Culture Management 2009 Vol 2 (2)

Page 1

ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6 Editor in-Chief Emil Orzechowski Scientific Secretary Łukasz Gaweł Editorial Board Peter Bendixen (Vienna) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Cracow) Dorota Ilczuk (Warsaw) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warsaw) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Cracow) Małgorzata Sternal (Cracow) Mathias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Editorial Staff Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Graphic design Katarzyna Poznańska Editorial Office Address Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Cracow Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl © Copyright by Jagiellonian University Department of Cultural Management Cracow 2009 All rights reserved The magazine is financed by: Jagiellonian University Office for the City of Cracow Marshal of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (Ars Quaerendi Prize) Attyka Publishing House W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6

Table of Contents Introduction........................................................................ 7 Emil Orzechowski

Pragmatics of culture management guidelines for shaping professional curricula.....................................8 Peter Bendixen

Economic premises of culture management..................20 Bogusław Nierenberg

Knowledge management in non-profit organizations: case study of Villa Decius Association............................. 25 Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

To save national mementoes for future generations... On the social movement of monument renovation in Kraków in the 19th century........................................... 31 Franciszek Ziejka

Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities....................................... 42 Dorota Ilczuk

The historical policy in Poland. Theory – practice – a public discussion.................................... 57 Jan Sadkiewicz

Cultural policy and Georgia.............................................. 70 Levan Khetaguri

Art in the context of ukrainian cultural in the second half of the 20th Century........................... 76 Olga Łukowska

The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway.............80 Marta Materska–Samek

Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts.....................................................86 Olga Lukovska

A need for auto-criticism in management sciences. (Review: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemology in management sciences” Polish Economic Publishing House, Warsaw 2005)....................................89 Michał Zawadzki

Presentation of the Partners...............................................93

Attyka Publishing House W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl The magazine is financed by: Jagiellonian University Office for the City of Cracow Marshal of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (Ars Quaerendi Prize) © Copyright by Jagiellonian University Department of Cultural Management Cracow 2009 All rights reserved Editorial Office Address Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Cracow Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl Graphic design Katarzyna Poznańska Editorial Staff Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Editorial Board Peter Bendixen (Vienna) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Cracow) Dorota Ilczuk (Warsaw) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warsaw) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Cracow) Małgorzata Sternal (Cracow) Mathias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Scientific Secretary Łukasz Gaweł Editor in-Chief Emil Orzechowski

Presentation of the Partners...............................................93 Michał Zawadzki

A need for auto-criticism in management sciences. (Review: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemology in management sciences” Polish Economic Publishing House, Warsaw 2005)....................................89 Olga Lukovska

Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts.....................................................86 Marta Materska–Samek

The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway.............80 Olga Łukowska

Art in the context of ukrainian cultural in the second half of the 20th Century........................... 76 Levan Khetaguri

Cultural policy and Georgia.............................................. 70 Jan Sadkiewicz

The historical policy in Poland. Theory – practice – a public discussion.................................... 57 Dorota Ilczuk

Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities....................................... 42 Franciszek Ziejka

To save national mementoes for future generations... On the social movement of monument renovation in Kraków in the 19th century........................................... 31 Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Knowledge management in non-profit organizations: case study of Villa Decius Association............................. 25 Bogusław Nierenberg

Economic premises of culture management..................20 Peter Bendixen

Pragmatics of culture management guidelines for shaping professional curricula.....................................8 Emil Orzechowski

Introduction........................................................................ 7

Table of Contents


Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Łukasz Gaweł Chefredakteur Emil Orzechowski

Bogusław Nierenberg

Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung.............123 Peter Bendixen

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme............................110 Emil Orzechowski

Einführung........................................................................ 109

Inhalt

Vorstellung der Partnerinstitutionen................................. 207

Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie...........129

Michał Zawadzki

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005).............. 202

Redaktionskomitee Peter Bendixen (Wien) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)

Olga Łukowska

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.................................136

Hauptrichtungen und Charakter der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes......................................... 199

Redaktion Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć

ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6

Marta Materska–Samek

Franciszek Ziejka

Attyka Verlag W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens...............................192

Das grafische Projekt Katarzyna Poznańska

Die Halbjahresschrift wird von der Jagiellonen Universität, dem Stadtamt in Kraków und dem Marschall der Woiwodschaft Małopolska (Ars Quaerendi Preis) mitfinanziert.

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden.................................. 148

Olga Łukowska

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh..............187

Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs...................................165

Levan Khetaguri

Redaktionsadresse Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien...................................... 180

Jan Sadkiewicz

Jan Sadkiewicz

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien...................................... 180

Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs...................................165

Levan Khetaguri

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2009 All rights reserved

© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2009 All rights reserved

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden.................................. 148

Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh..............187

Redaktionsadresse Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Olga Łukowska

Franciszek Ziejka

Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie...........129

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens...............................192

Das grafische Projekt Katarzyna Poznańska

Bogusław Nierenberg

Marta Materska–Samek

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.................................136

Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung.............123

Hauptrichtungen und Charakter der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes......................................... 199

Redaktion Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć

Peter Bendixen

Olga Łukowska

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme............................110

Die Halbjahresschrift wird von der Jagiellonen Universität, dem Stadtamt in Kraków und dem Marschall der Woiwodschaft Małopolska (Ars Quaerendi Preis) mitfinanziert.

Redaktionskomitee Peter Bendixen (Wien) Ivars Berziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)

Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005).............. 202

Emil Orzechowski

Michał Zawadzki

Einführung........................................................................ 109

Attyka Verlag W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl

Vorstellung der Partnerinstitutionen................................. 207 Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Łukasz Gaweł

Inhalt

ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6

Chefredakteur Emil Orzechowski


ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6

Michał Zawadzki

Spis treści

Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005).............. 202

Sekretarz naukowy Łukasz Gaweł

Wstęp.............................................................................. 223

Emil Orzechowski

Olga Łukowska

Wydawnictwo Attyka W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl

Prezentacje ośrodków partnerskich................................. 315 Michał Zawadzki

O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu (Recenzja: Łukasz Sułkowski, Epistemologia w naukach o zarządzaniu, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)..................................... 310

Einführung........................................................................ 109 Emil Orzechowski

Vorstellung der Partnerinstitutionen................................. 207

Inhalt

Redaktor naczelny Emil Orzechowski

Olga Łukowska

Komitet redakcyjny: Peter Bendixen (Wiedeń) Ivars Berziņš (Ryga) Milena Dragicevic-Sesic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)

Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Wytyczne w zakresie kształtowania profesjonalnych programów studiów..................................225

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.................................136

Redakcja Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Franciszek Ziejka

Projekt graficzny Katarzyna Poznańska

Marta Materska–Samek

Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki............................................. 307

Wydawnictwo Attyka W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 www.attyka.net.pl

Olga Łukowska

O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu (Recenzja: Łukasz Sułkowski, Epistemologia w naukach o zarządzaniu, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)..................................... 310

Einführung........................................................................ 109

ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6

Michał Zawadzki

Inhalt

Bogusław Nierenberg

Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą............... 238 Peter Bendixen

Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Wytyczne w zakresie kształtowania profesjonalnych programów studiów..................................225

Sekretarz naukowy Łukasz Gaweł

Emil Orzechowski

Redaktor naczelny Emil Orzechowski

Wstęp.............................................................................. 223

Spis treści

Vorstellung der Partnerinstitutionen................................. 207

Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii)................................. 301

Emil Orzechowski

Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – studium przypadku...................................................... 243 Michał Zawadzki

Pismo finansowane przez: Uniwersytet Jagielloński Urząd Miasta Krakowa Marszałka Województwa Małopolskiego (Nagroda Ars Quaerendi)

Olga Łukowska

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme............................110

Komitet redakcyjny: Peter Bendixen (Wiedeń) Ivars Berziņš (Ryga) Milena Dragicevic-Sesic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)

Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005).............. 202

Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku..........................................296

Peter Bendixen

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Olga Łukowska

Levan Khetaguri

Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung.............123

Redakcja Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć

Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku............................................... 249

Hauptrichtungen und Charakter der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes......................................... 199

Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja............................................289

Bogusław Nierenberg

Franciszek Ziejka

Marta Materska–Samek

© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2009 All rights reserved

Jan Sadkiewicz

Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie...........129

Projekt graficzny Katarzyna Poznańska

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens...............................192

Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny................................. 276

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych........260 Olga Łukowska

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.................................136

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh..............187

Adres Redakcji Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl

Franciszek Ziejka

Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny................................. 276 Levan Khetaguri

Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych........260

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden.................................. 148

Jan Sadkiewicz

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien...................................... 180

Franciszek Ziejka

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja............................................289 Jan Sadkiewicz

Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs...................................165

Adres Redakcji Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków tel. +48 12 411 47 84 kultura@uj.edu.pl

Levan Khetaguri

Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs...................................165

Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku............................................... 249 Jan Sadkiewicz

Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku..........................................296 Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien...................................... 180

Olga Łukowska

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden.................................. 148

Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – studium przypadku...................................................... 243 Levan Khetaguri

© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2009 All rights reserved

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Bogusław Nierenberg

Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh..............187

Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii)................................. 301

Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie...........129

Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą............... 238 Olga Łukowska

Marta Materska–Samek

Bogusław Nierenberg

Peter Bendixen

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens...............................192

Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki............................................. 307

Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung.............123

Marta Materska–Samek

Pismo finansowane przez: Uniwersytet Jagielloński Urząd Miasta Krakowa Marszałka Województwa Małopolskiego (Nagroda Ars Quaerendi)

Peter Bendixen

Hauptrichtungen und Charakter der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes......................................... 199

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme............................110

Prezentacje ośrodków partnerskich................................. 315



Culture Management Culture Management



7

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Introduction Emil Orzechowski

W

e are passing the second issue of our periodical into the hands of our readers. It is still the intention of the editors to maintain a six-month editorial cycle, however, some bureaucratic procedures – at least at the initial stage – caused delays which cumulated into a year’s gap between the current issue and the first one. The topic is worthy of commenting with a brief account of the difficulties which a project of this type encounters in the semi-Union, semi-Bologna, semi-Lisbon reality. All of it is ‘semi-‘, as still, at least in the academic practice of our field of culture management, we are a poor relative of the pan-European farmers, and within the university environment we are pariahs among the bio-, astro-, info-, etc. Never mind. We have to do our job, especially when we are convinced that this is the right thing to do. Eventually, sooner or later, the motto ‘Culture matters’ will prevail.

T

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz of analysis; maybe they will evoke other topics, e.g. some interesting case studies.

S

eparately we want to point out the conditions in which our colleagues situated east from the Union. Two articles present the reality in the Ukraine.

G

ood news is that half of the texts were written by recognized scholars and the rest by the persons working on their doctoral dissertations. We promised that, and we want to keep it that way.

F

inally, let me make a short remark on the future. We continue to encourage the readers to send over texts, which of course undergo editorial assessment. With great satisfaction we may inform that we already have a number of texts for the third issue; for sure they will comprise a commentary on the Congress of Polish Culture – the event which we consider important mostly for the Poles, but since in terms of organization it sets a new standard of social discourse, the fact makes it significant in a wider context.

he second issue differs from the previous edition. The latter introduced a variety of problems and authors, whereas the current publication focuses on highlighting topics requiring immediate reflection, particularly on a territorial scale, to which we want to give preference in our paper. Thus, apart from the important text by P. Bendixen, which does not need any comment, for those acquainted with culture management, we present such topics as the dilemmas of cultural policy on the example of Georgia, or the issue of the so-called historical policy on the example of Poland. Gergia and Poland only exemplify some basic problems which are important everywhere, especially in our part of the world.

he following, fourth issue, will be devoted to legal and financial regulations, and other conditions determining the fact that also our part of Europe has witnessed fine examples of public-private cooperation in the field of culture. We are looking forward to get texts illustrating this phenomenon and presenting both the advantages and the difficulties.

T

A

he next two texts provide important and positive examples of such phenomena as: public share in the renovation of the monuments of the past (Kraków) and the tendency to fit cultural events into a festival formula. Anyway, these problems, methods of work, and effects, are definitely worthy of discussion.

T

he economics of culture and management of knowledge (presented here in the context of a non-profit organization) are always worthy

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

lthough we have plans for the next editions of the publication, we still declare that we may willingly entrust individual issues to our partner co-editing centers (who would determine the leading subject in each case).

W

e hope that our paper will become our common cause: both of the editors, the readers, and possibly also of the politicians responsible for culture and building of the citizen society in the new Europe.

7

he economics of culture and management of knowledge (presented here in the context of a non-profit organization) are always worthy

T

he next two texts provide important and positive examples of such phenomena as: public share in the renovation of the monuments of the past (Kraków) and the tendency to fit cultural events into a festival formula. Anyway, these problems, methods of work, and effects, are definitely worthy of discussion.

T

he second issue differs from the previous edition. The latter introduced a variety of problems and authors, whereas the current publication focuses on highlighting topics requiring immediate reflection, particularly on a territorial scale, to which we want to give preference in our paper. Thus, apart from the important text by P. Bendixen, which does not need any comment, for those acquainted with culture management, we present such topics as the dilemmas of cultural policy on the example of Georgia, or the issue of the so-called historical policy on the example of Poland. Gergia and Poland only exemplify some basic problems which are important everywhere, especially in our part of the world.

T

e are passing the second issue of our periodical into the hands of our readers. It is still the intention of the editors to maintain a six-month editorial cycle, however, some bureaucratic procedures – at least at the initial stage – caused delays which cumulated into a year’s gap between the current issue and the first one. The topic is worthy of commenting with a brief account of the difficulties which a project of this type encounters in the semi-Union, semi-Bologna, semi-Lisbon reality. All of it is ‘semi-‘, as still, at least in the academic practice of our field of culture management, we are a poor relative of the pan-European farmers, and within the university environment we are pariahs among the bio-, astro-, info-, etc. Never mind. We have to do our job, especially when we are convinced that this is the right thing to do. Eventually, sooner or later, the motto ‘Culture matters’ will prevail.

W

Emil Orzechowski

Introduction

e hope that our paper will become our common cause: both of the editors, the readers, and possibly also of the politicians responsible for culture and building of the citizen society in the new Europe.

W

lthough we have plans for the next editions of the publication, we still declare that we may willingly entrust individual issues to our partner co-editing centers (who would determine the leading subject in each case).

A

he following, fourth issue, will be devoted to legal and financial regulations, and other conditions determining the fact that also our part of Europe has witnessed fine examples of public-private cooperation in the field of culture. We are looking forward to get texts illustrating this phenomenon and presenting both the advantages and the difficulties.

T

inally, let me make a short remark on the future. We continue to encourage the readers to send over texts, which of course undergo editorial assessment. With great satisfaction we may inform that we already have a number of texts for the third issue; for sure they will comprise a commentary on the Congress of Polish Culture – the event which we consider important mostly for the Poles, but since in terms of organization it sets a new standard of social discourse, the fact makes it significant in a wider context.

F

ood news is that half of the texts were written by recognized scholars and the rest by the persons working on their doctoral dissertations. We promised that, and we want to keep it that way.

G

eparately we want to point out the conditions in which our colleagues situated east from the Union. Two articles present the reality in the Ukraine.

S

of analysis; maybe they will evoke other topics, e.g. some interesting case studies. Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz


Peter Bendixen

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz, Ewa Gabryś, Iweta Rene

Pragmatics of culture management guidelines for shaping professional curricula

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

1. Culture and Management

8

M

See: Safranski, 2006, p. 7: >Mind< we also discover in the world of animals. A chimpanzee, which learns how to reach bananas by means of a long pole, proves rational behavior. Mind operates in the area where tools are created… Reason contrary to mind sets aims of its own. These are the assumptions of our self-consciousness which help us to keep distance from ourselves. Microeconomic tools are means. The aim of an enterprise is not usually discussed, but it is taken for granted that it is to generate profit.

In German “culture management” (Kulturmanagement) is a complex noun where the first part of the word (culture) is an object and the second (management) is a subject. From the linguistic point of view the term culture management is on the same semantic level as sport management or natural environment management. The problem is, however, that art and culture as well as sport or natural environment can be managed only to a certain degree. Art is created by artists, sport is done by people and nature affects the environment in a way which is hard to control by a human being. Culture as an individual and social world shaped by qualities and patterns, which has local, regional and national characteristic features, is an organic creation of history, lasting from generation to generation. Such a structure cannot be managed. Falsity of this way of thinking is essentially contained in the term of management and the idea connected with it that such spontaneous social areas as art and other cultural activities, including sport, can be rationally controlled, planned and organized, subordinated to a defined strategy and aimed at fulfillment of specific aims, like maximal profitability or profit. Art, sport and other ways of human expression exist due to creativity and joy of artistic work. But creativeness is not the matter of mind. This misunderstanding is visible when we accept the thesis that although mind can organize human thoughts, the most creative things stem from fantasy – so the power of imagination which is characteristic to thinking.

1

ost popular concepts and assumptions of culture management, which are promoted all over the world, are governed by economic sciences. Typical economic structures are transferred to the area of culture. Consequently, culture is considered from the angle of economy – thus it is being subordinated to the requirements of profitability, to the need of having all structures and processes organized and at the same time – according to a popular opinion – its functioning should be based on common-sense rules. This interpretation, however, does not differentiate between the following two terms: reason and mind1. Microeconomic tools are mindlessly associated with reasonable activity, whereas reason is not the most important driving force of art or – in a broader sense – culture. Essentially and practically, microeconomic tools are based on money; this natural phenomenon in the world of economy, is also referred to culture and art [see: Brodbeck, 2009 i Bendixen, Die Unsichtbare..., 2009]. The content of culture and art has not been placed in the center of attention. This fact proves the point that economic tools tend to be used in every social area whose elements can be organized or structured. Such usurper domination of a single area by economic tools is a flaw which can be removed if the rules of dialectics are used to analyze this relation. This is not only a substantive matter, but also a matter of artificially created terminology.

ost popular concepts and assumptions of culture management, which are promoted all over the world, are governed by economic sciences. Typical economic structures are transferred to the area of culture. Consequently, culture is considered from the angle of economy – thus it is being subordinated to the requirements of profitability, to the need of having all structures and processes organized and at the same time – according to a popular opinion – its functioning should be based on common-sense rules. This interpretation, however, does not differentiate between the following two terms: reason and mind1. Microeconomic tools are mindlessly associated with reasonable activity, whereas reason is not the most important driving force of art or – in a broader sense – culture. Essentially and practically, microeconomic tools are based on money; this natural phenomenon in the world of economy, is also referred to culture and art [see: Brodbeck, 2009 i Bendixen, Die Unsichtbare..., 2009]. The content of culture and art has not been placed in the center of attention. This fact proves the point that economic tools tend to be used in every social area whose elements can be organized or structured. Such usurper domination of a single area by economic tools is a flaw which can be removed if the rules of dialectics are used to analyze this relation. This is not only a substantive matter, but also a matter of artificially created terminology.

Prof. Peter Bendixen Lecturer at several universities, among others in Lueneburg, Salzburg, Warwick, Istanbul. He was the initiator of the course system in Arts Management at the Hamburg University for Economics and Politics. He is the co-founder and director of the RudolfArnheim Institute for Art, Music and Cultural Economics in Hamburg. Since 2003 he has been the director for Research and the Doctorate Programme at the study Centre Hohe in Vienna. He is the author of inter alia Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik (2009), Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (2009), Die Unsichtbare Hand, Die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (2009).

M

In German “culture management” (Kulturmanagement) is a complex noun where the first part of the word (culture) is an object and the second (management) is a subject. From the linguistic point of view the term culture management is on the same semantic level as sport management or natural environment management. The problem is, however, that art and culture as well as sport or natural environment can be managed only to a certain degree. Art is created by artists, sport is done by people and nature affects the environment in a way which is hard to control by a human being. Culture as an individual and social world shaped by qualities and patterns, which has local, regional and national characteristic features, is an organic creation of history, lasting from generation to generation. Such a structure cannot be managed. Falsity of this way of thinking is essentially contained in the term of management and the idea connected with it that such spontaneous social areas as art and other cultural activities, including sport, can be rationally controlled, planned and organized, subordinated to a defined strategy and aimed at fulfillment of specific aims, like maximal profitability or profit. Art, sport and other ways of human expression exist due to creativity and joy of artistic work. But creativeness is not the matter of mind. This misunderstanding is visible when we accept the thesis that although mind can organize human thoughts, the most creative things stem from fantasy – so the power of imagination which is characteristic to thinking.

1

1. Culture and Management

See: Safranski, 2006, p. 7: >Mind< we also discover in the world of animals. A chimpanzee, which learns how to reach bananas by means of a long pole, proves rational behavior. Mind operates in the area where tools are created… Reason contrary to mind sets aims of its own. These are the assumptions of our self-consciousness which help us to keep distance from ourselves. Microeconomic tools are means. The aim of an enterprise is not usually discussed, but it is taken for granted that it is to generate profit.

Prof. Peter Bendixen Lecturer at several universities, among others in Lueneburg, Salzburg, Warwick, Istanbul. He was the initiator of the course system in Arts Management at the Hamburg University for Economics and Politics. He is the co-founder and director of the RudolfArnheim Institute for Art, Music and Cultural Economics in Hamburg. Since 2003 he has been the director for Research and the Doctorate Programme at the study Centre Hohe in Vienna. He is the author of inter alia Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik (2009), Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (2009), Die Unsichtbare Hand, Die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (2009).

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz, Ewa Gabryś, Iweta Rene

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Peter Bendixen

8

Pragmatics of culture management guidelines for shaping professional curricula


9

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Pragmatics of culture management guidelines for shaping professional curricula

Practical rules and helpful deliberations on game theory can be found in: Pierre Basieux, Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur. Reinbek near Hamburga (Rowohlt) 2008.

2

Creativity is based on human ability to adopt the role of a player both in serious and entertaining “games” [Schiller, 2000]. We can talk about a “game” when its immanent part is a coincidence and unpredictability, which make us experience, in an abstract or realistic way, a situation of a certain disorder and chaotic anxiety. Such creativity seems to be inventive. It spontaneously tries to capture its numerous projections suggested in thought by intuition, which later on are rejected as useless or accepted with a feeling that they might prove useful and, at that moment, they are explained by the mind2. Let us steer away from the rules of microeconomics for a moment. Even in reference to an enterprise, which is the essence of economic sciences, they constitute just a back-up of an instrumental character. Those who understand economy, know that neither an average person nor an experienced entrepreneur or a manager would base his or her decision exclusively, or to a large extent, on conscious rationalizing and situation analysis taking into consideration all possible means. It seems that the whole area of economy is based on an overall perception and assessment of a situation complemented by practical experience and a long list of verified, intuitive rules. On everyday basis, in our professional lives, we often believe that we can understand a given situation really well, and that due to logical thinking we will be able to take the right decision. However, this belief is often misleading. A typical feature of economics, i.e. the fact that many situations and predictions bear a stamp of randomness, is especially vivid in the area of art and its institutionalized forms, such as: museums, exhibitions, libraries, agencies, publishing houses, instrument producers, stage designers or art traders, because the element of creativity is particularly important there. Life often writes its own scenarios, determining our behavior at the same time. In many circumstances we simply lack time necessary for a detailed dispassionate analysis of a given situation, which would help us to make an allegedly rational decision3. Such composure is only possible in offices where decisions are not based on creativity but on deterministic craving for order.

Therefore, neither art nor cultural institutions can be managed if economics is treated as the central paradigm. Economics may only perform a supportive function. Remembering, however, that the supported areas have a limited rationality, we should not allow economics to have a dominating influence on practical decisions. Similarly, commercial motivations also should not be chosen in this respect as they place money in the center of attention. Money is not creative. It is only active when a product of human creativity can be used commercially. The rule of money is not a gift from gods, but a human invention, which also caused far-reaching consequences in the area of culture. Although it might be considered an exaggeration, we may claim that: those who invest money in a lottery, will probably gain profit. The only creative element of this situation is the fact that we devote our fate to a coincidence. This is not a particularly creative idea. However, gaining profit not always or in fact quite rarely is the outcome of a dispassionate calculation. More often it is connected – of course not only in the case of a lottery – with ideas and subconscious signals. In the areas where the creativity factor does not have a crucial role to play, management should be replaced by administration aimed at preserving existing order. In other words, the art of management should be deprived of microeconomic staffage and placed somewhere in a wide spectrum between elementary, inspiring disorder and search or discovery of forms which contain a message and can be fulfilled (not only in art!). The art of management is essentially about professional management with reference to impassable factors, i.e. to the conditions of nature on one hand (for example, limited natural resources) and social will (like striving after peaceful coexistence and fair division of happiness – bringing goods, that is culture) on the other. The managers are the ‘guardians of the tower’, not dictators. Most decisions we take are conditioned by our intuition or the, so called, good premonition [see: Gigerenzer, 2008]. Intuition is not a subjective act of lawlessness or an accidental irrationality, but it is a result of the natural human brain evolution, which has been happening for millions of years. Human brain does not react the moment we thoroughly analyze a given situation, but much earlier and

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz, Ewa Gabryś, Iweta Rene

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz, Ewa Gabryś, Iweta Rene

3

Peter Bendixen

Therefore, neither art nor cultural institutions can be managed if economics is treated as the central paradigm. Economics may only perform a supportive function. Remembering, however, that the supported areas have a limited rationality, we should not allow economics to have a dominating influence on practical decisions. Similarly, commercial motivations also should not be chosen in this respect as they place money in the center of attention. Money is not creative. It is only active when a product of human creativity can be used commercially. The rule of money is not a gift from gods, but a human invention, which also caused far-reaching consequences in the area of culture. Although it might be considered an exaggeration, we may claim that: those who invest money in a lottery, will probably gain profit. The only creative element of this situation is the fact that we devote our fate to a coincidence. This is not a particularly creative idea. However, gaining profit not always or in fact quite rarely is the outcome of a dispassionate calculation. More often it is connected – of course not only in the case of a lottery – with ideas and subconscious signals. In the areas where the creativity factor does not have a crucial role to play, management should be replaced by administration aimed at preserving existing order. In other words, the art of management should be deprived of microeconomic staffage and placed somewhere in a wide spectrum between elementary, inspiring disorder and search or discovery of forms which contain a message and can be fulfilled (not only in art!). The art of management is essentially about professional management with reference to impassable factors, i.e. to the conditions of nature on one hand (for example, limited natural resources) and social will (like striving after peaceful coexistence and fair division of happiness – bringing goods, that is culture) on the other. The managers are the ‘guardians of the tower’, not dictators. Most decisions we take are conditioned by our intuition or the, so called, good premonition [see: Gigerenzer, 2008]. Intuition is not a subjective act of lawlessness or an accidental irrationality, but it is a result of the natural human brain evolution, which has been happening for millions of years. Human brain does not react the moment we thoroughly analyze a given situation, but much earlier and

Peter Bendixen

The impression of rationality is artificial, which is proved by microeconomic optimization models. The models are being improved as long as they are deprived of irrational element. At that time the outcome can be finally called rational. Irrationality is narrowed as a term and the idea for immeasurable, universal aspects. Such conduct could be at best treated as heuristic ‘intermezzo’ in the decision-making process.

Pragmatics of culture management guidelines for shaping professional curricula

Creativity is based on human ability to adopt the role of a player both in serious and entertaining “games” [Schiller, 2000]. We can talk about a “game” when its immanent part is a coincidence and unpredictability, which make us experience, in an abstract or realistic way, a situation of a certain disorder and chaotic anxiety. Such creativity seems to be inventive. It spontaneously tries to capture its numerous projections suggested in thought by intuition, which later on are rejected as useless or accepted with a feeling that they might prove useful and, at that moment, they are explained by the mind2. Let us steer away from the rules of microeconomics for a moment. Even in reference to an enterprise, which is the essence of economic sciences, they constitute just a back-up of an instrumental character. Those who understand economy, know that neither an average person nor an experienced entrepreneur or a manager would base his or her decision exclusively, or to a large extent, on conscious rationalizing and situation analysis taking into consideration all possible means. It seems that the whole area of economy is based on an overall perception and assessment of a situation complemented by practical experience and a long list of verified, intuitive rules. On everyday basis, in our professional lives, we often believe that we can understand a given situation really well, and that due to logical thinking we will be able to take the right decision. However, this belief is often misleading. A typical feature of economics, i.e. the fact that many situations and predictions bear a stamp of randomness, is especially vivid in the area of art and its institutionalized forms, such as: museums, exhibitions, libraries, agencies, publishing houses, instrument producers, stage designers or art traders, because the element of creativity is particularly important there. Life often writes its own scenarios, determining our behavior at the same time. In many circumstances we simply lack time necessary for a detailed dispassionate analysis of a given situation, which would help us to make an allegedly rational decision3. Such composure is only possible in offices where decisions are not based on creativity but on deterministic craving for order.

2

Practical rules and helpful deliberations on game theory can be found in: Pierre Basieux, Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur. Reinbek near Hamburga (Rowohlt) 2008.

3

The impression of rationality is artificial, which is proved by microeconomic optimization models. The models are being improved as long as they are deprived of irrational element. At that time the outcome can be finally called rational. Irrationality is narrowed as a term and the idea for immeasurable, universal aspects. Such conduct could be at best treated as heuristic ‘intermezzo’ in the decision-making process.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

9


10

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2) Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

ing a management science which stems solely from empirical facts, claims that only its laws are universal and which could plan the future basing on experience, so a simple fact analysis. The time passes relentlessly. The past will never return. No man will turn young again, and a mistake once committed will never be considered non-existent. The facts do not explicitly point to the future. The only sensible strategy in the empirical research which aims at explaining a situation and predicting the future, is assimilation and practical use of conclusions stemming from the events which have already happened. While taking a specific decision, such conclusions might function as the basis for intuition because they provide material for abstract consideration of different variants of the situation. As a result, test verification is possible, even though, in the end, intuition turns out to be vital. When we use it to take specific actions, the intuition makes the future seem present. However, these actions contain, like in the case of ‘the Great Master of Coincidence’, an unavoidable element of risk hinting that the proceedings might prove unsuccessful. In management sciences, like in any other traditional theory of economics, mind and the demand for rationality gained advantage over intuition and an ability to adopt the right action in unconventional situations, which are based on an overall experience. Over-emphasized rational approach is not the sign of reason, but a mean to limit human creativity to formalized actions. This is, however, a typical feature of historical and cultural development of western societies, concentrated on material success and explaining certain occurrences, which do not always provoke actions. Albert Einstein used the following words to explain this phenomenon: The intuitive mind is a sacred gift, and the rational mind a faithful servant. We have created a society which cherishes the servant but forgot about the gift [Basieux, 2008, p. 157]. There are other reasons which make economics a debatable point. This discipline has created highly rational tools of extensively formal and logical meaning which are used to solve a given problem or to deal with a situation. These instruments, however, have steered away from the substantial essence of the situation which is being explained. Economics offers a wide range of generalized ways of conduct and means of dealing with situations, which were verified in the past.

10

quicker. It is expressed by a subconscious assessment and explanation of incomprehensive situation – at that moment brain decides about its best reaction, before a fairly slow mind understands what has happened4. Drivers would never be able to avoid an accident if they always wanted to adopt an analytic approach and thoroughly explain every situation. All superior species of animals, either predators or their game which tries to escape, are equally capable of predicting future situations and consequently their brain can always react in time. A human is both a predator and game and his brain is characterized – which most people are eager to believe in – by a very wide internal horizon, farsightedness in the sense of imagination. There are, however, situations when it seems quite appropriate to gather additional information concerning conditions and possibilities of a successful activity before a risky decision is taken. This often refers to unexplored areas where a brain or a repository available in a society (e.g. a specialist library or electronic memory carrier) did not record any experience on a given topic before, on the basis of which intuition could generate a decision. A person who works on a new medicine, for example, is obliged (according to law) to conduct a series of tests before the substance is available on the market. The wide horizon of reasoning processes is followed by actions generating a wide range of effects which often cannot be predicted intuitively. This is the place where responsibility begins, especially in economics [see: Bendixen, Unternehmerische…, 2009]. Later on, the mind has a possibility to explore and explain the events which happened before, clarifying their reasons in the context of given conditions. Such approach, concentrated on finding the reasons, is an inseparable feature of serious scientific exploration, not only in the field of natural science but also in humanities. As a result, in most sciences the theory is unquestionably confirmed when it is verified empirically. The empirical method is, however, a form of gathering facts, so the things which have already happened. From the point of view of science future does not have evidential power. However, the management practices as well as every other human activity which is about anticipating the future, is never concentrated on the past. The vector of time only shows one direction: forward5. Therefore, there is no sense of develop-

A common belief referring to experiencing irreversibility of time on a daily basis has always occupied philosophers and naturalists. In present times the discussion on that topic was renewed when in this respect, Newton’s physics had to be thoroughly revised [see: Coveney, Highfield, 1990].

On the latest research on brain read in Benjamin Libet’s [Libet, 2007] and Ernst Pöppel’s [Pöppel, 1997; Pöppel, 2008] books.

On the latest research on brain read in Benjamin Libet’s [Libet, 2007] and Ernst Pöppel’s [Pöppel, 1997; Pöppel, 2008] books.

5

4

4

5

ing a management science which stems solely from empirical facts, claims that only its laws are universal and which could plan the future basing on experience, so a simple fact analysis. The time passes relentlessly. The past will never return. No man will turn young again, and a mistake once committed will never be considered non-existent. The facts do not explicitly point to the future. The only sensible strategy in the empirical research which aims at explaining a situation and predicting the future, is assimilation and practical use of conclusions stemming from the events which have already happened. While taking a specific decision, such conclusions might function as the basis for intuition because they provide material for abstract consideration of different variants of the situation. As a result, test verification is possible, even though, in the end, intuition turns out to be vital. When we use it to take specific actions, the intuition makes the future seem present. However, these actions contain, like in the case of ‘the Great Master of Coincidence’, an unavoidable element of risk hinting that the proceedings might prove unsuccessful. In management sciences, like in any other traditional theory of economics, mind and the demand for rationality gained advantage over intuition and an ability to adopt the right action in unconventional situations, which are based on an overall experience. Over-emphasized rational approach is not the sign of reason, but a mean to limit human creativity to formalized actions. This is, however, a typical feature of historical and cultural development of western societies, concentrated on material success and explaining certain occurrences, which do not always provoke actions. Albert Einstein used the following words to explain this phenomenon: The intuitive mind is a sacred gift, and the rational mind a faithful servant. We have created a society which cherishes the servant but forgot about the gift [Basieux, 2008, p. 157]. There are other reasons which make economics a debatable point. This discipline has created highly rational tools of extensively formal and logical meaning which are used to solve a given problem or to deal with a situation. These instruments, however, have steered away from the substantial essence of the situation which is being explained. Economics offers a wide range of generalized ways of conduct and means of dealing with situations, which were verified in the past.

A common belief referring to experiencing irreversibility of time on a daily basis has always occupied philosophers and naturalists. In present times the discussion on that topic was renewed when in this respect, Newton’s physics had to be thoroughly revised [see: Coveney, Highfield, 1990].

quicker. It is expressed by a subconscious assessment and explanation of incomprehensive situation – at that moment brain decides about its best reaction, before a fairly slow mind understands what has happened4. Drivers would never be able to avoid an accident if they always wanted to adopt an analytic approach and thoroughly explain every situation. All superior species of animals, either predators or their game which tries to escape, are equally capable of predicting future situations and consequently their brain can always react in time. A human is both a predator and game and his brain is characterized – which most people are eager to believe in – by a very wide internal horizon, farsightedness in the sense of imagination. There are, however, situations when it seems quite appropriate to gather additional information concerning conditions and possibilities of a successful activity before a risky decision is taken. This often refers to unexplored areas where a brain or a repository available in a society (e.g. a specialist library or electronic memory carrier) did not record any experience on a given topic before, on the basis of which intuition could generate a decision. A person who works on a new medicine, for example, is obliged (according to law) to conduct a series of tests before the substance is available on the market. The wide horizon of reasoning processes is followed by actions generating a wide range of effects which often cannot be predicted intuitively. This is the place where responsibility begins, especially in economics [see: Bendixen, Unternehmerische…, 2009]. Later on, the mind has a possibility to explore and explain the events which happened before, clarifying their reasons in the context of given conditions. Such approach, concentrated on finding the reasons, is an inseparable feature of serious scientific exploration, not only in the field of natural science but also in humanities. As a result, in most sciences the theory is unquestionably confirmed when it is verified empirically. The empirical method is, however, a form of gathering facts, so the things which have already happened. From the point of view of science future does not have evidential power. However, the management practices as well as every other human activity which is about anticipating the future, is never concentrated on the past. The vector of time only shows one direction: forward5. Therefore, there is no sense of develop-


11

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

With a tendency to generalize this methodology goes beyond descriptions of specific cases and proves its significance as a formal abstract tool. It is often used, as numerous practical management concepts show, in different social areas: art and culture, sport or natural environment, and to solve economic problems. This methodology is not only an illusion or delusion in relation to the hegemony of rationalization, but also an illusion in relation to the nature of the future which makes attempts to eliminate a chance occurrence by means of deterministic models futile. Writers can be ironic, but sometimes they touch upon the essence of things. In Berthold Brecht’s Threepenny Opera we read: Yes, only design a plan Be only a great light And design yet another plan Both will not work.

2. The Gift of Art

A

rt originates from the essence of intuition and, according to Einstein, is a gift. Management techniques may be in the service of art, however, they may not govern it. What conditions must art-oriented management meet to make a contribution to art and to make institutional frames used in management the basis of functioning and support for art? Art with its spiritual dimension and roots in the world of imagination inspired by feelings, intuitions and holistic perspective always has some message which wishes to be presented to less or more interested and inquiring audience in possibly the freshest and accurate way. It is the message and not only the external aesthetic form that characterizes art and differentiates it from common superficial charms, so often resorted to in advertising and marketing. The presentation of its social significance – which is far greater than majority of dabblers are ready to accept – is not the goal of the article and will not be considered in detail here [see: Luhmann, 2007]. To my knowledge, as yet there is no science whose essence would focus on a serving role of management. Too often management of an enterprise known outside the German-speak-

ing territory as Business Administration (in this case Cultural Administration; the term Arts Management is used too) was the basis for the development of pragmatic concepts. We will have to liberate ourselves from this approach if management is to be in the service of art in institutions of art or culture6. The development of the management practice which carries the spirit of serving support of a professional character may be an alternative. Such practice must be perceived as a gift for art. The key elements – which may be treated as a temporary and incomplete draft conceptualized to an insufficient degree, which may be the basis for an extensive discourse among experts – of such a concept include: MM emphatic competence, MM holistic approach, MM practical skills, MM orientation to the future. These four components assume the use of structurizing frames which are a kind of the stable basis for them. These frames may be used for creating pragmatic concepts, not only in the sphere of culture management. Their creation requires concentration on the practice of culture management and postulates arising from it in relation to the feature of teaching programmes.

2.1. Emphatic competence

E

mpathy, which is a capability to share and understand another person’s emotions and imaging ourselves in situations unknown to us. It is a spiritual and emotional element of social relations, which is a substance and condition for the development of societies [see: Breithaupt, 2009]. Feelings of empathy are more than a process of mental reaction to encounters with other people and situations in which they function and act. Empathy has nothing to do with sentimentalism, it is not restricted only to the ability of sharing emotions, and feeling what others feel7. On the other hand, from a broader perspective a rational mind is not enough to understand external phenomena. It is about such a presentation of a situation which is based on understanding which requires a high degree of sensitivity (not emotionality) and imagination.

6

I wrote in more detail about terminological differentiation of art and culture in Peter Bendixen, Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions printed in the publishing house LIT-Verlag, Münster, probably in September 2009). My understanding of arts management concentrates there on its serving function.

7

Empathy understood in a similar way is the key concept in Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments, London 1759, Translation into German: W. Eckstein. New Edition from 1925, Hamburg 2004.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

11

Empathy understood in a similar way is the key concept in Adam Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments, London 1759, Translation into German: W. Eckstein. New Edition from 1925, Hamburg 2004.

7

I wrote in more detail about terminological differentiation of art and culture in Peter Bendixen, Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions printed in the publishing house LIT-Verlag, Münster, probably in September 2009). My understanding of arts management concentrates there on its serving function.

6

rt originates from the essence of intuition and, according to Einstein, is a gift. Management techniques may be in the service of art, however, they may not govern it. What conditions must art-oriented management meet to make a contribution to art and to make institutional frames used in management the basis of functioning and support for art? Art with its spiritual dimension and roots in the world of imagination inspired by feelings, intuitions and holistic perspective always has some message which wishes to be presented to less or more interested and inquiring audience in possibly the freshest and accurate way. It is the message and not only the external aesthetic form that characterizes art and differentiates it from common superficial charms, so often resorted to in advertising and marketing. The presentation of its social significance – which is far greater than majority of dabblers are ready to accept – is not the goal of the article and will not be considered in detail here [see: Luhmann, 2007]. To my knowledge, as yet there is no science whose essence would focus on a serving role of management. Too often management of an enterprise known outside the German-speak-

A

2. The Gift of Art Yes, only design a plan Be only a great light And design yet another plan Both will not work. With a tendency to generalize this methodology goes beyond descriptions of specific cases and proves its significance as a formal abstract tool. It is often used, as numerous practical management concepts show, in different social areas: art and culture, sport or natural environment, and to solve economic problems. This methodology is not only an illusion or delusion in relation to the hegemony of rationalization, but also an illusion in relation to the nature of the future which makes attempts to eliminate a chance occurrence by means of deterministic models futile. Writers can be ironic, but sometimes they touch upon the essence of things. In Berthold Brecht’s Threepenny Opera we read:

mpathy, which is a capability to share and understand another person’s emotions and imaging ourselves in situations unknown to us. It is a spiritual and emotional element of social relations, which is a substance and condition for the development of societies [see: Breithaupt, 2009]. Feelings of empathy are more than a process of mental reaction to encounters with other people and situations in which they function and act. Empathy has nothing to do with sentimentalism, it is not restricted only to the ability of sharing emotions, and feeling what others feel7. On the other hand, from a broader perspective a rational mind is not enough to understand external phenomena. It is about such a presentation of a situation which is based on understanding which requires a high degree of sensitivity (not emotionality) and imagination.

E

2.1. Emphatic competence ing territory as Business Administration (in this case Cultural Administration; the term Arts Management is used too) was the basis for the development of pragmatic concepts. We will have to liberate ourselves from this approach if management is to be in the service of art in institutions of art or culture6. The development of the management practice which carries the spirit of serving support of a professional character may be an alternative. Such practice must be perceived as a gift for art. The key elements – which may be treated as a temporary and incomplete draft conceptualized to an insufficient degree, which may be the basis for an extensive discourse among experts – of such a concept include: MM emphatic competence, MM holistic approach, MM practical skills, MM orientation to the future. These four components assume the use of structurizing frames which are a kind of the stable basis for them. These frames may be used for creating pragmatic concepts, not only in the sphere of culture management. Their creation requires concentration on the practice of culture management and postulates arising from it in relation to the feature of teaching programmes.


12

relations but also to such complex areas of social life as art, both seen as a whole and divided into particular artistic domains. Without one’s own experience in the realm of art as a whole or in one of its domains that is deeply rooted in the society, e.g. in the realm of classical music (such experience can, under some conditions, be transmitted to other artistic domains), it is impossible to fully understand the life situation of artists (in this case musicians) and the conditions that influence the creation of a given performance or even of a single composition. However, experience in one chosen art domain is insufficient as what matters most is a holistic functioning of art in the social context. The above requirement concerns artists in the first place. But is it also applicable to culture management? To adequately answer this question one must resort to the basic premise of a professional culture manager’s activity. The function of a culture manager is the best example of the necessity of empathic competence which does not consist in either identifying with the other person (culture manager is not an artist himself/herself and not even an artist’s patron) or a complete immersion in the other person’s problems (e.g. what the actor should do in order to play his part). What matters here are the comprehension of the particular creative conditions within the given artistic domain and the appreciation of its specific character and weak points; at other times it is the understanding of authoritative attitudes and the hidden wisdom. Importantly, all of these aspects have to be taken into account in the cultural manager’s enterprise. A culture manager is a friendly and supportive host who takes care of the material aspects of artistic creativity. This approach, according to which culture management is in the service of art, confirms the idea of it being the key to understanding art as opposed to the notion that management closes art (and other cultural activities) in the institutional frame. This approach implies searching for methods which will ensure the material basis for the creative process, without trying, at the same time, to make this material basis become an impassable limit. Empathic abilities can be developed to some extent. The essence of culture management lies in the ability to work the dialectic opposition on the basis of the instrumental knowledge of management and, at the same time, to avoid the dictate imposing particular decisions. Art is a gift, not a puppet which satisfies commercial ambitions8.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

An ability to have empathy on the basis of strong self-consciousness is a mental force of a higher degree, which goes towards empathizing, however, without the necessity of expressing acceptance. It is not about identification, about – possibly unreflectional – approval of the whole phenomenon. In this sense one cannot identify even with the culture of one’s own country, but one can understand and partly internalize it. Empathy is about a visionary perspective rejecting extreme egoism, aiming at selfish maximization of benefits which we know as an element of neoclassical economics. A man feeling empathy still remains himself/ herself at least because his feelings in relation to the situation of others may be untrue or erroneous. It may seem to a man that he/she understands another person and in fact he/she may be totally wrong in this respect. It is impossible to get a full insight into another man or grasp the situation which we have never experienced. However, to a great extent we may determine what destructive or inspirational consequences certain kind of behaviour may have on another man or in a given situation. From this perspective empathy is also a moral category. Empathy may be perceived as a necessary introductory stage to mutual understanding, thus as an attempt of getting closer to another man through means of communication. The observation of circumstances in which others found themselves may trigger feelings if a given person experienced a similar situation and is able to link these experiences with specific patterns of experiences and feelings. It is often difficult to express your own feelings in a language form understandable to others, and even more difficult to communicate them to others in such a way so that they can identify with the situation of another person in an emphatic way. A common language is an essential condition. Emphatic competence, if it is to be socially effective, must change into language competence which comprises not only spoken and written language, but also pictures, gestures, facial expressions, body language and voice modulation. Even a created atmosphere is a kind of information, and thus an unbelievably complex linguistic medium. Every theatrical or film director, creating his/her work, learns this language (otherwise they will not be understood by their audience). The situation becomes more complicated when empathy is to be applied not only to inter-human

12

It is a frequent misunderstanding which needs to be cleared out: the fact that artists expect decent remuneration for the effects of their work has nothing to do with commercial ambitions (even though the line between the two may seem unclear). We talk of commercial interest when the profit dictates the contents to art and not the other way round. Those who have profit in mind, do not create inscrutable or difficult works of art.

It is a frequent misunderstanding which needs to be cleared out: the fact that artists expect decent remuneration for the effects of their work has nothing to do with commercial ambitions (even though the line between the two may seem unclear). We talk of commercial interest when the profit dictates the contents to art and not the other way round. Those who have profit in mind, do not create inscrutable or difficult works of art.

8

relations but also to such complex areas of social life as art, both seen as a whole and divided into particular artistic domains. Without one’s own experience in the realm of art as a whole or in one of its domains that is deeply rooted in the society, e.g. in the realm of classical music (such experience can, under some conditions, be transmitted to other artistic domains), it is impossible to fully understand the life situation of artists (in this case musicians) and the conditions that influence the creation of a given performance or even of a single composition. However, experience in one chosen art domain is insufficient as what matters most is a holistic functioning of art in the social context. The above requirement concerns artists in the first place. But is it also applicable to culture management? To adequately answer this question one must resort to the basic premise of a professional culture manager’s activity. The function of a culture manager is the best example of the necessity of empathic competence which does not consist in either identifying with the other person (culture manager is not an artist himself/herself and not even an artist’s patron) or a complete immersion in the other person’s problems (e.g. what the actor should do in order to play his part). What matters here are the comprehension of the particular creative conditions within the given artistic domain and the appreciation of its specific character and weak points; at other times it is the understanding of authoritative attitudes and the hidden wisdom. Importantly, all of these aspects have to be taken into account in the cultural manager’s enterprise. A culture manager is a friendly and supportive host who takes care of the material aspects of artistic creativity. This approach, according to which culture management is in the service of art, confirms the idea of it being the key to understanding art as opposed to the notion that management closes art (and other cultural activities) in the institutional frame. This approach implies searching for methods which will ensure the material basis for the creative process, without trying, at the same time, to make this material basis become an impassable limit. Empathic abilities can be developed to some extent. The essence of culture management lies in the ability to work the dialectic opposition on the basis of the instrumental knowledge of management and, at the same time, to avoid the dictate imposing particular decisions. Art is a gift, not a puppet which satisfies commercial ambitions8.

8

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

An ability to have empathy on the basis of strong self-consciousness is a mental force of a higher degree, which goes towards empathizing, however, without the necessity of expressing acceptance. It is not about identification, about – possibly unreflectional – approval of the whole phenomenon. In this sense one cannot identify even with the culture of one’s own country, but one can understand and partly internalize it. Empathy is about a visionary perspective rejecting extreme egoism, aiming at selfish maximization of benefits which we know as an element of neoclassical economics. A man feeling empathy still remains himself/ herself at least because his feelings in relation to the situation of others may be untrue or erroneous. It may seem to a man that he/she understands another person and in fact he/she may be totally wrong in this respect. It is impossible to get a full insight into another man or grasp the situation which we have never experienced. However, to a great extent we may determine what destructive or inspirational consequences certain kind of behaviour may have on another man or in a given situation. From this perspective empathy is also a moral category. Empathy may be perceived as a necessary introductory stage to mutual understanding, thus as an attempt of getting closer to another man through means of communication. The observation of circumstances in which others found themselves may trigger feelings if a given person experienced a similar situation and is able to link these experiences with specific patterns of experiences and feelings. It is often difficult to express your own feelings in a language form understandable to others, and even more difficult to communicate them to others in such a way so that they can identify with the situation of another person in an emphatic way. A common language is an essential condition. Emphatic competence, if it is to be socially effective, must change into language competence which comprises not only spoken and written language, but also pictures, gestures, facial expressions, body language and voice modulation. Even a created atmosphere is a kind of information, and thus an unbelievably complex linguistic medium. Every theatrical or film director, creating his/her work, learns this language (otherwise they will not be understood by their audience). The situation becomes more complicated when empathy is to be applied not only to inter-human


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

2.2. Holistic approach

S

piritual and emotional understanding of our immediate environment, as well as the world at a distance, may – to use a simplification – take place in two possible manners: analytical or holistic one. Analytical approach to investigating the nature of the world is praiseworthy and useful. Nevertheless, it does not suffice for the achievement of the Faust’s insight into the world or the ability to face its devilish side. In order to comprehend the sense of a given sentence, one has to analyse its meaning as a whole, not disintegrate it into words and letters that it is built of. Admittedly, a person lost in the dark, who tries to find his/her way by means of a torch and sees the details of the path directly in front of him, will not stumble and can even imagine what the path looks like in its further unlit part. Nonetheless, he/she can still lose himself/herself completely as his less immediate environment is hidden in the darkness. The wanderer’s orientation is narrow. Without the torch, he/she recognises the contours of his environment better, since his/her eyes become more sensitive to light, however dim or weak it may be. The makeup of our mind allows for transforming the weak stimuli which reach us through sight and hearing into an efficient picture which helps us get oriented in our environment. The mind does not require a deep analysis and, as a rule, it has no time for it. The same thing happens when we are driving. If we wanted to precisely analyse the situation on the road at all times, we simply would not be able to drive. Some life situations require both approaches: the analysis of details and the holistic judgement of the situation. However, oftentimes, it is only thanks to the holistic approach that we can make a step forward [Basieux, 2008, p. 157]. First and foremost, there is often no time for an in-depth analysis. Secondly, and more importantly, millions of years of evolution have provided the human brain with the capacity for creating a complete picture out of hardly visible data. Nowadays it is universally believed that, fallible as it may be, sensually-emotional perception along with the holistic interpretation constitute an indispensable element of life resourcefulness, e.g. in a life-threatening situation or when analysing a work of art. This approach is often superior to the relatively slow analytical mind. This is how Pierre Basieux describes the relative nature of brainwork and the consequences of trusting our reason: In order to make the right choice, we must not (according to the apologists of reason - P.B.) be ruled by emotions. Having discharged the misty

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

veil of feelings, we shall be able to analyze the reality in a clear and definite way. There are examples to confirm it, since intuition sometimes leads us astray. For centuries it lured us to believe that the Sun revolved around the Earth; we needed reason to discover that it is not so. However, as we are taught by experience, intuition is often superior to analytical mind, e.g. when we know a given field from our own experience or when we have insufficient data which does not allow for a substantial analysis of the situation [Basieux, 2008, p. 157]. Even when our sensations are based on fallacious premises, they may still be helpful in everyday life. Knowing that the Earth revolves around the Sun and not the other way round, is of little importance to us. In this case the fallacious belief has become fixed in human thinking. We still say that the Sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. It is a language mistake, since nothing of the kind happens. It is the earth that revolves around its own axis. Still, our knowledge remains a spiritual construction which is often much more significant for the development of human civilisation than a correct substantial explanation. Therefore let us not forget that economy with all its theories, models, methods and instruments is a constructions of the mind, and, as such, it is unable to show the real nature of things, but can only help to clarify cultural constructions. Economic speculations are closed inside the framework of perceptions which concern human actions and reflections on the present and future economic issues. Economy is a human way of achieving self-awareness (providing it is correct in the methodological sense). The rule which says that the whole is something more than a sum of its ingredients points to the impossibility of grasping the sense of a given subject through analysis or synthesis of its parts. The whole is created by the ordering hand of man and it is by this idea of order – analogically to the harmony produced by seemingly distinct elements on the surface of a painting – that the man who creates makes his ideas come alive. It goes without saying that the latter can be said in the case of works of art, but it also applies to buildings or industrial products. Banal or primitive as they may seem, the aesthetics of form and the material aspect of such objects are invariably cultural issues. Banality frequently constitutes the cultural message carried by the mass-produced industrial goods. All the above factors have multiple consequences for the practical concept and practice of culture management. We must remember that it is the understanding of the nature of things, e.g.

13

piritual and emotional understanding of our immediate environment, as well as the world at a distance, may – to use a simplification – take place in two possible manners: analytical or holistic one. Analytical approach to investigating the nature of the world is praiseworthy and useful. Nevertheless, it does not suffice for the achievement of the Faust’s insight into the world or the ability to face its devilish side. In order to comprehend the sense of a given sentence, one has to analyse its meaning as a whole, not disintegrate it into words and letters that it is built of. Admittedly, a person lost in the dark, who tries to find his/her way by means of a torch and sees the details of the path directly in front of him, will not stumble and can even imagine what the path looks like in its further unlit part. Nonetheless, he/she can still lose himself/herself completely as his less immediate environment is hidden in the darkness. The wanderer’s orientation is narrow. Without the torch, he/she recognises the contours of his environment better, since his/her eyes become more sensitive to light, however dim or weak it may be. The makeup of our mind allows for transforming the weak stimuli which reach us through sight and hearing into an efficient picture which helps us get oriented in our environment. The mind does not require a deep analysis and, as a rule, it has no time for it. The same thing happens when we are driving. If we wanted to precisely analyse the situation on the road at all times, we simply would not be able to drive. Some life situations require both approaches: the analysis of details and the holistic judgement of the situation. However, oftentimes, it is only thanks to the holistic approach that we can make a step forward [Basieux, 2008, p. 157]. First and foremost, there is often no time for an in-depth analysis. Secondly, and more importantly, millions of years of evolution have provided the human brain with the capacity for creating a complete picture out of hardly visible data. Nowadays it is universally believed that, fallible as it may be, sensually-emotional perception along with the holistic interpretation constitute an indispensable element of life resourcefulness, e.g. in a life-threatening situation or when analysing a work of art. This approach is often superior to the relatively slow analytical mind. This is how Pierre Basieux describes the relative nature of brainwork and the consequences of trusting our reason: In order to make the right choice, we must not (according to the apologists of reason - P.B.) be ruled by emotions. Having discharged the misty

S

2.2. Holistic approach

13

veil of feelings, we shall be able to analyze the reality in a clear and definite way. There are examples to confirm it, since intuition sometimes leads us astray. For centuries it lured us to believe that the Sun revolved around the Earth; we needed reason to discover that it is not so. However, as we are taught by experience, intuition is often superior to analytical mind, e.g. when we know a given field from our own experience or when we have insufficient data which does not allow for a substantial analysis of the situation [Basieux, 2008, p. 157]. Even when our sensations are based on fallacious premises, they may still be helpful in everyday life. Knowing that the Earth revolves around the Sun and not the other way round, is of little importance to us. In this case the fallacious belief has become fixed in human thinking. We still say that the Sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. It is a language mistake, since nothing of the kind happens. It is the earth that revolves around its own axis. Still, our knowledge remains a spiritual construction which is often much more significant for the development of human civilisation than a correct substantial explanation. Therefore let us not forget that economy with all its theories, models, methods and instruments is a constructions of the mind, and, as such, it is unable to show the real nature of things, but can only help to clarify cultural constructions. Economic speculations are closed inside the framework of perceptions which concern human actions and reflections on the present and future economic issues. Economy is a human way of achieving self-awareness (providing it is correct in the methodological sense). The rule which says that the whole is something more than a sum of its ingredients points to the impossibility of grasping the sense of a given subject through analysis or synthesis of its parts. The whole is created by the ordering hand of man and it is by this idea of order – analogically to the harmony produced by seemingly distinct elements on the surface of a painting – that the man who creates makes his ideas come alive. It goes without saying that the latter can be said in the case of works of art, but it also applies to buildings or industrial products. Banal or primitive as they may seem, the aesthetics of form and the material aspect of such objects are invariably cultural issues. Banality frequently constitutes the cultural message carried by the mass-produced industrial goods. All the above factors have multiple consequences for the practical concept and practice of culture management. We must remember that it is the understanding of the nature of things, e.g.


14

tistic dimension, i.e. the artists themselves, the creative process, the search for ideas and their introduction, that can be treated as the heart of management, even if it is based on what is formally (economically) feasible. The binding rule, both in this case and in other spheres, says that the contents determine the form. In the case of Goethe’s Faust it could mean that the message of the drama addressed to the public determines the entire artistic aspect (staging, stage design, lights, costumes), which does not belong to the competence range of culture management. It is only at this point of the undertaking that material conditions (budget and available resources) must be taken into account. The idea determines the form and the latter determines the attitude to financial conditions. They may be of technical nature (some directors’ concepts cannot be carried out) or result from limited resources (some ideas are impossible to finance). Nevertheless, the order remains unchanged: idea, form and realization feasibility. It is this final element that culture management is dedicated to.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

2.3. Practical skills

Neither the explanation of the term nor its definition will be presented here [see: Bendixen, 2006; Bendixen, Managing Art..., 2009].

C

ulture management is an independent profession requiring a professional approach, but only in few cases, such as that of a merchant, impresario, book or music publisher, is it an independent activity. As a rule, it is integrated into the work-frame of a given organisation, or an artistic or cultural project. Because of a very broad understanding of the term culture, which is not limited exclusively only to art9, the spectrum of a culture managers’ activity is also relatively broad. If culture management is connected with an appropriate substantial task, it can be adapted to other fields, e.g. instrument production, stage technique or architecture. In this case we can also speak of a cultural undertaking. The qualifications of culture managers may prove irreplaceable even in carrying out tasks in the industrial sector or public administration, e.g. in local culture institutions. Whether in the form of a function integrated in some other enterprise or as an independent undertaking, substantial work on the material conditions of an artistic or cultural undertaking is a pragmatic component of culture management. Management has its object as well, and it is the broad perception of this object that is the basis of the manager’s activity, also in the domain of

ulture management is an independent profession requiring a professional approach, but only in few cases, such as that of a merchant, impresario, book or music publisher, is it an independent activity. As a rule, it is integrated into the work-frame of a given organisation, or an artistic or cultural project. Because of a very broad understanding of the term culture, which is not limited exclusively only to art9, the spectrum of a culture managers’ activity is also relatively broad. If culture management is connected with an appropriate substantial task, it can be adapted to other fields, e.g. instrument production, stage technique or architecture. In this case we can also speak of a cultural undertaking. The qualifications of culture managers may prove irreplaceable even in carrying out tasks in the industrial sector or public administration, e.g. in local culture institutions. Whether in the form of a function integrated in some other enterprise or as an independent undertaking, substantial work on the material conditions of an artistic or cultural undertaking is a pragmatic component of culture management. Management has its object as well, and it is the broad perception of this object that is the basis of the manager’s activity, also in the domain of

C

works of art, and, at the same time, the holistic perception and interpretation of these things, that must be placed before analytical approach. Art and culture are always about understanding the nature, i.e. the inherent message of the work of art and its relation with the environment, especially with the public. Let us emphasize it once more: culture management does not follow in the artists’ footsteps but deals with the mutual relation between the creation and the material conditions, which are of importance also to the artists. The first step on the way to the holistic approach to culture management lies in accepting the fact that typical microeconomic instruments were with no exception created in the analytical way and in many practical situations using them is disadvantageous. Their usefulness is limited to the situation in which the aims have been previously formulated and justified. Can analytical approach be applied if the subject of the analysis has not been specified? Scheduling particular activities can also be done by means of the simulation carried out at the stage when the undertaking is being planned (e.g. a general outline of an art exhibition in preparation). Without it, no estimates are possible. It is therefore necessary to enlarge the culture management techniques by incorporating in them the aspect of holistic approach and the ability to foresee activities that will follow before the beginning of the realisation of the project. It is a necessary condition for culture management. For instance, if the direction of a theatre has made the decision to stage the second part of Goethe’s Faust, it is possible at this point to effectively introduce a wide range of management techniques in order to ensure the financial basis for the undertaking in the best possible way. However, this is impossible to be done before the actors present their general idea of the spectacle. Managing instruments always follow the creative process, they never precede it. Classical economic instruments (calculation, planning techniques, control, organisation, etc.) must not dominate the artistic content that forms the base of the repertoire decisions. Thanks to the holistic simulation of the foreseeable results, they may only serve as a means to formulate the general forecast of the cost of the undertaking. The holistic approach in culture management can translate as the ability to assume an empathic attitude towards the artistic creation, and, at the same time, to avoid the dictatorship of economic effectiveness. In the case of art it is only the ar-

14

2.3. Practical skills

Neither the explanation of the term nor its definition will be presented here [see: Bendixen, 2006; Bendixen, Managing Art..., 2009].

9

tistic dimension, i.e. the artists themselves, the creative process, the search for ideas and their introduction, that can be treated as the heart of management, even if it is based on what is formally (economically) feasible. The binding rule, both in this case and in other spheres, says that the contents determine the form. In the case of Goethe’s Faust it could mean that the message of the drama addressed to the public determines the entire artistic aspect (staging, stage design, lights, costumes), which does not belong to the competence range of culture management. It is only at this point of the undertaking that material conditions (budget and available resources) must be taken into account. The idea determines the form and the latter determines the attitude to financial conditions. They may be of technical nature (some directors’ concepts cannot be carried out) or result from limited resources (some ideas are impossible to finance). Nevertheless, the order remains unchanged: idea, form and realization feasibility. It is this final element that culture management is dedicated to.

9

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

works of art, and, at the same time, the holistic perception and interpretation of these things, that must be placed before analytical approach. Art and culture are always about understanding the nature, i.e. the inherent message of the work of art and its relation with the environment, especially with the public. Let us emphasize it once more: culture management does not follow in the artists’ footsteps but deals with the mutual relation between the creation and the material conditions, which are of importance also to the artists. The first step on the way to the holistic approach to culture management lies in accepting the fact that typical microeconomic instruments were with no exception created in the analytical way and in many practical situations using them is disadvantageous. Their usefulness is limited to the situation in which the aims have been previously formulated and justified. Can analytical approach be applied if the subject of the analysis has not been specified? Scheduling particular activities can also be done by means of the simulation carried out at the stage when the undertaking is being planned (e.g. a general outline of an art exhibition in preparation). Without it, no estimates are possible. It is therefore necessary to enlarge the culture management techniques by incorporating in them the aspect of holistic approach and the ability to foresee activities that will follow before the beginning of the realisation of the project. It is a necessary condition for culture management. For instance, if the direction of a theatre has made the decision to stage the second part of Goethe’s Faust, it is possible at this point to effectively introduce a wide range of management techniques in order to ensure the financial basis for the undertaking in the best possible way. However, this is impossible to be done before the actors present their general idea of the spectacle. Managing instruments always follow the creative process, they never precede it. Classical economic instruments (calculation, planning techniques, control, organisation, etc.) must not dominate the artistic content that forms the base of the repertoire decisions. Thanks to the holistic simulation of the foreseeable results, they may only serve as a means to formulate the general forecast of the cost of the undertaking. The holistic approach in culture management can translate as the ability to assume an empathic attitude towards the artistic creation, and, at the same time, to avoid the dictatorship of economic effectiveness. In the case of art it is only the ar-


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

culture. Undoubtedly, a manager must have precise knowledge about the object of his dealings as well as about the challenges which this object brings. This applies to both industrial sector and to the realm of art. However, cultural management is not about applying theoretical knowledge separated from the artistic dimension but rather about getting immersed in the creative process and thus accompanying it with the simultaneous application of the knowledge of the framework of material conditions10. This complex task can also be defined as a kind of navigation, comparable to the task of a sailor who, not being the captain, estimates the current position of the ship by means of sea maps and a radio lighthouse. Culture management is an art of sailing in the rough waters of external circumstances and of putting the artistic aspect first. Still, management does not direct the ship’s course. This can be done by an exhibition, for instance11. Culture management is the navigation over the reefs of bureaucracy, over the unwillingness of grant-givers and sponsors, and last but not least, over the shallow waters of the public’s whim. Such understanding of culture management constitutes an integrated part of the creative process (e.g. of an exhibition) and not a separate area of activity, such as bookkeeping or personnel department which have nothing to do with culture management. With the view to making culture management professional, it is necessary to formulate a number of conclusions concerning the basic qualifications. They can be included in the notion of practical skills. Their characteristic feature is a cycle of actions taking place during the work, when the ‘head’ and the ‘hand’ conduct a common task. The head deals with creative thinking and directs the hand which performs physical actions. The process of creation is continuously followed by the head (it observes and dictates subsequent activities with consideration for the final effect) which corrects the subsequent stages of work. This is a schematic description of the artist’s creative work. What is characteristic about it is the artist’s

total immersion in the work he creates, his absolute concentration on it and, at the same time, his isolation from the external elements of daily life. Artistic activity perceived in that way is similar to the far eastern Zen culture. In the stages of concentration on the creative process the artist is cut off from all external factors which, later on, at the stage of the realisation of the project, may prove a limitation. It is precisely here that culture management enters the creative process. Good culture management is characterised by congeniality. The artist’s work should not be subject to any restrictions that could limit his imagination. However, it must eventually be confronted with the real conditions; this should happen no later than at the stage of the realisation of the project. The culture manager’s diplomatic skills play a significant role in this process. The above explains why microeconomic tools should be applied with utmost care. They do prove useful in numerous aspects of culture management but rather as a kind of a model which has to be suited to particular circumstances. A culture manager must be independent when it comes to mastering the economic instrumentation and to its proper application but he has to be able to creatively adapt it to the needs of the given task. This sceptical attitude towards the conventional knowledge of management and economic instruments has its source in their origins which, in turn, derive from the description of work relations in big corporations. The scientific development of this instrumentation has a long record in classical economy, whose core was always built on the basis of observing the conditions determining industrial plants. A distinctive feature of such a traditional economic approach is a social-mechanistic picture of the system which is perceived by an educated economist in a similar way in which an engineer perceives a machine12. In this approach the division into ‘headwork’ and ‘handwork’ (or machine work) is very distinctive. The feedback between the sensual and cognitive aspects which takes place during the performance of specific work which can be ob-

10

A great tragedy of the present day culture lies in the ubiquitous nature of the managing practice, which is strongly supported in the one-dimensional picture of the world created by economists. According to this practice, it is possible to conduct an effective supervision (based on the division of financial resources) of the subjects we deal with without knowing their contents and meanings but solely on the basis of theory, models and abstract procedures. How can a manager curb his presumption when he has lost his tangible link with the object of his management?

11

In a certain sense, exhibitions are in fact artistic installations carrying the message meant for the public, even if the artefacts on show are no works of art (e.g. archaeological excavations).

12

As this is a fundamental notion, there will be no methodological criticism of this approach included in this work. A noteworthy reading material in this field is Karl-Heinz Brodbeck’s books [Brodbeck, 2007; Brodbeck, 2009]. The specific nature of this construction lies in the idea that although in practice the ‘head’ (management) functions separately from the ‘hands’ (labourers), it has been adopted for microeconomic purposes. A manager ruled by microeconomic principles loses his freedom: he is slave to the pragmatic imperatives of the specialised science, which admits no room for dissent.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

15

15

As this is a fundamental notion, there will be no methodological criticism of this approach included in this work. A noteworthy reading material in this field is Karl-Heinz Brodbeck’s books [Brodbeck, 2007; Brodbeck, 2009]. The specific nature of this construction lies in the idea that although in practice the ‘head’ (management) functions separately from the ‘hands’ (labourers), it has been adopted for microeconomic purposes. A manager ruled by microeconomic principles loses his freedom: he is slave to the pragmatic imperatives of the specialised science, which admits no room for dissent.

12

In a certain sense, exhibitions are in fact artistic installations carrying the message meant for the public, even if the artefacts on show are no works of art (e.g. archaeological excavations).

11

A great tragedy of the present day culture lies in the ubiquitous nature of the managing practice, which is strongly supported in the one-dimensional picture of the world created by economists. According to this practice, it is possible to conduct an effective supervision (based on the division of financial resources) of the subjects we deal with without knowing their contents and meanings but solely on the basis of theory, models and abstract procedures. How can a manager curb his presumption when he has lost his tangible link with the object of his management?

10

culture. Undoubtedly, a manager must have precise knowledge about the object of his dealings as well as about the challenges which this object brings. This applies to both industrial sector and to the realm of art. However, cultural management is not about applying theoretical knowledge separated from the artistic dimension but rather about getting immersed in the creative process and thus accompanying it with the simultaneous application of the knowledge of the framework of material conditions10. This complex task can also be defined as a kind of navigation, comparable to the task of a sailor who, not being the captain, estimates the current position of the ship by means of sea maps and a radio lighthouse. Culture management is an art of sailing in the rough waters of external circumstances and of putting the artistic aspect first. Still, management does not direct the ship’s course. This can be done by an exhibition, for instance11. Culture management is the navigation over the reefs of bureaucracy, over the unwillingness of grant-givers and sponsors, and last but not least, over the shallow waters of the public’s whim. Such understanding of culture management constitutes an integrated part of the creative process (e.g. of an exhibition) and not a separate area of activity, such as bookkeeping or personnel department which have nothing to do with culture management. With the view to making culture management professional, it is necessary to formulate a number of conclusions concerning the basic qualifications. They can be included in the notion of practical skills. Their characteristic feature is a cycle of actions taking place during the work, when the ‘head’ and the ‘hand’ conduct a common task. The head deals with creative thinking and directs the hand which performs physical actions. The process of creation is continuously followed by the head (it observes and dictates subsequent activities with consideration for the final effect) which corrects the subsequent stages of work. This is a schematic description of the artist’s creative work. What is characteristic about it is the artist’s

total immersion in the work he creates, his absolute concentration on it and, at the same time, his isolation from the external elements of daily life. Artistic activity perceived in that way is similar to the far eastern Zen culture. In the stages of concentration on the creative process the artist is cut off from all external factors which, later on, at the stage of the realisation of the project, may prove a limitation. It is precisely here that culture management enters the creative process. Good culture management is characterised by congeniality. The artist’s work should not be subject to any restrictions that could limit his imagination. However, it must eventually be confronted with the real conditions; this should happen no later than at the stage of the realisation of the project. The culture manager’s diplomatic skills play a significant role in this process. The above explains why microeconomic tools should be applied with utmost care. They do prove useful in numerous aspects of culture management but rather as a kind of a model which has to be suited to particular circumstances. A culture manager must be independent when it comes to mastering the economic instrumentation and to its proper application but he has to be able to creatively adapt it to the needs of the given task. This sceptical attitude towards the conventional knowledge of management and economic instruments has its source in their origins which, in turn, derive from the description of work relations in big corporations. The scientific development of this instrumentation has a long record in classical economy, whose core was always built on the basis of observing the conditions determining industrial plants. A distinctive feature of such a traditional economic approach is a social-mechanistic picture of the system which is perceived by an educated economist in a similar way in which an engineer perceives a machine12. In this approach the division into ‘headwork’ and ‘handwork’ (or machine work) is very distinctive. The feedback between the sensual and cognitive aspects which takes place during the performance of specific work which can be ob-


16

Such an approach applies to the ‘productively’ oriented culture management [see: Bendixen, Kulturmanagement..., 2009 and Sennett, 2008] in two aspects. Firstly, by conceptual and instrumental formation of tasks and the role of culture management, they should be ‘adjusted to’ the conditions of the given undertaking. Secondly, culture management which is integrated with the creative process should discreetly stay in its shade, and not aspire to be a focus of the artistic undertaking. In order to adopt such an attitude one needs to holistically comprehend the artistic intention, which requires a large doze of empathy. Empathy in this case is the art of feeling the conditions of the artistic process, however without interfering with its course, except for those instances when the expected material results of the process of creation are bound to set off ‘warning signals’ (as in the case of going over the limited budget).

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

2.4. Orientation to the future

All human works carry a cultural message shown through their consciously formed character. It also applies to industrial products. If not objects of art, they are no doubt, objects of culture. Handmade goods are unique items which are born out of creative feedback between ‚“headwork“ and “handwork“ taking place within one person.

A

wareness of fading out of all human creations is obvious. Equally evidently we realize that we have no knowledge of the future except for observations resulting from experience which tell us that neither the nature nor history of mankind change unexpectedly in leaps, but slowly evolve, being anchored in the past and present. The present in the view of physics is merely a point on the vector of time. In this point the past is already accomplished, and the future only starts to begin. What we commonly describe as the present embraces the period which reaches back to the past (where it seeks for experience) and looks into the future. Uncertainty of the future combined with the awareness of the possibility of its shaping is a driving force for acting in the present. The future is created in the present, thus it is a child of the present thanks to creative potential of man, who creates something which penetrates into the future and changes it irreversibly [see: Coveney, Highfield, 1992]. Whatever has happened is irreversible since the vector of time runs only in one direction: towards the uncertain future. We also need to keep in mind that every step which leaves a trace influences the future. Human creative work, either of an artist or an engineer, a politician or a constructor, is always a form of limiting future possibilities by decisions with consequences which are often irreversible.

wareness of fading out of all human creations is obvious. Equally evidently we realize that we have no knowledge of the future except for observations resulting from experience which tell us that neither the nature nor history of mankind change unexpectedly in leaps, but slowly evolve, being anchored in the past and present. The present in the view of physics is merely a point on the vector of time. In this point the past is already accomplished, and the future only starts to begin. What we commonly describe as the present embraces the period which reaches back to the past (where it seeks for experience) and looks into the future. Uncertainty of the future combined with the awareness of the possibility of its shaping is a driving force for acting in the present. The future is created in the present, thus it is a child of the present thanks to creative potential of man, who creates something which penetrates into the future and changes it irreversibly [see: Coveney, Highfield, 1992]. Whatever has happened is irreversible since the vector of time runs only in one direction: towards the uncertain future. We also need to keep in mind that every step which leaves a trace influences the future. Human creative work, either of an artist or an engineer, a politician or a constructor, is always a form of limiting future possibilities by decisions with consequences which are often irreversible.

A

served on the example of a sculptor or painter, but also in the work of numerous craftsmen or in research labs, is not carried out in the conditions typical for industrial plants. In a factory, mental work, whether it concerns management or the construction of goods meant for production and sale, is separated from executive work (in administration, in a workshop or at the conveyor belt). In the process of testing and constructing, ‘the head’ creates the product in the shape of a functional and aesthetic model which (usually after operation tests) in its real form serves only as an exact pattern. Such direct feedback is no longer present in the industrial process of creating a given product. Noticeable indirect feedback appears only when the enterprise encounters market barriers, e.g. when the number of complaints rises or when there are some new circumstances (e.g. legal regulations which entail fulfilling new requirements). Nonetheless, it must not be forgotten that the benefit of such work organisation lies in the precise, fast and unlimited repetition of the same stages of the production process. Admittedly, it has been the basis of economic growth over the last two hundred years. Let us now imagine a theatre which, with the use of a ready-made model, consistently transforms the given play into a hackneyed undertaking. Such a situation is equivalent to artistic demise. The play loses its influence on the spectators because of the repulsive sterility of its intellectual and emotional participation or, alternatively, it transforms the performance into a mediocre aesthetic spectacle similar to the stream of advertisements which attacks us in commercial centres. Such types of ‘staging’ are not infrequent, it is enough to mention some musical productions. Even though the traditionally perceived production based on the principle of feedback between ‘headwork’ and ‘handwork’ has already disappeared, the creative connection of these two dimensions is still present in many fields. What is more, oftentimes it proves to be more legitimate and effective than extreme forms of dividing the processes of thinking and producing. Usually, it takes place wherever the effect of work is not only one of a number of identical copies, but the process of creation leads to forming a unique product resulting from unparalleled artistic canons and the cultural message which accompanies them13.

16

2.4. Orientation to the future

All human works carry a cultural message shown through their consciously formed character. It also applies to industrial products. If not objects of art, they are no doubt, objects of culture. Handmade goods are unique items which are born out of creative feedback between ‚“headwork“ and “handwork“ taking place within one person.

13

Such an approach applies to the ‘productively’ oriented culture management [see: Bendixen, Kulturmanagement..., 2009 and Sennett, 2008] in two aspects. Firstly, by conceptual and instrumental formation of tasks and the role of culture management, they should be ‘adjusted to’ the conditions of the given undertaking. Secondly, culture management which is integrated with the creative process should discreetly stay in its shade, and not aspire to be a focus of the artistic undertaking. In order to adopt such an attitude one needs to holistically comprehend the artistic intention, which requires a large doze of empathy. Empathy in this case is the art of feeling the conditions of the artistic process, however without interfering with its course, except for those instances when the expected material results of the process of creation are bound to set off ‘warning signals’ (as in the case of going over the limited budget).

13

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

served on the example of a sculptor or painter, but also in the work of numerous craftsmen or in research labs, is not carried out in the conditions typical for industrial plants. In a factory, mental work, whether it concerns management or the construction of goods meant for production and sale, is separated from executive work (in administration, in a workshop or at the conveyor belt). In the process of testing and constructing, ‘the head’ creates the product in the shape of a functional and aesthetic model which (usually after operation tests) in its real form serves only as an exact pattern. Such direct feedback is no longer present in the industrial process of creating a given product. Noticeable indirect feedback appears only when the enterprise encounters market barriers, e.g. when the number of complaints rises or when there are some new circumstances (e.g. legal regulations which entail fulfilling new requirements). Nonetheless, it must not be forgotten that the benefit of such work organisation lies in the precise, fast and unlimited repetition of the same stages of the production process. Admittedly, it has been the basis of economic growth over the last two hundred years. Let us now imagine a theatre which, with the use of a ready-made model, consistently transforms the given play into a hackneyed undertaking. Such a situation is equivalent to artistic demise. The play loses its influence on the spectators because of the repulsive sterility of its intellectual and emotional participation or, alternatively, it transforms the performance into a mediocre aesthetic spectacle similar to the stream of advertisements which attacks us in commercial centres. Such types of ‘staging’ are not infrequent, it is enough to mention some musical productions. Even though the traditionally perceived production based on the principle of feedback between ‘headwork’ and ‘handwork’ has already disappeared, the creative connection of these two dimensions is still present in many fields. What is more, oftentimes it proves to be more legitimate and effective than extreme forms of dividing the processes of thinking and producing. Usually, it takes place wherever the effect of work is not only one of a number of identical copies, but the process of creation leads to forming a unique product resulting from unparalleled artistic canons and the cultural message which accompanies them13.


17

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Facts created by man are known as empiric world. Whatever is real is considered to be stern evidence for verification of a given claim. It is, however, always only a claim referring to past objects, and since we deal with human creations, it requires interpretation. We need to explain the intentions of our ancestors or predecessors. The fact that Hamburg is located close to the estuary of the Elbe is an explicit statement. We cannot, however, prove empirically what thoughts accompanied the citizens of Hamburg through the ages when the city developed in the present shape. Thus, according to the historians, the past is only a spiritual entity more or less firmly backed up by the facts and documents. The uncertainty accompanying such a construction implies that the past resembles the future. Independent of what man has done in the past and what he intends to accomplish at present, the starting point is always and irrevocably the intellectual process – except for the deeds which are unintentional, instinctive or accidental. Thus, the future is shaped in the mind of man, where it can relay on a broad intellectual horizon, created by more or less unlimited imagination. In the process of thinking, time is not a directed vector. Whatever we think at the moment we may easily retract. Only when actions follow the thought, the irreversible character of time starts to bind, and the laws of nature of the material world must be obeyed. Only at the stage of realization we enter the universe of cause and effect relations, and the necessity. In our thoughts we are free. Openness of the act of creating is expressed by thinking, as the work of mind is directed by the laws of nature, but being an intellectual ferment it also bears a stigma of chaotic randomness. Partly unintentionally and partly intentionally, this randomness is structured by experience embedded deep in our memory. These structures of the mind, which are older than consciousness, include also our individual outlook and the basic emotional behaviour developed in our lifetime. This minor (or sometimes major) chaos of the neurone activity of the mind – impossible to control by reason and not yielding to logic – is a germ of creativity. Creativity may be understood as an achievement of human consciousness which from the perpetual confusion of fragments of thoughts selects those which accidentally take clearer shape, seem promising and their potential for realization is worthy of checking.

14

Orientation to the future viewed as a creative sphere where the process of creation begins, is an indispensable, however, non-directed dimension of time in human thinking14. Only thinking guarantees freedom of creating. This implies that pragmatic culture management must be an action consciously oriented to the future. By managing culture we form an idea of the possible effects of realization, and also failure to realize the artistic or cultural conceptions. All the time we must realize the subordinate function of managing culture in the process of creation. Orientation to the future, neither in general nor in the domain of managing culture, consists in unreflective application of ready templates or models worked out by the economy. Whoever does this, wastes an opportunity of productive inclusion of his actions in the creative process, which otherwise might be supported by contributing to determine the chances of a project to be realized in the given social conditions. Professional culture management is marked by skilful use of the methods and tools instead of their thoughtless application, as well as by the ability to visualize realization of the concrete action in the future, which takes into account the economic, legal, cultural and natural constraints, and helps the artistic horizons to remain unrestricted.

