tpa r to ft he bui l di ng ’ se x t e r i o rwa spa i nt e dy e l l o w.Thec o nc r e t ewa sunus ua li nt ha ti t ha da ni mpr e s s e dma k e r ' sma r k :“ . . .AND. . ./. . .UMB. . . ” .Unf o r t una t e l y , a tt hi st i menoi nf o r ma t i o ni sa v a i l a bl ea bo utt hi sma r k .Al s of o undwe r e 10f r a g me nt so fl umb e rpa i nt e dg r e e n.Thee x t e r i o ro ft hebui l di ngma y ha v ebe e ng r e e nwi t hy e l l o wt r i m.Fr a g me nt so ff l a tg r a yma r bl e ds l a t e ,11/ 2i nc he st hi c k ,s ug g e s tt ha tt hebui l di ngpo s s i bl yha das l a t es e r v i ng c o unt e r .Wi t ho nl y256s q ua r e f e e to ff l o o rs pa c e ,i ti sunl i k e l yt hes t r uc t ur eo f f e r e di ndo o rs e a t i ng .The r ema yha v ebe e ns t o o l sa l o ngt hec o unt e r o ut s i deo ri tma yha v eb e e ns t r i c t l yawa l k upa f f a i r .Toda t e ,ba s e do nt he e v i de nc ea tha nd,t he r ei snowa yo ft e l l i ng . S wi ng i ngo nr o l l e dpl a t ehi ng e s ,t hel unc hc o unt e rdo o rl o c k e d wi t hane a r l ys q ua r er i ml o c ki de nt i c a lt os e v e r a lf e a t ur e do nt hedo o r s 55

Thet i l e swe r ema nuf a c t ur e dbyt heTr e ntTi l eCo mpa nyo fTr e nt o n,Ne wJ e r s e y , s o me t i mebe t we e n1882a nd1914[ Le hne r ,Lo i s ,Le h ne r ' sEnc y c l o p e d i ao fU. S .Ma r k so n Po t t e r y , Po r c e l a i n&Cl a y( Pa duc a h,KY:Co l l e c t o rBo o k s ,1988) ] .

wi t hi n1403Ma r i o nS t r e e tt o da y .Thewi ndo ws ,o rpe r ha pst hes hut t e r a bo v et hes l a t ec o unt e r ,ma yha v ebe e ns e c ur e df r o mt hei ns i dewi t ht he r e c o v e r e dba r ndo o rl a t c h—o neo ra l lo fwhi c hr e s t e do ns hut t e r s i z e d but thi ng e s .The yma yha v ebe e npul l e do pe nwi t ht her e c o v e r e dc a s ti r o n do o r r i nga ndhe l do pe nwi t ht hebo x l a t c hho o ka l s of o und.Oneo ft he wi ndo ws hut t e r ss t a y e do pe nwi t ht hehe l po fac a s ti r o n,' S ' s ha pe ds hut t e rdo g .The r ei snowa yo ft e l l i ngwha tt het wor i ml o c k swe r eus e df o ro r t owha tt hel e v e r t umbl e rk e ya l l o we da c c e s s . Thebui l di ngwa swi r e df o re l e c t r i c i t y .The r ema yha v ebe e na n a r c l a mpo nt hee x t e r i o r ,l i g ht i ngt hes t r uc t ur edur i ngt heda r kho ur s ,a s e v i de nc e dbyc a r bo nr o dsi nt hede po s i t .Thei nt e r i o rus e di nc a nde s c e nt bul bs ,whi c hi sno ts ur pr i s i ng ,g i v e nt heha r s hl i g htpr o duc e dbya r c l a mps .Appa r e nt l y ,a tl e a s to nei nc a nde s c e ntbul bi nt hel unc hc o unt e r wa smo unt e dwi t has o c k e tma nuf a c t ur e dbyGe ne r a lEl e c t r i c .Al t ho ug h c a l l e da' wa l ls o c k e t 'byt hema nuf a c t ur e r ,t hebul bc o ul dha v ebe e ns e c ur e dt ot hec e i l i ngj us ta se a s i l y .Thei nt e r i o ro ft hes o c k e twa sg o ne ,s o t he r ei snowa yo ft e l l i ngwha ts t y l eo fbul bi tus e d,a l t ho ug ht her e c o v e r y o faba s ef r a g me ntf r o m aTho ma s Ho us t o ns t y l el i g htbul bi ss ug g e s t i v e 5 6 ( Fi g ur e18) .I n1909,t hec o unt e rha dar e da ndy e l l o wa ndg r e e ni nt e r i o rl i g ht e dbye l e c t r i cl i g ht s .Thei nt e r i o rmus to fa ppe a r e dv e r ybr i g hti nde e d.Pl umbe df o rwa s t ewa t e r ,t hes t r uc t ur ewa sc o nne c t e dt ot heCi t y ' s s e we rs y s t e m.Thel unc hc o unt e rwa sa l s opi pe df o rag a sr a ng ea nd/ o r o v e n. J o hnS i mo ns ,o rs o me o newhowo r k e dwi t ho rf o rhi m, c o o k e di n t heo v e nwi t ha tl e a s to neme t a l9x9x2i nc hba k i ngpa nwi t hr i v e t e d ha ndl e s .Ont her a ng e ,hepr e pa r e df o o dsi na tl e a s tt wopo t so rs a uc e pa ns .Onepo twa ss i x i nc he si ndi a me t e r ,t heo t he r ,8i nc he s .Chi c k e n wa sac o mmo ndi s ha tt hel unc hc o unt e r —i two ul dha v et a k e n11c hi c ke nst oa c c o untf o rt hebo ne sr e c o v e r e d.The r ewa sa l s oe v i de nc eo fo ne t ur k e y .Whi l ec hi c k e nwa smo s ta bunda nt ,o t he rme a t swe r ea v a i l a bl ea s we l l ,i nc l udi ngpa r t sf r o mf i v eha msa ndf i v es ha nkha ms–po r kt ha twa s c o mmo nl ypi c k l e d–a swe l la spa r t sf r o mt hr e eb e e fs ho r tl o i ns ,t wos i r 56

Tho ma sA.Edi s o ni nv e nt e dt hes c r e wi nbul bweus et o da yi n1879a ndf o r me dt he Ge ne r a lEl e c t r i cCo mpa nyi n1890,buti nt hee a r l yda y so fho mee l e c t r i f i c a t i o n,t he r e we r eado z e no rmo r es t y l e so fi nc a nde s c e ntl i g htbul bso nt hema r k e t —Ge ne r a lEl e c t r i c ma nuf a c t ur e dbo t ht heEdi s o na swe l la st heTho ma s Ho us t o ns t y l ebul b,whi c ht he Ma nnS i mo nsf a mi l yus e di nt he i rho me sa ndbus i ne s s e s .I twa sno tunt i lt he1920st ha t e l e c t r i c a lo ut l e t sa ndl i g htbul bsbe c a mes t a nda r di z e d.

FIGURE 18.BASE FROM A THOMAS HOUSTONS TYLE I NCANDES CENT LI GHT BULB RECOVERED FROM THE LUNCH COUNTER TRAS H PI T( LEFT) ,WHI CH WOULD HAVE

WESTERN ELECTRI C COMPANY' S1 898ELECTRI CL I GHT S UPPLYCATALOG. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHE AUTHOR; CATALOGI MAGEFROM AUTHOR' SCOLLECTI ON) MATED WI TH A S OCKET S I MI LAR TO THI S WALL S OCKET ADVERTI S ED I N

l o i nsa ndt hr e er umpr o a s t s .As ma l lnumb e ro fs he e p/ g o a tr e ma i nswe r e r e c o v e r e da swe l l ,buti ti si mpo s s i bl et ode t e r mi nee x a c t l ywhi c ho ft he no nbi r dbo ne sb e l o ng e dt ot hel unc hc o unt e ra ndwhi c hwe r edo me s t i c t r a s ht ha tma dei t swa yi nt ot het r a s hpi t . Co ndi me nt sa v a i l a bl et oc us t o me r sc o ns i s t e do fmus t a r d( o ne bo t t l ewa se mbo s s e d“ Cha r s .Gul de n,Ne wYo r k ” ,f i r s tpr o duc e di n1874 —Gul de ns t i l lma k e smus t a r dt o da y ) ,c l ubs a uc ea nds pi c e so re x t r a c t s ma nuf a c t ur e d by Mc Co r mi c k & Co mpa ny ,o fBa l t i mo r e ,Ma r y l a nd ( whi c hi sa l s os t i l li nbus i ne s st o da y ) .Ont hes i dec us t o me r ss e e mi ng l y ha da v a i l a bl epi c k l e s ,o l i v e so rr e l i s he sf r o m whi c ht oc ho o s e .Ont heda y t hec o unt e rc a ug htf i r e ,o neo ft hec ho i c e swa sa nEng l i s hi mpo r tbyCa nni ng t o n,S ha w,& Co . ,whi c hpr o duc e dbo t t l e dpi c k l e s ,r e l i s he s ,o l i v e s a ndo t he rr e l a t e df o o ds . Thes t y l eo ft hema k e r ' sma r kpl a c e st hepr o duc t ' s pr o duc t i o nda t ebe t we e n1897a nd1913( a l t ho ug h,o fc o ur s e ,t hef e a t ur e pl a c e st heuppe rpr o duc t i o nl i mi ta t1909a ndt heus eo fa na ut o ma t i c bo t t l ema c hi nepl a c e st hel o we rl i mi ta t1905) .Wha tt hef o urMa s o ns t y l e j a r sc o nt a i ne di sunk no wn,a l t ho ug ht he i rpr e s e nc edo e ss ug g e s tno ta l l f o o di t e mswe r ec o mme r c i a l l ypr e pa r e d.Twoo ft hej a r swe r ee mbo s s e d 40

“ Ba l lMa s o n”i nas c r i ptus e db e t we e n1895a nd1910.Ea c hha dag r o und l i pa ndus e daz i ncc a pt ha ts e a l e do nt hes ho ul de ro ft hebo t t l e . The50c r o wnc a pbo t t l ec l o s ur e s–bo t t l ec a pss t i l lc o mmo nl y us e dt o da ybutwe r ei nv e nt e di n1892–s ug g e s tt he r ewe r epl e nt yo fl i qui dsa v a i l a bl ef o rpa t r o nst owa s ht he i rc hi c k e ndo wn,butmo s to ft he bo t t l e swe r et o of r a g me nt e dt oi de nt i f y .Tho s et ha twe r ei de nt i f i a bl es ugg e s ts e v e r a lc ho i c e swe r ea v a i l a bl e ,i nc l udi ngwhi s k e y ,i mpo r t e dbo t t l e d 57 wa t e r( f r o m Ne wJ e r s e y ) ,l o c a l l y pr o duc e ds o dapo pa ndbe e r , a ndbi t t e r s .Onebo t t l ewa se mbo s s e dwi t h“ J . W.Ke l l e y& Co . ” ,ama r kus e db e t we e n1903a nd1915.J . W.Ke l l e ywa saTe nne s s e edi s t i l l e rwhos o l d whi s k e yt hr o ug ht hema i l .Onel i q uo rbo t t l ewa saS o ut hCa r o l i naDi s pe ns a r yJ o J of l a s kpr o duc e db e t we e n1891a nd1907. Thi r t ypi e c e so ft a bl e wa r ewe r er e c o v e r e d,28% o fwhi c hwe r eo f 58 r e f i ne dpo r c e l a i n( MNI =9),6% we r eg r a ni t e wa r e( MNI =2) ,wi t ht her e ma i ni ng66% o fwhi t e wa r e .Thedi s he swe r eo v e r whe l mi ng l yunde c o r a t e d o rmi ni ma l l yde c o r a t e d—no ts ur pr i s i ngf o rar e s t a ur a nt .Onl yt wobo wl s we r er e c o v e r e d:a10i nc hdi a me t e rs e r v i ngo rmi x i ngbo wla nda nunde c o r a t e d,o c t a g o na lpo r c e l a i nf o o t e ds a l to rs ug a rbo wl .Fo o da tt hel unc h c o unt e rs e e mi ng l ydi dno tc o mei nl i q ui df o r m. Cus t o me r sdr a nkf r o mg l a s st umbl e r si fno tf r o mt hebo t t l e .I n c o nt r a s twi t ht hedi s he s ,mo s to ft hedr i nk i ngg l a s s e swe r ede c o r a t e d. Thr e eo ft hef o urt umbl e r sha dpr e s s e dde s i g ns ,t wowi t haPr i s m de s i g n a ndo neBo he mi a n.Thr e emug sa ndt wot e ac upswe r epr e s e nt ,butt he mo s ti nt r i g ui ngv e s s e l swe r et hr e epr e s s e dg l a s sg o bl e t s —wi de bo wl e d g l a s s e swi t hs ho r ts t e msa ndaf o o t .Go bl e t ss e e ml i k ea nunus ua lf o r mo f dr i nk i ngg l a s st oha v ea tas t r e e t s i de ,wa l k upe a t i nge s t a bl i s hme nt .But r e c a l l i ngt ha tt hel unc hc o unt e rwa sa l s ok no wna sac o nf e c t i o ne r y ,t he g o bl e t sv e r ywe l lma yha v ebe e nus e da sde s s e r tbo wl si ns t e a do fdr i nk i ng g l a s s e s . Di s c o v e r e ddu r i ngS t a g e4e x c a v a t i o nswa sal a y e ro fbl a c ks i l t y s o i la s s o c i a t e dwi t ht hebur ni ngo ft hel unc hc o unt e r .Ar i c hdi v e r s i t yo f a r t i f a c t swe r er e c o v e r e d,f r o me x pe c t e di t e msl i k ebo t t l ec a ps ,bo ne sa nd 57 Lo c a l pr o duc e r so fb e e ra nds o dapo pi nc l ude dC. C.Ha b e ni c ht ,Cha r l e sNa r e y ,F. W. S e e g e r s , a ndW. H.Gr i f f i n. 58

MNIs t a ndsf o rMi ni mum Numbe ro fI t e ms —ac o unto ft hemi ni mum numbe ro f i nt a c ti t e mso fapa r t i c ul a rt y pet oa c c o untf o rt het o t a lnumbe ro fa r t i f a c t s( f r a g me nt s )o f t ha tt y per e c o v e r e d.

FIGURE 19.PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CI RCA 1 9021909 BRI CK DRAI N THAT WAS LOCATED WI THI N THE LUNCH COUNTER.THE LARGE CI RCLE TO THE LEFT WAS A TRAS H PI T AS S OCI ATED WI TH THECOUNTERâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; SBURNI NG AND REMOVALI N1 909.THE REAR ( NORTH)WALL OF THE EATERY WAS BETWEEN THE DRAI N AND THE CI NDER BLOCKS .( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

c a ns ,t oune x pe c t e di t e ms( a tl e a s ti nt heq ua nt i t yr e c o v e r e d)l i k e1i nc h c o ppe rs t r a i g htpi ns( o v e r30) ,unf i r e dc a r t r i dg e s( o v e r10) ,ma r bl e s( o v e r 15)a ndc o i ns .Al t ho ug ht hel unc hc o unt e rwa spr i ma r i l ya ne a t e r y ,t he s e f i ndi ng ss ug g e s tt ha ti tma yha v es e r v e da sas t o r e ,t o o .Mo s te x c i t i ngwa s t hedi s c o v e r yo fabr i c kdr a i n( Fi g ur e19) .Lo c a t e dwi t hi nt hebui l di ng a g a i ns tt her e a rwa l l ,t heo pe ndr a i nt i e di nt ot heCo l umbi awa s t e wa t e r 59 s y s t e m, whi c ht heCi t yb e g a nt ol a yi n1902 . Thi si swha tf a s t f o o dl o o k e dl i k e100y e a r sa g oa to nepl a c ea nd a to net i me .I ti sunf o r t una t et ha to t he rs uc ha s s e mbl a g e sa r eno ta v a i l a bl e a tt hi st i mef o rc o mpa r i s o n.S uc hc o mpa r i s o nwo ul da l l o wf o ra nunde r s t a ndi ngo fwha ts ma l l s c a l epubl i ce a t i ngl o o k e dl i k ei npl a c e so t he rt ha n t r a di t i o na l l y de f i ne dr e s t a ur a nt s .Wha twedok no wi st ha tt heo wne r s hi p 59 S o ut h Ca r o l i naS t a t eDe pa r t me nto fAg r i c ul t ur e ,Co mme r c ea nd I mmi g r a t i o n, Ha nd b o o ko fS o u t hCa r o l i n a :Re s o u r c e s ,I ns t i t u t i o nsa n dI nd u s t r i e so ft h eS t a t e( Co l umbi a : TheS t a t eCo mpa ny ,1907) .

a ndo pe r a t i o no ft hel unc hc o unt e rme di a t e da tl e a s to nef a mi l yme mb e r ' s s o c i a le x pe r i e nc ei nt hene i g hbo r ho o d.Andt hepr e s e nc eo ft hee s t a bl i s hme nt ,i no pe r a t i o nf o r18y e a r s ,s ug g e s t st ha te v e ni fo nedi dno te a tt he r e , t hef a mi l ywo ul dha v eb e e nk no wni nt hene i g hbo r ho o da st hepe o pl e whor a nt hel unc hc o unt e r —whi c h,c o mbi ne dwi t ht heg r o c e r ys t o r e ,de f i ne dt he ma sbus i ne s spe o pl e .Thi si swha ts ma l l s c a l ebus i ne s s e so wne d a ndo pe r a t e dbyAf r i c a nAme r i c a nsa tt het ur no f t he 20 t hc e nt ur yl o o k e d l i k ei nana t i o na lc o nt e x to fc o ns ume rc ul t ur et ha te v e nt ua l l ybr o ug ht a bo uts uc ha ne x t r e mef o r mo fdi s c r i mi na t o r yr e a c t i o no nt hepa r to f whi t eS o ut he r ne r s ,wha tpr o v o k e d–i ns o mepe o pl e ' smi nds–t hene e d f o rJ i m Cr o ws e g r e g a t i o n. Co ns ume r i s m be c a mec e nt r a lt ot hes o c i a la tt het i met hel unc h c o unt e rwa si no pe r a t i o n,a sDo nS l a t e re x pl a i ns : Theg r e a ti s s uea bo utc o ns ume rc ul t ur ei st hewa yi tc o nne c t s c e nt r a lq ue s t i o nsa bo utho w wes ho ul do rwa ntt ol i v ewi t h q ue s t i o nsa bo utho ws o c i e t yi so r g a ni z e d–a nddo e ss oa tt he l e v e lo fe v e r y da yl i f e ….Themo s tt r i v i a lo bj e c t so fc o ns umpt i o n bo t hma k eupt hef a br i co fo urme a ni ng f ull i f ea ndc o nne c tt hi s i nt i ma t ea nd munda ne wo r l dt og r e a tf i e l ds o fs o c i a l c o nt e s t a t i o n.I nt hev e r ypr o c e s so fhe l pi ngt oc o ns t i t ut epr i v a t e l i f e ,c o ns ume rc ul t ur eha st i e dt hei nt i ma t ewo r l di ne x t r i c a bl yt o t hepubl i c ,t hes o c i a l ,t hema c r o ….‘ Co ns ume rc ul t ur e ’i s t he r e f o r eas t o r yo fs t r ug g l e sf o rt hes o ulo fe v e r y da yl i f e ,o f 60 ba t t l e st oc o nt r o l t het e x t ur eo ft heq uo t i di a n.

TheAme r i c a nS o ut ha tt het ur no f t he 20t hc e nt ur yo f f e r sas t r i k i nge xa mpl eo ft he s e“ s t r ug g l e sf o rt hes o ulo fe v e r y da yl i f e . ”Thec ul t ur eo fs e g r e g a t i o nt ha tde v e l o pe di nt heS o ut h,bo t ht hel e g a ls t r uc t ur ea nde t i 61 q ue t t eo fJ i m Cr o w–wha thi s t o r i a nRo be r tWe e ms ha sc a l l e d‘ Ame r i c a na pa r t he i d’–f o l l o wi ngt hec o l l a ps eo fRe c o ns t r uc t i o n,i sl a r g e l yduet o t woi nt e r t wi ne dde v e l o pme nt s :t hena t i o nwi deg r o wt ho fc o ns ume rc ul t ur ea ndt hee me r g e nc eo fapubl i c l y v i s i bl eAf r i c a nAme r i c a nmi ddl c 6 2 c l a s s . Ashi s t o r i a nEl i z a be t hGr a c eHa l ee x pl a i ns ,“ t hemul t i pl y i ngs pa 60

S l a t e r , Do n,Co ns u me rCu l t u r ea ndMo d e r ni t y( Ca mbr i dg e : Po l i t yPr e s s ,1997 ) , 3.

We e ms ,De s e g r e g a t i n gt h eDo l l a r .

Mul l i ns ,Ra c ea ndAf f l u e nc e .

c e so fc o ns umpt i o nwi t hi nt heg r o wi ngt o wnsa ndc i t i e so ft he… S o ut h be c a mek e ys i t e sf o rt hewhi t eS o ut he r nc r e a t i o no fa ndAf r i c a nAme r i c a n 63 r e s i s t a nc et ot hec ul t ur eo fs e g r e g a t i o n. ” TheS o ut h’ sr e a c t i o nt ot he ma s s pr o duc t i o na ndwi de s pr e a da v a i l a bi l i t yo fe v e r y da yc o mmo di t i e sa t t het ur no f t he 20 t hc e nt ur y–f r o mb r e a k f a s tc e r e a l s ,hy g i e nepr o duc t s a nddi s he s ,t oc l o t hi nga ndho mef ur ni s hi ng s–wa st hec r e a t i o no fane w s y s t e mo fs t r uc t ur a ldi s c r i mi na t i o na ndv i o l e nc ek no wna sJ i m Cr o w,e xpl o r e df ur t he ri nt hene x tc ha pt e r .Thi swa st hes o c i a lc o nt e x twi t hi n whi c hme mb e r so ft heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yma det he i rl i v e sa ndo pe r a t e d t he i rbus i ne s s e s .