3. Directives regarding the curriculum

D

iscussing the elements of the pragmatic conception of managing culture, we should formulate the obvious question of how to include them (by properly directed instruction at the academic level) into the regular curriculum and gradually integrate them to form the firm, full competence to practice a profession. The suggestions which are listed below are not intended to force any concrete solutions, but are meant to show what steps need to be taken to let the idea of pragmatic culture management take root, not so much in the world of science, as in the professional sphere within the institutions of culture. The fact that this discourse needs to assume an academic form, undoubtedly has its reasons. Properly understood scientific approach is by no means pompous, even if it incidentally refers to the philosophical tools, it constitutes rather a deeply considered analysis of the cultural reality and its interpretation based on firm

This applies also to the situation when we penetrate into the future and we cultivate history. The past may be studied only when it leaves traces. We may recreate it based on the traces if there are enough traces. We may consider the past, but we will not experience it. The past as an intellectual construction refers directly to the future.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

17

14

This applies also to the situation when we penetrate into the future and we cultivate history. The past may be studied only when it leaves traces. We may recreate it based on the traces if there are enough traces. We may consider the past, but we will not experience it. The past as an intellectual construction refers directly to the future.

Facts created by man are known as empiric world. Whatever is real is considered to be stern evidence for verification of a given claim. It is, however, always only a claim referring to past objects, and since we deal with human creations, it requires interpretation. We need to explain the intentions of our ancestors or predecessors. The fact that Hamburg is located close to the estuary of the Elbe is an explicit statement. We cannot, however, prove empirically what thoughts accompanied the citizens of Hamburg through the ages when the city developed in the present shape. Thus, according to the historians, the past is only a spiritual entity more or less firmly backed up by the facts and documents. The uncertainty accompanying such a construction implies that the past resembles the future. Independent of what man has done in the past and what he intends to accomplish at present, the starting point is always and irrevocably the intellectual process – except for the deeds which are unintentional, instinctive or accidental. Thus, the future is shaped in the mind of man, where it can relay on a broad intellectual horizon, created by more or less unlimited imagination. In the process of thinking, time is not a directed vector. Whatever we think at the moment we may easily retract. Only when actions follow the thought, the irreversible character of time starts to bind, and the laws of nature of the material world must be obeyed. Only at the stage of realization we enter the universe of cause and effect relations, and the necessity. In our thoughts we are free. Openness of the act of creating is expressed by thinking, as the work of mind is directed by the laws of nature, but being an intellectual ferment it also bears a stigma of chaotic randomness. Partly unintentionally and partly intentionally, this randomness is structured by experience embedded deep in our memory. These structures of the mind, which are older than consciousness, include also our individual outlook and the basic emotional behaviour developed in our lifetime. This minor (or sometimes major) chaos of the neurone activity of the mind – impossible to control by reason and not yielding to logic – is a germ of creativity. Creativity may be understood as an achievement of human consciousness which from the perpetual confusion of fragments of thoughts selects those which accidentally take clearer shape, seem promising and their potential for realization is worthy of checking.

iscussing the elements of the pragmatic conception of managing culture, we should formulate the obvious question of how to include them (by properly directed instruction at the academic level) into the regular curriculum and gradually integrate them to form the firm, full competence to practice a profession. The suggestions which are listed below are not intended to force any concrete solutions, but are meant to show what steps need to be taken to let the idea of pragmatic culture management take root, not so much in the world of science, as in the professional sphere within the institutions of culture. The fact that this discourse needs to assume an academic form, undoubtedly has its reasons. Properly understood scientific approach is by no means pompous, even if it incidentally refers to the philosophical tools, it constitutes rather a deeply considered analysis of the cultural reality and its interpretation based on firm

D

3. Directives regarding the curriculum Orientation to the future viewed as a creative sphere where the process of creation begins, is an indispensable, however, non-directed dimension of time in human thinking14. Only thinking guarantees freedom of creating. This implies that pragmatic culture management must be an action consciously oriented to the future. By managing culture we form an idea of the possible effects of realization, and also failure to realize the artistic or cultural conceptions. All the time we must realize the subordinate function of managing culture in the process of creation. Orientation to the future, neither in general nor in the domain of managing culture, consists in unreflective application of ready templates or models worked out by the economy. Whoever does this, wastes an opportunity of productive inclusion of his actions in the creative process, which otherwise might be supported by contributing to determine the chances of a project to be realized in the given social conditions. Professional culture management is marked by skilful use of the methods and tools instead of their thoughtless application, as well as by the ability to visualize realization of the concrete action in the future, which takes into account the economic, legal, cultural and natural constraints, and helps the artistic horizons to remain unrestricted.


18

The mind is a limiting factor, and in case of the students novices this narrowing of consciousness which extends up till a specific shame of one’s own emotional self is deeply rooted in us. There are, however, many forms of training, including explanatory exercises and discussing sample situations, which allow us broaden our intellectual horizons. This type of training programmes connected with practical experience of one’s own, usually amateur artistic activity, may be included into the curriculum at the initial stage of studies and then continued with growing intensity at the further stages of education. The basic knowledge of microeconomics is anyway indispensable. The key issue is, however, to expand this knowledge not earlier than when the students have acquired the ability to form a personal judgment. The knowledge should be used to create strategies of actions adjusted to each individual case. The competences, which have to rely on intellectual independence, may be stimulated during the classes in the form of exercises. An example of such an exercise can be drawing up a budget for a planned exhibition, in the clearly defined real circumstances. The goal would not be presentation of the general principles of constructing the budget, but ability to plan the budget considering the concrete local conditions. Pragmatic studies should be dominated by classes grouped in blocks, whereas the outdated form of instruction including distinct subjects divided into semesters and taught in one or two-hour classes, should be eliminated. Thanks to such organization of education, teaching and learning will evolve toward active intellectual effort of both parties, as it would be impossible to give a lecture all day, and even less realistic would be to expect that the students may absorb vast knowledge taught in this manner. Continuous coupling of the teaching and the taught has proved its value already long time ago. The methods of teaching culture management (let alone the limited portion of knowledge conveyed during a single session) include a principle of conducting classes in the form of workshops. I am aware that this article is limited only to a few brief suggestions. Undoubtedly, there is need for further discussion, new experience and analysis, possibly including their presentation to the professional community aimed at starting a debate. The conception of pragmatic management of culture must be forged in a fire of trials and errors in order to gradually establish its position both in practice and in the academic perception.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

pillars of experience and ties with the important disciplines of science. Analyzing the existing academic syllabuses in the discipline of managing culture we may easily notice that most of them start from basic microeconomics with special focus on administration and management. Such a form of inauguration of the process of studying boils down to imprinting on the students’ minds the unrealized economic pre-consciousness which assumes that the level of financing (the available financial means) managing the cash flow (distribution of means) together with the related aspects such as planning, running the business, organization, accounting, budgeting, etc. governs also the world of art and cultural activity, and wherever it does not, such a dictate needs to introduced. We cannot underestimate narrowing of the horizons which results from this type of indoctrination, as in the present world thinking in terms of money prevails15, and it is easy to refer to this category which seems obvious, and thus feel absolved from deeper reflection. This is the fundamental ethical problem of our times, which affected also the domain of managing culture. The basic difference is whether shaping of this professional sphere begins from thoughtless indoctrination dictated by commercial reasons, or whether these aspects are treated as a matter of secondary importance, studied by necessity, but only after the students have found intellectual freedom and independence in professional confrontation with the material constraints affecting the cultural and particularly the artistic undertakings. Thus, the studies could begin with the introduction to the domain which may be called Managing culture as a profession, augmented by tuition in such domains as philosophy of culture, cultural policy, history and anthropology of culture. It would seem justified to introduce such a topic as Introduction to debate on economy, concentrating on the historical character and the cultural context of creation of the economic models, including the market economy. Inclusion of the aspects of creativity, empathic competence and the holistic approach into the curricula is an answer to the tendency (beginning at school and additionally strengthened by ones own experience) to recognize the priority of the intellectual approach to acquiring knowledge of the world, over the approach focusing on imagination and sensual experience as means of cognition.

18

Due to the significance of this problem again I draw attention to Karl H. Brodbeck’s book Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik [Brodbeck, 2009].

Due to the significance of this problem again I draw attention to Karl H. Brodbeck’s book Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik [Brodbeck, 2009].

15

The mind is a limiting factor, and in case of the students novices this narrowing of consciousness which extends up till a specific shame of one’s own emotional self is deeply rooted in us. There are, however, many forms of training, including explanatory exercises and discussing sample situations, which allow us broaden our intellectual horizons. This type of training programmes connected with practical experience of one’s own, usually amateur artistic activity, may be included into the curriculum at the initial stage of studies and then continued with growing intensity at the further stages of education. The basic knowledge of microeconomics is anyway indispensable. The key issue is, however, to expand this knowledge not earlier than when the students have acquired the ability to form a personal judgment. The knowledge should be used to create strategies of actions adjusted to each individual case. The competences, which have to rely on intellectual independence, may be stimulated during the classes in the form of exercises. An example of such an exercise can be drawing up a budget for a planned exhibition, in the clearly defined real circumstances. The goal would not be presentation of the general principles of constructing the budget, but ability to plan the budget considering the concrete local conditions. Pragmatic studies should be dominated by classes grouped in blocks, whereas the outdated form of instruction including distinct subjects divided into semesters and taught in one or two-hour classes, should be eliminated. Thanks to such organization of education, teaching and learning will evolve toward active intellectual effort of both parties, as it would be impossible to give a lecture all day, and even less realistic would be to expect that the students may absorb vast knowledge taught in this manner. Continuous coupling of the teaching and the taught has proved its value already long time ago. The methods of teaching culture management (let alone the limited portion of knowledge conveyed during a single session) include a principle of conducting classes in the form of workshops. I am aware that this article is limited only to a few brief suggestions. Undoubtedly, there is need for further discussion, new experience and analysis, possibly including their presentation to the professional community aimed at starting a debate. The conception of pragmatic management of culture must be forged in a fire of trials and errors in order to gradually establish its position both in practice and in the academic perception.

15

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

pillars of experience and ties with the important disciplines of science. Analyzing the existing academic syllabuses in the discipline of managing culture we may easily notice that most of them start from basic microeconomics with special focus on administration and management. Such a form of inauguration of the process of studying boils down to imprinting on the students’ minds the unrealized economic pre-consciousness which assumes that the level of financing (the available financial means) managing the cash flow (distribution of means) together with the related aspects such as planning, running the business, organization, accounting, budgeting, etc. governs also the world of art and cultural activity, and wherever it does not, such a dictate needs to introduced. We cannot underestimate narrowing of the horizons which results from this type of indoctrination, as in the present world thinking in terms of money prevails15, and it is easy to refer to this category which seems obvious, and thus feel absolved from deeper reflection. This is the fundamental ethical problem of our times, which affected also the domain of managing culture. The basic difference is whether shaping of this professional sphere begins from thoughtless indoctrination dictated by commercial reasons, or whether these aspects are treated as a matter of secondary importance, studied by necessity, but only after the students have found intellectual freedom and independence in professional confrontation with the material constraints affecting the cultural and particularly the artistic undertakings. Thus, the studies could begin with the introduction to the domain which may be called Managing culture as a profession, augmented by tuition in such domains as philosophy of culture, cultural policy, history and anthropology of culture. It would seem justified to introduce such a topic as Introduction to debate on economy, concentrating on the historical character and the cultural context of creation of the economic models, including the market economy. Inclusion of the aspects of creativity, empathic competence and the holistic approach into the curricula is an answer to the tendency (beginning at school and additionally strengthened by ones own experience) to recognize the priority of the intellectual approach to acquiring knowledge of the world, over the approach focusing on imagination and sensual experience as means of cognition.


19

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Literature Basieux P., Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur, Reinbek near Hamburg (Rowohlt) 2008. Bendixen P., Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in the autumn of 2009). Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement, Wiesbaden 2006. Bendixen P., Kulturmanagement als Handwerk [in:] Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Bendixen P., Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in the autumn of 2009). Bendixen P., Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik, Münster et al. 2009. Breithaupt F., Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frankfurt am Main (Suhrkamp) 2009. Brodbeck K. H., Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökonomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Darmstadt 2007. Brodbeck K. H., Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik, Darmstadt 2009. Coveney P., Highfield R., Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit

Coveney P., Highfield R., The Arrow of Time: A Voyage Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries, London 1990 (in German Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Foreword: Ilya Prigogine, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992). Gigerenzer G., Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition, Monachium (Goldmann) 2008. Kleimann B., Schmücker R., Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach ihrer Funktion, Darmstadt 2001. Libet B., Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein produziert, Frankfurt am Main 2007. Luhmann N., Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft) 2007. Pöppel E., Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt am Main 1997. Pöppel E., Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für Manager, Monachium 2008. Safranski R., Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch, Frankfurt am Main 2006. Schillera F., Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den Augustenburger Briefen, published by K. L. Berghahna, Ditzingen 2000. Sennett R., HandWerk, Berlin 2008. Smith A., Theory of Moral Sentiments, Londyn 1759.

in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992.

Hamburg 1992. in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Reinbek near Coveney P., Highfield R., Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit und Systematik, Darmstadt 2009. Brodbeck K. H., Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Darmstadt 2007. nomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Brodbeck K. H., Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökofurt am Main (Suhrkamp) 2009. Breithaupt F., Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, FrankWirtschaftsethik, Münster et al. 2009. historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Bendixen P., Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die probably print it in the autumn of 2009). and Conceptions (publishing house LIT-Verlag will Bendixen P., Managing Art – Introduction into Principles Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Bendixen P., Kulturmanagement als Handwerk [in:] agement, Wiesbaden 2006. Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanthe autumn of 2009). (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens Bendixen P., Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der (Rowohlt) 2008. chaft, Wirtschaft und Natur, Reinbek near Hamburg Basieux P., Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesells-

Literature Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

19

Smith A., Theory of Moral Sentiments, Londyn 1759. Sennett R., HandWerk, Berlin 2008. Ditzingen 2000. stenburger Briefen, published by K. L. Berghahna, schen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den AuguSchillera F., Über die ästhetische Erziehung des MenFrankfurt am Main 2006. Safranski R., Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch, Manager, Monachium 2008. Pöppel E., Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für am Main 1997. zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt Pöppel E., Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir Main (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft) 2007. Luhmann N., Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt am produziert, Frankfurt am Main 2007. Libet B., Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein ihrer Funktion, Darmstadt 2001. Kleimann B., Schmücker R., Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach nachium (Goldmann) 2008. des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition, MoGigerenzer G., Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz Ilya Prigogine, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992). Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Foreword: London 1990 (in German Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries, Coveney P., Highfield R., The Arrow of Time: A Voyage


20

Economic premises of culture management

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Translation: Marta Białecka

20

Bogusław Nierenberg

ccording to Philip Kotler the market ‘consists of all potential customers who have a definite need or desire, who are ready and able to participate in an act of exchange in order to satisfy them’ [Kotler, 1999, p. 9]. Krystyna Mazurek-Łopacińska defines the market as an economic category of commodity production and as such she refers it to works of art. In her opinion: ‘artistic works become commodities on the market of art if they are designed for sale’ [Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, 1997, p. 14]. If we assume that both

Introduction

A

T

The market vs. culture

here have been a lot of myths referring to the relations between culture and the market mechanics. Generally speaking one can distinguish two opposing approaches to the problem: a market approach and an anti-market approach. The supporters of the first option are convinced that the market is the most effective remedy for all problems and the balance between supply and demand is the mechanics which most effectively regulates both social and cultural relations. On the other hand, the opponents of such a standpoint claim that the market mechanics are the biggest curse of culture, especially art. The opponents of the commercial attitude say that market principles cannot decide whether someone has a talent or not, whether artistic works will be created or not. The conflict described above is not only an invented abstract dilemma. It has its real reflection in everyday work of managers of culture institutions. It is not an objective of the author of this article to decide who is right in this dispute, but to describe relationships which may affect or have an impact on managing culture institutions.

Dr hab. Bogusław Nierenberg, prof. Opole University Research worker, journalist, economist. He is the head of the Culture Institute, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University and professor at the Faculty of Journalism and Social Communication at the Opole University. He runs unique in Poland Department of Management and Media Economics, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University. He specializes in media and culture economics, media management, trade communication and publicity. He is the author of 7 monographs and dozens scientific articles regarding media, publicity, management and trade communication as well as journalism and journalistic genres. He is the author of the poem’s volume “Dychotomia uczuć”.

definitions are an objective description of realty, we will immediately see a certain contradiction. If products of culture, including works of art, are the essential driving force behind social development, the reason for purchasing these products should be their artistic value, whatever we mean by it. However, it is known that for many people works of art are only a perfect capital investment. Much better than other market instruments, e.g. bank deposits, deposit accounts, bonds or shares. Of course these two motivations do not have to be contradictory. We can easily imagine an art collector increasing the value of his possessions who at the same time savours the beauty of his collection. Many commentators, but also scientists hold a ‘grudge’ against the market, saying that it has a destructive impact on culture, decreases the value of works of art, is conducive to slipshod work, kitsch and mediocrity. And it is difficult not to agree with it. However, one should remember that the market is only a reflection of human needs. If we want people to have different, more sophisticated needs, then education is needed. The postulate of teaching sensitivity to beauty and art is not only a postulate of various crazy aesthetes. It has an economic justification. According to K. Mazurek-Łopacińska the essence of the problem is that a work of art of a high rank should have an adequate demand on the market [ibidem, p. 18]. In this case we define it as an effective demand, which means the one in which ‘wanting’ has a reflection in the pockets of the ones who ‘want’. Thus, simplifying a little, we can say that the economics of culture is spread between two points of reference (measures): MM the measure of value (reference to the market), MM the hierarchy of values (reference to art).

The market vs. culture

T

here have been a lot of myths referring to the relations between culture and the market mechanics. Generally speaking one can distinguish two opposing approaches to the problem: a market approach and an anti-market approach. The supporters of the first option are convinced that the market is the most effective remedy for all problems and the balance between supply and demand is the mechanics which most effectively regulates both social and cultural relations. On the other hand, the opponents of such a standpoint claim that the market mechanics are the biggest curse of culture, especially art. The opponents of the commercial attitude say that market principles cannot decide whether someone has a talent or not, whether artistic works will be created or not. The conflict described above is not only an invented abstract dilemma. It has its real reflection in everyday work of managers of culture institutions. It is not an objective of the author of this article to decide who is right in this dispute, but to describe relationships which may affect or have an impact on managing culture institutions.

A

definitions are an objective description of realty, we will immediately see a certain contradiction. If products of culture, including works of art, are the essential driving force behind social development, the reason for purchasing these products should be their artistic value, whatever we mean by it. However, it is known that for many people works of art are only a perfect capital investment. Much better than other market instruments, e.g. bank deposits, deposit accounts, bonds or shares. Of course these two motivations do not have to be contradictory. We can easily imagine an art collector increasing the value of his possessions who at the same time savours the beauty of his collection. Many commentators, but also scientists hold a ‘grudge’ against the market, saying that it has a destructive impact on culture, decreases the value of works of art, is conducive to slipshod work, kitsch and mediocrity. And it is difficult not to agree with it. However, one should remember that the market is only a reflection of human needs. If we want people to have different, more sophisticated needs, then education is needed. The postulate of teaching sensitivity to beauty and art is not only a postulate of various crazy aesthetes. It has an economic justification. According to K. Mazurek-Łopacińska the essence of the problem is that a work of art of a high rank should have an adequate demand on the market [ibidem, p. 18]. In this case we define it as an effective demand, which means the one in which ‘wanting’ has a reflection in the pockets of the ones who ‘want’. Thus, simplifying a little, we can say that the economics of culture is spread between two points of reference (measures): MM the measure of value (reference to the market), the hierarchy of values (reference to art). MM

Introduction

Translation: Marta Białecka

ccording to Philip Kotler the market ‘consists of all potential customers who have a definite need or desire, who are ready and able to participate in an act of exchange in order to satisfy them’ [Kotler, 1999, p. 9]. Krystyna Mazurek-Łopacińska defines the market as an economic category of commodity production and as such she refers it to works of art. In her opinion: ‘artistic works become commodities on the market of art if they are designed for sale’ [Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, 1997, p. 14]. If we assume that both

Bogusław Nierenberg

Dr hab. Bogusław Nierenberg, prof. Opole University Research worker, journalist, economist. He is the head of the Culture Institute, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University and professor at the Faculty of Journalism and Social Communication at the Opole University. He runs unique in Poland Department of Management and Media Economics, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University. He specializes in media and culture economics, media management, trade communication and publicity. He is the author of 7 monographs and dozens scientific articles regarding media, publicity, management and trade communication as well as journalism and journalistic genres. He is the author of the poem’s volume “Dychotomia uczuć”.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Economic premises of culture management


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

21

Source: a study on the basis of: A. H. Maslow, Motivation and personality, Warsaw 1990, p. 72-102.

Economic premises of culture management Physiological needs Needs of security

Needs of attachment and love Needs of respect

Bogusław Nierenberg

Translation: Marta Białecka

There is an area between these measures which the state can enter and activate such instruments of influence that will make certain spheres of culture develop better and other worse or not at all. We call it the cultural policy of the state. However, Urszula Grzelońska, being an economist herself, warns of too much trust in the market methods in reference to culture. In her opinion it is difficult to separate a sphere of culture using only the methods applied in economics [Grzelońska, 2008]. It is because of two basic differences between the economic and the cultural spheres: MM fulfilled needs, MM character of created and obtained products. Abraham Harold Maslov distinguishes five basic needs and desires (see fig. 1, a pyramid of needs), which is a driving force of everyone’s acting. The basis is constituted by elementary needs. Also aesthetic needs were included in elementary needs by Maslov: ‘A clear separation of aesthetic needs is not possible because they agree with volitionary and cognitive needs’ [Maslow, 1999, pp. 72-102]. Maslov’s studies also show that consecutive stages of the pyramid do not have to follow in succession. Analyzing biographies of many artists one can easily find examples proving that elementary needs, e.g. of appeasing hunger, do not have to be fulfilled at all for the need of self-realization to appear and be realized. Kotler points out that ‘a human need is a state of feeling of a lack of fulfillment’, and ‘desires express a particular way of fulfilling primitive needs’ [Kotler, 1999, p. 6]. To fulfill needs and desires man has to take proper actions. From the economic point of view, this particular kind of human activity called cultural activity is divided into [Grzelońska]:

MM art, MM industries of culture. Within art, products of art or works of art are created, which can: 1. be created by creators – artists themselves, 2. be produced individually, 3. contain, apart from a physical shape, a semantic, symbolic layer, be conveyors of values, symbols, etc. Art comprises the following trades: 1. artistic activity (painting, sculpture, etc.), 2. performance art (performing music, operas, dramas, comedies, etc. live, 3. protecting and making available of buildings of material and spiritual heritage (museums, libraries, archives, etc.) [ibidem]. Institutions rated among industries of culture produce values which are conveyors of the semantic, symbolic layer, but by definition they are neither objects created by artists themselves nor are they produced individually. They are mainly copied works of art (replicas, duplicated works), e.g. books, records. According to U. Grzelońska, products of industries of culture are rated among cultural values, but they are not cultural values in the full sense of the word. In her opinion only products of art are cultural values in the fullest sense [ibidem]. The sphere of cultural activity comprises also two other domains, which: 1. enable perception of works of art (e.g. phonographic industry), 2. make use of works of art (e.g. architectural projects). According to U. Grzelońska, rating a domain among the sector of culture is more a question of a convention than a logical division [ibidem]. Publishing houses are generally considered to be firms acting in the sphere of culture, and building firms are not. Yet, both of them deal with duplicating creators’ works. In the first case, writers’ or composers’ in the other one architects’.

Fig. 1 A pyramid of needs

Translation: Marta Białecka

Selfrealization Needs of respect

Bogusław Nierenberg

Needs of attachment and love

Economic premises of culture management

Selfrealization

Fig. 1 A pyramid of needs

There is an area between these measures which the state can enter and activate such instruments of influence that will make certain spheres of culture develop better and other worse or not at all. We call it the cultural policy of the state. However, Urszula Grzelońska, being an economist herself, warns of too much trust in the market methods in reference to culture. In her opinion it is difficult to separate a sphere of culture using only the methods applied in economics [Grzelońska, 2008]. It is because of two basic differences between the economic and the cultural spheres: MM fulfilled needs, MM character of created and obtained products. Abraham Harold Maslov distinguishes five basic needs and desires (see fig. 1, a pyramid of needs), which is a driving force of everyone’s acting. The basis is constituted by elementary needs. Also aesthetic needs were included in elementary needs by Maslov: ‘A clear separation of aesthetic needs is not possible because they agree with volitionary and cognitive needs’ [Maslow, 1999, pp. 72-102]. Maslov’s studies also show that consecutive stages of the pyramid do not have to follow in succession. Analyzing biographies of many artists one can easily find examples proving that elementary needs, e.g. of appeasing hunger, do not have to be fulfilled at all for the need of self-realization to appear and be realized. Kotler points out that ‘a human need is a state of feeling of a lack of fulfillment’, and ‘desires express a particular way of fulfilling primitive needs’ [Kotler, 1999, p. 6]. To fulfill needs and desires man has to take proper actions. From the economic point of view, this particular kind of human activity called cultural activity is divided into [Grzelońska]:

art, industries of culture. Within art, products of art or works of art are created, which can: 1. be created by creators – artists themselves, 2. be produced individually, 3. contain, apart from a physical shape, a semantic, symbolic layer, be conveyors of values, symbols, etc. Art comprises the following trades: 1. artistic activity (painting, sculpture, etc.), 2. performance art (performing music, operas, dramas, comedies, etc. live, 3. protecting and making available of buildings of material and spiritual heritage (museums, libraries, archives, etc.) [ibidem]. Institutions rated among industries of culture produce values which are conveyors of the semantic, symbolic layer, but by definition they are neither objects created by artists themselves nor are they produced individually. They are mainly copied works of art (replicas, duplicated works), e.g. books, records. According to U. Grzelońska, products of industries of culture are rated among cultural values, but they are not cultural values in the full sense of the word. In her opinion only products of art are cultural values in the fullest sense [ibidem]. The sphere of cultural activity comprises also two other domains, which: 1. enable perception of works of art (e.g. phonographic industry), 2. make use of works of art (e.g. architectural projects). According to U. Grzelońska, rating a domain among the sector of culture is more a question of a convention than a logical division [ibidem]. Publishing houses are generally considered to be firms acting in the sphere of culture, and building firms are not. Yet, both of them deal with duplicating creators’ works. In the first case, writers’ or composers’ in the other one architects’. MM MM

Needs of security

Physiological needs

Source: a study on the basis of: A. H. Maslow, Motivation and personality, Warsaw 1990, p. 72-102.

21

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)


Why does art require paying extra?

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

22

In case of culture (like any other human activity) the costs are of twofold kind: 1. personal (in this case artists’ pay), 2. material costs (value of tools and materials used in the process of creating). If the costs are higher than the incomes we have a deficit. In such a situation two solutions are possible: you can either stop such a deficit activity or find a source of financing the deficit. There are four reasons for unremunerativeness in culture [ibidem]: MM the phenomenon of Baumol’s cost disease, MM mega-stars, MM the activity of opportunists and rentiers, MM excessive supply on the market of art. William Baumol, an American economist notices that artistic activity does not surrender to technical development in such a way as other sectors of economy. As a result of technical progress costs decrease and efficiency goes up, and so the pay rise can be financed from the increasing incomes. At the same time in the sector of art the efficiency of work remains invariable. Baumol described this phenomenon in 1960s. To illustrate it he used the example of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s g-mol string quintet. When the composer wrote it in 1787, five musicians were needed to perform it: two violinists, two viola players and one cellist. It takes the same amount of time and requires the same number of musicians to play this quintet now as it did two hundred years ago. Thus, from the economic point of view, for two centuries the productivity of the artists performing this composition has not increased [Surowiecki, 2003]. To make a comparison, James Surowiecki describing this phenomenon mentions the progress which was made in motor industry. In 1979 the workers of General Motors needed 41 hours to assemble a car. Two decades later an assembly of one car took them only 24 hours. Thus, the pay rise in General Motors concern was financed by the increase of work efficiency. In the case of artists the efficiency does not increase, but if everybody around is better off, then the pressure grows for the people who are in artistic activity to be better off, too. Therefore, also artists’ incomes go up and finally the costs of producing cultural values increase. The phenomenon described by Baumol concerns not only artists. A university professor’s lecture two centuries ago lasted as long as it does today. A waiter needs the same time to serve a meal today as he did years ago. It should be mentioned here that the phenomenon described by Baumol, called Baumol’s cost disease or Baumol’s effect is intensifying. When there is no increase of efficiency of work in the sphere of art and when the pressure on higher remunerations grows, the gap between incomes and costs gets bigger.

he problem of unremunerativeness of art is as old as our civilization. Art has always been sponsored and only the importance of the factors determining unremunerativeness and the structure of the sponsors has been changing throughout the centuries. A work of art becomes a commodity if it has utility value that is an ability to fulfill definite needs, and exchange (market) value. However, our experience in this matter tells us that at least some cultural values do not gain such a price in the process of an exchange which would justify the dedication for their creating and delivering to consumers such an amount of funds as they really involve. And thus, their production requires paying extra. But does one really have to pay extra? The answer to this question is neither simple nor clearcut as it could seem. Scientists started to investigate economic aspects of culture, including art only in the last decades. The results of their work were often surprising, but at the same time they brought an explanation of the nature of some processes. The most spectacular example are the results of William Baumol’s research which will be discussed in the further part of this chapter. In Poland the most famous research is being done by professor Urszula Grzelońska. When in April 2007 she presented the results of her research during the seminar ‘Economics in culture – creation in economics’ she set off a stormy reaction of the participants, especially creators. The chairperson of the debates, professor Elżbieta Mączyńska said: ‘You really proposed a language of speaking about creation which is very shocking for many of us...’ [Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii, 2007]. In fact, using economic measures in reference to art can be shocking for many people, especially artists. Generally speaking, researchers looked for the answer to two questions: MM why does cultural activity require patronage? (why does it require paying extra?), MM in what way should the most effective and economical patronage and production of cultural values be organized? Looking for the answers to these questions one should first answer the question: why cannot culture provide for itself? It has already been mentioned that from the economic point of view, it means that values created in the sphere of culture cannot gain such a price on the market which would cover all costs of their production. There are of course such artists in the sphere of culture whose works gain such a price that their activity does not require subsidizing, but they constitute a real minority.

he problem of unremunerativeness of art is as old as our civilization. Art has always been sponsored and only the importance of the factors determining unremunerativeness and the structure of the sponsors has been changing throughout the centuries. A work of art becomes a commodity if it has utility value that is an ability to fulfill definite needs, and exchange (market) value. However, our experience in this matter tells us that at least some cultural values do not gain such a price in the process of an exchange which would justify the dedication for their creating and delivering to consumers such an amount of funds as they really involve. And thus, their production requires paying extra. But does one really have to pay extra? The answer to this question is neither simple nor clearcut as it could seem. Scientists started to investigate economic aspects of culture, including art only in the last decades. The results of their work were often surprising, but at the same time they brought an explanation of the nature of some processes. The most spectacular example are the results of William Baumol’s research which will be discussed in the further part of this chapter. In Poland the most famous research is being done by professor Urszula Grzelońska. When in April 2007 she presented the results of her research during the seminar ‘Economics in culture – creation in economics’ she set off a stormy reaction of the participants, especially creators. The chairperson of the debates, professor Elżbieta Mączyńska said: ‘You really proposed a language of speaking about creation which is very shocking for many of us...’ [Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii, 2007]. In fact, using economic measures in reference to art can be shocking for many people, especially artists. Generally speaking, researchers looked for the answer to two questions: MM why does cultural activity require patronage? (why does it require paying extra?), MM in what way should the most effective and economical patronage and production of cultural values be organized? Looking for the answers to these questions one should first answer the question: why cannot culture provide for itself? It has already been mentioned that from the economic point of view, it means that values created in the sphere of culture cannot gain such a price on the market which would cover all costs of their production. There are of course such artists in the sphere of culture whose works gain such a price that their activity does not require subsidizing, but they constitute a real minority.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

In case of culture (like any other human activity) the costs are of twofold kind: 1. personal (in this case artists’ pay), 2. material costs (value of tools and materials used in the process of creating). If the costs are higher than the incomes we have a deficit. In such a situation two solutions are possible: you can either stop such a deficit activity or find a source of financing the deficit. There are four reasons for unremunerativeness in culture [ibidem]: MM the phenomenon of Baumol’s cost disease, MM mega-stars, MM the activity of opportunists and rentiers, MM excessive supply on the market of art. William Baumol, an American economist notices that artistic activity does not surrender to technical development in such a way as other sectors of economy. As a result of technical progress costs decrease and efficiency goes up, and so the pay rise can be financed from the increasing incomes. At the same time in the sector of art the efficiency of work remains invariable. Baumol described this phenomenon in 1960s. To illustrate it he used the example of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s g-mol string quintet. When the composer wrote it in 1787, five musicians were needed to perform it: two violinists, two viola players and one cellist. It takes the same amount of time and requires the same number of musicians to play this quintet now as it did two hundred years ago. Thus, from the economic point of view, for two centuries the productivity of the artists performing this composition has not increased [Surowiecki, 2003]. To make a comparison, James Surowiecki describing this phenomenon mentions the progress which was made in motor industry. In 1979 the workers of General Motors needed 41 hours to assemble a car. Two decades later an assembly of one car took them only 24 hours. Thus, the pay rise in General Motors concern was financed by the increase of work efficiency. In the case of artists the efficiency does not increase, but if everybody around is better off, then the pressure grows for the people who are in artistic activity to be better off, too. Therefore, also artists’ incomes go up and finally the costs of producing cultural values increase. The phenomenon described by Baumol concerns not only artists. A university professor’s lecture two centuries ago lasted as long as it does today. A waiter needs the same time to serve a meal today as he did years ago. It should be mentioned here that the phenomenon described by Baumol, called Baumol’s cost disease or Baumol’s effect is intensifying. When there is no increase of efficiency of work in the sphere of art and when the pressure on higher remunerations grows, the gap between incomes and costs gets bigger.

22

Why does art require paying extra?


23

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Considering the phenomenon described by Baumol, it should be mentioned that if from the social point of view it is reasonable to pay extra for art then there is no sense paying extra for industries of culture. No one of sound mind would postulate to subsidize building companies but there are the ones to whom the postulate of subsidizing publishing houses seems to be legitimate. Yet both of them only duplicate creators’ works. Another reason for subsidizing culture, defined as mega-stars, is connected with globalization of communication processes. And the global world brings demand for global stars. Especially in the world of sport and light music. But for sponsors’ support, few people could afford a live meeting with such stars. Paradoxically, we face similar problems dealing with protecting cultural (historical) heritage of societies. No museum would be able to buy (or even insure) a painting by a great artist only with fees from visitors. In this case the role of mega-stars is played by great painters or sculptors. The phenomenon described by Baumol concerns not only individual creators but also institutions acting in the sphere of art, such as theatres, opera houses, galleries, museums. The subject of culture which is subsidized by an administrative decision (just because of the gap between the cost of making the products and the demand for them) loses interest in the limitation of the size of this gap (lack of incentives for effective proceeds allocation). It gives rise to peculiar opportunism on the supply side. Most artistic institutions act on the basis of a mechanism which causes the fact that the subject lowering the costs of its activity automatically receives smaller subsidies. It is an attitude characteristic for a lot of managers acting in the sphere of culture. This opportunism is overlapped by the so-called rent seeking activity1 functioning in the sphere of culture. An example can be the activity of various (often unnecessary) organizations or expert committees. Their activity considerably increases the supply gap. The fourth reason for the necessity of subsidizing culture is excessive supply on the culture market. It is a controversial thesis, having both its supporters and opponents. Two phenomena are usually mentioned as the reason for excessive supply: MM work for lower payments than alternative costs, MM excess of artists.

1

For many creators their work is not only livelihood but also a source of satisfaction. Hence the willingness to work for a pay which is lower than alternative costs. This satisfaction is treated by artists as a compensation for lost earnings, which they could get if they were employed in other sectors of economy. Thus, it can be said that for many artists the amount of the income received by them does not constitute an instrument setting a limit of their production involvement in the sector of art. In other sectors of economy the pay is a natural economic barrier for supply. In reference to art it is as controversial a thesis as the statement that excessive supply of cultural values is a result of an excessive number of artists (musicians, actors, painters, graphic artists, etc.) educated at the society’s charge. This way of reasoning, connected with ‘paying extra for unnecessary artists’ could lead us to the limit beyond which there is no freedom. In the contemporary world one of the basic civilization norms is the choice of any profession which a person wants to have. One can of course encourage particular individuals to choose professions which are desirable from the social point of view, but nobody can be forced to do it. It is the foundation of each democratic system. Through different kinds of encouragement, help, preferences a democratic state can affect different spheres of life, including cultural life. This kind of influence is the essence of the cultural policy of a state. For instance, by means of political instruments the Swiss are trying to strengthen their multicultural character [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej; 2005, pp. 87-88], and the French just on the contrary [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej; 2006, pp. 137-142].

Summary

A

ccording to Peter Bendixen ‘the interaction between culture and economy constitutes a sphere of culture management’ [Bendixen, 2001, p. 12]. However, measuring all phenomena, especially the artistic ones by means of economic instruments would be a mistake. What is more, it could be harmful for social development. Expenditure on culture are not only costs but also measurable profits. The French consider culture to be a factor of economic growth [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, p. 93]. Widely understood culture is of fundamental significance for economy not only in the material but first of all in the intelectual sense. It has been mentioned

It is a phenomenon widespread in Western Europe, in Poland it is relatively little known.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

23

1

It is a phenomenon widespread in Western Europe, in Poland it is relatively little known.

Considering the phenomenon described by Baumol, it should be mentioned that if from the social point of view it is reasonable to pay extra for art then there is no sense paying extra for industries of culture. No one of sound mind would postulate to subsidize building companies but there are the ones to whom the postulate of subsidizing publishing houses seems to be legitimate. Yet both of them only duplicate creators’ works. Another reason for subsidizing culture, defined as mega-stars, is connected with globalization of communication processes. And the global world brings demand for global stars. Especially in the world of sport and light music. But for sponsors’ support, few people could afford a live meeting with such stars. Paradoxically, we face similar problems dealing with protecting cultural (historical) heritage of societies. No museum would be able to buy (or even insure) a painting by a great artist only with fees from visitors. In this case the role of mega-stars is played by great painters or sculptors. The phenomenon described by Baumol concerns not only individual creators but also institutions acting in the sphere of art, such as theatres, opera houses, galleries, museums. The subject of culture which is subsidized by an administrative decision (just because of the gap between the cost of making the products and the demand for them) loses interest in the limitation of the size of this gap (lack of incentives for effective proceeds allocation). It gives rise to peculiar opportunism on the supply side. Most artistic institutions act on the basis of a mechanism which causes the fact that the subject lowering the costs of its activity automatically receives smaller subsidies. It is an attitude characteristic for a lot of managers acting in the sphere of culture. This opportunism is overlapped by the so-called rent seeking activity1 functioning in the sphere of culture. An example can be the activity of various (often unnecessary) organizations or expert committees. Their activity considerably increases the supply gap. The fourth reason for the necessity of subsidizing culture is excessive supply on the culture market. It is a controversial thesis, having both its supporters and opponents. Two phenomena are usually mentioned as the reason for excessive supply: MM work for lower payments than alternative costs, excess of artists. MM

ccording to Peter Bendixen ‘the interaction between culture and economy constitutes a sphere of culture management’ [Bendixen, 2001, p. 12]. However, measuring all phenomena, especially the artistic ones by means of economic instruments would be a mistake. What is more, it could be harmful for social development. Expenditure on culture are not only costs but also measurable profits. The French consider culture to be a factor of economic growth [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, p. 93]. Widely understood culture is of fundamental significance for economy not only in the material but first of all in the intelectual sense. It has been mentioned

A

Summary For many creators their work is not only livelihood but also a source of satisfaction. Hence the willingness to work for a pay which is lower than alternative costs. This satisfaction is treated by artists as a compensation for lost earnings, which they could get if they were employed in other sectors of economy. Thus, it can be said that for many artists the amount of the income received by them does not constitute an instrument setting a limit of their production involvement in the sector of art. In other sectors of economy the pay is a natural economic barrier for supply. In reference to art it is as controversial a thesis as the statement that excessive supply of cultural values is a result of an excessive number of artists (musicians, actors, painters, graphic artists, etc.) educated at the society’s charge. This way of reasoning, connected with ‘paying extra for unnecessary artists’ could lead us to the limit beyond which there is no freedom. In the contemporary world one of the basic civilization norms is the choice of any profession which a person wants to have. One can of course encourage particular individuals to choose professions which are desirable from the social point of view, but nobody can be forced to do it. It is the foundation of each democratic system. Through different kinds of encouragement, help, preferences a democratic state can affect different spheres of life, including cultural life. This kind of influence is the essence of the cultural policy of a state. For instance, by means of political instruments the Swiss are trying to strengthen their multicultural character [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej; 2005, pp. 87-88], and the French just on the contrary [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej; 2006, pp. 137-142].


24

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

before that the process of exchange is the basis of the contemporary economy. St. Thomas claimed that a just exchange is based on an exchange of equivalents, on equality of something that is given and that of being received (do ut des – ‘I give so that you will give’ ). This equivalent does not have to be of a material character. Peter F. Drucker, the most famous analyst of the processes of management in business in the world, stated forcibly: ‘The view that management is mainly management in business is still present. Nevertheless, it should definitely be stated that this thesis is wrong...’ [Drucker, 2000, p. 7]. The

contemporary world begins to realize the fact that a capital does not refer only to money. It is more and more often that we use the terms: social capital, cultural capital. Culture, as well as health care, social welfare, environmental protection are spheres in which economic aspects play an important role. However, when we deal with a mission or social service it is difficult to be governed only by a calculation of profit and loss. A considerably better measure of management processes in the sphere of culture should be efficiency and quality of undertaken activities.

Literature

Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, ed. Mazurek-Łopacińska

Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i sz-

Maslow A. H., Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa

Bieroń B., Kowalski K., Kraków 2005, v. I. Drucker P., Zarządzanie w XXI w., Warszawa 2000. tuki, Kraków 2001. Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i sz-

2003/07/07/030707ta_talk_surowiecki 07.07.2003; http://www.newyorker.com/archive/ Surowiecki J., What ails us [in:] “The New Yorker” 1990. Maslow A. H., Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa K., Wrocław 1997. Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, ed. Mazurek-Łopacińska

Literature

contemporary world begins to realize the fact that a capital does not refer only to money. It is more and more often that we use the terms: social capital, cultural capital. Culture, as well as health care, social welfare, environmental protection are spheres in which economic aspects play an important role. However, when we deal with a mission or social service it is difficult to be governed only by a calculation of profit and loss. A considerably better measure of management processes in the sphere of culture should be efficiency and quality of undertaken activities.

before that the process of exchange is the basis of the contemporary economy. St. Thomas claimed that a just exchange is based on an exchange of equivalents, on equality of something that is given and that of being received (do ut des – ‘I give so that you will give’ ). This equivalent does not have to be of a material character. Peter F. Drucker, the most famous analyst of the processes of management in business in the world, stated forcibly: ‘The view that management is mainly management in business is still present. Nevertheless, it should definitely be stated that this thesis is wrong...’ [Drucker, 2000, p. 7]. The

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, ed. Gierat-

mists’’ organized by the Polish Economic Society Shorthand record of the seminar ‘Thursdays at econo-

24

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, ed. Gierat-

and the Club of Business Jounalists of the Asso-

pl/pliki/1/92/8_czwartek_%2019_04_2007.doc.

Bieroń B., Kraków 2006, v. II.

of Economists on 19th April 2007; http://www.pte.

ciation of Polish Journalists entitled ‘Economics in

i kontrola, Warszawa 1999.

culture – creativity in economics’ in Warsaw House

Grzelońska U., Ekonomiczny zarys sfery kultury; http://

Kotler Ph., Marketing. Analiza, planowanie, wdrażanie

ciation of Polish Journalists entitled ‘Economics in

culture – creativity in economics’ in Warsaw House

14.07.2008.

and the Club of Business Jounalists of the Asso-

www.inepan.waw.pl/seminarium38.html; access:

www.inepan.waw.pl/seminarium38.html; access:

mists’’ organized by the Polish Economic Society

14.07.2008.

Bieroń B., Kraków 2006, v. II. Grzelońska U., Ekonomiczny zarys sfery kultury; http://

pl/pliki/1/92/8_czwartek_%2019_04_2007.doc.

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, ed. Gierat-

2003/07/07/030707ta_talk_surowiecki Shorthand record of the seminar ‘Thursdays at econo-

of Economists on 19th April 2007; http://www.pte.

Bieroń B., Kowalski K., Kraków 2005, v. I.

07.07.2003; http://www.newyorker.com/archive/ i kontrola, Warszawa 1999.

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, ed. Gierat-

1990. Surowiecki J., What ails us [in:] “The New Yorker”

Kotler Ph., Marketing. Analiza, planowanie, wdrażanie

tuki, Kraków 2001. Drucker P., Zarządzanie w XXI w., Warszawa 2000.

K., Wrocław 1997.


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Knowledge Management in Non-profit Organizations: Case Study of Villa Decius Association. Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

1. Introduction

A

t the time when the industrial economy is being transferred into the economy based on knowledge, recognized experts in management (P. Drucker, A. Toffler) and international institutions (OECD, The World Bank) emphasize the meaning of knowledge management. Consequently, knowledge, artistic output and intangible assets are growing in importance in the world of economy and business. This situation is especially influenced by dynamic globalization processes in the world economy and the meaning of technology in the, so called, Knowledge Era. One of the main creators of the neoclassical economy, A Marshall, noticed that: “the capital mainly comprises of knowledge and organization. […] the knowledge is our biggest driving force of production […] The organization supports the knowledge” [Nonaka, Takeuchi, 2004, p. 12]. Introducing expressions such as “work with knowledge,” “knowledge employee,” “knowledge society” [Drucker, 2004, p. 13], P. Drucker emphasized that the key creativity factor for all areas of life is knowledge, and traditional assets such as capital, land or work lose their importance. Research devoted to “knowledge management,” conducted in 1977 in Cranfield School of Management in Great Britain, indicated the most popular definition of this phenomenon in the subject literature, which claims that: “knowledge management refers to all processes which lead to creation, promotion and usage of knowledge for organisational processes” [Kisielnicki, 2008, p. 11]. Among many approaches to knowledge management the Japanese approach initiated by I. Nonaka i H. Takeuchi should be first mentioned.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

The researchers claim that the formalized (explicit) knowledge expressed in words and numbers constitutes just the peak of an iceberg. They perceive knowledge mainly as the “hidden (tacit) knowledge” which is not visible and expressed at first notice. The knowledge which influences the quality of organization is characterized by a high individuality level and is also difficult to formalize. As a result it is hard to transfer or share this type of knowledge with the others. The mentioned knowledge includes: intuition, thinking models, organization culture, employee’s skills and predispositions – it constitutes the key intellectual capital. Basing on this Assumption, Japanese scientists created the concept of “knowledge spiral” which refers to knowledge conversion in an organization. A Toffler indicates characteristic features which differ the knowledge from traditional assets: knowledge domination (the priority of knowledge over other assets), inexhaustibility (the value of knowledge assets is not diminished while transferred, it is additionally enriched by new elements during the teaching process), simultaneity (many people can use the same knowledge at the same time), non-linearity (lack of vivid correspondence between the amount of knowledge assets and the profits which they generate). Knowledge and information: their quality and relevance become crucial competitive factors for a company. In the economy of the Information Era, the success is not measured only in reference to material assets but also in terms of successes in knowledge management and an ability to use intellectual capital of a company in the right way. In knowledge-based economy, an important role

25

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć Graduate from Culture Management at the Jagiellonian University and the College at Zittau/Görlitz, Germany (studies under the patronage of UNESCO and the Institute for Cultural Infrastructure of Saxony) and studies for German language’s translators at the Chair UNESCO, JU. She was the scholar of government USA programme Voluntary Visitor Program (2007). She is the translator and editor of many publications. She is the cultural manager connected with the Villa Decius Association, Cracow (she is responsible for international projects management). She is Ph.D. student at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication JU.

t the time when the industrial economy is being transferred into the economy based on knowledge, recognized experts in management (P. Drucker, A. Toffler) and international institutions (OECD, The World Bank) emphasize the meaning of knowledge management. Consequently, knowledge, artistic output and intangible assets are growing in importance in the world of economy and business. This situation is especially influenced by dynamic globalization processes in the world economy and the meaning of technology in the, so called, Knowledge Era. One of the main creators of the neoclassical economy, A Marshall, noticed that: “the capital mainly comprises of knowledge and organization. […] the knowledge is our biggest driving force of production […] The organization supports the knowledge” [Nonaka, Takeuchi, 2004, p. 12]. Introducing expressions such as “work with knowledge,” “knowledge employee,” “knowledge society” [Drucker, 2004, p. 13], P. Drucker emphasized that the key creativity factor for all areas of life is knowledge, and traditional assets such as capital, land or work lose their importance. Research devoted to “knowledge management,” conducted in 1977 in Cranfield School of Management in Great Britain, indicated the most popular definition of this phenomenon in the subject literature, which claims that: “knowledge management refers to all processes which lead to creation, promotion and usage of knowledge for organisational processes” [Kisielnicki, 2008, p. 11]. Among many approaches to knowledge management the Japanese approach initiated by I. Nonaka i H. Takeuchi should be first mentioned.

A

1. Introduction

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

The researchers claim that the formalized (explicit) knowledge expressed in words and numbers constitutes just the peak of an iceberg. They perceive knowledge mainly as the “hidden (tacit) knowledge” which is not visible and expressed at first notice. The knowledge which influences the quality of organization is characterized by a high individuality level and is also difficult to formalize. As a result it is hard to transfer or share this type of knowledge with the others. The mentioned knowledge includes: intuition, thinking models, organization culture, employee’s skills and predispositions – it constitutes the key intellectual capital. Basing on this Assumption, Japanese scientists created the concept of “knowledge spiral” which refers to knowledge conversion in an organization. A Toffler indicates characteristic features which differ the knowledge from traditional assets: knowledge domination (the priority of knowledge over other assets), inexhaustibility (the value of knowledge assets is not diminished while transferred, it is additionally enriched by new elements during the teaching process), simultaneity (many people can use the same knowledge at the same time), non-linearity (lack of vivid correspondence between the amount of knowledge assets and the profits which they generate). Knowledge and information: their quality and relevance become crucial competitive factors for a company. In the economy of the Information Era, the success is not measured only in reference to material assets but also in terms of successes in knowledge management and an ability to use intellectual capital of a company in the right way. In knowledge-based economy, an important role Translation: Ewa Gabryś

Knowledge Management in Non-profit Organizations: Case Study of Villa Decius Association.

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć Graduate from Culture Management at the Jagiellonian University and the College at Zittau/Görlitz, Germany (studies under the patronage of UNESCO and the Institute for Cultural Infrastructure of Saxony) and studies for German language’s translators at the Chair UNESCO, JU. She was the scholar of government USA programme Voluntary Visitor Program (2007). She is the translator and editor of many publications. She is the cultural manager connected with the Villa Decius Association, Cracow (she is responsible for international projects management). She is Ph.D. student at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication JU.


26

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

2.1 Profile of the organization 2. Knowledge management in operational dimension – the case of Villa Decius Association knowledge-based solutions were compared. The survey showed that 100% of analyzed organizations have no strategy of knowledge management, either formalized or non-formalized. Although knowledge-based systems are not used, over 52% of questioned people claim that knowledge management is very important for the organization represented by them, further 36% think that knowledge management is important but it is not a priority. According to Z. Łapniewska this result explicitly indicates that people are ready for organizational changes in the environment of non-profit organizations [Łapniewska, Szczerbiński, 2005].

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

is also played by non-commercial organizations – non-governmental organizations more often complete social tasks also due to the fact that democracy is a system which triggers development of civil society. An important characteristic of modern organizations is a tendency to treat employees as strategic resources which should be invested in. Knowledge organizations are the organizations whose crucial assets are the non-material assets based on knowledge (material, financial, informational, human competence and relations). The assets of such organizations constitute a configuration of mutually used resources [Mikuła 2006, p. 27]. K. Zimniewicz understands knowledge organizations as the concept of management based on a sum of knowledge of particular employees – the knowledge, which is constantly enriched and made “available” for the company [Zimniewicz, 2003, p. 108–109].

illa Decius Association has operated since 1995 on the basis of the act from 7th April 1989, Association Law. It has completed interdisciplinary projects which provide for a multifaceted outlook on the role of culture in the contemporary world and issues of multicultural cooperation in the area of human rights. The association gains public (partial funding of goal-oriented projects, grants – in competitions organized by local and central public administration and the European Union) and private means (funds, sponsors, commercial donators). It also conducts business and rents guest rooms and other spaces. The approach to knowledge management in the operational range is based on creation of formal knowledge – easily articulated (e.g.in documents) and tacit knowledge – difficult or unable to be articulated (e.g., experience), which are then processed and gathered, protected and practically used to gain some assumed goals of an organization [Błaszczuk, 2004, p. 23]. Consequently, the Association has developed a recruitment process for new employees/ coworkers, a motivating system, a system of gaining and practical use of information, making decisions during project realizations, raising financial and material resources, action coordination. According to T. A. Hurley and C. W. Green knowledge management in an organization should be based on a four-element model which in the opinion of H. Leavitt consists of: people, goals (tasks) chosen by the people, technique and structure. Without the right balance between these systems and without the right coordination of the relations between them there will be no culture of right knowledge management [Łapniewska, 2008].

V

26

V

1.1. Using knowledge-based systems in non-governmental organizations

nowledge management is an art of building an organization “based on knowledge and open to knowledge,” whose strategy, employees, organizational culture and technology are integrated around effective use of knowledge. There are very few scientific articles devoted to knowledge management or to a practical use of knowledge-based systems in non-governmental organizations. The article worth mentioning here is Knowledge Management and the Nonprofit Industry: A Within and Between Approach by T. A. Hurley and C. W. Green published in January, 2005, which suggests that non-governmental organizations should manage knowledge in the same way as the organizations generating profits. The authors indicate two approaches to knowledge management: “within” (a need to change organizational culture) and “between” (coordination of knowledge management culture between organizations in order to raise funds and new knowledge stores effectively) [Łapniewska 2008]. In Poland there are no reliable data concerning the state of knowledge management in nongovernmental organizations. The aim of one of the surveys performed in 2005 by Z. Łapniewską was to show the current level of familiarity of knowledge-based systems and an extent to which they are used in non-governmental organizations registered in Poland. First, the initiatives which are to improve the knowledge management and effectiveness were identified and then the advancement levels referring to introduction of

2.1 Profile of the organization

K

K

2. Knowledge management in operational dimension – the case of Villa Decius Association

illa Decius Association has operated since 1995 on the basis of the act from 7th April 1989, Association Law. It has completed interdisciplinary projects which provide for a multifaceted outlook on the role of culture in the contemporary world and issues of multicultural cooperation in the area of human rights. The association gains public (partial funding of goal-oriented projects, grants – in competitions organized by local and central public administration and the European Union) and private means (funds, sponsors, commercial donators). It also conducts business and rents guest rooms and other spaces. The approach to knowledge management in the operational range is based on creation of formal knowledge – easily articulated (e.g.in documents) and tacit knowledge – difficult or unable to be articulated (e.g., experience), which are then processed and gathered, protected and practically used to gain some assumed goals of an organization [Błaszczuk, 2004, p. 23]. Consequently, the Association has developed a recruitment process for new employees/ coworkers, a motivating system, a system of gaining and practical use of information, making decisions during project realizations, raising financial and material resources, action coordination. According to T. A. Hurley and C. W. Green knowledge management in an organization should be based on a four-element model which in the opinion of H. Leavitt consists of: people, goals (tasks) chosen by the people, technique and structure. Without the right balance between these systems and without the right coordination of the relations between them there will be no culture of right knowledge management [Łapniewska, 2008].

1.1. Using knowledge-based systems in non-governmental organizations

knowledge-based solutions were compared. The survey showed that 100% of analyzed organizations have no strategy of knowledge management, either formalized or non-formalized. Although knowledge-based systems are not used, over 52% of questioned people claim that knowledge management is very important for the organization represented by them, further 36% think that knowledge management is important but it is not a priority. According to Z. Łapniewska this result explicitly indicates that people are ready for organizational changes in the environment of non-profit organizations [Łapniewska, Szczerbiński, 2005].

nowledge management is an art of building an organization “based on knowledge and open to knowledge,” whose strategy, employees, organizational culture and technology are integrated around effective use of knowledge. There are very few scientific articles devoted to knowledge management or to a practical use of knowledge-based systems in non-governmental organizations. The article worth mentioning here is Knowledge Management and the Nonprofit Industry: A Within and Between Approach by T. A. Hurley and C. W. Green published in January, 2005, which suggests that non-governmental organizations should manage knowledge in the same way as the organizations generating profits. The authors indicate two approaches to knowledge management: “within” (a need to change organizational culture) and “between” (coordination of knowledge management culture between organizations in order to raise funds and new knowledge stores effectively) [Łapniewska 2008]. In Poland there are no reliable data concerning the state of knowledge management in nongovernmental organizations. The aim of one of the surveys performed in 2005 by Z. Łapniewską was to show the current level of familiarity of knowledge-based systems and an extent to which they are used in non-governmental organizations registered in Poland. First, the initiatives which are to improve the knowledge management and effectiveness were identified and then the advancement levels referring to introduction of

is also played by non-commercial organizations – non-governmental organizations more often complete social tasks also due to the fact that democracy is a system which triggers development of civil society. An important characteristic of modern organizations is a tendency to treat employees as strategic resources which should be invested in. Knowledge organizations are the organizations whose crucial assets are the non-material assets based on knowledge (material, financial, informational, human competence and relations). The assets of such organizations constitute a configuration of mutually used resources [Mikuła 2006, p. 27]. K. Zimniewicz understands knowledge organizations as the concept of management based on a sum of knowledge of particular employees – the knowledge, which is constantly enriched and made “available” for the company [Zimniewicz, 2003, p. 108–109].


27

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

2.2. Tasks

T

he Association’s Intellectual assets, which are gathered in documents and as the skills of the employees, are transformed into economic effects (increased productivity, increased competitiveness, increased competence, quicker actions, better productivity and profitability while realizing statutory tasks). Project management teaches employees of the Association how to optimize the skills in their individual and team work and how to make knowledge the basic capital of the organization. The tasks which are faced by the Association workers are especially important. Due to the character of the organization, the projects realized by the coordinators are motivating, innovative, interesting and often original – the employees are aware of the responsibility, can create the tasks themselves, which, in consequence, evokes enthusiasm indispensible while realizing a project. Moreover, the workers have the director’s support, they are sure that their knowledge and skills constitute a living store of the organization. Individual approach to a project, prompts knowledge sharing, it also triggers the formation of informal consultation groups within the organization and outside it with other competent persons who have already gained experience in a given field.

2.3. Human Capital

T

he most important ingredients of the Association’s human capital are competence, skill, “know-how” and talent of the employed people (15 workers and 5 permanent co-workers). In the survey conducted in January 2008 the competence of the workers was considered to be good both in the internal and external environment1. In full sense, the qualifications include: professional knowledge, practical skills, talent and some particular personality features which predispose a person to work in the Association. The knowledge of the employees, both theoretical and gained by experience, is considered an asset of the Organization. Factual workers and co-workers are domestic and foreign university graduates of humanities, they communicatively know at least one foreign language and have additional specializations: they have finished specialized courses or postgraduate studies. 26% of the staff continue their education on MA and PhD level.

1

The Association workers are often recruited from the group of volunteers or trainees. This is very positive for the choice of employees who form a well-functioning informal net of bonds between people who trust one another. While constructing a project, coordinators specialize in chosen fields according to their interests (human rights, international relations, literature). To gain information which is indispensible for their every-day work, the factual workers participate in external courses in Poland and abroad. Apart from that, they learn about the history of Villa Decius park and palace. They use this knowledge to show the tourists from Poland and abroad around the complex. Most people employed in the Association consciously or unconsciously build up their own knowledge bases. On one hand, they enrich the knowledge assets of the organization, on the other they increase their own skills and competence.

2.4. Technology

I

n every organization, knowledge management requires a good knowledge gathering system, which locates knowledge in a company (“who knows what?”) and makes its transition much easier. Such system consists of simple applications, an access to data bases, expertise, legal acts, documents concerning projects, certain procedures. Technology makes sharing knowledge much easier. The Association develops its technical base, it also has a possibility of combining wireless Internet points. Due to the intranet system, the workers have access to webpages and electronic mail. The Internet goes beyond the organization (it is possible to search the Association stores via Internet, e.g. by providing a login and a password), which is especially useful while realizing a project or in unexpected situations. Taking into consideration economic (financial), logistic (a space for press archives) and ecological (only the most important articles or adverts are printed) arguments, in 2008 the Association started electronic magazine subscription. The advantages of electronic papers are as follows: information can be browsed easily, a magazine can be enriched by interactive (active links to other articles or webpages) or multimedia elements (video adverts or animations which explain the usage of a device).

The survey was conducted in January 2008 by W. Odzimek i A. Kowalska before drawing up the strategy plan for Villa Decius Association for the period between 2008–2012.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

27

1

The survey was conducted in January 2008 by W. Odzimek i A. Kowalska before drawing up the strategy plan for Villa Decius Association for the period between 2008–2012.

he most important ingredients of the Association’s human capital are competence, skill, “know-how” and talent of the employed people (15 workers and 5 permanent co-workers). In the survey conducted in January 2008 the competence of the workers was considered to be good both in the internal and external environment1. In full sense, the qualifications include: professional knowledge, practical skills, talent and some particular personality features which predispose a person to work in the Association. The knowledge of the employees, both theoretical and gained by experience, is considered an asset of the Organization. Factual workers and co-workers are domestic and foreign university graduates of humanities, they communicatively know at least one foreign language and have additional specializations: they have finished specialized courses or postgraduate studies. 26% of the staff continue their education on MA and PhD level.

T

2.3. Human Capital he Association’s Intellectual assets, which are gathered in documents and as the skills of the employees, are transformed into economic effects (increased productivity, increased competitiveness, increased competence, quicker actions, better productivity and profitability while realizing statutory tasks). Project management teaches employees of the Association how to optimize the skills in their individual and team work and how to make knowledge the basic capital of the organization. The tasks which are faced by the Association workers are especially important. Due to the character of the organization, the projects realized by the coordinators are motivating, innovative, interesting and often original – the employees are aware of the responsibility, can create the tasks themselves, which, in consequence, evokes enthusiasm indispensible while realizing a project. Moreover, the workers have the director’s support, they are sure that their knowledge and skills constitute a living store of the organization. Individual approach to a project, prompts knowledge sharing, it also triggers the formation of informal consultation groups within the organization and outside it with other competent persons who have already gained experience in a given field.

T

2.2. Tasks

n every organization, knowledge management requires a good knowledge gathering system, which locates knowledge in a company (“who knows what?”) and makes its transition much easier. Such system consists of simple applications, an access to data bases, expertise, legal acts, documents concerning projects, certain procedures. Technology makes sharing knowledge much easier. The Association develops its technical base, it also has a possibility of combining wireless Internet points. Due to the intranet system, the workers have access to webpages and electronic mail. The Internet goes beyond the organization (it is possible to search the Association stores via Internet, e.g. by providing a login and a password), which is especially useful while realizing a project or in unexpected situations. Taking into consideration economic (financial), logistic (a space for press archives) and ecological (only the most important articles or adverts are printed) arguments, in 2008 the Association started electronic magazine subscription. The advantages of electronic papers are as follows: information can be browsed easily, a magazine can be enriched by interactive (active links to other articles or webpages) or multimedia elements (video adverts or animations which explain the usage of a device).

I

2.4. Technology The Association workers are often recruited from the group of volunteers or trainees. This is very positive for the choice of employees who form a well-functioning informal net of bonds between people who trust one another. While constructing a project, coordinators specialize in chosen fields according to their interests (human rights, international relations, literature). To gain information which is indispensible for their every-day work, the factual workers participate in external courses in Poland and abroad. Apart from that, they learn about the history of Villa Decius park and palace. They use this knowledge to show the tourists from Poland and abroad around the complex. Most people employed in the Association consciously or unconsciously build up their own knowledge bases. On one hand, they enrich the knowledge assets of the organization, on the other they increase their own skills and competence.


28

3.1. psychological factors 3. Problems and obstacles

U

3.3. Not trusting technology

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

very organization is specific. The solutions successfully introduced in one place do not have to work for the other. The managing directors who wish to apply the rules of knowledge management in their organization must fulfill certain conditions. First of all they need to be familiarized with the concept itself, secondly they must know how their organization works and finally, they should understand the essence of changes brought about by the growing role of knowledge in the world of business and everyday life. The role of workers’ intellectual potential which constitutes a firm basis for an organization is very important while transferring business

nfortunately, the technological potential of the Association is not fully used. Most workers do not have sufficient knowledge of existing knowledge management tools and systems (the Association does not use decision supporting systems, modern client relation management systems, group work supporting systems, ekstranet, expert knowledge locating systems). The development of the workers is often hindered by their old habits and fear of modern technology. Therefore, in the future the Association will face a challenge of learning how to use existing knowledge resources and introduce complex knowledge-based systems.

E

3.4. Technical barriers

28

4. Conclusion

T

nother important reason for insufficient application of knowledge sharing rules within the Association is lack of time. The project coordinators (4 workers and 2 co-workers) realize projects (over 60 events) of various character, which consist of many tasks, including cyclical or long-term events (e.g. studio visits, summer schools, vocal courses, scholarship programs) and they have to deal with all phases of project management (including: planning and establishing programs and budgets for an event, gaining funds, preparing and conducting the event and finally settling the bills and project evaluation). Therefore, knowledge is mainly shared during informal meetings and discussions. D. Owens, vice-president of knowledge management department in Unisys Corporation suggests that only 2% of information is written down. All the remaining part is kept in human minds, that is why informal meetings are so important [Łapniewska, 15.01.2008].

he Association does not have a data archiving system (for project documents, photographic and phonographic documents), the information is not also well protected against technical problems, computer viruses or leaving workers and co-workers. This fact has already resulted in irreversible data loss a few times. Apart from that there are no replacements for Association workers when they participate in external training, have a foreign committee visit or holidays. It is connected with the fact that every worker has too many duties and there is no possibility of employing another person for a limited period of time. Finally, Villa Decius is a historical building and as such it cannot be architecturally innovated for the optimal use of the office space which would suit both the workers and the Health and Safety rules.

he survey conducted by Management Theory Department at Warsaw School of Economics revealed that 80% of polled Polish directors think that competition between employees destroys knowledge sharing culture [Kisielicki, 2008, p. 17]. As a result, it seems quite a challenge to overcome worker’s fears of sharing knowledge with others and to encourage them to do so. The Association workers do not always know the way their knowledge is going to be used, who is going to benefit from it, whether they will be satisfyingly reworded when their knowledge is used to gain a success, for example during project realization. A sort of competition within the organization (e.g. workers and co-workers) blocks a complete use of knowledge resources. Often long-term employees use standard solutions, which may hinder knowledge acquisition processes. One of the biggest problems which the management of the Association has to face, is persuading workers to share their knowledge regularly and to cooperate in this respect with the others. Working out an effective motivating system which would include financial and non-financial elements is a very important factor here. The workers have to be persuaded that it is worth sharing knowledge and that this fact will not reduce their value.

A

T

3.2. Lack of time

3.2. Lack of time

3.4. Technical barriers

he Association does not have a data archiving system (for project documents, photographic and phonographic documents), the information is not also well protected against technical problems, computer viruses or leaving workers and co-workers. This fact has already resulted in irreversible data loss a few times. Apart from that there are no replacements for Association workers when they participate in external training, have a foreign committee visit or holidays. It is connected with the fact that every worker has too many duties and there is no possibility of employing another person for a limited period of time. Finally, Villa Decius is a historical building and as such it cannot be architecturally innovated for the optimal use of the office space which would suit both the workers and the Health and Safety rules.

he survey conducted by Management Theory Department at Warsaw School of Economics revealed that 80% of polled Polish directors think that competition between employees destroys knowledge sharing culture [Kisielicki, 2008, p. 17]. As a result, it seems quite a challenge to overcome worker’s fears of sharing knowledge with others and to encourage them to do so. The Association workers do not always know the way their knowledge is going to be used, who is going to benefit from it, whether they will be satisfyingly reworded when their knowledge is used to gain a success, for example during project realization. A sort of competition within the organization (e.g. workers and co-workers) blocks a complete use of knowledge resources. Often long-term employees use standard solutions, which may hinder knowledge acquisition processes. One of the biggest problems which the management of the Association has to face, is persuading workers to share their knowledge regularly and to cooperate in this respect with the others. Working out an effective motivating system which would include financial and non-financial elements is a very important factor here. The workers have to be persuaded that it is worth sharing knowledge and that this fact will not reduce their value.

A

T

nfortunately, the technological potential of the Association is not fully used. Most workers do not have sufficient knowledge of existing knowledge management tools and systems (the Association does not use decision supporting systems, modern client relation management systems, group work supporting systems, ekstranet, expert knowledge locating systems). The development of the workers is often hindered by their old habits and fear of modern technology. Therefore, in the future the Association will face a challenge of learning how to use existing knowledge resources and introduce complex knowledge-based systems.

4. Conclusion

U

E

3.1. psychological factors

very organization is specific. The solutions successfully introduced in one place do not have to work for the other. The managing directors who wish to apply the rules of knowledge management in their organization must fulfill certain conditions. First of all they need to be familiarized with the concept itself, secondly they must know how their organization works and finally, they should understand the essence of changes brought about by the growing role of knowledge in the world of business and everyday life. The role of workers’ intellectual potential which constitutes a firm basis for an organization is very important while transferring business

3.3. Not trusting technology

nother important reason for insufficient application of knowledge sharing rules within the Association is lack of time. The project coordinators (4 workers and 2 co-workers) realize projects (over 60 events) of various character, which consist of many tasks, including cyclical or long-term events (e.g. studio visits, summer schools, vocal courses, scholarship programs) and they have to deal with all phases of project management (including: planning and establishing programs and budgets for an event, gaining funds, preparing and conducting the event and finally settling the bills and project evaluation). Therefore, knowledge is mainly shared during informal meetings and discussions. D. Owens, vice-president of knowledge management department in Unisys Corporation suggests that only 2% of information is written down. All the remaining part is kept in human minds, that is why informal meetings are so important [Łapniewska, 15.01.2008].

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

3. Problems and obstacles


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

models and business practices into the world of non-profit organizations. It seems a good idea to promote knowledge management which aims at “effective use of knowledge, intellectual capital and consequently at improvement of innovation which improves competitiveness” [Strojny, 2000, p. 22]. In order to create a system of knowledge management, these words should be included in the mission of the organization. It is also necessary to implement the right system of management and correct methods to measure the effectiveness of knowledge use and the, so called, intellectual capital (for example, a balanced result chart, monitoring the non-material assets or Skandia Navigator). The Villa Decius Association should improve their effectiveness while meeting the needs of their target groups, which the programs are aimed at. These aspects are connected with the statutory aims of the organization and the overall sense of its existence. The employees of this association are open to new solutions and eager to learn. As a result, the potential for the development of new programs and their better realization is enormous. It would be very precious for the employees to take part in courses which would teach them how to obtain grants more effectively. They should also learn how to share their knowledge on project management. The analysis of the program activity of the Villa Decius Association shows that despite the lack of

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

knowledge management strategy, the Association accidentally realizes initiatives based on knowledge, it is interested in increasing consciousness of knowledge management and would wish to build an image of an organization based on knowledge. Using creative group thinking while dealing with a problem in non-governmental organizations seems to be very important for introducing new solutions based on knowledge. In such a situation it is possible to achieve a synergetic effect, which might be decisive for gaining a success in a given task. Knowledge management is gradually becoming a useful tool not only for companies but also for non-governmental organizations. When the profits generated with the use of knowledge management become more common, there is a chance that knowledge based systems will also be used in non-governmental organizations. The non-profit organizations try to maintain positive image in the area of their activity because they compete both for the recipient of their work and a sponsor or a grant-giver who would enable their activity. As a result, they have to be oriented towards new solutions and ideas which would improve their activity and which help them to reach their target groups more effectively. Therefore, non-profit organizations should not neglect their investments in that area, as they are indispensable to start the absorption process of the suitable knowledge and a practical use of it.

29

models and business practices into the world of non-profit organizations. It seems a good idea to promote knowledge management which aims at “effective use of knowledge, intellectual capital and consequently at improvement of innovation which improves competitiveness” [Strojny, 2000, p. 22]. In order to create a system of knowledge management, these words should be included in the mission of the organization. It is also necessary to implement the right system of management and correct methods to measure the effectiveness of knowledge use and the, so called, intellectual capital (for example, a balanced result chart, monitoring the non-material assets or Skandia Navigator). The Villa Decius Association should improve their effectiveness while meeting the needs of their target groups, which the programs are aimed at. These aspects are connected with the statutory aims of the organization and the overall sense of its existence. The employees of this association are open to new solutions and eager to learn. As a result, the potential for the development of new programs and their better realization is enormous. It would be very precious for the employees to take part in courses which would teach them how to obtain grants more effectively. They should also learn how to share their knowledge on project management. The analysis of the program activity of the Villa Decius Association shows that despite the lack of

29

knowledge management strategy, the Association accidentally realizes initiatives based on knowledge, it is interested in increasing consciousness of knowledge management and would wish to build an image of an organization based on knowledge. Using creative group thinking while dealing with a problem in non-governmental organizations seems to be very important for introducing new solutions based on knowledge. In such a situation it is possible to achieve a synergetic effect, which might be decisive for gaining a success in a given task. Knowledge management is gradually becoming a useful tool not only for companies but also for non-governmental organizations. When the profits generated with the use of knowledge management become more common, there is a chance that knowledge based systems will also be used in non-governmental organizations. The non-profit organizations try to maintain positive image in the area of their activity because they compete both for the recipient of their work and a sponsor or a grant-giver who would enable their activity. As a result, they have to be oriented towards new solutions and ideas which would improve their activity and which help them to reach their target groups more effectively. Therefore, non-profit organizations should not neglect their investments in that area, as they are indispensable to start the absorption process of the suitable knowledge and a practical use of it.


30

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

To save national mementoes for future generations... On the social movement of monument renovation in Kraków in the 19th century Franciszek Ziejka

1.

T

he turmoils of war which rolled by through the Polish territory again and again did not spare Kraków. Especially in the 18th and the 19th centuries. In 1655 our city was plundered by Swedes. Many districts were burnt, and what is more, the inhabitants were laid under contributions also in the first years of the 18th century. Other dangerous invaders were Austrians or Russians, who in the period of the decline of the Republic again and again invaded Kraków, destroying its buildings, levying enormous contributions from the people. Apart from foreign armies, Kraków had also other enemies. They were epidemics, floods and above all fires. Historians claim that form the 12th century until the middle of the 19th century this element devastated the city more than forty times! However, after every consecutive disaster of this kind the city rose from the ashes. The houses were rebuilt, the churches were restored their splendour, and new ones were built. Nor did the city surrender to the disasters which befell it in the second half of the 18th century. Walerian Kalinka writes that during seven August days of 1767 (from 6th to 12th August) a great fire totally consumed Zwierzyniec, Kleparz, Lubicz, Wesoła, Nowy Świat, Wielopole, Garbarze, Krupniki and the royal mills. Piasek, Biskupie, the buildings over the Visitians, the royal gardens, Smoleńsk, and on the last day Długa and Szlak, once the property of the Italian Montelupi family. During the next years Kraków was alternately invaded by Russian and Polish

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Translation: Marta Białecka

troops [Kalinka, 1850, p. 9; see: Łepkowski, 1846]. The city started to become depopulated. After the Kościuszko uprising the inhabitants left the city as if destined for destruction, left their houses for God’s mercy, which collapsed one by one, so there was no street or square where one would not see houses which either had already collapsed or were supported with poles [ibidem, p. 11]. Stanisław Krzyżanowski reminded in 1902 that according to the census from 1795 in Kraków (and in neighbouring jurisdictions, i.e. suburban settlements, i.e.: Rybaki, Pędzichów, Biskupie, Smoleńsko, Szlak, Groble, Garbary) there lived a little more than 11 thousand inhabitants, of which only in Jewish Kazimierz almost 2 thousand [Krzyżanowski, 1901, pp. 50–54]. Another side of Kraków’s decline from the turn of the 18th century was indicated by Marian Sokołowski and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz in the memoir on the first government conservator of West Galicia, Paweł Popiel. Their text says that At the beginning of this century [i.e. the 19th] Kraków completely forgot what artistic treasures it had in itself. From foreigners passing by it sometimes learnt incidentally that it had masterpieces suitable for first rate capitals. People went to Italy, even collected foreign works of art for fashion, but they could not assess their own monuments, assuming in advance that there could not be any excellent ones in Poland [Sokołowski, Łuszczkiewicz, 1893, p. 8]. To quite a big degree the fate of Kraków of those times was influenced by the decisions of the invasive authorities. Already in the first years

31

Prof. dr hab. Franciszek Ziejka Historian of Polish literature, rector JU (1999-2005). In 1996 he was elected for a member-correspondent the Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 2002 – for an active member. He is a member of the Scientific Board Polish Library in Paris. He leads the National Museum’s Board in Cracow. Since 2005 he has been the leader of the Civic Committee for Renovation of Historical Monuments in Cracow. He was decorated with inter alia the Grand Order of Merit by President of Portugal (Grande Oficial da Ordem do Merito); honored several prominent French distinctions: Palmes Academiques (1994; 2001), Order National du merite (2002), Legion d’Honneur (2006). In 2002 Chancellor of the Republic of Austria

he turmoils of war which rolled by through the Polish territory again and again did not spare Kraków. Especially in the 18th and the 19th centuries. In 1655 our city was plundered by Swedes. Many districts were burnt, and what is more, the inhabitants were laid under contributions also in the first years of the 18th century. Other dangerous invaders were Austrians or Russians, who in the period of the decline of the Republic again and again invaded Kraków, destroying its buildings, levying enormous contributions from the people. Apart from foreign armies, Kraków had also other enemies. They were epidemics, floods and above all fires. Historians claim that form the 12th century until the middle of the 19th century this element devastated the city more than forty times! However, after every consecutive disaster of this kind the city rose from the ashes. The houses were rebuilt, the churches were restored their splendour, and new ones were built. Nor did the city surrender to the disasters which befell it in the second half of the 18th century. Walerian Kalinka writes that during seven August days of 1767 (from 6th to 12th August) a great fire totally consumed Zwierzyniec, Kleparz, Lubicz, Wesoła, Nowy Świat, Wielopole, Garbarze, Krupniki and the royal mills. Piasek, Biskupie, the buildings over the Visitians, the royal gardens, Smoleńsk, and on the last day Długa and Szlak, once the property of the Italian Montelupi family. During the next years Kraków was alternately invaded by Russian and Polish

T 1.

Franciszek Ziejka

troops [Kalinka, 1850, p. 9; see: Łepkowski, 1846]. The city started to become depopulated. After the Kościuszko uprising the inhabitants left the city as if destined for destruction, left their houses for God’s mercy, which collapsed one by one, so there was no street or square where one would not see houses which either had already collapsed or were supported with poles [ibidem, p. 11]. Stanisław Krzyżanowski reminded in 1902 that according to the census from 1795 in Kraków (and in neighbouring jurisdictions, i.e. suburban settlements, i.e.: Rybaki, Pędzichów, Biskupie, Smoleńsko, Szlak, Groble, Garbary) there lived a little more than 11 thousand inhabitants, of which only in Jewish Kazimierz almost 2 thousand [Krzyżanowski, 1901, pp. 50–54]. Another side of Kraków’s decline from the turn of the 18th century was indicated by Marian Sokołowski and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz in the memoir on the first government conservator of West Galicia, Paweł Popiel. Their text says that At the beginning of this century [i.e. the 19th] Kraków completely forgot what artistic treasures it had in itself. From foreigners passing by it sometimes learnt incidentally that it had masterpieces suitable for first rate capitals. People went to Italy, even collected foreign works of art for fashion, but they could not assess their own monuments, assuming in advance that there could not be any excellent ones in Poland [Sokołowski, Łuszczkiewicz, 1893, p. 8]. To quite a big degree the fate of Kraków of those times was influenced by the decisions of the invasive authorities. Already in the first years Translation: Marta Białecka

To save national mementoes for future generations... On the social movement of monument renovation in Kraków in the 19th century

Prof. dr hab. Franciszek Ziejka Historian of Polish literature, rector JU (1999-2005). In 1996 he was elected for a member-correspondent the Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 2002 – for an active member. He is a member of the Scientific Board Polish Library in Paris. He leads the National Museum’s Board in Cracow. Since 2005 he has been the leader of the Civic Committee for Renovation of Historical Monuments in Cracow. He was decorated with inter alia the Grand Order of Merit by President of Portugal (Grande Oficial da Ordem do Merito); honored several prominent French distinctions: Palmes Academiques (1994; 2001), Order National du merite (2002), Legion d’Honneur (2006). In 2002 Chancellor of the Republic of Austria


awarded him the Republic of Austria Grand Cross of Merit, in 2005 he was awarded the Grand Order of Merit by President of Federal Republic of Germany. In 2002 the International Mauthausen Committee awarded prof. Ziejka Medal “Pro meritis”. Doctor Honoris Causa from the Pontifical Faculty of Theology in Wrocław, the Pedagogical University of Cracow, the Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, the Pontifical Academy of Theology in Cracow and the Maria Curie Skłodowska University in Lublin. He is the author of many publications and pieces for TV Theatre. He is also the producer a number of broadcasts. For many years he was the editor-in-chief of „Ruch Literacki”.

of the 19th century, invoking sanitary reasons, the Austrian authorities gave an order to pull down the ramparts and embankments. The demolition works at the walls were conducted for many years and the obtained brick and stone were sold by auction. What changed were only the premises of these works. If at the beginning mainly sanitary reasons were mentioned1, soon a new term appeared, which became a word – skeleton key: beautifying of the city. Bandying this slogan they pulled down not only the battlements of the city (finally the majority of the walls, including 44 gates and towers! fell victim to demolishing),

1

but also a number of other historic buildings. For example in 1819, after two-year discussions in the senate of the city of Kraków, a decision of demolishing the Town Hall was made (the Town Hall Tower survived only because it was considered a good vantage point for firemen). For a few dozen of years, since the 80s of the 18th century, there lasted a great action of pulling down old Gothic and baroque churches in Kraków. It is symptomatic that only in the years of 1796 – 1809 15 churches! Were demolished here. In the next thirty years ten more were pulled down. A few others were desacralized2.

The action of demolishing churches in Kraków was started at the beginning of the 80s of the 18th century by the then primate of Poland – archbishop Michał Poniatowski, managing the diocese of Kraków on behalf of the mentally ill bishop Kajetan Sołtyk. The action of demolishing old churches initiated in the 80s of the 18th century lasted over half a century. During this time they pulled down: the church under the invocation of the Annunciation to the Holy Virgin Mary and St. Scholastica (The Benedictine Nuns’) – on the corner of św. Krzyża street and św. Marka street (in 1782); St. James the Apostle Church at Skawińska street (1787); St. Peter’s Church – on the corner of Grodzka street and Poselska street (1791); SS. Michael and St. Joseph’s Church – at Poselska street (1797); SS. Philip and James’s Church – at Kleparz (1801); St. Peter’s Church – at Łobzowska street (1801); St. Szczepan’s Church – at Plac Szczepański (1802); St. George’s Church – on Wawel Hill (1803-04); St. Michael’s Church – on Wawel Hill (1803–04); desacralized already in 1797 SS. Maciej and Matthew’s Church – at Plac Szczepański (1809); St. Gertrude’s Church – at Św. Gertrudy street (1810); St. Mary Magdalen’s Church – at Plac Magdaleny (1811); the Church of the Holy Cross – at Słowiańska street (1818); St. Valentine’s Church – at Pędzichów (1818); St. Sebastian’s Church – at Sebastiana street (1821); All Saints’ Church – at Plac Wszystkich Świętych (1835–38). Several churches were desacralized, and the buildings were designed to other purposes: the Church of the

It must have been really true, which is confirmed by the witnesses of those years. K. Bąkowski quotes in his History of Kraków the opinion of an Austrian conservator, J. A. Schultes, who in 1806 described the walls in Kraków in the following way: The old towers, walls and belfries are a home of jackdaws. It is dark during the day because of them, these birds find food in the old city moats, serving as cesspits [Bąkowski, 1898, p. 165]. The condition of the ramparts of Kraków at the beginning of the 19th century was shown extremely vividly and without beautifying by Ambroży Grabowski. Let us quote here fragments of his remarks, for they have a documentary value. Thus Grabowski wrote that Kraków was surrounded by a double wall and there were towers around. The exterior space round the walls, which separated the city from the suburbs was inaccessible, covered with heaps of rubbish, mud and rubble, removed from the city and raised chaotically, overgrown with a forest of thistles, nettles, cowbane, sow-thistle, intersected in various directions with boggy and stinking sewage flowing from the city, from which an unbearable stench spread, particularly during summer heat [...] T he sp ace from the sid e gate to Wi ślna gate. One could only use a narrow pathway to get from the side gate near Wawel to Wiślna gate. The whole space near the walls was covered with rubbish and rubble [...] In the holes between them there was stinking liquid manure, and the edges were overgrown with weeds and stalks [...] From Wiślna gate to Szewska gate. At Wiślna gate, almost touching it, there was quite a wide ditch filled with squalor in the state of a dense liquid, which poisoned the whole surface with its reek, and from this stinking stream marsh gas of repulsive stench was getting out in the form of bubbles, which covered its whole surface. Behind this ditch near St. Norbert’s Church there was a piece of arable land, which was sown with millet, etc. [...] Further on towards Szewska gate there were still traces of old moats, but they were almost covered with rubbish and stone rubble. [...] From Szewska g ate to Sławkowska gate. Here one could more clearly see old moats, which in some places were covered with grass and where cattle grazed. In winter, when water from autumn downpours froze, there were excellent slides there [...] Here behind the Reformati’s Church there was an earth mound, that is the unfinished Rondel (round bastion), which Russians invading Kraków during the Bar Confederation began to make for better defence of the city, forcing Cracovians to work [...] This part of the city, like others, was surrounded by a double wall, between which, as everywhere, there were long and narrow gardens, in which within my memory there were skittle-alleys and beer was served. [...] From Sł aw kowska to F loriań ska. The space was small from one gate to the other. There was a deep moat here, built of stone and it was best preserved. The moat went round the city arsenal which is still there. [...] From F lori ańska gate to Mikoł a j ska g ate. In this area there were best preserved old city fortifications, a moat, two walls and towers. The very Floriańska gate was surrounded by a deep moat, made of ashlar, and from the outside from Kleparz over this moat there was a drawbridge in the 15th and the 17th centuries, like in all gates. [...] From Floriańska gate towards Mikołajska gate between the walls there were small gardens; in one of them, which was entered from Floriańska gate, there were gunpowder stalls at the walls, perhaps ten of them. [...] Inside Mikołajska gate there was the entrance to the garden between the walls, where there was a shooting gallery (called Celestat), in which before the partition of Poland Cracovians shot at a cock. [...] From Mikoła j ska gate to the N ewg ate. There was also an embankment surrounding a moat, with puddles and stinking mud. The embankment was low but wide, because every day it was widened with mud removed from the streets of Kraków. [...] From the Newgate to Grodzkagate. Here, behind Holy Trinity Church there was a wall and towers. Further near St. Joseph’s Church and behind SS. Peter and Paul’s Church there was only a wall without towers, which standing here in the past were deteriorating. The countryside here was empty, muddy, in disorder, and the ditches were filled with decaying litter. The place was little frequented and only a narrow pathway led here near St. Sebastian’s meadow, which was used to get from Grodzka gate to Wesoła and to Kleparz. [...] This view became even more unpleasant when in the Austrian and the Duchy of Warsaw times the walls and towers were demolished, and then none of the ruined places was carefully levelled [Grabowski,1909, p. 182 – 188].

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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

It must have been really true, which is confirmed by the witnesses of those years. K. Bąkowski quotes in his History of Kraków the opinion of an Austrian conservator, J. A. Schultes, who in 1806 described the walls in Kraków in the following way: The old towers, walls and belfries are a home of jackdaws. It is dark during the day because of them, these birds find food in the old city moats, serving as cesspits [Bąkowski, 1898, p. 165]. The condition of the ramparts of Kraków at the beginning of the 19th century was shown extremely vividly and without beautifying by Ambroży Grabowski. Let us quote here fragments of his remarks, for they have a documentary value. Thus Grabowski wrote that Kraków was surrounded by a double wall and there were towers around. The exterior space round the walls, which separated the city from the suburbs was inaccessible, covered with heaps of rubbish, mud and rubble, removed from the city and raised chaotically, overgrown with a forest of thistles, nettles, cowbane, sow-thistle, intersected in various directions with boggy and stinking sewage flowing from the city, from which an unbearable stench spread, particularly during summer heat [...] T he space from the side gate to Wiślna gate. One could only use a narrow pathway to get from the side gate near Wawel to Wiślna gate. The whole space near the walls was covered with rubbish and rubble [...] In the holes between them there was stinking liquid manure, and the edges were overgrown with weeds and stalks [...] From Wiślna gate to Szewska gate. At Wiślna gate, almost touching it, there was quite a wide ditch filled with squalor in the state of a dense liquid, which poisoned the whole surface with its reek, and from this stinking stream marsh gas of repulsive stench was getting out in the form of bubbles, which covered its whole surface. Behind this ditch near St. Norbert’s Church there was a piece of arable land, which was sown with millet, etc. [...] Further on towards Szewska gate there were still traces of old moats, but they were almost covered with rubbish and stone rubble. [...] From Szewska gate to Sławkowska gate. Here one could more clearly see old moats, which in some places were covered with grass and where cattle grazed. In winter, when water from autumn downpours froze, there were excellent slides there [...] Here behind the Reformati’s Church there was an earth mound, that is the unfinished Rondel (round bastion), which Russians invading Kraków during the Bar Confederation began to make for better defence of the city, forcing Cracovians to work [...] This part of the city, like others, was surrounded by a double wall, between which, as everywhere, there were long and narrow gardens, in which within my memory there were skittle-alleys and beer was served. [...] From Sławkowska to F loriańska. The space was small from one gate to the other. There was a deep moat here, built of stone and it was best preserved. The moat went round the city arsenal which is still there. [...] From F loriańska gate to Mikoła jska gate. In this area there were best preserved old city fortifications, a moat, two walls and towers. The very Floriańska gate was surrounded by a deep moat, made of ashlar, and from the outside from Kleparz over this moat there was a drawbridge in the 15th and the 17th centuries, like in all gates. [...] From Floriańska gate towards Mikołajska gate between the walls there were small gardens; in one of them, which was entered from Floriańska gate, there were gunpowder stalls at the walls, perhaps ten of them. [...] Inside Mikołajska gate there was the entrance to the garden between the walls, where there was a shooting gallery (called Celestat), in which before the partition of Poland Cracovians shot at a cock. [...] From Mikoła jsk a gate to the Newgate. There was also an embankment surrounding a moat, with puddles and stinking mud. The embankment was low but wide, because every day it was widened with mud removed from the streets of Kraków. [...] From the Newgate to Grodzkagate. Here, behind Holy Trinity Church there was a wall and towers. Further near St. Joseph’s Church and behind SS. Peter and Paul’s Church there was only a wall without towers, which standing here in the past were deteriorating. The countryside here was empty, muddy, in disorder, and the ditches were filled with decaying litter. The place was little frequented and only a narrow pathway led here near St. Sebastian’s meadow, which was used to get from Grodzka gate to Wesoła and to Kleparz. [...] This view became even more unpleasant when in the Austrian and the Duchy of Warsaw times the walls and towers were demolished, and then none of the ruined places was carefully levelled [Grabowski,1909, p. 182 – 188].

but also a number of other historic buildings. For example in 1819, after two-year discussions in the senate of the city of Kraków, a decision of demolishing the Town Hall was made (the Town Hall Tower survived only because it was considered a good vantage point for firemen). For a few dozen of years, since the 80s of the 18th century, there lasted a great action of pulling down old Gothic and baroque churches in Kraków. It is symptomatic that only in the years of 1796 – 1809 15 churches! Were demolished here. In the next thirty years ten more were pulled down. A few others were desacralized2.

The action of demolishing churches in Kraków was started at the beginning of the 80s of the 18th century by the then primate of Poland – archbishop Michał Poniatowski, managing the diocese of Kraków on behalf of the mentally ill bishop Kajetan Sołtyk. The action of demolishing old churches initiated in the 80s of the 18th century lasted over half a century. During this time they pulled down: the church under the invocation of the Annunciation to the Holy Virgin Mary and St. Scholastica (The Benedictine Nuns’) – on the corner of św. Krzyża street and św. Marka street (in 1782); St. James the Apostle Church at Skawińska street (1787); St. Peter’s Church – on the corner of Grodzka street and Poselska street (1791); SS. Michael and St. Joseph’s Church – at Poselska street (1797); SS. Philip and James’s Church – at Kleparz (1801); St. Peter’s Church – at Łobzowska street (1801); St. Szczepan’s Church – at Plac Szczepański (1802); St. George’s Church – on Wawel Hill (1803-04); St. Michael’s Church – on Wawel Hill (1803–04); desacralized already in 1797 SS. Maciej and Matthew’s Church – at Plac Szczepański (1809); St. Gertrude’s Church – at Św. Gertrudy street (1810); St. Mary Magdalen’s Church – at Plac Magdaleny (1811); the Church of the Holy Cross – at Słowiańska street (1818); St. Valentine’s Church – at Pędzichów (1818); St. Sebastian’s Church – at Sebastiana street (1821); All Saints’ Church – at Plac Wszystkich Świętych (1835–38). Several churches were desacralized, and the buildings were designed to other purposes: the Church of the

32 1

of the 19th century, invoking sanitary reasons, the Austrian authorities gave an order to pull down the ramparts and embankments. The demolition works at the walls were conducted for many years and the obtained brick and stone were sold by auction. What changed were only the premises of these works. If at the beginning mainly sanitary reasons were mentioned1, soon a new term appeared, which became a word – skeleton key: beautifying of the city. Bandying this slogan they pulled down not only the battlements of the city (finally the majority of the walls, including 44 gates and towers! fell victim to demolishing),

32

awarded him the Republic of Austria Grand Cross of Merit, in 2005 he was awarded the Grand Order of Merit by President of Federal Republic of Germany. In 2002 the International Mauthausen Committee awarded prof. Ziejka Medal “Pro meritis”. Doctor Honoris Causa from the Pontifical Faculty of Theology in Wrocław, the Pedagogical University of Cracow, the Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, the Pontifical Academy of Theology in Cracow and the Maria Curie Skłodowska University in Lublin. He is the author of many publications and pieces for TV Theatre. He is also the producer a number of broadcasts. For many years he was the editor-in-chief of „Ruch Literacki”.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Fortunately, slowly but systematically the idea of saving the monuments of the past began to work its way to the Cracovians’ consciousness. Among the reasons which initiated these changes one should paradoxically mention the loss of independence by Poland at the end of the 18th century. The fact of erasing Poland from the map of Europe caused various reactions among Poles, not always praiseworthy3, but as the years went by, the awareness of the greatness of the tragedy of losing independence began to reach bigger and bigger number of Poles. More and more people also began to realize the fact that mainly monuments remained from the times of the past splendour. It was confirmed after some years by professor Józef Łepkowski, one of those who were most dedicated to the case of saving our cultural heritage. In 1851 he wrote: Since the moment of the complete loss of political existence people started to look deeper into the past and in spite of the lack of general ideas concerning archeology as science we can observe zealous efforts to preserve national mementoes [Łepkowski, 1851, p. 229]. The awareness of the importance of historic buildings, artistic works from the old times appeared first among the inhabitants of Kraków. Some of them already in the first years of the 19th century took action aiming at saving the cultural heritage of the old times. The first in this honourable row of ‘savers’ of Polish national heritage was a professor of architecture

of Kraków university, Feliks Radwański (1756–1826). This excellently educated architect, constructor of many imposing buildings (he was the designer and constructor of Collegium Kołłątajowskie at Św. Anny street, the Astronomical Observatory in the Botanical Garden), with the office of a senator of the city of Kraków held for life, is included in the chronicles of Kraków first of all as a defender of the walls surrounding the city and also the founder of Planty. He began his action in 1817, when Kraków authorities agreed to demolishing the barbican standing in front of Sławkowska gate and there was a real threat of demolishing also the barbican standing in front of St. Florian’s Gate as well as the gate and the neighbouring towers: Pasamoników, Stolarska and Ciesielska. And indeed, in January 1817 at the sitting of the Senate of the Free City of Kraków a formal motion was made for demolishing the mentioned structures, in order to provide material for building a bridge over the Stara Wisła between Stradom and Kazimierz and over the Rudawa at Zwierzyniec [Chmiel, 1939-1947, p. 173]. Then Radwański at the sitting of the Senate registered votum separatum towards the drafted resolution and as the grounds he presented a document in which he justified the need of preservation and repairing of St. Florian’s Gate and the Barbican. His argumentation was convincing enough to make the senators abandon the intention of demolishing these monuments4.

Holy Spirit – at Plac Św. Ducha (desacralized in 1783, designed for flats for retired priests, who in 1879 were transferred to St. Lazarus’s Hospital; it was pulled down in 1892); St. Agnes’s Church – at Dietla avenue (desacralized in 1788; sold for warehouses; repurchased by public subscription in 1926 and designed for a garrison church); St. Catherine’s Church – at Augustiańska street (desacralized in 1796 and designed for warehouses for the Austrian army; it was returned to the Augustinians in 1814, in 1827 designed for demolishing, at the beginning of the 30s partially repaired. It was only in 1852 that restoration works were done in it, which resulted in its being salvaged and returned to the cult); St. Hedwig’s Church – at Stradom (desacralized ca. 1799; the building was incorporated in the neighbouring town houses); the Bernardine Church (Manger) – on the corner of św. Jana street and św. Tomasza street (desacralized in 1802; sold to a Hungarian merchant Maciej Knotz, who changed it into the Hungarian King Inn, then into the Saski Hotel); St. Ursula’s Church – on the corner of św. Jana street and św. Marka street (desacralized in 1812, purchased by Maciej Knotz; from 1830 – there was a theatre in it). [see: Grabowski, p. 209 passim; Lepiarczyk, 1954, p. 23 passim; Ślesiński, 1963, p. 315; Piekarczyk, 1984, p. 18–21; Rożek, 1983, p. 95–120]. 3

4

As witnesses of the epoch say, representatives of aristocratic families willingly hurried to Warsaw or to Kraków in 1796, to pay homagium to the representatives of the invasive authorities in the cathedrals. As Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote, they very often organized big balls and receptions on this occasion. Also the nobility or representatives of Polish cities did not avoid this humiliating act of swearing allegiance to the foreign rulers. However, people belonging to the intellectual elite of the nation were aware of the tragedy they witnessed. Let us mention some facts of a dramtic reaction of people belonging to this sphere. For example, after receiving the news of signing the third partition of Poland in St Petersburgh, Jan Śniadecki, one of the greatest scholars of those times, turned grey in one night. It is also known that a leading poet of those times, Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin for the same reason became insane. This circumstance made such famous writers as Franciszek Karpiński or Franciszek Zabłocki resign from literary activity.

Senator Radwański’s argumentation concerning the defence of these monuments became a Cracow legend. First he presented historical arguments supporting the necessity of saving the Gate. He wrote that apart from its defensive character it also had a ceremonial character, as it was designed for grand receiving of kings returning from their glorious campaigns. From the outside galleries it welcomed them from the distance with noisy trumpets, at close range with loud shuts of the people, inside the fair sex, sitting on the galleries decorated with rich tapestries and rugs: wives, mothers and sisters clapped their hands for their brave husbands, sons and brothers, who, loyal to the king and the homeland, came decorated with laurels of victory. And crown officials, the loyal municipal council, paid homage to kings, surrounded by brave hetmans, commanders and fighters. Since the Senator was not convinced whether this argumentation would appeal to president Wodzicki and his eleven colleague-senators he used meteorological argumentation. He wrote: The northerly and north-westerly winds usually

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

33

33

4 Senator Radwański’s argumentation concerning the defence of these monuments became a Cracow legend. First he presented historical arguments supporting the necessity of saving the Gate. He wrote that apart from its defensive character it also had a ceremonial character, as it was designed for grand receiving of kings returning from their glorious campaigns. From the outside galleries it welcomed them from the distance with noisy trumpets, at close range with loud shuts of the people, inside the fair sex, sitting on the galleries decorated with rich tapestries and rugs: wives, mothers and sisters clapped their hands for their brave husbands, sons and brothers, who, loyal to the king and the homeland, came decorated with laurels of victory. And crown officials, the loyal municipal council, paid homage to kings, surrounded by brave hetmans, commanders and fighters. Since the Senator was not convinced whether this argumentation would appeal to president Wodzicki and his eleven colleague-senators he used meteorological argumentation. He wrote: The northerly and north-westerly winds usually 3

As witnesses of the epoch say, representatives of aristocratic families willingly hurried to Warsaw or to Kraków in 1796, to pay homagium to the representatives of the invasive authorities in the cathedrals. As Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote, they very often organized big balls and receptions on this occasion. Also the nobility or representatives of Polish cities did not avoid this humiliating act of swearing allegiance to the foreign rulers. However, people belonging to the intellectual elite of the nation were aware of the tragedy they witnessed. Let us mention some facts of a dramtic reaction of people belonging to this sphere. For example, after receiving the news of signing the third partition of Poland in St Petersburgh, Jan Śniadecki, one of the greatest scholars of those times, turned grey in one night. It is also known that a leading poet of those times, Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin for the same reason became insane. This circumstance made such famous writers as Franciszek Karpiński or Franciszek Zabłocki resign from literary activity. Holy Spirit – at Plac Św. Ducha (desacralized in 1783, designed for flats for retired priests, who in 1879 were transferred to St. Lazarus’s Hospital; it was pulled down in 1892); St. Agnes’s Church – at Dietla avenue (desacralized in 1788; sold for warehouses; repurchased by public subscription in 1926 and designed for a garrison church); St. Catherine’s Church – at Augustiańska street (desacralized in 1796 and designed for warehouses for the Austrian army; it was returned to the Augustinians in 1814, in 1827 designed for demolishing, at the beginning of the 30s partially repaired. It was only in 1852 that restoration works were done in it, which resulted in its being salvaged and returned to the cult); St. Hedwig’s Church – at Stradom (desacralized ca. 1799; the building was incorporated in the neighbouring town houses); the Bernardine Church (Manger) – on the corner of św. Jana street and św. Tomasza street (desacralized in 1802; sold to a Hungarian merchant Maciej Knotz, who changed it into the Hungarian King Inn, then into the Saski Hotel); St. Ursula’s Church – on the corner of św. Jana street and św. Marka street (desacralized in 1812, purchased by Maciej Knotz; from 1830 – there was a theatre in it). [see: Grabowski, p. 209 passim; Lepiarczyk, 1954, p. 23 passim; Ślesiński, 1963, p. 315; Piekarczyk, 1984, p. 18–21; Rożek, 1983, p. 95–120].

Fortunately, slowly but systematically the idea of saving the monuments of the past began to work its way to the Cracovians’ consciousness. Among the reasons which initiated these changes one should paradoxically mention the loss of independence by Poland at the end of the 18th century. The fact of erasing Poland from the map of Europe caused various reactions among Poles, not always praiseworthy3, but as the years went by, the awareness of the greatness of the tragedy of losing independence began to reach bigger and bigger number of Poles. More and more people also began to realize the fact that mainly monuments remained from the times of the past splendour. It was confirmed after some years by professor Józef Łepkowski, one of those who were most dedicated to the case of saving our cultural heritage. In 1851 he wrote: Since the moment of the complete loss of political existence people started to look deeper into the past and in spite of the lack of general ideas concerning archeology as science we can observe zealous efforts to preserve national mementoes [Łepkowski, 1851, p. 229]. The awareness of the importance of historic buildings, artistic works from the old times appeared first among the inhabitants of Kraków. Some of them already in the first years of the 19th century took action aiming at saving the cultural heritage of the old times. The first in this honourable row of ‘savers’ of Polish national heritage was a professor of architecture

of Kraków university, Feliks Radwański (1756–1826). This excellently educated architect, constructor of many imposing buildings (he was the designer and constructor of Collegium Kołłątajowskie at Św. Anny street, the Astronomical Observatory in the Botanical Garden), with the office of a senator of the city of Kraków held for life, is included in the chronicles of Kraków first of all as a defender of the walls surrounding the city and also the founder of Planty. He began his action in 1817, when Kraków authorities agreed to demolishing the barbican standing in front of Sławkowska gate and there was a real threat of demolishing also the barbican standing in front of St. Florian’s Gate as well as the gate and the neighbouring towers: Pasamoników, Stolarska and Ciesielska. And indeed, in January 1817 at the sitting of the Senate of the Free City of Kraków a formal motion was made for demolishing the mentioned structures, in order to provide material for building a bridge over the Stara Wisła between Stradom and Kazimierz and over the Rudawa at Zwierzyniec [Chmiel, 1939-1947, p. 173]. Then Radwański at the sitting of the Senate registered votum separatum towards the drafted resolution and as the grounds he presented a document in which he justified the need of preservation and repairing of St. Florian’s Gate and the Barbican. His argumentation was convincing enough to make the senators abandon the intention of demolishing these monuments4.


34

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2) Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

he was appointed director of Building Industry of the Republic of Kraków. Being a member of the Scientific Society of Kraków he brought credit to himself as a restorer of Collegium Maius (in the years 1840–1848), St. Mary’s Church (in 1841 he refurbished the higher tower of the church), the building of the Old Theatre (in the years 1841–1843) and also the Franciscan church burnt in 1850. Józef Kremer, a famous philosopher and historian of art, a professor and rector of the Jagiellonian University, a many years’ lecturer of aesthetics in the School of Fine Arts in Kraków also demanded preservation of Kraków monuments. It was because of his efforts that in 1874 the action of demolishing of the remains of the city ramparts was not started anew in Kraków! There were also other people who acted together with these pioneers of preservation of Kraków monuments. They were historians, archeologists, conservators, architects and above all – historians of art. One should also mention excellent amateurs, totally dedicated to the cause of monument preservation. The list is long, since the cause of Kraków monument preservation in the 19th century was becoming more and more attractive. Many enlightened representatives of the intellectual and artistic elite of Kraków distinguished themselves in the history of saving Kraków monuments. Each of them for a different reason, which we will not write about in detail here. Let us only mention their surnames: Bishop Jan Paweł Woronicz (1757–1829), Ambroży Grabowski (1782–1868), Józef Muczkowski (1795– 1858), Franciszek M. Lanci (1799–1875), Wincenty Pol (1807–1872), Teofil Żebrawski (1800–1887), Paweł Popiel (1807–1892), Józef Łepkowski (1826– 1897), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (1828–1900), Sławomir Odrzywolski (1846–1933), Tomasz Pryliński (1847–1895), Włodzimierz Demetrykiewicz (1858–1937), Zygmunt Hendel (1862–1929), Klemens Bąkowski (1860–1938) and Stanisław Tomkowicz (1850–1933). These people, in different ways, made a significant contribution, either

34

Still in his lifetime, senator Radwański found an ally in the person of Artur Potocki (1787–1832), who after purchasing in 1822 the Palace of the Rams actively involved himself in the city life. As a member of the House of Representatives of the Republic of Kraków, already in the first year of his presence in it, on the last days of December 1825 he made an appeal to the city authorities to save historic buildings saying: Surrounded by monuments of splendid times we are responsible for their retention, and even decoration. On this classic land the stones of our mementoes speak, to tell the future about the past. Let us be afraid that one day they might rise against us and say: they did a lot for their own comfort and benefit, and nothing as their duty. I demand that the Senate should be asked to present at the future meeting a draft of the law concerning preservation and decoration of our old edifices [“Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826; see: Palarczykowa, 1995]. It also becomes symbolic that it was Artur Potocki that was appointed in 1830 to be president of the Committee of Restoration of the Castle in Kraków established by the Senate of the city of Kraków (he was one of the first donors to that purpose – he gave 10 thousand PLN for the castle restoration)5. The struggle of such people as Radwański or Potocki to save historic structures in Kraków started to gain more and more supporters. Fortunately, there was Florian Straszewski among them (1766–1847) – a senator of the city of Kraków, one of the initiators of raising the Kościuszko Mound. In 1822 he took the lead of the Economic Committee, which collected money for transformation of the area around the old town into Planty (in 1830 he created a foundation for its preservation out of his own funds). He systematically gave a part of his profits from the number lottery he hired from the state for ‘beautifying’ of Kraków. Straszewski’s work was continued by Kremer brothers: Karol (1812–1860) and Józef (1806–1875). The first of them was an architect and a conservator. In 1838

The outbreak of the November uprising was the reason why finally the Committee did not start restoration works at the Castle. It should be added that a contribution for renovation of the Castle was given at this time also by the tsar of Russia, Nicholas I.

5

bring us snowstorms, and they would push them violently from Kleparz to the middle of the Market Square and if they came it would be difficult for anyone to stand on their legs, especially as the market square at Kleparz is enormous, surrounded mainly by horizontal houses, not protected by anything from Ulica Warszawska, so it would send the winds down the straight street to the centre of the city. It would be unhealthy, since delicate women and children would be exposed to frequent gumboils, rheumatism, and even paralysis. (Ibid., p. 174-175). Chmiel reminds that once again in 1827 there was a threat of demolishing St. Florian’s Gate and the Barbican. This time the one to rise in defence of these monuments was Jusice of the Peace Jan Librowski, who referred in his speech to the same premises as Radwański. It is confirmed in the brochure by Leon Cyfrowicz from 1884 entitled The painting of God’s Mother and the poor’s money-box in St. Florian’s Gate in Kraków, in which the author refers to the arguments of Justice of the Peace Librowski for saving St.Florian’s Gate presented at the meeting of the senate of the Republic of Kraków on 17th January 1827. It appears that Librowski simply repeated all Radwański’s arguments. Also this time Kraków councillors’ fear of violent winds, which could inflict harm (also the moral one!) on their wives and daughters won, thanks to which we can enjoy the view of St. Florian’s Gate and the Barbican today.

bring us snowstorms, and they would push them violently from Kleparz to the middle of the Market Square and if they came it would be difficult for anyone to stand on their legs, especially as the market square at Kleparz is enormous, surrounded mainly by horizontal houses, not protected by anything from Ulica Warszawska, so it would send the winds down the straight street to the centre of the city. It would be unhealthy, since delicate women and children would be exposed to frequent gumboils, rheumatism, and even paralysis. (Ibid., p. 174-175). Chmiel reminds that once again in 1827 there was a threat of demolishing St. Florian’s Gate and the Barbican. This time the one to rise in defence of these monuments was Jusice of the Peace Jan Librowski, who referred in his speech to the same premises as Radwański. It is confirmed in the brochure by Leon Cyfrowicz from 1884 entitled The painting of God’s Mother and the poor’s money-box in St. Florian’s Gate in Kraków, in which the author refers to the arguments of Justice of the Peace Librowski for saving St.Florian’s Gate presented at the meeting of the senate of the Republic of Kraków on 17th January 1827. It appears that Librowski simply repeated all Radwański’s arguments. Also this time Kraków councillors’ fear of violent winds, which could inflict harm (also the moral one!) on their wives and daughters won, thanks to which we can enjoy the view of St. Florian’s Gate and the Barbican today.

The outbreak of the November uprising was the reason why finally the Committee did not start restoration works at the Castle. It should be added that a contribution for renovation of the Castle was given at this time also by the tsar of Russia, Nicholas I.

he was appointed director of Building Industry of the Republic of Kraków. Being a member of the Scientific Society of Kraków he brought credit to himself as a restorer of Collegium Maius (in the years 1840–1848), St. Mary’s Church (in 1841 he refurbished the higher tower of the church), the building of the Old Theatre (in the years 1841–1843) and also the Franciscan church burnt in 1850. Józef Kremer, a famous philosopher and historian of art, a professor and rector of the Jagiellonian University, a many years’ lecturer of aesthetics in the School of Fine Arts in Kraków also demanded preservation of Kraków monuments. It was because of his efforts that in 1874 the action of demolishing of the remains of the city ramparts was not started anew in Kraków! There were also other people who acted together with these pioneers of preservation of Kraków monuments. They were historians, archeologists, conservators, architects and above all – historians of art. One should also mention excellent amateurs, totally dedicated to the cause of monument preservation. The list is long, since the cause of Kraków monument preservation in the 19th century was becoming more and more attractive. Many enlightened representatives of the intellectual and artistic elite of Kraków distinguished themselves in the history of saving Kraków monuments. Each of them for a different reason, which we will not write about in detail here. Let us only mention their surnames: Bishop Jan Paweł Woronicz (1757–1829), Ambroży Grabowski (1782–1868), Józef Muczkowski (1795– 1858), Franciszek M. Lanci (1799–1875), Wincenty Pol (1807–1872), Teofil Żebrawski (1800–1887), Paweł Popiel (1807–1892), Józef Łepkowski (1826– 1897), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (1828–1900), Sławomir Odrzywolski (1846–1933), Tomasz Pryliński (1847–1895), Włodzimierz Demetrykiewicz (1858–1937), Zygmunt Hendel (1862–1929), Klemens Bąkowski (1860–1938) and Stanisław Tomkowicz (1850–1933). These people, in different ways, made a significant contribution, either

5

Still in his lifetime, senator Radwański found an ally in the person of Artur Potocki (1787–1832), who after purchasing in 1822 the Palace of the Rams actively involved himself in the city life. As a member of the House of Representatives of the Republic of Kraków, already in the first year of his presence in it, on the last days of December 1825 he made an appeal to the city authorities to save historic buildings saying: Surrounded by monuments of splendid times we are responsible for their retention, and even decoration. On this classic land the stones of our mementoes speak, to tell the future about the past. Let us be afraid that one day they might rise against us and say: they did a lot for their own comfort and benefit, and nothing as their duty. I demand that the Senate should be asked to present at the future meeting a draft of the law concerning preservation and decoration of our old edifices [“Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826; see: Palarczykowa, 1995]. It also becomes symbolic that it was Artur Potocki that was appointed in 1830 to be president of the Committee of Restoration of the Castle in Kraków established by the Senate of the city of Kraków (he was one of the first donors to that purpose – he gave 10 thousand PLN for the castle restoration)5. The struggle of such people as Radwański or Potocki to save historic structures in Kraków started to gain more and more supporters. Fortunately, there was Florian Straszewski among them (1766–1847) – a senator of the city of Kraków, one of the initiators of raising the Kościuszko Mound. In 1822 he took the lead of the Economic Committee, which collected money for transformation of the area around the old town into Planty (in 1830 he created a foundation for its preservation out of his own funds). He systematically gave a part of his profits from the number lottery he hired from the state for ‘beautifying’ of Kraków. Straszewski’s work was continued by Kremer brothers: Karol (1812–1860) and Józef (1806–1875). The first of them was an architect and a conservator. In 1838


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

in reference to gathering national mementoes or propagating the idea of saving the monuments, in the action of saving and refurbishing particular structures, but also – by preparing historical studies devoted to particular monuments or historic complexes. Bringing into effect the idea of saving and refurbishing monuments was not easy. It can be shown by the example of the Reverend Sebastian Sierakowski (1743–1824). This professor of architecture in Kraków Main School, several times elected rector of this school, a meritorious restorer of Wawel cathedral, Collegium Maius (in the years 1816–1821 at his own expense he refurbished the Jagiellonian Hall that is the Assembly Hall), the Sigismund Chapel and many other buildings, a constructor of churches, was not aware of the value of particular monuments yet, so it was not only that he did not protest against the activity of ‘wall demolishers’ but he himself indicated buildings of the old centre of the town, often from the Middle Ages, to be pulled down. In his activity as an architect he interfered very much in the substance of historic buildings, designing, for example, reconstruction of the façade of Wawel cathedral in the classicistic style, and also rebuilding the Cloth Hall and the Town Hall Tower in this style [see: Lepiarczyk, 1968]. This is not the time and place to mention the merits of every nineteenth-century defender of Cracovian monuments. The fact is that it is thanks to them and also thanks to their successors that hundreds of historic buildings were saved in Kraków in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, and many of them regained their former beauty. In Kraków after some time they had quite a big group of supporters, who helped them financially and also morally. Those enthusiasts of ‘old’ Kraków began to organize in associations and circles aiming at supporting the idea of preservation of Cracovian monuments for future generations. As it was mentioned, already in 1830 the Committee of Renovation of the Cracovian Castle was established. At the same time the Committee for Beautifying the City was founded in Kraków (one of its active members was Florian Straszewski), who, however, did not distinguish himself in the history of the city, agreeing to the action of demolishing historic buildings. The movement of preservation of monuments intensified only after the tragic fire of Kraków in 1850, when the flames destroyed over 160 buildings (including four churches and four cloisters as well as several magnificent palaces with the bishops’ palace and the Wielopolski palace in the first place). After this disaster an action was taken first of

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

all by the members of the Scientific Society of Kraków existing in the city since 1815. On the initiative of the members of the Department of Archeology and Fine Arts of this Society, in reply to the appeal of the Committee of Fire Damages of the City of Kraków (of 16th November 1850), the Commission of Restoration of Monuments was established. Its activity was supervised by professor Józef Łepkowski, a many years’ rector of the Jagiellonian University. The Commission immediately started stock-taking works and preliminary securing of monuments in two churches: the Franciscan Church and the Dominican Church. Within ten years, thanks to the funds received by the Commission from different sources, the tombs, statues, portraits as well as many movable monuments were renovated in these two old churches. The members of the Commission of Restoration of Monuments supervised also conservation works carried out in the 50s and 60s in Wawel Cathedral (in the Lipski Chapel and the Sigismund Chapel). The Commission also supervised the famous restoration works of the tomb of Casimir the Great (1869), the altar by Wit Stwosz (from 1863), St. Catherine’s Church and others. In 1886 the Society for Beautifying the City of Kraków and the Environs was founded in Kraków. Though in the Statutes of this society there is no information among the aims of its activity concerning direct preservation of monuments (however, it said that the society had intended to deal with creating museums of various fields of science, industry and art, or enriching the existing ones), still among its different undertakings one should especially notice its involvement in the first years of the 20th century in defending the houses at St. Giles’s Church and also the Krzysztofory Palace, which were in danger of demolishing. This, however, will be discussed later. An association called the Group of Conservators of West Galicia was directly connected with the idea of preservation of monuments. It came into being in 1888, as a social ‘branch’ of the Central Committee for Studying and Conservation of Monuments of Art and Historical Monuments acting since 1853 in Vienna. The Committee worked in the whole monarchy through conservators appointed by the Austrian authorities. In West Galicia this official function was given to professor Paweł Popiel, who held it with great conscientiousness and to the benefit of the Polish culture until his death in 1892. The group of the Conservators comprised art historians, architects, conservators and historians. Its statutory aim was to make an inventory of monuments, to obtain funds for saving the ruined monuments, and also – to disseminate the idea of preservation of monuments

35

in reference to gathering national mementoes or propagating the idea of saving the monuments, in the action of saving and refurbishing particular structures, but also – by preparing historical studies devoted to particular monuments or historic complexes. Bringing into effect the idea of saving and refurbishing monuments was not easy. It can be shown by the example of the Reverend Sebastian Sierakowski (1743–1824). This professor of architecture in Kraków Main School, several times elected rector of this school, a meritorious restorer of Wawel cathedral, Collegium Maius (in the years 1816–1821 at his own expense he refurbished the Jagiellonian Hall that is the Assembly Hall), the Sigismund Chapel and many other buildings, a constructor of churches, was not aware of the value of particular monuments yet, so it was not only that he did not protest against the activity of ‘wall demolishers’ but he himself indicated buildings of the old centre of the town, often from the Middle Ages, to be pulled down. In his activity as an architect he interfered very much in the substance of historic buildings, designing, for example, reconstruction of the façade of Wawel cathedral in the classicistic style, and also rebuilding the Cloth Hall and the Town Hall Tower in this style [see: Lepiarczyk, 1968]. This is not the time and place to mention the merits of every nineteenth-century defender of Cracovian monuments. The fact is that it is thanks to them and also thanks to their successors that hundreds of historic buildings were saved in Kraków in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, and many of them regained their former beauty. In Kraków after some time they had quite a big group of supporters, who helped them financially and also morally. Those enthusiasts of ‘old’ Kraków began to organize in associations and circles aiming at supporting the idea of preservation of Cracovian monuments for future generations. As it was mentioned, already in 1830 the Committee of Renovation of the Cracovian Castle was established. At the same time the Committee for Beautifying the City was founded in Kraków (one of its active members was Florian Straszewski), who, however, did not distinguish himself in the history of the city, agreeing to the action of demolishing historic buildings. The movement of preservation of monuments intensified only after the tragic fire of Kraków in 1850, when the flames destroyed over 160 buildings (including four churches and four cloisters as well as several magnificent palaces with the bishops’ palace and the Wielopolski palace in the first place). After this disaster an action was taken first of

35

all by the members of the Scientific Society of Kraków existing in the city since 1815. On the initiative of the members of the Department of Archeology and Fine Arts of this Society, in reply to the appeal of the Committee of Fire Damages of the City of Kraków (of 16th November 1850), the Commission of Restoration of Monuments was established. Its activity was supervised by professor Józef Łepkowski, a many years’ rector of the Jagiellonian University. The Commission immediately started stock-taking works and preliminary securing of monuments in two churches: the Franciscan Church and the Dominican Church. Within ten years, thanks to the funds received by the Commission from different sources, the tombs, statues, portraits as well as many movable monuments were renovated in these two old churches. The members of the Commission of Restoration of Monuments supervised also conservation works carried out in the 50s and 60s in Wawel Cathedral (in the Lipski Chapel and the Sigismund Chapel). The Commission also supervised the famous restoration works of the tomb of Casimir the Great (1869), the altar by Wit Stwosz (from 1863), St. Catherine’s Church and others. In 1886 the Society for Beautifying the City of Kraków and the Environs was founded in Kraków. Though in the Statutes of this society there is no information among the aims of its activity concerning direct preservation of monuments (however, it said that the society had intended to deal with creating museums of various fields of science, industry and art, or enriching the existing ones), still among its different undertakings one should especially notice its involvement in the first years of the 20th century in defending the houses at St. Giles’s Church and also the Krzysztofory Palace, which were in danger of demolishing. This, however, will be discussed later. An association called the Group of Conservators of West Galicia was directly connected with the idea of preservation of monuments. It came into being in 1888, as a social ‘branch’ of the Central Committee for Studying and Conservation of Monuments of Art and Historical Monuments acting since 1853 in Vienna. The Committee worked in the whole monarchy through conservators appointed by the Austrian authorities. In West Galicia this official function was given to professor Paweł Popiel, who held it with great conscientiousness and to the benefit of the Polish culture until his death in 1892. The group of the Conservators comprised art historians, architects, conservators and historians. Its statutory aim was to make an inventory of monuments, to obtain funds for saving the ruined monuments, and also – to disseminate the idea of preservation of monuments


36

knowledge and predilection for monuments of Polish art and culture [Statut Towarzystwa…, 1901, p. 3] The members of the Society were going to fulfill these laudable aims by organizing lectures and talks on monuments, publishing their own periodical, making a specialist library as well as appointing in all the three sectors of partitioned Poland delegates of the Society who would take a great action of making an inventory and preservation of monuments in all parts of Poland. This explains a considerable increase of the number of members of the Society: at the end of 1902 it had 180 members, in 1903 – 225, and in 1907 – 262. Soon the members of the Society prepared The regulations for studying and making an inventory of works of art and artistic industry, which was sent to delegates in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Poznań. The first big undertaking signed by the Society was an exhibition of paintings of Italian, French, Flemish and German painters (48 paintings altogether, which were renovated in Berlin at this opportunity) opened on 17th June 1902 in the Cloth Hall. The success of this exhibition made the Society organize the next ones every year since that time (since 1914 eighteen such exhibitions were held!). The Society started many other undertakings. For example thanks to its efforts in 1907 the walls of the castle in Odrzykoń were renovated, conservation of the portraits of Anna and Stanisław Oświęcim from the chapel of the Franciscans in Krosno was carried out, it dealt with the castles in Lipowiec and Troki, with restoration of the portraits of the Cracovian bishops from the Franciscan Church in Kraków, as well as restoration of the guild paintings from St. Catherine’s Church [see also: Żmudziński, 1997, pp. 187-203]. Unfortunately, the Society and other representatives of the artistic-cultural world of Kraków did not manage to preserve the medieval remains of the hospital and the church of the Holy Spirit. However, their struggle for preventing from demolishing the houses at St. Giles’s Church and the Krzysztofory Palace was a success. Since these matters aroused great interest on the turn of the 19th century, they should be given more attention. Lasting since the beginning of the 19th century, the great struggle of ‘wall demolishers’ for beautifying Kraków intensified at the end of the 80s of that century. Since1872 discussions on erecting a new edifice of the city theatre were carried on in Kraków. Among the fervent advocates of

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

in the society. One of the important undertakings of the association was organizing in Kraków in 1911 the First Convention of Monument and History Lovers, to which a few hundred people from all parts of Poland came [Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu…, 1912]. A proof of the fruitful activity of the Group of Conservators is six volumes of the publication entitled The File of the Group of Conservators of West Galicia (published in the years 1900–1916). The Group finished its activity in 1923. Its first president was Józef Łepkowski (1889–94), and then Marian Sokołowski (1894–1900) and Stanisław Tomkowicz (1900–1923). Great services to preservation of monuments not only in Kraków, but till World War I on the territory of all the three sectors of partitioned Poland were rendered by the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture established in Kraków in 1902 at the National Museum. As the documents preserved in the files of the State Record Office in Kraków show, the initiative of establishing this society was presented in March 1901 by students of the Jagiellonian University and the Academy of Fine Arts. They asked people of Cracovian science and art for help, who supported their initiative with great enthusiasm. The head of the Temporary Committee was professor Kazimierz Kostanecki from the Jagiellonian Uniwersity. On 6th June 1901 he convened an extraordinary meeting of the Society in order to pass a statute, which had been prepared by Michał Dzieduszycki. Among the initiators of establishing this Society were: Jerzy Mycielski, Marian Sokołowski, Leon Wyczółkowski, Feliks Kopera, Leonard Lepszy, Konstanty Marian Górski. At the end of 1901 the Governorship approved of the text of the Statute, thanks to which on 23rd February the General Assembly of the Society gathering 108 members was convened. The first chairman was Jerzy Mycielski, a professor of the Jagiellonian University, meritorious for history of art. The vice-chairman was the above-mentioned professor Kazimierz Kostanecki, and the board was constituted by famous representatives of the intellectual and artistic elite of Kraków: Marian Zdziechowski, Feliks Kopera, Jan Stanisławski, Konstanty M. Górski.6 The society had three laudable tasks: 1) Finding and listing monuments of art and culture connected with the past of Poland, wherever they are; 2) Taking care of these monuments by protecting them form ruin, as well as acquiring and gathering movable monuments; 3) Arousing in Polish society the

36

It is intereting that in the voting to the Department (Board) it was first of all painters that lost (Teodor Axentowicz, Walery Eliasz, Józef Mehoffer, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Wyspiański. Also Stanisław Kutrzeba, Karol Potkański, Feliks Jasieński and Rudolf Starzewski were rejected.

It is intereting that in the voting to the Department (Board) it was first of all painters that lost (Teodor Axentowicz, Walery Eliasz, Józef Mehoffer, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Wyspiański. Also Stanisław Kutrzeba, Karol Potkański, Feliks Jasieński and Rudolf Starzewski were rejected.

6

knowledge and predilection for monuments of Polish art and culture [Statut Towarzystwa…, 1901, p. 3] The members of the Society were going to fulfill these laudable aims by organizing lectures and talks on monuments, publishing their own periodical, making a specialist library as well as appointing in all the three sectors of partitioned Poland delegates of the Society who would take a great action of making an inventory and preservation of monuments in all parts of Poland. This explains a considerable increase of the number of members of the Society: at the end of 1902 it had 180 members, in 1903 – 225, and in 1907 – 262. Soon the members of the Society prepared The regulations for studying and making an inventory of works of art and artistic industry, which was sent to delegates in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Poznań. The first big undertaking signed by the Society was an exhibition of paintings of Italian, French, Flemish and German painters (48 paintings altogether, which were renovated in Berlin at this opportunity) opened on 17th June 1902 in the Cloth Hall. The success of this exhibition made the Society organize the next ones every year since that time (since 1914 eighteen such exhibitions were held!). The Society started many other undertakings. For example thanks to its efforts in 1907 the walls of the castle in Odrzykoń were renovated, conservation of the portraits of Anna and Stanisław Oświęcim from the chapel of the Franciscans in Krosno was carried out, it dealt with the castles in Lipowiec and Troki, with restoration of the portraits of the Cracovian bishops from the Franciscan Church in Kraków, as well as restoration of the guild paintings from St. Catherine’s Church [see also: Żmudziński, 1997, pp. 187-203]. Unfortunately, the Society and other representatives of the artistic-cultural world of Kraków did not manage to preserve the medieval remains of the hospital and the church of the Holy Spirit. However, their struggle for preventing from demolishing the houses at St. Giles’s Church and the Krzysztofory Palace was a success. Since these matters aroused great interest on the turn of the 19th century, they should be given more attention. Lasting since the beginning of the 19th century, the great struggle of ‘wall demolishers’ for beautifying Kraków intensified at the end of the 80s of that century. Since1872 discussions on erecting a new edifice of the city theatre were carried on in Kraków. Among the fervent advocates of

6

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

in the society. One of the important undertakings of the association was organizing in Kraków in 1911 the First Convention of Monument and History Lovers, to which a few hundred people from all parts of Poland came [Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu…, 1912]. A proof of the fruitful activity of the Group of Conservators is six volumes of the publication entitled The File of the Group of Conservators of West Galicia (published in the years 1900–1916). The Group finished its activity in 1923. Its first president was Józef Łepkowski (1889–94), and then Marian Sokołowski (1894–1900) and Stanisław Tomkowicz (1900–1923). Great services to preservation of monuments not only in Kraków, but till World War I on the territory of all the three sectors of partitioned Poland were rendered by the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture established in Kraków in 1902 at the National Museum. As the documents preserved in the files of the State Record Office in Kraków show, the initiative of establishing this society was presented in March 1901 by students of the Jagiellonian University and the Academy of Fine Arts. They asked people of Cracovian science and art for help, who supported their initiative with great enthusiasm. The head of the Temporary Committee was professor Kazimierz Kostanecki from the Jagiellonian Uniwersity. On 6th June 1901 he convened an extraordinary meeting of the Society in order to pass a statute, which had been prepared by Michał Dzieduszycki. Among the initiators of establishing this Society were: Jerzy Mycielski, Marian Sokołowski, Leon Wyczółkowski, Feliks Kopera, Leonard Lepszy, Konstanty Marian Górski. At the end of 1901 the Governorship approved of the text of the Statute, thanks to which on 23rd February the General Assembly of the Society gathering 108 members was convened. The first chairman was Jerzy Mycielski, a professor of the Jagiellonian University, meritorious for history of art. The vice-chairman was the above-mentioned professor Kazimierz Kostanecki, and the board was constituted by famous representatives of the intellectual and artistic elite of Kraków: Marian Zdziechowski, Feliks Kopera, Jan Stanisławski, Konstanty M. Górski.6 The society had three laudable tasks: 1) Finding and listing monuments of art and culture connected with the past of Poland, wherever they are; 2) Taking care of these monuments by protecting them form ruin, as well as acquiring and gathering movable monuments; 3) Arousing in Polish society the


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

such a theatre were Władysław Ludwik Anczyc and Walery Rzewuski, the owner of the famous photo shop. It was Rzewuski who already in 1877 suggested building a theatre at Plac Św. Ducha, on the place of the partially ruined buildings of the hospital and the church of the Holy Spirit. This location was supported by an architect Karol Zaremba, who received from the president of the city of Kraków, Feliks Szlachtowski, a task of choosing the place for the future theatre. In autumn 1886 the City Council accepted this choice (from among a dozen or so other locations). This decision was opposed by representatives of the intellectual and artistic elite of Kraków. Among the protesting ones were: Józef Łepkowski, Marian Sokolowski, Paweł Popiel, Stanisław Tomkowicz and first of all Jan Matejko. The defenders of the historic buildings at Plac Św. Ducha were supported by the members of the Central Committee of Monument Preservation in Vienna. Unfortunately, the protests were in vain. The significant gesture of Matejko, who offered to the city authorities to restore at his own charge the Church of the Holy Spirit and design it for a painter’s studio did not do any good, either. The City Council did not give in. Finally the historic buildings of the hospital and the church of the Holy Spirit were pulled down, which made Matejko return to the city authorities his honorary citizenship and make a ban of displaying his works in Kraków7. Cracovian artists and intellectuals were luckier at the beginning of the 20th century, when they came out in defense of two houses at St. Giles’s Church. The case started in 1905. On 13th November the City Council of Kraków, in reply to a petition of Dominican Friars, who managed St. Giles’s Church, passed a resolution on demolishing two historic, very dilapidated houses. The whole aristic-cultural environment of Kraków came out in defense of both houses now. The struggle for saving the houses was begun by the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture. On 24th November 1905 in ‘Czas’ there appeared a letter in this case signed by the chairman of the Society – Jerzy count Mycielski and the secretary – Marian Gumowski, in which the authors, emphasizing the historic value of both houses, suggested, on behalf of the Society, securing the houses, their

7

restoration and then – returning them to the Commune of the city of Krakow with an assignment for the Adam Mickiewicz Museum (the mementoes connected with the poet, including those given by his son, Władysław, were displayed then in one small room of the National Museum). Mycielski also offered a development plan of the surroundings of Wawel Hill to be prepared by members of the Society. At the same time other societies started defending the houses at St. Giles’s Church. On 25th November ‘Czas’ announced a statement of the ‘Polish Applied Art’ Society in this case signed by the chairman Karol Potkański and a few dozen of members (e.g. by Jan Stanisławski, Henryk Uziembło, Feliks Kopera, Karol Frycz, Stanisław Wyspiański, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Kamocki, Wojciech Weiss, Julian Fałat, Teodor Axentowicz, Kazimierz Sichulski and Konstanty Laszczka), in which aesthetic reasons for the need of preservation of the mentioned houses were indicated. The authors of this statement wrote: St.Giles’s Church and the buildings attached to it constitute a picturesque complex at the foot of Wawel, and from the side of the Hen’s Foot Tower they are in some measure a direct base of the castle walls and edifices rising in the distance, which are to shine in the former splendour soon. The picturesqueness and beauty of the general silhouette of Wawel come not only from the admirable harmony in which centuries co-ordinated successive stamps of epochs and styles, but also from the remains of once appropriate setting, which consisted of the waters of the Vistula on one side, and on the other side – the exits of narrow, full of pictorial beauty streets running from the city to the foot of the Castle. The members of the ‘Polish Applied Art’ Society finished their statement with the words: Since the house domed to annihilation is by itself a real and obsolescent type of suburban native construction, of unusual grace of its picturesque silhouette, and its demolishing would be a mistake not to be pardoned both from the point of view of historical logic and the pictorial form of the surroundings of Wawel, we vigorously protest against the regulation of the City Council, hoping at the same time that the Council will abolish its regulation, and the mentioned monument will be preserved and properly

It’s common knowledge that a group of scientists and artists under the leadership of Jan Matejko protested about demolishing the church of the Holy Spirit. It should be added that another professor of the School of Fine Arts, Władysław Łuszczkiewicz also expressed his opinion in this case. In 1889 in the Cracovian weekly ‘Świat’ (The World) he published an article entitled Old buildings in the Church of the Holy Spirit in Kraków, in which he tried to convince the city councillors – unfortunately with no good result – to change their decision to demolish these buildings. He also presented an interesting suggestion of using them for social purposes. He wrote: Although one should not exaggerate about the value of architectural details preserved in the edifices of the Church of the Holy Spirit, it must be admitted that reconstructing the edifices in the Gothic style of the 15th century would not be difficult.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

37

7

37

It’s common knowledge that a group of scientists and artists under the leadership of Jan Matejko protested about demolishing the church of the Holy Spirit. It should be added that another professor of the School of Fine Arts, Władysław Łuszczkiewicz also expressed his opinion in this case. In 1889 in the Cracovian weekly ‘Świat’ (The World) he published an article entitled Old buildings in the Church of the Holy Spirit in Kraków, in which he tried to convince the city councillors – unfortunately with no good result – to change their decision to demolish these buildings. He also presented an interesting suggestion of using them for social purposes. He wrote: Although one should not exaggerate about the value of architectural details preserved in the edifices of the Church of the Holy Spirit, it must be admitted that reconstructing the edifices in the Gothic style of the 15th century would not be difficult.

such a theatre were Władysław Ludwik Anczyc and Walery Rzewuski, the owner of the famous photo shop. It was Rzewuski who already in 1877 suggested building a theatre at Plac Św. Ducha, on the place of the partially ruined buildings of the hospital and the church of the Holy Spirit. This location was supported by an architect Karol Zaremba, who received from the president of the city of Kraków, Feliks Szlachtowski, a task of choosing the place for the future theatre. In autumn 1886 the City Council accepted this choice (from among a dozen or so other locations). This decision was opposed by representatives of the intellectual and artistic elite of Kraków. Among the protesting ones were: Józef Łepkowski, Marian Sokolowski, Paweł Popiel, Stanisław Tomkowicz and first of all Jan Matejko. The defenders of the historic buildings at Plac Św. Ducha were supported by the members of the Central Committee of Monument Preservation in Vienna. Unfortunately, the protests were in vain. The significant gesture of Matejko, who offered to the city authorities to restore at his own charge the Church of the Holy Spirit and design it for a painter’s studio did not do any good, either. The City Council did not give in. Finally the historic buildings of the hospital and the church of the Holy Spirit were pulled down, which made Matejko return to the city authorities his honorary citizenship and make a ban of displaying his works in Kraków7. Cracovian artists and intellectuals were luckier at the beginning of the 20th century, when they came out in defense of two houses at St. Giles’s Church. The case started in 1905. On 13th November the City Council of Kraków, in reply to a petition of Dominican Friars, who managed St. Giles’s Church, passed a resolution on demolishing two historic, very dilapidated houses. The whole aristic-cultural environment of Kraków came out in defense of both houses now. The struggle for saving the houses was begun by the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture. On 24th November 1905 in ‘Czas’ there appeared a letter in this case signed by the chairman of the Society – Jerzy count Mycielski and the secretary – Marian Gumowski, in which the authors, emphasizing the historic value of both houses, suggested, on behalf of the Society, securing the houses, their

restoration and then – returning them to the Commune of the city of Krakow with an assignment for the Adam Mickiewicz Museum (the mementoes connected with the poet, including those given by his son, Władysław, were displayed then in one small room of the National Museum). Mycielski also offered a development plan of the surroundings of Wawel Hill to be prepared by members of the Society. At the same time other societies started defending the houses at St. Giles’s Church. On 25th November ‘Czas’ announced a statement of the ‘Polish Applied Art’ Society in this case signed by the chairman Karol Potkański and a few dozen of members (e.g. by Jan Stanisławski, Henryk Uziembło, Feliks Kopera, Karol Frycz, Stanisław Wyspiański, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Kamocki, Wojciech Weiss, Julian Fałat, Teodor Axentowicz, Kazimierz Sichulski and Konstanty Laszczka), in which aesthetic reasons for the need of preservation of the mentioned houses were indicated. The authors of this statement wrote: St.Giles’s Church and the buildings attached to it constitute a picturesque complex at the foot of Wawel, and from the side of the Hen’s Foot Tower they are in some measure a direct base of the castle walls and edifices rising in the distance, which are to shine in the former splendour soon. The picturesqueness and beauty of the general silhouette of Wawel come not only from the admirable harmony in which centuries co-ordinated successive stamps of epochs and styles, but also from the remains of once appropriate setting, which consisted of the waters of the Vistula on one side, and on the other side – the exits of narrow, full of pictorial beauty streets running from the city to the foot of the Castle. The members of the ‘Polish Applied Art’ Society finished their statement with the words: Since the house domed to annihilation is by itself a real and obsolescent type of suburban native construction, of unusual grace of its picturesque silhouette, and its demolishing would be a mistake not to be pardoned both from the point of view of historical logic and the pictorial form of the surroundings of Wawel, we vigorously protest against the regulation of the City Council, hoping at the same time that the Council will abolish its regulation, and the mentioned monument will be preserved and properly


38

passed resolution, which should not meet with any obstacles since refurbishing of these buildings can be easily treated as restoration of old buildings. The Central Committee looks forward to your kind reply in this respect [“Czas” 7.12.1905]. We can be quite sure that chairman Helfart signed the letter prepared by Jerzy Mycielski, since there are arguments in it which are already known to us from this author’s appeal on behalf of the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture. On 7th December 1905 r the president of the City of Kraków, Juliusz Leo, presented to the City Council all received letters. After a week the Council cancelled the resolution. Finally reason won and one most impressive house was left. Today it still attracts tourists’ attention. It is a pity only that instead of its being given to museum purposes (e.g. for the Adam Mickiewicz Museum – as Jerzy Mycielski wanted it to be) there is a crčche in it, like it was during the times of the People’s Republic of Poland8. An equally fine struggle – and also successful – was fought after 1910 by the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture with other similar Societies and Circles for protecting from demolishing the Krzysztofory Palace. This imposing edifice, the second biggest after Wawel Castle in Kraków of those times, was built in the first half of the 17th century by the major-domo Adam Kazanowski, one of the closest friends of king Ladislaus IV. During about four hundred years of its existence the palace changed hands many times. In the second half of the 17th century it was bought by Wawrzyniec Jan Wodzicki, the Warsaw cup-bearer and the administrator salitaris of Wieliczka and Bochnia. In 1668 king John Casimir stayed in it on his way to France. Three years later king Michał Wiśniowiecki lived in it for a short time. As Franciszek Klein remainded in 1914 [see: Klein, 1914], since that time the palace was considered the second – after Wawel – seat worthy of monarchs. This is why at the end of the 17th century the then owner of the palace, Krzysztof Wodzicki, invited a famous Italian artist, Baltazar Fontana, who had come to Kraków to build St. Anna’s Church, to stucco two rooms of the palace (they have been preserved up till now!). The palace remained in the Wodzicki family’s hands until 1774, when Franciszek Wodzicki sold it to bishop Kajetan Sołtyk. This unfortunate church hierarch lived in the palace for eight years, until 1782 (only once during this time – in 1781 – he left the palace to go in a big procession of

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

restored [“Czas”, 25.11.1905]. The defense of the houses at St. Giles’s Church was also joined by the Society for Beautifying the City of Kraków and the Environs. However, the members of this Society indicated another aspect of the case. Their statement (of 20th November) says that depriving tall buildings of low surroundings (as it happened in Cologne or Paris) has a bad influence on picturesqueness and an aesthetic impression. Although both houses come from the 18th century they clearly refer with their shape to the tradition of the Middle Ages. Their demolishing would result in the fact that Grodzka street being monotonous in any case would lose much in beauty. It is significant that the authors of the statement do not protest but ask the City Council to change. They write: Loving our beautiful Kraków, we received with great sorrow the message of the splendid Council’s resolution, which if it was implemented it would diminish again by one particle the old heritage of the splendid past. Kraków represents a repository of monuments to the foreign world, in them the foreign world can read about the famous past, about our cultural merits in the general history, so we appeal to the patriotic hearts and enlightened minds of the splendid City Council so that it would not reduce our dearest heritage and would deign to its resolution [“Czas” 27.11.1905]. The defenders of the houses at St. Giles’s Church believed that one should use all ways which could save the buildings. They were supported in their action by the Central Committee for Studying and Conservation of Monuments of Art and Historical Monuments in Vienna. Its chairman, Mr. Helfart, wrote a letter of 24th November 1905 to the president of the city of Krakow, Juliusz Leo, in which he demanded a change of the decision of the City Council in the mentioned case. He wrote: The Central Committee has learnt that the council of the City of Kraków passed a resolution concerning demolishing of the buildings surrounding St. Giles’s Church. The Central Committee must express its deep regret because of this resolution, since in case of its implementation Kraków will be deprived not only of the buildings which are artistically and historically very important, but also of one of its most picturesque and charming squares. The Committee also applies with complete trust to His Lordship with a request for intervention in order to preserve not only this old building but also the square, which is so nice because of its location at the foot of the Castle hill, as well as for making the City Council change the already

38

It is still better than the implementation of the idea of 1906, when there was a suggestion to make a ‘home for foundlings’ in these buildings.

It is still better than the implementation of the idea of 1906, when there was a suggestion to make a ‘home for foundlings’ in these buildings.

8

passed resolution, which should not meet with any obstacles since refurbishing of these buildings can be easily treated as restoration of old buildings. The Central Committee looks forward to your kind reply in this respect [“Czas” 7.12.1905]. We can be quite sure that chairman Helfart signed the letter prepared by Jerzy Mycielski, since there are arguments in it which are already known to us from this author’s appeal on behalf of the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture. On 7th December 1905 r the president of the City of Kraków, Juliusz Leo, presented to the City Council all received letters. After a week the Council cancelled the resolution. Finally reason won and one most impressive house was left. Today it still attracts tourists’ attention. It is a pity only that instead of its being given to museum purposes (e.g. for the Adam Mickiewicz Museum – as Jerzy Mycielski wanted it to be) there is a crčche in it, like it was during the times of the People’s Republic of Poland8. An equally fine struggle – and also successful – was fought after 1910 by the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture with other similar Societies and Circles for protecting from demolishing the Krzysztofory Palace. This imposing edifice, the second biggest after Wawel Castle in Kraków of those times, was built in the first half of the 17th century by the major-domo Adam Kazanowski, one of the closest friends of king Ladislaus IV. During about four hundred years of its existence the palace changed hands many times. In the second half of the 17th century it was bought by Wawrzyniec Jan Wodzicki, the Warsaw cup-bearer and the administrator salitaris of Wieliczka and Bochnia. In 1668 king John Casimir stayed in it on his way to France. Three years later king Michał Wiśniowiecki lived in it for a short time. As Franciszek Klein remainded in 1914 [see: Klein, 1914], since that time the palace was considered the second – after Wawel – seat worthy of monarchs. This is why at the end of the 17th century the then owner of the palace, Krzysztof Wodzicki, invited a famous Italian artist, Baltazar Fontana, who had come to Kraków to build St. Anna’s Church, to stucco two rooms of the palace (they have been preserved up till now!). The palace remained in the Wodzicki family’s hands until 1774, when Franciszek Wodzicki sold it to bishop Kajetan Sołtyk. This unfortunate church hierarch lived in the palace for eight years, until 1782 (only once during this time – in 1781 – he left the palace to go in a big procession of

8

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

restored [“Czas”, 25.11.1905]. The defense of the houses at St. Giles’s Church was also joined by the Society for Beautifying the City of Kraków and the Environs. However, the members of this Society indicated another aspect of the case. Their statement (of 20th November) says that depriving tall buildings of low surroundings (as it happened in Cologne or Paris) has a bad influence on picturesqueness and an aesthetic impression. Although both houses come from the 18th century they clearly refer with their shape to the tradition of the Middle Ages. Their demolishing would result in the fact that Grodzka street being monotonous in any case would lose much in beauty. It is significant that the authors of the statement do not protest but ask the City Council to change. They write: Loving our beautiful Kraków, we received with great sorrow the message of the splendid Council’s resolution, which if it was implemented it would diminish again by one particle the old heritage of the splendid past. Kraków represents a repository of monuments to the foreign world, in them the foreign world can read about the famous past, about our cultural merits in the general history, so we appeal to the patriotic hearts and enlightened minds of the splendid City Council so that it would not reduce our dearest heritage and would deign to its resolution [“Czas” 27.11.1905]. The defenders of the houses at St. Giles’s Church believed that one should use all ways which could save the buildings. They were supported in their action by the Central Committee for Studying and Conservation of Monuments of Art and Historical Monuments in Vienna. Its chairman, Mr. Helfart, wrote a letter of 24th November 1905 to the president of the city of Krakow, Juliusz Leo, in which he demanded a change of the decision of the City Council in the mentioned case. He wrote: The Central Committee has learnt that the council of the City of Kraków passed a resolution concerning demolishing of the buildings surrounding St. Giles’s Church. The Central Committee must express its deep regret because of this resolution, since in case of its implementation Kraków will be deprived not only of the buildings which are artistically and historically very important, but also of one of its most picturesque and charming squares. The Committee also applies with complete trust to His Lordship with a request for intervention in order to preserve not only this old building but also the square, which is so nice because of its location at the foot of the Castle hill, as well as for making the City Council change the already


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

the clergy to Wawel Cathedral in order to say a mass there). In 1782 tsarevich Paweł travelling incognito round Europe stayed in the palace. The palace remained in the Sołtyk family until the end of the 18th century. In 1796 the seat of the military governor – an Austrian deputy, Margelik was made in it. In the 19th century for some time the palace was owned by a well-known director of the Cracovian theatre, Jacek Kluszewski, and then by baron Edward Rastawiecki. In 1843 it was purchased by a Cracovian merchant, Jan Walter. It remained in the Walter family’s hands till 1910. It was the year when really black clouds appeared above the greatly devastated palace. First a rich magnate from Podole took action, who decided to buy it and – after it’s demolishing – erect on its place a complex of hotel-commercial buildings. However, he did not realize the intention, so in 1911 a Cracovian industrial tycoon, Gustaw Gerson Bazes took action. In 1912 he founded the Cracovian Building and Industrial Company, which bought the palace next year in March. The action of emptying the palace of tenants lasted till the end of 1913. In spring 1914 the City Council gave consent to demolish the monumental building. In this situation the action of defending the palace was joined by the artistic and cultural world of Kraków. The defenders of ‘Krzysztofory’ acted under the leadership of the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture. At the beginning of 1914 it seemed that the palace would be saved, since Jakub earl Potocki agreed to buy it from the mentioned Building Company and was ready to restore the palace. Unfortunately, after a few weeks the earl backed out of the transaction. In this situation in April the problem of demolition of the palace appeared again. Two weeks before the beginning of these works professor Jerzy Mycielski (encouraged by Franciszek Klein) chose extreme measures: he went to Vienna, to the heir to the throne, archduke Franciszek Ferdynand, with the request for intervention. The archduke, bearing in mind the services which count Mycielski once rendered to him9, immediately sent a letter to the president of the city of Kraków, Juliusz Leo, with a recommendation of stopping the demolition works of the Krzysztofory Palace. And it happened so. After the outbreak of World War I the palace was occupied by the Austrian army of the 13th

infantry regiment. In November 1917 the palace was purchased by the then deputy of Galicia, baron Diller, to be designed for the rooms for the Bureau of Rebuilding Galicia. He immediately had it restored. After Austria’s decline the Krzysztofory Palace became the Polish state’s property10. The presented history of the struggle of the members of the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture, supported by other societies gathering lovers of the former capital of Poland, is a proof of activity of the artistic-cultural circle of Kraków in defense of monuments. And although the struggle was not always a success11, it was a proof of the strength of this circle, aware of the importance of the heritage which the generation of the turn of the 19th century inherited from their ancestors. As it was mentioned, the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture could always count on the support of other Cracovian societies of similar character. First of all – the support of the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków, founded in 1896. The statutory aim of this Society was: getting to know the history of Kraków and its environs and also – arousing respect for mementoes and monuments of Kraków among its inhabitants [Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników…, 1896, p. 1]. The Society gathered a group of famous Cracovian scientists, among whom there were professors of the Jagiellonian University (Stanisław Krzyżanowski – the first chairman of the Society, Stanisław Estreicher, Adam Krzyżanowski, Leonard Lepszy, Franciszek Piekosiński, Marian Sokołowski, Bolesław Ulanowski), as well as people of culture (Klemens Bąkowski, Adam Chmiel, Zygmunt Hendel, Stanisław Tomkowicz), and also artists (Władysław Łuszczkiewicz and Stanisław Wyspiański). It is not the place and time to refer to the history of this Society, which still exists [see: Bieńkowski, 1997; Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków…, 1997]. However, it is important to mention at least some of the undertakings of the Society aiming at saving monuments. It is significant that one of the first committees of the Society, which was set up in 1897, was establishing the Conservation Committee. Acting on behalf of the whole Society, this Committee displayed new important initiatives every now and again.

9

A well-known art historian and historian, a professor of the Jagiellonien University, supplied documentary evidence for a proper origin of the archduke’s wife, count’s daughter Chotko, thanks to which she was recognized by the emperor’s court!

10

The dramatic struggles for saving the Krzysztofory Palace before the outbreak of World War I was described by Franciszek Klein in his book: Notatnik krakowski [Kraków, 1965, pp. 7-16].

11

A good example can be the fact of demolishing in 1909 the so-called Kościuszko Tower by a Cracovian merchant, the later president of the city of Kraków, Jan Kanty Federowicz.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

39

39

A good example can be the fact of demolishing in 1909 the so-called Kościuszko Tower by a Cracovian merchant, the later president of the city of Kraków, Jan Kanty Federowicz.

11

The dramatic struggles for saving the Krzysztofory Palace before the outbreak of World War I was described by Franciszek Klein in his book: Notatnik krakowski [Kraków, 1965, pp. 7-16].

10

A well-known art historian and historian, a professor of the Jagiellonien University, supplied documentary evidence for a proper origin of the archduke’s wife, count’s daughter Chotko, thanks to which she was recognized by the emperor’s court!

9

the clergy to Wawel Cathedral in order to say a mass there). In 1782 tsarevich Paweł travelling incognito round Europe stayed in the palace. The palace remained in the Sołtyk family until the end of the 18th century. In 1796 the seat of the military governor – an Austrian deputy, Margelik was made in it. In the 19th century for some time the palace was owned by a well-known director of the Cracovian theatre, Jacek Kluszewski, and then by baron Edward Rastawiecki. In 1843 it was purchased by a Cracovian merchant, Jan Walter. It remained in the Walter family’s hands till 1910. It was the year when really black clouds appeared above the greatly devastated palace. First a rich magnate from Podole took action, who decided to buy it and – after it’s demolishing – erect on its place a complex of hotel-commercial buildings. However, he did not realize the intention, so in 1911 a Cracovian industrial tycoon, Gustaw Gerson Bazes took action. In 1912 he founded the Cracovian Building and Industrial Company, which bought the palace next year in March. The action of emptying the palace of tenants lasted till the end of 1913. In spring 1914 the City Council gave consent to demolish the monumental building. In this situation the action of defending the palace was joined by the artistic and cultural world of Kraków. The defenders of ‘Krzysztofory’ acted under the leadership of the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture. At the beginning of 1914 it seemed that the palace would be saved, since Jakub earl Potocki agreed to buy it from the mentioned Building Company and was ready to restore the palace. Unfortunately, after a few weeks the earl backed out of the transaction. In this situation in April the problem of demolition of the palace appeared again. Two weeks before the beginning of these works professor Jerzy Mycielski (encouraged by Franciszek Klein) chose extreme measures: he went to Vienna, to the heir to the throne, archduke Franciszek Ferdynand, with the request for intervention. The archduke, bearing in mind the services which count Mycielski once rendered to him9, immediately sent a letter to the president of the city of Kraków, Juliusz Leo, with a recommendation of stopping the demolition works of the Krzysztofory Palace. And it happened so. After the outbreak of World War I the palace was occupied by the Austrian army of the 13th

infantry regiment. In November 1917 the palace was purchased by the then deputy of Galicia, baron Diller, to be designed for the rooms for the Bureau of Rebuilding Galicia. He immediately had it restored. After Austria’s decline the Krzysztofory Palace became the Polish state’s property10. The presented history of the struggle of the members of the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture, supported by other societies gathering lovers of the former capital of Poland, is a proof of activity of the artistic-cultural circle of Kraków in defense of monuments. And although the struggle was not always a success11, it was a proof of the strength of this circle, aware of the importance of the heritage which the generation of the turn of the 19th century inherited from their ancestors. As it was mentioned, the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture could always count on the support of other Cracovian societies of similar character. First of all – the support of the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków, founded in 1896. The statutory aim of this Society was: getting to know the history of Kraków and its environs and also – arousing respect for mementoes and monuments of Kraków among its inhabitants [Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników…, 1896, p. 1]. The Society gathered a group of famous Cracovian scientists, among whom there were professors of the Jagiellonian University (Stanisław Krzyżanowski – the first chairman of the Society, Stanisław Estreicher, Adam Krzyżanowski, Leonard Lepszy, Franciszek Piekosiński, Marian Sokołowski, Bolesław Ulanowski), as well as people of culture (Klemens Bąkowski, Adam Chmiel, Zygmunt Hendel, Stanisław Tomkowicz), and also artists (Władysław Łuszczkiewicz and Stanisław Wyspiański). It is not the place and time to refer to the history of this Society, which still exists [see: Bieńkowski, 1997; Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków…, 1997]. However, it is important to mention at least some of the undertakings of the Society aiming at saving monuments. It is significant that one of the first committees of the Society, which was set up in 1897, was establishing the Conservation Committee. Acting on behalf of the whole Society, this Committee displayed new important initiatives every now and again.


40

Łuszczkiewicz (on the wall of St. Mary’s Church), Wincenty Pol (on the building at Szpitalna street 26), the Reverend Piotr Skarga (on the wall of the building at Sienna street), Johann Wolfgang Goethe (in the Market Square) were fixed. Unfortunately, not all struggles of the Society to save Cracovian monuments were successful. In spite of the protests of all eleven Cracovian cultural societies, in 1909 the Kościuszko Tower was demolished. The Austrian military auhtorities did not agree that the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków take care of the deteriorating Wanda Mound and Krakus Mound. Not coming into details of the actions of particular societies or individuals from the second half of the 19th century and the years before the outbreak of World War I there is one thing that should be emphasized: in the second half of the 19th century in Kraków there appeared a social movement aiming at saving historical buildings, as well as movable monuments. The movement was started by such people as Feliks Radwański (the father), Florian Straszewski, Karol Kremer, or Ambroży Grabowski. With time, cultural societies arose, which – acting in various spheres – attached more and more importance to preservation of monuments. The appearance at the beginning of the 20th century, in connection with the struggle for saving the houses near St. Giles’s Church from demolition, of the Association of Eleven Cultural Societies, which started to act jointly, in a co-ordinated way, is a unique, unknown in other Polish and European cities example of joining efforts of many people in order to save the national heritage. That is why we should remember about these people and their disinterested work.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

For example, at the end of the 90s the Society – with the other ones – managed to ‘defend’ the Barbican against its being handed down to the Ludowy Theatre (and in 1909 – against attempts of its being transformed by Jan Styka into the seat of ‘The Panorama of Grunwald’). In 1913 it successfully protested against the plans of development of Błonia. Thanks to its effort and collected money, at the beginning of the 20th century the Gothic Garden of Olives at St. Barbara’s Church was restored. In 1906 the Society initiated the action aiming at purchasing from the private owners the building of St. Agnes’s Church (at that time there was a yard of iron scrap in it). In 1905 the Society very actively (financially!) joined the action of saving the buildings at St. Giles’s Church. It should be emphasized that the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture and the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków, while fighting to save the houses at St. Giles’s Church, managed to involve in co-operation nine other Cracovian cultural societies. Since that time appearing under the name: ‘The Association of Eleven Cultural Societies’, at the beginning of the 20th century a very strong consultative circle was made in Kraków, with whom both the city authorities and the owners of historical buildings (in case of the mentioned houses – the Dominican Friars) had to reckon12. The members of the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków put a lot of energy in the action of commemorating with plaques outstanding personages of the city and also strangers. For example, thanks to them the plaques in memory of Marcin Oracewicz (on the battlements next to St. Florian’s Gate), Władysław

40

The informal ‘Association of 11 Cultural Societies included: The Scciety of Friends of Fine Arts, The Society of Beautifying the City of Kraków and Its Environs, The Cracovian Technical Society, The Artistic-Literary Circle, The Numismatic-Archeological Society, The Group of Conservators of West Galicia, The Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture, The Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków, The Society of Polish Artists ‘Art’, The Society ‘Polish Applied Art’, The National Tourist Association. In the files of the state Archives in Kraków (file no. I.T. 1100, p. 623) there is a document of September 1908 confirming the appearance of the initiative of granting the ‘Association’ a formal status of ‘The Association of Artistic-Cultural Institutions Artistic Guard in Kraków’, whose aim was supposed to be establishing a collective opinion, initiative and taking a joint solid action in artistic – cultural cases concerning Kraków. In spite of the fact that formally such an association was not formed, since that time until the outbreak of World War I ‘The Association the Eleven’ systematically came out in defence of the rich cultural heritage handed down by ancestors.

The informal ‘Association of 11 Cultural Societies included: The Scciety of Friends of Fine Arts, The Society of Beautifying the City of Kraków and Its Environs, The Cracovian Technical Society, The Artistic-Literary Circle, The Numismatic-Archeological Society, The Group of Conservators of West Galicia, The Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture, The Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków, The Society of Polish Artists ‘Art’, The Society ‘Polish Applied Art’, The National Tourist Association. In the files of the state Archives in Kraków (file no. I.T. 1100, p. 623) there is a document of September 1908 confirming the appearance of the initiative of granting the ‘Association’ a formal status of ‘The Association of Artistic-Cultural Institutions Artistic Guard in Kraków’, whose aim was supposed to be establishing a collective opinion, initiative and taking a joint solid action in artistic – cultural cases concerning Kraków. In spite of the fact that formally such an association was not formed, since that time until the outbreak of World War I ‘The Association the Eleven’ systematically came out in defence of the rich cultural heritage handed down by ancestors.

12

Łuszczkiewicz (on the wall of St. Mary’s Church), Wincenty Pol (on the building at Szpitalna street 26), the Reverend Piotr Skarga (on the wall of the building at Sienna street), Johann Wolfgang Goethe (in the Market Square) were fixed. Unfortunately, not all struggles of the Society to save Cracovian monuments were successful. In spite of the protests of all eleven Cracovian cultural societies, in 1909 the Kościuszko Tower was demolished. The Austrian military auhtorities did not agree that the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków take care of the deteriorating Wanda Mound and Krakus Mound. Not coming into details of the actions of particular societies or individuals from the second half of the 19th century and the years before the outbreak of World War I there is one thing that should be emphasized: in the second half of the 19th century in Kraków there appeared a social movement aiming at saving historical buildings, as well as movable monuments. The movement was started by such people as Feliks Radwański (the father), Florian Straszewski, Karol Kremer, or Ambroży Grabowski. With time, cultural societies arose, which – acting in various spheres – attached more and more importance to preservation of monuments. The appearance at the beginning of the 20th century, in connection with the struggle for saving the houses near St. Giles’s Church from demolition, of the Association of Eleven Cultural Societies, which started to act jointly, in a co-ordinated way, is a unique, unknown in other Polish and European cities example of joining efforts of many people in order to save the national heritage. That is why we should remember about these people and their disinterested work.

12

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

For example, at the end of the 90s the Society – with the other ones – managed to ‘defend’ the Barbican against its being handed down to the Ludowy Theatre (and in 1909 – against attempts of its being transformed by Jan Styka into the seat of ‘The Panorama of Grunwald’). In 1913 it successfully protested against the plans of development of Błonia. Thanks to its effort and collected money, at the beginning of the 20th century the Gothic Garden of Olives at St. Barbara’s Church was restored. In 1906 the Society initiated the action aiming at purchasing from the private owners the building of St. Agnes’s Church (at that time there was a yard of iron scrap in it). In 1905 the Society very actively (financially!) joined the action of saving the buildings at St. Giles’s Church. It should be emphasized that the Society of Protection of Polish Monuments of Art and Culture and the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków, while fighting to save the houses at St. Giles’s Church, managed to involve in co-operation nine other Cracovian cultural societies. Since that time appearing under the name: ‘The Association of Eleven Cultural Societies’, at the beginning of the 20th century a very strong consultative circle was made in Kraków, with whom both the city authorities and the owners of historical buildings (in case of the mentioned houses – the Dominican Friars) had to reckon12. The members of the Society of Lovers of History and Monuments of Kraków put a lot of energy in the action of commemorating with plaques outstanding personages of the city and also strangers. For example, thanks to them the plaques in memory of Marcin Oracewicz (on the battlements next to St. Florian’s Gate), Władysław


41

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Literatura “Czas” 25.11.1905. “Czas” 27.11.1905. “Czas” 7.12.1905. “Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826 [in:] Wachholz Sz., Rzeczpospolita Krakowska. Okres od 1815 do 1830 r., Warszawa 1957. Bąkowski K., Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898. Bieńkowski W., Strażnicy dziejów miasta narodowej pamięci. Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa w latach 1896 – 1996, Kraków 1997. Chmiel A., Feliks Radwański (1926) [in:] Chmiel A., Szkice krakowskie, Kraków 1939-1947. Grabowski A., Wspomnienia, ed. Estreicher S., Kraków 1909, vol. II. Klein F., Notatnik krakowski, Kraków 1965. Klein F., Pałac “Pod Krzysztofory“ w Krakowie, Kraków 1914. W. Bieńkowskiego, Kraków 1997.

Krzyżanowski S., Ludność Krakowa z końcem XVIII w.

ystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, ed.