Ha l e ,Ma k i n gWh i t e ne s s , 123.

CHAPTER6

PROPERTY I Na n1899pa mphl e tt i t l e dTh eNe g r oa n dt h eS i g n so fCi v i l i z a t i o n,e duc a t o ra nda c t i v i s tBo o k e rT.Wa s hi ng t o na ddr e s s e dt her e l a t i o ns hi pbe t we e ns o c i a l po s i t i o na ndpr i v a t epr o pe r t y : Thema t e r i a l ,v i s i bl ea ndt a ng i bl ee l e me nt s[ o fc i v i l i z a t i o n]… t e a c hal e s s o nt ha ta l mo s tno t hi nge l s ec a n….[ T] hepo s s e s s i o no f pr o pe r t yi sa ne v i de nc eo fme nt a ldi s c i pl i ne ,me nt a lg r a s pa nd c o nt r o l… o ff i x e dne s so fc ha r a c t e ra ndpur po s e ….Fr o me v e r y s t a ndp o i nto fi nt e r e s ti ti st hedut yo ft heNe g r ohi ms e l f… t os e e t ha tt heNe g r obehe l pe df o r wa r da sf a s ta spo s s i bl et o wa r dst he po s s e s s i o no ft he s ee v i de nc e so fc i v i l i z a t i o n….Wha tIa m a nx i o usf o ri sf o rt heNe g r ot ob ei na c t ua lpo s s e s s i o no fa l lt he 64 e l e me nt so ft hehi g he s tc i v i l i z a t i o n.

S o c i a lr e s pe c tc a mev i a“ e v i de nc e so fc i v i l i z a t i o n, ”i . e .t hr o ug hpo s s e s s i o n o fpr o pe r t ya nds o c i a la c hi e v e me nt s .Be ne t t aMo r t o nWi l l i a ms ,g r o wi ng upi nPr o mi s e l a nd( a nAf r i c a nAme r i c a nc o mmuni t yi nno r t hwe s tS o ut h Ca r o l i na )du r i ngt hee a r l y20t hc e nt ur yr e c a l l s , Whe nIwa sg r o wi ngupOs c a rPr e s s l e ywa sa ni mpo r t a ntma na t Pr o mi s eLa nd.Hewa sapr e a c he r ,a ndheo wne dhi so wnpl a c e . Tha twa si mpo r t a nt —t oo wny o uro wnpl a c e .Andheha dal i t t l e mo ne y .Da y mo nMa r s ha l l ,Na t ha nRe dd,Do l phusFr a z i e ra nd

Wa s hi ng t o n,Th eNe g r oa ndt h eS i g nso fCi v i l i z a t i o n, 3.

Ce l i aFr a z i e r —a l lt he s epe o pl eo wne dt he i ro wnpl a c e .Tha t ' s 6 5 wha tma det he mi mpo r t a nt .

Pr o pe r t ypr o mi s e dt heho peo fe q ua l i t y–a tl e a s ti ns o meme a s ur e–i na s o c i a le nv i r o nme nti nunda t e d wi t ho f f i c i a la nduno f f i c i a li ne q ua l i t i e s . “ Ev e r yl a wpa s s e dr e l a t i ngt ot heNe g r o , ”wr o t eAf r i c a nAme r i c a nj o ur na l i s tW.T.Andr e wsi nt heNa s h v i l l eGl o b ei n1917,“ ha sb e e npa s s e dwi t h t hei nt e nto fc o nt r o l l i nghi sl a bo ra nddr a wi nghi sc i r c l eo ff r e e do mi nt o 6 6 s i mi l a ra nds ma l l e rc o mpa s s . ” Byt hee a r l y20t hc e nt ur y ,s o c i a ls e g r e g a t i o na ndpo l i t i c a le x c l us i o n–s t r uc t ur a ldi s e nf r a nc hi s e me nt–ha dc o met o bes e e nbyma nywhi t eS o ut he r ne r sa sa ne s s e nt i a lpa r to ft he“ S o ut he r n 6 7 wa yo fl i f e . ” TheMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yo wne dpr o pe r t y .Andt he yus e dt ha t pr o pe r t yt oa c hi e v ear a ng eo fs o c i a la s pi r a t i o nsma nyAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns l i v i ngi nCo l umbi ac o ul dno t .The yl i v e do nt hi spr o pe r t y ,wo k eupe a c h mo r ni nga ndwe ntt owo r k ,a t eb r e a k f a s ta ndha ddi nne r ,wa t c he dt he i r c hi l dr e ng r o wupa ndt he i rpa r e nt sdi e .The yus e dt he i rpr o pe r t yi nt he s a mewa yc o unt l e s so t he r sdi da c r o s st hena t i o n,e v e nbui l di ngs t r uc t ur e s t oho us ebus i ne s s e s .Andbe c a us et he yus e di ti nt hes a mewa ya ss oma ny o t he r sdi d,a ndb e c a us et he ywe r eAf r i c a nAme r i c a n,a ndbe c a us et he ydi d l i v ei nt heS o ut h,t he ya ndt he i rpr o pe r t ya ndt hel i v e st he yl i v e dt hr o ug h t he i rpr o pe r t y–a smo r ea ndmo r eAf r i c a nAme r i c a nsa c r o s st heS o ut h we r edo i ng–c a us e ddi s c o mf o r tf o rma nywhi t eS o ut he r ne r s .Butdi s c o mf o r tf o rwhi t ec i t i z e nsha daf i x , a ndt ha tf i xwa sJ i m Cr o ws e g r e g a t i o n. TheMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yne v e rmo v e d,butma nyo fi t sne i g hbo r sdi d,bl a c ka ndwhi t e ,du r i ngt hef i r s tde c a deo ft he20t hc e nt ur y .I n r ur a l a r e a s , i twa sc o mmo nf o ro f f s pr i ngt or e ma i no npr o pe r t i e so wne dby pa r e nt s .Chi l dr e ng r e wup,s t a r t e df a mi l i e sa ndbui l tne who us e ss o medi s 68 t a nc ea wa yo nt hef a r m. Li k e l y ,t he ywe r es t i l lwo r k i ngt hes a mel a nd, t hes a mef a mi l yf a r m.Thi spa t t e r nwa sno tc o mmo ni nur ba na r e a s .Ci t y 65 Be t he l ,El i z a be t h Ra uh,Pr o mi s e l a nd :A Ce nt u r yo fLi f ei n aNe g r oCo mmu ni t y ( Co l umbi a : Uni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i naPr e s s , 1997 ) ,95 . 66

Andr e ws ,W.T. ,“ TheCa us e so fNe g r oMi g r a t i o nf r o mt heS o ut h, ”r e pr i nt e di nTh e J o u r na l o fNe g r oHi s t o r y , 1978: 367 ,63( 4 ) , 366372. 67

S o ut he r n,Da v i dW. ,“ Be y o ndJ i m Cr o w Li b e r a l i s m:J udg eWa r i ng ’ sFi g htAg a i ns t S e g r e g a t i o ni nS o ut hCa r o l i na ,194252, ”Th eJ o u r na lo fNe g r oHi s t o r y ,1981: 209 ,66( 3 ) , 209227.

l o t sa r es ma l la nds oo f f s pr i ngmo v e da wa y .The yma yha v emo v e dj us t do wnt hes t r e e ta nds ot hef a mi l ys t a y e dc l o s e ,buti twa samo v eno ne t he l e s s ,o net ha tr e q ui r e dt hepur c ha s eo fne w pr o pe r t y —whi c hs o me t i me s me a ntmo v i ngt oapa r to ft o wnmo r ea f f o r da bl e .Me mb e r so ft heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l ydi d–a nddi dno t–f o l l o wt he s ec o mmo npa t t e r nso fl a ndus e . Thepr o pe r t ywa spur c ha s e di n1843 ,butt hef i r s tv i s ua lde pi c t i o no fs t r uc t ur e so nt hi spr o pe r t ywa si n1872( s e eFi g ur e4) .Al wa y s t ho ug htt or e pr e s e ntt heho us es t a ndi nga t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e tt o da y , t hes t r uc t ur epi c t ur e do nt heno r t he a s tc o r ne ro fRi c hl a nda ndMa r i o n s t r e e t si sno wk no wnt ode pi c ta ne a r l i e rs t r uc t ur e ,t heho us eo c c upi e dby Be nDe La ne ,hi swi f eCe l i aMa nn,Ce l i a ' sda ug ht e r ,Ag ne s ,a ndBe na nd Ve nusBr o wn' sda ug ht e r ,Ma r y .Af t e rCe l i adi e di n1867a ndBe npr e s uma bl yl e f t , Ag ne si nhe r i t e dt hepr o pe r t y . Wi t hhus ba ndBi l l S i mo nsa nd he rt woc hi l dr e nf r o m apr e v i o usma r r i a g e( Ha t t i ea ndBe nj a mi nJ a c k s o n) , Ag ne ss e ta bo utc r e a t i ngt hepr o pe r t ya swek no wi tt o da yf r o m ma psa nd pho t o g r a phs . Ane who us ewa sbui l tdur i ngt he1870 s ,t heho us es t i l ls t a ndi ng t o da ya t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t .Thene w ho us es t a ndsa l mo s t ,butno t q ui t e ,i nt hes a mel o c a t i o na st heo r i g i na lho us e .Fr o ma r c ha e o l o g i c a li nv e s t i g a t i o ns ,wek no wt ha tt heo r i g i na lho us eme a s ur e d15f e e tno r t hs o ut h( Fi g ur e20) .Thee a s t we s te x t e nti sno tk no wn,s i nc et hef o o t pr i nt o ft hene who us es t a ndspa r t i a l l yo v e rt hef o o t pr i nto ft heo l dho us e .Tog e t he r ,t hea r c ha e o l o g ya ndBi r d ' sEy eVi e wMa po fCo l u mb i as ug g e s tt he ho us eo fBe na ndCe l i awa saha l l a ndpa r l o rbui l di ng ,wi t hac e nt r a lha l l wa ya ndar o o mt oe a c hs i de .Theo l dho us ewa smo v e do rr a z e ddu r i ng t he1870s .Ei t he rc o ul dha v eha ppe ne d.Re g a r dl e s s ,t hef a mi l ywo ul dha v e ne e de dapl a c et os t a ywhi l et hene who us ewa sbe i ngbui l t . Theho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e t ,di r e c t l ybe hi ndt hebi gho us e s t a ndi ngt o da ydi f f e r e dr a di c a l l yi nt e r mso fs t y l ef r o mt heho us ea t1403 Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t .Fr o ma r c ha e o l o g ywek no wt ha t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e t ,l i k e t heho us eo fBe na ndCe l i a ,s t a r t e dl i f ea saha l l a ndpa r l o rho us e–15x 32f e e t–o r i e nt e dl e ng t hwi s et ot hes t r e e t .Fr o m do c ume nt swek no wt ha t i twa sbui l ti nt he1870 s .Whydi dt hef a mi l yc ho o s et obui l daha l l a ndpa r l o rs t r uc t ur ea st he i rs e c o ndho us ewhe nt he ya l r e a dyha dt hi sho us e 68

Gr o o v e r ,Ma r k D.Th eAr c h a e o l o g yo fNo r t h Ame r i c a n Fa r ms t e a d s( Ga i ne s v i l l e : Uni v e r s i t yPr e s so fFl o r i da ,2008) .

FIGURE 20. POST HOLES ASSOCI ATED WI TH THE WES T WALL OF THE HOUS E OCCUPI ED BYBEN DEL ANE AND CELI A MANN.THEPOS T HOLE AT THE BOTTOM OF THEPHOTOGRAPH I STHOUGHT TO BEPART OFTHEFRONT PORCH. ( PHOTOGRAPH BY THEAUTHOR)

[ 1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t ]i nt hi ss t y l e ?I ti ss ma l la nds i mpl ea nd1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ti sne i t he r .I tj us tmi g htb et ha tt heho us ea t1904Ma r i o n S t r e e twa ss ma l la nds i mpl ebe c a us es ma l la nds i mpl ei sq ui c kt obui l d.I t mi g htha v eb e e nbui l tt oho us et hef a mi l ywhi l et hene w,l a r g e rho us ewa s be i ngbui l t —t he r ewo ul dha v ebe e nane e df o rs o mef o r mo ft e mpo r a r y ho us i ng .Thi sr a i s e st heq ue s t i o n:ho wma nype o pl ei nCo l umbi aa tt hi s t i me–bl a c ko rwhi t e–we r ei napo s i t i o nt ono to nl ybui l dane w,l a r g e r

ho us ef o rt he i rg r o wi ngf a mi l y ,butt obui l das e c o ndho us et ol i v ei n whi l eane who us ewa sbe i ngc o ns t r uc t e d? Cha ng e st ot hepr o pe r t yunde rAg ne sdur i ngt he1870swe r eno t l i mi t e dt ot he s et wos t r uc t ur e s .Al s obui l tdur i ngt hi sde c a dewa st he bui l di ngt ha two ul db e c o met heg r o c e r ys t o r ea t1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t . Thebui l di ngbe hi nd,a t14071/ 2Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t ,ma yo rma yno tha v e be e nbui l ta tt hes a met i me .Al unc hc o unt e rwa sbui l to nt hes o ut hwe s t c o r ne ri n1891.Theho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e twa se x pa nde dwi t hi t s f i r s ta ddi t i o nbe t we e nt hemi d1890 sa nd1904 .I n1 904,1407Ri c hl a nd S t r e e tbe c o meag r o c e r y .Thi r t e e npe o pl ewe r el i v i nga t1403Ri c hl a nd S t r e e ti n1900—i nc l udi nga16y e a ro l dma i dna me dMi nni eTho mps o n. I n1907,Ag ne sJ a c k s o ndi e da ndhe rs o n,Cha r l e sS i mo ns ,be c a mehe a do f ho us e ho l d. I n1912 ,Cha r l e sS i mo nspur c ha s e df o url o t sdi r e c t l yno r t ho ft he 1904Ma r i o nS t r e e tl o t .Be t we e n1912a nd1913,her a z e dt hee x i s t i ng s t r uc t ur e sa ndbui l tt hr e et wo s t o r y ,wo o df r a me dAme r i c a nFo ur S q ua r e s t y l eho us e swhi c hher e nt e d( Fi g ur e21) .I nt e r e s t i ng l y ,a c c o r di ngt oCo l u mb i aCi t yDi r e c t o r i e s ,be f o r e1912,Af r i c a nAme r i c a nse x c l us i v e l yo c c upi e dt hewe s ts i deo ft he1900Ma r i o nS t r e e tbl o c k .Ho we v e r ,a f t e r1913, t he s epr o pe r t i e swe r eo c c upi e de x c l us i v e l ybywhi t ei ndi v i dua l s ,ade mog r a phi cc o mpo s i t i o nt ha two ul dr e ma i nunc ha ng e dunt i l 1970 .Gi v e nt ha t Cha r l e so wne dt he s eho us e s ,hel i k e l yha daha ndi nt e na ntc ho i c e . Al t ho ug hhi smo t i v a t i o nsa r eunk no wn,t hi ss hi f tf r o m bl a c kt o whi t eo c c upa t i o ni sl i k e l yr e l a t e dt ol a r g e rde mo g r a phi cs hi f t so c c ur r i ngi n Co l umbi adur i ngt hi st i me —at i meo fr a di c a lr e o r de r i ngo fs o c i a la nd phy s i c a lbo unda r i e st hr o ug ho utt hec i t y .Ci t yDi r e c t o r i e s ,t hepr e c ur s o rt o pho nebo o k s ,no to nl yl i s t e dna me ,a ddr e s s ,pho nenumbe ra ndi ft hei ndi v i dua lr e nt e do ro wne dt hepr o pe r t y ,buto f t e nt owho mt hei ndi v i dua l wa sma r r i e d,o c c upa t i o n,pl a c eo fe mpl o y me nta nd,i nt heS o ut h,i ft he pe r s o nwe r ebl a c ko rwhi t e .Tho s ewhor e nt e df r o m Cha r l e si n1913we r e i ndi v i dua l sc l a s s i f i e da swhi t ebutwe r eno tc a l l e dS o ut he r n.The ywe r eno t e v e na l wa y sc a l l e dAme r i c a n.Ba s e do nt he i rs ur na me s ,mo s to ft ho s ewho wo ul dc o met or e ntt he s epr o pe r t i e swe r ei mmi g r a nt sf r o m Ea s t e r na nd S o ut he r n Eur o pe —t he ne wi mmi g r a ntpo pul a t i o n.Cha r l e sS i mo ns , g r a nds o no fCe l i aMa nn,us e dt he s epr o pe r t i e st oa c hi e v ewha two ul db e a tbe s tmi l dl yr e ma r k a bl e —ha dheb e e nwhi t e .The ywe r ee x t r a o r di na r y be c a us et he ywe r es oo r di na r y .Whe nCha r l e sdi e di n1933 ,hi swi f e ,

FIGURE 21.THE1904( LEFT)AND 1 919( RI GHT)S ANBORN F I REI NS URANCEMAPSOF COLUMBI AI LLUS TRATETHECHANGESMADEBYCHARLESS I MONSTO THELOTSNORTH OF THE MANNS I MONS PROPERTY BETWEEN 1 912AND 1913.( MAPS COURTESY OF S OUTH CAROLI NI ANAL I BRARY, UNI VERS I TYOFS OUTH CAROLI NA, COLUMBI A)

Ama nda ,s t a r t e ds e l l i ngt hel o t sa ndb r o ug htt hepr o pe r t yba c kdo wnt o i t so r i g i na ls i z e . Fa mi l yc o mpo s i t i o nc o nt i nue dt oc ha ng ea sdi dt hepr o pe r t i e s a nds t r uc t ur e s .I n1909,t hel unc hc o unt e rc a ug htf i r ea ndJ o hnS i mo ns mo v e dhi sr e s i de nc ef r o m 1904Ma r i o nS t r e e tt o1912Ma r i o nS t r e e t .By 1910af r o ntpo r c hha dbe e na dde dt ot hema i nho us e ,a l o ngwi t has ma l l a ddi t i o nt ot heg r o c e r ys t o r e .By1919aba c kpo r c hwi t haba t hr o o m wa s a dde dt ot he1403Ma r i o nS t r e e tho us e ,l o o k i ngo uto v e rt hepr o pe r t yt o t heno r t h.Dur i ngt hel a t e1910so re a r l y1920 s ,t heho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e twa se x pa nde de v e nf u r t he rwi t has e c o nda ddi t i o n.Ga r de ns pa c e so c c upi e dpa r to ft heba c ky a r d.Ahundr e dunc o nne c t e dpo s t mo l ds s pe a kt oamul t i t udeo fo t he rbui l di ng s ,f e nc e s ,c l o t he sl i ne sa nda c t i v i t i e s o fwhi c hwewi l l ne v e rk no w.