[in:] “Kalendarz Krakowski Józefa Czecha na rok 1902”, Kraków 1901. Lepiarczyk J., Działalność architektoniczna Sebastiana Sierakowskiego. Projekty klasycystyczne i neogotyckie (1777 – 1824), Kraków 1968. Lepiarczyk J., Konserwacja zabytków architektury,

Łepkowski J., Sprawozdanie z podróży archeologicznej po Sądecczyźnie [in:] “Rocznik Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego”, vol. 23, 1851. Łuszczkiewicz W., Sokołowski M., Paweł Popiel (1807 – 1892), Kraków 1893. Palarczykowa A., Artur Potocki i jego pałac “Pod Baranami” w Krakowie, Kraków 1995. Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu miłośników ojczystych zabytków w Krakowie w dniach 3 i 4 lipca 1911 roku, Kraków 1912. Piekarczyk J., Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory [in:] “Kraków” 1984, vol. 1. Rożek M., Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa [in:] “Biuletyn Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej” XXXIII (1983). Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, Kraków 1896. Statut Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, Kraków 1901. Ślesiński W., Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku [in:] “Ochrona Zabytków” 1963, No. 1. Żmudziński J., Restauracja zabytków malarstwa sztalugowego w działalności krakowskiego Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury (1902 – 1926) [in:] “Rocznik Biblioteki PAN w Krakowie” XLII, 1997.

Kraków 1954.

Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków. Założyciele TowarzKraków 1954. Lepiarczyk J., Konserwacja zabytków architektury, tyckie (1777 – 1824), Kraków 1968. Sierakowskiego. Projekty klasycystyczne i neogoLepiarczyk J., Działalność architektoniczna Sebastiana 1902”, Kraków 1901.

Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków. Założyciele Towarz-

[in:] “Kalendarz Krakowski Józefa Czecha na rok

ystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, ed.

Krzyżanowski S., Ludność Krakowa z końcem XVIII w.

W. Bieńkowskiego, Kraków 1997.

1914. Klein F., Pałac “Pod Krzysztofory“ w Krakowie, Kraków Klein F., Notatnik krakowski, Kraków 1965. 1909, vol. II. Grabowski A., Wspomnienia, ed. Estreicher S., Kraków krakowskie, Kraków 1939-1947. Chmiel A., Feliks Radwański (1926) [in:] Chmiel A., Szkice Krakowa w latach 1896 – 1996, Kraków 1997. pamięci. Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Bieńkowski W., Strażnicy dziejów miasta narodowej Bąkowski K., Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898. Warszawa 1957. Rzeczpospolita Krakowska. Okres od 1815 do 1830 r., “Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826 [in:] Wachholz Sz., “Czas” 7.12.1905. “Czas” 27.11.1905. “Czas” 25.11.1905.

Literatura Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

41

w Krakowie” XLII, 1997. i Kultury (1902 – 1926) [in:] “Rocznik Biblioteki PAN warzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki sztalugowego w działalności krakowskiego ToŻmudziński J., Restauracja zabytków malarstwa bytków” 1963, No. 1. w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku [in:] “Ochrona ZaŚlesiński W., Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa Sztuki i Kultury, Kraków 1901. Statut Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Krakowa, Kraków 1896. Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej” XXXIII (1983). Rożek M., Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa [in:] “Biuletyn [in:] “Kraków” 1984, vol. 1. Piekarczyk J., Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory Kraków 1912. zabytków w Krakowie w dniach 3 i 4 lipca 1911 roku, Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu miłośników ojczystych Baranami” w Krakowie, Kraków 1995. Palarczykowa A., Artur Potocki i jego pałac “Pod – 1892), Kraków 1893. Łuszczkiewicz W., Sokołowski M., Paweł Popiel (1807 kowego Krakowskiego”, vol. 23, 1851. po Sądecczyźnie [in:] “Rocznik Towarzystwa NauŁepkowski J., Sprawozdanie z podróży archeologicznej


42

Translation: Marta Białecka, Marek Wójcikiewicz

Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities1

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

The presented text was prepared on the basis of an international comparative report and a Polish report, worked out within the confines of international research done in autumn 2007 by CIRCLE (a network of European research institutes and documentation centres) and entitled Festival Policies of Public Authorities in Europe. The preliminary results of the research were discussed at the conference organized by Interacts in Barcelona on 19th and 20th October 2007. The subject of the research was involvement of public authorities in supporting festivals in 20 countries of Europe. Each representative of the 20 countries taking part in the research prepared a national report consisting of two fundamental parts: a draft of the general situation of publicly supported artistic festivals and a case study concerning a selected festival. The authors of the comparative report were Dorota Ilczuk and Magdalena Kulikowska, and of the Polish report Michał Merczyński and the group of Pro Cultura Foundation.

F

he European festival landscape is very rich. A general growth tendency of the number of organized festivals is being observed. It also concerns the festivals which are the subject of the research – artistic, international and supported with public funds. Such a situation takes place especially in such countries as Spain, Finland, Germany (mainly in reference to the period after the unification of the country), or Croatia, where in the last decade an increase of the number of festivals by 100% was taken down. However, as table 1 shows, the number of organized festivals is different in particular countries and depends on a wide range of economic, cultural and social conditions.

Hungary was published in 2005. It is of application character and was a help when the plan of the authorities’ actions was being worked out. In spite of it, the impact which festivals have on the whole sphere of the culture of a given territory has been noticed in European countries both by societies and public authorities, which included festivals in the sphere of their interest. In this text, the aspect of public authorities’ attitude to festivals is the main aspect.

T

1. FESTIVALS IN EUROPE

1.1. The number of festivals and the places where they were organized

1.1. The number of festivals and the places where they were organized

42

1. FESTIVALS IN EUROPE

T

1

Hungary was published in 2005. It is of application character and was a help when the plan of the authorities’ actions was being worked out. In spite of it, the impact which festivals have on the whole sphere of the culture of a given territory has been noticed in European countries both by societies and public authorities, which included festivals in the sphere of their interest. In this text, the aspect of public authorities’ attitude to festivals is the main aspect.

he European festival landscape is very rich. A general growth tendency of the number of organized festivals is being observed. It also concerns the festivals which are the subject of the research – artistic, international and supported with public funds. Such a situation takes place especially in such countries as Spain, Finland, Germany (mainly in reference to the period after the unification of the country), or Croatia, where in the last decade an increase of the number of festivals by 100% was taken down. However, as table 1 shows, the number of organized festivals is different in particular countries and depends on a wide range of economic, cultural and social conditions.

estivals are events of national and supranational character aiming at promotion of one or more artistic disciplines, organized in a definite place and time. Festivals are often an arena of intercultural interactions as well as an important factor affecting the reorganization of the public space. The main venues for them to be held are European cities, especially metropolises. City authorities soon began to appreciate their complex character, multitude of social, artistic, cultural and economic functions, as well as their power of influence. Contemporary festivals are becoming one of the most important phenomena on the European cultural scene. This text will focus only on festivals receiving public financial support and fulfilling two additional criteria, which are: an international character and an artistic profile. Do they differ from the rest of festivals? To a certain extent they do. First of all, because of the features mentioned above, they enjoy high prestige. Moreover, public authorities are more willing to co-finance international festivals than those of local importance, making them more financially stable. The state of research, reports and studies on festivals in Europe which have been done so far is not very good. Festivals have been studied only in Italy, France, Austria and Finland, and the research usually referred only to selected aspects of public authorities’ involvement in festivals. In Hungary the report National Survey on Festival in

estivals are events of national and supranational character aiming at promotion of one or more artistic disciplines, organized in a definite place and time. Festivals are often an arena of intercultural interactions as well as an important factor affecting the reorganization of the public space. The main venues for them to be held are European cities, especially metropolises. City authorities soon began to appreciate their complex character, multitude of social, artistic, cultural and economic functions, as well as their power of influence. Contemporary festivals are becoming one of the most important phenomena on the European cultural scene. This text will focus only on festivals receiving public financial support and fulfilling two additional criteria, which are: an international character and an artistic profile. Do they differ from the rest of festivals? To a certain extent they do. First of all, because of the features mentioned above, they enjoy high prestige. Moreover, public authorities are more willing to co-finance international festivals than those of local importance, making them more financially stable. The state of research, reports and studies on festivals in Europe which have been done so far is not very good. Festivals have been studied only in Italy, France, Austria and Finland, and the research usually referred only to selected aspects of public authorities’ involvement in festivals. In Hungary the report National Survey on Festival in

F

Translation: Marta Białecka, Marek Wójcikiewicz

1

Dr hab. Dorota Ilczuk Professor of Humanities and Cultural Management at the Warsaw School of Social Psyc hology. She has held a doctorate since 1995 on the topic of Institutional and Financial Analysis of Operational Opportunities for Cultural Activities in the Nonprofit Sector, and a habilitated doctor degree since 2005. She is the founder and president of the Pro Cultura Foundation, which acts according to the Research and Development formula and a member of the European Cultural Parliament. She co-operates with international organisations and science associations. She is the author of over one hundred publications, studies and articles (in Polish and in English) in three research fields: 1) economic aspects of cultural activity – economics of culture; 2) interdependence between cultural policy and the development of civil society; 3) cultural management. Her works are concentrated mainly on such issues as various models of financing of culture, commercialisation of culture, free market and culture, organising and

The presented text was prepared on the basis of an international comparative report and a Polish report, worked out within the confines of international research done in autumn 2007 by CIRCLE (a network of European research institutes and documentation centres) and entitled Festival Policies of Public Authorities in Europe. The preliminary results of the research were discussed at the conference organized by Interacts in Barcelona on 19th and 20th October 2007. The subject of the research was involvement of public authorities in supporting festivals in 20 countries of Europe. Each representative of the 20 countries taking part in the research prepared a national report consisting of two fundamental parts: a draft of the general situation of publicly supported artistic festivals and a case study concerning a selected festival. The authors of the comparative report were Dorota Ilczuk and Magdalena Kulikowska, and of the Polish report Michał Merczyński and the group of Pro Cultura Foundation.

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Dr hab. Dorota Ilczuk Professor of Humanities and Cultural Management at the Warsaw School of Social Psyc hology. She has held a doctorate since 1995 on the topic of Institutional and Financial Analysis of Operational Opportunities for Cultural Activities in the Nonprofit Sector, and a habilitated doctor degree since 2005. She is the founder and president of the Pro Cultura Foundation, which acts according to the Research and Development formula and a member of the European Cultural Parliament. She co-operates with international organisations and science associations. She is the author of over one hundred publications, studies and articles (in Polish and in English) in three research fields: 1) economic aspects of cultural activity – economics of culture; 2) interdependence between cultural policy and the development of civil society; 3) cultural management. Her works are concentrated mainly on such issues as various models of financing of culture, commercialisation of culture, free market and culture, organising and

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities1


43

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Translation: Marta Białecka, Marek Wójcikiewicz

NUMBER*

France

ca. 1 000

Spain

ca. 700

Germany

474

Italy

200

Poland

163

Russia

over 100

Hungary

89

Bulgaria

85

Portugal

77

Slovakia

16

*Since there are no official statistics, the data is mostly of estimated character

Most of the festivals in the countries comprised by the study are held in big city centres and tourist regions. A good example is Spain, where in 2005 Andalusia, Catalonia and the region of Madrid hosted 18%, 14% and 13% of all theatre festivals and 16%, 23% and 9% music festivals, including jazz contests.

T

he motives which public authorities are guided by deciding to support festivals can be briefly defined in the following way: at the state level it mainly concerns the realization of artistic purposes, with the emphasis on prestigious events promoting the country abroad, whereas at the regional and local levels artistic purposes mix with political, economic and social ones. Council authorities are often far less interested in the artistic value of a given festival than its other values, for instance economic ones. Such a situation can be observed in Austria, Finland, Flanders and Germany. For example in Austria systematic research is conducted on economic impact of festivals on the region in which they are organized. This research considerably influences the process of taking decisions which concern supporting festivals. For example the festival Bregenzer Festspiele (land Vorarlberg), receiving from the regional and local authorities 2,65 million euro altogether and almost the same amount from the central authorities, generates on average the profits of 167 million euro a year creating at the same time 1 160 full-time workplaces a year.

A

1.2. Kinds of festivals

1.2. Kinds of festivals

1.4. Levels of the public sector responsible for supporting festivals in Europe

A

A

mong international and artistic festivals in Europe music festivals not only prevail as regards their number, but also the level of financing from public funds. For example, the expenditure on music festivals at the minister level in Italy in 2005 was 8,84 million euro, which constituted as much as 83,6% of all expenditure from this level allocated for supporting festivals. These funds were used by 68 festivals – a lot of which were devoted to opera, e.g. Rossini Opera Festival, Torre del Lago-Puccini, Valle d’Itria. Such a situation takes place in almost all analysed countries. The only exception is Poland, where there is more theatre than music festivals. Theatre festivals usually come in second. The next places are taken by dance and film festivals. Also the number of interdisciplinary festivals, resigning from attachment to one kind of artistic expression is increasing. So far it has been difficult to assess the amount of subsidy for this type of festivals, because they are usually assigned to events devoted to one of the artistic forms. One of the countries where interdisciplinary festivals are distinguished and qualified as a separate category is France. Interdisciplinary festivals come in second there, after music festivals, in the ranking of the amount of public subsidy.

Translation: Marta Białecka, Marek Wójcikiewicz

t the minister level of the public sector first of all the ministry of culture or the ministry dealing with the matters of culture (e.g. the Ministry of Education in Finland) is responsible for supporting festivals. One cannot definitely indicate one department within ministries of culture which is responsible for supporting festivals. They are usually various departments responsible for different spheres of culture. In Turkey, for instance, they are General Directorate for Research and Education – Department of Folk Culture, General Directorate for Fine Arts, General Directorate for State Opera and Ballets and General Directorate for State Theatres. In Portugal there is Direcçăo-Geral das Artes (Directorate-General for the Arts). In federal countries the situation is different only because of the degree of involvement of the public authorities of various levels – here the regional level takes the lead (land). The countries which, like France, have state structures of cultural administration responsible for regions (e.g. DRAC’s), include them in subsidizing regional and local festivals from central funds. In the countries where there are organizations such as Quango, it is them that actively support festivals, for example Arts Council in Finland, Kultuurkapital in Estonia, National Film

Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities1

t the minister level of the public sector first of all the ministry of culture or the ministry dealing with the matters of culture (e.g. the Ministry of Education in Finland) is responsible for supporting festivals. One cannot definitely indicate one department within ministries of culture which is responsible for supporting festivals. They are usually various departments responsible for different spheres of culture. In Turkey, for instance, they are General Directorate for Research and Education – Department of Folk Culture, General Directorate for Fine Arts, General Directorate for State Opera and Ballets and General Directorate for State Theatres. In Portugal there is Direcçăo-Geral das Artes (Directorate-General for the Arts). In federal countries the situation is different only because of the degree of involvement of the public authorities of various levels – here the regional level takes the lead (land). The countries which, like France, have state structures of cultural administration responsible for regions (e.g. DRAC’s), include them in subsidizing regional and local festivals from central funds. In the countries where there are organizations such as Quango, it is them that actively support festivals, for example Arts Council in Finland, Kultuurkapital in Estonia, National Film

Most of the festivals in the countries comprised by the study are held in big city centres and tourist regions. A good example is Spain, where in 2005 Andalusia, Catalonia and the region of Madrid hosted 18%, 14% and 13% of all theatre festivals and 16%, 23% and 9% music festivals, including jazz contests. *Since there are no official statistics, the data is mostly of estimated character

Slovakia

16 77

Portugal

85

Bulgaria

89

Hungary

over 100

Russia

163

Poland

200

Italy

474

Germany

ca. 700

Spain

ca. 1 000

France

NUMBER*

COUNTRY

TABLE 1: The number of international, artistic festivals supported with public funds in selected countries

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

COUNTRY

1.3. Motives

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

mong international and artistic festivals in Europe music festivals not only prevail as regards their number, but also the level of financing from public funds. For example, the expenditure on music festivals at the minister level in Italy in 2005 was 8,84 million euro, which constituted as much as 83,6% of all expenditure from this level allocated for supporting festivals. These funds were used by 68 festivals – a lot of which were devoted to opera, e.g. Rossini Opera Festival, Torre del Lago-Puccini, Valle d’Itria. Such a situation takes place in almost all analysed countries. The only exception is Poland, where there is more theatre than music festivals. Theatre festivals usually come in second. The next places are taken by dance and film festivals. Also the number of interdisciplinary festivals, resigning from attachment to one kind of artistic expression is increasing. So far it has been difficult to assess the amount of subsidy for this type of festivals, because they are usually assigned to events devoted to one of the artistic forms. One of the countries where interdisciplinary festivals are distinguished and qualified as a separate category is France. Interdisciplinary festivals come in second there, after music festivals, in the ranking of the amount of public subsidy.

Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities1

TABLE 1: The number of international, artistic festivals supported with public funds in selected countries

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

43

financing of cultural activity within the third sector, privatisation of culture, sponsorship and patronage of culture, economic value of the creative sector and cultural industries and changes in public cultural institutions. Among the realised projects, the most significant are those that are applicable and concerned with the forming of cultural policies in metropolises.

A

1.4. Levels of the public sector responsible for supporting festivals in Europe

he motives which public authorities are guided by deciding to support festivals can be briefly defined in the following way: at the state level it mainly concerns the realization of artistic purposes, with the emphasis on prestigious events promoting the country abroad, whereas at the regional and local levels artistic purposes mix with political, economic and social ones. Council authorities are often far less interested in the artistic value of a given festival than its other values, for instance economic ones. Such a situation can be observed in Austria, Finland, Flanders and Germany. For example in Austria systematic research is conducted on economic impact of festivals on the region in which they are organized. This research considerably influences the process of taking decisions which concern supporting festivals. For example the festival Bregenzer Festspiele (land Vorarlberg), receiving from the regional and local authorities 2,65 million euro altogether and almost the same amount from the central authorities, generates on average the profits of 167 million euro a year creating at the same time 1 160 full-time workplaces a year.

T

1.3. Motives

financing of cultural activity within the third sector, privatisation of culture, sponsorship and patronage of culture, economic value of the creative sector and cultural industries and changes in public cultural institutions. Among the realised projects, the most significant are those that are applicable and concerned with the forming of cultural policies in metropolises.


44

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

FRANCE

PORTUGAL

POLAND

SLOVAKIA

SPAIN

euro to 147 cultural events, the majority of which were festivals. At the same time the local authorities granted 1,3 million euro to 43 festivals. In the case of Poland it can be said that in practice the ministry of culture and the communes are the only active units in this field. On the other hand, the French ministry of culture since 2001 has been delegating responsibility for supporting festivals to the regional and local authorities. Also the example of the Slovakian festival Divadelna Nitra International Festival indicates a high level of financing from the minister level – 54,5% of the whole budget was received by the festival from this source and only 2,6% from the authorities of the remaining levels of public administration. In the countries of federal structure (Germany, Belgium) it is only occasionally that the minister level gets involved in supporting festivals. Also the activity of the regional and local authorities in particular countries in reference to supporting festivals can be seen. Depending on a country, the degree of involvement of particular levels of council authorities differs. In Austria, Belgium and France regional levels are more active. For example, the Austrian festival Steirischer Herbst receives funds from the regional level covering 47% of the whole budget. However, the local authorities are responsible for supporting festivals in such countries as: Bulgaria, Flanders (Summer of Antwerp: local level – 65%, regional – 12,5%), or Spain (Dancing Days – International Dance Festival in Urban Landscapes: local level – 53%, regional – 22%, minister – 12%). The situation looks different in the case of the involvement of public authorities in supporting festivals through material help. The central authorities rarely seem to give such support. It can be said that the lover the level of the public

FINLAND

Centre in Bulgaria, Film and Audiovisual Institute in Portugal or Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography in Russia. If we place the European Union and its structures at the minister level of the European public sector, we can assess them as a partner of festivals, still rare but becoming more and more stimulated to activity. Another important cell of the public sector involved in supporting festivals in Europe are governments of regional and local level. Governments usually assign the rights to support festivals to their offices/departments/sections dealing with the culture and promotion of the city. Among the analyzed countries only one example has been found of creating by the council authorities special units/offices acting within offices dealing with festivals. It is Cracow Festival Office. We should also mention an example from outside Europe. In Chicago there is MOSE – Mayor’s Office of Special Events – a department of Chicago town hall, which is responsible for the organization or co-production of the biggest generally attainable city festivals. However, European governments, especially in metropolises, (first of all of post-communist countries) use their own institutions to organize festivals which are particularly important for the city. A good example is Stołeczna Estrada in Poland, a city institution of culture dealing with the organization of its own and commissioned cultural events, festivals, cultural actions in Warsaw. It is difficult to indicate the level of public authorities which is most involved in supporting festivals. The situation can be defined as diverse. Often the most involved level is the minister level (tab. 2). It is so in Turkey, Finland, Slovakia, Poland and Croatia. For example, the Finnish Ministry of Education granted in 2007 3,7 million

CROATIA

Table 2: Public authorities’ support for festivals according to the degree of involvement

BULGARIA

communes

centre

centre

centre/ communes

regions/ districts

BELGIUM

regions/ districts

LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT

centrum

centre

high

regions

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

regions/ districts

44

communes

centre

-

communes

communes

-

communes

-

regions/ districts

centre

centre

regions/ districts

communes

-

medium

-

centre

regions

communes

regions/ districts

-

communes

-

-

centre

communes

regions/ districts

communes

-

regions/ districts

-

centre

-

communes

low

centre

LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT

centre

BELGIUM

-

centre/ communes

BULGARIA

low

regions/ districts

CROATIA

communes

centrum

FINLAND

medium

centre

FRANCE

regions/ districts

PORTUGAL

high

POLAND

Table 2: Public authorities’ support for festivals according to the degree of involvement

SLOVAKIA

euro to 147 cultural events, the majority of which were festivals. At the same time the local authorities granted 1,3 million euro to 43 festivals. In the case of Poland it can be said that in practice the ministry of culture and the communes are the only active units in this field. On the other hand, the French ministry of culture since 2001 has been delegating responsibility for supporting festivals to the regional and local authorities. Also the example of the Slovakian festival Divadelna Nitra International Festival indicates a high level of financing from the minister level – 54,5% of the whole budget was received by the festival from this source and only 2,6% from the authorities of the remaining levels of public administration. In the countries of federal structure (Germany, Belgium) it is only occasionally that the minister level gets involved in supporting festivals. Also the activity of the regional and local authorities in particular countries in reference to supporting festivals can be seen. Depending on a country, the degree of involvement of particular levels of council authorities differs. In Austria, Belgium and France regional levels are more active. For example, the Austrian festival Steirischer Herbst receives funds from the regional level covering 47% of the whole budget. However, the local authorities are responsible for supporting festivals in such countries as: Bulgaria, Flanders (Summer of Antwerp: local level – 65%, regional – 12,5%), or Spain (Dancing Days – International Dance Festival in Urban Landscapes: local level – 53%, regional – 22%, minister – 12%). The situation looks different in the case of the involvement of public authorities in supporting festivals through material help. The central authorities rarely seem to give such support. It can be said that the lover the level of the public

SPAIN

Centre in Bulgaria, Film and Audiovisual Institute in Portugal or Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography in Russia. If we place the European Union and its structures at the minister level of the European public sector, we can assess them as a partner of festivals, still rare but becoming more and more stimulated to activity. Another important cell of the public sector involved in supporting festivals in Europe are governments of regional and local level. Governments usually assign the rights to support festivals to their offices/departments/sections dealing with the culture and promotion of the city. Among the analyzed countries only one example has been found of creating by the council authorities special units/offices acting within offices dealing with festivals. It is Cracow Festival Office. We should also mention an example from outside Europe. In Chicago there is MOSE – Mayor’s Office of Special Events – a department of Chicago town hall, which is responsible for the organization or co-production of the biggest generally attainable city festivals. However, European governments, especially in metropolises, (first of all of post-communist countries) use their own institutions to organize festivals which are particularly important for the city. A good example is Stołeczna Estrada in Poland, a city institution of culture dealing with the organization of its own and commissioned cultural events, festivals, cultural actions in Warsaw. It is difficult to indicate the level of public authorities which is most involved in supporting festivals. The situation can be defined as diverse. Often the most involved level is the minister level (tab. 2). It is so in Turkey, Finland, Slovakia, Poland and Croatia. For example, the Finnish Ministry of Education granted in 2007 3,7 million


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

administration the more often material support is given. It usually consists in free lending of public areas. Festivals need infrastructural base and this is what the local authorities can ensure. It also happens, as in the case of some smaller French towns that festivals of regional or international character are organized in them, and the budget of the town authorities is too little to support them financially. As a result the town gives material support (e.g. Ile-de-France festival and Automne en Normandie festival). For obvious reasons the presented tendency does not appear when the public authorities are co-organizers of the festival or when it is organized by public institutions. In such cases material support is common at all levels of public authorities.

1.5. Forms of funding

n Europe one can indicate project funding as the form of public funding of festivals which appears in all analysed countries. Project funding is realized with different intensity – from Bulgaria being still in nappies in this sphere to Finland, where the principle is to assume this form by the ministry of culture as the only one used for funding festivals. Project funding can have different time perspective, different recipients, different way of selection and control of spent funds and be different in various spheres of culture. It is a popular form, but certainly not the only one. Apart from it, financial resources can be donated on the basis of an agreement made as a public-private partnership (e.g. Slovakia), within the confines of programmes (budgetary lines, e.g. Spain), and ministry decrees (e.g. Italy). Also one can observe giving a subsidy for the organization of a festival. Subsidies appear usually in the situations when a self-government organizes a festival itself or it is done by a self-government institution of culture (e.g. France, Bulgaria, Poland).

I

1.6. The scale of funding festivals from public sources

D

efining clear tendencies concerning public funding of festivals is not possible, since festivals, as it was mentioned before, are not included in official statistics. It also refers to public expenditure. Thus, it can only be said that ‘public funding of festivals’ are in fact ‘festivals co-funded from public sources’. The amount of support for festivals in particular European countries is diverse. Below we present a few examples illustrating the situation.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

In 2005 the Austrian Department of Art donated ca. 13,2 million euro to supporting and promoting festivals. It was 15,6% of the whole budget of the department – at the same time festivals are the third sphere of art as for the amount of support obtained from that source. For example, Salzburger Festspiele festival obtained ca. 5,2 million euro from the Department of Art, 2,74 million euro from Salzburg Province and 2,6 million euro from the authorities of the city of Salzburg. The Finnish ministry of culture in 2007 donated 3,7 million euro to supporting the most important cultural events, most of which were festivals. The highest grants were: Savonlinna Opera Festival (660 000 euro), Tampere Theatre Festival (217 000 euro), Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (172 000 euro), Kuopio Dance Festival (151 000 euro) and Kaustinen Folk Music Festival (150 000 euro). The French ministry of culture donated in 2006 7,5 million euro to direct funding of three festivals (Lyrique d’Aix en Provence opera festival, theatre Festival d’Avignon and music Festival d’Automne). Additionally it supported 400 festivals at the regional level in the total amount of 11,6 million euro. These data concern only festivals devoted to performance art and do not take into consideration subsidies for institutions of culture organizing festivals. Music, dance and theatre festivals in Italy received from the ministry level in 2005 over 10,5 million euro altogether. The average amount of the grant was 89,000 euro. Most often these festivals also received funds from the council authorities. In Spain, as it was mentioned before, the ministry of culture gives grants within the confines of contests for particular spheres of art. And thus, within the confines of the competition of theatre and circus activity, in 2006, the ministry donated over a million euro to 87 festivals (on average the grants covered 12 000 euro). In the same year, for the activity connected with music and dance, the ministry gave grants to 26 festivals of the total amount of 385 000 euro (the average grant – 14 800 euro). A separate competition devoted to music festivals, congresses and other events, allowed for granting support to additional 65 events in the amount of 795 000 euro (the average grant – 12 000 euro). Festivals devoted to performance art in Portugal in 2006 received support from the minister level of the total amount of almost 4 million euro. 7 dance festivals received 242 000 euro (which was 13% of all expenditure on dance), 14 dance festivals received 1,17 million euro (11%) and 18 multidisciplinary festivals - 1,5 million euro (44%).

45

efining clear tendencies concerning public funding of festivals is not possible, since festivals, as it was mentioned before, are not included in official statistics. It also refers to public expenditure. Thus, it can only be said that ‘public funding of festivals’ are in fact ‘festivals co-funded from public sources’. The amount of support for festivals in particular European countries is diverse. Below we present a few examples illustrating the situation.

D

1.6. The scale of funding festivals from public sources

n Europe one can indicate project funding as the form of public funding of festivals which appears in all analysed countries. Project funding is realized with different intensity – from Bulgaria being still in nappies in this sphere to Finland, where the principle is to assume this form by the ministry of culture as the only one used for funding festivals. Project funding can have different time perspective, different recipients, different way of selection and control of spent funds and be different in various spheres of culture. It is a popular form, but certainly not the only one. Apart from it, financial resources can be donated on the basis of an agreement made as a public-private partnership (e.g. Slovakia), within the confines of programmes (budgetary lines, e.g. Spain), and ministry decrees (e.g. Italy). Also one can observe giving a subsidy for the organization of a festival. Subsidies appear usually in the situations when a self-government organizes a festival itself or it is done by a self-government institution of culture (e.g. France, Bulgaria, Poland).

I

1.5. Forms of funding

administration the more often material support is given. It usually consists in free lending of public areas. Festivals need infrastructural base and this is what the local authorities can ensure. It also happens, as in the case of some smaller French towns that festivals of regional or international character are organized in them, and the budget of the town authorities is too little to support them financially. As a result the town gives material support (e.g. Ile-de-France festival and Automne en Normandie festival). For obvious reasons the presented tendency does not appear when the public authorities are co-organizers of the festival or when it is organized by public institutions. In such cases material support is common at all levels of public authorities.

45

In 2005 the Austrian Department of Art donated ca. 13,2 million euro to supporting and promoting festivals. It was 15,6% of the whole budget of the department – at the same time festivals are the third sphere of art as for the amount of support obtained from that source. For example, Salzburger Festspiele festival obtained ca. 5,2 million euro from the Department of Art, 2,74 million euro from Salzburg Province and 2,6 million euro from the authorities of the city of Salzburg. The Finnish ministry of culture in 2007 donated 3,7 million euro to supporting the most important cultural events, most of which were festivals. The highest grants were: Savonlinna Opera Festival (660 000 euro), Tampere Theatre Festival (217 000 euro), Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (172 000 euro), Kuopio Dance Festival (151 000 euro) and Kaustinen Folk Music Festival (150 000 euro). The French ministry of culture donated in 2006 7,5 million euro to direct funding of three festivals (Lyrique d’Aix en Provence opera festival, theatre Festival d’Avignon and music Festival d’Automne). Additionally it supported 400 festivals at the regional level in the total amount of 11,6 million euro. These data concern only festivals devoted to performance art and do not take into consideration subsidies for institutions of culture organizing festivals. Music, dance and theatre festivals in Italy received from the ministry level in 2005 over 10,5 million euro altogether. The average amount of the grant was 89,000 euro. Most often these festivals also received funds from the council authorities. In Spain, as it was mentioned before, the ministry of culture gives grants within the confines of contests for particular spheres of art. And thus, within the confines of the competition of theatre and circus activity, in 2006, the ministry donated over a million euro to 87 festivals (on average the grants covered 12 000 euro). In the same year, for the activity connected with music and dance, the ministry gave grants to 26 festivals of the total amount of 385 000 euro (the average grant – 14 800 euro). A separate competition devoted to music festivals, congresses and other events, allowed for granting support to additional 65 events in the amount of 795 000 euro (the average grant – 12 000 euro). Festivals devoted to performance art in Portugal in 2006 received support from the minister level of the total amount of almost 4 million euro. 7 dance festivals received 242 000 euro (which was 13% of all expenditure on dance), 14 dance festivals received 1,17 million euro (11%) and 18 multidisciplinary festivals - 1,5 million euro (44%).


1.7. The policy of the public authorities towards festivals in Europe

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

I

46

itself it clearly legitimizes supporting this type of events. Although it is not a coherent policy addressed solely to festivals, it can be treated as a significant attempt of creating such. Three countries differ from the rest. In France, Austria and Portugal one can indicate at least the existence of elements of a public festival policy. In France one can assume that it is mainly at the state level that we have support of festivals which is consistent with a well-thought-out line of cultural policy. We deal here with a clearly defined field priority in the sphere of festivals – which is dance. In France the state decides to compensate for the expenditure on expensive public dance institutions by supporting festivals of this field. One can agree with such a decision of the state or not, but it is a proof for conscious interventionism of the state. It means assuming a clear-cut way of acting: we support dance festivals, because we limit funding culture institutions in this field. Moreover, the French ministry, designating most responsibility for supporting festivals to the regional and local level, clearly states who the ‘main player’ in this field is to be. In Austria supporting festivals is one of the main priorities of federal cultural policy. They are consciously treated as an essential factor creating the image of the state, regions and cities, an element affecting the national or regional identity. Also in Portugal there are examples of a coherent policy of the public authorities towards festivals. The main aim of the government of Portugal from the mid 90s in the sphere of culture is ‘supporting artistic production and dissemination of culture’. Festivals are perceived as one of important tools in this context – a platform on which the sector develops by featuring artists’ work, both in the country and abroad. Having so clearly defined attitude to festivals at the minister level, the council authorities make particular effort to incorporate the issue of festivals also in the strategy of city development. Moreover, the regulations referring to festivals are finally included in most of general legislative documents concerning culture and art, as well as in those which are devoted only to them. As a result one can definitely state that in Portugal there are already grounds for creating cultural policy towards festivals. There are also countries where the situation is much more complicated. They cannot be classified as countries in which there are no elements of cultural policy towards festivals, nor can they be assigned to the countries in which the discussion has already been started, nor to those which have a coherent festival policy. A good example here can be England. On the one hand, the Art Council there does not have any festival policy, and most

I

f we define a cultural policy as purposeful and systematic interventionism of various levels of the authorities concerning festivals, we will not find such an approach to supporting festivals in many countries. Experts from different countries when asked if it exists there usually answered as follows: MM Spain: ‘No official policy has been identified in this area’. MM Slovakia: ‘The public authorities do not have a systematic strategy of supporting festivals’. MM Germany: ‘None of the levels of the public authorities has introduced separate regulations concerning festivals’. Thus, it can be said that the problems connected with festivals are regulated through a set of regulations, solutions, ways and programmes, which we will conventionally call practices resulting from general guidelines of cultural policy of a given country. As a result, for example theatre festivals are treated like theatres and are subject to the same regulations as theatres or are included in the general category ‘other events’ and then are treated in the same way as conferences, galas or open air events. The set of practices mentioned here is a common phenomenon in all European countries, as all of them give public support to festivals. They comprise: MM diverse forms of funding and different criteria of granting support to festivals for particular countries, MM preference of funding through projects, MM principles of co-operation between particular levels of public authorities and non-government organizations at organizing and funding festivals, MM introducing special programmes (e.g. Spain), etc. However, practices like that cannot be perceived as a coherent policy towards festivals. As it has been mentioned before, public authorities of most European countries have noticed an increasing role of festivals, and what follows also the need of introducing separate regulations concerning their support. For example in many countries the public authorities initiate debates concerning lack of ‘festival policy’. In some countries further steps have been taken. A good example can be Flanders, where the main act – Flemish Parliament Act, regulating cultural activity, contains also certain regulations concerning festivals. Although it is an act comprising the whole sphere of culture, by including festivals in

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

f we define a cultural policy as purposeful and systematic interventionism of various levels of the authorities concerning festivals, we will not find such an approach to supporting festivals in many countries. Experts from different countries when asked if it exists there usually answered as follows: MM Spain: ‘No official policy has been identified in this area’. MM Slovakia: ‘The public authorities do not have a systematic strategy of supporting festivals’. MM Germany: ‘None of the levels of the public authorities has introduced separate regulations concerning festivals’. Thus, it can be said that the problems connected with festivals are regulated through a set of regulations, solutions, ways and programmes, which we will conventionally call practices resulting from general guidelines of cultural policy of a given country. As a result, for example theatre festivals are treated like theatres and are subject to the same regulations as theatres or are included in the general category ‘other events’ and then are treated in the same way as conferences, galas or open air events. The set of practices mentioned here is a common phenomenon in all European countries, as all of them give public support to festivals. They comprise: MM diverse forms of funding and different criteria of granting support to festivals for particular countries, MM preference of funding through projects, MM principles of co-operation between particular levels of public authorities and non-government organizations at organizing and funding festivals, MM introducing special programmes (e.g. Spain), etc. However, practices like that cannot be perceived as a coherent policy towards festivals. As it has been mentioned before, public authorities of most European countries have noticed an increasing role of festivals, and what follows also the need of introducing separate regulations concerning their support. For example in many countries the public authorities initiate debates concerning lack of ‘festival policy’. In some countries further steps have been taken. A good example can be Flanders, where the main act – Flemish Parliament Act, regulating cultural activity, contains also certain regulations concerning festivals. Although it is an act comprising the whole sphere of culture, by including festivals in

itself it clearly legitimizes supporting this type of events. Although it is not a coherent policy addressed solely to festivals, it can be treated as a significant attempt of creating such. Three countries differ from the rest. In France, Austria and Portugal one can indicate at least the existence of elements of a public festival policy. In France one can assume that it is mainly at the state level that we have support of festivals which is consistent with a well-thought-out line of cultural policy. We deal here with a clearly defined field priority in the sphere of festivals – which is dance. In France the state decides to compensate for the expenditure on expensive public dance institutions by supporting festivals of this field. One can agree with such a decision of the state or not, but it is a proof for conscious interventionism of the state. It means assuming a clear-cut way of acting: we support dance festivals, because we limit funding culture institutions in this field. Moreover, the French ministry, designating most responsibility for supporting festivals to the regional and local level, clearly states who the ‘main player’ in this field is to be. In Austria supporting festivals is one of the main priorities of federal cultural policy. They are consciously treated as an essential factor creating the image of the state, regions and cities, an element affecting the national or regional identity. Also in Portugal there are examples of a coherent policy of the public authorities towards festivals. The main aim of the government of Portugal from the mid 90s in the sphere of culture is ‘supporting artistic production and dissemination of culture’. Festivals are perceived as one of important tools in this context – a platform on which the sector develops by featuring artists’ work, both in the country and abroad. Having so clearly defined attitude to festivals at the minister level, the council authorities make particular effort to incorporate the issue of festivals also in the strategy of city development. Moreover, the regulations referring to festivals are finally included in most of general legislative documents concerning culture and art, as well as in those which are devoted only to them. As a result one can definitely state that in Portugal there are already grounds for creating cultural policy towards festivals. There are also countries where the situation is much more complicated. They cannot be classified as countries in which there are no elements of cultural policy towards festivals, nor can they be assigned to the countries in which the discussion has already been started, nor to those which have a coherent festival policy. A good example here can be England. On the one hand, the Art Council there does not have any festival policy, and most

46

1.7. The policy of the public authorities towards festivals in Europe


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

of the local authorities (71%) give support to festivals on the basis of widely understood general guidelines of cultural policy. However, on the other hand, 12% of the public authorities declare that they are planning to pass and bring into effect within the following year some regulations referring solely to festivals. And lastly, as many as 16% of units of local authorities declare that they already have their own festival policy.

2. FESTIVALS IN POLAND 2.1. The number and the character of festivals

T

he prime of festivals in Poland took place after 1989 r. The reasons for it were both general world tendencies of the development of this cultural form and a possibility of their implementation in the territory of Poland, as well as fundamental changes in the Polish cultural policy, which began to favour varied cultural initiatives and react flexibly to the needs of consumers of culture. It is very difficult to get fully credible information concerning the number and the character of festivals in Poland. The Central Statistical Office does not systematically collect data on Polish festivals. Neither does the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. So far Polish self-governments have been passive in monitoring festivals. The study is the first attempt of a system assessment of the phenomenon of festivals in the formula of an evaluation or report. Because of the character of the sources, the data included in the report are random and have mainly trade arrangement. They come from the Polish Institute of Film Art, the Polish Centre of Music Information, the Zbigniew Raszewski Theatre Institute, the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and the municipal authorities in Warsaw and Poznań. Helpful sources were the resources of the Internet, e.g. POLMIC.PL (the Internet base of music information), regional and local Internet portals, as well as non-published BA and MA theses. And thus the Zbigniew Raszewski Theatre Institute informs through the Internet portal www. teatr.pl that in Poland about 280 theatre festivals are held regularly. About 80 of them are of international character. Most of them are held in cities: in Warsaw there are 18 of them, in Kraków 15, in Wrocław 10, in Poznaniu 6, in Lublinie 5, in Gdańsku 3. The biggest group among international festivals is constituted by those which are devoted to dramatic theatre (there are 30 of them, which is 37,5% of the general number of events), but there are also many festivals of dance theatre and street

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

performances (11 and 17 events respectively). Other events concern puppet show (9), opera (8) and performance art (5). In the same 2006 199 music festivals were held. Most (134) of them were at least partially financed from the public funds. The organizers of festival events received support from authorities of different levels (commune, district, voivodeship and minister). In many cases, apart from public funding they used private sponsoring. Exactly half of 134 festivals i.e. 67 were of international character. Such festivals were held especially in voivodeship cities: in Warsaw there were 10 of them, in Kraków 8, in Wrocław 6, in Gdańsk 4, in Poznań 3 and in Toruń 3. The subject matter of many of them was old and religious music (20 events altogether) and music performed on one instrument, such as the guitar, the organ, etc. (18 events). Other festivals were devoted to folk and contemporary music, vocal and choir activity and the output of particular composers. In 2006 in Poland there were 29 film festivals, including 14 international ones. All of them received subsidy from public funds, mainly through already mentioned Polish Institute of Film Art, which is a government agent appointed by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage in order to support financially film production and other activities concerning cinematography. Every year 16 literary festivals are held in Poland. Only four of them are international events, they are: Port Wrocław (organized by a private publishing company the Literary Office and financially supported by the Office of the City of Wrocław, the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, the Book Institute and organizationally by municipal institutions of culture) presenting poetry from a particular country, in 2007 it was the United States; Spoken’ Word Festival (co-financed by British Council, the French Institute and the Centre of Contemporary Art in Warsaw) – an event devoted to poetic slam, in which artists from France, Great Britain and Poland take part; the International Festival of the Art of Telling Stories (co-financed by the Office of the Capital City of Warsaw); the International Festival of the Art of the Word ‘Verba Sacra’ (co-financed by the Office of the City of Poznań). On the basis of the data collected for the needs of the report one can make a certain generalization and say that at least 162 festivals realized in Poland fulfil the criteria assumed in the study, i.e. they are of artistic character, have an international component and public support. However, it should always be remembered that these are only estimated calculations resulting from an analysis of selected sources and not official statistics.

47

he prime of festivals in Poland took place after 1989 r. The reasons for it were both general world tendencies of the development of this cultural form and a possibility of their implementation in the territory of Poland, as well as fundamental changes in the Polish cultural policy, which began to favour varied cultural initiatives and react flexibly to the needs of consumers of culture. It is very difficult to get fully credible information concerning the number and the character of festivals in Poland. The Central Statistical Office does not systematically collect data on Polish festivals. Neither does the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. So far Polish self-governments have been passive in monitoring festivals. The study is the first attempt of a system assessment of the phenomenon of festivals in the formula of an evaluation or report. Because of the character of the sources, the data included in the report are random and have mainly trade arrangement. They come from the Polish Institute of Film Art, the Polish Centre of Music Information, the Zbigniew Raszewski Theatre Institute, the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and the municipal authorities in Warsaw and Poznań. Helpful sources were the resources of the Internet, e.g. POLMIC.PL (the Internet base of music information), regional and local Internet portals, as well as non-published BA and MA theses. And thus the Zbigniew Raszewski Theatre Institute informs through the Internet portal www. teatr.pl that in Poland about 280 theatre festivals are held regularly. About 80 of them are of international character. Most of them are held in cities: in Warsaw there are 18 of them, in Kraków 15, in Wrocław 10, in Poznaniu 6, in Lublinie 5, in Gdańsku 3. The biggest group among international festivals is constituted by those which are devoted to dramatic theatre (there are 30 of them, which is 37,5% of the general number of events), but there are also many festivals of dance theatre and street

T

2.1. The number and the character of festivals 2. FESTIVALS IN POLAND of the local authorities (71%) give support to festivals on the basis of widely understood general guidelines of cultural policy. However, on the other hand, 12% of the public authorities declare that they are planning to pass and bring into effect within the following year some regulations referring solely to festivals. And lastly, as many as 16% of units of local authorities declare that they already have their own festival policy.

47

performances (11 and 17 events respectively). Other events concern puppet show (9), opera (8) and performance art (5). In the same 2006 199 music festivals were held. Most (134) of them were at least partially financed from the public funds. The organizers of festival events received support from authorities of different levels (commune, district, voivodeship and minister). In many cases, apart from public funding they used private sponsoring. Exactly half of 134 festivals i.e. 67 were of international character. Such festivals were held especially in voivodeship cities: in Warsaw there were 10 of them, in Kraków 8, in Wrocław 6, in Gdańsk 4, in Poznań 3 and in Toruń 3. The subject matter of many of them was old and religious music (20 events altogether) and music performed on one instrument, such as the guitar, the organ, etc. (18 events). Other festivals were devoted to folk and contemporary music, vocal and choir activity and the output of particular composers. In 2006 in Poland there were 29 film festivals, including 14 international ones. All of them received subsidy from public funds, mainly through already mentioned Polish Institute of Film Art, which is a government agent appointed by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage in order to support financially film production and other activities concerning cinematography. Every year 16 literary festivals are held in Poland. Only four of them are international events, they are: Port Wrocław (organized by a private publishing company the Literary Office and financially supported by the Office of the City of Wrocław, the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, the Book Institute and organizationally by municipal institutions of culture) presenting poetry from a particular country, in 2007 it was the United States; Spoken’ Word Festival (co-financed by British Council, the French Institute and the Centre of Contemporary Art in Warsaw) – an event devoted to poetic slam, in which artists from France, Great Britain and Poland take part; the International Festival of the Art of Telling Stories (co-financed by the Office of the Capital City of Warsaw); the International Festival of the Art of the Word ‘Verba Sacra’ (co-financed by the Office of the City of Poznań). On the basis of the data collected for the needs of the report one can make a certain generalization and say that at least 162 festivals realized in Poland fulfil the criteria assumed in the study, i.e. they are of artistic character, have an international component and public support. However, it should always be remembered that these are only estimated calculations resulting from an analysis of selected sources and not official statistics.


48 The regulations of the operational programme Promotion of Creative Activity, 2006.

film

literary

music

theatre

Total

TABLE: International artistic festivals co-financed from public funds in Poland in 2006

48

Kind of festival

162 2

80

T

64

he support given to festivals by the public authorities, both at the government and the council level is mainly financial and material. Very rarely are the public authorities directly involved in organization of festivals. However, they frequently motivate the cultural institutions which are subordinate to them to co-operate with the organizers of festivals (most often with nongovernment organizations). As a result, public institutions offer facilities such as concert halls and necessary equipment. Council authorities occasionally support international festivals. The situation looks different in the case of big cities, especially capitals of provinces, where the involvement in supporting and organizing festivals is greater. The province and municipal governments willingly support festivals held in the area comprised by their jurisdiction, because these events contribute to the development of cultural tourism and promotion of the city. It should be stressed here that the legal partner of public authorities in the case of festivals is usually their organizer. In Poland there is no separate legal act concerning festivals. The authorities consider them to be ‘other forms of cultural activity’. Festivals can be realized by non-government organizations, public institutions or private enterprises. In fact only a few festivals are organized by private enterprises and most of them exist thanks to non-government organizations. Of course getting into partnership relations with a public institution constitutes

The minister level At the state level the main body supporting festivals is the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, which funds and co-funds many Polish festivals, including international festivals. The main instrument of funding festivals is the operational programme of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage Promotion of creative activity within the confines of priority I Supporting artistic events in Poland. Within the confines of this priority they fund ‘the most important artistic events organized in Poland, of international, all-Polish or supraregional and regional character, concerning all spheres of art – festivals, contests, concerts, reviews, premieres of performances, exhibitions and other artistic events’2. Festivals are listed in the first place among supported tasks and it is them that dominate on the list of motions considered positively. The ministry co-funds festivals in separate kinds of subsidies. In particular cases within the confines of the programme Promotion of artistic creativity (priority I) ‘the applicant can apply for funding festivals, contests and reviews for a period of 3 consecutive years’. Events organizers of which apply for a three-year subsidy have to fulfil additional criteria. They are: documented stable source of funding of at least 20% of the cost of the task for a period of 3 consecutive years; long-term tradition; budget over 1 mln PLN a year; considerable contribution in the output of the Polish culture, at least all-Polish range. This possibility was made in 2005 to make it easier for organizers of festivals to plan the programme for a few years ahead – the best foreign artists or groups reserve dates several years in advance.

4

2.2. The public authorities’ support for festivals – scale and forms

a great help at organizing a festival, all the more that such a co-operation is often required by local authorities. Most festivals have mixed budgets. A bigger part of them is constituted by public funds coming from authorities of different administrative levels and a smaller one by private funds.

14

A new direction of activity of the biggest festivals can be noticed. They are evolving to become multidisciplinary. Practically they are theatre, film or music festivals in name only, and they present a set of concerts, projections, shows, etc. (Malta Festival, Heineken Open’er, Era New Horizons, Festival of the Dialogue of Four Cultures).

Number

162

a great help at organizing a festival, all the more that such a co-operation is often required by local authorities. Most festivals have mixed budgets. A bigger part of them is constituted by public funds coming from authorities of different administrative levels and a smaller one by private funds.

Total

A new direction of activity of the biggest festivals can be noticed. They are evolving to become multidisciplinary. Practically they are theatre, film or music festivals in name only, and they present a set of concerts, projections, shows, etc. (Malta Festival, Heineken Open’er, Era New Horizons, Festival of the Dialogue of Four Cultures).

theatre 80

2.2. The public authorities’ support for festivals – scale and forms

music 64

T

literary 4

The minister level At the state level the main body supporting festivals is the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, which funds and co-funds many Polish festivals, including international festivals. The main instrument of funding festivals is the operational programme of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage Promotion of creative activity within the confines of priority I Supporting artistic events in Poland. Within the confines of this priority they fund ‘the most important artistic events organized in Poland, of international, all-Polish or supraregional and regional character, concerning all spheres of art – festivals, contests, concerts, reviews, premieres of performances, exhibitions and other artistic events’2. Festivals are listed in the first place among supported tasks and it is them that dominate on the list of motions considered positively. The ministry co-funds festivals in separate kinds of subsidies. In particular cases within the confines of the programme Promotion of artistic creativity (priority I) ‘the applicant can apply for funding festivals, contests and reviews for a period of 3 consecutive years’. Events organizers of which apply for a three-year subsidy have to fulfil additional criteria. They are: documented stable source of funding of at least 20% of the cost of the task for a period of 3 consecutive years; long-term tradition; budget over 1 mln PLN a year; considerable contribution in the output of the Polish culture, at least all-Polish range. This possibility was made in 2005 to make it easier for organizers of festivals to plan the programme for a few years ahead – the best foreign artists or groups reserve dates several years in advance.

film 14

he support given to festivals by the public authorities, both at the government and the council level is mainly financial and material. Very rarely are the public authorities directly involved in organization of festivals. However, they frequently motivate the cultural institutions which are subordinate to them to co-operate with the organizers of festivals (most often with nongovernment organizations). As a result, public institutions offer facilities such as concert halls and necessary equipment. Council authorities occasionally support international festivals. The situation looks different in the case of big cities, especially capitals of provinces, where the involvement in supporting and organizing festivals is greater. The province and municipal governments willingly support festivals held in the area comprised by their jurisdiction, because these events contribute to the development of cultural tourism and promotion of the city. It should be stressed here that the legal partner of public authorities in the case of festivals is usually their organizer. In Poland there is no separate legal act concerning festivals. The authorities consider them to be ‘other forms of cultural activity’. Festivals can be realized by non-government organizations, public institutions or private enterprises. In fact only a few festivals are organized by private enterprises and most of them exist thanks to non-government organizations. Of course getting into partnership relations with a public institution constitutes

Kind of festival Number

The regulations of the operational programme Promotion of Creative Activity, 2006.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

2

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

TABLE: International artistic festivals co-financed from public funds in Poland in 2006


49

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

The budget of the operational programme Promotion of artistic creativity in 20063

3

A calculation on the basis of the data of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. Similarly in the case of the second table.

Budget of the operational programme

40 000 000 100,00%

Organizers of the festivals may apply also for grants from the ministerial operational programs (PO) Fryderyk Chopin, Wyspiański (projects devoted to great artists), Cultural Education and Propagation of Culture (popularization of amateur creative activity, mainly children’s), Development of Local Initiatives (low-budget tasks, subsidy up to 25 000 PLN), Patriotism of Tomorrow (organization of educational programs, social actions and cultural events historic consciousness and a sense of history of the Polish culture, promoting citizen’s attitudes and responsibility for the country). The PO Promotion of Polish Culture Abroad supports participation of the Polish artists in the “key international undertakings (festivals, concerts, exhibitions, artistic tours, competitions and artistic workshops etc.) which take place abroad.”

including: Budget for three-year grants

4 523 000

Budget of Priority I of the programme (supporting artistic events in Poland)

29 734 311

The expenditure of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage on international festivals from the budget of Priority I of the Operational Programme Promotion of artistic creativity in 2006 Budget of Priority I of the programme (supporting artistic events in Poland)

29 734 311

100,00%

Music

2 544 000

8,50%

Fine arts and cultural

1 190 000

4%

Theatre

2 040 000

7%

Film

616 000

2%

Dance

100 000

0,50%

Expenditure from Priority I on festivals altogether

6 489 000

22%

Expenditure from Priority I on festivals altogether Dance

Organizers of the festivals may apply also for grants from the ministerial operational programs (PO) Fryderyk Chopin, Wyspiański (projects devoted to great artists), Cultural Education and Propagation of Culture (popularization of amateur creative activity, mainly children’s), Development of Local Initiatives (low-budget tasks, subsidy up to 25 000 PLN), Patriotism of Tomorrow (organization of educational programs, social actions and cultural events historic consciousness and a sense of history of the Polish culture, promoting citizen’s attitudes and responsibility for the country). The PO Promotion of Polish Culture Abroad supports participation of the Polish artists in the “key international undertakings (festivals, concerts, exhibitions, artistic tours, competitions and artistic workshops etc.) which take place abroad.”

As part of the application procedures, in 2006 MKiDN supported 158 festivals (including 95 international; the highest subsidy was granted to Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival – 1 300 000 zł) and 10 festivals within 3-year programmes (including 8 international; the highest subsidy granted to the festival of contemporary music Warsaw Autumn – 1 500 000 PLN). The minimum subsidy amounts to 25 000 PLN. The Ministry may cover up to 90% of the costs of an event (in exceptional cases even more, up to 100%), although it is favourable if the money is obtained from various sources. Some special events are subsidized based on agreements signed between the governments, like the individual festivals organized within the Polish Year e.g. in Belgium, France, Russia or Israel. Another body which finances, often in the full amount, a number of cultural festivals is the Ministry of National Defence. One of them is the International Festival of Military Orchestras in Kraków. In particular cases, the organizer may apply to the Prime Minister for a subsidy from the General Reserve of the State Budget. MKiDN must give an opinion on the application, and the Prime Minister makes a final decision. The international Festival of Four Cultures in Łódź is financed in this manner (the subsidy amounts to 900 000 PLN). Local government level Tendencies to finance the festivals by the local authorities are difficult to define precisely. The reasons for engagement of the local governments are usually individual preferences and priorities which do not reflect any common conception. The form in which the local governments grant subsidies to the festivals is first of all the competition of projects. Within such procedure a special commission selects projects which are worthy of getting financial support. Kraków is the only Polish city which has the Festival Office (the city’s cultural institution). It was created in 1997 when the city received the title of the European City of Culture for the year 2000. In 2005, by the decision of the city council, the office was renamed to “Kraków Festival Office”. The Office is subordinate directly to the President of Kraków, whereas the body giving opinions on the applications is the Program Council comprising 10 people [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/index. php]. The main tasks of the Office are realization and promotion of the local, national and interna-

6 489 000 100 000 616 000

Film

2 040 000

Theatre

1 190 000

Fine arts and cultural

2 544 000

Music

29 734 311

Budget of Priority I of the programme (supporting artistic events in Poland)

22% 0,50% 2% 7% 4% 8,50% 100,00%

The expenditure of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage on international festivals from the budget of Priority I of the Operational Programme Promotion of artistic creativity in 2006 29 734 311

Budget of Priority I of the programme (supporting artistic events in Poland)

4 523 000

Budget for three-year grants including: Budget of the operational programme

3

A calculation on the basis of the data of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. Similarly in the case of the second table.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

49

40 000 000 100,00%

The budget of the operational programme Promotion of artistic creativity in 20063

Local government level Tendencies to finance the festivals by the local authorities are difficult to define precisely. The reasons for engagement of the local governments are usually individual preferences and priorities which do not reflect any common conception. The form in which the local governments grant subsidies to the festivals is first of all the competition of projects. Within such procedure a special commission selects projects which are worthy of getting financial support. Kraków is the only Polish city which has the Festival Office (the city’s cultural institution). It was created in 1997 when the city received the title of the European City of Culture for the year 2000. In 2005, by the decision of the city council, the office was renamed to “Kraków Festival Office”. The Office is subordinate directly to the President of Kraków, whereas the body giving opinions on the applications is the Program Council comprising 10 people [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/index. php]. The main tasks of the Office are realization and promotion of the local, national and internaAs part of the application procedures, in 2006 MKiDN supported 158 festivals (including 95 international; the highest subsidy was granted to Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival – 1 300 000 zł) and 10 festivals within 3-year programmes (including 8 international; the highest subsidy granted to the festival of contemporary music Warsaw Autumn – 1 500 000 PLN). The minimum subsidy amounts to 25 000 PLN. The Ministry may cover up to 90% of the costs of an event (in exceptional cases even more, up to 100%), although it is favourable if the money is obtained from various sources. Some special events are subsidized based on agreements signed between the governments, like the individual festivals organized within the Polish Year e.g. in Belgium, France, Russia or Israel. Another body which finances, often in the full amount, a number of cultural festivals is the Ministry of National Defence. One of them is the International Festival of Military Orchestras in Kraków. In particular cases, the organizer may apply to the Prime Minister for a subsidy from the General Reserve of the State Budget. MKiDN must give an opinion on the application, and the Prime Minister makes a final decision. The international Festival of Four Cultures in Łódź is financed in this manner (the subsidy amounts to 900 000 PLN).


50 MM MM MM MM MM

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

MM

n 2007 the City Council of Warszawa co-financed 60 festivals (32 of them have the international status) by means of the competition of applications. Most of them were musical festivals. Eleven international festivals received public support in the amount exceeding 120 000 PLN. The biggest sums were designated for the International Film Festival “Jewish Motifs” (531 000 PLN), the Warsaw Film Festival (385 000 zł), and among the musical festivals: Warsaw Autumn (900 000 PLN), Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival (2 350 000 PLN). Smaller events and those organized for the first time received lower subsidies (from 20 000 PLN to 120 000 PLN). It follows from the

MM

I

MM

2.4. Festivals in WARSZAWA

MM

MM

MM

MM

Expectations: attracting bigger number of tourists, making the region more attractive for the investors, building up the prestige of the city and the local authorities.

Motives: raising the status of the city – an important aspect for big investors, improvement of the quality of life – creation of the friendly environment for the employees and creating a possibility of self-realization (Wrocław, Kraków), promoting participation in culture (broader social activity) as a creation of space for realization of extra-professional goals (Wrocław), supporting a diversified cultural offer (high culture, medium culture and pop culture) – satisfying various tastes of the citizens (Wrocław), enhancing the prestige, image and brand of the city, absorption of the EU funds (taking the burden off the local government’s budget, development of infrastructure) – e.g. the local governments competing for the title of the European Capital of Culture count on some extra means, the festivals are included in the “cultural package of the city” (Wrocław, Gdynia) – they complement the everyday offer of the cultural institutions, broadening of the cultural offer thanks to applying for the title of the European Capital of Culture in 2006 (Toruń, Łódź, Gdańsk, Lublin, Poznań, Warszawa), attracting cultural tourists, a festival conceived and organized by the City Council is treated as a product (tourist brand) broadening the tourist offer of the city (Elbląg).

MM

MM

MM

MM

MM

Expectations: attracting bigger number of tourists, making the region more attractive for the investors, building up the prestige of the city and the local authorities.

MM

MM

MM

2.4. Festivals in WARSZAWA

MM

I

MM

tional cultural events. The Office cooperates with cultural and educational institutions, artistic associations, and foreign cultural centres. The similar office in Warszawa is Stołeczna Estrada, created in 1995 as a city body responsible for organization and carrying out of cultural activities (concerts and other events). Nowadays Stołeczna Estrada organizes two international festivals and several local festivals. It is worthy of note that the local governments’ policy regarding the festivals is specific. The authorities often recognize the value of an event organized in the given area only when another place volunteers to organize it. The city of Gdynia for prestigious reasons partly finances the Festival of Polish Feature Films – the most important event of the national film industry, only since 1995, when proposals were formulated to transfer the festival to Warszawa. Often it is the local government who initiate such transfer of a festival. The authorities promise to provide the organizational support and a higher financial subsidy than before. Four years ago the authorities of Gdynia successfully transferred the musical festival Heineken Open’er from Warszawa. At the same time, the Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival (strongly connected to Krzysztof Penderecki) was moved from Kraków to Warszawa. The film festival Era New Horizons started in smaller centres: Sanok, later Cieszyn (more attractive since the Polish-Czech border crosses the town), and since 2006 the festival has been organized by the big city of Wrocław. The creator and organizer of the festival – Roman Gutek explained that the transfer of the festival was determined by infrastructural considerations (smaller towns had problems with cinemas) in particular due to the growing audience (in 2006 – 118 000 persons, in 2007 – over 120 000 persons). In such situation both parties: the authorities and the organizers of the festival, sign agreements, in which they explicitly define their obligations. In case of the festival New Horizons, Gutek declared that the festival would maintain its character, and on the other hand the city authorities proposed wider opening of the festival for the public – there were free shows organized in the open air in the Wrocław market place.

50

MM

2.3. Main motivation and expectations of the local government regarding festivals

ased on the interviews with the representatives of the local government, it was possible to define the following motives and expectations of the local authorities financing the festivals:

MM

B

B

MM

Motives: raising the status of the city – an important aspect for big investors, improvement of the quality of life – creation of the friendly environment for the employees and creating a possibility of self-realization (Wrocław, Kraków), promoting participation in culture (broader social activity) as a creation of space for realization of extra-professional goals (Wrocław), supporting a diversified cultural offer (high culture, medium culture and pop culture) – satisfying various tastes of the citizens (Wrocław), enhancing the prestige, image and brand of the city, absorption of the EU funds (taking the burden off the local government’s budget, development of infrastructure) – e.g. the local governments competing for the title of the European Capital of Culture count on some extra means, the festivals are included in the “cultural package of the city” (Wrocław, Gdynia) – they complement the everyday offer of the cultural institutions, broadening of the cultural offer thanks to applying for the title of the European Capital of Culture in 2006 (Toruń, Łódź, Gdańsk, Lublin, Poznań, Warszawa), attracting cultural tourists, a festival conceived and organized by the City Council is treated as a product (tourist brand) broadening the tourist offer of the city (Elbląg).

n 2007 the City Council of Warszawa co-financed 60 festivals (32 of them have the international status) by means of the competition of applications. Most of them were musical festivals. Eleven international festivals received public support in the amount exceeding 120 000 PLN. The biggest sums were designated for the International Film Festival “Jewish Motifs” (531 000 PLN), the Warsaw Film Festival (385 000 zł), and among the musical festivals: Warsaw Autumn (900 000 PLN), Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival (2 350 000 PLN). Smaller events and those organized for the first time received lower subsidies (from 20 000 PLN to 120 000 PLN). It follows from the

2.3. Main motivation and expectations of the local government regarding festivals

MM

ased on the interviews with the representatives of the local government, it was possible to define the following motives and expectations of the local authorities financing the festivals:

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

tional cultural events. The Office cooperates with cultural and educational institutions, artistic associations, and foreign cultural centres. The similar office in Warszawa is Stołeczna Estrada, created in 1995 as a city body responsible for organization and carrying out of cultural activities (concerts and other events). Nowadays Stołeczna Estrada organizes two international festivals and several local festivals. It is worthy of note that the local governments’ policy regarding the festivals is specific. The authorities often recognize the value of an event organized in the given area only when another place volunteers to organize it. The city of Gdynia for prestigious reasons partly finances the Festival of Polish Feature Films – the most important event of the national film industry, only since 1995, when proposals were formulated to transfer the festival to Warszawa. Often it is the local government who initiate such transfer of a festival. The authorities promise to provide the organizational support and a higher financial subsidy than before. Four years ago the authorities of Gdynia successfully transferred the musical festival Heineken Open’er from Warszawa. At the same time, the Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival (strongly connected to Krzysztof Penderecki) was moved from Kraków to Warszawa. The film festival Era New Horizons started in smaller centres: Sanok, later Cieszyn (more attractive since the Polish-Czech border crosses the town), and since 2006 the festival has been organized by the big city of Wrocław. The creator and organizer of the festival – Roman Gutek explained that the transfer of the festival was determined by infrastructural considerations (smaller towns had problems with cinemas) in particular due to the growing audience (in 2006 – 118 000 persons, in 2007 – over 120 000 persons). In such situation both parties: the authorities and the organizers of the festival, sign agreements, in which they explicitly define their obligations. In case of the festival New Horizons, Gutek declared that the festival would maintain its character, and on the other hand the city authorities proposed wider opening of the festival for the public – there were free shows organized in the open air in the Wrocław market place.


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Festivals co-financed by the City Council of Warszawa

Subsidies for the cultural projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006.

International festivals

Subsidies

PLN

Type of festival

Total no of festivals

Total cultural projects

21 989 789

Music

37

20

including

Film

9

7

Total festivals

8 627 100

Theatre

7

2

Total international festivals

6 941 800

Multi- disciplinary

4

1

Dance

2

1

Photography

1

1

Total

60

32

list that musical festivals prevail both in number and the amount of subsidies. In spite of the fact that Warsaw does not have any musical public institution of its own, the city does not disregard this domain of artistic activity and grants money to numerous events, such as DJ art festivals, old music festivals, festivals of drummers, or those devoted to contemporary composers. Warsaw authorities support festivals not only by means of grants for which one may compete in competitions. In case of priority events, especially whenever a high subsidy is indispensable, special agreements are being signed with the organizers. Such procedure is adopted usually when a festival is organized or co-organized by public institutions. In such instances the authorities increase the budget of a given institution by the amount required for financing organization of the festival. In 2007 the following festivals were financed in this way: Warsaw Autumn, the Musical Praga Festival, Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival, the Cross-Culture Festival (co-organized by Stołeczna Estrada), Festival of Theatre Festivals “Meetings” (organized by the Warsaw Dramatical Theatre). One year earlier Warsaw Autumn and the Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival received a substantial financial aid by means of a competition. Another example of public engagement of the type discussed above was IV International Festival of Theatre Schools. In this case the base for a subsidy, apart from the special agreement mentioned before, was the Act on Higher Education. The festival was organized by the Theatre Academy which obtained from the city budget 500 000 PLN (59,5% of the total budget of the festival. After the competition, the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage reimbursed the event with a 280 000 PLN grant (constituting 33,3% of the total budget of the festival).

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Subsidies for the cultural projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006 Type of subsidy

PLN

subsidies for task projects related to culture (e.g. film, dance, photography, exhibitions, fine arts, education)

7 039 760

including subsidies for: film festivals in total

1 359 800

incl. international film festivals

1 309 800

multidisciplinary festivals in total

393 000

incl. international multidisciplinary festivals

73 000

dance festivals in total

89 900

incl. international dance festivals

50 000

photography festivals in total

130 000

incl. international photography festivals

130 000

Subsidies for theatre projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006 Type of subsidy

PLN

subsidies for projects related to promotion of theatre creations

3 690 309

including subsidies for: theatre festivals in total

610 800

incl. international theatre festivals

488 800

Subsidies for musical projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006 Type of subsidy

PLN

subsidies for projects related to promotion of musical creations

5 023 000

including subsidies for: musical festivals in total

2 873 000

incl. international musical festivals

2 175 000

51

list that musical festivals prevail both in number and the amount of subsidies. In spite of the fact that Warsaw does not have any musical public institution of its own, the city does not disregard this domain of artistic activity and grants money to numerous events, such as DJ art festivals, old music festivals, festivals of drummers, or those devoted to contemporary composers. Warsaw authorities support festivals not only by means of grants for which one may compete in competitions. In case of priority events, especially whenever a high subsidy is indispensable, special agreements are being signed with the organizers. Such procedure is adopted usually when a festival is organized or co-organized by public institutions. In such instances the authorities increase the budget of a given institution by the amount required for financing organization of the festival. In 2007 the following festivals were financed in this way: Warsaw Autumn, the Musical Praga Festival, Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival, the Cross-Culture Festival (co-organized by Stołeczna Estrada), Festival of Theatre Festivals “Meetings” (organized by the Warsaw Dramatical Theatre). One year earlier Warsaw Autumn and the Ludwig van Beethoven Easter Festival received a substantial financial aid by means of a competition. Another example of public engagement of the type discussed above was IV International Festival of Theatre Schools. In this case the base for a subsidy, apart from the special agreement mentioned before, was the Act on Higher Education. The festival was organized by the Theatre Academy which obtained from the city budget 500 000 PLN (59,5% of the total budget of the festival. After the competition, the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage reimbursed the event with a 280 000 PLN grant (constituting 33,3% of the total budget of the festival).

2 175 000

incl. international musical festivals

2 873 000

musical festivals in total including subsidies for:

5 023 000

subsidies for projects related to promotion of musical creations

PLN

Type of subsidy

Subsidies for musical projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006 incl. international theatre festivals theatre festivals in total

60 1

Photography

2

Dance

4

Multi- disciplinary

7

Theatre

9

Film

37

Music

Total no of festivals

Type of festival

32

610 800

including subsidies for: 3 690 309

subsidies for projects related to promotion of theatre creations

PLN

Type of subsidy

Subsidies for theatre projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006 130 000

incl. international photography festivals

130 000

photography festivals in total

50 000

incl. international dance festivals

89 900

dance festivals in total

73 000

incl. international multidisciplinary festivals

393 000

multidisciplinary festivals in total

1 309 800

incl. international film festivals

1 359 800

film festivals in total including subsidies for: subsidies for task projects related to culture (e.g. film, dance, photography, exhibitions, fine arts, education) Type of subsidy

Total

488 800 7 039 760 PLN

Subsidies for the cultural projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006

1 1 1 2 7 20 International festivals

Festivals co-financed by the City Council of Warszawa

Total international festivals Total festivals

6 941 800 8 627 100

including 21 989 789

Total cultural projects

PLN

Subsidies

Subsidies for the cultural projects granted by Warsaw authorities within the competition procedures in 2006.


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

2.5. “Festival” policy of the public authorities in Poland

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

in alternative/experimental theatre has also increased in number. Each year, for at least five days and nights, nearly 200 000 people watch various forms of theatre performances. The streets, parks, squares, yards, market halls, abandoned factories, and the area surrounding Malta lake and other public places are adapted for the purposes of the festival. For several years now the festival has a big concert scene in the open air. It is here, on Malta lake, where Goran Bregovic started his career in Poland; also some of the big groups such as Buena Vista Social Club, Orchestra BAOBAB, Philip Glass and the Philip Glass Ensemble as well as Leningrad Cowboys had their first performances in Poland. The Malta scene witnessed also the concerts of Jan A.P. Kaczmarek, Wojciech Kilar, Alberto Iglesias, Sinead O’Connor, Toumani Diabe & Symmetric Orchestra, and Beirut. Each of these events attracted thousands of viewers. However, Malta is first of all a holiday of both an avant-garde and traditional theatre.

52

he Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Polish Republic has not developed any special program of subsidizing festivals. One cannot indicate either any specific paradigm of actions to be used as guidelines by the local authorities in financing the festivals. We may note, however, that the local authorities more and more consciously shape the local cultural policy and better manage the means for financing cultural events, including the festivals. Rarely if ever it happens that a festival is financed “out of habit”. The authorities finance first of all those festivals which build up their prestige – usually the citizens are widely informed about engagement of the authorities. We may point out two types of engagement – either the decision makers want to bask in the glamour of the celebrities and strengthen their position in the local society, or by financing big events they intend to raise prestige of the city or a region. In general terms, the festivals are still in the background of the interest of the authorities responsible for the city’s cultural policy. There are some exceptions like Wrocław, Gdynia, Kraków, and recently also Warszawa. We may conclude that the public authorities in Poland do not conduct any clearly defined ‘festival’ policy. However, the study proved that there exist examples of good practices in this field and more and more local authorities try to include festivals in the sphere of strategic actions shaping the local cultural landscape.

4

3. Organization and financing of the MALTA festival – a case study4

INTERNATIONAL MALTA FESTIVAL (www.malta-festival.pl) The International Theatre Festival MALTA has been taking place in Poznań since 1991 and is now one of the biggest theatre festivals in Central Europe. The name of the festival comes from the name of the artificial lake in Poznań, around which the plays are performed in the open air. Since the first festival the number of participants has been gradually growing. The audience interested MM

Name of the festival and the most important information on its character, planning and realization:

Name of the festival and the most important information on its character, planning and realization:

Program of the Malta festival comprises six domains: MM theatre –significant avant-garde performances in the open air and performances of the foreign street theatre ensembles take place here. Most of the shows are staged in the streets and parks, but some of the performances take place under roof. One of the criteria of including such places in the festival program is unconventional approach to the theatre space. Those productions which are created particularly for the festival get special support. The conditions of participation in this category (each year it includes around twenty performances) are individually negotiated with the organizers, MM dance, MM music, MM film, MM New Situation /one of the competition categories/. This category comprises the most innovative and interesting presentations of visual performances, both theatre and musical. The artists represent the young generation of Polish performers. Invitations for participation are usually discussed for a year, and the applications come from all over the country. This is the only category which assumes the form of a competition. Malta and Zbigniew Reszewski Theatre Institute grant a prize for “the best ensemble of the program”. It amounts to 30 000 PL, miscellaneous.

3. Organization and financing of the MALTA festival – a case study4

Program of the Malta festival comprises six domains: MM theatre –significant avant-garde performances in the open air and performances of the foreign street theatre ensembles take place here. Most of the shows are staged in the streets and parks, but some of the performances take place under roof. One of the criteria of including such places in the festival program is unconventional approach to the theatre space. Those productions which are created particularly for the festival get special support. The conditions of participation in this category (each year it includes around twenty performances) are individually negotiated with the organizers, MM dance, MM music, MM film, MM New Situation /one of the competition categories/. This category comprises the most innovative and interesting presentations of visual performances, both theatre and musical. The artists represent the young generation of Polish performers. Invitations for participation are usually discussed for a year, and the applications come from all over the country. This is the only category which assumes the form of a competition. Malta and Zbigniew Reszewski Theatre Institute grant a prize for “the best ensemble of the program”. It amounts to 30 000 PL, MM miscellaneous.

MM

T

MM INTERNATIONAL MALTA FESTIVAL (www.malta-festival.pl) The International Theatre Festival MALTA has been taking place in Poznań since 1991 and is now one of the biggest theatre festivals in Central Europe. The name of the festival comes from the name of the artificial lake in Poznań, around which the plays are performed in the open air. Since the first festival the number of participants has been gradually growing. The audience interested

he Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Polish Republic has not developed any special program of subsidizing festivals. One cannot indicate either any specific paradigm of actions to be used as guidelines by the local authorities in financing the festivals. We may note, however, that the local authorities more and more consciously shape the local cultural policy and better manage the means for financing cultural events, including the festivals. Rarely if ever it happens that a festival is financed “out of habit”. The authorities finance first of all those festivals which build up their prestige – usually the citizens are widely informed about engagement of the authorities. We may point out two types of engagement – either the decision makers want to bask in the glamour of the celebrities and strengthen their position in the local society, or by financing big events they intend to raise prestige of the city or a region. In general terms, the festivals are still in the background of the interest of the authorities responsible for the city’s cultural policy. There are some exceptions like Wrocław, Gdynia, Kraków, and recently also Warszawa. We may conclude that the public authorities in Poland do not conduct any clearly defined ‘festival’ policy. However, the study proved that there exist examples of good practices in this field and more and more local authorities try to include festivals in the sphere of strategic actions shaping the local cultural landscape.

in alternative/experimental theatre has also increased in number. Each year, for at least five days and nights, nearly 200 000 people watch various forms of theatre performances. The streets, parks, squares, yards, market halls, abandoned factories, and the area surrounding Malta lake and other public places are adapted for the purposes of the festival. For several years now the festival has a big concert scene in the open air. It is here, on Malta lake, where Goran Bregovic started his career in Poland; also some of the big groups such as Buena Vista Social Club, Orchestra BAOBAB, Philip Glass and the Philip Glass Ensemble as well as Leningrad Cowboys had their first performances in Poland. The Malta scene witnessed also the concerts of Jan A.P. Kaczmarek, Wojciech Kilar, Alberto Iglesias, Sinead O’Connor, Toumani Diabe & Symmetric Orchestra, and Beirut. Each of these events attracted thousands of viewers. However, Malta is first of all a holiday of both an avant-garde and traditional theatre.

4

2.5. “Festival” policy of the public authorities in Poland


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Conditions of participation (proportion of free entrance performances, ticket prices etc.) free entrance performances – 70%, ticket performances – 30%. Ticket prices: 5-80 PLN / 1,2-20 euro /. Most expensive tickets – the concert of Shinnead o’Connor Organizational structure of the festival:

Organizational team

0

Employed full time / personal contract (f/pf)* Employed full time/ personal contract (f/pf)*

30

0

4 25

1 120

1000 Artists and performers

Organizational team Chart 1 – organizational structure

Organizational structure of the festival: Conditions of participation (proportion of free entrance performances, ticket prices etc.) free entrance performances – 70%, ticket performances – 30%. Ticket prices: 5-80 PLN / 1,2-20 euro /. Most expensive tickets – the concert of Shinnead o’Connor Number of tickets sold: 10 000 Total number of viewers of all of the artistic performances of the last edition: 200 000 viewers

Artists and performers

Duration and place A yearly event. Duration: 5-10 days every year, place - Poznań Employed full time/ personal contract (f/pf)*

25

120

Foundation Board: Michał Merczynski, President Renata Borowska, vice-President Detailed description of the budget of the festival (sources of income and type of spending) Chart 2 – Sources of income

Sources of income Public financing:

Chart 1 – organizational structure

Technical staff

0

Volunteers

Legal-organizational status of the festival Foundation The Malta festival is an important meeting place for the directors of the European festivals, as well as discussion panels devoted to contemporary theatre and its function in today’s society. The discussion forum, is an opportunity to cover such topics as organizational problems of the theatre festivals and an influence of the major theatre events on the cultural atmosphere of Europe. In the current year will witness the 17th edition of the festival. Nearly 2 thousand artists and performers were invited to participate.

565 760,33 €

Total

0,00

Other

97 434,86 €

Own means (e.g. Income from tickets, promotional materials, rentals, etc.)

0,00

Private donors

82 894,74 €

Sponsors

13 157,89 €

Means from non-profit sector (foundations, associations, etc.)

29 930,15 €

Grants from international bodies (EU, Vishegrad, Nordic Council etc.) Other public sources (e.g. Art. councils, special funds etc.) authorities: state/central regional district commune

0,00 78 947,37 € x x 263 157,89 €

100% 0,00 17,22% 0,00 14,65% 2,33% 5,29% 0,00 46,51% 13,95%

Public financing: Sources of income

Amount (euro)

Chart 2 – Sources of income

Detailed description of the budget of the festival (sources of income and type of spending) Foundation Board: Michał Merczynski, President Renata Borowska, vice-President Rada Fundacji: Ryszard Grobelny, Chairman Grażyna Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Grzegorz Ganowicz Benefactors: Grażyna Kulczyk Jan Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Michał Merczyński Does the festival have supervisory or advisory bodies? (e.g. a supervisory board, etc.) Foundation of International Theatre Festival MALTA:

% of total budget

Comments (if applicable)

Number of tickets sold: 10 000

Rada Fundacji: Ryszard Grobelny, Chairman Grażyna Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Grzegorz Ganowicz

Artists and performers

1000

authorities: state/central regional district commune

78 947,37 € x x 263 157,89 €

13,95%

Other public sources (e.g. Art. councils, special funds etc.)

0,00

0,00

Grants from international bodies (EU, Vishegrad, Nordic Council etc.)

29 930,15 €

5,29%

Means from non-profit sector (foundations, associations, etc.)

13 157,89 €

2,33%

Sponsors

82 894,74 €

14,65%

Private donors

0,00

0,00

46,51%

Employed full time / personal contract (f/pf)*

0

4

1

Own means (e.g. Income from tickets, promotional materials, rentals, etc.)

97 434,86 €

17,22%

Volunteers

0

30

0

Other

0,00

0,00

Total

565 760,33 €

100%

* During the festival (f) and in the period preceding the festival (pf)

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

53

Comments (if applicable)

Total number of viewers of all of the artistic performances of the last edition: 200 000 viewers

Benefactors: Grażyna Kulczyk Jan Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Michał Merczyński

% of total budget

Duration and place A yearly event. Duration: 5-10 days every year, place - Poznań

Administration

* During the festival (f) and in the period preceding the festival (pf)

Artists and performers

Administration

Technical staff

Legal-organizational status of the festival Foundation

Does the festival have supervisory or advisory bodies? (e.g. a supervisory board, etc.) Foundation of International Theatre Festival MALTA:

Amount (euro)

The Malta festival is an important meeting place for the directors of the European festivals, as well as discussion panels devoted to contemporary theatre and its function in today’s society. The discussion forum, is an opportunity to cover such topics as organizational problems of the theatre festivals and an influence of the major theatre events on the cultural atmosphere of Europe. In the current year will witness the 17th edition of the festival. Nearly 2 thousand artists and performers were invited to participate.


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Amount (euro)

Spending

% of total budget

Comments (if applicable)

Chart 3 – spending by category

If a significant support was received, please describe its character, and its significance for the budget (e.g. free rent of a space, PR opportunities, accommodation, etc.)

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

46,13%

To what extent the public policy realized in other social domains influences the festivals?

261 010,61 €

54

Challenges The agreements signed for a longer time would help us develop the festival, realize more special productions, invite unusual projects, experiment and search new young artists. The authorities could donate a permanent building for the festival. In such place we could organize the centre workshops, quarters for the theatres and the archive.

Remunerations and spending connected with artistic work of the qualified productions (copyright, etc.)

How did the public authorities decision making process look like (what were the motifs of engagement and/or financing of the festival and what were the expectations; how much time was spent on arriving at a decision; was the festival part of a long-term strategy, or an ad hoc decision?; what was the legal base of engagement of the authorities – was a tender procedure required, submitting applications, or other? Poznań city authorities have been ranked among the most important co-organizers of the festival since the beginning of its existence. Malta festival is assumed one of the cultural showcases of the city, and is firmly rooted in the strategy of striving for the title of the Cultural Capital of Europe of 2016. The organizers of the Festival signed a 3-year contract with the city authorities. The Ministry of Culture and the National Heritage each year subsidizes the festival and recognizes it as an important artistic event of an international significance. For the Office of Wielkopolska Voivode, Malta is a unique opportunity for developing the regional artistic activity.

Obstacles As a non-profit organization, we may obtain grants and sign agreements with the public authorities for not more than 3 years. This does not allow us to realize the long-term strategy of development of the festival. There is also a need to organize more meetings with the representatives of the city authorities and municipal services in the phase of preparations for the festival.

On what grounds was cooperation between the organizers and the authorities realized? Did the authorities engage only as founders (please, describe the conditions of co-financing), if not, what other role did the authorities play during the organization of the festival? Apart form granting subsidies, the city officials provide big help in organizational matters. All municipal institutions – the police, services, culture centres, theatres assist in organization of the festival. With this type of support it is much easier to obtain e.g. permission for organization of cultural events in unusual places, such as the old factories or streets.

Engagement of the public authorities (state, regional, provincial, local) in the process of organization and financing of the festival

Assessment of the engagement of the public authorities from the point of view of the authorities and the organizers

20,31%

* stage design, lighting and sound, technical support, etc. ** costs of functioning and equipping of the office, travel expenses, cost of accommodation, transport, print, security, etc.

114 911,70 €

100%

Remuneration for the festival administration staff, technicians, etc.

565 760,33 €

20,93%

Total

118 421,05 €

6,98%

Technical costs*

39 456,09 €

Administrative and organizational spending **

Other

5,65%

5,65%

31 960,88 €

31 960,88 €

What type of control and evaluation of actions did the bodies contributing to financing of the festival undertake? Every year after the festival the organizers send the financial and subject matter report to the city authorities in Poznań, to the Office of the Wielkopolska Voivode, and to the Ministry of Culture and the National Heritage.

Advertising and PR

Advertising and PR

Administrative and organizational spending **

6,98%

20,93%

39 456,09 €

118 421,05 €

Other

Technical costs*

What type of control and evaluation of actions did the bodies contributing to financing of the festival undertake? Every year after the festival the organizers send the financial and subject matter report to the city authorities in Poznań, to the Office of the Wielkopolska Voivode, and to the Ministry of Culture and the National Heritage.

20,31%

100%

114 911,70 €

565 760,33 €

Remuneration for the festival administration staff, technicians, etc.

Total

46,13%

* stage design, lighting and sound, technical support, etc. ** costs of functioning and equipping of the office, travel expenses, cost of accommodation, transport, print, security, etc.

261 010,61 €

Assessment of the engagement of the public authorities from the point of view of the authorities and the organizers

Remunerations and spending connected with artistic work of the qualified productions (copyright, etc.)

Comments (if applicable)

Engagement of the public authorities (state, regional, provincial, local) in the process of organization and financing of the festival

% of total budget

Obstacles As a non-profit organization, we may obtain grants and sign agreements with the public authorities for not more than 3 years. This does not allow us to realize the long-term strategy of development of the festival. There is also a need to organize more meetings with the representatives of the city authorities and municipal services in the phase of preparations for the festival.

Amount (euro)

Challenges The agreements signed for a longer time would help us develop the festival, realize more special productions, invite unusual projects, experiment and search new young artists. The authorities could donate a permanent building for the festival. In such place we could organize the centre workshops, quarters for the theatres and the archive.

Spending

To what extent the public policy realized in other social domains influences the festivals?

Chart 3 – spending by category

On what grounds was cooperation between the organizers and the authorities realized? Did the authorities engage only as founders (please, describe the conditions of co-financing), if not, what other role did the authorities play during the organization of the festival? Apart form granting subsidies, the city officials provide big help in organizational matters. All municipal institutions – the police, services, culture centres, theatres assist in organization of the festival. With this type of support it is much easier to obtain e.g. permission for organization of cultural events in unusual places, such as the old factories or streets.

How did the public authorities decision making process look like (what were the motifs of engagement and/or financing of the festival and what were the expectations; how much time was spent on arriving at a decision; was the festival part of a long-term strategy, or an ad hoc decision?; what was the legal base of engagement of the authorities – was a tender procedure required, submitting applications, or other? Poznań city authorities have been ranked among the most important co-organizers of the festival since the beginning of its existence. Malta festival is assumed one of the cultural showcases of the city, and is firmly rooted in the strategy of striving for the title of the Cultural Capital of Europe of 2016. The organizers of the Festival signed a 3-year contract with the city authorities. The Ministry of Culture and the National Heritage each year subsidizes the festival and recognizes it as an important artistic event of an international significance. For the Office of Wielkopolska Voivode, Malta is a unique opportunity for developing the regional artistic activity.

If a significant support was received, please describe its character, and its significance for the budget (e.g. free rent of a space, PR opportunities, accommodation, etc.)


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

strongly to some extent

slightly

not at all

turistic movement

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

economic growth

[  ]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

employment

[  ]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

social uniformity

[  ]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

local activity

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

4. Guidelines not only for Warsaw

umming up we may conclude that those countries, where public authorities have not developed yet a clear and transparent policy or strategy of actions focused on the festivals, prevail in Europe. On the other hand, the festivals assumed a strong position on the map of cultural life, in particular of the capital cities, often at the cost of more conventional and traditional forms of artistic activity. In the near future they will become even more significant. This is why, probably the most important conclusion and recommendation is the fact that the issue of festivals needs to attract more attention. Thus, public authorities of the European countries should determine their ‘festival’ policy in the same way in which they defined their attitude towards the theatres, museums or libraries. This recommendation refers in particular to the metropolises, where most of the festivals are being organized. We should underline, however, the specificity of the festivals, which differentiates them from other types of cultural expression. Thus it is difficult to expect that it will be possible to model the actions on the ready policies regulating other spheres of cultural life or to work out one uniform policy referring to festivals, which might be followed by different countries. The process of defining the festival policy should begin from recognition of the festival specificity and the number of festivals in a given country, region or city, and from determining how strong the position of the festivals is in the landscape of the cultural life. This apparently simple undertaking may be difficult due to the lack of a widely recognized definition of a festival. The most questionable aspect is a large number of various types of festivities which often assume the name of festivals. It would be advisable to use the definition adopted by the European Association of Festivals, but this definition may be modified by historic circumstances important for the development of a given country or region.

S

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Precise recognition of the phenomenon should not be limited to festivals, which are organized mainly by the authorities, but has to include a much wider spectrum of events. Thinking of a festival policy, the public authorities should keep in mind not only a vast diversification of festivals, but should also realize multitude of their functions. This text has already discussed this point, thus we will not repeat it. It should be highlighted, however, that working out a festival policy is not only an opportunity to expose these functions, but also to define a set of goals which the festivals should assume with a support of public authorities. Obviously, such goals should be as much as possible convergent with the general priorities assumed by the authorities, since the festival policy or strategy must correspond to the general cultural policy of the public authorities. Determining the tools and financial means is a fundamental part of the process of working out the festival strategy. Financial intervention is the most obvious tool in the hands of the public authorities. In this context, predictability of the public subsidies is equally important as their actual extent. The necessary and obvious conditions are transparency of granting financial subsidies and consistency of realization of obligations. Apart from financing equally important is demonstration of the will of providing political support and willingness to promote the whole undertaking. Creation of the atmosphere of cooperation and mutual trust is as meaningful as donating money for realization of the cultural aims. While defining the festival policy the authorities should consider creation of various agreements and a necessity to define the scope and principles of cooperation with various bodies. The latter include e.g. agreements with the managers of culture, the initiators and spiritual patrons of festivals, with the cultural institutions and other representatives of the subsidized entities (country, regional or local authorities), with the organizers of the festivals, charity institutions, etc. The festival policy must create opportunities to form alliances with many groups engaged or at least interested in existence of the festivals. This is bound to help in promotion of the undertaking and its popularization at a larger scale than initially assumed. The issue of evaluation of the performed actions should be introduced as early as at the stage of conceptual work on the festival policy. Successful creation of precisely defined strategic goals and criteria based on which a decision on financing of the given festivals may be taken, will facilitate their transformation into criteria of

55

umming up we may conclude that those countries, where public authorities have not developed yet a clear and transparent policy or strategy of actions focused on the festivals, prevail in Europe. On the other hand, the festivals assumed a strong position on the map of cultural life, in particular of the capital cities, often at the cost of more conventional and traditional forms of artistic activity. In the near future they will become even more significant. This is why, probably the most important conclusion and recommendation is the fact that the issue of festivals needs to attract more attention. Thus, public authorities of the European countries should determine their ‘festival’ policy in the same way in which they defined their attitude towards the theatres, museums or libraries. This recommendation refers in particular to the metropolises, where most of the festivals are being organized. We should underline, however, the specificity of the festivals, which differentiates them from other types of cultural expression. Thus it is difficult to expect that it will be possible to model the actions on the ready policies regulating other spheres of cultural life or to work out one uniform policy referring to festivals, which might be followed by different countries. The process of defining the festival policy should begin from recognition of the festival specificity and the number of festivals in a given country, region or city, and from determining how strong the position of the festivals is in the landscape of the cultural life. This apparently simple undertaking may be difficult due to the lack of a widely recognized definition of a festival. The most questionable aspect is a large number of various types of festivities which often assume the name of festivals. It would be advisable to use the definition adopted by the European Association of Festivals, but this definition may be modified by historic circumstances important for the development of a given country or region.

S

4. Guidelines not only for Warsaw [x]

local activity

[  ]

social uniformity

[  ]

employment

[  ]

economic growth

[x]

turistic movement

[  ] [x] [x] [x] [  ]

strongly to some extent

[  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] slightly

[  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] not at all

Precise recognition of the phenomenon should not be limited to festivals, which are organized mainly by the authorities, but has to include a much wider spectrum of events. Thinking of a festival policy, the public authorities should keep in mind not only a vast diversification of festivals, but should also realize multitude of their functions. This text has already discussed this point, thus we will not repeat it. It should be highlighted, however, that working out a festival policy is not only an opportunity to expose these functions, but also to define a set of goals which the festivals should assume with a support of public authorities. Obviously, such goals should be as much as possible convergent with the general priorities assumed by the authorities, since the festival policy or strategy must correspond to the general cultural policy of the public authorities. Determining the tools and financial means is a fundamental part of the process of working out the festival strategy. Financial intervention is the most obvious tool in the hands of the public authorities. In this context, predictability of the public subsidies is equally important as their actual extent. The necessary and obvious conditions are transparency of granting financial subsidies and consistency of realization of obligations. Apart from financing equally important is demonstration of the will of providing political support and willingness to promote the whole undertaking. Creation of the atmosphere of cooperation and mutual trust is as meaningful as donating money for realization of the cultural aims. While defining the festival policy the authorities should consider creation of various agreements and a necessity to define the scope and principles of cooperation with various bodies. The latter include e.g. agreements with the managers of culture, the initiators and spiritual patrons of festivals, with the cultural institutions and other representatives of the subsidized entities (country, regional or local authorities), with the organizers of the festivals, charity institutions, etc. The festival policy must create opportunities to form alliances with many groups engaged or at least interested in existence of the festivals. This is bound to help in promotion of the undertaking and its popularization at a larger scale than initially assumed. The issue of evaluation of the performed actions should be introduced as early as at the stage of conceptual work on the festival policy. Successful creation of precisely defined strategic goals and criteria based on which a decision on financing of the given festivals may be taken, will facilitate their transformation into criteria of


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

In spite of existence of multitude of ideas for creation of evaluation instruments which would assess not only the level of realization of the adopted goals, but also the economic, social and other effects of festivals, we cannot indicate any real, effective and worthy of propagating tools of this type. We may, however, advice the public authorities to be cautious in evaluating the influence of the festivals on the surrounding reality, and recommend not to cease searching for indirect and long-term benefits resulting from the festival policy.

In spite of existence of multitude of ideas for creation of evaluation instruments which would assess not only the level of realization of the adopted goals, but also the economic, social and other effects of festivals, we cannot indicate any real, effective and worthy of propagating tools of this type. We may, however, advice the public authorities to be cautious in evaluating the influence of the festivals on the surrounding reality, and recommend not to cease searching for indirect and long-term benefits resulting from the festival policy. Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

evaluation. Precisely defined goals do not have to mean quantitative ratios or numbers. Often it suffices to define clearly the expectations of the public authorities in relation to the festival. Detailed recommendations/ratios provide great help for all of the parties involved, including the donors, organizers of the festival or the monitoring and evaluating bodies. An additional benefit is an ability to use the recommendations/ratios in comparative analyses based on which it is possible to assess how the public authorities support festivals in practice.

56

56

evaluation. Precisely defined goals do not have to mean quantitative ratios or numbers. Often it suffices to define clearly the expectations of the public authorities in relation to the festival. Detailed recommendations/ratios provide great help for all of the parties involved, including the donors, organizers of the festival or the monitoring and evaluating bodies. An additional benefit is an ability to use the recommendations/ratios in comparative analyses based on which it is possible to assess how the public authorities support festivals in practice.


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

The historical policy in Poland. Theory – practice – a public discussion Jan Sadkiewicz

T

he notion of a ‘historical policy’ has made a staggering career in contemporary Poland and is today a subject of – an often stormy – debate involving philosophers, politicians, historians or political commentators. The very notion appeared in the context of a general increase of interest in history, whose manifestations we can now run into at every step. Newspapers and magazines are trying to outdo one another at publishing supplements entitled ‘History’ or ‘Civilization’, radio stations devote the whole broadcasts to anniversaries of important historical events, communal authorities organize staging of battles which took place on a given area. A thematic channel devoted to history was introduced not only by public television but also by the commercial TVN station. Historical books become bestsellers, and their next editions are famous cultural events. It needn’t be underlined what emotions are aroused by coming back to important and not fully explained issues from the recent history of Poland, especially the vetting or judging communist criminals. The historical policy has become not only a new research field in the sphere of social sciences but also a zone of political squabbles. Including this notion in the sphere of fighting between particular parties and lobbies introduced into the discussion about a historical policy a specific language, characteristic for the Polish political scene, or generally for any public debate in the age of electronic media; the created vision of a historical policy has less and less in common with reality. The assessment of the phenomenon was in many cases subordinated to particular interests of the group which is represented by the assessing person. Thus, in the mentioned discussion one can easily notice a lack of an explicit definition of what a historical policy actually is? What is the practical realization of its postulates? Such an insight into the problem, drawing attention to institutional

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Translation: Marta Białecka

forms of introducing the idea of a historical policy to life, is particularly interesting from the point of view of a manager of culture. For people connected with culture management the problem is all the more interesting that the main actor of the activities linked with the historical policy was until not a long ago the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, and after 2005 this policy became an essential element of the new cultural policy. One should do justice to Minister Kazimierz Ujazdowski as the initiator of an action which can safely be regarded as the beginning of a historical policy as a notion, if not even as a phenomenon; the action taken in the moment when the very idea of ‘returning to history’ was neither popular nor widely accepted yet. In November 2000, when Kazimierz Ujazdowski managed the culture department, still within the confines of Jerzy Buzek’s government, on posters and billboards in 26 biggest Polish cities there appeared a question: To sacrifice life for the homeland?! It was the beginning of a visual advertising campaign of the exhibition Heroes of Our Freedom, paying homage to the heroes of Polish struggles for independence. Since 11th November posters-answers presenting photographs of people of merit in the 20th century history of Poland were displayed. The undertaking was carried out by the youth and for the youth. Its modern form aroused some interest and recognition, but the exhibition did not evoke a general response, and even met with signs of disapproval.

History and politics

I

n that period a historical policy was not popular yet, only the opening of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising was to change this attitude. However, already since the second half of the 90s there started to be created in Poland a group

57

Jan Sadkiewicz Graduate from Culture Management, Institute of Public Affairs, Jagiellonian University. She is the student of History JU. In 2006 he spent 6 months at the Roskilde Universitetscenter, Denmark as a scholar of Socrates/Erasmus. He was the scholar of Minister of Science and Higher Education (2006/2007). He is the deputy editorial manager at the Cracow Publishing House Universitas.

he notion of a ‘historical policy’ has made a staggering career in contemporary Poland and is today a subject of – an often stormy – debate involving philosophers, politicians, historians or political commentators. The very notion appeared in the context of a general increase of interest in history, whose manifestations we can now run into at every step. Newspapers and magazines are trying to outdo one another at publishing supplements entitled ‘History’ or ‘Civilization’, radio stations devote the whole broadcasts to anniversaries of important historical events, communal authorities organize staging of battles which took place on a given area. A thematic channel devoted to history was introduced not only by public television but also by the commercial TVN station. Historical books become bestsellers, and their next editions are famous cultural events. It needn’t be underlined what emotions are aroused by coming back to important and not fully explained issues from the recent history of Poland, especially the vetting or judging communist criminals. The historical policy has become not only a new research field in the sphere of social sciences but also a zone of political squabbles. Including this notion in the sphere of fighting between particular parties and lobbies introduced into the discussion about a historical policy a specific language, characteristic for the Polish political scene, or generally for any public debate in the age of electronic media; the created vision of a historical policy has less and less in common with reality. The assessment of the phenomenon was in many cases subordinated to particular interests of the group which is represented by the assessing person. Thus, in the mentioned discussion one can easily notice a lack of an explicit definition of what a historical policy actually is? What is the practical realization of its postulates? Such an insight into the problem, drawing attention to institutional

T

Jan Sadkiewicz

n that period a historical policy was not popular yet, only the opening of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising was to change this attitude. However, already since the second half of the 90s there started to be created in Poland a group

I

History and politics forms of introducing the idea of a historical policy to life, is particularly interesting from the point of view of a manager of culture. For people connected with culture management the problem is all the more interesting that the main actor of the activities linked with the historical policy was until not a long ago the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, and after 2005 this policy became an essential element of the new cultural policy. One should do justice to Minister Kazimierz Ujazdowski as the initiator of an action which can safely be regarded as the beginning of a historical policy as a notion, if not even as a phenomenon; the action taken in the moment when the very idea of ‘returning to history’ was neither popular nor widely accepted yet. In November 2000, when Kazimierz Ujazdowski managed the culture department, still within the confines of Jerzy Buzek’s government, on posters and billboards in 26 biggest Polish cities there appeared a question: To sacrifice life for the homeland?! It was the beginning of a visual advertising campaign of the exhibition Heroes of Our Freedom, paying homage to the heroes of Polish struggles for independence. Since 11th November posters-answers presenting photographs of people of merit in the 20th century history of Poland were displayed. The undertaking was carried out by the youth and for the youth. Its modern form aroused some interest and recognition, but the exhibition did not evoke a general response, and even met with signs of disapproval.

Translation: Marta Białecka

The historical policy in Poland. Theory – practice – a public discussion

Jan Sadkiewicz Graduate from Culture Management, Institute of Public Affairs, Jagiellonian University. She is the student of History JU. In 2006 he spent 6 months at the Roskilde Universitetscenter, Denmark as a scholar of Socrates/Erasmus. He was the scholar of Minister of Science and Higher Education (2006/2007). He is the deputy editorial manager at the Cracow Publishing House Universitas.


A historical policy is to be also an essential element of building a positive image of Poland in the sphere of international relations. ‘Methodology of science discriminates between history as something which happened and how it was recorded in sources and descriptions. It is similar when we take the role of a state or a nation in history. What it was like in reality and how it functions in people’s consciousness are two different things’ [Roszkowski, 2005, p.115]. The truth does not defend itself that is why a resignation from an aggressive historical policy is a reprehensible weakening of one’s own position in relations with international entities. Such an attitude is supported by examples of similar activity from abroad, although in other countries it is often not called a historical policy. A particular role in changing the Polish public feeling about the past was played by a comparison with the radical project of the German historical policy; by the way Germany is the home of this notion – it appeared there already in 1989. Russia then has created a coherent, consistent vision of a historical policy, carried out through different channels, which on the one hand is to unite the nation around the notion of an empire, and on the other hand it constitutes an instrument of the foreign policy, used to extend the influence on the former republics and satellite states of the USSR, as well as strengthen its position in relations with the West. One of its purposes, as professor Andrzej Nowak [Panewka, 2005, p. 128], claims, is to prove the thesis that Poland was a collaborator of the Nazis during World War II. This image is completed with common ignorance of the history of Central-Eastern Europe in the West, resulting in attempts of devolving the responsibility for the Holocaust on Poles or statements about their ‘inborn anti-Semitism’. In the contemporary world, where the image of a state and a nation is manifested by measurable benefits, not even mentioning higher reasons such as national pride, waving the above-described state of affairs aside is unacceptable. Especially as historical arguments are also willingly used today, and not only by Poland, during various negotiations in the European Union. Today, the project of a historical policy has both firm supporters and fierce opponents in Poland. The accusations are based on identifying a historical policy with propaganda practices, disavowed by the activity of the 20th century totalitarianisms. Such concerns are intensified by the experiences of the years of the People’s Republic of Poland, when the activity of the state in the sphere of remembrance was only an outright manipulation, a total adversary of historical truth. There are often accusations of an instrumental approach to history

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

of philosophers, historians of idea and political commentators, who appreciated the importance of the concern with the image of the past and argued for a necessity of conducting a historical policy. To this group, with which also Kazimierz Ujazdowski is connected, belonged: Marek A. Cichocki, Dariusz Gawin, Andrzej Gniazdowski, Dariusz Karłowicz, Robert Krasowski, Tomasz Merta, Janusz Ostrowski, Paweł Paliwoda. The basis of their journalistic activity was a coherent philosophical system, created within the confines of the Warsaw Club of Political Criticism. Within the confines of this system we will find justification and aims of conducting a historical policy, based on the internal interest of the state. This recognition is all the more valuable that the members of the club have been influencing the Polish reality recently not only with a pen but wielding real power: T. Merta is the UnderSecretary of State in the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, M.A. Cichocki is the Social Counsellor of President of the Republic of Poland, and D. Gawin is the vice-manager of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising. The project of a historical policy is an element of a wider view of the essence and role of a modern state. What is first of all underlined is the fact of determining the effectiveness of functioning of democracy by the tradition and the historical achievements of a nation. A system has to be based on values rooted in the culture of a society, because implanting of institutions which turned out to be useful somewhere else does not guarantee a success, which is proved for example by unsuccessful (so far) attempts of ‘installation’ of democracy in the Middle East. In this light a historical policy is a mission of cultivating tradition, culture and national heritage; necessary, since these values do not regenerate spontaneously. According to Warsaw conservatives, neglecting this mission in the first decade of Polish liberty after 1989 results in the state’s weakness and pathologies in the society. One can definitely argue with the catastrophic image of contemporary Poland, but the idea of a historical policy deserves recognition, even after taking it out of the above-mentioned context. The necessity of cultivating the history of a nation does not only result from its subjective recognition as a value emotionally precious for a community, but also from an objective appreciation of the achievements of generations as an important state-building factor. Building stable democracy cannot be done by means of a technocratic project; respect for the tradition and the past is here as important as creating good law and building social relations based on sound principles.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

58

A historical policy is to be also an essential element of building a positive image of Poland in the sphere of international relations. ‘Methodology of science discriminates between history as something which happened and how it was recorded in sources and descriptions. It is similar when we take the role of a state or a nation in history. What it was like in reality and how it functions in people’s consciousness are two different things’ [Roszkowski, 2005, p.115]. The truth does not defend itself that is why a resignation from an aggressive historical policy is a reprehensible weakening of one’s own position in relations with international entities. Such an attitude is supported by examples of similar activity from abroad, although in other countries it is often not called a historical policy. A particular role in changing the Polish public feeling about the past was played by a comparison with the radical project of the German historical policy; by the way Germany is the home of this notion – it appeared there already in 1989. Russia then has created a coherent, consistent vision of a historical policy, carried out through different channels, which on the one hand is to unite the nation around the notion of an empire, and on the other hand it constitutes an instrument of the foreign policy, used to extend the influence on the former republics and satellite states of the USSR, as well as strengthen its position in relations with the West. One of its purposes, as professor Andrzej Nowak [Panewka, 2005, p. 128], claims, is to prove the thesis that Poland was a collaborator of the Nazis during World War II. This image is completed with common ignorance of the history of Central-Eastern Europe in the West, resulting in attempts of devolving the responsibility for the Holocaust on Poles or statements about their ‘inborn anti-Semitism’. In the contemporary world, where the image of a state and a nation is manifested by measurable benefits, not even mentioning higher reasons such as national pride, waving the above-described state of affairs aside is unacceptable. Especially as historical arguments are also willingly used today, and not only by Poland, during various negotiations in the European Union. Today, the project of a historical policy has both firm supporters and fierce opponents in Poland. The accusations are based on identifying a historical policy with propaganda practices, disavowed by the activity of the 20th century totalitarianisms. Such concerns are intensified by the experiences of the years of the People’s Republic of Poland, when the activity of the state in the sphere of remembrance was only an outright manipulation, a total adversary of historical truth. There are often accusations of an instrumental approach to history

58

of philosophers, historians of idea and political commentators, who appreciated the importance of the concern with the image of the past and argued for a necessity of conducting a historical policy. To this group, with which also Kazimierz Ujazdowski is connected, belonged: Marek A. Cichocki, Dariusz Gawin, Andrzej Gniazdowski, Dariusz Karłowicz, Robert Krasowski, Tomasz Merta, Janusz Ostrowski, Paweł Paliwoda. The basis of their journalistic activity was a coherent philosophical system, created within the confines of the Warsaw Club of Political Criticism. Within the confines of this system we will find justification and aims of conducting a historical policy, based on the internal interest of the state. This recognition is all the more valuable that the members of the club have been influencing the Polish reality recently not only with a pen but wielding real power: T. Merta is the UnderSecretary of State in the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, M.A. Cichocki is the Social Counsellor of President of the Republic of Poland, and D. Gawin is the vice-manager of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising. The project of a historical policy is an element of a wider view of the essence and role of a modern state. What is first of all underlined is the fact of determining the effectiveness of functioning of democracy by the tradition and the historical achievements of a nation. A system has to be based on values rooted in the culture of a society, because implanting of institutions which turned out to be useful somewhere else does not guarantee a success, which is proved for example by unsuccessful (so far) attempts of ‘installation’ of democracy in the Middle East. In this light a historical policy is a mission of cultivating tradition, culture and national heritage; necessary, since these values do not regenerate spontaneously. According to Warsaw conservatives, neglecting this mission in the first decade of Polish liberty after 1989 results in the state’s weakness and pathologies in the society. One can definitely argue with the catastrophic image of contemporary Poland, but the idea of a historical policy deserves recognition, even after taking it out of the above-mentioned context. The necessity of cultivating the history of a nation does not only result from its subjective recognition as a value emotionally precious for a community, but also from an objective appreciation of the achievements of generations as an important state-building factor. Building stable democracy cannot be done by means of a technocratic project; respect for the tradition and the past is here as important as creating good law and building social relations based on sound principles.


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and attempts of creating a definite vision of the past, convenient for the present government. In this light, a historical policy is a form of political marketing, which is to gain electorate by appealing to the values held out by them, as well as an instrument of defence or struggling with the Third Republic. Such a historical policy is to bring many threats: build divisions, falsify history, enhance thoughtless nationalism and self-admiration, bring harm to the foreign policy. There is too little space in it for criticism of one’s own history, as well as a wish of reconciliation. The advocates of historical policy are associated with an intention of building a narrow, even tribal community, through rough indoctrination in their only correct and indisputable vision of history, which in the present reality is to be an anachronism, and show an inability to cope with challenges of modern times. Meanwhile Warsaw conservatives consider their idea of historical policy to be definitely adjusted to the demands of the 21st century reality. It is a challenge which Poland has to meet, if in united Europe it wants to be not only a consumer of the benefits coming from its partners’ help, but also an active participant of building a common European identity. It should be pointed out here that the assumptions of a historical policy, whatever they would be, come into a real situation, into certain political reality. Initiatives put in an intellectual order are realized in a particular situation by particular people, who are in power then. By the force of events they also have the opposition, who, as the practice of the Polish political scene proves, uses every situation to attack the ruling. Professor Andrzej Chwalba points out that making out of a historical policy an element of the programme of the Law and Justice party brought it a lot of opponents, who criticized it mainly because it was an idea of the Law and Justice1. One can safely assume that a complete, nation-wide consensus concerning a version of history which would be regarded as ‘their own’ by everybody is impossible. There will always be some opposition to the current authorities, who, frankly or not, will for political reasons condemn their activities in the sphere of remembrance – if not the principles, then at least the methods of their realization. It is not in the least a fault but a good point of the contemporary historical policy, differentiating it from the propaganda practices of the 20th century totalitarianisms. According to Marek A. Cichocki’s definition it is a ‘reinforcement of the public discourse about the past, both inside the country and outside of it, through different

1

forms of institutionalization of this discourse’ [Cichocki]. Everybody can take part in this discourse, including critics of the government’s actions. In the light of this definition, even unsuccessful initiatives paradoxically gain a positive aspect, since their proper aim is not to show a definite vision of the past but to stimulate a discussion about it. Thanks to such a discussion, as long as it is based on facts, the social consciousness of one’s own history is broadened, on which every free citizen can form their own opinion. Accusing the authorities of attempts of imposing one vision of the past to the whole society is pure demagoguery, because something like that in a democratic and pluralist state, controlled by numerous institutions, in the conditions of freedom of speech and private mass media, is simply impossible. As a matter of fact, as habilitated doctor Antoni Dudek [Panewka, 2005, p. 84-85] claims, the element of arbitrariness in creating aims and means of a historical policy is unavoidable, and the winner of the elections will always impose his ideas, but even if someone wanted to engage in propaganda, there are no instruments today which would allow to act like for example the propaganda in the People’s Republic of Poland – however, on the other hand, other instruments of manipulation have been improved, but they are now rather a domain of media and not of politicians. Unfortunately, the public debate on a historical policy bears a strong stamp of current political games. The formation which tackled this problem and then after taking over the power began to carry out a certain project of ‘fighting for remembrance’, i.e. the Law and Justice, connected this issue with the idea of squaring up the past, including the vetting. Weaving a historical policy into a net of contemporary problems of the Polish society, and especially its establishment, on the one hand proved an essential impact of history on the present reality, and on the other hand it led to a strong polarization of views concerning the actions of the authorities of that time, including the actions in the sphere of the past, which makes it difficult to achieve a consensus and working out a generally accepted vision of a historical policy. However, this project should be assessed through an analysis of particular actions of the bodies of authority, which should allow for an honest answer to the question: does a historical policy fulfill the conditions defined by its defenders, or perhaps it confirms the legitimacy of the objections raised against it?

The author’s interview with professor habilitated doctor Andrzej Chwalba, head of the Department of Social-Religious History of the 19th and 20th cent. in the Institute of History of the Jagiellonian University, made on 16 V 2007.

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1

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The author’s interview with professor habilitated doctor Andrzej Chwalba, head of the Department of Social-Religious History of the 19th and 20th cent. in the Institute of History of the Jagiellonian University, made on 16 V 2007.

and attempts of creating a definite vision of the past, convenient for the present government. In this light, a historical policy is a form of political marketing, which is to gain electorate by appealing to the values held out by them, as well as an instrument of defence or struggling with the Third Republic. Such a historical policy is to bring many threats: build divisions, falsify history, enhance thoughtless nationalism and self-admiration, bring harm to the foreign policy. There is too little space in it for criticism of one’s own history, as well as a wish of reconciliation. The advocates of historical policy are associated with an intention of building a narrow, even tribal community, through rough indoctrination in their only correct and indisputable vision of history, which in the present reality is to be an anachronism, and show an inability to cope with challenges of modern times. Meanwhile Warsaw conservatives consider their idea of historical policy to be definitely adjusted to the demands of the 21st century reality. It is a challenge which Poland has to meet, if in united Europe it wants to be not only a consumer of the benefits coming from its partners’ help, but also an active participant of building a common European identity. It should be pointed out here that the assumptions of a historical policy, whatever they would be, come into a real situation, into certain political reality. Initiatives put in an intellectual order are realized in a particular situation by particular people, who are in power then. By the force of events they also have the opposition, who, as the practice of the Polish political scene proves, uses every situation to attack the ruling. Professor Andrzej Chwalba points out that making out of a historical policy an element of the programme of the Law and Justice party brought it a lot of opponents, who criticized it mainly because it was an idea of the Law and Justice1. One can safely assume that a complete, nation-wide consensus concerning a version of history which would be regarded as ‘their own’ by everybody is impossible. There will always be some opposition to the current authorities, who, frankly or not, will for political reasons condemn their activities in the sphere of remembrance – if not the principles, then at least the methods of their realization. It is not in the least a fault but a good point of the contemporary historical policy, differentiating it from the propaganda practices of the 20th century totalitarianisms. According to Marek A. Cichocki’s definition it is a ‘reinforcement of the public discourse about the past, both inside the country and outside of it, through different

forms of institutionalization of this discourse’ [Cichocki]. Everybody can take part in this discourse, including critics of the government’s actions. In the light of this definition, even unsuccessful initiatives paradoxically gain a positive aspect, since their proper aim is not to show a definite vision of the past but to stimulate a discussion about it. Thanks to such a discussion, as long as it is based on facts, the social consciousness of one’s own history is broadened, on which every free citizen can form their own opinion. Accusing the authorities of attempts of imposing one vision of the past to the whole society is pure demagoguery, because something like that in a democratic and pluralist state, controlled by numerous institutions, in the conditions of freedom of speech and private mass media, is simply impossible. As a matter of fact, as habilitated doctor Antoni Dudek [Panewka, 2005, p. 84-85] claims, the element of arbitrariness in creating aims and means of a historical policy is unavoidable, and the winner of the elections will always impose his ideas, but even if someone wanted to engage in propaganda, there are no instruments today which would allow to act like for example the propaganda in the People’s Republic of Poland – however, on the other hand, other instruments of manipulation have been improved, but they are now rather a domain of media and not of politicians. Unfortunately, the public debate on a historical policy bears a strong stamp of current political games. The formation which tackled this problem and then after taking over the power began to carry out a certain project of ‘fighting for remembrance’, i.e. the Law and Justice, connected this issue with the idea of squaring up the past, including the vetting. Weaving a historical policy into a net of contemporary problems of the Polish society, and especially its establishment, on the one hand proved an essential impact of history on the present reality, and on the other hand it led to a strong polarization of views concerning the actions of the authorities of that time, including the actions in the sphere of the past, which makes it difficult to achieve a consensus and working out a generally accepted vision of a historical policy. However, this project should be assessed through an analysis of particular actions of the bodies of authority, which should allow for an honest answer to the question: does a historical policy fulfill the conditions defined by its defenders, or perhaps it confirms the legitimacy of the objections raised against it?


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2) Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

A historical policy vs. a cultural policy

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A

The author’s interview with professor habilitated doctor Piotr Franaszek, head of the Department of Economic and Social History in the Institute of History of the Jagiellonian University, made on 30 V 2007.

In my opinion one should differentiate between a historical policy as a kind of intellectual tendency, ascribing to history an important role in shaping the image of the contemporary world and appealing for remembering about the past, and a historical policy as a particular activity of the state and its agencies. The latter is best described by the above-mentioned M. Cichocki’s definition, which seems to me the most accurate way of defining the modern historical policy. In a broader sense the latter is present in many spheres, which is nothing new. In a foreign policy, for example, references to history have been and will always be present, at least in the issue of respecting or renegotiating the agreements made in the past. However, the project of institutionalization of a discourse about history suggested by the Warsaw conservatives is a new element in the Polish public life. Tackling this task by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage results in redefining the notion of a ‘cultural policy’, consisting in considerable broadening of its meaning, as it is difficult to consider a historical policy as a new, totally separate activity of the department of culture, functioning next to the hitherto existing cultural policy. Preservation of national identity is one of traditional elements of the latter one. However, a historical policy introduces a qualitative progress in this sphere. So far historical heritage has been perceived taking into consideration mainly its material testimonies which have been preserved up till now; in this sense Wawel castle, Żółkiewski’s sabre or Kościuszko’s russet overcoat are heritage. Advocates of a historical policy are the first to put so much emphasis on values anchored in the spirit of a community, which is constituted by Poles. From this point of view, the shape of heritage is conditioned by myths, symbols, beliefs, traditions of the country, its institutions and the legal system. Concern for the Polish culture, both the contemporary and the past ones, is a natural element of the activity of the department of culture, but it has been given new priorities. Activities referring to the past, apart from creating strong financial-legal bases of culture development, disseminating contemporary creative activity and restoring the authority of public media, are to create out of the Ministry of Culture

The author’s interview with professor Chwalba.

4

historical policy can (and should) be a sphere of activity of different departments, but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs acted, to put it mildly, in a very discreet way, and the initiatives of the Ministry of The National Education were focused on other spheres, so a special role fell to the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. It implies a reflection on defining the place of a historical policy in relation to other spheres of the state’s activity, especially in relation to a cultural policy considered so far to be the main task of the culture department. Dariusz Gawin and Paweł Kowal suggest [ibidem, p.13] that a historical policy is a new (newly discovered) element of the state’s activity, parallel to other spheres. Thus, the historical policy – they write – will be a rightful element of the Polish policy, together with the economic, social and foreign policy. A similar opinion belongs to professor Andrzej Nowak, who, however, strictly connects a historical policy with a cultural policy, and first of all with the educational policy of the state, and possible contradictions in these spheres would be regarded by him as a kind of schizophrenia2. On the other hand, professor Andrzej Chwalba represents a contrary point of view, according to which history is present in all other spheres, in a cultural, educational, foreign, economic, financial policy, etc3. In that case a historical policy is not an activity which is parallel to others, but it is present in different spheres. This opinion is completed by professor Piotr Franaszek’s statement, who claims that a cultural policy plays a helpful role in relation to a historical policy4. Through a cultural policy certain ideas of a historical policy are realized. In this sense a concern with an image of the past is superior to a cultural, educational or foreign policy, which can be regarded as instruments of realization of the postulates and ideas of the former one. The problem of defining the place of a historical policy among other activities of the state is deepened by dominating the issue by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, which may suggest that a historical policy is a part of a cultural policy of the state. How can we therefore get out of this definition chaos?

3

The author’s interview with a professor of the Jagiellonian University, habilitated doctor Andrzej Nowak, head of the Department of the History of Western Europe in the Institute of History of the Jagiellonian University, made on 27 IV 2007.

The author’s interview with a professor of the Jagiellonian University, habilitated doctor Andrzej Nowak, head of the Department of the History of Western Europe in the Institute of History of the Jagiellonian University, made on 27 IV 2007.

2

2

The author’s interview with professor Chwalba.

historical policy can (and should) be a sphere of activity of different departments, but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs acted, to put it mildly, in a very discreet way, and the initiatives of the Ministry of The National Education were focused on other spheres, so a special role fell to the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. It implies a reflection on defining the place of a historical policy in relation to other spheres of the state’s activity, especially in relation to a cultural policy considered so far to be the main task of the culture department. Dariusz Gawin and Paweł Kowal suggest [ibidem, p.13] that a historical policy is a new (newly discovered) element of the state’s activity, parallel to other spheres. Thus, the historical policy – they write – will be a rightful element of the Polish policy, together with the economic, social and foreign policy. A similar opinion belongs to professor Andrzej Nowak, who, however, strictly connects a historical policy with a cultural policy, and first of all with the educational policy of the state, and possible contradictions in these spheres would be regarded by him as a kind of schizophrenia2. On the other hand, professor Andrzej Chwalba represents a contrary point of view, according to which history is present in all other spheres, in a cultural, educational, foreign, economic, financial policy, etc3. In that case a historical policy is not an activity which is parallel to others, but it is present in different spheres. This opinion is completed by professor Piotr Franaszek’s statement, who claims that a cultural policy plays a helpful role in relation to a historical policy4. Through a cultural policy certain ideas of a historical policy are realized. In this sense a concern with an image of the past is superior to a cultural, educational or foreign policy, which can be regarded as instruments of realization of the postulates and ideas of the former one. The problem of defining the place of a historical policy among other activities of the state is deepened by dominating the issue by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, which may suggest that a historical policy is a part of a cultural policy of the state. How can we therefore get out of this definition chaos?

3

A

In my opinion one should differentiate between a historical policy as a kind of intellectual tendency, ascribing to history an important role in shaping the image of the contemporary world and appealing for remembering about the past, and a historical policy as a particular activity of the state and its agencies. The latter is best described by the above-mentioned M. Cichocki’s definition, which seems to me the most accurate way of defining the modern historical policy. In a broader sense the latter is present in many spheres, which is nothing new. In a foreign policy, for example, references to history have been and will always be present, at least in the issue of respecting or renegotiating the agreements made in the past. However, the project of institutionalization of a discourse about history suggested by the Warsaw conservatives is a new element in the Polish public life. Tackling this task by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage results in redefining the notion of a ‘cultural policy’, consisting in considerable broadening of its meaning, as it is difficult to consider a historical policy as a new, totally separate activity of the department of culture, functioning next to the hitherto existing cultural policy. Preservation of national identity is one of traditional elements of the latter one. However, a historical policy introduces a qualitative progress in this sphere. So far historical heritage has been perceived taking into consideration mainly its material testimonies which have been preserved up till now; in this sense Wawel castle, Żółkiewski’s sabre or Kościuszko’s russet overcoat are heritage. Advocates of a historical policy are the first to put so much emphasis on values anchored in the spirit of a community, which is constituted by Poles. From this point of view, the shape of heritage is conditioned by myths, symbols, beliefs, traditions of the country, its institutions and the legal system. Concern for the Polish culture, both the contemporary and the past ones, is a natural element of the activity of the department of culture, but it has been given new priorities. Activities referring to the past, apart from creating strong financial-legal bases of culture development, disseminating contemporary creative activity and restoring the authority of public media, are to create out of the Ministry of Culture

The author’s interview with professor habilitated doctor Piotr Franaszek, head of the Department of Economic and Social History in the Institute of History of the Jagiellonian University, made on 30 V 2007.

4

A historical policy vs. a cultural policy


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

and National Heritage a modern and effective instrument of ruling the state, co-operating with institutions and people acting for the benefit of the Polish culture. A manifestation of the new cultural policy, though only symbolic, but a historical policy can be called ‘symbol management’, is the fact of putting back the part of ‘cultural heritage’ removed by Andrzej Celiński in 2001, to the name of the ministry, which was justified with constitutional commitments. The preamble of the basic statute passed in 1997 calls the citizens of the Republic of Poland ‘grateful to our ancestors for their work, fighting for independence paid for by numerous victims, for the culture rooted in the Christian heritage of the Nation and universal values, referring to the best traditions of the First and Second Republics, obliged to hand down to the next generations everything which is precious out of the over a thousand-year-old legacy, [...] to do it, having in mind retaining of the natural human dignity, man’s right to liberty and the obligation of solidarity with others, and that they treat respecting these principles as a rigid base of the Republic of Poland’. The role of national heritage in shaping national identity and the duty of protecting it are also defined by articles 5. and 6. of the Constitution. In this context a historical policy is a constitutional duty of the state, and completing the name of the ministry is an indication of the sphere in which activity is undertaken, in conformity with the guidelines of this policy. 1. Artistic events 2. Development of cultural infrastructure 3. Cultural education and a diagnosis of culture 4. Cultural heritage 5. Literature and reading 6. Promotion of the Polish culture abroad 7. The promise of the Minister of Culture and National Heritage 8. Frederick Chopin 9. The infrastructure of libraries5

The activity of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage

T

oday the department of culture realizes the postulates of the historical policy mainly through the so-called operation programmes. By the agency of them self-governed institutions, Churches and religious unions, schools and

5

artistic colleges, non-government organizations, economic subjects and others can apply for resources for carrying out tasks relating to culture. In 2006 a list of programmes comprising 11 items included the operation programme ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’. The idea of carrying out a historical policy was present also in the programme ‘Cultural heritage’. The operation programme ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’ was realized, with the authorization of the Minister of Culture and National Heritage, by the National Centre of Culture. Its aim was to support the initiatives which in a systematic way, with the use of powerful, modern and above all effective forms of expression, shape patriotic and civic attitudes, disseminate knowledge concerning the Polish historical experience, national and state tradition, talk about the Polish past in an interesting way. The programme also made it possible to gain funds on research and making records in relation to the history of culture and the history of the Polish nation and state. On the one hand, ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’ was to initiate new undertakings, and on the other hand, to make it possible to find and support the already existing ones. A good example can be the educational project ‘Traces of the past’ addressed to pupils of primary and secondary schools. Its organizer, the Centre of Civic Education, encouraged young people to find in their home town and its environs neglected structures (cemeteries, crosses, wayside shrines, monuments, churches, houses, alleys, utensils) or forgotten elements of immaterial culture (legends, customs, local heroes), and then to renovate and take care of them, by which they were restored to the local community. The mission of the project was the conviction that young people, while discovering the past of their region and the local tradition, shape their own identity and form a sense of responsibility for their own and the others’ future. Another project financed within the confines of this programme was the Wrocław action ‘A holiday in a poster’ encouraging to decorate school windows and windows of family homes with posters commemorating national holidays. And in the capital city the contest ‘The Warsaw triptych’, supported by ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’, aimed at showing how three generations of Varsovians fought for freedom of their homeland during the Warsaw Battle in 1920, World War II and ‘the carni-

This year (2009) the Minister of Culture and National Heritage has announced the following programmes: 1) An artistic event; 2) The development of the infrastructure of culture; 3) Cultural education and a diagnosis of culture; 4) Cultural heritage; 5) Literature and reading; 6) Promotion of the Polish culture abroad; 7) The Promise of the Minister of Culture and National Heritage; 8) Frederick Chopin; 9) The infrastructure of libraries.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

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5

61

This year (2009) the Minister of Culture and National Heritage has announced the following programmes: 1) An artistic event; 2) The development of the infrastructure of culture; 3) Cultural education and a diagnosis of culture; 4) Cultural heritage; 5) Literature and reading; 6) Promotion of the Polish culture abroad; 7) The Promise of the Minister of Culture and National Heritage; 8) Frederick Chopin; 9) The infrastructure of libraries.

oday the department of culture realizes the postulates of the historical policy mainly through the so-called operation programmes. By the agency of them self-governed institutions, Churches and religious unions, schools and

T

The activity of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and National Heritage a modern and effective instrument of ruling the state, co-operating with institutions and people acting for the benefit of the Polish culture. A manifestation of the new cultural policy, though only symbolic, but a historical policy can be called ‘symbol management’, is the fact of putting back the part of ‘cultural heritage’ removed by Andrzej Celiński in 2001, to the name of the ministry, which was justified with constitutional commitments. The preamble of the basic statute passed in 1997 calls the citizens of the Republic of Poland ‘grateful to our ancestors for their work, fighting for independence paid for by numerous victims, for the culture rooted in the Christian heritage of the Nation and universal values, referring to the best traditions of the First and Second Republics, obliged to hand down to the next generations everything which is precious out of the over a thousand-year-old legacy, [...] to do it, having in mind retaining of the natural human dignity, man’s right to liberty and the obligation of solidarity with others, and that they treat respecting these principles as a rigid base of the Republic of Poland’. The role of national heritage in shaping national identity and the duty of protecting it are also defined by articles 5. and 6. of the Constitution. In this context a historical policy is a constitutional duty of the state, and completing the name of the ministry is an indication of the sphere in which activity is undertaken, in conformity with the guidelines of this policy. 1. Artistic events 2. Development of cultural infrastructure 3. Cultural education and a diagnosis of culture 4. Cultural heritage 5. Literature and reading 6. Promotion of the Polish culture abroad 7. The promise of the Minister of Culture and National Heritage 8. Frederick Chopin 9. The infrastructure of libraries5

artistic colleges, non-government organizations, economic subjects and others can apply for resources for carrying out tasks relating to culture. In 2006 a list of programmes comprising 11 items included the operation programme ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’. The idea of carrying out a historical policy was present also in the programme ‘Cultural heritage’. The operation programme ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’ was realized, with the authorization of the Minister of Culture and National Heritage, by the National Centre of Culture. Its aim was to support the initiatives which in a systematic way, with the use of powerful, modern and above all effective forms of expression, shape patriotic and civic attitudes, disseminate knowledge concerning the Polish historical experience, national and state tradition, talk about the Polish past in an interesting way. The programme also made it possible to gain funds on research and making records in relation to the history of culture and the history of the Polish nation and state. On the one hand, ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’ was to initiate new undertakings, and on the other hand, to make it possible to find and support the already existing ones. A good example can be the educational project ‘Traces of the past’ addressed to pupils of primary and secondary schools. Its organizer, the Centre of Civic Education, encouraged young people to find in their home town and its environs neglected structures (cemeteries, crosses, wayside shrines, monuments, churches, houses, alleys, utensils) or forgotten elements of immaterial culture (legends, customs, local heroes), and then to renovate and take care of them, by which they were restored to the local community. The mission of the project was the conviction that young people, while discovering the past of their region and the local tradition, shape their own identity and form a sense of responsibility for their own and the others’ future. Another project financed within the confines of this programme was the Wrocław action ‘A holiday in a poster’ encouraging to decorate school windows and windows of family homes with posters commemorating national holidays. And in the capital city the contest ‘The Warsaw triptych’, supported by ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’, aimed at showing how three generations of Varsovians fought for freedom of their homeland during the Warsaw Battle in 1920, World War II and ‘the carni-


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with the history of creating ‘Solidarity’ taken in 2000. The programme consists in gathering and making multimedia archives of testimonies of people who were witnesses of the 20th century history. These are first of all people whose attitude in difficult moments of the past century can be made an example of patriotic and civic values today. The collected materials are to be then presented to everybody who is interested, with the use of modern techniques as well as used in education-research programmes of the arising Museum of the History of Poland. On 27th March 2007 the Minister of Culture and National Heritage opened a documentation network of the programme ‘Witnesses of history’, which is a comprehensive base of all subjects, associations and organizations in Poland who collect or have reports and memoirs of witnesses of the 20th century history. In May 2007 in shopping centres in Warsaw and Łódź there appeared first multimedia stands presenting short films about the heroes of the programme. Another undertaking carried out by the Ministry of Culture together with the Institute of National Remembrance was the research project ‘Casualties and victims of repressive measures under German occupation’, started on 1st September 2006. The justification for it was an incomplete character of the studies which have been made so far concerning the number of people who died in concentration camps or were subjected to various kinds of repressive measures. In June 2007 the culture department’s efforts to change the name of the former concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau on the List of the World Cultural Heritage of UNESCO were a success. The new name: ‘The Former Nazi German Concentration and Extermination Camp Auschwitz-Birkenau’ is to reveal the historical truth about the real character of the camp and it is a reaction to the cases appearing in foreign media of calling the concentration camps ‘Polish’ camps. The ministry also pointed out the role of cultural diplomacy as an important element of the foreign policy of the state. In this connection in March 2006 the Minister of Culture and National Heritage brought back the division of the Adam Mickiewicz Institute into two independent institutions with different missions: the Adam Mickiewicz Institute and the National Centre of Culture. The latter one is to deal with popularization of issues of culture, national and state tradition within the country, promotion of the Polish national heritage, cultural education and creating interest in culture and art,

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

val of Solidarity’. Children and youth, divided into three age categories, spoke about those events using various forms of artistic expression: artistic works, stagings and multimedia presentations. Among other initiatives which received a subsidy from the programme one can enumerate the project of creating a comic describing the events of June 1956 in Poznań realized by Zin Zin Press, the concert Remembering the Warsaw Uprising of the band Lao Che, organized by the Associations of Social Initiatives, the reconstruction of the battle of Raszyn from 1809 carried out by the commune of Raszyn or the Holiday of Polish Parliamentarism in Chęciny. Supporting such ventures was, according to the general lines of the programme, to enable the creation of a permanent phenomenon of patriotic education in Poland. It was assumed that patriotic education would not be decreed in its content by the authorities but it would consist in promoting initiatives arising from the ranks. In 2006 within the confines of the programme over 6,5 million PLN of subsidy was granted, and its budget for 2007 was 5 million PLN6. The operational programme ‘Cultural heritage’, which has been carried out up till now, is to finance projects connected with conservation of movable and immovable monuments. In 2006 two new priorities were introduced to the programme: • protection of national heritage abroad, • protection of archeological monuments. The first of them is to ensure supporting works connected with documentation of monuments, restoration of old cemeteries and places of martyrdom and renovation of monuments requiring the most urgent conservation. The aim of the other one is to create permanent mechanics of protecting archeological monuments and continue the archeological project ‘Photographs of Poland’, consisting in finding archeological monuments and protecting the most endangered ones. Till 2006 within the confines of the programme over 48 million PLN of subsidy was granted and the subsidy comprised over 150 structures. Apart from operational programmes the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, in cooperation with other subjects, has undertaken many other activities connected with a historical policy. One of them is the programme ‘Witnesses of history’, initiated together with the Institute of National Remembrance, and carried out by the National Centre of Culture. It is a continuation of the action of collecting testimonies connected

62

Unfortunately, the change of the ruling party was connected with giving up the programme ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’.

Unfortunately, the change of the ruling party was connected with giving up the programme ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’.

6

with the history of creating ‘Solidarity’ taken in 2000. The programme consists in gathering and making multimedia archives of testimonies of people who were witnesses of the 20th century history. These are first of all people whose attitude in difficult moments of the past century can be made an example of patriotic and civic values today. The collected materials are to be then presented to everybody who is interested, with the use of modern techniques as well as used in education-research programmes of the arising Museum of the History of Poland. On 27th March 2007 the Minister of Culture and National Heritage opened a documentation network of the programme ‘Witnesses of history’, which is a comprehensive base of all subjects, associations and organizations in Poland who collect or have reports and memoirs of witnesses of the 20th century history. In May 2007 in shopping centres in Warsaw and Łódź there appeared first multimedia stands presenting short films about the heroes of the programme. Another undertaking carried out by the Ministry of Culture together with the Institute of National Remembrance was the research project ‘Casualties and victims of repressive measures under German occupation’, started on 1st September 2006. The justification for it was an incomplete character of the studies which have been made so far concerning the number of people who died in concentration camps or were subjected to various kinds of repressive measures. In June 2007 the culture department’s efforts to change the name of the former concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau on the List of the World Cultural Heritage of UNESCO were a success. The new name: ‘The Former Nazi German Concentration and Extermination Camp Auschwitz-Birkenau’ is to reveal the historical truth about the real character of the camp and it is a reaction to the cases appearing in foreign media of calling the concentration camps ‘Polish’ camps. The ministry also pointed out the role of cultural diplomacy as an important element of the foreign policy of the state. In this connection in March 2006 the Minister of Culture and National Heritage brought back the division of the Adam Mickiewicz Institute into two independent institutions with different missions: the Adam Mickiewicz Institute and the National Centre of Culture. The latter one is to deal with popularization of issues of culture, national and state tradition within the country, promotion of the Polish national heritage, cultural education and creating interest in culture and art,

6

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

val of Solidarity’. Children and youth, divided into three age categories, spoke about those events using various forms of artistic expression: artistic works, stagings and multimedia presentations. Among other initiatives which received a subsidy from the programme one can enumerate the project of creating a comic describing the events of June 1956 in Poznań realized by Zin Zin Press, the concert Remembering the Warsaw Uprising of the band Lao Che, organized by the Associations of Social Initiatives, the reconstruction of the battle of Raszyn from 1809 carried out by the commune of Raszyn or the Holiday of Polish Parliamentarism in Chęciny. Supporting such ventures was, according to the general lines of the programme, to enable the creation of a permanent phenomenon of patriotic education in Poland. It was assumed that patriotic education would not be decreed in its content by the authorities but it would consist in promoting initiatives arising from the ranks. In 2006 within the confines of the programme over 6,5 million PLN of subsidy was granted, and its budget for 2007 was 5 million PLN6. The operational programme ‘Cultural heritage’, which has been carried out up till now, is to finance projects connected with conservation of movable and immovable monuments. In 2006 two new priorities were introduced to the programme: • protection of national heritage abroad, • protection of archeological monuments. The first of them is to ensure supporting works connected with documentation of monuments, restoration of old cemeteries and places of martyrdom and renovation of monuments requiring the most urgent conservation. The aim of the other one is to create permanent mechanics of protecting archeological monuments and continue the archeological project ‘Photographs of Poland’, consisting in finding archeological monuments and protecting the most endangered ones. Till 2006 within the confines of the programme over 48 million PLN of subsidy was granted and the subsidy comprised over 150 structures. Apart from operational programmes the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, in cooperation with other subjects, has undertaken many other activities connected with a historical policy. One of them is the programme ‘Witnesses of history’, initiated together with the Institute of National Remembrance, and carried out by the National Centre of Culture. It is a continuation of the action of collecting testimonies connected


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

give cultural information as well as co-operate with territorial self-governments in doing research and carrying out expert studies on culture and national heritage. The National Centre of Culture is involved in numerous programmes, including the above-mentioned ones, connected with the historical policy, ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’ and ‘Witnesses of history’. The result of the reorganization in the case of the Adam Mickiewicz Institute is restoring to it its role of the main instrument of Polish cultural diplomacy. Its task is to carry out ventures promoting historic and contemporary achievements of the Polish culture abroad in a modern and effective way. It is to be done by organizing foreign cultural events and producing promotion materials. Intensive contacts with similar institutions in the world as well as a close cooperation with Polish cultural institutions abroad are to be one of the elements of active creating of a positive image of Poland. There is a board in the Institute consisting of representatives of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, determining the main lines of common activities in the sphere of popularization of the Polish culture.

The Museum of the History of Poland

T

he Museum of the History of Poland, formed as a national institution of culture on 2nd May 2006, has become a leading project of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage in the sphere of a historical policy7. The basic aim of its formation is to create an attractive institution, which will arouse interest in the national history and tradition, contribute to enriching historical knowledge and a better understanding of the roots of the present time. The museum is also supposed to be a means of shaping civic and patriotic attitudes with respecting the achievements of other national, ethnic and religious groups, an institution stimulating a debate and research on history. The activity of the Museum is concentrated on highlighting specific and fascinating aspects of the Polish history, and the keynote of the displays is to be freedom as a value which is important both in an individual’s and a community’s life. The museum is supposed to tackle the problem of the balance between freedom and authority, individualism and solidarity, as one of the most important challenges in the time of independence. Apart from freedom, the message of the displays and

7

other forms of activity is to emphasize a positive experience of the continuity of a state with the tradition of over a thousand years’ standing, an original, syncretic culture, the role of Poland as a shelter for exiles, and lastly strengthening the position of Poland in Europe and the western civilization. However, an affirmative attitude to the national past cannot exclude taking into consideration the European context and a critical opinion. The effectiveness of educational and popularizing actions depends first of all on providing reliable information and material for reflection and individual interpretation of historical dilemmas, and not on biased imposing of conclusions. The museum is to create and conduct educational and popularizing projects, stimulating young people to activity, as well as providing teachers with useful tools; it should actively co-operate with academic centres and research institutes in the debate on the history of Poland by organizing temporary exhibitions, conferences, initiating publications. This institution can carry out and co-ordinate long-term scientific, research and translation projects. One of the statutory tasks of the Museum is to create an international image of Poland, popularizing the Polish history and culture abroad; that is why it should maintain international contacts, co-operate with the Adam Mickiewicz Institute, the Book Institute, the Institute of National Remembrance, the Polish Institutes and other government branches, institutions of academic life and non-government organizations dealing with promotion of Poland. The Museum’s plans include creating a system of scholarships for young foreign scientists, investigating the Polish history and culture. The Museum intends to gain mainly young audience, school youth at the age of 11–19, that is why to be successful it should appropriately use modern forms of expression, including multimedia, as well as interactivity of displays. Other, most important target groups are Polish tourists visiting Warsaw, foreign guests and lovers of history. The founders assume that most of the visitors will not know history well, that is why the Museum is to show a possibly broad panorama of the history of Poland, concentrating at the same time on its selected aspects such as the history of the Polish parliamentarism or the contribution into bringing down communism. On the other hand, those who are interested are to have a possibility to use a computer data base, containing a wide selection of sources and scientific commentaries.

According to the assumtions the seat of the museum will have been erected by 2013, and about 80% of the finance needed to built it will come from European funds.

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7

63

According to the assumtions the seat of the museum will have been erected by 2013, and about 80% of the finance needed to built it will come from European funds.

he Museum of the History of Poland, formed as a national institution of culture on 2nd May 2006, has become a leading project of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage in the sphere of a historical policy7. The basic aim of its formation is to create an attractive institution, which will arouse interest in the national history and tradition, contribute to enriching historical knowledge and a better understanding of the roots of the present time. The museum is also supposed to be a means of shaping civic and patriotic attitudes with respecting the achievements of other national, ethnic and religious groups, an institution stimulating a debate and research on history. The activity of the Museum is concentrated on highlighting specific and fascinating aspects of the Polish history, and the keynote of the displays is to be freedom as a value which is important both in an individual’s and a community’s life. The museum is supposed to tackle the problem of the balance between freedom and authority, individualism and solidarity, as one of the most important challenges in the time of independence. Apart from freedom, the message of the displays and

T

The Museum of the History of Poland give cultural information as well as co-operate with territorial self-governments in doing research and carrying out expert studies on culture and national heritage. The National Centre of Culture is involved in numerous programmes, including the above-mentioned ones, connected with the historical policy, ‘Patriotism of tomorrow’ and ‘Witnesses of history’. The result of the reorganization in the case of the Adam Mickiewicz Institute is restoring to it its role of the main instrument of Polish cultural diplomacy. Its task is to carry out ventures promoting historic and contemporary achievements of the Polish culture abroad in a modern and effective way. It is to be done by organizing foreign cultural events and producing promotion materials. Intensive contacts with similar institutions in the world as well as a close cooperation with Polish cultural institutions abroad are to be one of the elements of active creating of a positive image of Poland. There is a board in the Institute consisting of representatives of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, determining the main lines of common activities in the sphere of popularization of the Polish culture.

other forms of activity is to emphasize a positive experience of the continuity of a state with the tradition of over a thousand years’ standing, an original, syncretic culture, the role of Poland as a shelter for exiles, and lastly strengthening the position of Poland in Europe and the western civilization. However, an affirmative attitude to the national past cannot exclude taking into consideration the European context and a critical opinion. The effectiveness of educational and popularizing actions depends first of all on providing reliable information and material for reflection and individual interpretation of historical dilemmas, and not on biased imposing of conclusions. The museum is to create and conduct educational and popularizing projects, stimulating young people to activity, as well as providing teachers with useful tools; it should actively co-operate with academic centres and research institutes in the debate on the history of Poland by organizing temporary exhibitions, conferences, initiating publications. This institution can carry out and co-ordinate long-term scientific, research and translation projects. One of the statutory tasks of the Museum is to create an international image of Poland, popularizing the Polish history and culture abroad; that is why it should maintain international contacts, co-operate with the Adam Mickiewicz Institute, the Book Institute, the Institute of National Remembrance, the Polish Institutes and other government branches, institutions of academic life and non-government organizations dealing with promotion of Poland. The Museum’s plans include creating a system of scholarships for young foreign scientists, investigating the Polish history and culture. The Museum intends to gain mainly young audience, school youth at the age of 11–19, that is why to be successful it should appropriately use modern forms of expression, including multimedia, as well as interactivity of displays. Other, most important target groups are Polish tourists visiting Warsaw, foreign guests and lovers of history. The founders assume that most of the visitors will not know history well, that is why the Museum is to show a possibly broad panorama of the history of Poland, concentrating at the same time on its selected aspects such as the history of the Polish parliamentarism or the contribution into bringing down communism. On the other hand, those who are interested are to have a possibility to use a computer data base, containing a wide selection of sources and scientific commentaries.


stimulating them to independent thinking and involving in a discussion. Historical issues are to be presented in such a way as to show arguments of different parties, different interpretations and assessments of events, making it possible to draw one’s own conclusions. In the Museum there are also supposed to appear exhibitions tackling the problems of the definition of the Polish character, the position of Poland in Europe and in the world; each of them is to be an inspiration for creating one’s own opinion concerning a given issue. It should be pointed out that the task of preparing the appearance of the future display of the Museum has been given to many historians, who not only suggest the themes of exhibitions (professor Urszula Augustyniak, professor Andrzej Nowak), but also have prepared comprehensive expertises concerning the general structure of displays (professor Andrzej Rottermund, professor Krzysztof Konarzewski, professor Andrzej Nowak, habilitated doctor Antoni Dudek). Apart from gathering, proper storage and making the collections available, the statute defines many other methods of realizing the purposes of the institution. It can be a promotion, educational and research activity, preparing, publishing and spreading printed and multimedia publications, disseminating culture, a co-operation with any, also foreign, related institutions, creating scholarship programmes, organizing conventions, conferences, etc. Educational and popularizing programmes are to assume different forms and be directed towards a Polish and a foreign audience. On the conference To discover history –To understand freedom, which took place on 11th May 2006 in Warsaw, the authorities of the Museum announced a provisional list of suggestions of these programmes [Matusiak, 2006, p. 25]: • a modern Internet portal (also in the English language), containing basic sets of materials useful for enthusiasts of history, teachers and pupils, including an Internet dictionary and an archive of iconography, films and recordings concerning the history of Poland, • lessons in the museum, • contests and educational projects, • a network of teachers’ clubs in various regions of Poland, • source-books and other teaching materials, • a translation programme, • reacting to foreign publications presenting issues connected with the history of Poland in a false light, • a teaching bulletin for teachers of history, Polish and knowledge of the society, • open lectures and discussions.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

A key position in the structure of the Museum is planned for the exhibition team, responsible for the main display and temporary exhibitions. A big role is also played by the educational and research sections, which have been working since the moment of the legal formation of the Museum, before the target seat and the main display were made. In the future an equally important department of international co-operation is going to be created. The seat is supposed to make it possible to fulfill the aims and functions of the Museum, house not only a permanent exhibition and temporary ones but also a modern conference centre, as well as rooms for educational and scientific activity. The building should be a symbol of a link between tradition and modernity, and also an active centre of culture, visited by tourists from Poland and abroad. The Museum of the History of Poland is supposed to be a narrative institution. On the one hand, such a formula makes it possible to omit limitations connected with a lack of availability of exhibits, which especially in Poland can constitute a serious obstacle in the way of creating a collection of standard value, and on the other hand, it is attractive for visitors whose content-related preparation is worse. It does not mean that in a narrative museum antique objects do not play any role but the pivot of a display is not based on them, but using the ideas of modern museums, it makes it possible to appeal to target groups, who usually do not treat a visit to a museum as an attractive way of spending free time. A narrative method is now used also by such important institutions in the world as the Museum of Holocaust in Washington, the Museum of Federal Republic of Germany in Bonn or the House of Terror in Budapest. The main display is to be permanent, but its periodic modifications can be a method of making the message of the Museum more attractive. Apart from it, at least one temporary exhibition is to be always open. Their preparation will be one of the tasks of the exhibition department. The Museum is supposed to receive temporary exhibitions from outside and to aim at presenting its own exhibitions in other museum institutions in Poland and abroad. Temporary displays can exhibit certain interesting motifs included in the main exhibition, compare the history of Poland with the situation of other countries at the time, present aspects of the past which for some reasons are vital in the current context (e.g. anniversaries of important events). The interactivity of the displays is to be ensured not only by multimedia technical solutions, but also by attempts of making spectators active,

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64

stimulating them to independent thinking and involving in a discussion. Historical issues are to be presented in such a way as to show arguments of different parties, different interpretations and assessments of events, making it possible to draw one’s own conclusions. In the Museum there are also supposed to appear exhibitions tackling the problems of the definition of the Polish character, the position of Poland in Europe and in the world; each of them is to be an inspiration for creating one’s own opinion concerning a given issue. It should be pointed out that the task of preparing the appearance of the future display of the Museum has been given to many historians, who not only suggest the themes of exhibitions (professor Urszula Augustyniak, professor Andrzej Nowak), but also have prepared comprehensive expertises concerning the general structure of displays (professor Andrzej Rottermund, professor Krzysztof Konarzewski, professor Andrzej Nowak, habilitated doctor Antoni Dudek). Apart from gathering, proper storage and making the collections available, the statute defines many other methods of realizing the purposes of the institution. It can be a promotion, educational and research activity, preparing, publishing and spreading printed and multimedia publications, disseminating culture, a co-operation with any, also foreign, related institutions, creating scholarship programmes, organizing conventions, conferences, etc. Educational and popularizing programmes are to assume different forms and be directed towards a Polish and a foreign audience. On the conference To discover history –To understand freedom, which took place on 11th May 2006 in Warsaw, the authorities of the Museum announced a provisional list of suggestions of these programmes [Matusiak, 2006, p. 25]: • a modern Internet portal (also in the English language), containing basic sets of materials useful for enthusiasts of history, teachers and pupils, including an Internet dictionary and an archive of iconography, films and recordings concerning the history of Poland, • lessons in the museum, • contests and educational projects, • a network of teachers’ clubs in various regions of Poland, • source-books and other teaching materials, • a translation programme, • reacting to foreign publications presenting issues connected with the history of Poland in a false light, • a teaching bulletin for teachers of history, Polish and knowledge of the society, • open lectures and discussions.

64

A key position in the structure of the Museum is planned for the exhibition team, responsible for the main display and temporary exhibitions. A big role is also played by the educational and research sections, which have been working since the moment of the legal formation of the Museum, before the target seat and the main display were made. In the future an equally important department of international co-operation is going to be created. The seat is supposed to make it possible to fulfill the aims and functions of the Museum, house not only a permanent exhibition and temporary ones but also a modern conference centre, as well as rooms for educational and scientific activity. The building should be a symbol of a link between tradition and modernity, and also an active centre of culture, visited by tourists from Poland and abroad. The Museum of the History of Poland is supposed to be a narrative institution. On the one hand, such a formula makes it possible to omit limitations connected with a lack of availability of exhibits, which especially in Poland can constitute a serious obstacle in the way of creating a collection of standard value, and on the other hand, it is attractive for visitors whose content-related preparation is worse. It does not mean that in a narrative museum antique objects do not play any role but the pivot of a display is not based on them, but using the ideas of modern museums, it makes it possible to appeal to target groups, who usually do not treat a visit to a museum as an attractive way of spending free time. A narrative method is now used also by such important institutions in the world as the Museum of Holocaust in Washington, the Museum of Federal Republic of Germany in Bonn or the House of Terror in Budapest. The main display is to be permanent, but its periodic modifications can be a method of making the message of the Museum more attractive. Apart from it, at least one temporary exhibition is to be always open. Their preparation will be one of the tasks of the exhibition department. The Museum is supposed to receive temporary exhibitions from outside and to aim at presenting its own exhibitions in other museum institutions in Poland and abroad. Temporary displays can exhibit certain interesting motifs included in the main exhibition, compare the history of Poland with the situation of other countries at the time, present aspects of the past which for some reasons are vital in the current context (e.g. anniversaries of important events). The interactivity of the displays is to be ensured not only by multimedia technical solutions, but also by attempts of making spectators active,


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

The management of the Museum is also going to introduce research and documentation programmes, such as [ibidem, p. 25-26]: • organizing scientific conferences and seminars, • initiating multielement research projects, carried out in consultation with research institutes and universities, • organizing debates and projects concerning history with the participation of people of culture, workshops on using historical motifs in art, • doing research on Poles’ historical awareness, • carrying out documentation work, e.g. registration of testimonies of people who have been involved in fighting for independence and democracy, • making digital records of archival materials to make them more available (e.g. documents which are abroad). As Tomasz Merta, the deputy minister of Culture and National Heritage writes ‘the semantic area of the word museum in the Polish language is quite stable and it explicitly refers to an institution whose whole activity is directed towards the main display. […] The Museum of the History of Poland has to try, if not to change, at least to broaden very much the semantic area of the word museum. It must be an institution in which many different initiatives will develop’ [ibidem, p. 13]. A narrative Museum is to become an active centre of culture, visited by tourists from Poland and abroad.

The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising

O

ne cannot talk about the historical policy in Poland without mentioning this institution. The grand celebration of the 60th anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising and the wide publicity connected with it given to the opening of the museum made out of the new institution a peculiar symbol of the historical policy. In August 2006 Marek A. Cichocki called it ‘the only real example of institutionalization of the historical policy in Poland’ [Cichocki M., Marek A., 2006]. Professor Andrzej Chwalba remarks that an impression has been created that it is an institution somehow assigned to carry out a historical policy8. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising aims at a widely understood communication with a recipient and education, in which it refers to those

8

museums in the world which are the most effective in propagating historical knowledge. Such forms of expression as scenographic visual means, photographs, computer animations, film materials, musical forms of expression or the Internet are to ensure the recipients’ interest. On the other hand, presenting individual lots of participants of the Uprising, in the form of interviews, photographs, recordings of voices, family notes and documents, aims at introducing in the atmosphere of fighting Warsaw and it is to affect the emotions of the visitors. An educational element, included in modern forms of popularizing of the theme of the Uprising, is as important as classic functions of a museum, such as gathering, conservation and making the collections available. The display is to be adapted to intellectual and emotional abilities of children, so that the message could be comprehensible and ‘felt’ also by the youngest spectators. Emphasizing the heroism of the members of the Grey Ranks as well as the tragic aspect of children’s participation in fights aims at stimulating contemporary youth to a discussion on patriotism. Another function of the Museum is to be assuming a role of the place of spending free time for tourists, young people, students, veterans of the Uprising, offering different forms of activity to these groups. Thus, the Museum can be, depending on the expectations of a visitor, a place of learning with an access to source materials, an area of a creative entertainment, a place of social meetings. The variety of the offered activities should encourage to frequent visits to the institution. It is important to combine the display of a great content-related value with the multimedia part, which popularizes history; what can help in it is consulting specialists of various disciplines: psychologists, historians, sociologists. The Museum is a form of paying homage to the casualties and a gift of the Warsaw community for the insurgents who are still alive. It is emphasized not only by the ceremony of the opening of the institution on the 60th anniversary of the beginning of fights, but also by the architectural guidelines of the building and its surroundings. The Park of Freedom surrounding the Museum emphasizes the main purpose for which the insurgents fought, expresses pride that Poles take in their heroes; in the future the surnames of all alive, dead and killed participants of the Uprising are to be placed there for commemoration. The Museum is to be a common ground between the contemporary youth and not only veterans but also young people of those times,

The Author’s interview with professor Chwalba.