FIGURE 22.AFTER THELUNCH COUNTER' SDES TRUCTI ON I N1 909,AMANDA GREEN S I MONSAND HERHUS BAND, CHARLES,USED THI SPUBLI CLYVI S I BLES PACEFORPLANTS AND FLOWERS,ACCENTED BY A BRI CKLI NED WALKWAY DI S COVERED I NCHESBELOW THES I DEWALKLEVEL. I N CONTRAS T, PLANTI NGSI N THEPRI VATEBACKYARD AREAWERE LARGE, UNLI NED, I RREGULARS HAPES .( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

Onee f f e c to fa l lt he s ec ha ng e st ot hepr o pe r t ywa st hec r e a t i o no f apr i v a t es pa c ewi t hi nas o c i a le nv i r o nme nti nwhi c ht hi sf a mi l yo fbl a c k e nt r e pr e ne ur smus tha v eb e e nq ui t ev i s i bl e .Thema i nho us ea t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t ,t hes e c o ndho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e t–j us t11f e e tf r o m t heba c ko ft hema i nho us e–t heg r o c e r ya t1407Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ta ndt he s ma l ls t r uc t ur ebe hi ndc r e a t e dav i s ua lba r r i e r ,s e pa r a t i ngf r o nty a r df r o m ba c ky a r d,publ i cs pa c ef r o m pr i v a t es pa c e .I ti si mpo s s i bl et ok no wi ft he f a mi l yf e l tt hi swa ya bo uti t spr o pe r t y ,i fi to f f e r e das pa c ea wa yf r o mt he publ i ce y e ,apl a c ewhe r ei t sme mbe r sc o ul db et he ms e l v e swi t ho utbe i ng wa t c he ddur i ngat i mewhe nbe i ngbl a c ka nddo i ngwha te v e r y o nee l s e wa sdo i ngv i o l a t e dt hee t i q ue t t eo fs e g r e g a t i o n—butt heg a r de nso f f e r s o mes ug g e s t i o no fho wt hef a mi l yme di a t e ds uc hpub l i cs ur v e i l l a nc e . Af t e rt hel unc hc o unt e r ' sde s t r uc t i o ni n1909,Ama ndaGr e e nS i mo nsa ndhe rhus ba nd,Cha r l e s ,us e dt hepubl i c l y v i s i bl ef r o nta nds i de y a r da r e a sf o rpl a nt sa ndf l o we r s ,a c c e nt e dbyabr i c k l i ne dwa l k wa ydi s -

FIGURE 23.UNI VERS I TYOFS OUTH CAROLI NA, DEPARTMENTOFANTHROPOLOGY FI ELD S CHOOLS TUDENTSEXCAVATEBACKYARD PLANTI NG S PACESAND OTHER FEATURESI N2 007 .( PHOTOGRAPH COURTESYOFCHRI SJ UDGE)

c o v e r e di nc he sb e l o wt hes i de wa l kl e v e l â&#x20AC;&#x201D;ani c e ,s t r a i g htde l i ne a t i o no f s pa c e( Fi g ur e22) .I nt heba c k y a r dwe r eunc o v e r e da tl e a s tt wog e ne r a t i o ns o fpl a nt i ngs pa c e s( Fi g ur e23) .The r ewa sno tas t r a i g htl i net ob ef o und. Ne i t he rb r i c k sno ra nyo t he rma t e r i a lma r k e dt hebo unda r yb e t we e ny a r d s pa c ea ndpl a nts pa c e .Andne i t he ri sf r o ntno rba c k y a r da c c i de nt a lc r e a t i o ns ,ma ni f e s t i ngi nde pe nde nt l yo ft hewi l l so ft heo c c upa nt s .Ir e c a l l

s ho wi ngt her o wo ff r o nty a r dbr i c k st oal a nds c a pea r c hi t e c ti nt e r e s t e di n de v e l o pi nga ni nt e r pr e t a t i o no ft hey a r da r e a s .Upo ns e e i ngt heb r i c k sa nd mys ug g e s t i o nt ha tt he ybei nc o r po r a t e di nt oal a nds c a pepl a n,t hea r c hi t e c tr e ma r k e d,“ Oh,t ha t ' smo r eo fawhi t et hi ng .Wewa ntt hi sy a r dt or e f l e c twha ta nAf r i c a nAme r i c a ny a r dl o o k e dl i k e . ”Ne e dl e s st os a y ,hi sf i r m di dno tg e tt hej o b.Buthedi dha v eapo i nt ,e v e ni fhedi dno tme a nt o ma k ei t :t hef r o nty a r dd i dl o o kl i k ee v e r y o nee l s e ' si nt hene i g hbo r ho o d; a ndt heba c k y a r ddi dno t . Tounde r s t a ndt hee v o l ut i o no ft hi spr o pe r t yi st ounde r s t a ndt he f a mi l y ,a ndt ounde r s t a ndt hi sf a mi l yi st ounde r s t a ndho wi t sme mbe r s us e dt hi spr o pe r t yt oa c hi e v eadi v e r s er a ng eo fpe r s o na la nd s o c i a l a c hi e v e me nt s .I ti si nt hi swa y“ ho us e ho l d”c a nb es e e n( a nde v e nde f i ne d) a sac o mbi ne dhuma nno nhuma ne nt i t y .Af a mi l ya ndp r o pe r t yt o g e t he r be c a memo r et ha n,a nds o me t hi ngdi f f e r e ntt ha n,t hef a mi l yo rpr o pe r t y a l o ne —a tl e a s ti nt e r mso fbe i nga bl et oe na c tade s i r e do ut c o me .The i r ho us e ho l dme di a t e dt he i rs o c i a le x pe r i e nc e st hr o ug haj o i ntc o ns t r uc t i o n o ff a mi l ya ndpr o pe r t y .Te c hno l o g ya ndi nf r a s t r uc t ur a ls e r v i c e sl i k ee l e c t r i c i t ya ndr unni ngwa t e ra l s ome di a t e ds o c i a le x pe r i e nc e sf o rt hef a mi l y , t hes ub j e c to ft hene x tc ha pt e r .

CHAPTER7

TECHNOLOGY& I NFRAS TRUCTURE “ Th ee s s e nc eo ft e c h n o l o g yi sb ynome a ns a ny t h i ngt e c h no l o g i c a l . ” 69 –Ma r t i nHe i d e g g e r ,p h i l o s o p h e r

DESPITE i t sne a ro mni pr e s e nc et o da y ,t e c hno l o g y–a sawo r da n d c o nc e pt–i sas ur pr i s i ng l yr e c e ntpa r a di g mf o runde r s t a ndi ngo urwo r l do f 70 t hi ng sa ndt hi ng si no urwo r l d.Ev e r y o newhowe ntt hr o ug hWe s t e r ni nf l ue nc e ds c ho o l i ngi spr o ba bl yf a mi l i a rwi t ht h ei ndus t r i a lr e v o l ut i o no f t he19t hc e nt ur y —s t e a me ng i ne s ,t e x t i l emi l l s ,g r o wi ngc i t i e s ,po l l ut i o n, l a bo re x pl o i t a t i o n,e t c .Butt he r ewa sas e c o ndi ndus t r i a lr e v o l ut i o n,no ts o we l lde ma r c a t e di nt hel o r eo fmo de r ni t ybutno ne t he l e s spr o f o undl yi mpo r t a nti nt hes t r uc t ur i ngo fs o c i e t yb e g i nni ngi nt hel a t e19t hc e nt ur y whe nAg ne sJ a c k s o nwa sr a i s i ngaf a mi l y . Thi ss e c o ndi ndu s t r i a lr e v o l ut i o nmo v e dt e c hno l o g yf r o m af i e l d 7 1 o fs t udyt oa no b j e c to fs t udy . Thef i r s ti ndu s t r i a lr e v o l ut i o nr e s ul t e di n ne wo bj e c t smo v i ngi nt ot heho met hr o ug hne wt e c hno l o g i e se mpl o y e di n t hep r o d u c t i o no fg o o ds —l i k et hec a nni ngma c hi neo rc o t t o ng i n.Thes e c o ndr e v o l ut i o nr e s ul t e di nne t wo r k so fo bj e c t se x t e ndi ngi nt ot heho me , 69 He i de g g e r ,Ma r t i n.Th eQu e s t i o nCo nc e r ni n gTe c h no l o g y ,a n dOt h e rEs s a y s ,( Ne wYo r k : Ha r p e r& Ro w, 1977) ,4 . 70

Aspr o mi ne ntawo r da st e c hno l o g yi st o da y ,no tunt i lt he17 t hc e nt ur ydi di te nt e rt he Eng l i s hl a ng ua g ea nd wa sno ti nc o mmo n us a g eunt i la f t e rt hef o undi ng o ft he Ma s s a c hus e t t sI ns t i t ut eo fTe c hno l o g yi n1861. 71

Ma r x ,Le o ,“ Te c hno l o g y :TheEme r g e nc eo faHa z a r do usCo nc e pt , ”Te c h no l o g ya nd Cu l t u r e , 2010,51( 3) ,561577 .

whe r emo r eo f t e nt ha nno t ,t het e r mi na t i o npo i nti nane t wo r ko fo bj e c t s s e r v e da sr e f e r e nc et oa ne nt i r es y s t e mo fk no wl e dg e ; f o re x a mpl e , t hel i g ht bul b,t hes i nk / t o i l e ta ndt het e l e pho neo nl ywo r ka spa r t so fl a r g e rs y s t e ms . Te c hno l o g yf i l l e dapr a c t i c a la ndi ma g i na t i v ev o i dc r e a t e dbyt hi s s e c o ndi ndus t r i a lr e v o l ut i o na ndi nt e r c o nne c t e ds y s t e mso fk no wl e dg e .As Le oMa r xe x pl a i ns : I nc o nt e mpo r a r ydi s c o ur s e ,pr i v a t ea ndpubl i c ,t e c hno l o g i e sa r e ha bi t ua l l yr e pr e s e nt e dby“ t hi ng s ”–byt he i rmo s tc o ns pi c uo us a r t i f a c t ua l e mb o di me nt s : t r a ns po r t a t i o n t e c hno l o g y by a ut o mo bi l e s ,a i r pl a ne s ,a nd r a i l r o a ds ;nuc l e a rt e c hno l o g yby r e a c t o r s ,po we rpl a nt s ,a ndbo mbs ;i nf o r ma t i o nt e c hno l o g yby c o mput e r s ,mo bi l et e l e pho ne s ,a ndt e l e v i s i o n;a nds oo n.By c o ns i g ni ng t e c hno l o g i e st ot he r e a l m o ft hi ng s ,t hi swe l l e s t a bl i s he di c o no g r a phydi s t r a c t sa t t e nt i o nf r o mt hehuma n– s o c i o e c o no mi ca ndpo l i t i c a l–r e l a t i o nswhi c hl a r g e l yde t e r mi ne 7 2 whous e st he ma ndf o rwha tpur po s e s .

Li k ea l lc o mmo di t i e s ,t e c hno l o g i e sa c q ui r ea“ pha nt o mo bj e c t i v i t y ”t ha t c o nc e a l st he i rf unda me nt a lna t ur e :r e l a t i o nsbe t we e npe o pl e .I nf r a s t r uc t ur epr o v i de sa nunus ua lpe r s pe c t i v eo nt e c hno l o g i e sa ndt hewa y si n whi c hi ndi v i dua l sa r ec o nne c t e dt one i g hbo r ho o ds ,c i t i e s ,r e g i o nsa ndt he na t i o n. I nf r a s t r uc t ur ene t wo r k sc o nne c ti ndi v i dua l st oc o mmuni t i e sa nd c o mmuni t i e st oe a c ho t he r .Whi l es t r e e t sa ndr a i ll i ne sa r et hemo s tv i s i bl e ne t wo r k st y i ngho me s ,bus i ne s s e sa ndc o mmuni t i e st o g e t he r ,mo s ti nf r a s t r uc t ur es y s t e msa r el a r g e l yi nv i s i bl e ,bur i e dbe l o wg r o undo rhi dde n wi t hi nwa l l sa ndt ho ug hto fo nl yi nt e r mso ft he i re ndpo i nt s —t hef a uc e t , t hee l e c t r i c a lpl ug ,t het o i l e t ,t heg a ss t o v e ,a nds oo n.The s ee ndpo i nt s– i nt e r f a c e sb e t we e npe o pl ea nds y s t e ms–a r el a r g e l ymi s s i ngf r o ma r c ha e ol o g i c a lc o nt e x t s ,butt hebur i e dne t wo r k so fpi pe s ,c o ndui t sa ndl i ne sc o nne c t i ngi ndi v i dua lho me st ol o c a l ,r e g i o na la ndna t i o na ls y s t e msa r ea bunda nt .

L. Ma r x , “ Te c hno l o g y , ”576 .

FIGURE 24.FOUR ELECTRI CALGROUNDI NG RODSAS S OCI ATED WI TH THEHOUS EAT 1904MARI ON S TREET WERE UNCOVERED DURI NG EXCAVATI ONS.THI SGROUNDI NG ROD,LOCATED AT THE BACK OF THE HOUS E,HAD BEEN DRI VEN I NTO AN EARLI ER TRAS H PI TCREATED BETWEEN 1 892AND 1904 .( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

I nRa c ea ndAf f l u e nc e :AnAr c h a e o l o g yo fAf r i c a nAme r i c aa n dCo ns u me rCu l t u r e ,Pa ulMul l i nsde mo ns t r a t e sho wt hec o ns umpt i o no fr e l a t i v e l ymunda neo bj e c t sl i k ebr a ndna meg r o c e r i e sa ndho us e ho l dbr i c a br a cbyAf r i c a nAme r i c a nsi nl a t e19 t hc e nt ur yAnna po l i s ,Ma r y l a nd,i ns pi r e da ppr e he ns i o no nt hepa r to fwhi t es o c i e t yb e c a us eo ft hepo t e nt i a l t oe r o dec l a s sdi f f e r e nc e s .S i mul t a ne o us l y ,t he s es a meo bj e c t swe r eus e dby Af r i c a nAme r i c a nst ode f i net he ms e l v e sa spa r to fana t i o na lc ul t ur et ha t t r a ns c e nde dl o c a ls y s t e mso fdi s c r i mi na t i o n.Thec o ns umpt i o no ft he s e 7 3 munda neo bj e c t st huss e r v e dt oe mpo we r . I nf r a s t r uc t ur ewa sadi f f e r e nt i nc a r na t i o no ft hi ss a mepa t t e r n.I nf r a s t r uc t ur eo f f e r sac ha nc et os e eho w i ndi v i dua l sa ndg r o upswe r ephy s i c a l l ya swe l la ss y mbo l i c a l l yt i e dt oc o mmuni t i e sna t i o na l ,r e g i o na la ndl o c a li ns c a l e . TheMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yi ns t a l l e dmo de r nda yc o nv e ni e nc e s– i nf r a s t r uc t ur a ls y s t e msa nd s e r v i c e st ha tt o da ymo s tpe o pl et a k ef o r g r a nt e d–s o o na f t e rt he ybe c a mea v a i l a bl et oc o ns ume r s .I n1913 ,t he 73

Mul l i ns ,Ra c ea ndAf f l u e nc e .

f a mi l yi ns t a l l e di t sf i r s tdo c ume nt e dt e l e pho nea tt heg r o c e r ys t o r e ,whi c h ha dt henumbe r1222 .Fr o ma r c ha e o l o g y ,wek no wt ha tt hef a mi l y ' s ho us e sa ndbus i ne s s e swe r ewi r e df o re l e c t r i c i t yby1903.Fo ure l e c t r i c a l g r o undi ngr o dswe r edi s c o v e r e ddur i nge x c a v a t i o n( Fi g ur e24) .Gr o und7 4 i ngr o dsa r eus e dt opr o v i dea ne a r t hg r o undf o re l e c t r i c a ls y s t e ms , t hus r e duc i ngt her i s ko fs ho c k ,f i r e ,e t c .i nt hec a s eo fe l e c t r i c a ls ho r t so rl i g ht ni ng .Al t ho ug hde di c a t e dg r o undi ngr o dsa r es t i l lus e d,mo s tho me st o da y us et hei nc o mi ngc o l dwa t e rpi pea sag r o undi ngpo i nt .Thi swa sno ta n o pt i o nf o rt heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l y ,whol i v e di nane i g hbo r ho o dwi r e d f o re l e c t r i c i t ybe f o r eb e i ngpi pe df o rwa t e r . Mul t i pl ee ndpo i nta r t i f a c t sr e l a t e dt oe l e c t r i c i t ywe r er e c o v e r e d,i nc l udi ngf r a g me nt so fs o l i dc o r ec o p7 5 pe rg r o undi ngwi r e ,a ni ns ul a t o rc l e a tma r k e d“ EPCo ” , 2wi r es pl i t k no bi ns ul a t o r s ,ma nyc a r bo nr o dsus e di na r cl a mps ,af r a g me nto fa Br us hS wa nl i g htbul br e c e pt a c l e ,a ndt wot y pe so fr ubb e r c o a t e di nt e r i o r wi r i ng . Thef a mi l yha dg a sl i ne sr unni ngi nt oi t sho us e sby1909,a l t ho ug hl i k e l ymuc he a r l i e r ;a ndi tha dr unni ngwa t e ra nds e we rby1913, ba s e do nac l a s s i f i e da dv e r t i s e me nti nt heCo l u mb i aRe c o r d ,10Fe b r ua r y , 1913,r e a di ng :“ FORRENT—Tog e nt l e ma n,o neni c e l yf ur ni s he dr o o m i npr i v a t ef a mi l y ,wi t ho rwi t ho utme a l s ,wi t hho ta ndc o l dwa t e r .Appl y 1908Ma r i o nS t r e e t . ”Thi si so neo ft hepr o pe r t i e sCha r l e so wne da nd r e nt e d.Al t ho ug ht hef a mi l yt owhi c hhewa sr e nt i ngwa sl i k e l yl o o k i ngf o r abo a r de r ,i tdo e si ndi c a t et ha tt hebl o c kha dbe e npl umbe df o rwa t e r . Ea c ho ft he s ec o ns uma bl e ,t e c hno l o g i c a ls y s t e msp h y s i c a l l yt i e d t hef a mi l yt oo t he r si nt hec o mmuni t y :c o r po r a t ee nt i t i e st ha to wne dt he s e s e r v i c e s ,pe o pl ee mpl o y e dt os t r i ngwi r e sa ndl a ypi pe ,a c c o unt a nt sa nd c l e r k s ,a nds oo n.Ande a c ho ft he s es y s t e msa l s os y mb o l i c a l l yt i e dt hef a mi l yt oo t he rc o mmuni t yme mb e r s —e v e r y o nee l s ewhono to nl yha dphy s i c a la c c e s st ot he s es y s t e ms( noma t t e rho wmuc ho nemi g htwa nte l e c t r i c i t y ,i ft hewi r e sdono tr unt ot ha tpa r to ft o wn,t he ni tc a nno tha ppe n) , butpe r ha psmo r es i g ni f i c a nt l y ,e v e r y o nee l s ewhoha dt her e s o ur c e st opa y f o rt he s es e r v i c e s .S uc hs y mbo l i cl i nk i ng–t hef o r ma t i o no fs y mbo l i cc o m74

“ Gr o und”r e f e r st ot her e f e r e nc epo i nti na ne l e c t r i c a lc i r c ui tf r o m whi c ho t he rv o l t a g e s a r eme a s ur e do rac o mmo nr e t ur npa t hf o re l e c t r i cc ur r e nto radi r e c tphy s i c a lc o nne c t i o n t ot heEa r t h. Thepur po s ei st opr e v e ntus e rc o nt a c twi t hda ng e r o usv o l t a g e . 75

“ EPCo ”wa st hema r kus e dbyt heEl e c t r i c a lPo r c e l a i nCo mpa nyo fEa s tLi v e r po o l , Ohi o ,i no pe r a t i o nb e t we e n1903a nd1911[ To d,J a c kH. ,AHi s t o r yo ft h eEl e c t r i c a l Po r c e l a i nI nd u s t r yi nt h eUni t e dS t a t e s ,( Pho e ni x : S e l fPubl i s he d, 1977) , 79] .

FIGURE 25.THI SS TORE, LOCATED I NL OWERWAVERLY, WASONEOFMANY BUI LDI NGSDEMOLI S HED I NS UPPORTOFTHECI TY’ S“ KEEPCOLUMBI ABEAUTI FUL–

FI GHTBLI GHT”PROGRAM DURI NG 1 960SAND 1970S.( PHOTOGRAPH COURTESYOF J OS EPH WI NTERCOLLECTI ON, S OUTH CAROLI NI ANAL I BRARY, UNI VERS I TYOFS OUTH CAROLI NA, COLUMBI A)

muni t i e s–o c c ur r e di nt e r mso fr a c i a lc a t e g o r i e s ,a swe l la si de a so fmo de r ni s tt hi nk i ng —t hedr i v i ngf o r c ebe hi ndt hei de at ha thuma nsha v et he po we rt oc r e a t e ,i mpr o v ea ndr e s ha pet he i re nv i r o nme ntwi t ht hea i do f s c i e nt i f i ck no wl e dg ea ndt e c hno l o g y . Buta sr e c e nt l ya st hel a t e1960s ,s e v e r a lpr e do mi na t e l yAf r i c a n Ame r i c a nne i g hbo r ho o dswi t hi ndo wnt o wnCo l umbi ar e l i e do na l l e y wa y 7 6 c o mmuna ls i nk sa nd o ut ho us e s —s i x t yy e a r sa f t e rt heMa nnS i mo ns f a mi l yha di ndo o rpl umbi ng .J o s e phE.Wi nt e r ,aho us ei ns pe c t o rf o rt he Ci t yo fCo l umbi a ,pho t o g r a phe dma nyo ft he s es t r uc t ur e sa ndne i g hbo r ho o ds( Fi g ur e25) .Wi nt e r ' spur po s ewa st ov i s ua l l ydo c ume ntpo o ra r e a s o ft o wnt ohe l p“ f i g htbl i g ht . ”Hi spho t o g r a phs ,t o da yt hemo s tc o mpl e t e v i s ua lc o l l e c t i o no ft he s ea r e a so fCo l umbi a ,we r e ,i nt he i rda y ,i ns t r ume nt a l i ng e ne r a t i ngs uppo r tf o rt hede s t r uc t i o no ft he s es a mea r e a s . TheCi t y( a ndpe o pl e )o fCo l umbi adi dno ts e ta bo utdo i ng s o me t hi ngt oi mpr o v ehe a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o ni nt he s epo o r ,l a r g e l ybl a c k 76

Ma x e y ,Rus s e l l ,S o u t hCa r o l i n a ’ sHi s t o r i cCo l u mb i a :Ye s t e r d a ya ndTo d a yi nPh o t o g r a p h s . ( Co l umbi a , S C:R.L.Br y a nCo . , 1980) .

ne i g hbo r ho o ds .I ns t e a d,t he ys i mpl ye r a di c a t e dt he m du r i ngt he1970 s a nd1980 sa spa r to fur ba nr e ne wa l ,j us ta st heha l f bl o c kwhe r et he Ma nnS i mo nss i t ei sl o c a t e dwa sr a z e dbyt heCHAt obui l da na pa r t me nt c o mpl e xi n1974.I nt hi swa y ,Co l umbi awa sat y pi c a lc i t y .I nc i t i e sa c r o s s t heUni t e dS t a t e s ,mi no r i t yc o mmuni t i e swe r edi s pr o po r t i o na t e l yi mpa c t e dbyur ba nr e ne wa lpr o j e c t sa ndmi no r i t yne i g hbo r ho o dsbo r et he br unto fr e de v e l o pme ntpr o j e c t so f f i c i a l l yc ha mpi o ne da si mpr o v e me nt s . The s es pa t i a la ndi nf r a s t r uc t ur a lr e l a t i o ns–pa r to fo urc i t yl a nds c a pe st o7 7 da y–we r ec r e a t e dt hr o ug hi ns t i t ut i o na lr a c i s m, at e r mc o i ne dbyBl a c k Po we ra c t i v i s t sdur i ngt hel a t e1960 st oi de nt i f ys y s t e mso fg o v e r nme nt a ndno ng o v e r nme ntr a c i s tpo l i c i e s .I nCo l umbi a ,t he s ec i t y wi der e ne wa l e f f o r t sul t i ma t e l ywo ul di mpa c tAr s e na lHi l l ,Wa r dOne ,Wa v e r l ya nd Whe e l e rHi l l —o t he rdo wnt o wn,Af r i c a nAme r i c a nne i g hbo r ho o dsi nCol umbi a .