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8

65

The Author’s interview with professor Chwalba.

ne cannot talk about the historical policy in Poland without mentioning this institution. The grand celebration of the 60th anniversary of the outbreak of the Warsaw Uprising and the wide publicity connected with it given to the opening of the museum made out of the new institution a peculiar symbol of the historical policy. In August 2006 Marek A. Cichocki called it ‘the only real example of institutionalization of the historical policy in Poland’ [Cichocki M., Marek A., 2006]. Professor Andrzej Chwalba remarks that an impression has been created that it is an institution somehow assigned to carry out a historical policy8. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising aims at a widely understood communication with a recipient and education, in which it refers to those

O

The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising The management of the Museum is also going to introduce research and documentation programmes, such as [ibidem, p. 25-26]: • organizing scientific conferences and seminars, • initiating multielement research projects, carried out in consultation with research institutes and universities, • organizing debates and projects concerning history with the participation of people of culture, workshops on using historical motifs in art, • doing research on Poles’ historical awareness, • carrying out documentation work, e.g. registration of testimonies of people who have been involved in fighting for independence and democracy, • making digital records of archival materials to make them more available (e.g. documents which are abroad). As Tomasz Merta, the deputy minister of Culture and National Heritage writes ‘the semantic area of the word museum in the Polish language is quite stable and it explicitly refers to an institution whose whole activity is directed towards the main display. […] The Museum of the History of Poland has to try, if not to change, at least to broaden very much the semantic area of the word museum. It must be an institution in which many different initiatives will develop’ [ibidem, p. 13]. A narrative Museum is to become an active centre of culture, visited by tourists from Poland and abroad.

museums in the world which are the most effective in propagating historical knowledge. Such forms of expression as scenographic visual means, photographs, computer animations, film materials, musical forms of expression or the Internet are to ensure the recipients’ interest. On the other hand, presenting individual lots of participants of the Uprising, in the form of interviews, photographs, recordings of voices, family notes and documents, aims at introducing in the atmosphere of fighting Warsaw and it is to affect the emotions of the visitors. An educational element, included in modern forms of popularizing of the theme of the Uprising, is as important as classic functions of a museum, such as gathering, conservation and making the collections available. The display is to be adapted to intellectual and emotional abilities of children, so that the message could be comprehensible and ‘felt’ also by the youngest spectators. Emphasizing the heroism of the members of the Grey Ranks as well as the tragic aspect of children’s participation in fights aims at stimulating contemporary youth to a discussion on patriotism. Another function of the Museum is to be assuming a role of the place of spending free time for tourists, young people, students, veterans of the Uprising, offering different forms of activity to these groups. Thus, the Museum can be, depending on the expectations of a visitor, a place of learning with an access to source materials, an area of a creative entertainment, a place of social meetings. The variety of the offered activities should encourage to frequent visits to the institution. It is important to combine the display of a great content-related value with the multimedia part, which popularizes history; what can help in it is consulting specialists of various disciplines: psychologists, historians, sociologists. The Museum is a form of paying homage to the casualties and a gift of the Warsaw community for the insurgents who are still alive. It is emphasized not only by the ceremony of the opening of the institution on the 60th anniversary of the beginning of fights, but also by the architectural guidelines of the building and its surroundings. The Park of Freedom surrounding the Museum emphasizes the main purpose for which the insurgents fought, expresses pride that Poles take in their heroes; in the future the surnames of all alive, dead and killed participants of the Uprising are to be placed there for commemoration. The Museum is to be a common ground between the contemporary youth and not only veterans but also young people of those times,


their families, Polish and foreign tourists (especially Poles from abroad), students and scientists doing research, enthusiasts of the recent history, soldiers doing the military service at the moment. Different expectations of particular groups require a proper adjustment of the message of the Museum; each of them must find in it something for themselves. Gathering and displaying of the collections are the most important forms of activity of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, but not the only ones. A great importance is attached to promoting the history of Poland, educational, publishing and research activity. The Museum is an institution of culture, so one of its aims is a widely understood dissemination of culture. It is achieved by carrying out strictly cultural projects, which seemingly have nothing in common with the Warsaw Uprising, but just by their publicity they attract people to the Museum. A number of actions among Varsovians were performed already before opening the Museum. The collection of the future exhibits in November 2003 was advertised by posters with a slogan Will you treasure us in your memory, Warsaw?, adapted to authentic manifestoes addressed to the inhabitants of the capital on the memorable days of 1944. For the whole week before the collection, an old tram went through Warsaw, in which insurgent music was played, and scouts handed out leaflets informing about the collection. At the beginning of 2004 on the windows of busses, trams and at public transport stops there appeared poems about the Warsaw Uprising. Henryk Chmielewski ‘Jupiter’, also known as Papcio Chmiel, the author of the comic about Tytus, Romek and A’Tomek’s adventures, prepared a special edition of his comic, devoted to the Museum. Just before the opening of the institution in the streets of Warsaw there appeared billboards with an inscription on a brick wall: The only such anniversary. The only museum of that kind. One of the projects carried out after the opening of the Museum was the exhibition ‘The wall of art’; on the other side of the Wall of Memory artists presented their works, paying homage to the Insurgents with their art. The jazz concerts of the festival ‘Innocent Wizards’ – Tyrmand*Komeda*Polański” referred to the atmosphere of Warsaw of the 50s. Also lessons of pre-war dances were organized. The Museum is trying to organize quite a lot of events of this kind, as well as promotions of films and books connected with World War II. The Museum does not have an established and defined strategy of public relations; however, it undertakes many actions aiming at reaching the biggest group of recipients, whose effectiveness

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

who had similar dreams. The institution is to promote ideals which were defended by grandfathers during the war and which can be lived up to by their grandchildren in times of peace. The Museum aims at presenting the Warsaw Uprising in a broad context of the political and military reality of 1944. It is important that visitors should learn about the international situation of that period and motivations of particular parties: the Polish authorities, the western Allies, the Soviet Union and the Germans. In this sphere the Museum realizes a definite programme profile, oscillating around three main themes: • the Uprising was not futile, • failure (tragedy, ambiguity) of the policy of the western Allies, • threat from the Soviet Union. The display takes into consideration different interpretations of the Uprising in historiography, but it also opposes attempts of distorting its image contrary to the obvious facts. The Uprising is shown in film, literature and art, and the message refers to basic icons, symbols and associations connected with the Uprising, such as a little soldier, a wedding of insurgents or the sign of ‘Fighting Poland’. The Museum is to present the Uprising not only as a historic fact, but also as an event which left its stamp on many Polish families, whose effects are obvious up till now. In this sense the legacy of the Uprising is, apart from the individual experience of thousands of people, a common good of the citizens of contemporary Poland. The idea of the Museum assumes creating an institution ‘growing before Varsovians’ very eyes’, ‘present in every street, in the underground and trams’, being a means of communication with the inhabitants of the capital, involving them in a discussion on the Uprising and contemporary patriotism. In order to achieve it, an information campaign about the arising Museum was organized already when the project was being realized, open contests and public actions of collecting mementos and testimonies of the Uprising are held, and lastly the involvement of the city authorities in building the institutions is emphasized. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising is, like the Museum of the History of Poland, a narrative institution. As Jan Ołdakowski, the director of the Museum has said ‘a display is to be like a good film and lead a viewer through a strictly defined narration’ [Kraj, 2005, p. 2]. It is to affect with light, sound and image; a traditional display with showcases is to be replaced here by a story, explaining to visitors what this uprising really was and what the life in the fighting city looked like. The basic groups of recipients of the Museum are children, school youth and students, veterans and

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

66

their families, Polish and foreign tourists (especially Poles from abroad), students and scientists doing research, enthusiasts of the recent history, soldiers doing the military service at the moment. Different expectations of particular groups require a proper adjustment of the message of the Museum; each of them must find in it something for themselves. Gathering and displaying of the collections are the most important forms of activity of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, but not the only ones. A great importance is attached to promoting the history of Poland, educational, publishing and research activity. The Museum is an institution of culture, so one of its aims is a widely understood dissemination of culture. It is achieved by carrying out strictly cultural projects, which seemingly have nothing in common with the Warsaw Uprising, but just by their publicity they attract people to the Museum. A number of actions among Varsovians were performed already before opening the Museum. The collection of the future exhibits in November 2003 was advertised by posters with a slogan Will you treasure us in your memory, Warsaw?, adapted to authentic manifestoes addressed to the inhabitants of the capital on the memorable days of 1944. For the whole week before the collection, an old tram went through Warsaw, in which insurgent music was played, and scouts handed out leaflets informing about the collection. At the beginning of 2004 on the windows of busses, trams and at public transport stops there appeared poems about the Warsaw Uprising. Henryk Chmielewski ‘Jupiter’, also known as Papcio Chmiel, the author of the comic about Tytus, Romek and A’Tomek’s adventures, prepared a special edition of his comic, devoted to the Museum. Just before the opening of the institution in the streets of Warsaw there appeared billboards with an inscription on a brick wall: The only such anniversary. The only museum of that kind. One of the projects carried out after the opening of the Museum was the exhibition ‘The wall of art’; on the other side of the Wall of Memory artists presented their works, paying homage to the Insurgents with their art. The jazz concerts of the festival ‘Innocent Wizards’ – Tyrmand*Komeda*Polański” referred to the atmosphere of Warsaw of the 50s. Also lessons of pre-war dances were organized. The Museum is trying to organize quite a lot of events of this kind, as well as promotions of films and books connected with World War II. The Museum does not have an established and defined strategy of public relations; however, it undertakes many actions aiming at reaching the biggest group of recipients, whose effectiveness

66

who had similar dreams. The institution is to promote ideals which were defended by grandfathers during the war and which can be lived up to by their grandchildren in times of peace. The Museum aims at presenting the Warsaw Uprising in a broad context of the political and military reality of 1944. It is important that visitors should learn about the international situation of that period and motivations of particular parties: the Polish authorities, the western Allies, the Soviet Union and the Germans. In this sphere the Museum realizes a definite programme profile, oscillating around three main themes: • the Uprising was not futile, • failure (tragedy, ambiguity) of the policy of the western Allies, • threat from the Soviet Union. The display takes into consideration different interpretations of the Uprising in historiography, but it also opposes attempts of distorting its image contrary to the obvious facts. The Uprising is shown in film, literature and art, and the message refers to basic icons, symbols and associations connected with the Uprising, such as a little soldier, a wedding of insurgents or the sign of ‘Fighting Poland’. The Museum is to present the Uprising not only as a historic fact, but also as an event which left its stamp on many Polish families, whose effects are obvious up till now. In this sense the legacy of the Uprising is, apart from the individual experience of thousands of people, a common good of the citizens of contemporary Poland. The idea of the Museum assumes creating an institution ‘growing before Varsovians’ very eyes’, ‘present in every street, in the underground and trams’, being a means of communication with the inhabitants of the capital, involving them in a discussion on the Uprising and contemporary patriotism. In order to achieve it, an information campaign about the arising Museum was organized already when the project was being realized, open contests and public actions of collecting mementos and testimonies of the Uprising are held, and lastly the involvement of the city authorities in building the institutions is emphasized. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising is, like the Museum of the History of Poland, a narrative institution. As Jan Ołdakowski, the director of the Museum has said ‘a display is to be like a good film and lead a viewer through a strictly defined narration’ [Kraj, 2005, p. 2]. It is to affect with light, sound and image; a traditional display with showcases is to be replaced here by a story, explaining to visitors what this uprising really was and what the life in the fighting city looked like. The basic groups of recipients of the Museum are children, school youth and students, veterans and


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

and compliance with the mission of the institution is verified by the Trust Council and the director, who also establish priorities of the activity of the institution. One of its keynotes is the biggest possible presence in the public space, which is all the easier that taking advantage of an interest in history and a discussion on a historical policy the media give the Museum a lot of attention. Public relations actions are performed mainly by the Information Centre of the Museum, and they aim not only at attracting a maximum number of guests, both Polish and foreign ones, but also at involving those who are interested, especially young people, in various kinds of projects, which take place in the whole Poland. In the department of popularizing history and the Museum an important role is played by the museum shops. They offer publications of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising Publishing House, books from other publishing houses concerning the Uprising and World War II, as well as contemporary debates on history, and also posters, albums, guidebooks to the Museum and to Warsaw, magazines, CDs with music, films, strategic games. The shop also sells different gadgets with the logo of the museum, which is of course the symbol of ‘Fighting Poland’. They are for example key straps, models of cars, planes or soldiers from the period of World War II, chess sets, mugs resembling those that insurgents drank out of, as well as chocolate, chicory coffee or candies in wrappings modeled on the original ones from the 40s. These unconventional gadgets are an important element of the marketing activity of the Museum. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, through its own publishing house, publishes albums, postcards, leaflets, popular science texts and scientific works. It is important for the Museum that the publications get to proper people and institutions: the report The Great Coalition by professor Norman Davies has been sent to foreign university libraries, European parliamentarians, the US congressmen, opinion-creating media in the world, and presented in the European Parliament, like The Shadow of Yalta, the book by professor Wojciech Roszkowski. The Museum organizes exhibitions abroad. A special exhibition is presented in schools in whole Poland. The Museum keeps in touch with foreign museum institutions. The stays in Collage Park near Washington and in London Imperial War Museum and the Museum of London were an opportunity to observe certain display ideas and ways of appealing to the audience, and to improve the conception of the Museum. A consultation co-operation is developed with such institutions as the House of Terror in Budapest,

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, the Yad Vashem Museum in Jerusalem, the Museum of London, the Imperial War Museum in London, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Museum of Famine in Kiev. Queries are done in the College of Underground Poland in London, in Collage Park near Washington, in the Imperial War Museum and in the RAF Museum in Hendon. An important aspect of the activity of the Museum is an offer addressed to teachers and students of history and the Polish language and literature. The institution provides trainings enriching teachers’ knowledge and presenting modern methodological solutions in teaching concerning the Warsaw Uprising and the occupation period, free lectures and open meetings. The Museum organizes also long-term seminars concerning the same subject matter, including elements of education at work and museum education, comprising 12 meetings which take place within six months. The classes in the Museum are conducted by experienced scientists and educators, are recognized by institutions giving an opinion in the process of a professional development of a teacher. The Museum provides museum lessons (also in English) – activities for kindergarten children, pupils of primary schools, pre-secondary and secondary schools. The subjects of the classes are adapted to the level of development of the children and youth. The cost of one lesson is only 50 PLN for a group. In October 2004 the Archive of Spoken History was created. Its main task is to record reports of several thousand soldiers of the Home Army – participants of the Warsaw Uprising, living in Poland and abroad today. The questions are formulated in such a way as to enable recording different aspects of insurgent lots, not only of fighting, but also of everyday life. By the end of 2006 a thousand recordings of that kind were gathered, which often lasted a few hours. All of them are recorded in the electronic version and published on the website of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, and film recordings of the conversations are successively made available in the reading room of the Museum. The aim of the Archive is to create research material which would be unprecedented in its scale, useful for present and future generations of historians and educators, and also to portray the generation born in pre-September Poland, their lots in post-war Poland and abroad, and to pay homage to the veterans of the Uprising who are still among us. The Museum has quickly gained an international recognition. Discussions of its displays have appeared in the most important museum

67

and compliance with the mission of the institution is verified by the Trust Council and the director, who also establish priorities of the activity of the institution. One of its keynotes is the biggest possible presence in the public space, which is all the easier that taking advantage of an interest in history and a discussion on a historical policy the media give the Museum a lot of attention. Public relations actions are performed mainly by the Information Centre of the Museum, and they aim not only at attracting a maximum number of guests, both Polish and foreign ones, but also at involving those who are interested, especially young people, in various kinds of projects, which take place in the whole Poland. In the department of popularizing history and the Museum an important role is played by the museum shops. They offer publications of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising Publishing House, books from other publishing houses concerning the Uprising and World War II, as well as contemporary debates on history, and also posters, albums, guidebooks to the Museum and to Warsaw, magazines, CDs with music, films, strategic games. The shop also sells different gadgets with the logo of the museum, which is of course the symbol of ‘Fighting Poland’. They are for example key straps, models of cars, planes or soldiers from the period of World War II, chess sets, mugs resembling those that insurgents drank out of, as well as chocolate, chicory coffee or candies in wrappings modeled on the original ones from the 40s. These unconventional gadgets are an important element of the marketing activity of the Museum. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, through its own publishing house, publishes albums, postcards, leaflets, popular science texts and scientific works. It is important for the Museum that the publications get to proper people and institutions: the report The Great Coalition by professor Norman Davies has been sent to foreign university libraries, European parliamentarians, the US congressmen, opinion-creating media in the world, and presented in the European Parliament, like The Shadow of Yalta, the book by professor Wojciech Roszkowski. The Museum organizes exhibitions abroad. A special exhibition is presented in schools in whole Poland. The Museum keeps in touch with foreign museum institutions. The stays in Collage Park near Washington and in London Imperial War Museum and the Museum of London were an opportunity to observe certain display ideas and ways of appealing to the audience, and to improve the conception of the Museum. A consultation co-operation is developed with such institutions as the House of Terror in Budapest,

67

the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, the Yad Vashem Museum in Jerusalem, the Museum of London, the Imperial War Museum in London, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Museum of Famine in Kiev. Queries are done in the College of Underground Poland in London, in Collage Park near Washington, in the Imperial War Museum and in the RAF Museum in Hendon. An important aspect of the activity of the Museum is an offer addressed to teachers and students of history and the Polish language and literature. The institution provides trainings enriching teachers’ knowledge and presenting modern methodological solutions in teaching concerning the Warsaw Uprising and the occupation period, free lectures and open meetings. The Museum organizes also long-term seminars concerning the same subject matter, including elements of education at work and museum education, comprising 12 meetings which take place within six months. The classes in the Museum are conducted by experienced scientists and educators, are recognized by institutions giving an opinion in the process of a professional development of a teacher. The Museum provides museum lessons (also in English) – activities for kindergarten children, pupils of primary schools, pre-secondary and secondary schools. The subjects of the classes are adapted to the level of development of the children and youth. The cost of one lesson is only 50 PLN for a group. In October 2004 the Archive of Spoken History was created. Its main task is to record reports of several thousand soldiers of the Home Army – participants of the Warsaw Uprising, living in Poland and abroad today. The questions are formulated in such a way as to enable recording different aspects of insurgent lots, not only of fighting, but also of everyday life. By the end of 2006 a thousand recordings of that kind were gathered, which often lasted a few hours. All of them are recorded in the electronic version and published on the website of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising, and film recordings of the conversations are successively made available in the reading room of the Museum. The aim of the Archive is to create research material which would be unprecedented in its scale, useful for present and future generations of historians and educators, and also to portray the generation born in pre-September Poland, their lots in post-war Poland and abroad, and to pay homage to the veterans of the Uprising who are still among us. The Museum has quickly gained an international recognition. Discussions of its displays have appeared in the most important museum


periodicals in the world. In Polish and foreign press there appeared over one thousand articles connected with the opening of the institution. The activity of the Museum has created a favorable atmosphere for similar initiatives. The Museum of the History of Poland is being built, the Museum of Communism Socland, the Museum of the History of Polish Jews and the Museum of Solidarity are to be built. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising has become an active participant and propagator of a debate on history and its significance.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Chances and threats

68

I

t may seem that many participants of the public debate on history and its role in everyday functioning of the contemporary society pass over activities connected with a historical policy lightly, involving in an unrealistic discussion. One can often hear already known words about ‘making use of history’, placing a historical policy in a losing position. Negative connotations of the words ‘making use of’ a priori knock the weapon out of a hand of defenders of ‘fighting for remembrance’; as a result there is often not enough space for reliable assessment of practical ways of carrying out a historical policy, and it is them that determine its character. The question whether a historical policy itself is good of bad has no raison d’être. Its existence is an objective fact. What should be first of all subject to assessment are methods of putting it into practice, which, like it is in case of any other activity, can be consistent or inconsistent with the standards of modern democracy and a civic society; can distort the sense of the very idea or not. Propagators of a historical policy make a number of accusations addressed to the decisionmakers of the 90s which concern neglecting care of the image of the past or even an amputation of the collective memory. The first decade of free Poland was to be a period in which the language of the public debate was dominated by economic issues. The state was considered to be a kind of enterprise, and dealing with politics was started to be limited to the issues of managing the processes of an economic growth. Yet, I think that – paradoxically – in the sphere of management one can find an interesting analogy to a historical policy. Enterprises perform various actions aiming at integration of employees and their identification with the company. A historical policy can be regarded as a similar activity on the level of a state. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising has become a typical example of institutionalized conducting of a historical policy. This name includes an efficiently and effectively carried out project,

putting into effect postulates of ‘fighting for remembrance’ in the best possible sense. This place, created as homage for the heroes of Underground Poland, has not only reminded Poles and foreigners of such an event as the Warsaw Uprising, but it has also become an important institution of culture, expressively present in the public space, disseminating both knowledge of historical facts and widely understood culture. The founders of the Museum, thanks to basing its conception on powerful forms of expression, were able to create a new entity: an institution which does not confine itself to delivering a time limited message, but it aspires to be a friendly place, encouraging to spend free time there, which multiplies its possibilities of action. Ideas of a historical policy can be realized by the activity of many subjects, however, so far a dominating role in this sphere in Poland has been played by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage (especially in the period when Kazimierz Michał Ujazdowski was the minister). The activity of this department gives a new sense to this part of the cultural policy which is responsible for protection of national heritage. It points out that the aim of the cultural policy is not only to preserve material testimonies of the past but first of all to take care of the culture core, on which the national community is based. Its initiatives, leaving quite a lot of space for civic initiatives, remain in agreement with the standards of modern democracy and a civic society; it is hard to accuse them of an attempt of creating and imposing a definite historical vision of events, which would be at variance with the facts. At the same time, the activity of the government in this sphere is subject to criticism as it is in any other sphere. The biggest project of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, the Museum of the History of Poland, is still being built, so a full assessment of the achievements of minister Ujazdowski’s party has to be waited for. For the time being, however, I think that the historical policy as it is being carried out can be regarded not so much as ‘making use of history’ for political purposes but as a good chance of using the forms and institutions of the cultural policy of the state to disseminate and promote history. The future of the historical policy in Poland is not deprived of threats. One of them is the phenomenon defined either as critical patriotism or historical nihilism that is an intellectual tendency in approaching history, manifesting itself in suspiciousness about the idea of the nation, supposedly potentially dangerous by nature, and in always being ready to disavow the achievements of the past generations. Moreover, the issues of

I

t may seem that many participants of the public debate on history and its role in everyday functioning of the contemporary society pass over activities connected with a historical policy lightly, involving in an unrealistic discussion. One can often hear already known words about ‘making use of history’, placing a historical policy in a losing position. Negative connotations of the words ‘making use of’ a priori knock the weapon out of a hand of defenders of ‘fighting for remembrance’; as a result there is often not enough space for reliable assessment of practical ways of carrying out a historical policy, and it is them that determine its character. The question whether a historical policy itself is good of bad has no raison d’être. Its existence is an objective fact. What should be first of all subject to assessment are methods of putting it into practice, which, like it is in case of any other activity, can be consistent or inconsistent with the standards of modern democracy and a civic society; can distort the sense of the very idea or not. Propagators of a historical policy make a number of accusations addressed to the decisionmakers of the 90s which concern neglecting care of the image of the past or even an amputation of the collective memory. The first decade of free Poland was to be a period in which the language of the public debate was dominated by economic issues. The state was considered to be a kind of enterprise, and dealing with politics was started to be limited to the issues of managing the processes of an economic growth. Yet, I think that – paradoxically – in the sphere of management one can find an interesting analogy to a historical policy. Enterprises perform various actions aiming at integration of employees and their identification with the company. A historical policy can be regarded as a similar activity on the level of a state. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising has become a typical example of institutionalized conducting of a historical policy. This name includes an efficiently and effectively carried out project,

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Chances and threats

putting into effect postulates of ‘fighting for remembrance’ in the best possible sense. This place, created as homage for the heroes of Underground Poland, has not only reminded Poles and foreigners of such an event as the Warsaw Uprising, but it has also become an important institution of culture, expressively present in the public space, disseminating both knowledge of historical facts and widely understood culture. The founders of the Museum, thanks to basing its conception on powerful forms of expression, were able to create a new entity: an institution which does not confine itself to delivering a time limited message, but it aspires to be a friendly place, encouraging to spend free time there, which multiplies its possibilities of action. Ideas of a historical policy can be realized by the activity of many subjects, however, so far a dominating role in this sphere in Poland has been played by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage (especially in the period when Kazimierz Michał Ujazdowski was the minister). The activity of this department gives a new sense to this part of the cultural policy which is responsible for protection of national heritage. It points out that the aim of the cultural policy is not only to preserve material testimonies of the past but first of all to take care of the culture core, on which the national community is based. Its initiatives, leaving quite a lot of space for civic initiatives, remain in agreement with the standards of modern democracy and a civic society; it is hard to accuse them of an attempt of creating and imposing a definite historical vision of events, which would be at variance with the facts. At the same time, the activity of the government in this sphere is subject to criticism as it is in any other sphere. The biggest project of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage, the Museum of the History of Poland, is still being built, so a full assessment of the achievements of minister Ujazdowski’s party has to be waited for. For the time being, however, I think that the historical policy as it is being carried out can be regarded not so much as ‘making use of history’ for political purposes but as a good chance of using the forms and institutions of the cultural policy of the state to disseminate and promote history. The future of the historical policy in Poland is not deprived of threats. One of them is the phenomenon defined either as critical patriotism or historical nihilism that is an intellectual tendency in approaching history, manifesting itself in suspiciousness about the idea of the nation, supposedly potentially dangerous by nature, and in always being ready to disavow the achievements of the past generations. Moreover, the issues of

68

periodicals in the world. In Polish and foreign press there appeared over one thousand articles connected with the opening of the institution. The activity of the Museum has created a favorable atmosphere for similar initiatives. The Museum of the History of Poland is being built, the Museum of Communism Socland, the Museum of the History of Polish Jews and the Museum of Solidarity are to be built. The Museum of the Warsaw Uprising has become an active participant and propagator of a debate on history and its significance.


69

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

the vetting and the squaring up of the period of the People’s Republic of Poland, connecting the historical policy with the recent history in a direct way, and most of all with political games, make it further enemies. The discussion on a historical policy taking place in Poland for a few years has created in a big part of the society a much distorted image of it. The reaction to the project of popularization of history was a strong counter-project, presenting knowledge of the native history and attachment to it as something useless or even harmful. It has been acknowledged that history should be dealt with by scientists working in university buildings and without presenting the results of their research to the public. Unfortunately, the power of influence of this view is so big that in the country – which were forgotten in the world not only about its role in defeating the Third Reich but also its contribution to disassembling communism, in

which a majority of citizens is not able to identify the simplest historic dates – many people think that the Polish history needn’t be discussed and there is too much discussion on it. The idea of a state put forward by Warsaw conservatives, a historical policy connected with it, as well as the ways of its realization suggested by the creators of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising and the team of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage during the rule of the Law and Justice have their opponents, and they will probably always have them. However, it is a project which can and is worth being defended as referring to patriotism, according to the standards of contemporary democracy and being directed at achieving purposes bringing measurable benefits. The project deserves its own place in the Polish public space, not as the only correct vision which should be imposed, but as an important element in the debate on the shape of a modern state and its policy.

Literature

Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, ed. Matusiak M.,

Cichocki M., Marek A., et. al. [electronic documentation]

Panewka A., Polityka historyczna. Historycy – politycy

Stańczyk T., Warszawa 2005. skiego [in:] Pamięć Powstania ’44, ed. Rosalak M., Kraj I., Przewodnik po Muzeum Powstania Warszawportalwiedzy.onet.pl. Cichocki M., Polityka historyczna – za i przeciw, www. [2007.06.14].

(2006), Polityka historyczna - za i przeciw. http://

portalwiedzy.onet.pl/,1581,1352888,czasopisma.html

portalwiedzy.onet.pl/,1581,1352888,czasopisma.html

(2006), Polityka historyczna - za i przeciw. http://

[2007.06.14].

Cichocki M., Marek A., et. al. [electronic documentation]

Cichocki M., Polityka historyczna – za i przeciw, www.

Literature

Kraj I., Przewodnik po Muzeum Powstania Warszaw-

Warszawa 2006. – prasa, Warszawa 2005. Roszkowski W., O potrzebie polskiej polityki historycznej [in:] Pamięć i odpowiedzialność, ed. Kostro R., Merta T., Kraków – Wrocław 2005.

portalwiedzy.onet.pl. skiego [in:] Pamięć Powstania ’44, ed. Rosalak M.,

T., Kraków – Wrocław 2005. [in:] Pamięć i odpowiedzialność, ed. Kostro R., Merta Roszkowski W., O potrzebie polskiej polityki historycznej – prasa, Warszawa 2005. Panewka A., Polityka historyczna. Historycy – politycy Warszawa 2006. Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, ed. Matusiak M.,

Stańczyk T., Warszawa 2005.

the vetting and the squaring up of the period of the People’s Republic of Poland, connecting the historical policy with the recent history in a direct way, and most of all with political games, make it further enemies. The discussion on a historical policy taking place in Poland for a few years has created in a big part of the society a much distorted image of it. The reaction to the project of popularization of history was a strong counter-project, presenting knowledge of the native history and attachment to it as something useless or even harmful. It has been acknowledged that history should be dealt with by scientists working in university buildings and without presenting the results of their research to the public. Unfortunately, the power of influence of this view is so big that in the country – which were forgotten in the world not only about its role in defeating the Third Reich but also its contribution to disassembling communism, in Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

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which a majority of citizens is not able to identify the simplest historic dates – many people think that the Polish history needn’t be discussed and there is too much discussion on it. The idea of a state put forward by Warsaw conservatives, a historical policy connected with it, as well as the ways of its realization suggested by the creators of the Museum of the Warsaw Uprising and the team of the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage during the rule of the Law and Justice have their opponents, and they will probably always have them. However, it is a project which can and is worth being defended as referring to patriotism, according to the standards of contemporary democracy and being directed at achieving purposes bringing measurable benefits. The project deserves its own place in the Polish public space, not as the only correct vision which should be imposed, but as an important element in the debate on the shape of a modern state and its policy.


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Having outlined the situation, I will now try to present a phenomenon which has led to the current state of affairs in Georgia.

Levan Khetaguri

Cultural policy and Georgia

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

70

hanks to cultural achievements and intellectual potential, Georgia was an extraordinary territory in the Soviet Union. On the one hand, Soviet ideology supported the development of the so-called cultural identity as well as the existence of ethnic groups, while on the other, slowly and purposefully led to the elimination of national remembrance of every nation that made up the Soviet Union. From history to national identity, everything was eliminated in order to make skilful running the country easier for the communists who strove obsessively to create Homo Sovieticus. Today it is clear that speaking about Soviet or communist policies, we should in fact speak about Russian neo-imperialistic ambitions, which were adroitly hidden under the veil of socialist and communist ideas. Until today Russian neo-imperialism has remained to be a serious threat for civilized and independent Europe and the rest of the world, which is very well illustrated with an example of the war which broke out in August 2008. Is it possible to link cultural policy with freedom? What is the relation between the right to culture and the development of cultural policy? From the contemporary point of view, any guarantees of the rights to culture are the same as guarantees of general human rights. Are we able to create cultural policy in accordance with European democratic values if the need of the right to culture is not recognized? We simultaneously observe certain worrying tendencies that can appear in post-soviet countries. These are e.g. random visits of amateur ‘experts’ (both European and American). Now, I will refrain from giving concrete examples of situations, when those ‘experts’ whose character-

A short history

irst of all, it is necessary to emphasize that the term the Caucasus Region refers to the countries of South Caucasus: Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia while the countries of North Caucasus are labeled as the Russian part of the Caucasus. It may not be the right moment to debate the question of the Caucasus as a region, yet it seems vital to draw attention to the significance of the Caucasus as one of the oldest regions, a kind of cultural island between civilization of West and East and between two seas. The role of the Caucasian countries is significant not only for the history of communities, but also for esoteric schools, history of religion, diverse occult movements of East and West. It is often the case that in places considered attractive owing to esoteric reasons, problems resulting from the lack of political stability are observed. The Near East is a case in point. It faces the challenges similar to the ones present in the Caucasus region. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 which can be considered to be the final liberation, the Caucasus entered a period of transformations. The so-called transition stage turned into a period of turmoil, characterized by regional and ethnic conflicts, civil wars, revolutions, the lack of political stability and other serious problems. In the first decade of the 21st century the Caucasus is a region where conflicts have been brought to a halt, stability has been achieved and one can observe the involvement of the Caucasian countries in big international economic projects.

T

he article is an attempt to present succinctly the way in which a Georgian cultural policy has been developing over the past few years. After a short introduction of historical perspective, the most important aspects of cultural policy will be presented. They will include education, the activities of the third sector and cultural tourism.

F

A short history

T

Introductory remarks

Having outlined the situation, I will now try to present a phenomenon which has led to the current state of affairs in Georgia.

Introductory remarks

he article is an attempt to present succinctly the way in which a Georgian cultural policy has been developing over the past few years. After a short introduction of historical perspective, the most important aspects of cultural policy will be presented. They will include education, the activities of the third sector and cultural tourism.

F

T

hanks to cultural achievements and intellectual potential, Georgia was an extraordinary territory in the Soviet Union. On the one hand, Soviet ideology supported the development of the so-called cultural identity as well as the existence of ethnic groups, while on the other, slowly and purposefully led to the elimination of national remembrance of every nation that made up the Soviet Union. From history to national identity, everything was eliminated in order to make skilful running the country easier for the communists who strove obsessively to create Homo Sovieticus. Today it is clear that speaking about Soviet or communist policies, we should in fact speak about Russian neo-imperialistic ambitions, which were adroitly hidden under the veil of socialist and communist ideas. Until today Russian neo-imperialism has remained to be a serious threat for civilized and independent Europe and the rest of the world, which is very well illustrated with an example of the war which broke out in August 2008. Is it possible to link cultural policy with freedom? What is the relation between the right to culture and the development of cultural policy? From the contemporary point of view, any guarantees of the rights to culture are the same as guarantees of general human rights. Are we able to create cultural policy in accordance with European democratic values if the need of the right to culture is not recognized? We simultaneously observe certain worrying tendencies that can appear in post-soviet countries. These are e.g. random visits of amateur ‘experts’ (both European and American). Now, I will refrain from giving concrete examples of situations, when those ‘experts’ whose character-

Prof. Levan Khetaguri Vice-rector of the Shota Rustaveli Georgian State University of Theatre and Film, Tbilisi. Coordinator and moderator of Georgian and international cultural programs, festivals, conferences, seminars, workshops and public lectures. Producer and author of several TV programs. Author of over 80 scientific works and publications at the professional editions, magazines, newspapers (on Georgian, Russian, English, Azerbaijanian, Belarusian, Slovakian etc. languages); translator of several books. He is the laureate of many awards, inter alia Swedish Writers Guild award (2000), Soviet Union’s academy of Science diploma (1985), Georgian Academy of Science award (1982). Member of many prestigious institutions. In 1996 – 1997 he was the head of International Cultural Programs in Ministry of Culture of Georgia; in 2008 member of European Cultural Parliament. Since 1986 he has been leader of MA and Doctoral programs at the Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film University As a theatrologist run lec-

irst of all, it is necessary to emphasize that the term the Caucasus Region refers to the countries of South Caucasus: Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia while the countries of North Caucasus are labeled as the Russian part of the Caucasus. It may not be the right moment to debate the question of the Caucasus as a region, yet it seems vital to draw attention to the significance of the Caucasus as one of the oldest regions, a kind of cultural island between civilization of West and East and between two seas. The role of the Caucasian countries is significant not only for the history of communities, but also for esoteric schools, history of religion, diverse occult movements of East and West. It is often the case that in places considered attractive owing to esoteric reasons, problems resulting from the lack of political stability are observed. The Near East is a case in point. It faces the challenges similar to the ones present in the Caucasus region. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 which can be considered to be the final liberation, the Caucasus entered a period of transformations. The so-called transition stage turned into a period of turmoil, characterized by regional and ethnic conflicts, civil wars, revolutions, the lack of political stability and other serious problems. In the first decade of the 21st century the Caucasus is a region where conflicts have been brought to a halt, stability has been achieved and one can observe the involvement of the Caucasian countries in big international economic projects.

Levan Khetaguri

Prof. Levan Khetaguri Vice-rector of the Shota Rustaveli Georgian State University of Theatre and Film, Tbilisi. Coordinator and moderator of Georgian and international cultural programs, festivals, conferences, seminars, workshops and public lectures. Producer and author of several TV programs. Author of over 80 scientific works and publications at the professional editions, magazines, newspapers (on Georgian, Russian, English, Azerbaijanian, Belarusian, Slovakian etc. languages); translator of several books. He is the laureate of many awards, inter alia Swedish Writers Guild award (2000), Soviet Union’s academy of Science diploma (1985), Georgian Academy of Science award (1982). Member of many prestigious institutions. In 1996 – 1997 he was the head of International Cultural Programs in Ministry of Culture of Georgia; in 2008 member of European Cultural Parliament. Since 1986 he has been leader of MA and Doctoral programs at the Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film University As a theatrologist run lec-

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Cultural policy and Georgia


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Cultural policy and Georgia

programmes. Such activities were supported by Soros Foundation, a few Dutch organizations and Kultur Kontakt from Austria. At one point British Council and Visiting Arts joined in, however, it did not transform into any systemic support, which would become institutionalized, as it occurred in other spheres of economic and social life. From my point of view, organizations which support such activities financially are to blame for such a situation. A simple rejection of culture in a country which generates the largest part of its profit from cultural tourism means the waste of human potential in this area. In the process of providing financial assistance to the development of democracy, reforms of legal system and other areas, culture was the only sphere excluded from this assistance, which resulted in the forming of the generation of politicians and state officials completely insensitive to culture (which in turn caused other problems). In the countries formerly belonging to the Soviet Union there was a commonly known definition of ‘ideology’, thanks to which more or less the current understanding of cultural policy was expressed. But this ‘ideology’ enabled both censorship as well as was an instrument of political pressure and the reflection of political goals of the Soviet establishment. Georgia was a certain exception in the Soviet policy, beginning with the end of the 60s. First of all, the presence of religion was clearly marked in the life of Georgia. There were numerous churches treated as objects of cultural heritage as well as institutions of cultural and religious life. Simultaneously, the Georgian culture provided strong motivation for identity marking within the Russian empire, as one of the republics, whose history developed over the period of three thousand years, it had its own tradition of an original language and culture. All in all, we can say that the situation in Georgia developed in the following way: the country was nation-oriented, with the emphasis on the preservation of religion and language. A strong feeling of identity is based on thousands of years of culture of the nation. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the country entered a lengthy period of changes full of turmoil caused by revolutions, ethnic conflict, etc. The first debates on cultural policy were initiated in 1996. Having gained European experience (studies in Amsterdam), I held a key position in the Ministry of Culture and managed to organize the first conference devoted to the issues related to cultural policy in Georgia. If I remember well, it was the first conference of this kind in the whole Caucasus. The country returned to these issues only after 2001.

Levan Khetaguri

programmes. Such activities were supported by Soros Foundation, a few Dutch organizations and Kultur Kontakt from Austria. At one point British Council and Visiting Arts joined in, however, it did not transform into any systemic support, which would become institutionalized, as it occurred in other spheres of economic and social life. From my point of view, organizations which support such activities financially are to blame for such a situation. A simple rejection of culture in a country which generates the largest part of its profit from cultural tourism means the waste of human potential in this area. In the process of providing financial assistance to the development of democracy, reforms of legal system and other areas, culture was the only sphere excluded from this assistance, which resulted in the forming of the generation of politicians and state officials completely insensitive to culture (which in turn caused other problems). In the countries formerly belonging to the Soviet Union there was a commonly known definition of ‘ideology’, thanks to which more or less the current understanding of cultural policy was expressed. But this ‘ideology’ enabled both censorship as well as was an instrument of political pressure and the reflection of political goals of the Soviet establishment. Georgia was a certain exception in the Soviet policy, beginning with the end of the 60s. First of all, the presence of religion was clearly marked in the life of Georgia. There were numerous churches treated as objects of cultural heritage as well as institutions of cultural and religious life. Simultaneously, the Georgian culture provided strong motivation for identity marking within the Russian empire, as one of the republics, whose history developed over the period of three thousand years, it had its own tradition of an original language and culture. All in all, we can say that the situation in Georgia developed in the following way: the country was nation-oriented, with the emphasis on the preservation of religion and language. A strong feeling of identity is based on thousands of years of culture of the nation. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the country entered a lengthy period of changes full of turmoil caused by revolutions, ethnic conflict, etc. The first debates on cultural policy were initiated in 1996. Having gained European experience (studies in Amsterdam), I held a key position in the Ministry of Culture and managed to organize the first conference devoted to the issues related to cultural policy in Georgia. If I remember well, it was the first conference of this kind in the whole Caucasus. The country returned to these issues only after 2001.

Levan Khetaguri

istic feature is total ignorance of legal instruments and local character organize trainings or present recommendations which are totally inapplicable in the countries undergoing transition. Incessant pressure to introduce law on tax relief for entities which sponsor activities in the field of culture may be a very good example. This law may work well in the USA, but transposing and implementing it in Georgia would be nonsensical as it would be totally inadequate to the structure, system and existing political and cultural infrastructure of our country. The history of teaching management in culture in Georgian higher schools begins in mid-seventies of the 20th century. This teaching process fully corresponded with Soviet tendencies of those days and resembled the Russian approach used at the Faculty of Theatre Management in St. Petersburg, or more precisely: ‘of economics and theatre management’. This approach, combined with the modern understanding of theatre management led to setting up of the programme of studies in management of culture, also at our university in Tbilisi. Within two decades this programme has evolved into a modern curriculum of culture management. In the 90s of the 20th century against the backdrop of Soviet reality, there was a pronounced need of importing western knowledge and experience, because local academic knowledge of culture management was not sufficient and failed to meet contemporary standards. We made an attempt to implement numerous ideas. Between 1990-91 I myself put forward an initiative of the first contract-based theatrical project, which did not succeed commercially due to a number of unexpected factors. The predominant factor was the lack of specific knowledge as well as practice in the field of culture management – my academic education was at that time – and still is – theatre related. Another step was to establish the first production enterprise ARTEX, which was a success and considered to be ahead of its time. However, it was not consistent with the local legal system and ‘western’ market (initiatives not popular in the West any more). Therefore, I may say that my knowledge of management developed as a result of the analysis of my own errors. Both my colleagues and I gained knowledge of culture management in the West. The first professional training concerning the sphere of management was organized in Georgia only in 1998, as an initiative arising from my cooperation with partners in the Netherlands and Georgia. Exporting European or American experiences to post-Soviet countries, especially in the field of culture was not a priority for many international aid

71

Cultural policy and Georgia

istic feature is total ignorance of legal instruments and local character organize trainings or present recommendations which are totally inapplicable in the countries undergoing transition. Incessant pressure to introduce law on tax relief for entities which sponsor activities in the field of culture may be a very good example. This law may work well in the USA, but transposing and implementing it in Georgia would be nonsensical as it would be totally inadequate to the structure, system and existing political and cultural infrastructure of our country. The history of teaching management in culture in Georgian higher schools begins in mid-seventies of the 20th century. This teaching process fully corresponded with Soviet tendencies of those days and resembled the Russian approach used at the Faculty of Theatre Management in St. Petersburg, or more precisely: ‘of economics and theatre management’. This approach, combined with the modern understanding of theatre management led to setting up of the programme of studies in management of culture, also at our university in Tbilisi. Within two decades this programme has evolved into a modern curriculum of culture management. In the 90s of the 20th century against the backdrop of Soviet reality, there was a pronounced need of importing western knowledge and experience, because local academic knowledge of culture management was not sufficient and failed to meet contemporary standards. We made an attempt to implement numerous ideas. Between 1990-91 I myself put forward an initiative of the first contract-based theatrical project, which did not succeed commercially due to a number of unexpected factors. The predominant factor was the lack of specific knowledge as well as practice in the field of culture management – my academic education was at that time – and still is – theatre related. Another step was to establish the first production enterprise ARTEX, which was a success and considered to be ahead of its time. However, it was not consistent with the local legal system and ‘western’ market (initiatives not popular in the West any more). Therefore, I may say that my knowledge of management developed as a result of the analysis of my own errors. Both my colleagues and I gained knowledge of culture management in the West. The first professional training concerning the sphere of management was organized in Georgia only in 1998, as an initiative arising from my cooperation with partners in the Netherlands and Georgia. Exporting European or American experiences to post-Soviet countries, especially in the field of culture was not a priority for many international aid

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

71

tures and participated in International conference and symposiums in Russia, Azerbaijan, Spain, Slovakia, Byelorussia, UK, and Germany. As a lecturer run courses at university: world theatre history, theory of drama, theory of criticism, XX century theatres, history of European civilization, performing arts management etc. Since 1999 he has been working as an expert inter alia in management, sponsorship, international cooperation in the art, cultural policy in Yerevan, Baku, Sophia, Bishkek, Vilnius, Kiev, Gorlitz, Gothenburg, St. Petersburg.

tures and participated in International conference and symposiums in Russia, Azerbaijan, Spain, Slovakia, Byelorussia, UK, and Germany. As a lecturer run courses at university: world theatre history, theory of drama, theory of criticism, XX century theatres, history of European civilization, performing arts management etc. Since 1999 he has been working as an expert inter alia in management, sponsorship, international cooperation in the art, cultural policy in Yerevan, Baku, Sophia, Bishkek, Vilnius, Kiev, Gorlitz, Gothenburg, St. Petersburg.


72

The first documents concerning cultural policy written in 2002 – 2003 were published in 2003, when a national debate on cultural policy was organised. This event, prepared jointly with the Council of Europe, was an important initiative, but never continued as in 2003 there was a change of government, and soon a political crisis. As for the information on cultural information in Georgia in Compendium (Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe) published by the Council of Europe – a group preparing a Georgian profile was composed of officials of municipal administration who did not have any practical skills or research experience in the field of cultural policy as well as it did not involve local experts. The document created in such a way comprised mainly European models which were to be transferred without considering any practical application for Georgia. What is more, I am not sure if it could be used by experts outside our country. This document has never been used. It seems that the main mistake of the Council of Europe was the alliance with local authorities and ignoring the needs of civil society as well as not engaging local independent experts. In 2003 the government – with which the Council of Europe maintained friendly relations – was abolished by the Rose Revolution on the grounds of corruption within its structures. Following these events, we did not observe any actions on the part of the Council of Europe as regards cultural policy in Georgia.

he significance of the development of the sector of non-governmental organizations not only for the creation of civil society, but also for cultural policy in post-Soviet countries itself must be stressed. I am convinced that my own experience may serve as a good example of the activities of non-governmental organizations in Georgia. In 1997 in Amsterdam, together with Dutch and Georgian colleagues, we established in Amsterdam Stichting Caucasus Foundation (SCF) as an international organization with the seat in the Netherlands, operating in accordance with Dutch law. In a short time SCF initiated some very important regional projects: MM International Bureau for Caucasian Cultural Programs (IBCCP) – legal representation of SCF in the region of the Caucasus MM Caucasian Spring University – an international training centre, MM a publishing house, MM Caucasian Arts Managers Network (CAMN), MM Culture Video Center (CVC) – a huge archive of culture, MM Consulting and Management Centre, International Culture Fair (ICF) – a multi-discipline culture fair1. MM

T

The activities of non-governmental organizations in Georgia

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Policy since 2003

More information about each of these organizations is available at SCF website: http://www.caucasusfoundation.ge

Cultural policy in the transition era – the role of the Council of Europe

72

I

I

1

n 2004 for the first time the Ministry of Culture appointed a council of experts. The name of the ministry was changed, so was its head office, 65-70% of employees were replaced, new departments were created and a new strategy for development was developed. Simultaneously, the Ministry became more political than professional, consistently with the changes introduced by the new government. The name of the ministry changed to: the Ministry of Culture, Protection of Monuments and Sport (later Department of Youth was added to it). In 2004 the Ministry of Culture initiated the programme of supporting culture and since then non-governmental organizations have been able to apply for funds which were granted in the contest procedure, in which they participated enjoying the same rights as governmental organizations. In the first part of the contest procedure

I

I

n 1999 Georgia entered the Council of Europe (CoE). The activities of the Council of Europe in Georgia – and in general in the whole of the Caucasus – since 2000 have mainly focused on cultural policy in the region. In 2000 – 2001 a programme of the Council of Europe called STAGE was created for the Caucasus. Initially, it served the purpose of training ministry employees by non-governmental organizations, but faced with dissatisfaction and reluctance on the part of cultural administration, the authors of the programme backed out and lost their objective perspective, serving the politicians and the system and not the values or needs of the society. The Ministry of Culture was not able to find a way of developing regional cooperation or a dialogue with non-governmental organizations.

Policy since 2003

n 2004 for the first time the Ministry of Culture appointed a council of experts. The name of the ministry was changed, so was its head office, 65-70% of employees were replaced, new departments were created and a new strategy for development was developed. Simultaneously, the Ministry became more political than professional, consistently with the changes introduced by the new government. The name of the ministry changed to: the Ministry of Culture, Protection of Monuments and Sport (later Department of Youth was added to it). In 2004 the Ministry of Culture initiated the programme of supporting culture and since then non-governmental organizations have been able to apply for funds which were granted in the contest procedure, in which they participated enjoying the same rights as governmental organizations. In the first part of the contest procedure

Cultural policy in the transition era – the role of the Council of Europe

n 1999 Georgia entered the Council of Europe (CoE). The activities of the Council of Europe in Georgia – and in general in the whole of the Caucasus – since 2000 have mainly focused on cultural policy in the region. In 2000 – 2001 a programme of the Council of Europe called STAGE was created for the Caucasus. Initially, it served the purpose of training ministry employees by non-governmental organizations, but faced with dissatisfaction and reluctance on the part of cultural administration, the authors of the programme backed out and lost their objective perspective, serving the politicians and the system and not the values or needs of the society. The Ministry of Culture was not able to find a way of developing regional cooperation or a dialogue with non-governmental organizations.

T

More information about each of these organizations is available at SCF website: http://www.caucasusfoundation.ge

he significance of the development of the sector of non-governmental organizations not only for the creation of civil society, but also for cultural policy in post-Soviet countries itself must be stressed. I am convinced that my own experience may serve as a good example of the activities of non-governmental organizations in Georgia. In 1997 in Amsterdam, together with Dutch and Georgian colleagues, we established in Amsterdam Stichting Caucasus Foundation (SCF) as an international organization with the seat in the Netherlands, operating in accordance with Dutch law. In a short time SCF initiated some very important regional projects: MM International Bureau for Caucasian Cultural Programs (IBCCP) – legal representation of SCF in the region of the Caucasus MM Caucasian Spring University – an international training centre, MM a publishing house, MM Caucasian Arts Managers Network (CAMN), MM Culture Video Center (CVC) – a huge archive of culture, MM Consulting and Management Centre, MM International Culture Fair (ICF) – a multi-discipline culture fair1.

The first documents concerning cultural policy written in 2002 – 2003 were published in 2003, when a national debate on cultural policy was organised. This event, prepared jointly with the Council of Europe, was an important initiative, but never continued as in 2003 there was a change of government, and soon a political crisis. As for the information on cultural information in Georgia in Compendium (Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe) published by the Council of Europe – a group preparing a Georgian profile was composed of officials of municipal administration who did not have any practical skills or research experience in the field of cultural policy as well as it did not involve local experts. The document created in such a way comprised mainly European models which were to be transferred without considering any practical application for Georgia. What is more, I am not sure if it could be used by experts outside our country. This document has never been used. It seems that the main mistake of the Council of Europe was the alliance with local authorities and ignoring the needs of civil society as well as not engaging local independent experts. In 2003 the government – with which the Council of Europe maintained friendly relations – was abolished by the Rose Revolution on the grounds of corruption within its structures. Following these events, we did not observe any actions on the part of the Council of Europe as regards cultural policy in Georgia.

1

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

The activities of non-governmental organizations in Georgia


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2) MM MM

ince the 90s of the 20th century the Georgian Parliament has passed the following laws: law on culture, law on artistic craft associations,

S

Legal instruments

n the process of decentralization implemented in Georgia the following elements can be observed: MM development of various cities, MM state financing of new investments connected with the restoration of cities, MM state investments in transportation, federal roads, building protection, MM Department of Tourism became a part of the Ministry of Economy, MM tourist attractions became a priority for municipal councils. Changes and increase in profit from tourism can be observed not only in Tbilisi, the capital, but also in other major cities: Batumi, Signagi, Zugdidi, Kutaisi. Exotic parts of Georgia comprising diverse mountain villages in the regions: Svaneti, Khevsureti or Tusheti have also become very attractive for tourists from home and abroad. However, it must be stressed here that since 2008 the state has been working to centralize the existing structures and establish new, monopolistic state institutions in the sphere of culture.

I

How did the process of decentralization continue?

the following sums were allocated: cultural heritage - 200 000$, MM theatre - 150 000$, MM music - 150 000$, MM literature - 100 000$, MM film centre - 400 000$. These are approximate figures which show proportions of state funding on the basis of applications from institutions not taking into account regular subsidies which organizations received in 2004. In the 90s of the 20th century the process of decentralization began in Georgia. Since that time three levels of power have been established: MM central – ministerial or federal, MM regional, MM municipal. From amongst 60 theatres (state-owned and private) only just above 10% of them are financed at a federal level. The other are financed from different sources. MM

73

ince 2006 a few very important priorities of cultural policy have been formulated. They regard mainly three spheres: cultural heritage, culture of youth and education and Georgian folklore. In the sphere of cultural heritage the emphasis was placed on material heritage including cathedrals, other buildings of historical value and manuscripts. Education and activities aimed at popularization of culture remain today in the centre of activities of youth summer camps and schools. Traditional Georgian culture which comprises dance and polyphonic music is subsidized by providing funds for the purchase of instruments and equipment necessary for dance and music groups.

S

Priorities from 2006

he Ministry has decided to establish state institutions devoted to different types of art as a priority of cultural policy of the state. The examples of such institutions are: National Film Centre, National Museum Centre, National Centre for Music. National Film Centre operating as Film Foundation whose task is to distribute state funds on the basis of decisions taken by councils of experts (as in e.g. France). However, other national centres attempt to monopolize funds and allocate them for developing bureaucratic structures instead of conducting fund division in the form of grants and on the basis of experts’ decisions. Such institutions centralize activities in their areas of activity, which is very bad practice. In 2009 the city of Tbilisi set up Festival Centre. Unfortunately, it was done without prior research or discussion with experts. As a result, the Centre has monopolized festival activities in the city, which is exactly an example of bad practice mentioned earlier.

T

The policies of state institutions

law on cultural heritage, law on theatres (last amended in 2006-7), which encourages to hold posts of the socalled ‘superintendents’ – chief executives or administrators recruited through open contest procedure. The first administrators selected in the above-described manner have been employed since 2007. Notice that in spite of the fact that the above laws came into force, some decisions that are taken – such as the sale of property belonging to craft associations – are of political nature. MM MM

the following sums were allocated: MM cultural heritage - 200 000$, MM theatre - 150 000$, MM music - 150 000$, MM literature - 100 000$, MM film centre - 400 000$. These are approximate figures which show proportions of state funding on the basis of applications from institutions not taking into account regular subsidies which organizations received in 2004. In the 90s of the 20th century the process of decentralization began in Georgia. Since that time three levels of power have been established: MM central – ministerial or federal, MM regional, MM municipal. From amongst 60 theatres (state-owned and private) only just above 10% of them are financed at a federal level. The other are financed from different sources.

How did the process of decentralization continue?

n the process of decentralization implemented in Georgia the following elements can be observed: MM development of various cities, MM state financing of new investments connected with the restoration of cities, MM state investments in transportation, federal roads, building protection, MM Department of Tourism became a part of the Ministry of Economy, MM tourist attractions became a priority for municipal councils. Changes and increase in profit from tourism can be observed not only in Tbilisi, the capital, but also in other major cities: Batumi, Signagi, Zugdidi, Kutaisi. Exotic parts of Georgia comprising diverse mountain villages in the regions: Svaneti, Khevsureti or Tusheti have also become very attractive for tourists from home and abroad. However, it must be stressed here that since 2008 the state has been working to centralize the existing structures and establish new, monopolistic state institutions in the sphere of culture.

I

Legal instruments

ince the 90s of the 20th century the Georgian Parliament has passed the following laws: law on culture, law on artistic craft associations,

S

MM MM

MM law on cultural heritage, MM law on theatres (last amended in 2006-7), which encourages to hold posts of the socalled ‘superintendents’ – chief executives or administrators recruited through open contest procedure. The first administrators selected in the above-described manner have been employed since 2007. Notice that in spite of the fact that the above laws came into force, some decisions that are taken – such as the sale of property belonging to craft associations – are of political nature.

The policies of state institutions

he Ministry has decided to establish state institutions devoted to different types of art as a priority of cultural policy of the state. The examples of such institutions are: National Film Centre, National Museum Centre, National Centre for Music. National Film Centre operating as Film Foundation whose task is to distribute state funds on the basis of decisions taken by councils of experts (as in e.g. France). However, other national centres attempt to monopolize funds and allocate them for developing bureaucratic structures instead of conducting fund division in the form of grants and on the basis of experts’ decisions. Such institutions centralize activities in their areas of activity, which is very bad practice. In 2009 the city of Tbilisi set up Festival Centre. Unfortunately, it was done without prior research or discussion with experts. As a result, the Centre has monopolized festival activities in the city, which is exactly an example of bad practice mentioned earlier.

T

Priorities from 2006

ince 2006 a few very important priorities of cultural policy have been formulated. They regard mainly three spheres: cultural heritage, culture of youth and education and Georgian folklore. In the sphere of cultural heritage the emphasis was placed on material heritage including cathedrals, other buildings of historical value and manuscripts. Education and activities aimed at popularization of culture remain today in the centre of activities of youth summer camps and schools. Traditional Georgian culture which comprises dance and polyphonic music is subsidized by providing funds for the purchase of instruments and equipment necessary for dance and music groups.

S

73

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)


74

Priorities in cultural policy of the state in 2007 Cultural tourism is currently at the stage of rapid growth and statistics show that a number of tourists have increased considerably in recent years. It concerns both international tourists (increase by 85%), tourist from the countries of the Caucasus (increase by 35%) as well as tourists from home (increase by 40%). Naturally, the Russian intervention in 2008 had a very negative effect on the development of tourism, especially in the case of foreign tourists. In addition, special programmes for students and pupils are introduced. Their aim is to encourage young people to get to know their own country. These programmes are conducted by students’ non-governmental organizations and financed from government or university sources.

Sadly, one cannot say that the above mentioned priorities were set as a result of experts’ debates or with the participation of civil society, not to mention the participation of inhabitants at a local level. It is rather the decision of state administration, perhaps supported with professional knowledge, but not taking into account public debate or – as stated earlier – the participation of independent experts. In 2006 the president of Georgia established the National Council for Culture and Art and the Presidential Fund for Culture. Regrettably, these important initiatives have not been fully implemented and, consequently, are not in use and continue to exist only on paper.

The private sector and cultural policy

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

A

ogether with the changes in the country and the implementation of the system of programmes and financing in the sphere of culture through grants, certain alterations have been introduced to the curricula of studies. All students at the University of Theatre and Film named after Szota Rustaweli – the leading school in the field of theatre, film, the media, traditional culture and culture management – are obliged to do a course on project management, which is an obligatory subject. The university, undertaking to implement the assumptions of the Bologna Process, sees it as an important element which allows assessing professional

N

T

phenomenon of supporting culture from private sources originated after the fall of the Soviet Union, in the 90s. Wealthy Georgians from diverse countries partially financed refurbishment of all theatres in Tbilisi, major centres of culture in the entire country as well as religious monuments. Most of them are the property of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The value of all donations exceeds 100 mln USD. Private support is also offered to cover the salaries of personnel working in places whose renovation was financed by private donors. A substantial part of private donations are allocated for the purpose of renovation of historical manuscripts, icons, cathedrals, archeological expeditions, etc.

74

Education

Tourism as a priority

ourism continues to be the area of responsibility of the Ministry of Economy. However, statistical data shows that majority of tourists visit Georgia because of cultural activities the country offers. In the tourist industry we observe the following tendencies: MM cultural tourism, MM municipal policy aiming to develop cities as tourist attractions. Investments at a central level were launched not only in the capital but also in other Georgian cities mentioned earlier (Signagi, Zugdidi, Batumi, Kutaisi). In Tbilisi a new administrative district of the city was established. It comprises ‘the Old Town’. A general plan of restoration and introduction of tourist products was created. It included new forms of guided tours around the city offered not only to foreign visitors but the native ones, too.

ew priorities in cultural policy of the state appeared at the beginning of 2007. The initiative entitled Georgian Seasons is an attempt to promote Georgia and Georgian culture abroad. It usually takes the form of culture festivals, exhibitions, projects of cooperation, etc. For instance a famous exhibition entitled Kolkh’s Gold which presents the collections of Georgian museums was displayed in Germany, France and other European countries and also in the USA. Georgia also began to present its artists at diverse international events (e.g. Biennial in Venice or Istambul, international conferences, etc.). A lot of new publications are created – both the printed and digital ones – which are distributed with the purpose of promoting Georgian culture and the country itself.

ew priorities in cultural policy of the state appeared at the beginning of 2007. The initiative entitled Georgian Seasons is an attempt to promote Georgia and Georgian culture abroad. It usually takes the form of culture festivals, exhibitions, projects of cooperation, etc. For instance a famous exhibition entitled Kolkh’s Gold which presents the collections of Georgian museums was displayed in Germany, France and other European countries and also in the USA. Georgia also began to present its artists at diverse international events (e.g. Biennial in Venice or Istambul, international conferences, etc.). A lot of new publications are created – both the printed and digital ones – which are distributed with the purpose of promoting Georgian culture and the country itself.

T

N

T

Tourism as a priority

Priorities in cultural policy of the state in 2007

Education

A

phenomenon of supporting culture from private sources originated after the fall of the Soviet Union, in the 90s. Wealthy Georgians from diverse countries partially financed refurbishment of all theatres in Tbilisi, major centres of culture in the entire country as well as religious monuments. Most of them are the property of the Georgian Orthodox Church. The value of all donations exceeds 100 mln USD. Private support is also offered to cover the salaries of personnel working in places whose renovation was financed by private donors. A substantial part of private donations are allocated for the purpose of renovation of historical manuscripts, icons, cathedrals, archeological expeditions, etc.

T

ogether with the changes in the country and the implementation of the system of programmes and financing in the sphere of culture through grants, certain alterations have been introduced to the curricula of studies. All students at the University of Theatre and Film named after Szota Rustaweli – the leading school in the field of theatre, film, the media, traditional culture and culture management – are obliged to do a course on project management, which is an obligatory subject. The university, undertaking to implement the assumptions of the Bologna Process, sees it as an important element which allows assessing professional

The private sector and cultural policy

Cultural tourism is currently at the stage of rapid growth and statistics show that a number of tourists have increased considerably in recent years. It concerns both international tourists (increase by 85%), tourist from the countries of the Caucasus (increase by 35%) as well as tourists from home (increase by 40%). Naturally, the Russian intervention in 2008 had a very negative effect on the development of tourism, especially in the case of foreign tourists. In addition, special programmes for students and pupils are introduced. Their aim is to encourage young people to get to know their own country. These programmes are conducted by students’ non-governmental organizations and financed from government or university sources.

ourism continues to be the area of responsibility of the Ministry of Economy. However, statistical data shows that majority of tourists visit Georgia because of cultural activities the country offers. In the tourist industry we observe the following tendencies: MM cultural tourism, MM municipal policy aiming to develop cities as tourist attractions. Investments at a central level were launched not only in the capital but also in other Georgian cities mentioned earlier (Signagi, Zugdidi, Batumi, Kutaisi). In Tbilisi a new administrative district of the city was established. It comprises ‘the Old Town’. A general plan of restoration and introduction of tourist products was created. It included new forms of guided tours around the city offered not only to foreign visitors but the native ones, too.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Sadly, one cannot say that the above mentioned priorities were set as a result of experts’ debates or with the participation of civil society, not to mention the participation of inhabitants at a local level. It is rather the decision of state administration, perhaps supported with professional knowledge, but not taking into account public debate or – as stated earlier – the participation of independent experts. In 2006 the president of Georgia established the National Council for Culture and Art and the Presidential Fund for Culture. Regrettably, these important initiatives have not been fully implemented and, consequently, are not in use and continue to exist only on paper.


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

qualifications a student gains and of curricula of studies. The university has opened an MA studies at the faculty Culture Management and Cultural Policy, and from January 2008 a programme of doctoral studies in the sphere of cultural policy was developed and launched in autumn 2008. Also, a university publishing house created a new unit devoted to culture management and cultural policy and keeps publishing papers concerning this field (also the translated works) and an annual intercultural conference for MA and PhD students is an important aspect of the development of this discipline in our country. Annual interactive training programmes in the field of cultural policy and cultural management conducted by non-governmental organizations with the involvement of local and international experts have become another way of building knowledge. It seems particularly significant that we can observe examples of the transfer of knowledge and know-how to neighbouring countries by means of activities in cultural networks and training programmes such as interactive training programmes offered by SCF Armenia, Azerbaijan and some countries in Asia Minor.

Weaknesses

A

lot of intellectuals in the country think that Georgia does not have any clear cultural policy, which to a certain extent is true. Our Ministry of Culture shows the lack of interest in contemporary art, focusing only on traditional forms of artistic and cultural activities, which results in the lack of cultural diversity. We can still observe a strong influence of personal factors at a political level, which means the limitation of the development of democratic values. The sector of non-governmental organizations in the filed of culture is still very weak and consequently the participation of civil society in the development of culture, its creation and popularization is very limited. The lack of public debate on the issues related to cultural policy is very bad practice. It is important to create public space for social activities, discussions and presentations whose purpose is to popularize European values. It is worth analyzing the situation in which the sector of non-governmental organizations has been in the last decade. In the 90s of the 20th century it was largely used for political purposes of the government of that time. The previous governments used relations with non-governmental organizations in order to satisfy their ambitions

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

and for political games. After the political changes in 2003, majority of activists of non-governmental organizations in the field of culture were offered jobs in the public sector, which caused problems in the functioning of civil society as it meant restricting of the monitoring of the country’s activity. In my view, exactly this was the reason why so many people took part in anti-government manifestations in November 2007 in Tbilisi. In this way the participants of the manifestations took the matter of defending values of citizens in their own hands, because former activists and leaders of NGOs at that particular moment represented the government (I know from my colleagues that a similar process of replacing officials of the state administration by activists of non-governmental organizations can be also observed in Serbia and it is an effect of a local, peaceful revolution similar to the one in Georgia). Since 2008 a serious step backwards has been taken – the country goes back to the idea of centralization. Municipal and state authorities establish monopolistic institutions centralizing the organization of events and cultural festivals in the whole country, without any negotiations with citizen groups or experts. In my opinion it is a very bad sign of a political and intellectual crisis of the government which follows the path from democracy to totalitarian administration. I am convinced that the pressure on the part of international democratic community has become very important. I think that if any changes leading to a new strategy of cultural policy are to take place, they must be based on decentralization, encouraging distinguished personalities of the world of culture to undertake activities, involvement and participation of citizens, a new generation that understands the questions of freedom of society and culture with respect for others. It may be achieved by supporting and encouraging mutual understanding, multiculturality and cooperation. I think that in order to achieve this goal we have to rely on a new generation which our students represent. In new circumstances it is necessary to keep close contacts with non-governmental organizations or representatives of civil society and with universities or training centres which are a meeting place of students and representatives of young generation. This contact has to be maintained and developed. I am convinced that a new generation, who has an opportunity of cooperation with their neighbours, will achieve more varied, peaceful and creative results in inter-regional cooperation and partnership.

75

lot of intellectuals in the country think that Georgia does not have any clear cultural policy, which to a certain extent is true. Our Ministry of Culture shows the lack of interest in contemporary art, focusing only on traditional forms of artistic and cultural activities, which results in the lack of cultural diversity. We can still observe a strong influence of personal factors at a political level, which means the limitation of the development of democratic values. The sector of non-governmental organizations in the filed of culture is still very weak and consequently the participation of civil society in the development of culture, its creation and popularization is very limited. The lack of public debate on the issues related to cultural policy is very bad practice. It is important to create public space for social activities, discussions and presentations whose purpose is to popularize European values. It is worth analyzing the situation in which the sector of non-governmental organizations has been in the last decade. In the 90s of the 20th century it was largely used for political purposes of the government of that time. The previous governments used relations with non-governmental organizations in order to satisfy their ambitions

A

Weaknesses qualifications a student gains and of curricula of studies. The university has opened an MA studies at the faculty Culture Management and Cultural Policy, and from January 2008 a programme of doctoral studies in the sphere of cultural policy was developed and launched in autumn 2008. Also, a university publishing house created a new unit devoted to culture management and cultural policy and keeps publishing papers concerning this field (also the translated works) and an annual intercultural conference for MA and PhD students is an important aspect of the development of this discipline in our country. Annual interactive training programmes in the field of cultural policy and cultural management conducted by non-governmental organizations with the involvement of local and international experts have become another way of building knowledge. It seems particularly significant that we can observe examples of the transfer of knowledge and know-how to neighbouring countries by means of activities in cultural networks and training programmes such as interactive training programmes offered by SCF Armenia, Azerbaijan and some countries in Asia Minor.

75

and for political games. After the political changes in 2003, majority of activists of non-governmental organizations in the field of culture were offered jobs in the public sector, which caused problems in the functioning of civil society as it meant restricting of the monitoring of the country’s activity. In my view, exactly this was the reason why so many people took part in anti-government manifestations in November 2007 in Tbilisi. In this way the participants of the manifestations took the matter of defending values of citizens in their own hands, because former activists and leaders of NGOs at that particular moment represented the government (I know from my colleagues that a similar process of replacing officials of the state administration by activists of non-governmental organizations can be also observed in Serbia and it is an effect of a local, peaceful revolution similar to the one in Georgia). Since 2008 a serious step backwards has been taken – the country goes back to the idea of centralization. Municipal and state authorities establish monopolistic institutions centralizing the organization of events and cultural festivals in the whole country, without any negotiations with citizen groups or experts. In my opinion it is a very bad sign of a political and intellectual crisis of the government which follows the path from democracy to totalitarian administration. I am convinced that the pressure on the part of international democratic community has become very important. I think that if any changes leading to a new strategy of cultural policy are to take place, they must be based on decentralization, encouraging distinguished personalities of the world of culture to undertake activities, involvement and participation of citizens, a new generation that understands the questions of freedom of society and culture with respect for others. It may be achieved by supporting and encouraging mutual understanding, multiculturality and cooperation. I think that in order to achieve this goal we have to rely on a new generation which our students represent. In new circumstances it is necessary to keep close contacts with non-governmental organizations or representatives of civil society and with universities or training centres which are a meeting place of students and representatives of young generation. This contact has to be maintained and developed. I am convinced that a new generation, who has an opportunity of cooperation with their neighbours, will achieve more varied, peaceful and creative results in inter-regional cooperation and partnership.


Olga Łukowska

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

Art in the Context of Ukrainian Cultural in the Second Half of the 20th Century

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

A

76

This period is presented as a new phenomenon in the life of Ukrainian society. It was characterized by a movement aimed at preservation of national tradition, language and culture restoration in the ideological and aesthetic sense. It was started by the men of letters, among them: W. Symonenko, W. Stus, I. Kostenko, I. Switlycznyj, I. Dziuba, I. Dracz, I. Kałyneć. The movement of the 1960’s generation soon became universal and to a certain degree it triggered future changes in the literary and artistic world of Ukraine. Rapid and unusual development of national art started at the beginning of the 1960’s. The essential fact is, however, that this movement was created on the basis of the role which intelligentsia was supposed to perform in the context of Ukrainian culture, and not all-soviet culture. Although this approach had tragic consequences for many people at the beginning of 1970’s, the influence of the 1960’s generation on further events was enormous. Analyzing the situation of the artistic circles, one should pay attention to the fact that general changes in the art of the Soviet Union (including also Ukrainian SRR) started in the middle of 1950’s, when a new famous act of Central Committee of the Soviet Union Communist Party, titled On removing excessive decorations in design and construction was passed. Formally, this act referred to architecture and construction: it aimed at creating a unique internationalist but at the same time socialist architecture. The buildings were deprived of decorative facades which were full of ornaments and low-reliefs. In general, decorative elements or details were abandoned, and asymmetry was introduced in design. Economy of artistic means – this was the main feature of the “new” style in modern architecture, which replaced the era of over-decoration [Арндт, 1962].

This period is presented as a new phenomenon in the life of Ukrainian society. It was characterized by a movement aimed at preservation of national tradition, language and culture restoration in the ideological and aesthetic sense. It was started by the men of letters, among them: W. Symonenko, W. Stus, I. Kostenko, I. Switlycznyj, I. Dziuba, I. Dracz, I. Kałyneć. The movement of the 1960’s generation soon became universal and to a certain degree it triggered future changes in the literary and artistic world of Ukraine. Rapid and unusual development of national art started at the beginning of the 1960’s. The essential fact is, however, that this movement was created on the basis of the role which intelligentsia was supposed to perform in the context of Ukrainian culture, and not all-soviet culture. Although this approach had tragic consequences for many people at the beginning of 1970’s, the influence of the 1960’s generation on further events was enormous. Analyzing the situation of the artistic circles, one should pay attention to the fact that general changes in the art of the Soviet Union (including also Ukrainian SRR) started in the middle of 1950’s, when a new famous act of Central Committee of the Soviet Union Communist Party, titled On removing excessive decorations in design and construction was passed. Formally, this act referred to architecture and construction: it aimed at creating a unique internationalist but at the same time socialist architecture. The buildings were deprived of decorative facades which were full of ornaments and low-reliefs. In general, decorative elements or details were abandoned, and asymmetry was introduced in design. Economy of artistic means – this was the main feature of the “new” style in modern architecture, which replaced the era of over-decoration [Арндт, 1962].

Dr Olga Łukowska Art historian, lecturer at the Ukrainian Academy Druku in Lvov, deputy director for research and art in the Lvov Palace of Art. She was the scholar of programme the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of Poland “Gaude Polonia” and the Lane Kirkland programme PolishAmerican Freedom Foundation, Fulbright Commission. She is concerned with culture management, modern art, especially artistic fabric.

need for undisturbed transition of thoughts and creative work has always been present in the history of humanity. Therefore, scientists and artists wanted to look at life in a different way and to present their own points of view, which were often contrary to the ones accepted by authorities. There have always been problems with the relations between culture and politics. A vivid example of such misunderstanding is the cultural and political situation in Ukraine, in the second half of the 20th century. At the end of the 1950’s, there appeared a new social and cultural phenomenon, a renaissance of national idea in Ukraine which continued in 1960’s. Today this trend is often called the second Ukrainian national rebirth. Why second? Because it happened after the “annihilated” rebirth of 1920’s and the beginning of 1930’s, when many members of the Ukrainian intelligentsia were removed from public life. It can be said that the entire Ukrainian history consists of such rebirths, which after having been destroyed by the Russian Empire, finally returned in the following centuries. After Stalin’s death on 5th March 1953, the totalitarian system became a bit softer. The “Communist God” could be criticized, so it was possible not to believe in him, either. Was it a weakening of the ideological pressure? On the social and cultural road of communism formation between 1956 and 1964, this phenomenon, which led to a wave of national rebirth, was named “Khrushchev’s thaw.” At that time, the atmosphere of intellectual and cultural opposition to the system appeared among the members of the Ukrainian society. The hope for building“socialism with human face” and the defense of society against arbitrariness of the government, gradually diminished fear and the people started to speak and think more bravely.

need for undisturbed transition of thoughts and creative work has always been present in the history of humanity. Therefore, scientists and artists wanted to look at life in a different way and to present their own points of view, which were often contrary to the ones accepted by authorities. There have always been problems with the relations between culture and politics. A vivid example of such misunderstanding is the cultural and political situation in Ukraine, in the second half of the 20th century. At the end of the 1950’s, there appeared a new social and cultural phenomenon, a renaissance of national idea in Ukraine which continued in 1960’s. Today this trend is often called the second Ukrainian national rebirth. Why second? Because it happened after the “annihilated” rebirth of 1920’s and the beginning of 1930’s, when many members of the Ukrainian intelligentsia were removed from public life. It can be said that the entire Ukrainian history consists of such rebirths, which after having been destroyed by the Russian Empire, finally returned in the following centuries. After Stalin’s death on 5th March 1953, the totalitarian system became a bit softer. The “Communist God” could be criticized, so it was possible not to believe in him, either. Was it a weakening of the ideological pressure? On the social and cultural road of communism formation between 1956 and 1964, this phenomenon, which led to a wave of national rebirth, was named “Khrushchev’s thaw.” At that time, the atmosphere of intellectual and cultural opposition to the system appeared among the members of the Ukrainian society. The hope for building“socialism with human face” and the defense of society against arbitrariness of the government, gradually diminished fear and the people started to speak and think more bravely.

A

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

Dr Olga Łukowska Art historian, lecturer at the Ukrainian Academy Druku in Lvov, deputy director for research and art in the Lvov Palace of Art. She was the scholar of programme the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of Poland “Gaude Polonia” and the Lane Kirkland programme PolishAmerican Freedom Foundation, Fulbright Commission. She is concerned with culture management, modern art, especially artistic fabric.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Olga Łukowska

76

Art in the Context of Ukrainian Cultural in the Second Half of the 20th Century


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Art in the Context of Ukrainian Cultural in the Second Half of the 20th Century

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

artistic magazine which originated in the countries of the, so called, Communist Block (Poland, Czechoslovakia, etc.) appeared in libraries. This generation was educated on such magazines as: “Projekt” (Project), “Sztuka” (Art), “Arta” or “Umění a řemesla”. Due to these publications painters gained information about the popular artistic trends in Europe (amongst others about: the artistic fabric development in Poland and the works of Magdalena Abakanowicz, the appearance of the innovative avant-garde forms of artistic fabric – Art Fabric, Fiber Art in Europe). Relations with Baltic Republics (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia) were also reactivated. These countries shared similar conditions, history and views on modern problems of art with Ukraine [ibidem]. Of course following that direction did not appeal to the tastes of the communist government. Already in 1960 Nikita Khrushchev held widely advertised meetings with culture and art activists, where he had condemned “withdrawal from socialist idealism” and “signs of formalism and abstractionism”. Ignoring that, however, art was developing against the regime. Afraid that this “freedom” of thought and activity can get out of control, Kremlin decided to attack the rebirth movement which developed in the entire Soviet Union. After first political arrests of famous social activists and literary figures it was clear that the regime would not tolerate freethinking. The mass arrests of opposing intelligentsia began. The people were at the crossroads between open defiance of the government and the adaptation strategy. It was implied that “a given form modification of the work of art does not suggest, by all means, that its ideological and thematic direction should be weakened. The method of socialist realism is the only possible manner officially accepted by the artistic circles” [ibidem, p. 75]. Such approach to art cultivated seemingly advantageous idea of peace and inter-nationalism, missing the fact that the well-groomed child becomes increasingly aggressive. Ideological function of culture was reaching absurd levels. The party was constantly supervising both young artists and members of the older generation who were trained in the artistic schools of Paris, Prague and Krakow and who taught their students to look for new forms of artistic expression, which did not apply the principles of social realism. According to M. Ilnyćkyj, it was not a coincidence that the party officials of regional and republic rank liked to visit artists in their studios. Later on, they could give them a “father-like” warning from the high podium or during decision-making meetings against taking wrong paths. They could also an-

Olga Łukowska

artistic magazine which originated in the countries of the, so called, Communist Block (Poland, Czechoslovakia, etc.) appeared in libraries. This generation was educated on such magazines as: “Projekt” (Project), “Sztuka” (Art), “Arta” or “Umění a řemesla”. Due to these publications painters gained information about the popular artistic trends in Europe (amongst others about: the artistic fabric development in Poland and the works of Magdalena Abakanowicz, the appearance of the innovative avant-garde forms of artistic fabric – Art Fabric, Fiber Art in Europe). Relations with Baltic Republics (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia) were also reactivated. These countries shared similar conditions, history and views on modern problems of art with Ukraine [ibidem]. Of course following that direction did not appeal to the tastes of the communist government. Already in 1960 Nikita Khrushchev held widely advertised meetings with culture and art activists, where he had condemned “withdrawal from socialist idealism” and “signs of formalism and abstractionism”. Ignoring that, however, art was developing against the regime. Afraid that this “freedom” of thought and activity can get out of control, Kremlin decided to attack the rebirth movement which developed in the entire Soviet Union. After first political arrests of famous social activists and literary figures it was clear that the regime would not tolerate freethinking. The mass arrests of opposing intelligentsia began. The people were at the crossroads between open defiance of the government and the adaptation strategy. It was implied that “a given form modification of the work of art does not suggest, by all means, that its ideological and thematic direction should be weakened. The method of socialist realism is the only possible manner officially accepted by the artistic circles” [ibidem, p. 75]. Such approach to art cultivated seemingly advantageous idea of peace and inter-nationalism, missing the fact that the well-groomed child becomes increasingly aggressive. Ideological function of culture was reaching absurd levels. The party was constantly supervising both young artists and members of the older generation who were trained in the artistic schools of Paris, Prague and Krakow and who taught their students to look for new forms of artistic expression, which did not apply the principles of social realism. According to M. Ilnyćkyj, it was not a coincidence that the party officials of regional and republic rank liked to visit artists in their studios. Later on, they could give them a “father-like” warning from the high podium or during decision-making meetings against taking wrong paths. They could also an-

Olga Łukowska

Removing over-decoration in architecture directly influenced the entire art of Soviet Russia. The tendency to create simple, monumental forms, was also observed in fine art. Even though the socialist trend was considered the only acceptable direction, in the art of painting there was a departure from detailed naturalistic presentation typical for previous years. New features also appeared in the decorative art. Works of art made of glass, wood and material filled the interiors of collective buildings. Three-dimensional illusive and naturalistic spaces were replaced by pre-arranged surfaces, which were usually twodimensional and matched the idea of architectural cohesion [Савицкая, 1995]. The tendency to remove excessive decoration spread very quickly. Artistic compositions were dominated by natural forms and simple lines – the artists avoided geometrical forms, parallel lines, symmetrical compositions in favor of soft, floating contours or transitions and oval configurations [Голубець, 2001]. It is an obvious fact that at the time artists did not enjoy full freedom of creative thinking and activity, but even an illusion of that freedom was enough to activate creative work: the artists became more inventive, a tendency to produce abstract works appeared in that period. It was the time when Ukrainian artists, such as: J. Beznisko, T. Bryż, O. Załywacha, А. Horyśka, W. Patyk and many others were at the peak of their creativity (A. Horyśka described 1960’s as unique, passionate and idealistic period, when everyone felt united and acted together). The subject of this discussion also requires mentioning the artistic situation of western Ukraine, particularly Lvov. Lvov artistic school has always differed from Kiev (capital city) school especially in fundamental assimilation of aesthetic rules of art. Individual approach and the skill of finding one’s own way were taught there. There was even a concept of “Parisian and Galician schools” which released such outstanding artists of the older generation as: O. Nowakiwśkyj, O. Kulczyćka, J. Muzyka, R. Turyn, M. and R. Selśki, K. Zwiryńśkyj and others. The artists of 1960’s took over their ideas; in the background of the grey ordinary life and primitive ideological dogmas, creative youth (M. Andruszczenko, L. Medwid`, B. Soroka, M. Krystopczuk, I. Marczuk, O. Myńko) gathered around authorities and well-known personas. Geographical location of Lvov was also important for the 1960 – 1970’s generation. There, one could find a source of intellectual inspiration, the basis for tradition and world view, which young artists could draw on and use to adapt formal ideas of the west. During the “thaw”, an

77

Art in the Context of Ukrainian Cultural in the Second Half of the 20th Century

Removing over-decoration in architecture directly influenced the entire art of Soviet Russia. The tendency to create simple, monumental forms, was also observed in fine art. Even though the socialist trend was considered the only acceptable direction, in the art of painting there was a departure from detailed naturalistic presentation typical for previous years. New features also appeared in the decorative art. Works of art made of glass, wood and material filled the interiors of collective buildings. Three-dimensional illusive and naturalistic spaces were replaced by pre-arranged surfaces, which were usually twodimensional and matched the idea of architectural cohesion [Савицкая, 1995]. The tendency to remove excessive decoration spread very quickly. Artistic compositions were dominated by natural forms and simple lines – the artists avoided geometrical forms, parallel lines, symmetrical compositions in favor of soft, floating contours or transitions and oval configurations [Голубець, 2001]. It is an obvious fact that at the time artists did not enjoy full freedom of creative thinking and activity, but even an illusion of that freedom was enough to activate creative work: the artists became more inventive, a tendency to produce abstract works appeared in that period. It was the time when Ukrainian artists, such as: J. Beznisko, T. Bryż, O. Załywacha, А. Horyśka, W. Patyk and many others were at the peak of their creativity (A. Horyśka described 1960’s as unique, passionate and idealistic period, when everyone felt united and acted together). The subject of this discussion also requires mentioning the artistic situation of western Ukraine, particularly Lvov. Lvov artistic school has always differed from Kiev (capital city) school especially in fundamental assimilation of aesthetic rules of art. Individual approach and the skill of finding one’s own way were taught there. There was even a concept of “Parisian and Galician schools” which released such outstanding artists of the older generation as: O. Nowakiwśkyj, O. Kulczyćka, J. Muzyka, R. Turyn, M. and R. Selśki, K. Zwiryńśkyj and others. The artists of 1960’s took over their ideas; in the background of the grey ordinary life and primitive ideological dogmas, creative youth (M. Andruszczenko, L. Medwid`, B. Soroka, M. Krystopczuk, I. Marczuk, O. Myńko) gathered around authorities and well-known personas. Geographical location of Lvov was also important for the 1960 – 1970’s generation. There, one could find a source of intellectual inspiration, the basis for tradition and world view, which young artists could draw on and use to adapt formal ideas of the west. During the “thaw”, an

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over-ideologized, visual artists used fabric, glass, wood and ceramic, they were looking for original and unusual forms to realize their ideas, their visions, inspirations were expressed in an original character and composition of the picture. The period of twenty years after Khrushchev’s (1965–1985) era, was dominated by the deepening Soviet society crisis, which influenced all areas of life – politics, economy, social relations (and undoubtedly the culture as well). The Regime wanted to reinforce empty ideas of “well developed socialist society which is considered a more advanced form of civilization”. Orders for works of art, made by the high rank government officials, were tempting the artists with their high fees and honors. All areas of art were under control. This can be illustrated by the fact that in March 1973, Central Committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union passed an act: On the Literary and Artistic Activity, in which realizations of the party’s ideology was unquestionably demanded. Theatres were not allowed to show plays which would display vices of the existing system. Consequently, Ukrainian theatre was gradually losing its national identity, for example among many children’s theatres in the Ukrainian Republic only Lvov theatre was Ukrainian and all the remaining ones were Russian. In the same period the Ukrainian poetic cinema was established. Its beginnings are connected with such films as: Stone Cross directed by L. Osyka, J. Illenek’s The Well for the Thirsty according to the screenplay by I. Dracz, I. Mykołajczuk’s Babilon 20 or Shadow’s of the Forgotten Ancestors by S. Paradżanow. These works did not have an easy life – they were often assessed for the reaction they caused in government circles and the artistry of actors or directors was ignored. Therefore, many outstanding directors suffered tragic fates. For example, famous director of Armenian origin, S. Paradżanow was sent to prison by the government authorities for his opinions and artistic independence. Finally, in mid 1980’s the repressive measures implemented on him were softened and the artist could continue his work. After his death he was pronounced the last genius of the 20th century cinema. Interest in national music, however, had declined. Wierowka’s Choir, band “Dumka” (dissolved in 1971) and a folk group “Gomin” tried to preserve its tradition. The Ukrainian musicians also fell victims of repression. This situation is best illustrated by the fact that in 1979 an outstanding composer of such songs as Chervona Ruta and Vodogray, W. Ivasyuk died tragically in unclear circumstances.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

nounce strict verdicts condemning the activity of relatively independent artists whose “chase after fashionable inventions led them astray, away from realistic art” [Ільницький, 2002]. The dogma of social realism with its assigned conventions and limitations steered art towards ideological and patriotic subjects, which had to be understood in the only one possible way by everyone without any exceptions. At the time the art of all the nations of USSR was internationalized, which later on was supposed to be used as a basis for Soviet art. The monographs and PhD dissertations prepared at that period spoke about “spiritual unity of brotherly cultures,” and presented similarities between different cultures, devoting special attention to the basic concept of nations’ unification in the spirit of socialism [Яців, 1991]. As the growing demand for party-oriented topics was rousing opposition, and the artistic vocation needed fulfillment, the painters steered away from painting and took up applied decorative art, which was considered inferior. During prestigious exhibitions first position was always granted to the fine arts, which had an ideological role to play. With the applied decorative art, on the other hand, it was easier to conceal one’s own style without the risk of being accused of “formalism”. It was also a form of protest against bringing politics to art. The applied art was based on national tradition. In western Ukraine, for example, it was impossible to get rid of traditional geometric ornaments or non-figurative abstract elements. It was impossible to refer to national art – even artificially – if realistic (figurative) presentation was used. Therefore, it was difficult to require from the artists that they would realistically reconstruct historical and revolutionary events or “achievements” of industrialization. To illustrate it better it is enough to look at the examples of carpets which represent Soviet emblems encircled by garlands of flowers or wooden and ceramic plates depicting political leaders surrounded by Hucul decorations. These objects were not only artificial but also tragicomical. Soviet theoreticians finally decided to resign from their attempts to introduce social realism into the national and decorative art. This weak point of the ideological system made it possible for the painters to develop their creative energy. This process is especially visible while analyzing the works of western Ukraine artists, especially those from Lvov. Using decorative form, painters tried to conceal their search and experiments in the area of composition, they could also distinguish and juxtapose traditions as well as innovative realizations [Голубець, 2001]. At the time when painting, sculpture, graphic arts were

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78

over-ideologized, visual artists used fabric, glass, wood and ceramic, they were looking for original and unusual forms to realize their ideas, their visions, inspirations were expressed in an original character and composition of the picture. The period of twenty years after Khrushchev’s (1965–1985) era, was dominated by the deepening Soviet society crisis, which influenced all areas of life – politics, economy, social relations (and undoubtedly the culture as well). The Regime wanted to reinforce empty ideas of “well developed socialist society which is considered a more advanced form of civilization”. Orders for works of art, made by the high rank government officials, were tempting the artists with their high fees and honors. All areas of art were under control. This can be illustrated by the fact that in March 1973, Central Committee of Communist Party of the Soviet Union passed an act: On the Literary and Artistic Activity, in which realizations of the party’s ideology was unquestionably demanded. Theatres were not allowed to show plays which would display vices of the existing system. Consequently, Ukrainian theatre was gradually losing its national identity, for example among many children’s theatres in the Ukrainian Republic only Lvov theatre was Ukrainian and all the remaining ones were Russian. In the same period the Ukrainian poetic cinema was established. Its beginnings are connected with such films as: Stone Cross directed by L. Osyka, J. Illenek’s The Well for the Thirsty according to the screenplay by I. Dracz, I. Mykołajczuk’s Babilon 20 or Shadow’s of the Forgotten Ancestors by S. Paradżanow. These works did not have an easy life – they were often assessed for the reaction they caused in government circles and the artistry of actors or directors was ignored. Therefore, many outstanding directors suffered tragic fates. For example, famous director of Armenian origin, S. Paradżanow was sent to prison by the government authorities for his opinions and artistic independence. Finally, in mid 1980’s the repressive measures implemented on him were softened and the artist could continue his work. After his death he was pronounced the last genius of the 20th century cinema. Interest in national music, however, had declined. Wierowka’s Choir, band “Dumka” (dissolved in 1971) and a folk group “Gomin” tried to preserve its tradition. The Ukrainian musicians also fell victims of repression. This situation is best illustrated by the fact that in 1979 an outstanding composer of such songs as Chervona Ruta and Vodogray, W. Ivasyuk died tragically in unclear circumstances.