Eppe r s o n,T.W. ,“ TheCo nt e s t e dCo mmo ns :Ar c ha e o l o g i e so fRa c e ,Re pr e s s i o n,a nd Re s i s t a nc ei nNe w Yo r kCi t y , ”i nHi s t o r i c a lAr c h a e o l o g i e so fCa p i t a l i s m,e di t e dbyM.P. Le o nea ndP. B.J .Po t t e r ,81110( Ne wYo r k :Kl uwe rAc a de mi c , 1999) .

CHAPTER8

FI REARMS THE MannS i mo nsf a mi l ys e e mi ng l yha dma nyf i r e a r ms .Ami ni mum o fni nedi f f e r e ntc a l i be r so fa mmuni t i o nwe r er e c o v e r e df r o mt hes i t e :. 22 , . 32 ,. 38 ,. 40 ,. 41 ,. 44 ,. 4440 ,. 4570a nd. 577 ,a swe l la st wo12g a ug e s ho t g un s he l l s ,s ug g e s t i ngami ni mum o ft e n di f f e r e ntf i r e a r mso v e r 7 8 t i me . The. 22c a l i be rs he l l sc o ul dha v ebe e nus e di ne i t he rapi s t o lo rr i f l e ,whi l et he. 32a nd. 38s he l l swe r epi s t o lr o unds .The. 40,. 41a nd. 44 c a l i be rs he l l sa l s oc o ul dha v eb e e nus e di ne i t he rpi s t o l so rr i f l e s .Ea r l y l e v e r a c t i o nr i l e sl i k et heMo de l1866a nd1873Wi nc he s t e r ,a swe l la st he 7 9 He nr y ,we r ec ha mbe r e df o rbo t hr i f l ea ndpi s t o lc a r t r i dg e s . The. 4440– Wi nc he s t e r ' sf i r s tc e nt e r f i r ec a r t r i dg e ,de v e l o pe df o rt heMo de l1873– s t a r t e dl i f ea sar i l ec a r t r i dg e ,butCo l ts o o nc ha mbe r e di t s1873Mo de lP Pe a c e ma k e rS i ng l eAc t i o nAr myr e v o l v e rf o r. 4440i n1878 .The. 4570 , ar i f l ec a r t r i dg ef i r s tde v e l o pe dbyWi nc he s t e rf o rar e c ha mbe r e dMo de l 1873,di dno ts e epr o duc t i o nunt i lt heMo de l1876 .Fi g ur e26i l l us t r a t e s t hedi s t r i but i o no fc a l i be r so v e rt i me( pe rf e a t ur e )r e l a t i v et oq ua nt i t i e s . Oneo ft hemo s tunus ua la r t i f a c t sr e c o v e r e df r o mt hes i t ewa sa n i nt a c t. 22c a l i be r“ po c k e t ”r e v o l v e r ,me a s ur i ng51/ 4i nc he si nl e ng t h, wi t hc he c k e r e dBa k e l i t eg r i ps( Fi g ur e27) .Thema nuf a c t ur e ri sunk no wn, a st hepi s t o lha dnoma r k i ng s ,buti so fa ni ne x pe ns i v et y pewi de l ypr oduc e ddur i ngt hel a t e19t ha nde a r l y20t hc e nt ur i e s .Ev e nmo r eunus ua l t ha nf i ndi nga ni nt a c tf i r e a r m wa st ha tt her e v o l v e rwa sa ppa r e nt l yt hr o wn 78

Theunma r k e dc e nt e r f i r e. 577c a l i be rc a r t r i dg ewa sl i k e l ya ni s o l a t e di t e ms o me o ne a c q ui r e d, s i nc et her i f l ene e de dt of i r es uc hapo we r f ul c a r t r i dg ewo ul dha v ebe e ne x t r e me l y e x p e ns i v ea ndo fa bs o l ut e l ynous ehunt i ng ,e x c e ptf o rt heo c c a s i o na lbuf f a l oo re l e pha nt r unni ngdo wnt hes t r e e t . 79

Va nZwo l l ,Wa y ne ,“ TheGunt ha tWo nt heWe s t ? ”Wy o mi n gWi l d l i f e ,2010( 8 ) ,1219.

Shotgun 11J (1880-1891) 31C-Complex (18921903) 49J-Complex (1908-1909) 39J-Complex (1915c.1920)

.44-40 .41 .38 .22

11D (1892+) 34C-Complex (1907+) 12T (1909)

0 5 10 15 20

FIGURE 26.DI S TRI BUTI ON OFRECOVERED AMMUNI TI ON ( MNI )PERFEATURE.

a wa yc o c k e da ndl o a de d.Twoo ft hes i xc a r t r i dg e s ,ma nuf a c t ur e dbyt he Uni o nMe t a l l i cCa r t r i dg eCo mpa ny ,ha db e e nf i r e d.TheBa k e l i t eg r i ps pl a c et hee a r l i e s tda t eo fma nuf a c t ur ea s1909( t hey e a rBa k e l i t ewa sf i r s t ma r k e t e d) .Gi v e nt ha tt het r a s hpi tf r o m whi c ht hepi s t o lwa sr e c o v e r e d wa sc r e a t e dc i r c a1909,t hepi s t o lwa ss t i l lr e l a t i v e l yne w whe nt hr o wn a wa y .Al t ho ug hf unt oi ma g ewhys o me o newo ul dt hr o wa wa yac o c k e d a ndl o a de dpo c k e t / pur s epi s t o li naba c k y a r dt r a s hpi t–mur de r ,r o bbe r y , as ho o t o ut ,b e i ngc ha s e dbyt hepo l i c e ,ac hi l dpl a y i ngwi t ha na dul t ' s s i de a r m,a r es c e na r i o st ha tc o mei ns t a nt l yt omi nd–a l lwek no wi st ha ti t wa st hr o wna wa y .Gi v e nt hec he a pna t ur eo ft he s epi s t o l s–t he' S a t ur da y Ni g htS pe c i a l s 'o ft he i rda y–Is us pe c tt heg uns i mpl yj a mme d,buti ti s f unt oi ma g i ne . Fi ndi nge x pl a na t i o nsf o rt heq ua nt i t yo fa mmuni t i o na ndt he r a ng eo fc a l i be r sa tt hes i t ei se q ua l l ydi f f i c ul t ,a l t ho ug hs o mes ug g e s t i o ns a r ea v a i l a bl e .Ane x pl a na t i o nbe y o nd' t hef a mi l ys i mpl yl i k e dg uns , ' mi g ht bef o undi nt hec o l l e c t i v epr a c t i c e so ft het i mepe r i o d:g uno wne r s hi pwa s s i mpl ymo r ec o mmo nt ha nt o da y .At hi r dpo s s i bi l i t yi st ha tt hef a mi l y hunt e d.La r g ec a l i be rr i f l e sc ha mb e r e df o rr o undsl i k et he. 40 ,. 41,. 4440 a nd. 4570wo ul dha v eb e e ni de a lf o rhunt i ngde e ra ndo t he rl a r g eg a me , whi l e. 22c a l i be rr i f l e swo ul dha v eb e e nus e f ulf o rhunt i ngs q ui r r e l s ,r a bbi t sa ndo t he rs ma l lg a me .S ma l lg a mewa sac o mmo nt a r g e tf o rc hi l dr e n, ar e s o ur c et he yc o ul dg a t he r ,a nd. 22i sac a l i be ray o ungpe r s o nc o ul d s ho o twi t ho utdi f f i c ul t y .Al t ho ug ht hef a mi l ymi g htha v ehunt e d,no ta s i ng l ewi l df o o dr e s o ur c ewa sr e c o v e r e df r o ma nyo ft het r a s hpi t s . Af o ur t he x pl a na t i o n,s ug g e s t e dbyt hes o c i a l po l i t i c a lr e a l i t i e so f t het i me ,i st ha tf a mi l yme mb e r sha da nd/ o rc a r r i e df i r e a r msf o rpr o t e c t i o n.Onea s pe c to ft hi sc o ul dbet ha t ,a ss ho pk e e pe r s ,t he ywe r ewo r r i e d 61

FIGURE 27.COCKED AND LOADED . 22CALI BER PI S TOL RECOVERED FROM A CI RCA 1909TRASH PI T. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

a bo utr o bb e r i e s .Al t ho ug hs t r uc t ur a lv i o l e nc ef o rpe o pl eno tc o ns i de r e d whi t ewa st hedo mi na t i ngpo l i t i c a l e c o no mi cc i r c ums t a nc et heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l yi nhe r i t e d,phy s i c a lv i o l e nc ewa sj us ta sr e a l .“ Thi se f f o r tt o k e e pt hewhi t eg r o ups o l i dl e ddi r e c t l yt omo bl a w, ”wr o t eW. E. BDu Bo i si n1925.“ Ev e r ywhi t ema nb e c a mear e c o g ni z e do f f i c i a lt ok e e pNe g r o e s' i nt he i rpl a c e s . 'Ne g r oba i t i nga nde v e nl y nc hi ngbe c a meaf o r mo f 8 0 a mus e me nt . ” Gr a c eEl i z a be t hHa l ewr i t e s : I twa sa nune a s yl a nds c a pe ,t hee a r l yt we nt i e t hc e nt ur yS o ut h,a s ma l l t o wn,s ma l l c i t y wo r l do fi c ec o mpa ni e sa nd b e a ut y pa r l o r s ,s o daf o unt a i nsa ndg a ss t a t i o ns .I twa sawo r l dwhe r e pe o pl ewhowe ntt oc hur c hs o meda y swa t c he do rpa r t i c i pa t e di n t het o r t ur eo ft he i rne i g hbo r so no t he r s… Ly nc he r sdr o v ec a r s , s pe c t a t o r sus e dc a me r a s ,o ut o f t o wnv i s i t o r sa r r i v e do ns pe c i a l l y 81 c ha r t e r e de x c ur s i o nt r a i ns . 80

DuBo i s , “ Ge o r g i a ,I nv i s i bl eEmpi r eS t a t e , ”66.

Ha l e ,Ma k i n gWh i t e ne s s , 201.

Ne ws pa pe r sa ndr a di os t a t i o nse v e na nno unc e dt het i me sa ndl o c a t i o nso f t he s epubl i cs pe c t a c l e s .Butno ta l lv i o l e nc ewa ss opubl i c ,s obo undt ot he s pe c t a c l e : Mo r eo f t e n,s ma l lg r o upso fwhi t eme nhunt e ddo wna nds ho to r ha ng e dt he i rAf r i c a nAme r i c a nv i c t i msa f t e ra na r g ume nt… And whi t ev i o l e nc ea g a i ns ts o ut he r nb l a c k swa sno tl i mi t e dt o l y nc hi ng s —whi t eme nc o nt i nue di nmo r epr i v a t es e t t i ng st or a pe bl a c k wo me na nd a s s a ul tAf r i c a n Ame r i c a nsf o r“ r e a s o ns ” r a ng i ngf r o m bl a c kr e s i s t a nc ea nde c o no mi cs uc c e s st owhi t e 82 ha t r e d,j e a l o us y ,a ndf e a r .

Vi o l e nc eha sa l wa y sbe e n ame t ho do fe mpo we r me nt .By1913,t he Ma nnS i mo nsf a mi l ywa st heo nl yAf r i c a nAme r i c a nf a mi l ywi t hi nao ne bl o c kr a di uso fi t sne i g hbo r ho o d.Thef a mi l ywa se c o no mi c a l l ys uc c e s s f ul . I t sme mbe r so wne dho us e sa ndbus i ne s s e sa ndpr o pe r t y .The ydr e s s e d we l l .The i rbui l di ng swe r el i g ht e dbye l e c t r i cl i g ht .I ti sno tunr e a s o na bl e t os ug g e s tt ha tha v i ngf i r e a r ms–c a r r y i ngpi s t o l sa ndha v i ngr i f l e si nt he i r ho us e s–wa ss e e na sane c e s s i t y .Co nt r a di c t i ngt hedo mi na ntJ i m Cr o w me s s a g e so fbl a c ki nf e r i o r i t ya nds ubo r di na t i o n,as t r o ngc o unt e r he g e mo ni cdi s c o ur s ede v e l o pe dwi t hi nAf r i c a nAme r i c a nc o mmuni t i e sa c r o s s t heS o ut h,f o s t e r i ngi ns o mec a s e so v e r tc ha l l e ng e st ot her a c i a ls t a t usq uo , i nc l udi nge v e r y t hi ngf r o mi ndi v i dua lv i o l a t i o nso fJ i m Cr o wc us t o mst o 83 t a k i ngupa r ms .

Ha l e ,Ma k i n gWh i t e ne s s , 201. Be r r e y ,S t e phe nAndr e w,Ag a i ns tt h eLa w: Vi o l e nc e ,Cr i me ,S t a t eRe p r e s s i o n,a ndBl a c k Re s i s t a nc ei nJ i m Cr o w Mi s s i s s i p p i( unpubl i s he dPhD di s s e r t a t i o nUni v e r s i t yo fTe x a s , Aus t i n,2006 ) .

CHAPTER9

MEDI CI NE& ALCOHOL ON 10November ,1905 ,Re x a l lDr ugS t o r e sa dv e r t i s e di nt heMa nha t t a nne ws pa pe rTh eEv e ni ngNe ws ,“ Wea r et hes e r v a nt so ft hepubl i c .We s e l la ndwi l lc o nt i nuet os e l lpa t e ntme di c i ne sj us tt hes a mea st heg r o c e r s e l l sy o uc a nne dc o r no rpo t a t o e s .Wewa nto urpa t r o nst of i ndi no ur 8 4 s t o c kj us twha tt he yde ma nd. ” Co ns ume rde ma ndwa si nde e ds t r o ng ,r e s ul t i ngi napa t e ntme di c i nei ndu s t r yt ha twa sbi gbus i ne s sa tt het ur no f t he 20t hc e nt ur y .Luc k i l yf o rus ,ma nyo ft he s epha r ma c e ut i c a l sa nd pa t e ntme di c i ne swe r epa c k a g e di ne mbo s s e dbo t t l e s ,whi c he na bl e sac o nt e mpo r a r yl o o ka tt het y pe so fi l l ne s s e so rbo di l yc o mpl a i nt sf r o m whi c h v a r i o usf a mi l yme mb e r ss e e me dt os uf f e ra ndho wt he ys o ug htt or e me dy s uc hc o nc e r ns .Aswi t ha l la r c ha e o l o g y ,t hi si sar a t he rbi a s e dpe r s pe c t i v e , s i nc ea nybo t a ni c a lg o o dst hef a mi l yma yha v eus e d,a swe l la si t e mspa c ka g e di npa pe rbo x e so rg e ne r i cbo t t l e sma r k e do nl ywi t hapa pe rl a be l , t e ndno tt os ur v i v ei nt heg r o und.Eno ug hbo t t l e swe r er e c o v e r e df r o m t hes i t et os ug g e s ts o met r e ndsi nhe a l t ha ndr e me di e sa ndt hewa y si n whi c ht hef a mi l yme di a t e ds uc hc o nc e r nst hr o ug hc o mme r c i a l l y pr o duc e d g o o ds . Fo r t y f o urme di c i na l / pha r ma c e ut i c a lbo t t l e swe r er e c o v e r e df r o m v a r i o ust r a s hde po s i t sda t i ngf r o m 1892t o1909( Fi g ur e28) .I nt e r e s t i ng l y ,me di c i na l / pha r ma c e ut i c a l bo t t l e swe r eno tf o undi nde po s i t spr e da t i ng1892no rpo s t da t i ng1909 .Thema j o r i t yo fbo t t l e s–32o r73% – we r ef r o mt hef i r s tde c a deo ft he20t hc e nt ur y ,i nc l udi ngt hr e el a r g ebo t t l e so f“ DR.J .HOS TETTER' SS TOMACH BI TTERS ” —e i t he rs o me o net e nde dt og e ts t o ma c ha c he so rt hebi t t e r swe r eus e dt os t i mul a t ea ppe t i t ea nda i ddi g e s t i o n.J us tbe f o r et het ur no ft hec e nt ur y ,s o me o ne( o r 84

Th eEv e ni n gNe ws ,No v e mbe r10 ,1905 ,15 .( Co ur t e s yo ft heLi b r a r yo fCo ng r e s s )

25 20 15 10 5 0 31C-Complex (1892-1903) 49J-Complex (1908-1909) 11D (1892+) 34C-Complex (1907+) 12T (1909)

FIGURE 28.DI S TRI BUTI ON OFPHARMACEUTI CALBOTTLES( MNI )PERFEATURE.

s o mea ni ma l )ha dwo r msa nda t t e mpt e dt or e me dyt hes i t ua t i o nwi t ha v i a lo f“ B. L./ /FAHNES TOCK' S/ /VERMI FUGE” .Ac c o r di ngt oKi ng ' s Ame r i c a nDi s p e ns a t o r y[ s i c ] , wr i t t e ni n1898, Fa hne s t o c k ' sv e r mi f ug ei s s a i dt ob ec o mpo s e do fc a s t o ro i l ,1f l ui do unc e ;o i l o fwo r ms e e d, 1f l ui do unc e ;o i lo fa ni s e ,1 / 2f l ui do unc e ;t i nc t ur eo fmy r r h, 1/ 2f l ui ddr a c hm;o i lo ft ur pe nt i ne ,10mi ni ms ;c r o t o no i l ,1 mi ni m.Thedo s ei sat e a s po o nf ulf o ra na dul t ,e v e r y2ho ur s ,t o 8 5 bec o nt i nue df o r10o r12ho ur s .

Thebo t t l eo f“ S COTT' SEMULS I ON / /COD LI VEROI L/ /WI TH LI ME& S ODA”wa sl i k e l yus e df o rc o ns t i pa t i o ni s s ue s ,whi l eabo t t l e pr o duc e dbyt he“ J o hnC.We s tCo .o fChi c a g o ,I L”c o ul dha v ehe l da c ur ef o rpr a c t i c a l l ya ny t hi ng .S e a r c he sf o rpr o duc t sf r o mt heWe s tCo . t ur ne dupc ur e sf o r“ ne r v ea ndb r a i n”di s o r de r s( i nc l udi ngHy s t e r i aa nd Ne r v o usNe ur a l g i a )a ndLi v e rPi l l s( f o rLi v e rCo mpl a i nt s ,Dy s pe ps i a ,I ndi g e s t i o na nd“ S i c kHe a da c he ” ) .Mo s tpe o pl el i k e l yha da to net i meo ra no t he rabo t t l eo f“ BROMOS ELTZER”f o rs t o ma c hc o mpl a i nt s —Ma nnS i mo nsha do ne .Two bo t t l e so f“ CHATTANOOGA MEDI CI NE CO./ /WI NE OF CARDUI ”s ug g e s ts o me o neha ds e v e r eme ns t r ua l c r a mps . Ofc o ur s e , l o c a ldr ug g i s t sa l s opr o v i de dme di c i ne s ,bo t ht he i ro wn c o mpo undsa ndpr e s c r i pt i o nsf r o m do c t o r s .“ L. C.LI PS COMB”( i nbus i ne s sf r o m 1897t o1936) ,“ W. C.FI S HER”( 18711908)a ndt he“ RI CH-

Fe l t e r ,Ha r v e yWi c k e sa ndJ o hnUr iLl o y d,Ki n g ' sAme r i c a nDi s p e ns a t o r y( Ci nc i nna t i : Ohi oVa l l e yCo . ,1898) .

50 40 30 20 10 0 11D (1892+) 34C (1907+) 12T (1909) 11J (1880-1891) 31C (1892-1903) 49J (1908-1909) 39J (1915-1920)

FIGURE 29. DI S TRI BUTI ON OF PHARMACEUTI CAL BOTTLES ( ORANGE) VERS ES TRADI TI ONALLYDEFI NED ALCOHOLBOTTLES( YELLOW) PERFEATURE.

LAND DRUG CO”( 18991938)we r ea l lr e pr e s e nt e da tt hes i t e ,a l 8 6 t ho ug ht hec o nt e nt so ft hebo t t l e sa r eunk no wn. Wha tt her e ma i ni ng32bo t t l e sc o nt a i ne di sa l s ounk no wn.Wha t wedok no wi st ha twhi l epa t e ntme di c i ne sa ndo t he rpha r ma c e ut i c a l s we r ema r k e t e da sme di c i ne ,t he i ra l c o ho lc o nt e ntr a ng e df r o m 17t o44%, 87 ape r c e nt a g er o ug hl ye q ui v a l e ntt oc o nt e mpo r a r ywhi s k e y s . Asar e s ul t , t he ywe r eo f t e nc o ns ume da smuc hf o rt he i ra l c o ho lc o nt e nta st he ywe r e f o rt he i rs uppo s e dhe a l i ngpr o pe r t i e s . Al t ho ug ht hef a mi l y ' smo t i v a t i o nsf o rt hec o ns umpt i o no fpa t e nt me di c i ne sa ndpha r ma c e ut i c a l si sunk no wn,i tdo e sf i tt heg e ne r a lpa t t e r n o fVi c t o r i a na t t i t ude st o wa r da l c o ho lc o ns umpt i o na ndt hebl ur r ybo und8 8 a r yb e t we e nme di c a t i o na ndi nt o x i c a t i o n. Dr i nk i ngl i q uo rma yno tha v e be e n' pr o pe r 'f o rs o mes e g me nt so fs o c i e t ydur i ngt hel a t e19t hc e nt ur y , butme di c a t i o nwa sno t ,s t r i c t l ys pe a k i ng ,l i q uo r .Thi swe l le s t a bl i s he dna t i o na lpa t t e r nmi g hte x pl a i nt heus eo fs oma nypa t e ntme di c i ne s ,buti t do e sno te x pl a i nwhyt r a di t i o na la l c o ho l sa l s oi nc r e a s e di nf r e q ue nc ydur i ngt hi ss a mepe r i o d.