78

nounce strict verdicts condemning the activity of relatively independent artists whose “chase after fashionable inventions led them astray, away from realistic art” [Ільницький, 2002]. The dogma of social realism with its assigned conventions and limitations steered art towards ideological and patriotic subjects, which had to be understood in the only one possible way by everyone without any exceptions. At the time the art of all the nations of USSR was internationalized, which later on was supposed to be used as a basis for Soviet art. The monographs and PhD dissertations prepared at that period spoke about “spiritual unity of brotherly cultures,” and presented similarities between different cultures, devoting special attention to the basic concept of nations’ unification in the spirit of socialism [Яців, 1991]. As the growing demand for party-oriented topics was rousing opposition, and the artistic vocation needed fulfillment, the painters steered away from painting and took up applied decorative art, which was considered inferior. During prestigious exhibitions first position was always granted to the fine arts, which had an ideological role to play. With the applied decorative art, on the other hand, it was easier to conceal one’s own style without the risk of being accused of “formalism”. It was also a form of protest against bringing politics to art. The applied art was based on national tradition. In western Ukraine, for example, it was impossible to get rid of traditional geometric ornaments or non-figurative abstract elements. It was impossible to refer to national art – even artificially – if realistic (figurative) presentation was used. Therefore, it was difficult to require from the artists that they would realistically reconstruct historical and revolutionary events or “achievements” of industrialization. To illustrate it better it is enough to look at the examples of carpets which represent Soviet emblems encircled by garlands of flowers or wooden and ceramic plates depicting political leaders surrounded by Hucul decorations. These objects were not only artificial but also tragicomical. Soviet theoreticians finally decided to resign from their attempts to introduce social realism into the national and decorative art. This weak point of the ideological system made it possible for the painters to develop their creative energy. This process is especially visible while analyzing the works of western Ukraine artists, especially those from Lvov. Using decorative form, painters tried to conceal their search and experiments in the area of composition, they could also distinguish and juxtapose traditions as well as innovative realizations [Голубець, 2001]. At the time when painting, sculpture, graphic arts were


79

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

In 1980’s cultural life was led in quite specific conditions. This period of the, so called, Brezhnev’s standstill was characterized by the total apathy, cynicism and skepticism which influenced even the ideological apparatus of the regime. In this atmosphere – in spite of their ostensible agreement to apply Soviet ideology which punished for adopting “national direction” – the braver artists united in their attempts to introduce national ideas into their works of art. This trend became very important for the spiritual life of the society. And even though the artists could not always present their works, the existence of new quality of creative thinking was priceless. Consequently, though it seemed a bit monotonous, “the standstill period” was the time when the artists strived to define their own creative attitude. International contacts and travels to foreign countries, although closely observed by Moscow, grew in importance, too. Changes which affected Ukrainian society after 1990 were mainly connected with “reorganization”, and then dissolution of USSR and – consequently – regaining independence by Ukraine in 1991. There was another wave of national rebirth at that moment and explicit cultural revival gradually covered the entire country. Complicated political processes which happened all over Ukraine affected all layers of social life. Culture and art gradually steered away from the previous dogma, and finally stopped functioning as a tool for ideological apparatus. Active integration of Ukrainian art and its presence in the world culture started to be easily noticed. According to R. Jaciw, art more deeply entered “the layer of meta-

phorical development” [Яців, 1991]. In that period, Ukraine underwent a complete transformation of aesthetic values based on the changing artistic consciousness which stemmed from a different understanding of art [Чегусова, 2003]. Political and social changes as well as reforms of independent Ukraine had a significant influence on the cultural life. The role of psychological and subjective ingredients considerably increased. People, who underwent aggressive ideologization lost a sense of dignity and they did not know how to express genuine feelings. Officially condemned values (moral, aesthetic, social and economic) returned at that time, reshaping and renewing the spiritual ingredient. In 1990’s the people were “suspended” between two realities: the first one had been shaped in the totalitarian system, the second was formed as an alternative for the first one. Ukrainian culture today is very complex, full of contradictions and polemics, but at the same time it is very dynamic. Often, the changes which are happening today are difficult to assess. The truth is that this is a typical process in Ukrainian circumstances (historical and present ones). It will take some time before historians and culture experts characterize modern Ukrainian art and culture. Their fate depends on us and our society. The words of Ukrainian history classic, I. Krypjakiewicza, sum up the current situation the most accurately: “Our culture hasn’t produced a style, yet. We have many precious features but a great effort is needed before they are combined into harmonious whole” [Яців, 1991].

Literature

Савицкая В. Превращения шпалеры. – М.: Галарт,

Арндт Ю. Новая арх-ра и ее требования// ДИ СССР.

Чегусова З. Трансформація образу в професійному

- №1. – 1962. Голубець М. Між свободою і тоталітаризмом. - Львів. – 2001. Ільницький М. Літературний Львів і шістдесятництво

1995. декоративному мистецтві України 80-90-х рр. ХХ ст. // Наукова збірка “Міст”. – К.: ВХ Студіо, 2003. Яців Р. Ідеали повертайтеся, або ЛКУМ // Мистецькі студії. – №1. – 1991.

// Дзвін.- №10. – 2002.

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// Дзвін.- №10. – 2002. Ільницький М. Літературний Львів і шістдесятництво – 2001. Голубець М. Між свободою і тоталітаризмом. - Львів. - №1. – 1962. Арндт Ю. Новая арх-ра и ее требования// ДИ СССР.

студії. – №1. – 1991. Яців Р. Ідеали повертайтеся, або ЛКУМ // Мистецькі ст. // Наукова збірка “Міст”. – К.: ВХ Студіо, 2003. декоративному мистецтві України 80-90-х рр. ХХ Чегусова З. Трансформація образу в професійному 1995. Савицкая В. Превращения шпалеры. – М.: Галарт,

Literature

phorical development” [Яців, 1991]. In that period, Ukraine underwent a complete transformation of aesthetic values based on the changing artistic consciousness which stemmed from a different understanding of art [Чегусова, 2003]. Political and social changes as well as reforms of independent Ukraine had a significant influence on the cultural life. The role of psychological and subjective ingredients considerably increased. People, who underwent aggressive ideologization lost a sense of dignity and they did not know how to express genuine feelings. Officially condemned values (moral, aesthetic, social and economic) returned at that time, reshaping and renewing the spiritual ingredient. In 1990’s the people were “suspended” between two realities: the first one had been shaped in the totalitarian system, the second was formed as an alternative for the first one. Ukrainian culture today is very complex, full of contradictions and polemics, but at the same time it is very dynamic. Often, the changes which are happening today are difficult to assess. The truth is that this is a typical process in Ukrainian circumstances (historical and present ones). It will take some time before historians and culture experts characterize modern Ukrainian art and culture. Their fate depends on us and our society. The words of Ukrainian history classic, I. Krypjakiewicza, sum up the current situation the most accurately: “Our culture hasn’t produced a style, yet. We have many precious features but a great effort is needed before they are combined into harmonious whole” [Яців, 1991].

In 1980’s cultural life was led in quite specific conditions. This period of the, so called, Brezhnev’s standstill was characterized by the total apathy, cynicism and skepticism which influenced even the ideological apparatus of the regime. In this atmosphere – in spite of their ostensible agreement to apply Soviet ideology which punished for adopting “national direction” – the braver artists united in their attempts to introduce national ideas into their works of art. This trend became very important for the spiritual life of the society. And even though the artists could not always present their works, the existence of new quality of creative thinking was priceless. Consequently, though it seemed a bit monotonous, “the standstill period” was the time when the artists strived to define their own creative attitude. International contacts and travels to foreign countries, although closely observed by Moscow, grew in importance, too. Changes which affected Ukrainian society after 1990 were mainly connected with “reorganization”, and then dissolution of USSR and – consequently – regaining independence by Ukraine in 1991. There was another wave of national rebirth at that moment and explicit cultural revival gradually covered the entire country. Complicated political processes which happened all over Ukraine affected all layers of social life. Culture and art gradually steered away from the previous dogma, and finally stopped functioning as a tool for ideological apparatus. Active integration of Ukrainian art and its presence in the world culture started to be easily noticed. According to R. Jaciw, art more deeply entered “the layer of meta-


Marta Materska–Samek

Translation: Iweta Rene

The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

T

80

he number of local cinemas in Poland, i.e. the cinemas owned by local governments and operating in towns of up to 100 thousand inhabitants, is steadily decreasing [www.stat.gov.pl]. “Tu było kino” (There used to be a cinema here) [http:// www.tubylokino.pl/web/artykul/ksiazka], a project which illustrates this phenomenon in an interesting way, was called by its founders “a project on the demise of small cinemas.” As of today analysts have not seen eye to eye on what this negative tendency may be caused by, although few of them have really looked into the matter. Roger Bennet believes that such unprofitable enterprises suffer from the so-called competitive myopia [Bennet, 2005, pp. 391-401]. Local cinemas belong to the inglorious examples of the problem diagnosed by Bennet and their downfall should be blamed on the lack of both organisational changes and endeavours to adapt to the uprising challenges. In order to fully comprehend these challenges, one needs a detailed analysis of the given environment. The existing knowledge of the cinema market derives mainly from studies on network cinemas. The literature on the management of culture institutions lacks positions dealing with this topic. At the same time such knowledge is crucial because of its application value, not only from the point of view of local communities threatened with being deprived of the access to culture but also from the point of view of local administration whose duty it is to provide such access.

he cinema, created at the end of the 19th century by the Lumiere brothers, belongs to the group of culture industries [Braun, Parker, 1993, p. 155-191], and, at the same time, it is constantly

The characteristic of the cinema industry

T

T

The characteristic of the cinema industry

subject to interventionism and protectionism [Barth, 1998, p. 43]. This characteristic of the market partially explains how Hollywood managed to monopolise not only the internal market but foreign ones as well. The monopolist position of the “dream factory” is a result of the so-called vertical integration of the market, a phenomenon which was analysed in detail by Erwin A. Blackstone and Gary W. Bowman [Blackstone, Bowman, 1999, p. 123-130]. What they point out is that the capital integration of the production-distributionapplication allows for the reduction of the cost of a film ticket for blockbuster movies by almost 30 per cent and results in the number of spectators getting doubled. This is very important when one takes into consideration high production costs and, on the average, very low rate of payoff. When compared to the coherent and well-integrated structures of the USA cinema industry, its European counterpart is very much divided. It is the Hollywood film studios that control the distribution channels and have a considerable share in the global market. According to the 1994 Bridge media report conducted for the Producer Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT) in order to be presented to the Mergers and Monopolies Commission (MMC), this situation constitutes an effective obstacle for other entities to enter the market: the integration of the US majors, combined with their massive share of the exhibition and distribution markets, places insuperable obstacles in the way of new entrants to the markets [PACT/MMC, 1994, p. 49]. Nevertheless, the report did not prove that the majors’ domination on the market breaks the laws of free competition. Hollywood’s domination does not result solely from vertical integration. It is also connected with its control of the technology applied [Robinson, 1996]. According to Robinson, it was Edison, who,

subject to interventionism and protectionism [Barth, 1998, p. 43]. This characteristic of the market partially explains how Hollywood managed to monopolise not only the internal market but foreign ones as well. The monopolist position of the “dream factory” is a result of the so-called vertical integration of the market, a phenomenon which was analysed in detail by Erwin A. Blackstone and Gary W. Bowman [Blackstone, Bowman, 1999, p. 123-130]. What they point out is that the capital integration of the production-distributionapplication allows for the reduction of the cost of a film ticket for blockbuster movies by almost 30 per cent and results in the number of spectators getting doubled. This is very important when one takes into consideration high production costs and, on the average, very low rate of payoff. When compared to the coherent and well-integrated structures of the USA cinema industry, its European counterpart is very much divided. It is the Hollywood film studios that control the distribution channels and have a considerable share in the global market. According to the 1994 Bridge media report conducted for the Producer Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT) in order to be presented to the Mergers and Monopolies Commission (MMC), this situation constitutes an effective obstacle for other entities to enter the market: the integration of the US majors, combined with their massive share of the exhibition and distribution markets, places insuperable obstacles in the way of new entrants to the markets [PACT/MMC, 1994, p. 49]. Nevertheless, the report did not prove that the majors’ domination on the market breaks the laws of free competition. Hollywood’s domination does not result solely from vertical integration. It is also connected with its control of the technology applied [Robinson, 1996]. According to Robinson, it was Edison, who,

Marta Materska-Samek Ph.D. student at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication JU. She compiles the dissertation on local cinemas management. She was the laureate of programme Doctus Malopolska and she was the scholar of Scholarship and Training Fund, Action III – Individual Mobility Grants; she received the grant for research of local cinemas in Norway. She is the specialist of cinema management and implementation of new cinema technique technology and the vice president of Cinema Development Foundation and coordinator of project “Digital Cinema System of Małopolska”.

he number of local cinemas in Poland, i.e. the cinemas owned by local governments and operating in towns of up to 100 thousand inhabitants, is steadily decreasing [www.stat.gov.pl]. “Tu było kino” (There used to be a cinema here) [http:// www.tubylokino.pl/web/artykul/ksiazka], a project which illustrates this phenomenon in an interesting way, was called by its founders “a project on the demise of small cinemas.” As of today analysts have not seen eye to eye on what this negative tendency may be caused by, although few of them have really looked into the matter. Roger Bennet believes that such unprofitable enterprises suffer from the so-called competitive myopia [Bennet, 2005, pp. 391-401]. Local cinemas belong to the inglorious examples of the problem diagnosed by Bennet and their downfall should be blamed on the lack of both organisational changes and endeavours to adapt to the uprising challenges. In order to fully comprehend these challenges, one needs a detailed analysis of the given environment. The existing knowledge of the cinema market derives mainly from studies on network cinemas. The literature on the management of culture institutions lacks positions dealing with this topic. At the same time such knowledge is crucial because of its application value, not only from the point of view of local communities threatened with being deprived of the access to culture but also from the point of view of local administration whose duty it is to provide such access.

he cinema, created at the end of the 19th century by the Lumiere brothers, belongs to the group of culture industries [Braun, Parker, 1993, p. 155-191], and, at the same time, it is constantly

T

Translation: Iweta Rene

Marta Materska-Samek Ph.D. student at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication JU. She compiles the dissertation on local cinemas management. She was the laureate of programme Doctus Malopolska and she was the scholar of Scholarship and Training Fund, Action III – Individual Mobility Grants; she received the grant for research of local cinemas in Norway. She is the specialist of cinema management and implementation of new cinema technique technology and the vice president of Cinema Development Foundation and coordinator of project “Digital Cinema System of Małopolska”.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Marta Materska–Samek

80

The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

The Polish cinema industry

P

olish cinema industry is a reflection of world tendencies. The share of American productions ranges from 75 to 83 per cent of the box-office, depending on a year, while large multiplex net-

1

Modern technologies known as d-cinema consist in using digital projectors, a modern digital sounding system and in replacing the traditional data storage medium, i.e. the 35 mm film, with a file, i.e. a DCP (Digital Cinema Package). The data stored on DCP (pictures, sound and subtitles) must comply with the requirements listed in the “The Specification of D-Cinema System” issued in July 2005 by Digital Cinema Initiatives. D-cinema uses digital projectors instead of analogue ones. Thanks to this technology it is possible to store, transmit and project large files in the very form they were recorded. What is more, there is no risk of the data medium deterioration. The d-cinema chain starts with a film created in d-technology which is followed by its post-production, distribution and finally by the screening performed by means of files instead of the 35mm film stock.

The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway

2

Modern technologies known as d-cinema consist in using digital projectors, a modern digital sounding system and in replacing the traditional data storage medium, i.e. the 35 mm film, with a file, i.e. a DCP (Digital Cinema Package). The data stored on DCP (pictures, sound and subtitles) must comply with the requirements listed in the “The Specification of D-Cinema System” issued in July 2005 by Digital Cinema Initiatives. D-cinema uses digital projectors instead of analogue ones. Thanks to this technology it is possible to store, transmit and project large files in the very form they were recorded. What is more, there is no risk of the data medium deterioration. The d-cinema chain starts with a film created in d-technology which is followed by its post-production, distribution and finally by the screening performed by means of files instead of the 35mm film stock.

1

Translation: Iweta Rene

Translation: Iweta Rene

The notion of a cultural exception is of French origin and is inseparably connected with film industry. France, which witnessed the very first steps of the cinema, has always had artistic aspirations. In the 20s and 30s such artists as Jean Renoir, Rene Clair, Marcel Carne created the legend of the French cinema. At that time the American cinema had solely economic meaning. Due to the outbreak of the Second World War, cinematography existed almost only in the United States where it flourished and expanded so that in the 40s and 50s the annual average amounted to as many as 400 film productions. Once the war ended, France was the first European country to fight the American hegemony by introducing in 1945 a public system of financing and by establishing the exception culturelle [Regourd, 2002].

olish cinema industry is a reflection of world tendencies. The share of American productions ranges from 75 to 83 per cent of the box-office, depending on a year, while large multiplex net-

P

The Polish cinema industry by patenting his inventions and creating in 1909 a structured industry, commonly known as The Trust (The Motion Pictures Patents Company), provoked the development of a cluster, which grew to become the second in the world after Silicon Valley. In opposition to Edison’s trust, ten independent organizations created a coherent front and located their production studios on the hills in California, as this state did not observe Edison’s patent laws. Nowadays, thanks to its majority share, Hollywood controls the format of the distribution and film projection and, at the same time, decides about the introduction of the d-cinema system standard1, the cost of which is most often borne by the cinemas. Until 1947 that is until the creation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the cinema industry was ruled by the principles of free market. Afterwards Hollywood was given special protection rights, which was ascribed to the losses suffered during the second World War and the role the cinema played in the shaping of the civil society [Littman, 1998]. In response to the American policy, the French, under the leadership of Andre Malraux and the inspiration of David Puttnam, gave the European audiovisual industry the status of a cultural exception2. They justified it with the necessity to protect European languages, identity and culture which are disseminated by means of films. When creating the MEDIA Programme, the European Commission defined its aim as enhancing the quality and competitiveness of the audiovisual industry as well as increasing the distribution of European films [Media Programme, 1992, p. 5].

Marta Materska–Samek

works, often closely connected with the higher linkages of the value chain, are in control of the market. According to a report conducted for CF Helios, which is the third biggest multi-theatre cinema operator in Poland, western European cinemas are frequented over twice as often as Polish ones despite the nearly double cost of the tickets. In Poland there are 40 thousand spectators for one screen, while the EU average is 15 thousand, with approximately the same situation across our southern border. A statistic Pole goes to the cinema 0.8 times a year, while the Norwegian rate is over three times higher. The above situation along with data collected over the last few years confirms that Polish cinema market has a lot of potential for development. Since 2000, as a result of investments in multiplex networks, Poland has gained about 160 cinema screens, the present number of which amounts to 980. It is far more than in Finland but four times fewer than in Spain [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/culture/ data/cultural_participation]. All commercial networks operate in cities of at least 100 thousand inhabitants. This leaves four fifths of Poland on the margin [Battek, Materska-Samek, 2008], which results in a glaring disproportion when it comes to cinema offer between metropolises and small towns. Moreover, the majority of Poles living outside the big cities must cover a distance of over 50 km in order to see premiere screenings, which constitutes an effective distance obstacle leading to a very low rate of participation in culture or even to the lack thereof. The fact that the repertoire of traditional cinemas is out-of-date results from their provincial location, which is directly reflected in their profits. Due to business connections and the low level of the proceeds from ticket sale in local cinemas, film distributors decide to make films available to them only when these films no longer attract audiences in big cities that are up to several months

Marta Materska–Samek

81

The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway

by patenting his inventions and creating in 1909 a structured industry, commonly known as The Trust (The Motion Pictures Patents Company), provoked the development of a cluster, which grew to become the second in the world after Silicon Valley. In opposition to Edison’s trust, ten independent organizations created a coherent front and located their production studios on the hills in California, as this state did not observe Edison’s patent laws. Nowadays, thanks to its majority share, Hollywood controls the format of the distribution and film projection and, at the same time, decides about the introduction of the d-cinema system standard1, the cost of which is most often borne by the cinemas. Until 1947 that is until the creation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the cinema industry was ruled by the principles of free market. Afterwards Hollywood was given special protection rights, which was ascribed to the losses suffered during the second World War and the role the cinema played in the shaping of the civil society [Littman, 1998]. In response to the American policy, the French, under the leadership of Andre Malraux and the inspiration of David Puttnam, gave the European audiovisual industry the status of a cultural exception2. They justified it with the necessity to protect European languages, identity and culture which are disseminated by means of films. When creating the MEDIA Programme, the European Commission defined its aim as enhancing the quality and competitiveness of the audiovisual industry as well as increasing the distribution of European films [Media Programme, 1992, p. 5].

2

The notion of a cultural exception is of French origin and is inseparably connected with film industry. France, which witnessed the very first steps of the cinema, has always had artistic aspirations. In the 20s and 30s such artists as Jean Renoir, Rene Clair, Marcel Carne created the legend of the French cinema. At that time the American cinema had solely economic meaning. Due to the outbreak of the Second World War, cinematography existed almost only in the United States where it flourished and expanded so that in the 40s and 50s the annual average amounted to as many as 400 film productions. Once the war ended, France was the first European country to fight the American hegemony by introducing in 1945 a public system of financing and by establishing the exception culturelle [Regourd, 2002].

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works, often closely connected with the higher linkages of the value chain, are in control of the market. According to a report conducted for CF Helios, which is the third biggest multi-theatre cinema operator in Poland, western European cinemas are frequented over twice as often as Polish ones despite the nearly double cost of the tickets. In Poland there are 40 thousand spectators for one screen, while the EU average is 15 thousand, with approximately the same situation across our southern border. A statistic Pole goes to the cinema 0.8 times a year, while the Norwegian rate is over three times higher. The above situation along with data collected over the last few years confirms that Polish cinema market has a lot of potential for development. Since 2000, as a result of investments in multiplex networks, Poland has gained about 160 cinema screens, the present number of which amounts to 980. It is far more than in Finland but four times fewer than in Spain [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/culture/ data/cultural_participation]. All commercial networks operate in cities of at least 100 thousand inhabitants. This leaves four fifths of Poland on the margin [Battek, Materska-Samek, 2008], which results in a glaring disproportion when it comes to cinema offer between metropolises and small towns. Moreover, the majority of Poles living outside the big cities must cover a distance of over 50 km in order to see premiere screenings, which constitutes an effective distance obstacle leading to a very low rate of participation in culture or even to the lack thereof. The fact that the repertoire of traditional cinemas is out-of-date results from their provincial location, which is directly reflected in their profits. Due to business connections and the low level of the proceeds from ticket sale in local cinemas, film distributors decide to make films available to them only when these films no longer attract audiences in big cities that are up to several months


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The digitalization of cinema

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after the premiere. This can lead to the conclusion that running a cinema activity in smaller towns cannot guarantee such a turnover which would ensure a financial payback of such an investment. In such a dramatic situation in which nearly 50 per cent of the citizens are refused access to cinema culture, local governments undertake the task of disseminating culture by organizing local cinemas operating as part of local culture institutions. Unfortunately, these practices are not controlled horizontally and are characterized by a low level of professionalism.

orway has 4.5 million inhabitants and 234 cinemas (440 screens), which puts it on the third place in Europe when it comes to the number of inhabitants for one cinema (11 454). Although the yearly cinema attendance amounts to 12 million, only 15 out of 234 cinemas are able to self-finance [Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008]. Norway is a country with the highest share of local cinemas in the world, as it has only a few commercial cinemas operating in the biggest cities - Oslo and Bergen. Apart from the demographic factor, what also influenced the development of local cinemas in a considerable degree was the introduction, in 1913, of a law, according to which cinema owners were obliged to obtain a license for cinematographic activity from local governments. Several years later local governments decided to create Kommunale Kinematografers Landsorbund, i.e. a national association of local cinemas, which, after many years, was renamed Film&Kino. At present Film&Kino has 149 members, it manages the Norwegian Fund of Cinema and Film, in whose name, in accordance with the Norwegian law, it collects 2.5 per cent of the proceeds from the ticket sale and 3.5 per cent of the video/dvd sale and rental. Compared to such initiatives in other countries, the Norwegian system of local cinemas, in the form of a horizontal network managed by one specialized organization, is quite an extraordinary phenomenon. No other country has developed a model of local cinema management which, drawing on the strategic innovations used in the commercial multiplex networks, does not, at the same time, lose the identity of local cinemas. None of the national film institutes has prepared a transition programme which would help all the cinemas on the market deal with the challenges arising from the technological transformation.

odern technologies known as d-cinema consist in using digital projectors, a modern digital sounding system and in replacing the traditional data storage medium, i.e. the 35 mm film, with a file, i.e. a DCP (Digital Cinema Package). The data stored on DCP (pictures, sound and subtitles) must comply with the requirements listed in the “The Specification of D-Cinema System” [www.dcimovies.com] issued in July 2005 by Digital Cinema Initiatives. DCI is an organization founded in 2002 by seven biggest Hollywood film producers: Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal and Warner Bros. It was created in order to devise universal technological and quality solutions that would allow improving the quality of films, reducing distribution costs and giving the chance of a wider circulation ensuring an easy access to an unlimited number of titles. “The Specification of D-Cinema System” gives precise requirements concerning display resolution, color, compression, file format and safety. It is only providing they have a d-system complying with the DCI specification that cinemas may show Hollywood productions. In d-cinema there is no risk of a deterioration of the data storage medium as roll films have been replaced by files. Thanks to the reduced costs of production and transport, cinemas can count on first-run films, a more interesting repertoire, they can broadcast important cultural, social and sport events and therefore become multimediacultural centres. The d-cinema chain starts with a film created in d-technology which is followed by its post production, distribution and finally by the screening performed by means of files instead of the 35mm film stock. In the future data processed by the distributor will be sent to cinemas via satellite or broadband network. At present it is transmitted by means of physical transport of hard drives. Each of these operations requires specialist equipment. In the process of post-production it is necessary to ensure the storage of files with many versions of the same film, i.e. various soundtracks and subtitles. The distributors must be in possession of special equipment allowing for the compression of the files containing one of the film versions and for sending them through satellite or hard drives to the recipients – the cinemas. The latter, in turn, regardless of the number of seats in the audience, must possess servers with appropriate software and storage facilities. Additionally, it is necessary to ensure an effective and uninterrupted functioning of the cinema in the event of electricity cuts.

The Norwegian local cinemas

N

M

N

odern technologies known as d-cinema consist in using digital projectors, a modern digital sounding system and in replacing the traditional data storage medium, i.e. the 35 mm film, with a file, i.e. a DCP (Digital Cinema Package). The data stored on DCP (pictures, sound and subtitles) must comply with the requirements listed in the “The Specification of D-Cinema System” [www.dcimovies.com] issued in July 2005 by Digital Cinema Initiatives. DCI is an organization founded in 2002 by seven biggest Hollywood film producers: Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal and Warner Bros. It was created in order to devise universal technological and quality solutions that would allow improving the quality of films, reducing distribution costs and giving the chance of a wider circulation ensuring an easy access to an unlimited number of titles. “The Specification of D-Cinema System” gives precise requirements concerning display resolution, color, compression, file format and safety. It is only providing they have a d-system complying with the DCI specification that cinemas may show Hollywood productions. In d-cinema there is no risk of a deterioration of the data storage medium as roll films have been replaced by files. Thanks to the reduced costs of production and transport, cinemas can count on first-run films, a more interesting repertoire, they can broadcast important cultural, social and sport events and therefore become multimediacultural centres. The d-cinema chain starts with a film created in d-technology which is followed by its post production, distribution and finally by the screening performed by means of files instead of the 35mm film stock. In the future data processed by the distributor will be sent to cinemas via satellite or broadband network. At present it is transmitted by means of physical transport of hard drives. Each of these operations requires specialist equipment. In the process of post-production it is necessary to ensure the storage of files with many versions of the same film, i.e. various soundtracks and subtitles. The distributors must be in possession of special equipment allowing for the compression of the files containing one of the film versions and for sending them through satellite or hard drives to the recipients – the cinemas. The latter, in turn, regardless of the number of seats in the audience, must possess servers with appropriate software and storage facilities. Additionally, it is necessary to ensure an effective and uninterrupted functioning of the cinema in the event of electricity cuts.

The Norwegian local cinemas

The digitalization of cinema

orway has 4.5 million inhabitants and 234 cinemas (440 screens), which puts it on the third place in Europe when it comes to the number of inhabitants for one cinema (11 454). Although the yearly cinema attendance amounts to 12 million, only 15 out of 234 cinemas are able to self-finance [Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008]. Norway is a country with the highest share of local cinemas in the world, as it has only a few commercial cinemas operating in the biggest cities - Oslo and Bergen. Apart from the demographic factor, what also influenced the development of local cinemas in a considerable degree was the introduction, in 1913, of a law, according to which cinema owners were obliged to obtain a license for cinematographic activity from local governments. Several years later local governments decided to create Kommunale Kinematografers Landsorbund, i.e. a national association of local cinemas, which, after many years, was renamed Film&Kino. At present Film&Kino has 149 members, it manages the Norwegian Fund of Cinema and Film, in whose name, in accordance with the Norwegian law, it collects 2.5 per cent of the proceeds from the ticket sale and 3.5 per cent of the video/dvd sale and rental. Compared to such initiatives in other countries, the Norwegian system of local cinemas, in the form of a horizontal network managed by one specialized organization, is quite an extraordinary phenomenon. No other country has developed a model of local cinema management which, drawing on the strategic innovations used in the commercial multiplex networks, does not, at the same time, lose the identity of local cinemas. None of the national film institutes has prepared a transition programme which would help all the cinemas on the market deal with the challenges arising from the technological transformation.

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after the premiere. This can lead to the conclusion that running a cinema activity in smaller towns cannot guarantee such a turnover which would ensure a financial payback of such an investment. In such a dramatic situation in which nearly 50 per cent of the citizens are refused access to cinema culture, local governments undertake the task of disseminating culture by organizing local cinemas operating as part of local culture institutions. Unfortunately, these practices are not controlled horizontally and are characterized by a low level of professionalism.


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In order to be able to show 3D films, d-cinemas must have a special system installed. Such a system consists of, among other things, an IR transmitter connected to the projector, special glasses and, depending on the technology applied, an active silver screen. The available systems can be divided into two categories: these requiring the installation of the silver screen and the ones functioning without it. In the latter case, it is the glasses that, by receiving the signal of the IR transmitter and alternately stimulating the right and left eye or filtrating colours, play the role of an activator. Using d-cinema technology and the equipment complying with “the Digital Cinema System Requirements” is an undisputable necessity as American productions constitute over 75 per cent of the cinema repertoire. Adapting local cinemas to digital screenings may be a costly investment, amounting to the gross sum of about 500 thousand zł3, but it is with relatively small financial input that cinemas can offer their audiences 3D screenings4. Not only does it allow the cinema-owners to show productions of higher value added, but also to increase the prices. As it is shown by the box-office, 3D films attract up to four times more spectators than their 2D equivalents [http://www. digitalcinemainfo.com/reald_06_29_09.php ] . The biggest film studios specializing in children productions (Disney, Pixar, DreamWorks) declare that soon all their movies will be made in the 3-dimentional system. When it comes to 3D film projections, the cinema owners are not obliged to respect the requirements of “the Specification”. The choice of the system is strictly related to its price and

compatibility with various servers and projectors. There are several 3D systems, and their most prominent suppliers are RealD, Expand (previously known as Nuvision) and Dolby. The table below shows differences in these systems. Both digitalization and supplying cinemas with the system necessary for 3D projections are great challenges for local cinemas. These innovations constitute a chance to enhance the realization of the mission undertaken by culture institutions, part of which is dedicated to promoting cinematic initiatives. At the same time these innovations pose a threat to the cinematographic activity in its unchanged, traditional form.

The barriers to the development of local cinemas.

ocal cinemas are most often unprofitable objects, co-financed with the organizer’s earmarked subsidy. It is primarily the result of the fact that they are located in towns of up to 100 thousand inhabitants, which by no means guarantees reaching of the break-even point for such an initiative. Financial problems are also caused by difficulties connected with obtaining film copies from distributors, and are frequently reflected in an unattractive, outdated repertoire, lack of sufficient funds for investments in new technologies, lack of funding for advertising and promotion , and, last but not least, in the low standards of buildings and equipment. The financial barrier is, therefore, one of the most important obstacles for the development of local cinemas.

L

Table 1. The Comparison of 3D systems. Nuvison

REAL D

Dolby

Glasses

Every time the glasses must be collected, cleaned and handed out to the audience by the cinema staff.

Disposable glasses, which may be returned or taken as souvenirs.

Every time the glasses must be collected, cleaned and handed out to the audience by the cinema staff.

The cinema system

Requires synchronization of the IR transmitter (software installation).

Requires a Zscreen5 modulator attached to the projector.

Requires a dolby Server.

Screen

Does not require screen replacement

Requires replacement of the screen with the so-called silver screen

Does not require screen replacement

Source: A. Battek, M. Materska-Samek, Studium Wykonalności dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008, p. 33.

3

Data comes from the budget of a project called ”Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych” (Małopolska D-Cinema Network).

4

Approximately 70 thousand zł depending on the type and number of glasses.

5

Z-screen is an additional element attached to the projector lens, which synchronizes polarization for left and right eye.

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Z-screen is an additional element attached to the projector lens, which synchronizes polarization for left and right eye.

5

Approximately 70 thousand zł depending on the type and number of glasses.

4

Data comes from the budget of a project called ”Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych” (Małopolska D-Cinema Network).

3

Source: A. Battek, M. Materska-Samek, Studium Wykonalności dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008, p. 33.

Requires replacement of the screen with the so-called silver screen

Does not require screen replacement

Screen

Requires a Zscreen5 modulator attached to the projector.

Requires synchronization of the IR transmitter (software installation).

The cinema system

Disposable glasses, which may be returned or taken as souvenirs.

Every time the glasses must be collected, cleaned and handed out to the audience by the cinema staff.

Glasses

REAL D

Nuvison

Does not require screen replacement Requires a dolby Server. Every time the glasses must be collected, cleaned and handed out to the audience by the cinema staff. Dolby

Table 1. The Comparison of 3D systems.

In order to be able to show 3D films, d-cinemas must have a special system installed. Such a system consists of, among other things, an IR transmitter connected to the projector, special glasses and, depending on the technology applied, an active silver screen. The available systems can be divided into two categories: these requiring the installation of the silver screen and the ones functioning without it. In the latter case, it is the glasses that, by receiving the signal of the IR transmitter and alternately stimulating the right and left eye or filtrating colours, play the role of an activator. Using d-cinema technology and the equipment complying with “the Digital Cinema System Requirements” is an undisputable necessity as American productions constitute over 75 per cent of the cinema repertoire. Adapting local cinemas to digital screenings may be a costly investment, amounting to the gross sum of about 500 thousand zł3, but it is with relatively small financial input that cinemas can offer their audiences 3D screenings4. Not only does it allow the cinema-owners to show productions of higher value added, but also to increase the prices. As it is shown by the box-office, 3D films attract up to four times more spectators than their 2D equivalents [http://www. digitalcinemainfo.com/reald_06_29_09.php ] . The biggest film studios specializing in children productions (Disney, Pixar, DreamWorks) declare that soon all their movies will be made in the 3-dimentional system. When it comes to 3D film projections, the cinema owners are not obliged to respect the requirements of “the Specification”. The choice of the system is strictly related to its price and

ocal cinemas are most often unprofitable objects, co-financed with the organizer’s earmarked subsidy. It is primarily the result of the fact that they are located in towns of up to 100 thousand inhabitants, which by no means guarantees reaching of the break-even point for such an initiative. Financial problems are also caused by difficulties connected with obtaining film copies from distributors, and are frequently reflected in an unattractive, outdated repertoire, lack of sufficient funds for investments in new technologies, lack of funding for advertising and promotion , and, last but not least, in the low standards of buildings and equipment. The financial barrier is, therefore, one of the most important obstacles for the development of local cinemas.

L

The barriers to the development of local cinemas.

compatibility with various servers and projectors. There are several 3D systems, and their most prominent suppliers are RealD, Expand (previously known as Nuvision) and Dolby. The table below shows differences in these systems. Both digitalization and supplying cinemas with the system necessary for 3D projections are great challenges for local cinemas. These innovations constitute a chance to enhance the realization of the mission undertaken by culture institutions, part of which is dedicated to promoting cinematic initiatives. At the same time these innovations pose a threat to the cinematographic activity in its unchanged, traditional form.


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of Digitalization in its draught version plans to partially cover the cost of the technological transformation of 50 or 70 cinemas. The existing organizations, i.e. the “Polish Cinemas” Association (Stowarzyszenie ,,Kina Polskie”) or Arthouse Cinemas Network (Sieć Kin Studyjnych i Lokalnych) are not able to provide horizontal cooperation. From year to year, the number of local cinemas decreases while commercial cinemas purchase digital projectors and, by doing so, makes the distributors switch into file data carriers instead of the 35 mm films. What follows is the conclusion that not only will the digitalization enable local cinemas to become real art houses and provide local audiences with a new attractive offer (live broadcasts of operas, operettas, ballets, concerts, etc.) but, above all, it will guarantee the continuation of the cinema activity. If local cinemas are to enjoy a stable and sustained development, they must become digital but also interconnected; such a network will cut the cost of the whole process and facilitate an exchange of experience and further obtaining of funds.

It is not a classical VPF (virtual print fee), i.e., in free translation, charge for copy. In short, VPF is about financing the equipment by the film distributors. On delivering the digital copy they cover the price resulting from the difference in the cost of projection by means of the 35 mm film stock and the digital film copy in the given cinema. These charges allow for the repayment of the installments for the financing institution, and in this case towards the credit taken by F&K. It is the F&K that communicates with distributors (in practice directly with Hollywood studios) and negotiates agreements as well as principles of payment collection; in this case considerably reduced because of the 60% own contribution.

Norwegian programme for cinemas

ll the operations connected with the development of local cinemas are coordinated by Film&Kino. One of its biggest projects is the socalled roll-out, which is a programme of digitalization of all cinemas in the country. It was preceded by a very thorough preparation which included a report on the economic and cultural aspects of cinematographic development – Řkonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift [Grefsrud, Vaagland, 2006]. It confirms that active cinemas generate profit for the whole leisure industry in a given town. The report also produced a lot of meaningful arguments for discussion about the roll-out programme. Another example confirming that, by accepting the programme, the Norwegian parliament made a good decision were Film&Kino’s two piloting projects of digitalization which tested the technical aspects as well as the impact of the technology on repertoire changes and the cinemas’ financial profit. Local know-how centres that were created are meant to support the national programme in the future. The pro-

A

A

ll the operations connected with the development of local cinemas are coordinated by Film&Kino. One of its biggest projects is the socalled roll-out, which is a programme of digitalization of all cinemas in the country. It was preceded by a very thorough preparation which included a report on the economic and cultural aspects of cinematographic development – Řkonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift [Grefsrud, Vaagland, 2006]. It confirms that active cinemas generate profit for the whole leisure industry in a given town. The report also produced a lot of meaningful arguments for discussion about the roll-out programme. Another example confirming that, by accepting the programme, the Norwegian parliament made a good decision were Film&Kino’s two piloting projects of digitalization which tested the technical aspects as well as the impact of the technology on repertoire changes and the cinemas’ financial profit. Local know-how centres that were created are meant to support the national programme in the future. The pro-

Another negative factor is the lack of appropriate technical equipment, which would allow to use the cinema for alternative activities. D-cinema system makes it possible to organize interactive workshops, conferences, the so-called question & answer sessions with famous people, 3D projections or transmissions of world cultural events. Still another barrier is posed by the architecture based on one big theatre. As it was analyzed by LeRoy [Le Roy, 2005, p. 97-116], in the 90s commercial cinemas introduced an innovation thanks to which specially designed multi-theatre cinemas minimized the unused space by increasing the ascention of the theatres, special architecture of passageways located in the vicinity of bars, and by combining projection rooms, thanks to which one cinema projector can take care of showing a number of films. Unlike network cinemas, local ones most often have just one big theatre, which, in the case of a cinema using the 35 mm films, impedes the process of obtaining films and the chances for a varied repertoire. In order to achieve proceeds from a film copy in a given period of time, distributors force cinemas to sign the so-called exclusivity agreements which oblige the cinemas to limit their repertoire to one title over the period of two weeks. This barrier could become a blessing once the cinemas are made digital. One big showroom is a perfect place for organizing such special events as transmissions of operas, ballets or concerts which attract wide audiences and require special entourage. The repertoire barrier results from financial factors, i.e. from the costs of 35 mm film. As, thanks to the implementation of d-cinema, the marginal cost of the film copy production is drastically reduced, this obstacle should no longer pose a problem. Nevertheless, due to the present oligopoly of the distributors as well as their very restrictive approach to cinemas, this may be a lengthy process. However, what appears to be the biggest stumbling block for the development of local cinemas in Poland is the lack of system and cooperation among cinemas. Even though among the operational programmes of the Polish Film Institute (Polski Instytut Sztuki Filmowej) there is one dedicated to cinema aid, the height of the financial allocation allows for helping only some chosen cinemas. The National Programme

84

Norwegian programme for cinemas

It is not a classical VPF (virtual print fee), i.e., in free translation, charge for copy. In short, VPF is about financing the equipment by the film distributors. On delivering the digital copy they cover the price resulting from the difference in the cost of projection by means of the 35 mm film stock and the digital film copy in the given cinema. These charges allow for the repayment of the installments for the financing institution, and in this case towards the credit taken by F&K. It is the F&K that communicates with distributors (in practice directly with Hollywood studios) and negotiates agreements as well as principles of payment collection; in this case considerably reduced because of the 60% own contribution.

6

of Digitalization in its draught version plans to partially cover the cost of the technological transformation of 50 or 70 cinemas. The existing organizations, i.e. the “Polish Cinemas” Association (Stowarzyszenie ,,Kina Polskie”) or Arthouse Cinemas Network (Sieć Kin Studyjnych i Lokalnych) are not able to provide horizontal cooperation. From year to year, the number of local cinemas decreases while commercial cinemas purchase digital projectors and, by doing so, makes the distributors switch into file data carriers instead of the 35 mm films. What follows is the conclusion that not only will the digitalization enable local cinemas to become real art houses and provide local audiences with a new attractive offer (live broadcasts of operas, operettas, ballets, concerts, etc.) but, above all, it will guarantee the continuation of the cinema activity. If local cinemas are to enjoy a stable and sustained development, they must become digital but also interconnected; such a network will cut the cost of the whole process and facilitate an exchange of experience and further obtaining of funds.

6

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Another negative factor is the lack of appropriate technical equipment, which would allow to use the cinema for alternative activities. D-cinema system makes it possible to organize interactive workshops, conferences, the so-called question & answer sessions with famous people, 3D projections or transmissions of world cultural events. Still another barrier is posed by the architecture based on one big theatre. As it was analyzed by LeRoy [Le Roy, 2005, p. 97-116], in the 90s commercial cinemas introduced an innovation thanks to which specially designed multi-theatre cinemas minimized the unused space by increasing the ascention of the theatres, special architecture of passageways located in the vicinity of bars, and by combining projection rooms, thanks to which one cinema projector can take care of showing a number of films. Unlike network cinemas, local ones most often have just one big theatre, which, in the case of a cinema using the 35 mm films, impedes the process of obtaining films and the chances for a varied repertoire. In order to achieve proceeds from a film copy in a given period of time, distributors force cinemas to sign the so-called exclusivity agreements which oblige the cinemas to limit their repertoire to one title over the period of two weeks. This barrier could become a blessing once the cinemas are made digital. One big showroom is a perfect place for organizing such special events as transmissions of operas, ballets or concerts which attract wide audiences and require special entourage. The repertoire barrier results from financial factors, i.e. from the costs of 35 mm film. As, thanks to the implementation of d-cinema, the marginal cost of the film copy production is drastically reduced, this obstacle should no longer pose a problem. Nevertheless, due to the present oligopoly of the distributors as well as their very restrictive approach to cinemas, this may be a lengthy process. However, what appears to be the biggest stumbling block for the development of local cinemas in Poland is the lack of system and cooperation among cinemas. Even though among the operational programmes of the Polish Film Institute (Polski Instytut Sztuki Filmowej) there is one dedicated to cinema aid, the height of the financial allocation allows for helping only some chosen cinemas. The National Programme


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gramme itself starts this autumn and, thanks to the resources from the Film&Kino contributions (60%) and proceeds from VPF – visual print free6 (40%), within only a few years all Norwegian cinemas will have the chance to be equipped with state-of-the-art cinema technology. The cost of the project is estimated at 60-70 USD. The Norwegian national project of digitalization is, by all means, an unparalleled achievement on a global scale and a success which deserves all the praise and appreciation. Nevertheless, it is worth noting, that it wouldn’t have been possible had it not been for the systematic work and cooperation with the cinemas over the years. An entity which deserves special attention is the Filmweb. no portal, which came into being in 1997 and by now has become the biggest cultural portal in Norway. It has three servers which are unavailable for the spectators: MM media.film web.no meant for the media and containing materials from all the MM distributors and cinemas, i.e. photos, posters, press-kits, trailers, etc. MM Rapport.filmweb.no for cinemas and managers which contains statistic data from all cinemas, i.e. box-office, attendance, number of tickets for film, for cinema, etc. The programme was introduced on the 1st of January 2009, it is in-

tegrated with the operating systems of ticket sale, works in 99 per cent of the cinemas, is in possession of data as soon as one day after the event. MM ”Kinosonen” – a zone dedicated to cinemas in the form of an advanced CRM system creating the opportunity of text message and email communication with the chosen groups of recipients. The coordination of the development of the whole cinema market is a very difficult task, which is only confirmed by other organizations’ failures in this field and documented by the steadily decreasing number of local cinemas. But the resource base built over almost a century (e.g. by creating tools such as filmweb.no), combined with a high level of professionalism, innovative piloting projects as well as the support of the local governments are the key factors that brought about the success of Film&Kino. These factors constitute one of the conditions for the local cinemas to develop, therefore similar network projects appear in some other countries. However, cinema networks, such as Digital Cinema Buyers Group, Digital Funding Group or other projects are most often regional phenomena and usually they cannot provide the universal access to films and do not succeed in avoiding leaving whole local communities on a cultural margin.

Literature

Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008.

Barth S., “Cultural Protectionism”, World Trade, March 1998. Battek A., Materska-Samek M., Studium Wykonalność dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008. Bennet R., Factors encouraging Competitive Myopia in the Performing Arts Sector: An Empirical Investigation [in:] The service Industries Journal, Vol.25, No. 3, April 2005, pp. 391-401. Blackstone E.A., Bowman G W., Vertical integration in motion pictures. Journal of Communication; Jan99, Vol. 49, Issue 1, p. 123-130. Braun M., Parker L., „Trade in Culture: Consumable

Grefsrud R., Vaagland J., Økonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift, ØF-rapport nr. 10/2006. Le Roy P., Vertus de l’innovation strategique pour les leaders de marche. Revue francaise de gestion, No. 2005/2, n° 155, p. 97-116. Litman, B. R. ‘The Motion Picture Mega-Industry’, Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 1998. MEDIA Programme (1992) European Commission, Brussels. PACT/MMC (1994), ‘Factors Influencing the Production, Supply and Exhibition of Independent Films in the UK Market’ Bridge Media, London. S. Regourd L’Exception culturelle, coll. «Que sais-je?», Paris, 2002.

Product or Cherished Articulation of a Nation’s Soul?”, Denver Journal of International Law, Fall 1993, pp. 155-191.

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155-191. Denver Journal of International Law, Fall 1993, pp. Product or Cherished Articulation of a Nation’s Soul?”, Braun M., Parker L., „Trade in Culture: Consumable Vol. 49, Issue 1, p. 123-130. motion pictures. Journal of Communication; Jan99, Blackstone E.A., Bowman G W., Vertical integration in April 2005, pp. 391-401. tion [in:] The service Industries Journal, Vol.25, No. 3, the Performing Arts Sector: An Empirical InvestigaBennet R., Factors encouraging Competitive Myopia in Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008. dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Battek A., Materska-Samek M., Studium Wykonalność 1998. Barth S., “Cultural Protectionism”, World Trade, March

Paris, 2002. S. Regourd L’Exception culturelle, coll. «Que sais-je?», UK Market’ Bridge Media, London. Supply and Exhibition of Independent Films in the PACT/MMC (1994), ‘Factors Influencing the Production, Brussels. MEDIA Programme (1992) European Commission, and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 1998. Litman, B. R. ‘The Motion Picture Mega-Industry’, Allyn 2005/2, n° 155, p. 97-116. leaders de marche. Revue francaise de gestion, No. Le Roy P., Vertus de l’innovation strategique pour les pekter ved kinodrift, ØF-rapport nr. 10/2006. Grefsrud R., Vaagland J., Økonomiske og kulturelle asFull Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008.

Literature

tegrated with the operating systems of ticket sale, works in 99 per cent of the cinemas, is in possession of data as soon as one day after the event. MM ”Kinosonen” – a zone dedicated to cinemas in the form of an advanced CRM system creating the opportunity of text message and email communication with the chosen groups of recipients. The coordination of the development of the whole cinema market is a very difficult task, which is only confirmed by other organizations’ failures in this field and documented by the steadily decreasing number of local cinemas. But the resource base built over almost a century (e.g. by creating tools such as filmweb.no), combined with a high level of professionalism, innovative piloting projects as well as the support of the local governments are the key factors that brought about the success of Film&Kino. These factors constitute one of the conditions for the local cinemas to develop, therefore similar network projects appear in some other countries. However, cinema networks, such as Digital Cinema Buyers Group, Digital Funding Group or other projects are most often regional phenomena and usually they cannot provide the universal access to films and do not succeed in avoiding leaving whole local communities on a cultural margin.

gramme itself starts this autumn and, thanks to the resources from the Film&Kino contributions (60%) and proceeds from VPF – visual print free6 (40%), within only a few years all Norwegian cinemas will have the chance to be equipped with state-of-the-art cinema technology. The cost of the project is estimated at 60-70 USD. The Norwegian national project of digitalization is, by all means, an unparalleled achievement on a global scale and a success which deserves all the praise and appreciation. Nevertheless, it is worth noting, that it wouldn’t have been possible had it not been for the systematic work and cooperation with the cinemas over the years. An entity which deserves special attention is the Filmweb. no portal, which came into being in 1997 and by now has become the biggest cultural portal in Norway. It has three servers which are unavailable for the spectators: MM media.film web.no meant for the media and containing materials from all the MM distributors and cinemas, i.e. photos, posters, press-kits, trailers, etc. MM Rapport.filmweb.no for cinemas and managers which contains statistic data from all cinemas, i.e. box-office, attendance, number of tickets for film, for cinema, etc. The programme was introduced on the 1st of January 2009, it is in-


Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz

Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Olga Lukovska

86

District, by signing an employment contract. The director may be dismissed from his post before termination of the employment contract based on the conditions provided for in the regulations. In order to realize the main objectives of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts the director: MM is responsible for creation of the internal structure of the institution, defining the principles of their operation and their changing whenever necessary, MM approves the number of posts, hires and dismisses employees in conformity with the regulations, determines the scope of responsibility of the personnel and sets the salaries, MM issues internal regulations, directives and orders, works out and signs agreements and contracts, MM manages the assets and financial means of the Palace of Arts in order to secure realization of the tasks defined in the Articles [Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв]. The scope of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts is very wide. The basic direction and character of activity of the institution is working out the artistic plan based on the target programs, projects and orders. The plan is approved by the Culture Management of the state administration of the Lvov District. Orders from the local and state bodies, special organizations, educational centres and other, are realized based on contracts. The same principles apply to cooperation of the Palace with private persons. An important aspect of activity of the Palace of Arts is organization of international, regional, thematic, group and individual exhibitions of various types of fine art and decorative art (painting, installation, sculpture, ceramics, artistic fabrics, etc.). The Palace organizes also exhibition-fairs, reviews, lectures, symposia, festivals, competitions, workshops and other cultural-artistic events. Numerous conventions, meetings, presentations

A

n important task of the modern generation of Ukrainians is becoming conscious of their national identity and realizing their bonds with culture. The continuous strive for self-improvement and improvement of the environment gives testimony to cultural development of man. Caring for one’s own culture we gain respect and recognition all over the world. Successive promotion of the native culture depends greatly on various centres and institutions which, by their actions, stimulate and shape the national social consciousness. The Lvov Palace of Arts is one of such powerful cultural centres which has played an important role in the cultural life of Lvov and the whole Western Ukraine already for 12 years. The cultural-artistic complex of the Lvov Palace of Arts came into being on initiative and with support of the Association of Artists of Ukraine, as a municipal non-profit cultural institution, functioning based on the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of November 30 1983 (No 517) On organizing and running cultural activity, a decision of the state district administration, and the articles of the Palace. It started to function on August 24, 1996. The principal purpose of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts is creation of conditions for: MM development and promotion of all domains of art, Ukrainian culture and national traditions, MM realization of the creative potential of the artists and promotion of their creations, MM development of the all-Ukrainian and international cultural contacts. The source of income of the organization are donations from the budget, means obtained from realization of paid services, money from sponsors, free contributions and other. The institution is run by a director who is fully responsible for the effects of work of the organization. The director is assigned by the Culture Management of the Lvov

District, by signing an employment contract. The director may be dismissed from his post before termination of the employment contract based on the conditions provided for in the regulations. In order to realize the main objectives of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts the director: MM is responsible for creation of the internal structure of the institution, defining the principles of their operation and their changing whenever necessary, MM approves the number of posts, hires and dismisses employees in conformity with the regulations, determines the scope of responsibility of the personnel and sets the salaries, MM issues internal regulations, directives and orders, works out and signs agreements and contracts, MM manages the assets and financial means of the Palace of Arts in order to secure realization of the tasks defined in the Articles [Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв]. The scope of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts is very wide. The basic direction and character of activity of the institution is working out the artistic plan based on the target programs, projects and orders. The plan is approved by the Culture Management of the state administration of the Lvov District. Orders from the local and state bodies, special organizations, educational centres and other, are realized based on contracts. The same principles apply to cooperation of the Palace with private persons. An important aspect of activity of the Palace of Arts is organization of international, regional, thematic, group and individual exhibitions of various types of fine art and decorative art (painting, installation, sculpture, ceramics, artistic fabrics, etc.). The Palace organizes also exhibition-fairs, reviews, lectures, symposia, festivals, competitions, workshops and other cultural-artistic events. Numerous conventions, meetings, presentations

A

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz

n important task of the modern generation of Ukrainians is becoming conscious of their national identity and realizing their bonds with culture. The continuous strive for self-improvement and improvement of the environment gives testimony to cultural development of man. Caring for one’s own culture we gain respect and recognition all over the world. Successive promotion of the native culture depends greatly on various centres and institutions which, by their actions, stimulate and shape the national social consciousness. The Lvov Palace of Arts is one of such powerful cultural centres which has played an important role in the cultural life of Lvov and the whole Western Ukraine already for 12 years. The cultural-artistic complex of the Lvov Palace of Arts came into being on initiative and with support of the Association of Artists of Ukraine, as a municipal non-profit cultural institution, functioning based on the resolution of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of November 30 1983 (No 517) On organizing and running cultural activity, a decision of the state district administration, and the articles of the Palace. It started to function on August 24, 1996. The principal purpose of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts is creation of conditions for: MM development and promotion of all domains of art, Ukrainian culture and national traditions, MM realization of the creative potential of the artists and promotion of their creations, MM development of the all-Ukrainian and international cultural contacts. The source of income of the organization are donations from the budget, means obtained from realization of paid services, money from sponsors, free contributions and other. The institution is run by a director who is fully responsible for the effects of work of the organization. The director is assigned by the Culture Management of the Lvov

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Olga Lukovska

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Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz

Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz

Autumn Art Salon „High Castle”, which expands every year. In the contemporary cultural-artistic life of the city, the Autumn Salon already became a tradition. The main objective of the event is: MM promotion of the modern Ukrainian art and stimulation of the artistic environment of Lvov and the region, MM presentation of the output of artists representing various generations, styles, directions, which reflect the contemporary reality, MM supporting interest in art displayed by the state and the business circles, attracting donators and sponsors, MM stimulation and development of all-Ukraine and international artistic ties. Every year the Lvov Autumn Salon attracts renowned artists and the talented youth from Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Germany and Spain, Italy and other countries. Among foreign participants of the vernissage there are artists who display their works regularly. The event is an opportunity to get to know the artistic trends in the contemporary European art [Луковська, 2006; Луковська 2005]. Other annual exhibitions similar to the idea of the Salon, present various domains of art illustrating the whole spectrum of artistic exploration. Such events let the public interested in art admire its achievements on a yearly basis. For the historians of art they are an opportunity to study new ideas and directions of artistic creation of the artists, thus they constitute an object for research, critical analysis, and discourse on positive and negative tendencies in modern art. Some of the events and exhibitions taking place in the Palace of Arts, are all the more important as they have no alternative in Western Ukraine. Nevertheless, there are many problems connected with their organization. Lack of proper financing is the main obstacle hindering full development of activity of the centre. Due to insufficient funds it is impossible to create a collection of contemporary art, to establish a universal computerized database describing new ideas in the Ukrainian art and listing theoretical debates on art. There are no financial means to sustain the artistic library, to print advertisements, to edit catalogues, guidebooks, or to organize presentations. The continuous problem is lack of space and technical resources for proper exhibiting and storing the objects of art. Another noticeable problem is absence of professional management of art. Exchange of specialists and training of the Ukrainian personnel abroad are indispensable for maintaining contacts and gaining experience. The guarantee of success is financing connected with experience and high qualifications.

Olga Lukovska

Autumn Art Salon „High Castle”, which expands every year. In the contemporary cultural-artistic life of the city, the Autumn Salon already became a tradition. The main objective of the event is: MM promotion of the modern Ukrainian art and stimulation of the artistic environment of Lvov and the region, MM presentation of the output of artists representing various generations, styles, directions, which reflect the contemporary reality, MM supporting interest in art displayed by the state and the business circles, attracting donators and sponsors, MM stimulation and development of all-Ukraine and international artistic ties. Every year the Lvov Autumn Salon attracts renowned artists and the talented youth from Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Germany and Spain, Italy and other countries. Among foreign participants of the vernissage there are artists who display their works regularly. The event is an opportunity to get to know the artistic trends in the contemporary European art [Луковська, 2006; Луковська 2005]. Other annual exhibitions similar to the idea of the Salon, present various domains of art illustrating the whole spectrum of artistic exploration. Such events let the public interested in art admire its achievements on a yearly basis. For the historians of art they are an opportunity to study new ideas and directions of artistic creation of the artists, thus they constitute an object for research, critical analysis, and discourse on positive and negative tendencies in modern art. Some of the events and exhibitions taking place in the Palace of Arts, are all the more important as they have no alternative in Western Ukraine. Nevertheless, there are many problems connected with their organization. Lack of proper financing is the main obstacle hindering full development of activity of the centre. Due to insufficient funds it is impossible to create a collection of contemporary art, to establish a universal computerized database describing new ideas in the Ukrainian art and listing theoretical debates on art. There are no financial means to sustain the artistic library, to print advertisements, to edit catalogues, guidebooks, or to organize presentations. The continuous problem is lack of space and technical resources for proper exhibiting and storing the objects of art. Another noticeable problem is absence of professional management of art. Exchange of specialists and training of the Ukrainian personnel abroad are indispensable for maintaining contacts and gaining experience. The guarantee of success is financing connected with experience and high qualifications.

Olga Lukovska

and conferences taking place in the Palace, bring together various strata of the new Ukrainian society – activists of culture and science, artists, businessmen, politicians [Луковська, 2007]. The artistic activity focuses on stimulating cultural exchange, i.e. cooperation between artists, artistic unions, associations and organizations. During the exhibitions and various events realized in the Palace of Arts within the last 12 years, the art admirers had an opportunity to see a panorama of artistic ideas and phenomena, and get acquainted with the greatest achievements of the promoters of the Ukrainian culture including many outstanding and well-known artists. It is enough to remind the jubilee vernissages of the renown Lvov painters Z. Kecal, K. Kachanov, W. Patyk or exhibitions of the masterpieces of the Ukrainian graphic artists G. Yakutovich, S. Yakutovich, N. Hasevich, I. Ostafyychuk and many others. Since 2004, the exhibition space has included a common room–museum of Taras Shevchenko, a Ukrainian painter and poet. The cores of the collection are the masterpieces created during the wandering of the Ukrainian genius (across Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia). The museum boasts also several dozens of works by Lvov painters, and is supported by a library comprising a variety of materials devoted to the poetic and artistic output of T. Shevchenko. One more domain of activity of the Palace which particularly today focuses attention of the public is integration with the European artistic world. The administration of the Palace of Arts continues to establish and maintain relations with foreign galleries, embassies, artistic schools and individuals from abroad. Unfortunately, due to many reasons, the international cooperation with foreign partners in the artistic-cultural sphere is limited. Although some international exhibitions and international projects have taken place in the Palace, the cooperation is not of a systematic character. Within the 12 years of functioning of the Palace of Arts, the undertakings which distinguished themselves were thematic events and exhibitions, which turned later into regular cycles, recognized all over Ukraine and attracting many enthusiasts of fine arts. In particular these include: the annual exhibition of painting of the members of the Lvov Association of Painters “Spring”, the international artistic competitions for children, the annual exhibitions and workshops devoted to T. Shevchenko, Lvov Autumn Art Salon “High Castle”, and the artistic-cultural actions aimed at sustaining the Ukrainian national traditions (“Apple Christmas Tree for Jordan”, “Easter Egg”). A curiosity and a showcase of the Palace is the annual international exhibition-competition Lvov

87

Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts

and conferences taking place in the Palace, bring together various strata of the new Ukrainian society – activists of culture and science, artists, businessmen, politicians [Луковська, 2007]. The artistic activity focuses on stimulating cultural exchange, i.e. cooperation between artists, artistic unions, associations and organizations. During the exhibitions and various events realized in the Palace of Arts within the last 12 years, the art admirers had an opportunity to see a panorama of artistic ideas and phenomena, and get acquainted with the greatest achievements of the promoters of the Ukrainian culture including many outstanding and well-known artists. It is enough to remind the jubilee vernissages of the renown Lvov painters Z. Kecal, K. Kachanov, W. Patyk or exhibitions of the masterpieces of the Ukrainian graphic artists G. Yakutovich, S. Yakutovich, N. Hasevich, I. Ostafyychuk and many others. Since 2004, the exhibition space has included a common room–museum of Taras Shevchenko, a Ukrainian painter and poet. The cores of the collection are the masterpieces created during the wandering of the Ukrainian genius (across Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Latvia). The museum boasts also several dozens of works by Lvov painters, and is supported by a library comprising a variety of materials devoted to the poetic and artistic output of T. Shevchenko. One more domain of activity of the Palace which particularly today focuses attention of the public is integration with the European artistic world. The administration of the Palace of Arts continues to establish and maintain relations with foreign galleries, embassies, artistic schools and individuals from abroad. Unfortunately, due to many reasons, the international cooperation with foreign partners in the artistic-cultural sphere is limited. Although some international exhibitions and international projects have taken place in the Palace, the cooperation is not of a systematic character. Within the 12 years of functioning of the Palace of Arts, the undertakings which distinguished themselves were thematic events and exhibitions, which turned later into regular cycles, recognized all over Ukraine and attracting many enthusiasts of fine arts. In particular these include: the annual exhibition of painting of the members of the Lvov Association of Painters “Spring”, the international artistic competitions for children, the annual exhibitions and workshops devoted to T. Shevchenko, Lvov Autumn Art Salon “High Castle”, and the artistic-cultural actions aimed at sustaining the Ukrainian national traditions (“Apple Christmas Tree for Jordan”, “Easter Egg”). A curiosity and a showcase of the Palace is the annual international exhibition-competition Lvov

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

87


88

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Каталог виставки. – 2005. Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв.

Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв. Каталог виставки. – 2005. Луковська О. Осінній Салон “Високий Замок - 2007”. – 2006. Замок – 2006”. 10 років. Каталог виставки. Луковська О. Львівський Осінній Салон “Високий 88

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Literature

– 2007. – № 2 (11).

Луковська О. Осінній Салон “Високий Замок - 2007”.

Луковська O. Львівський Палац мистецтв у

громадськими організаціями) // Голос Українки.

– 2006.

культурному просторі Львова (співпраця з

культурному просторі Львова (співпраця з

Замок – 2006”. 10 років. Каталог виставки.

громадськими організаціями) // Голос Українки.

Луковська O. Львівський Палац мистецтв у

Луковська О. Львівський Осінній Салон “Високий

– 2007. – № 2 (11).

Literature


89

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

A need for auto-criticism in management sciences. (Review: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemology in management sciences” Polish Economic Publishing House, Warsaw 2005) Michał Zawadzki

M

anagement sciences deal with fundamental issues of epistemological nature. The fact that there are no criteria which would help to distinguish scientific knowledge from the common sense knowledge is not a unique pathology, but the most serious one. However, the epistemological deficiency of management sciences is not only hardly noticed but also rarely seriously considered. Professor Łukasz Sułkowski is a notable exception here. In his book he has convincingly presented an instant need to constitute permanent processes of auto-reflection and auto-criticism in reference to management sciences. These processes are required not only by management as a science but also by management as a cultural phenomenon which determines the quality and functioning of the reality in which we live in. In the book the dissertation has been presented according to the epistemological dilemma: should management sciences be discussed as part of paradigmatic area which is characteristic for sciences (neo-positivism, economism) or rather as part of liberal arts (interpretative and hermeneutic trend). In fact, presenting management against this dualism constitutes fundamental value because it questions a common belief that this science should be placed in the overeconomised, scientistic paradigm, which, by the way, is very convenient for researchers. The author claims that “neo-positivist view of management, however criticized, is still deeply set in minds of manage-

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

ment specialists and researchers. It is often seen as a common-sense vision of the discussed discipline, which does not lead to uncomfortable questions concerning cognitive basis” (page 60). This pathological state of inertia while reflecting on management sciences is usually based on a very convenient belief that the knowledge derived from this science has a rationally universalized character of an Objective Truth, and as such, the knowledge and the cognitive processes leading to accumulation of this knowledge should be free from passing judgment. Therefore, the followers of this ideology (and there are many of them) believe that the accuracy and compatibility of the knowledge they have stored up does not have to be constantly checked by constructive critical thinking. Professor Sułkowski, using the critical trend of science philosophy, manages to deconstruct this naive prejudice. He shows that the process of knowledge acquisition and the knowledge itself are always linked to the social and cultural context. Knowledge is never accumulated in axiological void. It is always based on certain prescriptive norms which prevent it from being treated as some universal and rational Truth. In other words, during research, the social and cultural context which determines a knowledge acquisition process prevents access to the reality as such because while exploring this reality at the same time we change and distort it. Consequently,

89

Michał Zawadzki Graduated from Sociology and Philosophy at the Mikołaj Kopernik University in Toruń, Ph.D. student at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication JU. He is concerned with the strategies of yourself and culture management in context of instrumental rationality and cynical intellect. Additionally, he uses tracks from literary works. He is fascinated with the Hermann Hesse’s prose. Drummer.

anagement sciences deal with fundamental issues of epistemological nature. The fact that there are no criteria which would help to distinguish scientific knowledge from the common sense knowledge is not a unique pathology, but the most serious one. However, the epistemological deficiency of management sciences is not only hardly noticed but also rarely seriously considered. Professor Łukasz Sułkowski is a notable exception here. In his book he has convincingly presented an instant need to constitute permanent processes of auto-reflection and auto-criticism in reference to management sciences. These processes are required not only by management as a science but also by management as a cultural phenomenon which determines the quality and functioning of the reality in which we live in. In the book the dissertation has been presented according to the epistemological dilemma: should management sciences be discussed as part of paradigmatic area which is characteristic for sciences (neo-positivism, economism) or rather as part of liberal arts (interpretative and hermeneutic trend). In fact, presenting management against this dualism constitutes fundamental value because it questions a common belief that this science should be placed in the overeconomised, scientistic paradigm, which, by the way, is very convenient for researchers. The author claims that “neo-positivist view of management, however criticized, is still deeply set in minds of manage-

M

Michał Zawadzki

ment specialists and researchers. It is often seen as a common-sense vision of the discussed discipline, which does not lead to uncomfortable questions concerning cognitive basis” (page 60). This pathological state of inertia while reflecting on management sciences is usually based on a very convenient belief that the knowledge derived from this science has a rationally universalized character of an Objective Truth, and as such, the knowledge and the cognitive processes leading to accumulation of this knowledge should be free from passing judgment. Therefore, the followers of this ideology (and there are many of them) believe that the accuracy and compatibility of the knowledge they have stored up does not have to be constantly checked by constructive critical thinking. Professor Sułkowski, using the critical trend of science philosophy, manages to deconstruct this naive prejudice. He shows that the process of knowledge acquisition and the knowledge itself are always linked to the social and cultural context. Knowledge is never accumulated in axiological void. It is always based on certain prescriptive norms which prevent it from being treated as some universal and rational Truth. In other words, during research, the social and cultural context which determines a knowledge acquisition process prevents access to the reality as such because while exploring this reality at the same time we change and distort it. Consequently,

Translation: Ewa Gabryś

A need for auto-criticism in management sciences. (Review: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemology in management sciences” Polish Economic Publishing House, Warsaw 2005)

Michał Zawadzki Graduated from Sociology and Philosophy at the Mikołaj Kopernik University in Toruń, Ph.D. student at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication JU. He is concerned with the strategies of yourself and culture management in context of instrumental rationality and cynical intellect. Additionally, he uses tracks from literary works. He is fascinated with the Hermann Hesse’s prose. Drummer.


90

hard not to agree with the author that “the shock of auto-criticism is necessary for management because it may lead to creating criteria of valuable knowledge, which would help to distinguishing between cognition and ‘cognitive deviousness.’ Increasing number of management guides full of pseudo theories, ‘golden means,’ ‘universal truths’ make the discussed discipline seem ostensible. There is also an impression that commercial value is more important for management than cognitive aspects” (page 16). Such criteria of valuable knowledge would (at least to some extend) eliminate the, so called, shamans and gurus of management, who sell useless, but nicely packed theories (which seem scientific and objective), making use of the fact that knowledge is involved in the mass market of intellectual achievements. The point is that we should not only keep an eye on the authors of fashionable guidebooks which describe “wonder diets” of management but we should also be critical towards concepts of immune authorities (the author is critical even towards Peter Drucker and claims that the discursive analysis of his texts shows naive and deeply rooted, subconscious belief that “mission and legitimization of managers’ power leads to a better world” (page 47). In other words, the fact that a concept is popular or widely accepted, and belongs to a person who has a high academic or manager position does not guarantee that it does not contain any “fashionable rubbish” which far too easily attracts the others. Furthermore, symbolic authorities who act in the interest of influential social groups or institutions should be exposed. A sort of paradox is the activity of consulting companies, which use mass media and social engineering to present useless concepts of management (developed in academic institutions) as valuable and practical ones. The advertised concepts are described to public opinion as a guarantee for an organization’s success, whereas valuable and diligent management theories can only modestly increase its likelihood – of course in the situation that they are not mindlessly accepted and enforced by their supporters. Critical analysis of academic institutions also seems important in this context. These bodies have symbolic authority because they create the curriculum, research programmes and sci-

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

“management sciences do not only describe reality but they also actively co-create it. Therefore, they are both cognitive and creative. They are science and art” (page 7). The author convincingly shows what are the consequences (for considering and developing management sciences) of the dual hermeneutics of these sciences. Predominantly, while analyzing trends characteristic for management sciences, the author fluctuates between neopositivist perspective, interpretative trend and post-modernist perspective proving that these sciences have a multi-paradigm nature. It is worth pointing out here that the tables prepared mainly by the author himself contain data which show differences between these trends. Due to this multi-paradigm nature hermeticism of management sciences in only one epistemological approach is not legitimate as currently such approach in a form of neo-positivist economism stops development of the discipline. This is connected with an illegitimate division, still present in the consciousness of the management specialists, into a “tough”, “scientific” management which fulfils postulates based on economic and neo-positivist assumptions and a “soft” management based on humane paradigm, considered to be unscientific. According to the author “Critical judgement of the academic achievements with the use of cognitive perspectives belonging to different sciences should be more important than setting restrictive boundaries” (page 38). Therefore, management, instead of strict demarcation from other disciplines, should become a science open to achievements of other disciplines, especially humane ones, so that the concepts and opinions concerning management sciences could be exchanged1. Such approach would trigger cognitive process, ideas characteristic for different epistemological areas would clash and management would gain permanent auto-reflection and auto-criticism. Getting rid of convenient neo-positivism, connected with lack of passing judgment, and using double hermeneutics of management sciences instead, which determine a need of being open to many disciplines, would not only put management under self-criticism but also under social and ethical pressure. Professor Sułkowski is convinced that this is a necessary process. It is

90

It should be noted that in Poland Professor Emil Orzechowski initiated the idea of crossing discipline boundaries in management sciences. For many years he has called up to “dis-economise” management and adopt humane perspective with its openness to the achievements of other sciences (see, for example, Orzechowski Arte et Ratione [in:] Monika Jaworska-Witkowska (ed.), Jaka kultura? Jaki dyskurs? Sfera publiczna a spory o edukację, pedagogikę i zarządzanie, Szczecin: „Pedagogium”, Wyd. OR TWP, 2008, pp. 117-132).

It should be noted that in Poland Professor Emil Orzechowski initiated the idea of crossing discipline boundaries in management sciences. For many years he has called up to “dis-economise” management and adopt humane perspective with its openness to the achievements of other sciences (see, for example, Orzechowski Arte et Ratione [in:] Monika Jaworska-Witkowska (ed.), Jaka kultura? Jaki dyskurs? Sfera publiczna a spory o edukację, pedagogikę i zarządzanie, Szczecin: „Pedagogium”, Wyd. OR TWP, 2008, pp. 117-132).

1

hard not to agree with the author that “the shock of auto-criticism is necessary for management because it may lead to creating criteria of valuable knowledge, which would help to distinguishing between cognition and ‘cognitive deviousness.’ Increasing number of management guides full of pseudo theories, ‘golden means,’ ‘universal truths’ make the discussed discipline seem ostensible. There is also an impression that commercial value is more important for management than cognitive aspects” (page 16). Such criteria of valuable knowledge would (at least to some extend) eliminate the, so called, shamans and gurus of management, who sell useless, but nicely packed theories (which seem scientific and objective), making use of the fact that knowledge is involved in the mass market of intellectual achievements. The point is that we should not only keep an eye on the authors of fashionable guidebooks which describe “wonder diets” of management but we should also be critical towards concepts of immune authorities (the author is critical even towards Peter Drucker and claims that the discursive analysis of his texts shows naive and deeply rooted, subconscious belief that “mission and legitimization of managers’ power leads to a better world” (page 47). In other words, the fact that a concept is popular or widely accepted, and belongs to a person who has a high academic or manager position does not guarantee that it does not contain any “fashionable rubbish” which far too easily attracts the others. Furthermore, symbolic authorities who act in the interest of influential social groups or institutions should be exposed. A sort of paradox is the activity of consulting companies, which use mass media and social engineering to present useless concepts of management (developed in academic institutions) as valuable and practical ones. The advertised concepts are described to public opinion as a guarantee for an organization’s success, whereas valuable and diligent management theories can only modestly increase its likelihood – of course in the situation that they are not mindlessly accepted and enforced by their supporters. Critical analysis of academic institutions also seems important in this context. These bodies have symbolic authority because they create the curriculum, research programmes and sci-

1

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

“management sciences do not only describe reality but they also actively co-create it. Therefore, they are both cognitive and creative. They are science and art” (page 7). The author convincingly shows what are the consequences (for considering and developing management sciences) of the dual hermeneutics of these sciences. Predominantly, while analyzing trends characteristic for management sciences, the author fluctuates between neopositivist perspective, interpretative trend and post-modernist perspective proving that these sciences have a multi-paradigm nature. It is worth pointing out here that the tables prepared mainly by the author himself contain data which show differences between these trends. Due to this multi-paradigm nature hermeticism of management sciences in only one epistemological approach is not legitimate as currently such approach in a form of neo-positivist economism stops development of the discipline. This is connected with an illegitimate division, still present in the consciousness of the management specialists, into a “tough”, “scientific” management which fulfils postulates based on economic and neo-positivist assumptions and a “soft” management based on humane paradigm, considered to be unscientific. According to the author “Critical judgement of the academic achievements with the use of cognitive perspectives belonging to different sciences should be more important than setting restrictive boundaries” (page 38). Therefore, management, instead of strict demarcation from other disciplines, should become a science open to achievements of other disciplines, especially humane ones, so that the concepts and opinions concerning management sciences could be exchanged1. Such approach would trigger cognitive process, ideas characteristic for different epistemological areas would clash and management would gain permanent auto-reflection and auto-criticism. Getting rid of convenient neo-positivism, connected with lack of passing judgment, and using double hermeneutics of management sciences instead, which determine a need of being open to many disciplines, would not only put management under self-criticism but also under social and ethical pressure. Professor Sułkowski is convinced that this is a necessary process. It is


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

entific norms. We should reflect, for example, on academic environment, which uses its social prestige of knowledge considered to be scientific one to “create demand for its own achievements and in consequence for its own social meaning and authority. It would be a very interesting analysis to check to what extend discourses developed within management try to involve the biggest number of problems, proving, at the same time, their own meaning”(page 96). Another problem that needs to be exposed and solved is the management jargon. Quite often complicated scientific terminology is used to produce worthless theories, which serve only to the advantage of their authors. Moreover, management sciences, especially in Poland, are prone to old-boyism. The fact that many people simultaneously perform the roles of theoryformulating scientists, experts in an organization and businessmen, may often lead to forming a clique which is only aimed at gaining personal advantage. Consequently, the achievements are less diligently checked. Finally, in his book, professor Sułkowski emphasizes that management influences the directions of organizational changes. Consequently, it constitutes an enormous ideological tool which lets its users manipulate the society. Therefore, for the sake of each member of this society, great attention should be paid to the value of the achievements reached in this field and the diligence of their authors. An effective tool which could expose business behind the work of management practitioners and theoreticians is, according to the author, theoretical apparatus developed by means of, so called, strong knowledge sociology. If treated as a method of critical analysis, the apparatus would help to effectively deconstruct management sciences releasing them from various influences which are destructive both for the achievements and the society. In other words, the professor emphasizes that management sciences should not be devaluated or destroyed but they should permanently undergo critical auto-analysis, which would make management a full and undisturbed auto-reflection of society. The list of necessary changes which should be introduced as a result of the social and cultural context of management sciences is really long. The author, for example, claims that the methodology should be released from neo-positivist and scientistic tendencies. A naive belief of

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Polish management specialists in undisputed research value of quantitative method, which often results in survey-mania, ends up in worthless achievements. Repeating the same convenient schemes and ignoring hidden aspects of areas under research do not lead to development but to its hampering. Therefore, the author claims that management specialists should open to qualitative methods, including text analysis and metaphors use, which “are something more than just rhetorical embellishments. They are deeply set in experience, constitute a type of framework for our understanding of the world and form basic cognitive categories” (page 122). Perhaps, as the author suggests, an eclectic attitude, which involves creative linking of various complementary methods characteristic for different disciplines, would be a good methodological solution. Professor Sułkowski’s book is a real sensation among the other publications concerning management. It is difficult to discuss, even in small detail, all the research trails presented in this book. Here, I have concentrated on trails concerning critical perspective, which is a kind of novelty in the world of management sciences. The discussed book, however, can be analyzed from other perspectives, as well. It can, or even should be, treated as a valuable textbook both for students and experienced management or academic personnel, as it contains a list of basic epistemological currents present in management sciences together with their wonderful review. Professor Sułkowski has tackled a very difficult issue which requires not only cognitive bravery, but probably also civil one because the arguments he puts forward are not convenient for the community of management practitioners and theoreticians, which he is a part of himself. The fact remains, however, that only such critical and brave publications can bring something new to the reflection over the condition of management sciences. Apart from the book’s content, which is incredibly attractive, its bibliographical aspect is also very valuable. The author has based his arguments on a gigantic Polish and foreign bibliography, as a result further individual research on the same topic is much easier. The topic which has briefly been discussed here should undergo further exploration if the management sciences are to be released from the state comparable to shaman tribe medicine or show business.

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entific norms. We should reflect, for example, on academic environment, which uses its social prestige of knowledge considered to be scientific one to “create demand for its own achievements and in consequence for its own social meaning and authority. It would be a very interesting analysis to check to what extend discourses developed within management try to involve the biggest number of problems, proving, at the same time, their own meaning”(page 96). Another problem that needs to be exposed and solved is the management jargon. Quite often complicated scientific terminology is used to produce worthless theories, which serve only to the advantage of their authors. Moreover, management sciences, especially in Poland, are prone to old-boyism. The fact that many people simultaneously perform the roles of theoryformulating scientists, experts in an organization and businessmen, may often lead to forming a clique which is only aimed at gaining personal advantage. Consequently, the achievements are less diligently checked. Finally, in his book, professor Sułkowski emphasizes that management influences the directions of organizational changes. Consequently, it constitutes an enormous ideological tool which lets its users manipulate the society. Therefore, for the sake of each member of this society, great attention should be paid to the value of the achievements reached in this field and the diligence of their authors. An effective tool which could expose business behind the work of management practitioners and theoreticians is, according to the author, theoretical apparatus developed by means of, so called, strong knowledge sociology. If treated as a method of critical analysis, the apparatus would help to effectively deconstruct management sciences releasing them from various influences which are destructive both for the achievements and the society. In other words, the professor emphasizes that management sciences should not be devaluated or destroyed but they should permanently undergo critical auto-analysis, which would make management a full and undisturbed auto-reflection of society. The list of necessary changes which should be introduced as a result of the social and cultural context of management sciences is really long. The author, for example, claims that the methodology should be released from neo-positivist and scientistic tendencies. A naive belief of

91

Polish management specialists in undisputed research value of quantitative method, which often results in survey-mania, ends up in worthless achievements. Repeating the same convenient schemes and ignoring hidden aspects of areas under research do not lead to development but to its hampering. Therefore, the author claims that management specialists should open to qualitative methods, including text analysis and metaphors use, which “are something more than just rhetorical embellishments. They are deeply set in experience, constitute a type of framework for our understanding of the world and form basic cognitive categories” (page 122). Perhaps, as the author suggests, an eclectic attitude, which involves creative linking of various complementary methods characteristic for different disciplines, would be a good methodological solution. Professor Sułkowski’s book is a real sensation among the other publications concerning management. It is difficult to discuss, even in small detail, all the research trails presented in this book. Here, I have concentrated on trails concerning critical perspective, which is a kind of novelty in the world of management sciences. The discussed book, however, can be analyzed from other perspectives, as well. It can, or even should be, treated as a valuable textbook both for students and experienced management or academic personnel, as it contains a list of basic epistemological currents present in management sciences together with their wonderful review. Professor Sułkowski has tackled a very difficult issue which requires not only cognitive bravery, but probably also civil one because the arguments he puts forward are not convenient for the community of management practitioners and theoreticians, which he is a part of himself. The fact remains, however, that only such critical and brave publications can bring something new to the reflection over the condition of management sciences. Apart from the book’s content, which is incredibly attractive, its bibliographical aspect is also very valuable. The author has based his arguments on a gigantic Polish and foreign bibliography, as a result further individual research on the same topic is much easier. The topic which has briefly been discussed here should undergo further exploration if the management sciences are to be released from the state comparable to shaman tribe medicine or show business.