J e t e r ,Pa ula ndHa r v e yS .Te a l ,Co l u mb i a ' sPa s ti nGl a s s( Co l umbi a ,S C:s e l fpubl i s he d, 1976) . 87

Wa r ne r ,Ma r kS ,“ ' TheBe s tThe r eI so fUs ' :Ce r a mi c sa ndS t a t usi nAf r i c a nAme r i c a n Anna po l i s , ”i nAnna p o l i sPa s t s :Hi s t o r i c a lAr c h a e o l o g yi nAnna p o l i s ,Ma r y l a nd,e di t i e dby Pa ulA.S ha c k e l ,Pa ulR.Mul l i nsa ndMa r kS .Wa r ne r ,190224( Kno x v i l l e :Uni v e r s i t yo f Te nne s s e ePr e s s ,1998) . 88

Gr i e r ,Ka t he r i neC. ,Cu l t u r e& Co mf o r t :Pa r l o rMa k i n ga ndMi d d l e Cl a s sI d e n t i t y , 18501930,( Wa s hi ng t o n,D. C. : S mi t hs o ni a nI ns t i t ut i o nPr e s s ,1988 ) .

S i x t y o nebo t t l e sc o nt a i ni ngt r a di t i o na la l c o ho l sl i k ebe e r ,wi ne a ndl i q uo rwe r er e c o v e r e df r o mt hes i t e ,s pa nni ngt hepe r i o db e t we e nt he 1880sa ndc i r c a1920 .Fi g ur e29i l l us t r a t e st hec o r r e l a t i o nb e t we e na l c o ho l a ndpha r ma c e ut i c a lc o ns umpt i o n.Whe na l la l c o ho l c o nt a i ni ngbo t t l e sa r e e x a mi ne dt o g e t he r ,t he r ei sas t r o ngc o r r e l a t i o nbe t we e nt hec o ns umpt i o n o fpa t e ntme di c i ne s / pha r ma c e ut i c a l sa ndt r a di t i o na l l y de f i ne da l c o ho l s . S t a r t i ngi nt he1880s ,a l c o ho lc o ns umpt i o ni nc r e a s e do v e rt i me ,pe a k e di n 1908/ 1909,a nd dr o ppe ds ha r pl yby1915/ 1920 .He r e ,a na ppe a lt o ho us e ho l dc o mpo s i t i o npr o v i de so nepo s s i bl ee x pl a na t i o n. Ac c o r di ngt ot heFe de r a lCe ns us ,t he r ewe r e13pe o pl el i v i ngi n t heho us ea t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ti n1900:Ag ne sJ a c k s o n,he rhus ba nd Bi l lS i mo ns ,t e nc hi l dr e na ndg r a ndc hi l dr e na nda16y e a ro l dma i d.I n 1907,Ag ne sdi e d.Bi l ll e f tt heho us e .Cha r l e sS i mo nsbe c a mehe a do f ho us e ho l da nda l lo fhi sbr o t he r sa nds i s t e r swhowe r et he r el e f tt heho us e o v e rt hene x tf e wy e a r s .Ev e nhi sb r o t he r ,J o hn,mo v e dupt her o a dt o 1912Ma r i o nS t r e e ti n1910 .S i mpl yput ,c o ns umpt i o no ft r a di t i o na la l c oho l swa ne da ndwa x e da saf unc t i o no fho us e ho l ds i z ea ndc o mpo s i t i o n: mo r epe o pl ei nt heho us e ,mo r epe o pl edr i nk i ng ;butt hec i r c a1908s ha r p de c l i nes ug g e s t st ha ti twa sne i t he rCha r l e sno rhi swi f eAma ndawi t ha di s po s i t i o nf o ra l c o ho l ,buti ns t e a d,o t he rf a mi l yme mbe r s .Thes ha r pde c l i neo fpa t e ntme di c i ne s ,o nt heo t he rha nd,l i k e l yha dno t hi ngt odo wi t hho us e ho l dc o mpo s i t i o n.Thepa s s a g eo ft he1906Pur eFo o da nd Dr ugAc t ,â&#x20AC;&#x153; whi c hr e q ui r e dma nuf a c t ur e r st oi ndi c a t et hea mo unt so fa l c oho l ,mo r phi ne ,o pi um,c o c a i ne ,he r o i n,a ndma r i j ua nae x t r a c to nt hel a be l 8 9 o fe a c hpr o duc t , â&#x20AC;? wa st hede a t hk ne l lf o rt hepa t e ntme di c i nei ndus t r y a ndt hebe g i nni ngo fFe de r a l c o ns ume rpr o t e c t i o n.

Ha ns o n,Gl e n,Pe t e rJ . Ve nt u r e l l ia ndAnne t t eE.Fl e c k e ns t e i n,Dr u g sa n dS o c i e t y ,11t h e di t i o n( Bur l i ng t o n,MA: J o ne s& Ba r t l e t tLe a r ni ng ,2008) , 83.

CHAPTER1 0

CATS,DOGS,RACCOONS& ACHI CKEN BY1910,t hel unc hc o unt e ra t1401Ri c hl a ndS t r e e twa sg o nea ndt he no r t he a s tc o r ne ro fRi c hl a nda ndMa r i o ns t r e e t s ,no wv a c a nt ,wa sbe i ng us e dbyBe r ni c eCo nne r s ' c a t . [ W] ena me dhi m Ta b.Hewa sas t r a i g htMa l t e s e… Oh,hewa s s o me t hi nge l s e .Andwewo ul dg oo uto rs o me t hi ng ,hewo ul d g e to nt hee ndo ft hec ur v e[ c o r ne ro fRi c hl a nda ndMa r i o n s t r e e t s ]a ndwa i t ,j us tl i k eape r s o n.Andwhe nhes e eusc o mi ng , 9 0 hewo ul dt a k eo f fa ndj us tr uba l l o v e rus .

Wedi dno tf i ndBe r ni c e ’ sc a twa i t i ngf o ruso nt hec o r ne r ,butwema y ha v ef o undTa bno ne t he l e s s . Twoc a t s ,t wodo g s ,t wor a c c o o ns ,a ni nt a c tc hi c k e na nda n uni de nt i f i a bl ea ni ma lwe r er e c o v e r e df r o mt hes i t e —f o urbur i a l s ,o nepo s s i bl ebur i a la ndt hr e et hr o wa wa ya ni ma l s .Thr e ec a ta nddo gbur i a l swe r e l o c a t e di nc l o s epr o x i mi t yt oe a c ho t he rwi t hi no neo ft heba c k y a r dpl a nt i ngs pa c e sne x tt ot hebui l di nga t14071/ 2Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t —i ne s s e nc e ,i t wa saba c k y a r dpe tc e me t e r y .Di s c o v e r e da ppr o x i ma t e l yt hr e ef e e tf r o m t hewe s twa l lo ft hebui l di ngwa sas i ng l eg r a v ec o nt a i ni ngt hef ul l ya r t i c ul a t e ds k e l e t o nso fas ma l l do ga ndac a tl a y i ngo nt he i rl e f ts i de swi t hhe a ds f a c i ngwe s t s o ut hwe s t( Fi g ur e30) .Noa r t i f a c t swe r ef o undwi t hi nt he bur i a lf e a t ur e ,whi c hme a s ur e d0. 7f e e te a s t we s t ,0. 65f e e tno r t hs o ut h. Unf o r t una t e l y ,t hes k e l e t o nso f f e rnoc l ue sr e g a r di ngc a us e so fde a t ho r 90

Co nne r s ,Be r ni c eRo bi ns o n,[ I nt e r v i e w] ,i nOr a l Hi s t o r y : Ma nnS i mo nsCo t t a g e :AFr e e Bl a c kCo mmu ni t y : Co l u mb i a , S o u t hCa r o l i n a , 2232. De a s Mo o r e , Ve nni e( pr e pa r e df o r Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n, Co l umbi a , S o ut hCa r o l i na ,1998) , 27.

FIGURE 30.S KELETON OFAS MALLDOG BURI ED I N ABACKYARD GARDEN S PACENEXT TO ACAT, ALREADYEXCAVATED. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

whyt het woa ni ma l swe r ebur i e dt o g e t he r â&#x20AC;&#x201D;s e e mi ng l yt he ydi e d,o rwe r e a tl e a s tbur i e d,a tt hes a met i me . As e c o ndbur i a lwa sl o c a t e ddi r e c t l ybe t we e nt hef i r s tbur i a la nd t he14071/ 2Ri c hl a ndS t r e e tbui l di ng .Unf o r t una t e l y ,at r e nc hha db e e n dugf o re l e c t r i c a lc o ndui tr unni ngt oas t r e e tl a mpf o rt hepa r k i ngl o t ,r e s ul t i ngi nt hel o s so ft hea ni ma l ' she a da nduppe rbo dy .Noa r t i f a c t swe r e f o undwi t hi nt hi sf e a t ur ee i t he r ,a ndhe nc e ,noda t ec a nb ea s s i g ne df o r t hebur i a l .Al t ho ug h,g i v e nt hec l o s epr o x i mi t yo ft het wobur i a l s( a s s umi ngt hes o i lc o ndi t i o nsa r es i mi l a r ) ,t hemo r ea dv a nc e ds t a t eo fde c o mpo s i t i o no ft hi sa ni ma ls ug g e s t st ha ti ti sa ne a r l i e rbur i a lt ha nt hef i r s t .De c o mpo s i t i o n( a l o ngwi t hi t smi s s i nghe a d)a l s oma dei tdi f f i c ul tt ode t e r mi newha tk i ndo fa ni ma li twa s .Pr e l i mi na r yi ns pe c t i o ns ug g e s t st ha ti t 9 1 wa sas ma l ldo g . Di me ns i o nso ft heg r a v ewe r e0 . 7f e e tno r t hs o ut ha nd 0. 85f e e te a s t we s t( t r unc a t e dbyt het r e nc h) . The r ema yha v ebe e nat hi r dpe tbur i a li nt heba c k y a r d,butt he bo ne swe r es ode c o mpo s e dt ha tno to nl ywa si de nt i f i c a t i o no ft hea ni ma l hi g hl ypr o bl e ma t i c ,buts o ,t o o ,t her e c o v e r yo fbo ne s .Thi sf e a t ur e ,me a 91

Di a neWa l l ma n,pe r s . Co m. , 2010.

FIGURE 31.THESKELETON OFACHI CKEN WASDI S COVERED NORTH OFWHERETHE LUNCH COUNTERONCES TOOD, BETWEEN THEHOUS EAT1 403RI CHLAND S TREETAND THE MARI ON S TREET S I DEWALK.THE FULLYARTI CULATED CHI CKEN S EEMI NGLY WAS I NTENTI ONALLY BURI ED I N AS MALLGRAVE AND WASLI KELY A PET.( PHOTOGRAPH BY THEAUTHOR)

s ur i ng0 . 85f e e tno r t hs o ut hby0. 8f e e te a s t we s t ,wa sl o c a t e ddi r e c t l y no r t ho ft hes e c o ndbur i a l ,a l s oa l o ngt hes i deo ft hebui l di ng .Butunl i k e e i t he ro ft het wopr e v i o usbur i a l s ,t hi sf e a t ur ec o nt a i ne damo de s tnumbe r o fa r t i f a c t s â&#x20AC;&#x201D;bya l la c c o unt s ,t hea r t i f a c t sa ppe a rt obes ma l lf r a g me nt so f ho us e ho l dt r a s h,i nc l udi ngbo t t l ef r a g me nt s .Thet o pf e wc e nt i me t e r so f t hef e a t ur ea l s oc o nt a i ne df i s hbo ne sa nds c a l e s .Al lo fwhi c ha r g uea g a i ns t t hei de at ha tt hi swa sape tbur i a l .Ana r g ume ntf o rpe tbur i a lc o me sf r o m i t ss pa t i a ll o c a t i o n:i nt hepl a nts pa c e ,a l o ngt hes i deo fabui l di ng ,di r e c t l y ne x tt oa ndi nl i newi t ht wok no wnbur i a l s . Thef o ur t hbur i a lwa sdi s c o v e r e di nt hewe s ts i de y a r da r e aj us t no r t ho ft hef o r me rl o c a t i o no ft hel unc hc o unt e r .I na na r e aa l mo s tc o mpl e t e l yde v o i do fa r t i f a c t swa sac hi c k e n( Fi g ur e31) .Re s t i ngi nag r a v e me a s ur i ng1 . 45f e e te a s t we s tby1. 50f e e tno r t hs o ut h,t hef ul l ya r t i c ul a t e dc hi c k e nwa sl a y i ngo ni t sr i g hts i de ,he a dt ot hee a s t ,wi t hi t sl e f t wi ngo v e ri t sbo dy .Ba s e do nt hebur i a l ' ss t r a t i g r a phi cpo s i t i o n( t hel a y e r

i nwhi c hi twa sdi s c o v e r e d) ,t hec hi c k e nwa sbur i e ds o me t i medur i ngt he e a r l yt omi d20t hc e nt ur y . Thet wor a c c o o nsf o undwe r et hr o wn a wa y .Di s c o v e r e di na s ma l l ,a r t i f a c t r i c h,l a t e19 t hc e nt ur yt r a s hpi twa s to ft her e a rwa l lo ft he s e c o nda ddi t i o nt ot heho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e t ,t he s er a c c o o nswe r e pa r to fag e ne r a ldi s c a r de pi s o de .At hi r dt hr o wa wa ya ni ma lwa sac a tr e c o v e r e df r o mt hel o we rl e v e lo ft hel unc hc o unt e rt r a s hpi t —ac a tt hr o wn a wa y10y e a r sbe f o r eBe r ni c e ' sc a ts t a r t e dus i ngt hes a mec o r ne r .The s e di s c a r de da ni ma l s–l i k e l ynui s a nc ea ni ma l s–c o ul de x pl a i nt hepr e s e nc e o fa tl e a s tt hr e eo ft he. 22c a l i be rs he l l sr e c o v e r e df r o mt hes i t e . Thr o wa wa ya ni ma l sc a nbeunde r s t o o dno to nl yi nr e l a t i o nt o t hef a mi l y( whi c hc l e a r l ydi s po s e do ft he m wi t hnoe v i de nc eo fc o ns umpt i o n) ,butl a r g e rs o c i e t ya swe l l .Thepr e s e nc eo fno nf o o da ni ma lr e ma i ns i nt r a s hpi t si sno tar a r ephe no me no n.Ca t s ,r a t s ,r a c c o o ns ,do g sa nd o t he ra ni ma l swe r er o ut i ne l ydi s po s e do ff o rpo pul a t i o nc o nt r o la ndur ba n s a ni t a t i o n.Dur i ngt he19t ha nde a r l y20t hc e nt ur i e s ,t he s es o c a l l e d' nui s a nc e 'a ni ma l swe r eo f t e npe r c e i v e da sa ni mpo r t a ntv e c t o ri nt hes pr e a d o fdi s e a s ei nc i t i e s .Ca t swe r ee v e nt ho ug htt ob eapo s s i bl ec a us eo ft he na t i o na li nf l ue nz ao ut br e a ki n1918.Thedi s po s a lo ft hr e e' nui s a nc e 'a ni ma l sbyt hef a mi l ymi g htbev i e we da spa r to fawi de s pr e a dme a nso fi mpr o v i nghe a l t hc o ndi t i o nsi nCo l umbi a .

CHAPTER1 1

HEALTH & S ANI TATI ON I NS p a t i a lAn a l y s i si nAr c h a e o l o g y ,I a nHo dde ra ndCl i v eOr t o nno t et ha t “ Onedi f f i c ul t y[ i nunde r s t a ndi ngt hedi s t r i but i o no fa r t i f a c t s ]… i st ha t o fi nf e r r i ngpr o c e s sf r o mf o r m.Ones pa t i a lpa t t e r nma yb epr o duc e dbya v a r i e t yo fdi f f e r e nts pa t i a lpr o c e s s e sa ndi tmus tbepa r to ft het a s kt ode9 2 t e r mi net hepo s s i bl er a ng eo ft hev a r i e t y . ” I nt hi sc ha pt e r ,wes e eho w s pa t i a l a ndt e mpo r a l pa t t e r nso fa r t i f a c t s–he a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o nr e l a t e da r t i f a c t si nt hi sc a s e–c a nb eunde r s t o o dno to nl yt hr o ug ht heda y t o da y l i v e so ft heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l y ,a st hepr e v i o uss i xc ha pt e r si l l us t r a t e d, buti ns t e a dt hr o ug hpr o duc t i o nl e v e lpr o c e s s e sc o mpl e t e l yi nde pe nde nto f t hef a mi l y . Thi st y peo fa na l y s i si sf unda me nt a lf o runde r s t a ndi ngc o ns umpt i o na ndc ho i c ea se x pe r i e nc e dbyAf r i c a nAme r i c a nsa nde v e r y o nee l s e dur i ngt hi st i mepe r i o d.Tounde r s t a ndc ho i c e ,o nemus tf i r s tunde r s t a nd t her a ng eo fg o o dsf r o m whi c hpe o pl eha da v a i l a bl et oc ho o s e .Thec o ns e q ue nc eo fno te x a mi ni ngpr o duc tv a r i a t i o ni st or i s ke r r o ne o us l ya t t r i but i ngade g r e eo fa r t i f a c tv a r i a t i o nt ot hea g e nc yo ft hec o ns ume ra ndno t t hema r k e tc o ndi t i o nswi t hi nwhi c ht hec o ns ume ra c t e d. Af i c t i t i o uss c e na r i owi l lhe l pi l l us t r a t e .I ma g i neat o wnwi t ho nl y o nepl a c et os ho p,o neo ft ho s es upe rs t o r e ss oc o mmo nt o da y( wec a n pr e t e ndt he r ei snoma i lo r de ro rdr i v i ngt ot hene x tt o wn) .Fur t he ri ma gi newewa ntt os t udyc o ns ume rc ho i c ei nt hi st o wn.Wewa ntt ounde r s t a ndwhype o pl ebuywha tt he ybuya ndpe r ha psde t e r mi nei ft he r ea r e c o r r e l a t i o nsb e t we e nt he i rc ho i c e sa nds o c i a lc a t e g o r i e sl i k er a c e / e t hni c i t y , 92

Ho dde r ,I a na ndCl i v eOr t o n,S p a t i a lAna l y s i si nAr c h a e o l o g y( Ca mbr i dg e :Uni v e r s i t y Pr e s s , 1976) , 8.

g e nde r ,s e x , c l a s s ,a g e ,a nds oo n.Wepa yc l o s ea t t e nt i o nt owha te a c hpe r s o nbuy s ,pl a c et hes ho ppe r si no urs o c i a lc a t e g o r i e s ,a ndno t ewha te a c h br i ng st ot hes t o r e :pe r s o na lpr e f e r e nc e sf o rc o l o r s ,s t y l e s ,ma t e r i a l s ,e t c . ( whi c h,o fc o ur s e ,a r ei di o s y nc r a t i c ,a swe l la st i e dt opa s ts o c i a l / ma t e r i a l e nv i r o nme nt sa ndpr o duc t so fho wi ndi v i dua l ss e et he ms e l v e sa ndwa ntt o bes e e nbyo t he r s ) ,a v a i l a bl emo ne yt os pe nd( ac o mpl e xpr o duc to f ,i n pa r t ,ho us e ho l d,o c c upa t i o n,o ppo r t uni t i e sa ndmo t i v a t i o nsbe hi ndr e s o ur c ea l l o c a t i o n) ,ut i l i t a r i a nne e ds ,a nds oo n.Weno t ea l lo ft he s e ,' di s c o v e r ' i nt e r e s t i ngpa t t e r ns ,a ndputf o r t ht e nt a t i v ee x pl a na t i o ns . Ex c e ptwea r emi s s i ngo nei mpo r t a ntv a r i a bl e :whod e t e r mi ne d t her a ng eo fv a r i a t i o nf r o m whi c ht he s ei ndi v i dua l sa r ema k i ngt he i r c ho i c e s ?Ea c hpe r s o nwhowe nti nt ot hes t o r ea ndpu r c ha s e ds o me t hi ng br o ug htwi t ht he ma l lo ft hede s i r e s ,l i mi t a t i o nsa ndc o ndi t i o nsno t e d a bo v e( a ndma nymo r e ) ,butno to neo ft ho s epe o pl eha da nyc o nt r o lo v e r t hes ui t eo fo bj e c t ss t o c k e dbyt hes t o r e .The yma dec ho i c e s ,a ndt ho s e c ho i c e s ,t ov a r y i ngde g r e e s ,' f i t 'wi t hi nt he i rf r a me wo r ko fne e ds ,de s i r e s a ndpr e f e r e nc e s ,butdi ds owi t hi na ne x t e r na l l y de f i ne dma t e r i a le nv i r o nme nt . S oi fwewi s ht ounde r s t a ndwhype o pl eha dwha tt he yha da nd ho wt ho s eo bj e c t s' f i t ' wi t hi nt he i rda y t o da yl i v e s ,wef i r s tne e dt oi g no r e t ho s es a mepe o pl e .Andt ounde r s t a nds o me t hi ngo ft hebr o a dde v e l o pme nto fo urmo de r nc ul t ur eo fc o ns umpt i o n,wene e dt odomo r et ha n a s kwh a tt hewo r l do fg o o dsl o o k e dl i k ea tag i v e nt i mea ndpl a c e ,wene e d t oa s kwh yi tt o o kt ha tf o r ma ndno ta no t he r( t odoa wa ywi t h,a tami ni mum,t ha te v e r pr e s e nts pe c t e r' pr o g r e s s ' ) . He a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o nc o nc e r nswe r ei mpo r t a ntf a c t o r si npr o duc t de v e l o pme nta nda v a i l a bi l i t ydur i ngt hel a t e19t ha nde a r l y20 t hc e n9 3 t ur y . Thea ut ho r so fTh eHe a l t h f u lHo u s ewr o t ei n 1917,“ Atf i r s t t ho ug hti tma ys e e mg r a t ui t o us ,t hi swr i t i ngo fhe a l t hf ulho us e s ,f o rwe ha v ec o met ot a k ehe a l t hf ulho us e sv e r ymuc hf o rg r a nt e d.Weputas a ni t a r yt hi si no ner o o ma ndas a ni t a r yt ha ti na no t he r ;wes i ngt hepr a i s e so f 9 4 f r e s ha i ra ndl i g ht ,a ndpr o v i def o rt he mi no urpl a ns . ” Ag e ne r a lpe r us a l o ft ur no f t he 20t hc e nt ur yt r a dec a t a l o g s ,po pul a rma g a z i ne s ,i ndu s t r y l i t e r a t ur e ,g o v e r nme ntpubl i c a t i o nsa nd“ ho wt o ”bo o k sq ui c k l yr e v e a l s 93 Lupt o n,El l e na ndJ .Abbo t tMi l l e r ,Th eBa t h r o o m,t h eKi t c h e n,a n dt h eAe s t h e t i c so f Wa s t e :A Pr o c e s so fEl i mi n a t i o n( Ne w Yo r k :MI T Li s tVi s ua lAr t sCe nt e r .Pr i nc e t o n Ar c hi t e c t ur a l Pr e s s , 1992) .

t ha tc o nc e r nswi t hhe a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o nwe r ema t e r i a l i z i nga c r o s st hef ul l s pe c t r um o fc o mmo di t i e s , f r o mt o o t hbr us he st ol i no l e um. El e c t r i cl i g htwa spr o mo t e di nt e r mso fe y ehe a l t ha ndc l e a ne ra i r ; br i g ht l y c o l o r e dwa l lc o v e r i ng sa ndpa i nt sf o re mo t i o na lhe a l t h;no npo r o us ,wa s ha bl et i l e sf o rf l o o r s ,wa l l sa ndwo r ks ur f a c e st or e s i s tdi r ta nd g e r ms ;wr a pa r o undf i x t ur e sl i k es i nk s ,t ub sa ndc o unt e r sf l us hwi t hwa l l s a ndf l o o r si ns t e a do ff r e e s t a ndi nga ppl i a nc e so nl e g swhi c hc r e a t es pa c e s f o rt hea c c umul a t i o no fdi r t ;bui l t i nc a bi ne t s ;s mo o t h,una do r ne d,l i ne a r f o r mso v e rc a r v e do rc a s tde t a i l s ;r ug s( “ a r ts q ua r e s ” )i ns t e a do fwa l l t owa l lc a r pe t s ;g a sr a ng e s ;a ndma nyo t he r s .Thi si sno tt os a yt ha tma nuf a c t ur e r s ,r e t a i l e r sa nd o t he r so nl ypr e s e nt e dt he s epr o duc t si nt e r mso f he a l t h,buta na ppe a l t ohe a l t hwa sa l wa y sas t r a t e g ye mpl o y e d. Fo ri ns t a nc e ,e l e c t r i c i t y ,pa r t i c ul a r l ye l e c t r i cl i g ht ,wa spr e s e nt e d i nt e r mso fhe a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o nbyma nuf a c t ur e r s ,a ut ho r so fpo pul a rf or ums ,a nde duc a t o r sdur i ngt he1890 sa ndt hef i r s tde c a deo ft he20t h c e nt ur y ,a ndc o nt i nue dt obeapr o mi ne nts t r a t e g yf o rpr o mo t i ngt he s e i t e msi nt ot he1940 s .Dur i ngt hee a r l yy e a r s ,t hema r k e t i ngo fe l e c t r i c i t y s e e mst oha v ebe e ns o me wha to fas ho t g una f f a i r ,whe r ee l e c t r i c i t ywa s pr o mo t e di nt e r mso fj us ta bo uta ny t hi ngt owhi c hac o ns ume rmi g htr e s po nd.Thi si sunde r s t a nda bl e ,be c a us ee l e c t r i c i t y ,i ns t e a do fdo i ngs o me t hi ngne w,wa sa ni nt a ng i bl ec o mmo di t yt ha ta l l o we dne wo bj e c t st ope r f o r mf unc t i o nsa l r e a dype r f o r me dbye x i s t i ngo bj e c t s —k e r o s e ne ,o i la nd g a sa l r e a dypr o v i de dl i g htf o rt heho me ,c l o t he si r o nswe r ehe a t e dby s t o v e sa l r e a dys t o k e d,f o o dwa sc o o k e do nt ha ts a mes t o v e ,s e wi ngma c hi ne sha df o o t pumps .Thus ,e l e c t r i c i t yha dt obes e e na samo r ea t t r a c t i v ea l t e r na t i v ef o rf ul f i l l i nga l r e a dye x i s t i ngf unc t i o ns .Appe a l i ngt ohe a l t h c o nc e r nswa sapr o mi ne nts t r a t e g yf o re nt i c i ngc o ns ume r st oa do pte l e c t r i c i t y ,a nds i nc el i g ht i ngwa st hemo s to f t c i t e dr e a s o nf o rwi r i ngaho me f o re l e c t r i c i t y ,t hehe a l t hbe ne f i t so fe l e c t r i cl i g ht i ngwe r emuc hpr o mo t e d, i nc l udi ngt hr o ug ha ni nc r e a s i ngnumbe ro fc o ur s e si npubi cs c ho o l s . Be t we e n1900a nd1915 ,e duc a t o r si npubl i cs c ho o l sbe g a nt e a c hi ngno to nl yt het he o r e t i c a ls i deo fe l e c t r i c i t y–t hes c i e nc eo fe l e c t r i c i t y– 9 5 a ndi t spr a c t i c a la ppl i c a t i o nwi t ha ne y et o wa r dt hec a r e e r so fs t ude nt s , 94

Ro b e r t s o n,Li o ne l a ndT.C.O’ Do nne l l ,Th eHe a l t h f u lHo u s e( Ba t t l eCr e e kMN:Go o d He a l t hPubl i s hi ngCo mpa ny ,1917) ,13 . 95

Ma r kRo s eno t e sho wt het e a c hi ngo ft hepr a c t i c a lus e so fe l e c t r i c i t y–bo y swe r et a ug ht t het e c hni q ue so fa ppl i a nc er e pa i rwhi l eg i r l swe r et a ug htho wt ous ee l e c t r i cs e wi ng

buta l s ot hebe ne f i t so fe l e c t r i f i c a t i o nf o rhe a l t ha ndg e ne r a lwe l f a r e . He a l t ha ndhy g i e neha dl o ngbe e nt a ug hti ns c ho o l s ,butno we duc a t o r s be g a nt oa t t a c ht he s et o pi c st oe l e c t r i c i t y .Thi sl i nk i ngo fhe a l t ha nde l e c t r i c i t yi ne duc a t i o n,i nt a nde m wi t hpr o mo t i o no ft heg e r mt he o r yo fdi s e a s ea ndi ns t r uc t i o ni npubl i che a l t h,c a mei nt wof o r ms .Fi r s twa sape r c e i v e do bl i g a t i o nt opr o v i des t ude nt swi t ha ne nv i r o nme ntc o nduc t i v et o l e a r ni ng .Pr o pe rhe a t i ng ,a i rc i r c ul a t i o na ndl i g ht i ngwe r ea l li de nt i f i e da s po s i t i v e l ya f f e c t i ngt hehe a l t ha nds i g hto fs t ude nt s .I nc r e a s i ng l y ,s c ho o l bo a r dss e ts t a nda r dsr e g ul a t i ng ,f o re x a mpl e ,t hea mo unto fl i g hti na c l a s s r o o ma ndt hedi r e c t i o nf r o m whi c hi ts ho ul dc o me .S e c o ndwa st he i nc l us i o no ft hehe a l t hbe ne f i t so fe l e c t r i c a lde v i c e si nc l a s s r o o mc ur r i c ul um.I ns t r uc t i o ni nt hepubl i cs c ho o l sa ndt hepr e s e nc eo fe l e c t r i c a lde v i c e si nt hes c ho o lbui l di ng spr o ba bl ye nc o ur a g e ds t ude nt st obe g i ni de nt i f y i nghy g i e nea ndhe a l t hwi t hme c ha ni c a lde v i c e sl i k el i g htbul bs ,e l e c t r i cwi ndo whe a t e r s ,a ndf a ns .He a l t hha dame c ha ni c a lf i x ,a ndma nuf a c t ur e r swe r eq ui c kt oma r k e tt he i rg o o dsi ns uc ht e r ms . Ta k e nt o g e t he rwi t hwe l ldo c ume nt e dhe a l t hdr i v e nt e c hno l o g i 9 6 c a li nno v a t i o nsi nt hef o o di ndus t r y( pa r t i c ul a r l ybo t t l i nga ndc a nni ng ) , t hema s s i v ede v e l o pme nto fur ba ni nf r a s t r uc t ur e sl i k emuni c i pa lt r a s h 97 pi c k up,wa t e ra nds e we r a g e , a ndt heCi t yBe a ut i f ulMo v e me nto ft he l a t e19t ha nde a r l y20 t hc e nt ur i e si nc i t i e sa c r o s st heUni t e dS t a t e st ha t pr o mo t e dhe a l t hpr o g r a msa sac o unt e rt ot hepe r c e i v e di l l so fi ndus t r y , t e c hno l o g ya ndmo de r ni t y ,i tbe c o me sc l e a rj us tho wmuc hi mpa c tas i ng l ec o nc e r n,he a l t hi nt hi sc a s e ,r e a l l yha d.Theo c c upa nt so faho us e ho l d i n1910ma yha v ec ho s e na ni nl a i ds q ua r el i no l e um pa t t e r ni nt hek i t c he n f o rpe r s o na la s c e t i c s ,butl i no l e um wa so nl yama r k e tc ho i c et obe g i nwi t h be c a us edi s c o ur s e so fhe a l t hha dma t e r i a l i z e do nana t i o na ls c a l ei nt he f l o o r i ngi ndus t r y . Byt hel a t e1930s ,o nc et he s ec o mmo di t yf o r msha db e c o mec o mmo n,ma nuf a c t ur e r s ,a dv e r t i s e r sa nd pr o mo t i o na lf o r umsl i k e Be t t e r ma c hi ne s– he l pe d de v e l o pa nd r e i nf o r c eg e nde rbo unda r i e ss ur r o undi ngt heus eo f e l e c t r i c a la ppl i a nc e s[ Ro s e ,Ma r k ,Ci t i e so fLi g h ta nd He a t :Do me s t i c a t i n gGa sa nd El e c t r i c i t yi nUr b a nAme r i c a( Uni v e r s i t yPa r k :ThePe nns y l v a ni aS t a t eUni v e r s i t yPr e s s , 1995) ] . 96

Ge i s ma r ,J o a nH. ,a ndMe t aF.J a no wi t z ,“ He a l t h,S a ni t a t i o n,a ndFo o dwa y si n Hi s t o r i c a lAr c ha e o l o g y , ”Hi s t o r i c a l Ar c h a e o l o g y , 1993 ,27( 2 ) , 1. 97 Me l o s i ,Ma r t i nV. ,Th eS a ni t a r yCi t y :Ur b a nI nf r a s t r u c t u r ei nAme r i c af r o m Co l o ni a l Ti me st ot h ePr e s e nt( Ba l t i mo r e : J o hnsHo pk i nsUni v e r s i t yPr e s s ,2000 ) .

Ho me sa n dGa r d e ns ,Ke i t h ’ sMa g a z i nea ndPo p u l a rHo meCr a f tg a v el i t t l e me nt i o nt ohe a l t h.The s ec o mmo di t ya t t r i but e s ,f i r s tc o nc e i v e do fa nd/ o r pr o mo t e di nt e r mso fhe a l t h,wo ul dl a t e rb edi v o r c e df r o m he a l t ha ndbe c o mei nt e g r a lpa r t so fmo de r no rmi ni ma l i s tde s i g na ndpr e s e nt e di n t e r mso fs t y l e ,de s i g na ndc o nv e ni e nc e( o f t e ndi s c us s e di nt e r mso ft i me a nd/ o rho us e ho l dwo r k ) ,e pi t o mi z e dbys uc hi ma g e sa st hek i t c he no f t he 9 8 f ut ur e . Thel unc hc o unt e r ,pr e s e nt e di nCha pt e r4f r o m ac o ns umpt i o no r i e nt e dpe r s pe c t i v e ,i si l l umi na t i v eo ft he s edi s c ur s i v ec o nne c t i o nsbe t we e ns e e mi ng l ydi s pa r a t eo bj e c t s .Oft hea r t i f a c t sr e c o v e r e df r o mt he t r a s hpi t ,c o mmo di t i e sc o nc e i v e do rpr o mo t e di nt e r mso fhe a l t hi nc l ude d br i g htg r e e na nd br o wn s po t t e do r‘ bl o t c hy ’t i l e s ,l i no l e um f l o o r i ng , br i g ht l y pa i nt e dpl a s t e ri nt e r i o rwa l l si n bo l dr e da ndy e l l o w,e l e c t r i c l i g ht s ,s i ng l e c a s tc ut l e r y ,s t r a i g ht l i ne d,wr a pa r o undi ndu s t r i a lpo r c e l a i n f i x t ur e s ,ag a sr a ng e ,a ndo fc o ur s e ,af ul la r r a yo ff o o dr e l a t e dc l o s ur e sa nd c o nt a i ne r s .I de a so fhe a l t hha dma t e r i a l i z e dwi t hi ndi v e r s ei ndus t r i e si n pr i nta ndpr o duc to nana t i o na ls c a l ea ndf o unde x pr e s s i o na tt hes i t e l e v e l . Al t ho ug ht hepr e s e nc eo ft he s edi v e r s ea r t i f a c t sa tt hel unc h c o unt e ri nnowa ys ug g e s t smo t i v a t i o nsf o rt he i rc ho i c ebyt heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l y ,i de a so fhe a l t hdopa r t i a l l ye x pl a i nwhyt he s epr o duc t swe r e e v e nma r k e tc ho i c e st obe g i nwi t h;ho w,f o re x a mpl e ,r e da ndy e l l o wwa l l s a r er e l a t e dt oe l e c t r i cl i g ht sa ndbo t t l ec l o s ur e s ,a ndwhys uc hc o mmo di t y f o r ms–t a k e nt o g e t he r–we r eno tf o undi ne a r l i e rde po s i t s .Thes t r uc t ur i nge f f e c to fi de a st ha tt a k ema t e r i a lf o r mo nna t i o na ls c a l e sc e r t a i nl yi s no tl i mi t e dt ohe a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o n.Zo ni ngo r di na nc e s ,po l l ut i o nc o nt r o l s ,mi ni mum wa g e s ,bui l di ngc o de s ,no ndi s c r i mi na t i o na c t s ,t r a de a g r e e me nt s–t hel i s ti sne a r l yi nf i ni t e–a l ls t r uc t ur eo urs o c i a ll a nds c a pe s . Thee x a mpl eo fhe a l t ha nds a ni t a t i o nde mo ns t r a t e sj us tho wf a ri nt ot he wo r l do fe v e r y da yg o o dst hee f f e c t so ft he s ema t e r i a l i z a t i o nse x t e nd.

Ac o nt e mpo r a r ya na l o g yi st hec e l l ul a rt e l e pho ne :a' c o nv e ni e nt , '' t i me s a v i ng 'de v i c e , c o mpl e t e l ydi v o r c e df r o mi t sdi s c ur s i v eo r i g i nsi nr e l i a bl emi l i t a r yr a di oc o mmuni c a t i o n— a c t ua l l y ,t hes a meCo l dWa rdi s c o ur s e st ha tg a v er i s et ot hei nt e r ne ta ndi nt e r s t a t ehi g hwa y s y s t e m, a l l o fwhi c ha r edi s t r i but e dne t wo r k sde s i g ne dt owi t hs t a nda t t a c k .

CHAPTER1 2

MANUFACTURI NG HI S TORY ATt hec o r eo ft heMa nnS i mo nss i t e ' spr e s e r v a t i o na ndi t sl a t e ri nc a r na t i o na sat o ur i s ts i t ea r et het wi ni s s ue so fa ut he nt i c i t ya ndc o mmo di f i c a t i o n.Cul t ur a lhe r i t a g es i t e sa c ta ss e t t i ng st ho ug hwhi c hc o mmuni t i e sr e me mbe r ,c o ns ume da sp l a c ea nde x p e r i e nc ebyr e s i de nt sa ndt o ur i s t ss e e ki ng“ a ut he nt i c ”“ r e c o ns t r uc t i o ns ”o ft hepa s t .Buthe r i t a g es i t e sa r ea l wa y s 99 i nv e nt i o ns ,o f f e r i ngf o rc o ns umpt i o ns e l e c t i v ev e r s i o nso ft hepa s t . De f i ni t i o nso fa ut he nt i c i t ya ndhe r i t a g e ,f a rf r o m be i ngpo l i t i c a l l yne ut r a l , hi ng eo nwhoha st hea ut ho r i t ya ndpo we rt ode f i net hea ut he nt i c .Tho s e whoc a nde f i nea ut he nt i c i t ywi l lbea bl et oha v et he i ra c c o unto fhi s t o r y a c c e pt e da st hepubl i cv e r s i o n.Thec e nt r a lq ue s t i o nt husbe c o me s :who s e a ut he nt i c i t yi sa ts t a k ea tt heMa nnS i mo nss i t ea ndwhoha st hepo we rt o de f i net hi sa ut he nt i c i t y ? Thes i g ni f i c a nc eo ft heMa nnS i mo nsho us et r a di t i o na l l ybe g a n wi t hCe l i aMa nn,who ,a st hes t o r yg o e s ,a t t a i ne dhe rf r e e do m,wa l k e d f r o m Cha r l e s t o nt oCo l umbi a ,s t a r t e das uc c e s s f ulf a mi l y ,a ndpr a c t i c e d mi dwi f e r yt obe c o mear e s pe c t e dme mbe ro fCo l umbi a ns o c i e t y .Thi swa s t hepubl i cv e r s i o no fhi s t o r y ,ac o l l e c t i v eme mo r yo ft hel a s tr e ma i ni ng ho us eo wne dbyf r e e Af r i c a nAme r i c a nsi nCo l umbi a .Butwhe r edi dt hi s s t o r yc o mef r o m?Whoha dt hepo we ra nda ut ho r i t yt ode f i net h i spa s t ? Ev e nt ho ug hBe nDe La newa st hef i r s tt oc o met oCo l umbi aa ndwa st he i ndi v i dua lwhoa c t ua l l ypur c ha s e dt hepr o pe r t yt ha te na bl e df o l l o wi ng g e ne r a t i o nst oa c hi e v edi v e r s es o c i a la s pi r a t i o ns ,i ti sno tt heDe La ne S i mo nsho us e .I twa sc a l l e dt heMa nnS i mo nsCo t t a g ef o rt hes i mpl er e a s o n 99

Ho e l s c he r ,S t e v e nD. ,He r i t a g eo nS t a g e :Th eI nv e nt i o no fEt h ni cPl a c ei nAme r i c a ' s Li t t l eS wi t z e r l a nd( Ma di s o n:Uni v e r s i t yo fWi s c o ns i nPr e s s ,1998) .

t ha ti twa st heMa nns i deo ft hef a mi l yt ha tf i r s tt o l dt hes t o r yt opr e s e r v a t i o ni s t s —i t sme mb e r sha dt hepo we rt ode f i net hepa s ta ndt oo bf us c a t e c o mpe t i ngc l a i mst ot hi shi s t o r y .The i rv e r s i o no ft hi spa s tb e c a met he o nl yv e r s i o n. Me mo r i e sa ndt r a di t i o nsa r epa r t i c ul a rt y pe so fhi s t o r yo rk no wl e dg e .Ana l y z i ngho wa ndwhyme mo r i e so fpl a c e sa nde v e nt sde v e l o pa nd a r epa s s e do nf r o mo neg e ne r a t i o nt ot hene x ti si mpo r t a ntf o runde r s t a ndi ngt hede v e l o pme nta ndme a ni ngo ft hepa s ta ndwhys o meg r o ups 100 t e ndt or e me mbe rapa r t i c ul a rpa s twhi l eo t he r sf o r g e to ri g no r ei t . I n t hes a mewa ya r c ha e o l o g yc r e a t e sav e r s i o no ft hepa s t( t hr o ug ht hi sbo o k ; c o nv e r s a t i o nswi t hs i t ev i s i t o r s ;e t c . )r o o t e di npr e s e nt da yc o nc e r nsa nd mo t i v a t i o nsf o rdo i ngs uc hwo r k( t og a i nado c t o r a t ede g r e e ;b e l i e v i ngi ti s a ni mpo r t a nts i t e ) ,r e c o unt e ds t o r i e sa r er o o t e di nt hepr e s e nta nda r e pa r t so fl a r g e rs t r a t e g i e so fhe r i t a g ede f i ni t i o n.Hi s t o r i a nDa v i dLo we nt ha l r e mi ndsust ha twhi l e“ hi s t o r ye x pl o r e sa nde x pl a i nspa s t sg r o wne v e r mo r eo pa q ueo v e rt i me ;he r i t a g ec l a r i f i e spa s t ss oa st oi nf us et he m wi t h 1 01 pr e s e ntpur po s e s . ” Thr e es t r a t e g i e sg r o upsa ndi ndi v i dua l sus ef o rc r e a t i ngame mo r y 102 o ft hepa s ta r eus e f ulhe r ef o runde r s t a ndi nghe r i t a g e . Thef i r s ts t r a t e g y i st ode v e l o pame mo r yt ha tc o mme mo r a t e sac e l e br a t e dpa s t .Na t i o na l a ndpa t r i o t i chi s t o r i e sa r ee x a mpl e so ft hi ss t r a t e g y .Tho s ei npo we ra sc ul t ur a ll e a de r ss uppo r ta ndpr o mo t eapa r t i c ul a rpa s t ,r e i nf o r c e dt hr o ug h c o mme mo r a t i v ea c t i v i t i e s .He r e ,po we rwo r k st os i l e nc es uba l t e r ng r o ups a ndr e mo v es ubo r di na t eme mo r i e st hr o ug hc o l l e c t i v eme mo r y ma k i ng .A s e c o nds t r a t e g yi st oc o ns t r uc tame mo r yo ft hepa s tt ha tg i v e sas e ns eo f pr e c e de nc e ,whe r e byc ur r e nte v e nt sa r es e e nt oha v eal o ngt r a di t i o n, r o o t e di nhi s t o r y .Oneo ut c o meo ft hi ss t r a t e g yi sc ur r e nts o c i a la ndpo l i t i c a lc o ndi t i o nsbe c o mena t ur a l i z e do ra s s ume dt ob e“ j us tt hewa yt hi ng s a r e . ”Thet hi r ds t r a t e g yi st oc r e a t ea ne x c l us i o na r ypa s t .Whe r ec o mme mo r a t i ngac e l e br a t e dpa s tpus he sa l t e r na t i v ehi s t o r i e st ot hema r g i ns ,a ne xc l us i o na r ypa s ti so neo fa c t i v e l yf o r g e t t i ngo rr e i nv e nt i ngac o l l e c t i v e 100

S ha c k e l ,Pa ulA. ,“ Publ i cMe mo r ya ndt heS e a r c hf o rPo we ri nAme r i c a nHi s t o r i c a l Ar c ha e o l o g y , ”Ame r i c a nAnt h r o p o l o g i s t , 2001 ,103( 3 ) , 655670. 101

Lo we nt ha l ,Da v i d,“ Hi s t o r ya ndMe mo r y , ”Th ePu b l i cHi s t o r i a n,1997 ,x v ,19( 2 ) ,3139. 102

S ha c k e l ,Pa ulA. ,“ Me mo r yS t udi e si nHi s t o r i c a lAr c ha e o l o g y , ”Th eS AAAr c h a e o l o g i c a l Re c o r d , J a nua r y2008, 1012.

me mo r y ,l i k et he1914Ludl o w Ma s s a c r e ,whe r eNa t i o na lGua r dt r o o ps 103 o pe ne df i r eo nat e nte nc a mpme nto fs t r i k i ngmi ne r si nCo l o r a do . He r i t a g ei st husapr o c e s so fr e me mbe r i nga swe l la sf o r g e t t i nga ndt hes t o r i e s pa s s e do nbyt heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l y–a ndt hewa y si nwhi c ht he s es t or i e sbe c a meo f f i c i a lhi s t o r y–i l l us t r a t eho wt he s et hr e es t r a t e g i e swe r eus e d t o g e t he rbydi f f e r e ntg r o upst opr o duc epa r t i c ul a rme mo r i e so fat i me , pl a c ea ndpe o pl e . Thec ha pt e rs t a r t e dwi t ht hemo s tpr o mi ne nta ndo f t r e pe a t e d me mo r ya s s o c i a t e dwi t ht hef a mi l y —t ha to fCe l i aMa nno bt a i ni nghe r f r e e do ma nds t a r t i ngas uc c e s s f ulf a mi l y .Ro bbi eAt k i ns o n,g r e a tg r e a t g r a ndda ug ht e ro fCe l i aMa nn,r e c o unt st hes t o r y : Ce l i aMa nnwa sb o r ni nCha r l e s t o n,S o ut hCa r o l i na ,i n1799. S he wa st he o f f s pr i ng o fa n Af r i c a ns l a v e wo ma na nd a Eur o pe a n … Ce l i aMa nn bo ug hthe rf r e e do ma ndc a met o Co l umbi a… No w,Ido n' tk no wi fs hec o meb ywa yo fa n unde r g r o und r a i l r o a d.Ido n' tk no w.Ia s s umes he ,s hewa s mul a t t o ,s hec o ul d ha v ec o medi s g ui s e d.Ors hema yha v e t hr e a de d he rwa yf r o m Cha r l e s t o nt hr o ug ht he wo o dst o 104 Co l umbi a .

Twof a mi l ys t o r i e sr e v o l v ea r o undUni o nt r o o pso c c upy i ngCo l umbi ai n 1865.Be r ni c eCo nne r s :“ Whe n[ S he r ma n]c a met oCo l umbi a ,a l lt he whi t epe o pl ec a mea ndg o tdo wni no urba s e me nt .Andhewe nta r o undt o Chi c o r aCo l l e g e[ t hr e ebl o c k sa wa y ]a ndbur ne di t ,a nddi dno tc a t c ho ur 1 0 5 ho me . ” Ro bbi eAt k i ns o n:“ Whe nGe ne r a lS he r ma nr o det hr o ug h,Col umbi ar e a pwi t hf i r e .And… Bi l lS i mo ns[ wa s ]hi di ngi nt hewo o de d 1 06 a r e a , wi t hbuc k e t so fwa t e r , de t e r mi ne dt os a v et heo l dho us e . ”

103

Mc Gui r e ,Ra nda l lH.a ndPa ulRe c k ne r ,“ Bui l di ngaWo r k i ng Cl a s sAr c ha e o l o g y :The Co l o r a doCo a l Fi e l dWa rPr o j e c t , ”I nd u s t r i a l Ar c h a e o l o g yRe v i e w, 2003,XXV( 2 ) , 8395. 104

At k i ns o n,Ro bbi eFa br e k a[ i nt e r v i e w] ,I nOr a lHi s t o r y :Ma nnS i mo n sCo t t a g e :AFr e e Bl a c kCo mmu ni t y :Co l u mb i a ,S o u t hCa r o l i n a ,213 .De a s Mo o r e ,Ve nni e ,pr e pa r e df o r Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n, Co l umbi a , S o ut hCa r o l i na ,1998, 2. 105

Co nne r s ,I nt e r v i e w,29.

106

At k i ns o n,I nt e r v i e w,11.

No neo ft he s es t o r i e sa r el i k e l y“ wha tr e a l l yha ppe ne d. ”Wi t ht he c i t yi nf l a me s ,Bi l lS i mo nswo ul dha v ek no wnaf e w buc k e t so fwa t e r wo ul dno tha v es a v e daho us ema deo fwo o d.Ac c o unt so fS he r ma n' so c c upa t i o ns ug g e s tt ha ti ndi v i dua l si nt ha tpa r to ft o wn–bl a c ka ndwhi t e– s o ug htr e f ug ea tt heS t a t eHo s pi t a l ,t hr e ebl o c k sf r o mt heMa nnS i mo ns 1 0 7 S i t e a ndt heho us eBe r r ni c ek ne w,t heo nes t a ndi ngt o da ywi t haba s e me nt ,di dno te x i s tdur i ngt heCi v i lWa r .Fur t he r ,hi s t o r i c a lr e s e a r c hha s s ho wnt ha tBe nDe La newa st hei ndi v i dua lwhof i r s tc a met oCo l umbi a a ndbo ug htt hepr o pe r t yt ha tCe l i ao c c upi e d.Wha tdot he s es t o r i e sha v e i nc o mmo n?Whydi dt hef a mi l yc ho o s et or e me mb e rt he i rpa s twi t ht he s e s t o r i e s ? Al l t hr e es t o r i e sdi r e c t l ys pe a kt oi s s ue so fs t r e ng t h, s e l f s uf f i c i e nc y a ndi nde pe nde nc ei nt hef a c eo fo ppr e s s i o n.Whi l ewedono tk no wwha t o t he rs t o r i e st hef a mi l ymi g htha v et o l d,wha tt he i ra c t ua lmo t i v a t i o nsf o r t he s et e l l i ng swe r eo rwhyBe nDe La newa sdr o ppe df r o mf a mi l yhi s t o r y , wedok no who wt he s eme mo r i e sf unc t i o ne da she r i t a g es t r a t e g i e swhe n pl a c e dwi t hi nt hes o c i a l po l i t i c a lc o nt e x to f20t hc e nt ur yS o ut hCa r o l i na —a ne r ade f i ne dbyJ i m Cr o ws e g r e g a t i o na ndt heCi v i lRi g ht smo v e me nt . To da y ,S o ut hCa r o l i nas t a t ea ndl o c a lg o v e r nme nt si nc r e a s i ng l y r e c o g ni z et ha tt he yha v ear o l et opl a yi nt hepr e s e nt a t i o no fdi f f e r e nthi s t o r i e s ,a se v i de nc e dbyt hec o mpr e he ns i v e“ S CAf r i c a nAme r i c a nHi s t o r y , 1 08 Re s o ur c e s ”g ui deo nt hes t a t eg o v e r nme ntwe bs i t e a ndt heAf r i c a n Ame r i c a nMo nume nto nt heg r o undso ft heS t a t eHo us e .Fi ndi nga ne x pl i c i t l y“ whi t e ”hi s t o r yo nS o ut hCa r o l i nag o v e r nme ntwe bs i t e si sdi f f i c ul t .Butf o rt ha t ,o nene e do nl yt a k eawa l ka r o undCo l umbi a ,whe r e s t o nea ndb r o nz emo nume nt so fS o ut hCa r o l i ni a nRe v o l ut i o na r ya nd Ci v i lWa ro f f i c e r sa bo unda ndt heCo nf e de r a t ef l a gf l i e si nf r o nto ft he S t a t eHo us e .Thec i t yi t s e l fi sac e l e b r a t i o no fwhi t ehi s t o r ya ndt hepr oduc t i o no fa ne x c l us i o na r ypa s t .Andwhi l et hi sdi f f e r e nc ei npr e s e nt a t i o n o fhe r i t a g e–we bpa g e sv e r s uss t o nea ndbr o nz emo nume nt s–i spa r t i a l l y t hepr o duc to ff undi ngi s s ue sa ndc ha ng i ngt i me s ,i ti sa l s ot hepr o duc to f s t r a t e g i cme mo r y ma k i ngo nt hepa r to ft ho s ei ns t a t ea ndc i t yg o v e r nme ntt hr o ug ho utt hef i r s tt hr e eq ua r t e r so ft he20 t hc e nt ur y .Co l umbi ai s al a nds c a pec o mme mo r a t i ngapa r t i c ul a rpa s tt ha ts e r v e st oc r e a t eac o l l e c 107

Mo o r e ,Co l u mb i aa ndRi c h l a ndCo u nt y .

108

S o ut hCa r o l i na ' sI nf o r ma t i o nHi g hwa y( S CI Wa y ) ,ht t p: / / www. s c i wa y . ne t .

FIGURE 32.THE ONLY STRUCTURE OWNED BY THE MANNS I MONS FAMI LY THAT S URVI VED URBAN RENEWAL I SS EEN HERE S I TTI NG EMPTY,EARLY 1 970S.( HI S TORI C

COLUMBI AF OUNDATI ON COLLECTI ON)

t i v eme mo r yo funi t yt hr o ug hc e l e b r a t e dwa rhe r o e s .Al t e r na t eme mo r i e s we r ee f f e c t i v e l ys i l e nc e d,s i nc eg r o upsa ndi ndi v i dua l spr o mo t i nga l t e r na t i v e sdi dno tr e c e i v eg o v e r nme ntba c k i ngf o rpubl i cdi s pl a y so fho wt he y wa nt e dt or e me mbe rS o ut hCa r o l i na ' spa s t . I ti sno ts ur pr i s i ngt ha ta nAf r i c a nAme r i c a nf a mi l yl i v i ngi nCol umbi awo ul dwa ntt opa s s o ns t o r i e st ha ts pe a kt oal o nghe r i t a g eo f s t r e ng t h,i nde pe nde nc ea nds e l f s uf f i c i e nc yi napo l i t i c a l s o c i a lc o nt e x tde s i g ne dt oma r g i na l i z ea nddi s e nf r a nc hi s e ,i nac i t yt ha tpubl i c l yc o mme mo r a t e si ndi v i dua l sr e s po ns i bl ef o rt hec r e a t i o no fs uc hdi s c r i mi na t i o n.No r i si ts ur pr i s i ngt ha twhe nMa nnS i mo nsbe c a met hef i r s tmus e um i nCol umbi aa ndt het hi r di nS o ut hCa r o l i nat oc e l e b r a t eAf r i c a nAme r i c a nhe r 1 0 9, i t a g e , t he s es t o r i e sbe c a mepa r to fa ne x c l us i o na r ypa s ta i me da tr e i nv e nt i ngac o l l e c t i v eme mo r y . Theho us ea t1403Ri c hl a ndS t r e e ti sno ta na c c ur a t eo r“ a ut he nt i c ”pr e s e nt a t i o no fwha tt heho us el o o k e dl i k ebe f o r ei tbe c a meamu109

Thef i r s tt womus e umsi nS o ut hCa r o l i nat oc e l e b r a t eAf r i c a nAme r i c a nhe r i t a g ewe r e t heOl dS l a v eMa r tMus e um i nCha r l e s t o n,whi c ho pe ne di n1935 ,a ndt hePe nnCe nt e r , whi c ho pe ne di n1971.

s e um,buti ft het r a ns f o r ma t i o no ft heho us ei nt ot hi sne wf o r mi sunde r s t o o da spa r to fas t r a t e g yt oc r e a t ea ndpr o mo t eane wpubl i cme mo r yo f as i l e nc e dhi s t o r y ,t hec ha ng e sa r eunde r s t a nda bl e .I nde e d,i fo newa nt st o c r e a t eaCe nt e rf o rBl a c kHi s t o r y ,Ar ta ndFo l k l o r ei nac i t yf i l l e dwi t h mo nume nt so fGr e a tWhi t ei ndi v i dua l s ,whywo ul do nedos oi nadi l a pi da t e dho us e( Fi g ur e32)t ha tmi g hts e r v et or e i nf o r c et hedo mi na ntwhi t e i de a lo fdi f f e r e nt i a ls t a t us ?Di f f e r e ntme mo r i e sa ndhi s t o r i e sdi f f e r e nt l y e mpo we rpe o pl e .Thes t o r i e so fMa nnS i mo nsa ndt hephy s i c a lho us e s e r v e dt oe mpo we rag r o upwi t hal o nghi s t o r yo fs t r uc t ur a ldi s e mpo we r me nt . Af t e rmo r et ha n ade c a deo fb e i ngf o r c e df r o mt he i rho me s t hr o ug ht heCi t y ' sur ba nr e ne wa li ni t i a t i v e sv i ae mi ne ntdo ma i na ndt he n wa t c hi ngt he i rne i g hbo r ho o dsde mo l i s he dt oma k ewa yf o rc i v i cc e nt e r s , Uni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i nae x pa ns i o ns ,pr i v a t ebus i ne s s e sa nde x pe ns i v e ho me s ,i n 1974a c t i v i s t sc a met o g e t he ra nd s a v e dt heMa nnS i mo ns ho us e ,ama t e r i a lv e s t i g eo fhe r i t a g ewi t hi nar a pi dl yc ha ng i ngc i t y .As me nt i o ne dpr e v i o us l y ,Ma nnS i mo nswa st hef i r s tAf r i c a nAme r i c a nhe r i t a g ec e nt e ri nt heCo l umbi aa r e aa ndt het hi r di nt hes t a t e .Ne a r l yt hr e e de c a de sl a t e r ,t hi si mba l a nc ei sbe g i nni ngt oc ha ng ewi t hne wi ni t i a t i v e s . I na ddi t i o nt oc ha ng e sa tt heMa nnS i mo ns i t e ,ne wunde r t a k i ng si nc l ude t heBo o k e rT.Wa s hi ng t o nHi g hS c ho o lpr o j e c the a de dbyBo bbyDo na l ds o n,apr o f e s s o ro fhi s t o r ya tUS C,a ndHCF' sCo nne c t i ngCo mmuni t i e sThr o ug hHi s t o r y ,amul t i y e a rpr o j e c ti nv o l v i ngt hei nv e s t i g a t i o no f s i xhi s t o r i cne i g hbo r ho o ds[ Ar s e na l Hi l l , Co t t o nt o wn,He a t hwo o d,Ho l l y wo o dRo s eHi l l ,Lo we rWa v e r l y ,a ndOl dS ha ndo n]wi t hi ndo wnt o wn Co l umbi at ha tr e s ul t e di ni nt e r a c t i v ewe bs i t e s ,wa y s i des i g na g e ,hi s t o r i c a l wa l k i ng / dr i v i ngt o urb r o c hur e sa ndpubl i cpr o g r a ms . Ma nnS i mo nsbe c a meahe r i t a g ec e nt e r–s e l f c o ns c i o us l yde s i g ne dbyag r o upo fAf r i c a nAme r i c a ni ndi v i dua l si nt e r e s t e di npr e s e nt i ng a ndpr o mo t i ngahi s t o r yr a r e l ys e e ni npubl i cs e t t i ng s .Whi l ei ti si mpo s s i bl et og oba c ki nt i mea nda s kv i s i t o r st ot hes i t ewhyt he yc a mea ndwha t i tme a ntt ot he m,t hea bi l i t yf o rt hi ss i t et oe v e nha ppe na nds ur v i v e s pe a k st ot hene e di tmus tha v ef ul f i l l e do nt hepa r to fs o mec i t i z e ns —t he ne e df o ra nAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns i t et os pe a kt oi s s ue so fs t r e ng t h,s e l f s uf f i c i e nc y , a ndi nde pe nde nc ei nt hef a c eo fo ppr e s s i o n. Thebui l di ng st ha twe r ede mo l i s he ddur i ngt he1970sa r er e pr e s e nt e dt o da yt hr o ug hg ho s ts t r uc t ur e s —t hr e e di me ns i o na ls c a l eo ut l i ne s

FIGURE 33.1403RI CHLAND S TREET I N 2 012 ,LOOKI NG S OUTH AT THE GHOS T S TRUCTURES. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

o ft hel unc hc o unt e r ,g r o c e r ys t o r e ,pr i v y ,ho us ea t1904Ma r i o nS t r e e t a ndt hes ma l lr e s i de nc ea t14071/ 2Ri c hl a ndS t r e e t( Fi g ur e s33,34) . Thr o ug ho utt hepr o pe r t ya r eni nei nt e r pr e t i v epa ne l sdi s c us s i ngt hes ubj e c t sa ndt he me spr e s e nt e di nt hi sbo o k .Bybr i ng i ngt hei nt e r pr e t a t i o no f t hes i t ebe y o ndt hewa l l so ft hes t a ndi ngho us e ,t her e s ul twa st hec r e a t i o n o faf r e e ,o ut do o rc o mmuni t ymus e um,whe r e byv i s i t o r sc a ne x pl o r e ,l e a r n a nde ng a g et hes i t ea ndhi s t o r yo nt he i ro wnt e r ms .To g e t he rwi t ht he s t a ndi ngho us e ,t heMa nnS i mo nss i t ei samus e um wi t hat hr e e f o l dmi s s i o n: 1 .Toc r e a t eo ppo r t uni t i e sf o ri ndi v i dua l st ol e a r na nd e x pl o r et hehi s t o r yo fCo l umbi aa nddi v e r s ee x pe r i e nc e s o fAf r i c a nAme r i c a nswi t hi nCo l umbi a . 2 .Tous et hee x pe r i e nc e so ft heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l ya sa l e nsi nt owha ti tme a nst obea nAme r i c a n.

FIGURE 34.GHOST STRUCTURE REPRESENTI NG THE HOUS E THAT ONCE S TOOD AT 1904MARI ON S TREET. ( PHOTOGRAPH BYTHEAUTHOR)

3 .To e x pl o r e ho wt he hi s t o r i e sa nd e x pe r i e nc e so f i ndi v i dua l sa r es ha pe da ndi nf o r me dbyl a r g e rpo l i t i c a l e c o no mi c , g e nde r ,r a c ea ndc l a s sc o ns i de r a t i o ns . Theg ho s ts t r uc t ur e sa ndt hi sbo o ka r et woo ut c o me so ft hi smi s s i o n.Al t ho ug hwo r ka tMa nnS i mo nss i nc e2005b e g a na sar e s e a r c hpr o j e c t ,t he s i t eha ss i nc ebe c o mea numbr e l l af o rmy r i a dunde r t a k i ng s ,f r o m uni v e r s i t yf i e l ds c ho o l st oc o mmuni t yo ut r e a c ht or e i nt e r pr e t a t i o nbyHCFs t a f f a ndv o l unt e e r s . I n1978 ,o nl ys i xy e a r sa f t e rt heFe de r a lg o v e r nme nts t e ppe di n a ndf o r c e dS o ut hCa r o l i nas c ho o l st oc o mpl ywi t hde s e g r e g a t i o nl a ws ,t he Ce nt e rf o rBl a c kHi s t o r y ,Ar ta ndFo l k l o r ehe l dt hef i r s tAf r i c a nAme r i c a n J ubi l e eFe s t i v a lo fHe r i t a g eo nt hepr o pe r t y ,a na nnua lt r a di t i o nt ha tc o nt i nue st ot hi sda y .I n2012,38y e a r ss i nc et he i rde s t r uc t i o na tt heha ndso f ur ba nr e ne wa l ,t hes i t e ' sf o r me rbui l di ng swe r er e me mbe r e dt hr o ug h t hr e e di me ns i o na lmo de l s ,o rg ho s ts t r uc t ur e s ,bybl a c ka ndwhi t ehi g h 84

s c ho o ls t ude nt so ft heHe y wa r dCa r e e ra ndTe c hno l o g yCe nt e r .Us i nga r c ha e o l o g i c a lda t af r o mt hes i t e ,s t ude nt si nv o l v e di nt heCo mput e rAi de d De s i g npr o g r a m he l pe dc r e a t ea r c hi t e c t ur a ldr a wi ng so ft heg ho s ts t r uc t ur e s .La t e r ,s t ude nt si nt heRe s i de nt i a lCo ns t r uc t i o npr o g r a m bui l tt he g ho s ts t r uc t ur es uba s s e mbl i e sa tt heCe nt e ra nda s s i s t e dMa r kCr o c k e t ti n t he i rc o ns t r uc t i o no nt hes i t e .Unde rt hedi r e c t i o no fc o mmuni t yps y c ho l o g i s tAnni eWr i g ht ,U. S .Hi s t o r ys t ude nt sa tC. A.J o hns o nHi g hS c ho o l , apr e do mi na t e l yAf r i c a nAme r i c a ns c ho o li nCo l umbi a ,we r epa i r e dwi t h e l de r l yr e s i de nt so ft hes ur r o undi ngc o mmuni t y( ma nyo fwho ma r eCAJ a l umni ) .Yo ut ha nde l de r se ng a g e di nmul t i pl ef o r mso fi nq ui r ya bo utl oc a lhi s t o r y ,f o c us i ngo nt woo fHCF' shi s t o r i cho us emus e ums ,t heMo dj e s k aS i mk i nsho mea ndt heMa nnS i mo nss i t e .Empl o y i ngapr o j e c t ba s e dl e a r ni nga ppr o a c h,t hee l de r sa ndy o ut ht o g e t he rt o o kwa l k i ngt o ur s o ft hene i g hbo r ho o d,c o nduc t e do r a lhi s t o r yi nt e r v i e wsa ndde v e l o pe da f i na lpr e s e nt a t i o n,r a ng i ngf r o mv i de odo c ume nt a r i e st ot hec r a f t i ngo fl oc a ll a ndma r kde s i g na t i o na ppl i c a t i o ns .Whi l ek no wl e dg ea nde mpo we r me ntg oha ndi nha nd,i ti si mpo r t a ntt or e me mbe rt ha tt hek no wl e dg e s pr o duc e dbyhi s t o r i a nsa nda r c ha e o l o g i s t sa r eo nl yo neo fma nyt y pe so f k no wi ng . Ra y c he l l eHe a t hi sa nAf r i c a nAme r i c a nna r r a t i v epo e twho ,dur i ng2006 ,wa sl i v i ngi nCo l umbi a ,ha da na r t i s t ' sr e s i de nc ywi t hHCFa nd wr o t eas e r i e so ft e npo e msa bo utt heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l ya nds i t e .S he r e a da l lt hes a mehi s t o r i c a lwr i t i ng sa bo utt hes i t et ha tIha d,wo ul dc o me o utt ot hes i t et os e et hea r c ha e o l o g ya ndwo ul ds pe ndt i mei nt heho us e . Bo t ho fuswe r ei nt e r e s t e di nunde r s t a ndi ngs o me t hi nga bo utt hel i v e sa nd e x pe r i e nc e so ft heMa nnS i mo nsf a mi l y .But ,a sy o uwo ul de x pe c t ,o ur pr o duc t s ,t her e s ul t i ngk no wl e dg e s ,we r er a di c a l l ydi f f e r e nt .S hes a i dt he mo s ti mpo r t a ntt hi ngf o rhe rwi t hpo e t r yi sr e c r e a t i ngamo me nt â&#x20AC;&#x201D;po e t r y ma k e shi s t o r yi mme di a t e . I ne a r l yJ a nua r y2010 ,Iha da no ppo r t uni t yt oc a t c hupwi t hhe r . Ia s k e dhe rwha tc o nne c t i o n,wha tmo me nts hewa nt e dt or e c r e a t ei ne a c h o fhe rpo e ms .I ng e ne r a l ,s hes a i d,i twa sac ha nc ef o rhe rt oe x pl o r eapa r t o fhe ra nc e s t r ys heha dne v e rde l v e di nt ohe r s e l f .Onhe rpo e me nt i t l e d Th eNe i g h b o r s ,s hes a i d,â&#x20AC;&#x153; Iwe nti nt ot hebe dr o o m ups t a i r sa ndIs a wt ha t wi ndo wa ndIl o o k e do uta ndIt ho ug ht ,' myg o d,Ime a n,wha twa si tl i k e f o rt he m?Toc o ns t a nt l ybeo bs e r v e d. 'Yo uk no w,t hi sbl a c kf a mi l yi nt he

ne i g hbo r ho o d.Andwha tt ha tme a ntf o rmeg r o wi ngup,ho w Idi dn' t ha v et oe x pe r i e nc et ha t . ”Thi si she rpo e m,Th eNe i g h b o r s : Wi nd o wswa t c h e du s Fa nc yl a c ec u r t a i nsb l i nk i ng Ato u rc a l i c o s ,t h i nk i ng Wh a t ' sg o i ngo n? Th o s ewi nd o wswa t c h e d Th es t o r et o o ,wa t c h e d Th eb o y so u tb a c ks h a r e Ab o t t l e , wa t c h e d Wo me nwi t hb a b i e s Ont h e i rh i p swa l k Ou twi t hf a tb a c ks l a b s Andc o r n,t h o s ed o l l e du p c u r t a i nss e e me dt oc r i ng e Tos e eu ss t i t c h i ngi nt h eb a c k y a r d Wet r i e dt op a yt h e mn omi nd Ma maa l wa y st o l du s , “ Th i sl a n d i so u r s , mu c ha sl a ndc a nb e . Th e mwi nd o wsc a nwa t c h Al l t h e yl i k e , b u ti ti s n' tg o nnac h a n g et h ev i e w” Th a tma d eu so p e nu pwi d ewi t hj o y Wel a u g h e ds oh a r di nt ot h o s ewi nd o ws Th e yc o u l d ' v es h a t t e r e dr i g h tt h e n, Andj u s tk e p to ns t i t c h i ng

APPENDI CES

Appendi xA Summa r yofAr t i f a c t sf r om Fe a t ur e12T,Sor t e dbyObj e c tNa mea ndMNI Obj ectName Ammuni t i on,Ca r t r i dg eCa s e ,. 22Ca l i be r Ammuni t i on,Ca r t r i dg eCa s e ,. 32Ca l i be r Ammuni t i on,Ca r t r i dg eCa s e ,. 38Ca l i be r Ammuni t i on,Ca r t r i dg eCa s e ,. 40Ca l i be r

MNI 3 10 1 2

Obj ectName Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Food Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Food,Pi c kl e s Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Li quor/Whi s ke y Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Me di c i na l/Pha r ma c e ut i c a l

MNI 3 4 5 6

Ammuni t i on,Shot ,Le a d

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,ShoePol i s h

Ammuni t i on,Shot g unShe l l ,12Ga ug e

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,SodaPop/Wa t e r

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Wi ne

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,Br i c k

n/ a

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,Ce me nt/Conc r e t e

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,Gl a s s ,Wi ndow

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Cl os ur e ,Re mov a bl eLi d,Pr e s sFi t

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Cl os ur e ,Wi ndSt r i p

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,Mor t a r

n/ a

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,She e tMe t a l ,Cor r ug a t e dI r on

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Cos me t i c

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,Ti l e ,Fl oor/Wa l l

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Food,Cy l i ndr i c a l

Ar c hi t e c t ur a l ,Ti l e ,Roof i ng

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Ke y

Cl ot hi ng ,Bl ui ngAg e nt

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Squa r e/Re c t a ng ul a r

Cl ot hi ng ,Buc kl e ,Be l t

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Toba c c o

Cl ot hi ng ,Buc kl e ,Sus pe nde r

Cont a i ne r ,Ca n,Toba c c o,Snuf f

Cl ot hi ng ,But t on

Cont a i ne r ,J a r ,Li d,Pr e s e r v i ng

Cl ot hi ng ,But t on,2Hol e

Cont a i ne r ,J a r ,Pr e s e r v i ng

Cl ot hi ng ,But t on,4Hol e

El e c t r i c a l ,Wi r e

Cl ot hi ng ,But t on,5Hol e

El e c t r i c a l ,Wi r eConne c t or ,Mol di ng

Cl ot hi ng ,But t on,LoopSha nk

El e c t r i c a l ,Wi r e ,Si ng l eConduc t or

Cl ot hi ng ,But t on,St a f f Ty pe

Fa una ,Bone

n/ a

Cl ot hi ng ,Cl i p,Cuf f Hol de r

Fa una ,Eg gShe l l

n/ a

Cl ot hi ng ,Gr omme t

FoodPr e pa r a t i on,Ba ki ngDi s h

Cl ot hi ng ,Ha tPi n

FoodPr e pa r a t i on,Cooki ngPot ,Li d

Cl ot hi ng ,Ri v e t

Ha r dwa r e ,Bol t

Cl ot hi ng ,Sa f e t yPi n

Ha r dwa r e ,Bol t ,Count e r SunkCa r r i a g e

Cl ot hi ng ,ShoeHor n

Ha r dwa r e ,Bol t ,Sa w

Cl ot hi ng ,Shoe ,Gr omme t

Ha r dwa r e ,Br a c ke t ,Ang l e

Cl ot hi ng ,Shoe ,Sol e

Ha r dwa r e ,Cha i n,La pLi nk

Cl ot hi ng ,Sna p

Ha r dwa r e ,Col l a r

Cl ot hi ng ,St r a i g htPi n

Ha r dwa r e ,Cot t e rPi n

Communi c a t i on,Pe nc i l ,Gr a phi t e

Ha r dwa r e ,Ha ndl e ,DoorPul l

Communi c a t i on,Te l e phone ,Re c e i v e rHook

Ha r dwa r e ,Ha ndl e ,DoorRi ng

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e

Ha r dwa r e ,Ha ndl e ,Dr a we r

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Be v e r a g e

Ha r dwa r e ,Ha ndl e ,Dr a we rPul l

1 1

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Bi t t e r s

Ha r dwa r e ,Hi ng e ,Bl i ndHi ng eHook

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cl os ur e ,Cr ownCa p

Ha r dwa r e ,Hi ng e ,But t ,Shut t e r

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cl os ur e ,Li g ht i ngSt oppe r

Ha r dwa r e ,Hi ng e ,Rol l e dPl a t eHi ng e

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cl os ur e ,Pe gSt oppe r

Ha r dwa r e ,Hook,BoxLa t c h

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cl os ur e ,Sc r e wCa p

Ha r dwa r e ,Hook,Coa t a ndHa t

2 1

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Condi me nt

Ha r dwa r e ,La t c h,Ba r nDoor

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Condi me nt ,I c e dTe aTumbl e r

Ha r dwa r e ,Loc k,Bol t

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Condi me nt ,J e l l y / Mus t a r dTumbl e r

Ha r dwa r e ,Loc k,Ke y ,Le v e rTumbl e r

1 2

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Condi me nt ,Mus t a r d

Ha r dwa r e ,Loc k,Ri mLoc k

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Condi me nt ,Spi c e/Ex t r a c t

Ha r dwa r e ,Lumbe r

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cos me t i c

Ha r dwa r e ,Na i l

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cos me t i c ,Pe r f ume / Col og ne

Ha r dwa r e ,Na i l ,Br a i d

Cont a i ne r ,Bot t l e ,Cos me t i c ,Ski nLi g ht e ne r

Ha r dwa r e ,Na i l ,Common

1 129 4 308

Appendi xA ( cont i nued) Summary of Artifacts from Feature 12T, Sorted by Object Name and MNI Object Name Hardware, Nail, Finishing Hardware, Nail, Roofing Hardware, Nail, Spike Hardware, Nut Hardware, Ring Hardware, Scissors Hardware, Screw, Eye-Screw Hardware, Staple Hardware, Strap Hardware, Washer Hardware, Window, Shutter Dog Hardware, Wire, Bailing Household Accessory, Candle Stick Holder Household Accessory, Flowerpot Household Accessory, Lettering Lighting, Arc, Carbon Rod Lighting, Lamp, Chimney Lighting, Socket, Light Bulb Machinery, Gasket Paper, Newspaper Personal, Bead Personal, Handbag Personal, Jewelry, Bracelet Personal, Jewelry, Pendent/Earring Personal, Jewelry, Wire Personal, Pin-Back Personal, Umbrella Personal, Water Pitcher / Ewer Plumbing, Pipe, Fitting, End Cap Plumbing, Pipe, Sewer Tableware, Bowl

MNI 77 2 15 1 1 1 2 4 5 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Object Name Tableware, Bowl, Salt / Sugar Tableware, Cup Tableware, Cup, Tea Tableware, Drinking Glass Tableware, Drinking Glass, Goblet Tableware, Drinking Glass, Stemware Tableware, Drinking Glass, Tumbler Tableware, Flatware Tableware, Hollowware Tableware, Plate Tableware, Plate, Serving Tableware, Saucer Tableware, Unidentified Tableware, Utensil, Fork, 3-Prong Tableware, Utensil, Knife Tableware, Utensil, Spoon Tobacco, Pipe Tobacco, Pipe, Pamplin-Style Tool, Scale, Balance Weight Toy, Coin Bank Toy, Figurine Toy, Tea Set Unidentified, Glass Unidentified, Metal Unidentified, Metal, Disc Unidentified, Sheet Metal Utilitarian, Hollowware Utilitarian, Jar / Bottle Utilitarian, Vessel

MNI 1 3 2 2 1 1 4 1 5 9 1 4 1 1 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 n/a n/a 4 n/a 1 1 1 Total

1,034

I NDEX

A a f f l ue nc e 1,45,14 15,22,24,44,56,68,80,83, 86

Co l umb i a1 8,1014,18,25 6,42,46,4950,589,66,68,71,78,80 2,84,86 Co l umb i aHo us i ngAut ho r i t y 3,12,14

Af r i c a nAme r i c a 21 2,56

Co l u mb i aRe c o r d 57

Af r i c a nAme r i c a ns 1,16,18 23,436,49,53,56, 589,63,72,82 4,86

c o nt r o l

a l c o ho l c o ns umpt i o n 66 7 Ame r i c a ns 2,201 Ammuni t i o n 60 1,88 a ni ma l s 65,689,71 Ant hr o po l o g y 4,15,245 a ppr o a c h a nt hr o po l o g i c a l4 t r a di t i o na l ho us emus e um 4 a r c ha e o l o g y 1,3 4,15,245,28,37,47,57,64, 72,86 hi s t o r i c a l4,32,75 a r t i f a c t s 17,245,30 3,412,60,6870,72,76 , 889

a ni ma l s 71 c o ns ume rc ho i c e 22 23,43,73 po l i t i c a l e c o no mi c 1718,46 c o mmo di t i e s 4,16,21,55,74,76 c o mmuni t i e s 557,78,86 c o nf e c t i o ne r y 356,41 Co nne r s ,Be r ni c e 13 14,68,80 c o ns ume r 203,56,64,72,74 c ul t ur e 22,43,56 s pa c e 20,22 c o ns umpt i o n 1,19,43 4,56,667,71,73, 78 c ul t ur a l c i t i z e ns hi p 16

At k i ns o n,Ro bbi e 3,80 a ut he nt i c i t y 78

D De La ne ,Be n 2,6 7,10,30,478,78,81

B Bl a c k s 1920

De Le o nf a mi l y6 DuBo i s ,W.E.B.2,512,62

Br o wn,Ve nus 7 bur i a l s 6870 bus i ne s s e s 35 6,40,44,55,57,634,66

E Edwa r ds ,Pa ul223 e l e c t r i c i t y 39,53,57,745

C Ca l v a r yBa pt i s tChur c ho fCo l umbi a 2,9 c a t a l o g i ng 312

e mi ne ntdo ma i n 3,14,83 e nt i t l e me nt s 16 e x c a v a t i o ns 1,24 30,367,41,56 7

Ce nt e rf o rBl a c kHi s t o r y 82,85 Cha r l e s t o n1 2,56,10,78,80 Ci v i l Wa r 18,81 c l a s s 16,28,32,34,73 c o l o rl i ne 2,6

F f a mi l yc o mpo s i t i o n 5,50 f i g htbl i g ht 58 f i r e a r ms 60,63 Fi r s tBa pt i s tChur c ho fCo l umb i a 7,9

f o l k l o r e 4,82,85 f o o d 16,22,401,74,88 f r e e do m 1,56,19,46,78,80

Ma nn,Ce l i a1 3,510,30,46 48,50,78, 8081 Ma nnS i mo nsCo t t a g e 1415,78 Ma r x ,Ka r l16

G g a r de nss e epl a nt i ngs pa c e s Ge ne r a l El e c t r i c 3940

ma s sma r k e t 23 ma t e r i a l wo r l d 3,16,19 me mo r i e s 79 84

g ho s ts t r uc t ur e s 15,83,856 g o o ds ,br a ndna me 22 g r o c e r y 3,12,35,38,43,49 51,57,83

H HCF( Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o n) 1,4 5,1415,24,68,80,83,86

N ne i g hbo r ho o d 43,46,53,56,58 60,64,84

O o c c upa t i o n 26,2830,33,35,50,74,82

he a l t h 58,64,727

he r i t a g e 14,78 81,83,85

pa s t3 5,17,32,79,80,82

s i t e s 14,78

e x c l us i o na r y 81,83 84

Hi s t o r i cCo l umbi aFo unda t i o ns e eHCF

pe t s 6972

hi s t o r y 36,13,16 17,25,57,789,81,83 6

pl a nt i ngs pa c e s 5153,70

ho us emus e um 1,14

po e t r y 87 88 po s t Re c o ns t r uc t i o n 1819,43

pr o pe r t y 45 47,52,53

i nf r a s t r uc t ur e 53 59,75 R J

r a c e 16 17,57,74,86

J a c k s o n,Ag ne s2 3,610,12,35,37,47,49,54, 67

Ra nda l l ,J o e8

J i m Cr o w 2,16,35,4344,46,63,81 e t i q ue t t e 1920,43

RCHPC( Ri c hl a ndCo unt yHi s t o r i c Pr e s e r v a t i o nCo mmi s s i o nx r e s e a r c hg o a l s 26,86 Re c o ns t r uc t i o n 17 18,43

Ri c ha r ds o n,Ha t t i e( J a c k s o n) 8,11 13,47

l a nds c a pe 53,59,62,76 77,81 l unc hc o unt e r 3,11,30,3544,49 52,68,7071, 76,83

S S a l l e y ,Ha r r i e tM.18 s a ni t a t i o n 60,7273,75,78

M Ma i nf a mi l y6

s e g r e g a t i o n 16,19 20,35,4344,46,53, 82,87

S i mo ns Ama ndaL.12 14,51,53,68 Bi l l ( Wi l l i a m)8,47,68,82 Cha r l e sH.10 13,4951,53,58,68 J o hnL.1012,30,35,37,40,51,68 s l a v e r y 2,58,17,81 s o c i e t y 3,16,22,43,55,57,68,72,79 S CI AA( S o ut hCa r o l i naI ns t i t ut eo fAr c ha e o l o g y a ndAnt hr o po l o g y ) 24

T t e c hno l o g y 53,5559,76 77,87

V v i o l e nc e phy s i c a l63 64 s t r uc t ur a l16,44,63

W Wa s hi ng t o n,Bo o k e rT.17,21,45 Hi g hS c ho o l84 Wi l l i a ms ,Al l e n 11

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

A na t i v eo fS a l tLa k eCi t y ,Ut a h,J a k o b Cr o c k e t tmo v e dt oS o ut h Ca r o l i nai n2003t opur s ueg r a dua t es t udi e si nhi s t o r i c a la r c ha e o l o g y .He e a r ne dhi sPhD i na nt hr o po l o g yf r o mt heUni v e r s i t yo fS o ut hCa r o l i na , Co l umbi ai n2011a ndi sc ur r e nt l yDi r e c t o ro fAr c ha e o l o g ya tHi s t o r i c Co l umbi aFo unda t i o n.Aut ho ro fnume r o usa r t i c l e s ,hi sr e s e a r c hi nt e r e s t s r e v o l v ea r o undt hema nuf a c t ur i ngo fhi s t o r y ,t hede v e l o pme nto fo ur pr e s e nt da yc ul t ur eo fc o ns umpt i o n,c o mmo di t i e s ,a ndt heus eo fs pa c e . Whe nno tdi g g i ngs q ua r eho l e s ,J a k o be nj o y sa ma t e urr a di o ,wo r k i ngwi t h me t a l a ndt a k i ngt hi ng sa pa r tt os e eho wt he ywo r k .