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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Presentation of the Partners

Aims of the study programme The main aim of the study programme is to meet professional and specific needs of cultural and media institutions. Graduate (doctoral) prorganisation, production and management in media, culture and art have been taught at the Faculty of Dramatic Arts since 1961 (the first such department in Europe). In 2004/2005 the Department of Production was renamed into the Department of Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture. The new name reflects significant changes in the syllabus structure and individual courses within the syllabus, as well as in student profiling and teaching practices. More than 600 students have graduated from this department, all of them either already at or advancing to leadership positions in theatres, radio and television stations, and a host of cultural institutions. The Department has following degrees: MM B.A. Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture. MM M.A. Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture. MM M.A. Cultural Policy and Management (intercultural mediation in the Balkans). Ph.D. Art and Media Management. MM

As was announced already in the first issue, we are presenting below the articles submitted by our partner centres – co-editors of the publication. In connection with professor Peter Bendixen assuming new responsibilities, instead of the information on the university in Istanbul, we are attaching a note on the Vienna centre. Maybe this initiative will create an opportunity to cooperate more closely on editing of our paper – time will tell. We took the liberty to extend this part and add some news on the Department of Culture Management of the Jagiellonian Univerisity, detailing organizational changes which took place in 2009.

BELGRADE The Department of Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture Faculty of Drama Arts, University of Arts, Belgrade www.fdubg.com/en/cms/about_fdu

O

rganisation, production and management in media, culture and art have been taught at the Faculty of Dramatic Arts since 1961 (the first such department in Europe). In 2004/2005 the Department of Production was renamed into the Department of Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture. The new name reflects significant changes in the syllabus structure and individual courses within the syllabus, as well as in student profiling and teaching practices. More than 600 students have graduated from this department, all of them either already at or advancing to leadership positions in theatres, radio and television stations, and a host of cultural institutions. The Department has following degrees: MM B.A. Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture. MM M.A. Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture. MM M.A. Cultural Policy and Management (intercultural mediation in the Balkans). MM Ph.D. Art and Media Management. Aims of the study programme The main aim of the study programme is to meet professional and specific needs of cultural and media institutions. Graduate (doctoral) pro-

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

gram aims to development of the academic and research area in the field of art & media management and cultural policy. In its work the Department is constantly trying to improve the quality of teaching combining different approaches of active learning: interactive lectures, project based learning, research based learning, workshops, individual and group assignments, internships in professional organizations. The Department organizes thematic workshops and seminars through which students have an opportunity to meet renowned cultural and media researchers and practitioners, discussing current and practical issues concerning various aspects of their work. The department is actively engaged in various artistic and scientific projects, as well as in the work of professional and management bodies of the Faculty and the University. Student initiatives within the Department have resulted in a number of successfully accomplished projects. Two of the most important are The Festival of Student Film (FSF) and the International Students’ Theatre Festival (FIST). Both festivals have become fully-fledged events for international schools and students, giving them an opportunity to present their work, and to discuss and share ideas and experiences. The Department encourages and enables active student participation in research projects. Study programme The undergraduate study programme is four years long and during this time students follow three core subjects: Theatre production, Radio production, and Management in culture and cultural policy. The study of these subjects is supported

93

O

The Department of Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture Faculty of Drama Arts, University of Arts, Belgrade www.fdubg.com/en/cms/about_fdu

BELGRADE

Study programme The undergraduate study programme is four years long and during this time students follow three core subjects: Theatre production, Radio production, and Management in culture and cultural policy. The study of these subjects is supported gram aims to development of the academic and research area in the field of art & media management and cultural policy. In its work the Department is constantly trying to improve the quality of teaching combining different approaches of active learning: interactive lectures, project based learning, research based learning, workshops, individual and group assignments, internships in professional organizations. The Department organizes thematic workshops and seminars through which students have an opportunity to meet renowned cultural and media researchers and practitioners, discussing current and practical issues concerning various aspects of their work. The department is actively engaged in various artistic and scientific projects, as well as in the work of professional and management bodies of the Faculty and the University. Student initiatives within the Department have resulted in a number of successfully accomplished projects. Two of the most important are The Festival of Student Film (FSF) and the International Students’ Theatre Festival (FIST). Both festivals have become fully-fledged events for international schools and students, giving them an opportunity to present their work, and to discuss and share ideas and experiences. The Department encourages and enables active student participation in research projects.

As was announced already in the first issue, we are presenting below the articles submitted by our partner centres – co-editors of the publication. In connection with professor Peter Bendixen assuming new responsibilities, instead of the information on the university in Istanbul, we are attaching a note on the Vienna centre. Maybe this initiative will create an opportunity to cooperate more closely on editing of our paper – time will tell. We took the liberty to extend this part and add some news on the Department of Culture Management of the Jagiellonian Univerisity, detailing organizational changes which took place in 2009.

Presentation of the Partners


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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

4. Study programme aims

Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture

3. Study programme name

Management

2. Study Area

ART

1.

BA (Hons) in Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture – Manager-producer in theatre, radio and culture

12. Options for further studying

– Master studies

94

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

MM

11. Qualifications awarded upon successful

MM

Upon successful completion of 1st degree studies a manager – producer in theatre, radio and culture has the knowledge of key theoretical concepts in all areas, and has acquired a wide range of skills necessary for creating and implementing in organisational and production related tasks: – Managing and producing theatre plays, radio shows and programmes, various cultural projects (exhibitions, manifestations, concerts, etc.); – Organising and managing segments/sectors in cultural organizations/institutions (planning, work supervision and monitoring, programme and organization evaluation, international cultural cooperation, fundraising); – Raising funds for production, organisation and managing of marketing campaigns and such.

Core subjects: Theatre management, Radio management, Cultural Management, Cultural Policy, History of world theatre and drama, History of South Slavic theatre and drama, Stage technology, Elements of theatre directing, Film management, Television management, Aesthetics, History of art, Music, Psychology, Marketing, Foreign language. Optional subjects: Foreign language (2), Business Communication, Media of mass communications, Agency business management, Journalism.

10. Learning outcomes

by additional vocational and theoretical subjects: Stage architecture and technology, Marketing, Copyright law, Theatre and radio directing, History of world theatre and drama, History of Yugoslav theatre and drama, Psychology, History of art, Aesthetics, Sociology of art and theory of culture, and others. During the course of their studies students are actively involved in professional work assignments ranging from production of new plays to organization of major international festivals (FEST, BITEF, and BELEF).

Secondary School Graduation Diploma and a passing grade in the aptitude test set in accordance with the Statute of the higher education institution. The entry exam comprises: – General education test, – Analytical-thinking skills test, – Management skills aptitude test. The final ranking of prospective students is based on cumulative score of secondary school records of achievement and entry exam results.

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE

9. Enrolment requirements

FACULTY OF DRAMATIC ARTS

Up to 20 students

FACULTY

240

8. Number of students

Educational field

ECTS credits

The aim of the four-year 1st degree study programme is to give students an opportunity to gain the knowledge and skills in the area of management and production in theatre, radio and culture. By means of lectures, project work, practical assignments and research work students acquire necessary skills to become actively involved in organising and managing artistic productions. This method of work enables students to: – comprehend and grasp the techniques used in organising production related work in all areas; – work independently in managerial projects, independent organizations and associations; – be actively involved in the institutional system of culture and media; – gain the knowledge necessary for shaping and implementing the instruments of cultural policy. Defined by its theoretical principles the study programme is developed empirically with the aim of comprehending current local and international trends in various aspects of production in theatre, radio and culture, and their relationship within a wider environment.

7.

Bachelor / undergraduate studies

4 years (8 semesters)

5. Level and type of study

6. Duration

4 years (8 semesters)

Bachelor / undergraduate studies

240

5. Level and type of study

ECTS credits

The aim of the four-year 1st degree study programme is to give students an opportunity to gain the knowledge and skills in the area of management and production in theatre, radio and culture. By means of lectures, project work, practical assignments and research work students acquire necessary skills to become actively involved in organising and managing artistic productions. This method of work enables students to: – comprehend and grasp the techniques used in organising production related work in all areas; – work independently in managerial projects, independent organizations and associations; – be actively involved in the institutional system of culture and media; – gain the knowledge necessary for shaping and implementing the instruments of cultural policy. Defined by its theoretical principles the study programme is developed empirically with the aim of comprehending current local and international trends in various aspects of production in theatre, radio and culture, and their relationship within a wider environment.

6. Duration

4. Study programme aims

7.

Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture

Up to 20 students

3. Study programme name

8. Number of students

Management

9. Enrolment requirements

2. Study Area

Secondary School Graduation Diploma and a passing grade in the aptitude test set in accordance with the Statute of the higher education institution. The entry exam comprises: – General education test, – Analytical-thinking skills test, – Management skills aptitude test. The final ranking of prospective students is based on cumulative score of secondary school records of achievement and entry exam results.

ART

Educational field

10. Learning outcomes

FACULTY OF DRAMATIC ARTS

1.

Upon successful completion of 1st degree studies a manager – producer in theatre, radio and culture has the knowledge of key theoretical concepts in all areas, and has acquired a wide range of skills necessary for creating and implementing in organisational and production related tasks: – Managing and producing theatre plays, radio shows and programmes, various cultural projects (exhibitions, manifestations, concerts, etc.); – Organising and managing segments/sectors in cultural organizations/institutions (planning, work supervision and monitoring, programme and organization evaluation, international cultural cooperation, fundraising); – Raising funds for production, organisation and managing of marketing campaigns and such.

FACULTY

BA (Hons) in Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture – Manager-producer in theatre, radio and culture

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE

11. Qualifications awarded upon successful

MM

Core subjects: Theatre management, Radio management, Cultural Management, Cultural Policy, History of world theatre and drama, History of South Slavic theatre and drama, Stage technology, Elements of theatre directing, Film management, Television management, Aesthetics, History of art, Music, Psychology, Marketing, Foreign language. Optional subjects: Foreign language (2), Business Communication, Media of mass communications, Agency business management, Journalism.

– Master studies

MM

12. Options for further studying

by additional vocational and theoretical subjects: Stage architecture and technology, Marketing, Copyright law, Theatre and radio directing, History of world theatre and drama, History of Yugoslav theatre and drama, Psychology, History of art, Aesthetics, Sociology of art and theory of culture, and others. During the course of their studies students are actively involved in professional work assignments ranging from production of new plays to organization of major international festivals (FEST, BITEF, and BELEF).


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Qualifications awarded upon successful completion of the syllabus 12. Options for further studying 11.

FACULTY 1.

Educational field

2. Study-research area

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE FACULTY OF DRAMATIC ARTS ART Management

1 year (2 semesters)

6. Duration

– gaining theoretical knowledge; – mastering managerial skills required in project management and institutions whose work is in the fields of theatre, radio and culture (museums, festivals, cultural centres, etc.). Master studies

5. Level and type of study

Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture

3. Study programme name 4. Study programme aims

10. Learning outcomes 1. 2. 3. 4.

Educational field Study-research area Study programme name Study programme aims

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Level and type of study Duration ECTS credits Number of students Enrolment requirements

95 – Postdoctoral studies in cultural management (PhD) – postdoctoral studies in humanities (PhD) Humanities Management ART and MEDIA MANAGEMENT – Development of research and theory in art management – Creating adequate methodology for cultural and media management – Creating interdisciplinary approach in researching the issues which need analytical and critical capacities – Developing of knowledge base in this domain – Developing competent researchers and academics in the field PhD studies 3 year program 180 Up to 10 students Successfully completed (with honours) Master studies (300 credits), superiour average mark; advantage: research experience, published texts… Upon successful completion of 3rd degree studies, a student can: – Create autonomously a research project in the fields of cultural policy, cultural management and interculturalism – Lead a comparative international research, – Write adequate academic articles for publishing in relevant reviews; – design and model curriculum in the area of the research, – apply an interdisciplinary research methodology and creative approach in attempts to understand cultural situation and problems, – Develop scientific cooperation and networking programs, linking resaearch (academic world), policy circles and practitioners. PhD in Art and Media Management

7.

ECTS credits

8. Number of students 9. Enrolment requirements 10. Learning outcomes

11. Qualifications awarded upon successful completion of the syllabus 12. Options for further studying

Art and Media Management

In Serbocroat and English

60 Up to 20 students Successfully completed 1st degree studies – (240 ECTS credits) and other conditions as set in the Statutes of the University of Arts and the Faculty of Dramatic Arts. Upon successful completion of 2nd degree studies, a student can: – implement research related tasks in the fields of theatre, radio and culture – organization positioning; – apply strategic analysis methods and instruments of strategic planning and development in cultural and media organizations/institutions; – design and model organizations and institutions (theatre, media and cultural intermediating); – apply a creative approach in solving managerial and production problems – risk and change management. MA in Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture – Postgraduate studies – Doctoral studies in art and media management (PhD) – Doctoral studies in humanities (PhD) – Doctoral studies in the theory of dramatic arts, media and culture (PhD)

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE (Faculty of Dramatic Arts) UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE (Faculty of Dramatic Arts) Art and Media Management 11. Qualifications awarded upon successful completion of the syllabus 12. Options for further studying

– Postgraduate studies – Doctoral studies in art and media management (PhD) – Doctoral studies in humanities (PhD) – Doctoral studies in the theory of dramatic arts, media and culture (PhD)

8. Number of students

Up to 20 students

9. Enrolment requirements

Successfully completed 1st degree studies – (240 ECTS credits) and other conditions as set in the Statutes of the University of Arts and the Faculty of Dramatic Arts. Upon successful completion of 2nd degree studies, a student can: – implement research related tasks in the fields of theatre, radio and culture – organization positioning; – apply strategic analysis methods and instruments of strategic planning and development in cultural and media organizations/institutions; – design and model organizations and institutions (theatre, media and cultural intermediating); – apply a creative approach in solving managerial and production problems – risk and change management. MA in Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture

10. Learning outcomes 2. Study-research area

Management

3. Study programme name

Management and Production in Theatre, Radio and Culture

4. Study programme aims

5. Level and type of study

– gaining theoretical knowledge; – mastering managerial skills required in project management and institutions whose work is in the fields of theatre, radio and culture (museums, festivals, cultural centres, etc.). Master studies

6. Duration

1 year (2 semesters)

7.

ECTS credits

60

FACULTY

FACULTY OF DRAMATIC ARTS

1.

Educational field

ART UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Educational field Study-research area Study programme name Study programme aims

Level and type of study Duration ECTS credits Number of students Enrolment requirements

10. Learning outcomes

11. Qualifications awarded upon successful completion of the syllabus 12. Options for further studying

In Serbocroat and English

Humanities Management ART and MEDIA MANAGEMENT – Development of research and theory in art management – Creating adequate methodology for cultural and media management – Creating interdisciplinary approach in researching the issues which need analytical and critical capacities – Developing of knowledge base in this domain – Developing competent researchers and academics in the field PhD studies 3 year program 180 Up to 10 students Successfully completed (with honours) Master studies (300 credits), superiour average mark; advantage: research experience, published texts… Upon successful completion of 3rd degree studies, a student can: – Create autonomously a research project in the fields of cultural policy, cultural management and interculturalism – Lead a comparative international research, – Write adequate academic articles for publishing in relevant reviews; – design and model curriculum in the area of the research, – apply an interdisciplinary research methodology and creative approach in attempts to understand cultural situation and problems, – Develop scientific cooperation and networking programs, linking resaearch (academic world), policy circles and practitioners. PhD in Art and Media Management

– Postdoctoral studies in cultural management (PhD) – postdoctoral studies in humanities (PhD)

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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)


96

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Humanities Cultural policy and management

In English and French

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE (With partnership of Universite Lyon II, Lyon France)

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Educational field

96

1.

he Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure was established in 1994. Professor doctor Hans Joachim Meyer, the Saxon State Minister for Science and Art, defined the impulse for its creation as “a necessity to find for art and science, new institutionalised forms which are suited for the liberal society, and such means of support which would permit maintaining and developing of adequate bodies focusing on the spiritual life accompanying the processes of intense transformation”. Among the international bodies created by the Institute are the European Network “Culture and Management” (since 1997), the tri-national body Collegium PONTES Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (since 2002) and the International Summer School of Fine Arts (existing since 2003).

Management

T

2. Study-research area

Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure www.kultur.org

The Institute works out its specific analyses concerning the cultural policy by means of various inter-disciplinary research projects and initiatives aimed at launching new courses of studies, artistic and advisory undertakings (including the recent advisory assignment for the German Bundestag and for the Foundation for the Lusatian Sorb Nation). The notion “cultural infrastructure” comes from Saxony. It became popular in 1980s in the Leipzig University circles (Hardy Geyer). The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic quoted this notion in art. 35 p. 7 of the reunification act. In the years 1991-1994 the Federation used it as the basis for introduction of a modernization program and an infrastructural program intended to support culture in the so called new federal states. In 2007 the Budestag research commission (Culture in Germany) recommended viewing “cultural infrastructure” as a focus of the cultural policy.

UNESCO CHAIR IN CULTURAL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT (Intercultural mediation in the Balkans)

GOERLITZ

3. Study programme name

– Postgraduate studies – Doctoral studies in art and media management (PhD) – Doctoral studies in humanities (PhD) – Doctoral studies in the theory of dramatic arts, media and culture (PhD)

– gaining theoretical knowledge; – mastering managerial skills required in cultural management and intercultural project management.

12. Options for further studying

4. Study programme aims

MA in Cultural Policy and Management

Master studies

11. Qualifications awarded upon successful completion of the syllabus

5. Level and type of study

Upon successful completion of 2nd degree studies, a student can: – implement research related tasks in the fields of cultural policy, cultural management and interculturalism, – apply strategic analysis methods and instruments of strategic planning and development in cultural and media organizations/institutions; – design and model cultural organizations and institutions, – apply a creative approach in solving managerial and production problems – risk and change management, – Develop cultural cooperation and networking programs.

1 year (2 semesters), or 2 years part time for professionals

10. Learning outcomes

6. Duration

Successfully completed 1st degree studies – (240 ECTS credits) and other conditions as set in the Statutes of the University of Arts and the Faculty of Dramatic Arts.

60

9. Enrolment requirements

ECTS credits

Up to 30 students

7.

8. Number of students

Up to 30 students

60

ECTS credits

8. Number of students

1 year (2 semesters), or 2 years part time for professionals

7.

Successfully completed 1st degree studies – (240 ECTS credits) and other conditions as set in the Statutes of the University of Arts and the Faculty of Dramatic Arts.

6. Duration

9. Enrolment requirements

Master studies

10. Learning outcomes

5. Level and type of study

Upon successful completion of 2nd degree studies, a student can: – implement research related tasks in the fields of cultural policy, cultural management and interculturalism, – apply strategic analysis methods and instruments of strategic planning and development in cultural and media organizations/institutions; – design and model cultural organizations and institutions, – apply a creative approach in solving managerial and production problems – risk and change management, – Develop cultural cooperation and networking programs.

– gaining theoretical knowledge; – mastering managerial skills required in cultural management and intercultural project management.

MA in Cultural Policy and Management

4. Study programme aims

11. Qualifications awarded upon successful completion of the syllabus

UNESCO CHAIR IN CULTURAL POLICY AND MANAGEMENT (Intercultural mediation in the Balkans)

12. Options for further studying

3. Study programme name

– Postgraduate studies – Doctoral studies in art and media management (PhD) – Doctoral studies in humanities (PhD) – Doctoral studies in the theory of dramatic arts, media and culture (PhD)

Management

GOERLITZ

2. Study-research area

Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure www.kultur.org

In English and French

Humanities

T

Educational field

The Institute works out its specific analyses concerning the cultural policy by means of various inter-disciplinary research projects and initiatives aimed at launching new courses of studies, artistic and advisory undertakings (including the recent advisory assignment for the German Bundestag and for the Foundation for the Lusatian Sorb Nation). The notion “cultural infrastructure” comes from Saxony. It became popular in 1980s in the Leipzig University circles (Hardy Geyer). The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic quoted this notion in art. 35 p. 7 of the reunification act. In the years 1991-1994 the Federation used it as the basis for introduction of a modernization program and an infrastructural program intended to support culture in the so called new federal states. In 2007 the Budestag research commission (Culture in Germany) recommended viewing “cultural infrastructure” as a focus of the cultural policy.

Cultural policy and management 1.

he Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure was established in 1994. Professor doctor Hans Joachim Meyer, the Saxon State Minister for Science and Art, defined the impulse for its creation as “a necessity to find for art and science, new institutionalised forms which are suited for the liberal society, and such means of support which would permit maintaining and developing of adequate bodies focusing on the spiritual life accompanying the processes of intense transformation”. Among the international bodies created by the Institute are the European Network “Culture and Management” (since 1997), the tri-national body Collegium PONTES Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (since 2002) and the International Summer School of Fine Arts (existing since 2003).

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS BELGRADE (With partnership of Universite Lyon II, Lyon France)


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The science council of the Institute is chaired by professor doctor Dieter Bingen, director of the Polish-German Institute in Darmstadt. The chairman’s deputies are a philosopher professor doctor Jan Sokol (Charles Univerity in Prague) and a culture economist professor doctor Peter Bendixen (Istanbul, Vienna). The council comprises also professor doctor Alfred Grossen (Paris), professor doctor Hubert Orłowski (Poznań) and a number of other experts specializing in the field of European cooperation and culture. The Board of the Institute is run by Ulf Großmann, the chairman of the commission of culture of the German Union of Cities. Other members of the Board are Władysław Bartoszewski (Warsaw), Jiří Gruša (Vienna and London, rector of the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna) and ex-president of the International PEN Club (Wolfgang Hubner from Berlin, regional bishop of the Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg, Salisia and Upper Lusatia, and ex-chairman of the Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany), as well as other representatives of the society and the public administration. Honorary chairmen are Freya von Moltke and Krzysztof Penderecki. Executive Director and the founder of the Institute is professor doctor habilitated Matthias Theodor Vogt. Collegium PONTES Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec was founded in 2001 in order to popularize the discourse on cultural, spiritual and social shape of Europe and the European Union. It is a research body and an academic network. Professors and young researchers have been meeting in Görlitz every summer since 2002, and during each session, within a few weeks they work on a case study and present the results in a form of a publication. Collegium Pontes is an example of effective cooperation of generations, nations and various disciplines of science. Collegium Pontes comprises a wide spectrum of scientists in residence, including experienced researchers, senior fellows, who build bridges between their disciplines, and on the other hand, young junior fellows, PhD students and post-docs who actively participate in the dialog. The discussions are enriched by means of lectures and seminars given by visiting fellows. Thanks to cooperation of multinational and interdisciplinary teams, the Collegium offers its members an opportunity to deal theoretically with the issue of europeization and its practical functioning in reality. The 7 week summer session is very intense. It focuses on results, however, its form alone is also an important element of

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

education. The participants experience solidarity and unity which is a principal political aim of the policy of the European Union. Scientific and political-scientific significance of the Collegium in the international arena has been recognized by the patrons: since 2003, Collegium Pontes has been the only academic institution of the three neighbouring countries under common patronage of the Ministers of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany and the Czech Republic. Collegium Pontes acts as a public forum and a promoter of various undertakings. The results of work are publicized in the form of open presentations and are systematically documented as book series. In 2009 the Peter Lang editors: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Vienna, put out four volumes of the Collegium PONTES series edited by Matthias Theodor Vogt, Jan Sokol, Beata Ociepka, Beata Mikołajczyk: MM Vol. I – Bedingungen europäischer Solidarität MM Vol. II – Peripherie in der Mitte Europas MM Vol. III – Die Stärke der Schwäche MM Vol. IV – Europäisierung im Alltag In 2008 the series „Edition kulturelle Infrastruktur“ was augmented by Sorbisches National-Ensemble. Eine kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse, which was a result of cooperation of Philipp Bormann, Andreas Bracher, Vladimir Krecek and Katarina Markovic-Stokes (it was ordered by the Foundation for the Lusatian Sorb Nation). The International Summer School of Fine Arts Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec is a common research body of the Faculty of Economics of the Zittau/Görlitz University and the Saxon Institute of Culture Infrastructure. The goal of the summer school is building bridges between production of art and a scientific and aesthetic reflection, between workshop activity and public events, between one’s own needs and the interests of the society. Each year the focus of attention is a contemporary composer with his/her biography and accomplishments. The European Network “Culture and Management” is coordinated by the Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure. It comprises: MM Zittau/Görlitz University, Germany (studies with a double diploma from Pécs and Nantes) MM Jagiellonia University (Kraków), Poland MM University in Pėcs, Hungary MM University in Nantes, France MM University of Naples Federico II, Italy MM University Babeş-Bolyai in Cluj-Napoka, Romania MM Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic

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Collegium PONTES Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec was founded in 2001 in order to popularize the discourse on cultural, spiritual and social shape of Europe and the European Union. It is a research body and an academic network. Professors and young researchers have been meeting in Görlitz every summer since 2002, and during each session, within a few weeks they work on a case study and present the results in a form of a publication. Collegium Pontes is an example of effective cooperation of generations, nations and various disciplines of science. Collegium Pontes comprises a wide spectrum of scientists in residence, including experienced researchers, senior fellows, who build bridges between their disciplines, and on the other hand, young junior fellows, PhD students and post-docs who actively participate in the dialog. The discussions are enriched by means of lectures and seminars given by visiting fellows. Thanks to cooperation of multinational and interdisciplinary teams, the Collegium offers its members an opportunity to deal theoretically with the issue of europeization and its practical functioning in reality. The 7 week summer session is very intense. It focuses on results, however, its form alone is also an important element of The science council of the Institute is chaired by professor doctor Dieter Bingen, director of the Polish-German Institute in Darmstadt. The chairman’s deputies are a philosopher professor doctor Jan Sokol (Charles Univerity in Prague) and a culture economist professor doctor Peter Bendixen (Istanbul, Vienna). The council comprises also professor doctor Alfred Grossen (Paris), professor doctor Hubert Orłowski (Poznań) and a number of other experts specializing in the field of European cooperation and culture. The Board of the Institute is run by Ulf Großmann, the chairman of the commission of culture of the German Union of Cities. Other members of the Board are Władysław Bartoszewski (Warsaw), Jiří Gruša (Vienna and London, rector of the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna) and ex-president of the International PEN Club (Wolfgang Hubner from Berlin, regional bishop of the Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg, Salisia and Upper Lusatia, and ex-chairman of the Council of the Evangelical Church in Germany), as well as other representatives of the society and the public administration. Honorary chairmen are Freya von Moltke and Krzysztof Penderecki. Executive Director and the founder of the Institute is professor doctor habilitated Matthias Theodor Vogt.

The European Network “Culture and Management” is coordinated by the Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure. It comprises: MM Zittau/Görlitz University, Germany (studies with a double diploma from Pécs and Nantes) MM Jagiellonia University (Kraków), Poland MM University in Pėcs, Hungary MM University in Nantes, France MM University of Naples Federico II, Italy MM University Babeş-Bolyai in Cluj-Napoka, Romania Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic MM

education. The participants experience solidarity and unity which is a principal political aim of the policy of the European Union. Scientific and political-scientific significance of the Collegium in the international arena has been recognized by the patrons: since 2003, Collegium Pontes has been the only academic institution of the three neighbouring countries under common patronage of the Ministers of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany and the Czech Republic. Collegium Pontes acts as a public forum and a promoter of various undertakings. The results of work are publicized in the form of open presentations and are systematically documented as book series. In 2009 the Peter Lang editors: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Vienna, put out four volumes of the Collegium PONTES series edited by Matthias Theodor Vogt, Jan Sokol, Beata Ociepka, Beata Mikołajczyk: MM Vol. I – Bedingungen europäischer Solidarität MM Vol. II – Peripherie in der Mitte Europas MM Vol. III – Die Stärke der Schwäche MM Vol. IV – Europäisierung im Alltag In 2008 the series „Edition kulturelle Infrastruktur“ was augmented by Sorbisches National-Ensemble. Eine kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse, which was a result of cooperation of Philipp Bormann, Andreas Bracher, Vladimir Krecek and Katarina Markovic-Stokes (it was ordered by the Foundation for the Lusatian Sorb Nation). The International Summer School of Fine Arts Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec is a common research body of the Faculty of Economics of the Zittau/Görlitz University and the Saxon Institute of Culture Infrastructure. The goal of the summer school is building bridges between production of art and a scientific and aesthetic reflection, between workshop activity and public events, between one’s own needs and the interests of the society. Each year the focus of attention is a contemporary composer with his/her biography and accomplishments.


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MM

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Academy of Culture in Riga, Latvia Salamanca University, Spain Academy of Fine Arts in Vilnius, Lithuania

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Bridges over Borders The speech delivered on the occasion of the 15th anniversary of founding of the Institute of Cultural Infrastructure and setting up Collegium PONTES (Görlitz, 25 April 2009). In the beginning let me formulate a somewhat bold claim: whatever man does is culture. The way man treats his natural environment, his attitude to other people surrounding him, whatever he thinks of himself, of his times, and the world – all this, and a few more aspects constitute culture. However omnipresent culture is, all the time it focuses on man, and it gives him special importance. Always when I have to participate in a discussion on culture, a statement by Hans Marchwitz, a working class writer, comes to my mind: Culture is every second beat of the heart of our life. In the foyer of the old town hall in Potsdam we may still read this motto (at least I hope so). I am not sure, however, if this metaphor is entirely appropriate. Marchwitz could have said equally well that Culture is every beat of the heart of our life, but I do not want to criticize anyone. Anyway, his words are bound to stay in our memory. In the life of every individual as well as in the history of every single nation it happens that obvious things become clear and striking. It is the obvious that is the biggest threat to everything which we perceive as omnipresent, important and necessary to us. We are no longer alert and we believe that we do not have to care to protect it. And when the content and circumstances of our life change

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Professor doctor, doctor h.c. Hans Joachim Meyerthe former Minister of Saxony

Haus Klingewalde. The seat of the Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure is Haus Klingewalde in Görlitz, a 16-17th century mansion house rebuilt in the neo-Gothic style in the 19th century. The acoustic and optical characteristics of the seminar room create ideal conditions for organization of conferences and sessions devoted to culture and Central Europe.

www.kultur.org, the institute’s web page is visited around 70 000 times every month. The link “Schriften” contains numerous texts devoted to cultural policy, economy of culture and culture management.

www.kultur.org, the institute’s web page is visited around 70 000 times every month. The link “Schriften” contains numerous texts devoted to cultural policy, economy of culture and culture management.

Haus Klingewalde. The seat of the Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure is Haus Klingewalde in Görlitz, a 16-17th century mansion house rebuilt in the neo-Gothic style in the 19th century. The acoustic and optical characteristics of the seminar room create ideal conditions for organization of conferences and sessions devoted to culture and Central Europe.

radically, we realize that we need to act. The question is whether we realize that on time and whether we know what to do. It was such a situation, related to the essence and expression of our life, which we faced in 1990. We had to redefine our attitude to culture and its institutional conditions in public life. Our experience inherited from the DDR times was ambivalent. On the one hand, the political and ideological dictatorship appropriated all public cultural events, attempting to nationalize the society in all forms of expression. On the other hand, the core of the literary and artistic creation depends on being creative, thus also independent, and on avoiding or opposing any external demand. In this way the artistic and literary works of the artists and writers in the DDR turned into a form of a cultural underground. Beside the world of the Churches with their internal freedom, there existed a current of cultural life full of opposition and obstinacy which evolved into spiritual readiness for the revolutionary autumn of 1989. Thus, I will take the liberty to make a bold historic comparison and say that in everyday life in the DDR people talked about a novel, a musical composition, a painting or a theatre performance with equal excitement as in the early days of the old Church people, arguing at markets or fairs, talked about settlements of the ecumenical councils in their disputes over the dogmas. In the DDR books could become a product from under the counter, as was the case with many other objects of everyday use. Unfortunately, in the united Germany there are many people who neither understand the contradictions of the cultural life in the DDR, nor want to understand, since they do not need this type of experience. After 1990, the issue of culture confronted us with two fundamental questions. First of all it was necessary to decide what importance and what form culture should assume in the future. The dispute was indispensable, its boundaries were, however very wide. In fact the problem exists till today. The burning and urgent question was how to guarantee survival of the structures and institutions of culture. The issue included of course decisions on what should survive. In most cases the DDR left the historical culture institutions intact, however, they had been centralized politically and financially. In this way the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig was formally a city orchestra, but its fate was decided in Berlin. In one moment, from day to day, the division of competences of the Federal Republic of Germany was introduced, and this meant that responsibility for culture and education fell on the federal states and that most of the institutions and cultural offers started to depend

Professor doctor, doctor h.c. Hans Joachim Meyerthe former Minister of Saxony

MM

Academy of Culture in Riga, Latvia Salamanca University, Spain Academy of Fine Arts in Vilnius, Lithuania

radically, we realize that we need to act. The question is whether we realize that on time and whether we know what to do. It was such a situation, related to the essence and expression of our life, which we faced in 1990. We had to redefine our attitude to culture and its institutional conditions in public life. Our experience inherited from the DDR times was ambivalent. On the one hand, the political and ideological dictatorship appropriated all public cultural events, attempting to nationalize the society in all forms of expression. On the other hand, the core of the literary and artistic creation depends on being creative, thus also independent, and on avoiding or opposing any external demand. In this way the artistic and literary works of the artists and writers in the DDR turned into a form of a cultural underground. Beside the world of the Churches with their internal freedom, there existed a current of cultural life full of opposition and obstinacy which evolved into spiritual readiness for the revolutionary autumn of 1989. Thus, I will take the liberty to make a bold historic comparison and say that in everyday life in the DDR people talked about a novel, a musical composition, a painting or a theatre performance with equal excitement as in the early days of the old Church people, arguing at markets or fairs, talked about settlements of the ecumenical councils in their disputes over the dogmas. In the DDR books could become a product from under the counter, as was the case with many other objects of everyday use. Unfortunately, in the united Germany there are many people who neither understand the contradictions of the cultural life in the DDR, nor want to understand, since they do not need this type of experience. After 1990, the issue of culture confronted us with two fundamental questions. First of all it was necessary to decide what importance and what form culture should assume in the future. The dispute was indispensable, its boundaries were, however very wide. In fact the problem exists till today. The burning and urgent question was how to guarantee survival of the structures and institutions of culture. The issue included of course decisions on what should survive. In most cases the DDR left the historical culture institutions intact, however, they had been centralized politically and financially. In this way the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig was formally a city orchestra, but its fate was decided in Berlin. In one moment, from day to day, the division of competences of the Federal Republic of Germany was introduced, and this meant that responsibility for culture and education fell on the federal states and that most of the institutions and cultural offers started to depend

MM

Bridges over Borders The speech delivered on the occasion of the 15th anniversary of founding of the Institute of Cultural Infrastructure and setting up Collegium PONTES (Görlitz, 25 April 2009). In the beginning let me formulate a somewhat bold claim: whatever man does is culture. The way man treats his natural environment, his attitude to other people surrounding him, whatever he thinks of himself, of his times, and the world – all this, and a few more aspects constitute culture. However omnipresent culture is, all the time it focuses on man, and it gives him special importance. Always when I have to participate in a discussion on culture, a statement by Hans Marchwitz, a working class writer, comes to my mind: Culture is every second beat of the heart of our life. In the foyer of the old town hall in Potsdam we may still read this motto (at least I hope so). I am not sure, however, if this metaphor is entirely appropriate. Marchwitz could have said equally well that Culture is every beat of the heart of our life, but I do not want to criticize anyone. Anyway, his words are bound to stay in our memory. In the life of every individual as well as in the history of every single nation it happens that obvious things become clear and striking. It is the obvious that is the biggest threat to everything which we perceive as omnipresent, important and necessary to us. We are no longer alert and we believe that we do not have to care to protect it. And when the content and circumstances of our life change

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Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

on local authorities. For Saxony with its historically determined polymorphism of organizational forms it could mean that the culture organizations of the federal state which were located mostly in Dresden would survive, but local institutions or culture would cease to exist or would be brought to the brink of ruin. It was clear to us that we could not leave it like that. Obviously, the unification treaty created a new German constitutional law, outlining clearly the responsibility of the state to cultivate culture in the eastern federal states. Naturally, this could mean a lot, and it could mean nothing. Thus, a historical accomplishment which is worthy of mentioning was a decision taken by Chancellor Helmut Kohl to subsidize expenses on culture by the state. For a definite time the eastern states and communes would obtain a subsidy amounting to 900 million DM donated by the state. The East German artists, including those coming from Saxony, should get the credit for persuading the Chancellor to take this step. The decision required a lot of independence, since it contradicted the former practice, deeply rooted in the Federal Republic of Germany. Sieghardt von Köckritz, at that time incumbent supervisor of the Culture Department in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, a man to whom East German culture owes a lot, has told me once ironically that at the beginning of the difficult discussions on realization of the Chancellor’s decision in the Ministry of Finance, it was necessary to point out every time that it was not them personally to blame for intentional or unintentional reunification of Germany, but once it happened the new federal states urgently needed money for saving culture. One thing was beyond any doubt: the state’s assistance would be limited in time, and the clock kept ticking. In such circumstances an idea blossomed in the Saxon Ministry of Science and Culture, to create a Commission for Cultural Structures (Kulturstrukturkommission) in order to work out solutions for the whole federal republic. A good example was the Saxon Commission for Higher Education Structures (Hochschulstrukturkommission), which provided a positive feedback. The Culture Commission was initially institutionally oriented, i.e. at the beginning it was intended to concentrate solely on theatre and the orchestras. However, there is a difference between a political order and practical realization of the assumptions. Therefore, it was very important that Matthias Theodor Vogt, appointed as a representative of the Commission, proved to be the right person combining conceptual originality with a sense of political communication. A good illustration of his skills was his idea to name the commission after a

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composer and director Johann Gottlieb Naumann, who reformed musical life in the plundered Saxony, after signing a treaty of Hubertsburg in 1763. The fact that at that time an opera house in Dresden was closed, he thoughtfully left unsaid. The decisive argument was that the idea of culture regions developed by Vogt was sufficiently flexible to apply it to any type of cultural activity, and at the same time it would consider the existing interests and regional traditions. This is why, when the deputies of the Landtag and the members of the Landrat demanded inclusion in the regional support program of all the institutions and cultural tasks of a broader than local importance, it was possible to reach political agreement within the concept of cultural regions. Since at that time also the Minister of Finance was ready to make concrete financial promises, it paved the way to a wide political consensus. Georg Milbradt, the former City Treasurer of Münster, was also convinced that the solution should be accepted, highlighting an analogy between the Saxon culture regions and the Union of Regions in the North Rheinland – Westphalia. At the same time, he expected to see clear effects of the fusion and savings in the future. Saxony was looking forward to experiencing rapid development of culture, for the time being only consuming the results of reforms of the first term of the parliament. The atmosphere of hopes and expectations to a large extent stemmed from the act on cultural institutions passed on December 17, 1993, with a strong support of all political fractions. It was and still is considered to be a masterpiece of cultural policy from Saxony. Rightly, it was Matthias Theodor Vogt who got all the credit for being an architect of the conception underlying this resolution. Nevertheless, it was evident that the authors of the act were walking on a mine field, trying to balance the political competencies of the federal state and those of the communes. After the Naumann’s commission had finished work, Mahias Theodor Vogt focused on those spheres of culture which required defining. In a short time they started to exist as structures of local self-governments, and as usual in case of common endeavours, the federal state could offer support only via a financial subsidy approved by the Landtag. The Ministry had to bear political responsibility for this. On the other hand, it was obvious that in the first place the resolution had to be verified in practice. It was to be expected that in the course of the dialog which was necessary in this situation, or rather in the course of a dispute over the competencies of the parties

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on local authorities. For Saxony with its historically determined polymorphism of organizational forms it could mean that the culture organizations of the federal state which were located mostly in Dresden would survive, but local institutions or culture would cease to exist or would be brought to the brink of ruin. It was clear to us that we could not leave it like that. Obviously, the unification treaty created a new German constitutional law, outlining clearly the responsibility of the state to cultivate culture in the eastern federal states. Naturally, this could mean a lot, and it could mean nothing. Thus, a historical accomplishment which is worthy of mentioning was a decision taken by Chancellor Helmut Kohl to subsidize expenses on culture by the state. For a definite time the eastern states and communes would obtain a subsidy amounting to 900 million DM donated by the state. The East German artists, including those coming from Saxony, should get the credit for persuading the Chancellor to take this step. The decision required a lot of independence, since it contradicted the former practice, deeply rooted in the Federal Republic of Germany. Sieghardt von Köckritz, at that time incumbent supervisor of the Culture Department in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, a man to whom East German culture owes a lot, has told me once ironically that at the beginning of the difficult discussions on realization of the Chancellor’s decision in the Ministry of Finance, it was necessary to point out every time that it was not them personally to blame for intentional or unintentional reunification of Germany, but once it happened the new federal states urgently needed money for saving culture. One thing was beyond any doubt: the state’s assistance would be limited in time, and the clock kept ticking. In such circumstances an idea blossomed in the Saxon Ministry of Science and Culture, to create a Commission for Cultural Structures (Kulturstrukturkommission) in order to work out solutions for the whole federal republic. A good example was the Saxon Commission for Higher Education Structures (Hochschulstrukturkommission), which provided a positive feedback. The Culture Commission was initially institutionally oriented, i.e. at the beginning it was intended to concentrate solely on theatre and the orchestras. However, there is a difference between a political order and practical realization of the assumptions. Therefore, it was very important that Matthias Theodor Vogt, appointed as a representative of the Commission, proved to be the right person combining conceptual originality with a sense of political communication. A good illustration of his skills was his idea to name the commission after a

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composer and director Johann Gottlieb Naumann, who reformed musical life in the plundered Saxony, after signing a treaty of Hubertsburg in 1763. The fact that at that time an opera house in Dresden was closed, he thoughtfully left unsaid. The decisive argument was that the idea of culture regions developed by Vogt was sufficiently flexible to apply it to any type of cultural activity, and at the same time it would consider the existing interests and regional traditions. This is why, when the deputies of the Landtag and the members of the Landrat demanded inclusion in the regional support program of all the institutions and cultural tasks of a broader than local importance, it was possible to reach political agreement within the concept of cultural regions. Since at that time also the Minister of Finance was ready to make concrete financial promises, it paved the way to a wide political consensus. Georg Milbradt, the former City Treasurer of Münster, was also convinced that the solution should be accepted, highlighting an analogy between the Saxon culture regions and the Union of Regions in the North Rheinland – Westphalia. At the same time, he expected to see clear effects of the fusion and savings in the future. Saxony was looking forward to experiencing rapid development of culture, for the time being only consuming the results of reforms of the first term of the parliament. The atmosphere of hopes and expectations to a large extent stemmed from the act on cultural institutions passed on December 17, 1993, with a strong support of all political fractions. It was and still is considered to be a masterpiece of cultural policy from Saxony. Rightly, it was Matthias Theodor Vogt who got all the credit for being an architect of the conception underlying this resolution. Nevertheless, it was evident that the authors of the act were walking on a mine field, trying to balance the political competencies of the federal state and those of the communes. After the Naumann’s commission had finished work, Mahias Theodor Vogt focused on those spheres of culture which required defining. In a short time they started to exist as structures of local self-governments, and as usual in case of common endeavours, the federal state could offer support only via a financial subsidy approved by the Landtag. The Ministry had to bear political responsibility for this. On the other hand, it was obvious that in the first place the resolution had to be verified in practice. It was to be expected that in the course of the dialog which was necessary in this situation, or rather in the course of a dispute over the competencies of the parties


achievements of the Institute are even more impressing. Although I am not expected to present a report on the 15 years of activity of the centre (everything has been documented and is easily accessible), anyway I would like to highlight a few facts. Year 1997 witnessed creation of the first academic centre of education for the administrators of culture, comprising international students. In 2001 the Institute started cooperation with the Dresden University of Technology, launching the two-year MA studies of the second degree, and right afterwards it started work on the European curriculum in the discussed field. Since 2003, the International Summer Schools have been organized in order to strengthen the cross-border influence of the Institute. Application of theory in practice was preceded by the research work, which included two projects completed in the first years of existence of the Institute: Transformation Processes in the Sector of Culture in the Cities of Central and Central-Eastern Europe, and Culture and Economy in Rural Areas. A Study on Central Saxony. On top of this we may mention numerous conferences organized by the Institute or others in which the representatives of the Institute took part. They testify to rapid growth of international contacts and cooperation programs. Increasing recognition of the Institute in Germany was confirmed by a project launched in 2005 Input of churches and religious communities into the cultural life in Germany. It was created in connection with the work of a special Bundestag research commission appointed to investigate the problem of culture, and referred to its crucial report of a long lasting impact. What can be presented as an exemplary instance in the development of the Institute is its enlivening, provocative influence connected with its location. Taking this into account I would like to underline wisdom of the ministerial decision to locate the Institute in Görlitz, next to the University of Technology and Economy - Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft. Initially, the decision was negative, namely all of the three big Saxon cities were excluded, as well as the capital of the federal state, as this could have led to deepening of the prejudice against centralization tendencies. We were aware that Görlitz, which could be referred to in a biblical language: “isn’t it the lowest of all king’s cities of Saxony?”, would be a proper place for the Culture Institute. It is wonderful how Matthias Theodor Vogt took advantage of the genius loci of this town for the benefit of the Institute. Already in the first years of its existence some significant artistic projects were launched in cooperation with the European and international partners, including the performance

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involved, i.e. the federal state and the cultural regions, assistance of a qualified body would prove helpful and valuable. These reflections led to establishing of the Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure, which is celebrating today its 15th anniversary. The Institute was intended to be a centre of research and analyses, as well as a partner for those who would seek advice. One of its primary goals was cooperation with the university and other education centres, aimed at introduction of the results of analyses into the academic curricula. This would provide adequate arguments for the parties involved in the discussion on cultural policy. The institute was to initiate and support such discussion. In other words, the goal of the Institute was to get involved in the Saxon culture dialogue as an independent partner representing science. Thus, it was necessary to attach it permanently to an educational centre, however with a sufficiently independent status to make it distinctive. The institution intended to realize all of the functions mentioned above, defined in an innovative framework, had to get an adequate name. The perfect choice seemed the ‘Institute of Cultural Infrastructure’, as the notion already existed quoted art. 35 p. 7 of the Reunification Treaty. Its implementation in practice proved that it focused on creating a favourable environment for the development of culture, rather than on influencing it. Thus, cultural infrastructure is understood as a necessary condition for the development and functioning of culture. The fact that this body was to focus on the scientific analysis of the problem of culture infrastructure, could not mean, of course, that the institute would be culturally inert. Moreover, the new Institute could not become a Saxon State Institute. It was for this very reason that the name ‘culture infrastructure’ was adopted. The name reflected the sense of existence of the new entity and the scope of research it was to undertake. Everybody who gets acquainted with the accomplishments of the Institute since it came into being in October 1995, is bound to be impressed by successful undertaking of an innovative and risky program. The effects require recognition, the more so that the phase of establishment of the Institute coincided with the period of the policy of savings, which unexpectedly affected us at the beginning of the second term of the parliament. I do not want to arouse the contention again, but I only want to remind our experience proving that when the money is short and employment drops, then everyone starts to first of all mind one’s own business. In these circumstances the

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achievements of the Institute are even more impressing. Although I am not expected to present a report on the 15 years of activity of the centre (everything has been documented and is easily accessible), anyway I would like to highlight a few facts. Year 1997 witnessed creation of the first academic centre of education for the administrators of culture, comprising international students. In 2001 the Institute started cooperation with the Dresden University of Technology, launching the two-year MA studies of the second degree, and right afterwards it started work on the European curriculum in the discussed field. Since 2003, the International Summer Schools have been organized in order to strengthen the cross-border influence of the Institute. Application of theory in practice was preceded by the research work, which included two projects completed in the first years of existence of the Institute: Transformation Processes in the Sector of Culture in the Cities of Central and Central-Eastern Europe, and Culture and Economy in Rural Areas. A Study on Central Saxony. On top of this we may mention numerous conferences organized by the Institute or others in which the representatives of the Institute took part. They testify to rapid growth of international contacts and cooperation programs. Increasing recognition of the Institute in Germany was confirmed by a project launched in 2005 Input of churches and religious communities into the cultural life in Germany. It was created in connection with the work of a special Bundestag research commission appointed to investigate the problem of culture, and referred to its crucial report of a long lasting impact. What can be presented as an exemplary instance in the development of the Institute is its enlivening, provocative influence connected with its location. Taking this into account I would like to underline wisdom of the ministerial decision to locate the Institute in Görlitz, next to the University of Technology and Economy - Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft. Initially, the decision was negative, namely all of the three big Saxon cities were excluded, as well as the capital of the federal state, as this could have led to deepening of the prejudice against centralization tendencies. We were aware that Görlitz, which could be referred to in a biblical language: “isn’t it the lowest of all king’s cities of Saxony?”, would be a proper place for the Culture Institute. It is wonderful how Matthias Theodor Vogt took advantage of the genius loci of this town for the benefit of the Institute. Already in the first years of its existence some significant artistic projects were launched in cooperation with the European and international partners, including the performance

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involved, i.e. the federal state and the cultural regions, assistance of a qualified body would prove helpful and valuable. These reflections led to establishing of the Saxon Institute of Cultural Infrastructure, which is celebrating today its 15th anniversary. The Institute was intended to be a centre of research and analyses, as well as a partner for those who would seek advice. One of its primary goals was cooperation with the university and other education centres, aimed at introduction of the results of analyses into the academic curricula. This would provide adequate arguments for the parties involved in the discussion on cultural policy. The institute was to initiate and support such discussion. In other words, the goal of the Institute was to get involved in the Saxon culture dialogue as an independent partner representing science. Thus, it was necessary to attach it permanently to an educational centre, however with a sufficiently independent status to make it distinctive. The institution intended to realize all of the functions mentioned above, defined in an innovative framework, had to get an adequate name. The perfect choice seemed the ‘Institute of Cultural Infrastructure’, as the notion already existed quoted art. 35 p. 7 of the Reunification Treaty. Its implementation in practice proved that it focused on creating a favourable environment for the development of culture, rather than on influencing it. Thus, cultural infrastructure is understood as a necessary condition for the development and functioning of culture. The fact that this body was to focus on the scientific analysis of the problem of culture infrastructure, could not mean, of course, that the institute would be culturally inert. Moreover, the new Institute could not become a Saxon State Institute. It was for this very reason that the name ‘culture infrastructure’ was adopted. The name reflected the sense of existence of the new entity and the scope of research it was to undertake. Everybody who gets acquainted with the accomplishments of the Institute since it came into being in October 1995, is bound to be impressed by successful undertaking of an innovative and risky program. The effects require recognition, the more so that the phase of establishment of the Institute coincided with the period of the policy of savings, which unexpectedly affected us at the beginning of the second term of the parliament. I do not want to arouse the contention again, but I only want to remind our experience proving that when the money is short and employment drops, then everyone starts to first of all mind one’s own business. In these circumstances the


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Art builds a bridge Zgorzelec/Görlitz (Kunstbrücke Görlitz / Zgorzelec). This event, developed later into systematic work on expanding cooperation and next establishment of the experimental Bridges College Görlitz/Zgorzelec, reflected an early thought which finally led to creation of the Collegium PONTES. We celebrate its anniversary today. Thus, although I studied English, I would like to praise the idea of transition from this globally-dominant language to the old European Latin – however unusual the combination of the nouns collegium and pontes may seem. However, whether we say Brücke, bridges or pontes, in every case we use a metaphor, which tell us something important about culture – it tell us that culture is a bridge over the borders, connecting yesterday with today, and today with tomorrow, connecting our life from before 1989/90 with our life after the breakthrough, connecting the nations of Europe that are still divided by the bitter past. Culture is a bridge between Görlitz and Zgorzelc, which have been united in the new common European community. The image of the bridge represents diversified relations connecting the Institute with many institutions all over Europe which are involved in culture, which carry out research work in this field, and which make culture alive. Matthias Theodor Vogt recruited many celebrities to help erect this bridge – prominent politicians, renown scientists, and original personalities. Thanks to his effort it was possible to organize a variety of events and explore many topics – maybe even too many, considering that every bridge needs to be erected on firm foundations. Of course, even if the contacts beyond the borders are established slowly and gradually, they are at risk, Voght however, never yielded to any provincial narrow-mindedness. It is necessary to follow Voight’s example and overcome the barriers between art, politics, and science. His trans-disciplinary, overwhelming lust for adventure, fuelled by so little institutional and financial support, produced a hurricane of effects. Matthias Theodor Vogt (or MTV as he willingly let people call him before a certain TV station entered the world of mass media) is a daring coordinator of cooperation among various institutions and a fearless man, always in motion, making his brilliant career in a diversified environment. What distinguishes him most is a rare combination of talents. “He is not only acquainted with culture, but also can count” – as long time ago Georg Milbradt has praised him during one of the short periods when the Ministry of Finance was at friendly terms with the Ministry of Culture and Science. I do not want to be misunderstood

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

– if we were not arguing about interests of our offices, but exchanging general opinions on the world and people, Milbrandt and I were usually concordant. As Milbrandt remarked in his dictum, a good example of what is really worthy of admiring is the cultural-political study devoted to the SorbLusatian Folk Song and Dance Group carried out by Vogt, which presents a wide spectrum of issues, starting from a cultural-historic background including comments on aesthetics of folk art in the state socialism, to the profound study of the structure of finances and the budget. Was it interesting for those who commissioned the work, and were they able to understand the conclusion? I ask myself this question, recollecting my own experience with the public clerks and politicians studying written reports… Anyway, I have read the study with engagement undisguised pleasure. From the very beginning, Vogt’s professional interests focused on science. The Institute appeared to him as an opportunity (which he seized) to distinguish himself in publications, conference presentations, and above all in didactic work as an academic teacher. He resembles a film director, which role he has once indeed assumed. Moreover, he is a director in every meaning of the word; someone who wants to stage plays, and who exposes interesting links between art and reality. Later, in the spotlights by means of pictures and action he creates a reality which makes the audience accept the combination. Every time it is a risky undertaking. There are many ways to apply to the public – spiritual shock, provocation, didactic effect of alienation, and in particular irony. A self-portrait of Matthias Theodor Vogt displays an inherent tendency to use the latter as the primary means of expression. A white scarf worn during presentation of the results of work of Naumann’s Commission in the Freiburg Theater, a merry wooden puppet used as a logo of the Institute, the motto Ars Saxoniae Vigilans, which to every born Saxon and to all acquainted with the region brings to mind the local self-characteristics “shrewd and vigilant” – all this testifies to courage and colourful imagination which are not too common in the German humanities or culture studies. Definitely, it attracts attention. The art of rhetoric, not only in the English-speaking countries, stipulates that attracting attention of the audience is not only justified but necessary. I wish professor Matthias Theodor Vogt and the Institute of Culture Infrastructure and its bridge to Europe – Collegium PONTES, many successful years and many anniversaries to celebrate.

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Art builds a bridge Zgorzelec/Görlitz (Kunstbrücke Görlitz / Zgorzelec). This event, developed later into systematic work on expanding cooperation and next establishment of the experimental Bridges College Görlitz/Zgorzelec, reflected an early thought which finally led to creation of the Collegium PONTES. We celebrate its anniversary today. Thus, although I studied English, I would like to praise the idea of transition from this globally-dominant language to the old European Latin – however unusual the combination of the nouns collegium and pontes may seem. However, whether we say Brücke, bridges or pontes, in every case we use a metaphor, which tell us something important about culture – it tell us that culture is a bridge over the borders, connecting yesterday with today, and today with tomorrow, connecting our life from before 1989/90 with our life after the breakthrough, connecting the nations of Europe that are still divided by the bitter past. Culture is a bridge between Görlitz and Zgorzelc, which have been united in the new common European community. The image of the bridge represents diversified relations connecting the Institute with many institutions all over Europe which are involved in culture, which carry out research work in this field, and which make culture alive. Matthias Theodor Vogt recruited many celebrities to help erect this bridge – prominent politicians, renown scientists, and original personalities. Thanks to his effort it was possible to organize a variety of events and explore many topics – maybe even too many, considering that every bridge needs to be erected on firm foundations. Of course, even if the contacts beyond the borders are established slowly and gradually, they are at risk, Voght however, never yielded to any provincial narrow-mindedness. It is necessary to follow Voight’s example and overcome the barriers between art, politics, and science. His trans-disciplinary, overwhelming lust for adventure, fuelled by so little institutional and financial support, produced a hurricane of effects. Matthias Theodor Vogt (or MTV as he willingly let people call him before a certain TV station entered the world of mass media) is a daring coordinator of cooperation among various institutions and a fearless man, always in motion, making his brilliant career in a diversified environment. What distinguishes him most is a rare combination of talents. “He is not only acquainted with culture, but also can count” – as long time ago Georg Milbradt has praised him during one of the short periods when the Ministry of Finance was at friendly terms with the Ministry of Culture and Science. I do not want to be misunderstood

101

– if we were not arguing about interests of our offices, but exchanging general opinions on the world and people, Milbrandt and I were usually concordant. As Milbrandt remarked in his dictum, a good example of what is really worthy of admiring is the cultural-political study devoted to the SorbLusatian Folk Song and Dance Group carried out by Vogt, which presents a wide spectrum of issues, starting from a cultural-historic background including comments on aesthetics of folk art in the state socialism, to the profound study of the structure of finances and the budget. Was it interesting for those who commissioned the work, and were they able to understand the conclusion? I ask myself this question, recollecting my own experience with the public clerks and politicians studying written reports… Anyway, I have read the study with engagement undisguised pleasure. From the very beginning, Vogt’s professional interests focused on science. The Institute appeared to him as an opportunity (which he seized) to distinguish himself in publications, conference presentations, and above all in didactic work as an academic teacher. He resembles a film director, which role he has once indeed assumed. Moreover, he is a director in every meaning of the word; someone who wants to stage plays, and who exposes interesting links between art and reality. Later, in the spotlights by means of pictures and action he creates a reality which makes the audience accept the combination. Every time it is a risky undertaking. There are many ways to apply to the public – spiritual shock, provocation, didactic effect of alienation, and in particular irony. A self-portrait of Matthias Theodor Vogt displays an inherent tendency to use the latter as the primary means of expression. A white scarf worn during presentation of the results of work of Naumann’s Commission in the Freiburg Theater, a merry wooden puppet used as a logo of the Institute, the motto Ars Saxoniae Vigilans, which to every born Saxon and to all acquainted with the region brings to mind the local self-characteristics “shrewd and vigilant” – all this testifies to courage and colourful imagination which are not too common in the German humanities or culture studies. Definitely, it attracts attention. The art of rhetoric, not only in the English-speaking countries, stipulates that attracting attention of the audience is not only justified but necessary. I wish professor Matthias Theodor Vogt and the Institute of Culture Infrastructure and its bridge to Europe – Collegium PONTES, many successful years and many anniversaries to celebrate.


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TBILISI

MM

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film Georgian State University Tbilisi, Georgia www.tafu.edu.ge

International Relations Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film Georgian State University has a long cooperation and signed agreements with: Kiev Theatre and Film, TV Academy of Karpenko Kari /Ukraine/, Yerevan Theatre and Film Institute /Armenia/, Baku Arts University /Azerbaijan/, Vilnius Music and Theatre Academy /Lithuania/ Istanbul Bilgi University /Turkey/, Ankara Bilkent University /Turkey/, Alma-Ata Arts Academy /Kazakhstan/. University organizes international training programs and master classes, scientific conferences, seminars and round tables Since 1978 University organised International annual student film festival “AMIRANI” and permanently Students International Theatre Festival. The idea of student film festival “Amirani” has existed since 1978. At first it started as the biennial activity. Just at the beginning of its foundation it was thought as the freest festival in cinematography groups of “The Soviet Union”. In the 1990s after collapsing the Soviet Union the festival stopped its existence. In 2007 the university re-established student’s International film festival, making it annual. It became a successor of the film festival established in 1978, in which the members of the judges were such famous film artists as: Otar Iose-

Art and Social Science Faculty: Theatre Study Film Study Art Study TV-Radio Journalism Cultural Management Tourism Management

PhD Study XX Century Western Theatre Study Creative Pedagogy TV Media Practices Study Cultural Management, Cultural Policy Study Contemporary Stage Design and Art Study

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MA Study: Western Theatre Study American Film Study Georgian Traditional Dance Study Contemporary TV Media Directing Skills Creative Pedagogy Teaching Methodology at the Vocal Study Modern Management in Culture Cultural Management Georgian Theatre Anthropology Media Study Media Communication Theory and Practice

MA Study: Western Theatre Study American Film Study Georgian Traditional Dance Study Contemporary TV Media Directing Skills Creative Pedagogy Teaching Methodology at the Vocal Study Modern Management in Culture Cultural Management Georgian Theatre Anthropology Media Study Media Communication Theory and Practice

hota Rustaveli Theatre and Film Georgian State University is a multi-disciplinary institution at the highest level of art education, located in Tbilisi, Georgia and is one of the leading art Universities in all Caucasus. University located in two blocks in historical parts of both side of the river Mtkvari in Tbilisi. It is focused on preparing highly skilled professionals in the field of Theatre, Film, TV Media, Traditional Folk, Performing or applied arts, Cultural Management and Cultural Tourism. One of the main task is to improve inter-disciplined studying plans and scientific researches, which will broaden employment market in the sphere of art; and it will provide the postgraduates with the skills to adapt to the permanently changeable labour market of the world. The University represents the national values of Georgian culture and art, also it is the scientific research educational institution studying cultural inheritance, which is focused on the fields of theatre and cinema media-arts, art scientific studies, cultural management, cultural policy and post researching steps to improve (deepen) these spheres. The university was founded in 1923. It has served Georgian and the world culture for 85 years. At the University there are BA, MA and PhD levels. The cinema department was created 36 years ago in the university. The university is a plenipotentiary member of ELIA and CILECT. The 85 years old university has 3 faculties: MM Drama Faculty: Acting /Theatre and Cinema/ Theatre Directing Mime Puppetry Music Theatre Acting Choreographer of Georgian Dance Georgian Polyphonic and Spiritual music Pop Music performer Stage Design MM Film and TV Media Faculty: Film Directing /Feature, Documentary, Animation/ Camera TV Media Directing Sound Directing

PhD Study XX Century Western Theatre Study Creative Pedagogy TV Media Practices Study Cultural Management, Cultural Policy Study Contemporary Stage Design and Art Study

S

Art and Social Science Faculty: Theatre Study Film Study Art Study TV-Radio Journalism Cultural Management Tourism Management

International Relations Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film Georgian State University has a long cooperation and signed agreements with: Kiev Theatre and Film, TV Academy of Karpenko Kari /Ukraine/, Yerevan Theatre and Film Institute /Armenia/, Baku Arts University /Azerbaijan/, Vilnius Music and Theatre Academy /Lithuania/ Istanbul Bilgi University /Turkey/, Ankara Bilkent University /Turkey/, Alma-Ata Arts Academy /Kazakhstan/. University organizes international training programs and master classes, scientific conferences, seminars and round tables Since 1978 University organised International annual student film festival “AMIRANI” and permanently Students International Theatre Festival. The idea of student film festival “Amirani” has existed since 1978. At first it started as the biennial activity. Just at the beginning of its foundation it was thought as the freest festival in cinematography groups of “The Soviet Union”. In the 1990s after collapsing the Soviet Union the festival stopped its existence. In 2007 the university re-established student’s International film festival, making it annual. It became a successor of the film festival established in 1978, in which the members of the judges were such famous film artists as: Otar Iose-

Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film Georgian State University Tbilisi, Georgia www.tafu.edu.ge

MM

hota Rustaveli Theatre and Film Georgian State University is a multi-disciplinary institution at the highest level of art education, located in Tbilisi, Georgia and is one of the leading art Universities in all Caucasus. University located in two blocks in historical parts of both side of the river Mtkvari in Tbilisi. It is focused on preparing highly skilled professionals in the field of Theatre, Film, TV Media, Traditional Folk, Performing or applied arts, Cultural Management and Cultural Tourism. One of the main task is to improve inter-disciplined studying plans and scientific researches, which will broaden employment market in the sphere of art; and it will provide the postgraduates with the skills to adapt to the permanently changeable labour market of the world. The University represents the national values of Georgian culture and art, also it is the scientific research educational institution studying cultural inheritance, which is focused on the fields of theatre and cinema media-arts, art scientific studies, cultural management, cultural policy and post researching steps to improve (deepen) these spheres. The university was founded in 1923. It has served Georgian and the world culture for 85 years. At the University there are BA, MA and PhD levels. The cinema department was created 36 years ago in the university. The university is a plenipotentiary member of ELIA and CILECT. The 85 years old university has 3 faculties: MM Drama Faculty: Acting /Theatre and Cinema/ Theatre Directing Mime Puppetry Music Theatre Acting Choreographer of Georgian Dance Georgian Polyphonic and Spiritual music Pop Music performer Stage Design MM Film and TV Media Faculty: Film Directing /Feature, Documentary, Animation/ Camera TV Media Directing Sound Directing

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

TBILISI


Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

liani; Merab Kokochashvili; Rezo Esadze; Leonid Gaidai; Maschenko and Izraeliani; Every year more than 20 countries from whole world take part in this festival. At the University all students have access to the internet, large Scientific Library /over 200000 volumes/, Culture Video Centre /over 5000 materials/, several stages, studious and many other facilities. At the University launched Scientific Research Institute, operated University Press – Publishing House KENTAVRI. University produced Annually IV volumes of Cultural Science Studies, more than 15 publications, monthly two editions of newspapers: DURUJI and KULTURA. During the year University host many invited professors and experts, involved in many international projects with his partner Universities and institutions. Rector of the University, Professor Giorgi Margvelashvili Vice-Rector, Head of International Relations and Research, Professor, Dr. Levan Khetaguri Head of PR Service Mr. Jaba Sikharulidze

in the international film projects. Cameramen from Academy participate in notable TV and film projects in Latvia and juries of international film festivals. International guest lecturers, giving theoretical courses as well as acting and choreography workshops, regularly visit Academy. In the curriculum of the TV directors, cameramen and the students of Audiovisual culture there is a independently and cooperating with other academic and scientific establishments. The classical academic study process at the Latvian Academy of Culture is related to research and creative activities, which are exercised both by lecturers and students. The main areas of research of the LAC academic staff and students are the general theory and history of culture, drama, the sociology of culture, the philosophy of art. In compliance with the study profile of the LAC there are also important artistic and creative activities besides research. They are performed both by the students and the teaching staff of the Academy. The teachers of the theatre art make their artistic projects at most of the state dramatic theatres, often involving the students of the Academy.

RĪGA

Department of Sociology and Management of Culture  This Department offers instruction in the specialities of “Sociology of Culture” and „Sociology of Culture and Management”. These study programmes include both the arts and the major social sciences. In addition to the program “Management of Culture”, they prepare students for job opportunities in various Latvian institutions connected with culture: the Ministry of Culture, the editorial boards of art magazines, marketing companies, museums, galleries, and educational establishments. The M.A. Programme in Cultural Management was started in 1998. It is addressed to two principal categories of students: holder of B.A. degree from LAC or other institutions and practitioners in the cultural field who want to complement their knowledge and experience in the arts by acquiring skills in culture administration. An in the other programmes in the Academy, this academic programme places a high value o­n the combination of theoretical knowledge with practical experience. Since the year 2000, o­n the basis of an agreement between the Hamburg University of Music and Theatre and the Latvian Academy of Culture, an MA programme in “Culture and Media Management” (Head of the Programm Prof. Dr.phil

Latvian Academy of Culture www.kulturmedien-riga.de

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he Latvian Academy of Culture (LAC) was founded o­n December 29, 1990 by a decision of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia. In 1991 the first 63 students commenced their BA study programme. O­n 18 May 1992 the Supreme Council of the Republic of Latvia approved the Constitution of the Latvian Academy of Culture. There are about 700 students at the LAC: BA studies: 520; MA studies: 154, PhD studies: 13 The academic staff of the LAC includes about 73 university teachers (22 professors and associated professors, 14 assistant professors, 37 lecturers). Graduates of Academy of Culture held notable positions at diplomatic institutions in Latvia and abroad, develops cultural ties among Latvia and European countries, deal with international cooperation issues at Latvian and international companies, carries out cultural projects, work o­n international image at Latvian institute, are competitive and required teacher of humanities (liberal studies) at the schools in Latvia. Graduates of actors and directors’ study programs have become popular and internationally recognized artists of a new generation, takes main parts at the theatres of Latvia, takes part

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he Latvian Academy of Culture (LAC) was founded o­n December 29, 1990 by a decision of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia. In 1991 the first 63 students commenced their BA study programme. O­n 18 May 1992 the Supreme Council of the Republic of Latvia approved the Constitution of the Latvian Academy of Culture. There are about 700 students at the LAC: BA studies: 520; MA studies: 154, PhD studies: 13 The academic staff of the LAC includes about 73 university teachers (22 professors and associated professors, 14 assistant professors, 37 lecturers). Graduates of Academy of Culture held notable positions at diplomatic institutions in Latvia and abroad, develops cultural ties among Latvia and European countries, deal with international cooperation issues at Latvian and international companies, carries out cultural projects, work o­n international image at Latvian institute, are competitive and required teacher of humanities (liberal studies) at the schools in Latvia. Graduates of actors and directors’ study programs have become popular and internationally recognized artists of a new generation, takes main parts at the theatres of Latvia, takes part

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Latvian Academy of Culture www.kulturmedien-riga.de

RĪGA liani; Merab Kokochashvili; Rezo Esadze; Leonid Gaidai; Maschenko and Izraeliani; Every year more than 20 countries from whole world take part in this festival. At the University all students have access to the internet, large Scientific Library /over 200000 volumes/, Culture Video Centre /over 5000 materials/, several stages, studious and many other facilities. At the University launched Scientific Research Institute, operated University Press – Publishing House KENTAVRI. University produced Annually IV volumes of Cultural Science Studies, more than 15 publications, monthly two editions of newspapers: DURUJI and KULTURA. During the year University host many invited professors and experts, involved in many international projects with his partner Universities and institutions. Rector of the University, Professor Giorgi Margvelashvili Vice-Rector, Head of International Relations and Research, Professor, Dr. Levan Khetaguri Head of PR Service Mr. Jaba Sikharulidze

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Department of Sociology and Management of Culture  This Department offers instruction in the specialities of “Sociology of Culture” and „Sociology of Culture and Management”. These study programmes include both the arts and the major social sciences. In addition to the program “Management of Culture”, they prepare students for job opportunities in various Latvian institutions connected with culture: the Ministry of Culture, the editorial boards of art magazines, marketing companies, museums, galleries, and educational establishments. The M.A. Programme in Cultural Management was started in 1998. It is addressed to two principal categories of students: holder of B.A. degree from LAC or other institutions and practitioners in the cultural field who want to complement their knowledge and experience in the arts by acquiring skills in culture administration. An in the other programmes in the Academy, this academic programme places a high value o­n the combination of theoretical knowledge with practical experience. Since the year 2000, o­n the basis of an agreement between the Hamburg University of Music and Theatre and the Latvian Academy of Culture, an MA programme in “Culture and Media Management” (Head of the Programm Prof. Dr.phil in the international film projects. Cameramen from Academy participate in notable TV and film projects in Latvia and juries of international film festivals. International guest lecturers, giving theoretical courses as well as acting and choreography workshops, regularly visit Academy. In the curriculum of the TV directors, cameramen and the students of Audiovisual culture there is a independently and cooperating with other academic and scientific establishments. The classical academic study process at the Latvian Academy of Culture is related to research and creative activities, which are exercised both by lecturers and students. The main areas of research of the LAC academic staff and students are the general theory and history of culture, drama, the sociology of culture, the philosophy of art. In compliance with the study profile of the LAC there are also important artistic and creative activities besides research. They are performed both by the students and the teaching staff of the Academy. The teachers of the theatre art make their artistic projects at most of the state dramatic theatres, often involving the students of the Academy.


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Ivars Berzins), taught in the medium of the German language, was added. The objective of this programme is to train specialists who would act as intermediaries between Latvia and the German-speaking part of Europe. They are expected to represent Latvian culture and its institutions in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland as well as attract an international public to significant cultural events in Latvia.

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

VIENNA

he Department of Culture Management, formerly functioning as the Culture Management School (established in 1994), until 2008 was a part of the Institute of Public Affairs of the Jagiellonian University, within which it conducted studies in the field of management and marketing. Presently, it belongs to the Institute of Culture at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication of the Jagiellonian University, within which it offers BA studies, MA studies, postgraduate studies, as well as inter-faculty doctoral stud-

Presentation of the „Hohe Warte“ Study Centre www.hohe-warte.at

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T

Department of Culture Management Institute of Culture at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication Jagiellonian Uiversity www.kultura.uj.edu.pl

professional apprenticeship, and for this reason the compulsory seminars are arranged in a convenient form of thematic blocks. The Study Centre launched recently its own publication cycle which is intended to present the doctoral dissertations of special importance for the world of science. A novelty is edition of a scientific paper discussing the issues related to economy, culture and the related domains. In 2009, the Study Centre „Hohe Warte” applied for accreditation as a private university. Two independent faculties are being considered: the Culture Studies Faculty and the Economy Faculty. The Culture Studies Faculty will comprise three specialties, each at the BA and MA level: applied ethics, journalism and new media, culture management. Initially, culture management will be taught only as BA studies. MA studies in the field of culture management are at the stage of preparation and should be ready for accreditation in 2010. The culture management studies will focus on art and culture in a broad sense, as well as on pragmatic conceptions in aesthetics and on widely understood communication. This will differentiate them from other existing studies Europe wise. The classes will be visited by the prominent personalities of the Austrian culture and science. MA studies will be conducted under the assumption that, apart from a few exceptions, the students are acquainted with the basic economic instruments of administrating (confirmed by graduation from the BA studies). Another requirement will be a few-year experience in the domain of art or those fields of economy which are related to culture (e.g. creative industries, editorial houses or local institutions of culture).

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KRAKÓW

KRAKÓW

he „Hohe Warte“ Study Centre in Vienna offers studies in the domain of economy, media sciences, and law. The Institute cooperates with many academic centres, including the accredited Bratislava School of Law. The fields of study offered by the “Hohe Warte” centre comprise the following levels: BA studies, MA studies, PhD studies. The Study Centre is associated with the SalesManager Academy (SMA), which evolved from a unit for post-graduate students at the University of Economics and Business in Vienna. Presently, SMA as a private school offers a wide spectrum of classes on economy, which enjoy growing popularity. Since 2002 the centre’s offer contains also MBA studies. Beside the unquestionable professional level of instruction, the characteristic feature of the studies is organization of classes in the form of blocks. This means that the seminars ending up with scoring ECTS points, are arranged in the form of 3- or 4-day sessions covering the whole thematic area, and their didactic profile is shaped thanks to active participation of the students. The program includes completion of tasks (e.g. writing a paper, preparation of a commentary on a specialized publication or a case study), as well as work in small teams (comprising not more than 12 participants). Whenever the number of candidates is bigger, the seminars are organized several times in a year. Thus, it means that the studies may begin at any moment. Postgraduate studies comprise the problems of international management in various aspects, and in reference to the social and cultural background. The studies are based on a tutoring formula, the students being tutored by experienced researchers within 5 compulsory seminars (e.g. philosophy, research methods), and an obligation to publish at least two specialized articles in the renown scientific periodicals. The studies involve also

Department of Culture Management Institute of Culture at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication Jagiellonian Uiversity www.kultura.uj.edu.pl

T

T

Presentation of the „Hohe Warte“ Study Centre www.hohe-warte.at

he Department of Culture Management, formerly functioning as the Culture Management School (established in 1994), until 2008 was a part of the Institute of Public Affairs of the Jagiellonian University, within which it conducted studies in the field of management and marketing. Presently, it belongs to the Institute of Culture at the Faculty of Management and Social Communication of the Jagiellonian University, within which it offers BA studies, MA studies, postgraduate studies, as well as inter-faculty doctoral stud-

VIENNA

professional apprenticeship, and for this reason the compulsory seminars are arranged in a convenient form of thematic blocks. The Study Centre launched recently its own publication cycle which is intended to present the doctoral dissertations of special importance for the world of science. A novelty is edition of a scientific paper discussing the issues related to economy, culture and the related domains. In 2009, the Study Centre „Hohe Warte” applied for accreditation as a private university. Two independent faculties are being considered: the Culture Studies Faculty and the Economy Faculty. The Culture Studies Faculty will comprise three specialties, each at the BA and MA level: applied ethics, journalism and new media, culture management. Initially, culture management will be taught only as BA studies. MA studies in the field of culture management are at the stage of preparation and should be ready for accreditation in 2010. The culture management studies will focus on art and culture in a broad sense, as well as on pragmatic conceptions in aesthetics and on widely understood communication. This will differentiate them from other existing studies Europe wise. The classes will be visited by the prominent personalities of the Austrian culture and science. MA studies will be conducted under the assumption that, apart from a few exceptions, the students are acquainted with the basic economic instruments of administrating (confirmed by graduation from the BA studies). Another requirement will be a few-year experience in the domain of art or those fields of economy which are related to culture (e.g. creative industries, editorial houses or local institutions of culture).

he „Hohe Warte“ Study Centre in Vienna offers studies in the domain of economy, media sciences, and law. The Institute cooperates with many academic centres, including the accredited Bratislava School of Law. The fields of study offered by the “Hohe Warte” centre comprise the following levels: BA studies, MA studies, PhD studies. The Study Centre is associated with the SalesManager Academy (SMA), which evolved from a unit for post-graduate students at the University of Economics and Business in Vienna. Presently, SMA as a private school offers a wide spectrum of classes on economy, which enjoy growing popularity. Since 2002 the centre’s offer contains also MBA studies. Beside the unquestionable professional level of instruction, the characteristic feature of the studies is organization of classes in the form of blocks. This means that the seminars ending up with scoring ECTS points, are arranged in the form of 3- or 4-day sessions covering the whole thematic area, and their didactic profile is shaped thanks to active participation of the students. The program includes completion of tasks (e.g. writing a paper, preparation of a commentary on a specialized publication or a case study), as well as work in small teams (comprising not more than 12 participants). Whenever the number of candidates is bigger, the seminars are organized several times in a year. Thus, it means that the studies may begin at any moment. Postgraduate studies comprise the problems of international management in various aspects, and in reference to the social and cultural background. The studies are based on a tutoring formula, the students being tutored by experienced researchers within 5 compulsory seminars (e.g. philosophy, research methods), and an obligation to publish at least two specialized articles in the renown scientific periodicals. The studies involve also

Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

Ivars Berzins), taught in the medium of the German language, was added. The objective of this programme is to train specialists who would act as intermediaries between Latvia and the German-speaking part of Europe. They are expected to represent Latvian culture and its institutions in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland as well as attract an international public to significant cultural events in Latvia.


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ies. The specialty of the department has remained the same, i.e. culture management, however, the studies have changed from management to culture studies. The change results from adoption of new standards for studies, where management has been classified among economy-related sciences, whereas culture studies have been ascribed to the humanities. The Department comprises 8 employees with at least a PhD degree. It publishes a yearly Scholarly Papers “Management in Culture” (10 issues have been published), the series Culture Management Library (since 2008 5 books have been published), a number of translated publications (including 3 books by P. Bendixen, G. Hagoort, M. J. Schuster). Since 2008, an international tri-language periodical “Culture Management /

Kulturmanagement / Zarządzanie Kulturą” has been issued. Moreover, the Department ordered publication of 40 bulletins containing lectures delivered by the ambassadors under the heading Cultural policy of my country. The Department of Culture Management is a member of ENCATC; it cooperates closely with many local, national and foreign institutions and organizations. Since 2009, the Department expanded by a Study for Documentation of Life and Achievements of Helena Modrzejewska (working out a web archive); future plans include setting up of a Study Observatory of Cultural Life. The head of the Department is professor doctor habilitated Emil Orzechowski, the founder of the Culture Management School and the Faculty of Management and Social Communication.

ies. The specialty of the department has remained the same, i.e. culture management, however, the studies have changed from management to culture studies. The change results from adoption of new standards for studies, where management has been classified among economy-related sciences, whereas culture studies have been ascribed to the humanities. The Department comprises 8 employees with at least a PhD degree. It publishes a yearly Scholarly Papers “Management in Culture” (10 issues have been published), the series Culture Management Library (since 2008 5 books have been published), a number of translated publications (including 3 books by P. Bendixen, G. Hagoort, M. J. Schuster). Since 2008, an international tri-language periodical “Culture Management / Culture Management 2009, Vol 2 (2)

105

Kulturmanagement / Zarządzanie Kulturą” has been issued. Moreover, the Department ordered publication of 40 bulletins containing lectures delivered by the ambassadors under the heading Cultural policy of my country. The Department of Culture Management is a member of ENCATC; it cooperates closely with many local, national and foreign institutions and organizations. Since 2009, the Department expanded by a Study for Documentation of Life and Achievements of Helena Modrzejewska (working out a web archive); future plans include setting up of a Study Observatory of Cultural Life. The head of the Department is professor doctor habilitated Emil Orzechowski, the founder of the Culture Management School and the Faculty of Management and Social Communication.



Kulturmanagement Kulturmanagement



109

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Einführung Emil Orzechowski

A

nbei präsentieren wir Ihnen die zweite Ausgabe unserer Fachzeitschrift. Der halbjährige Herausgaberhythmus bleibt die Redaktionsabsicht, aber rein bürokratische Verfahren verursachen, dass es – wenigstens in der Anfangsphase – Verzögerungen gibt. Der Beweis für diese Unpünktlichkeit ist die vorliegende Ausgabe, die fast ein Jahr nach der ersten veröffentlicht wird. Das ist wieder ein Thema, das hier kurz kommentiert werden soll, denn so ein ähnliches Projekt trifft sehr viele Schwierigkeiten in der Realität des bestreitbaren Bologna-Prozesses und Lissabon-Vertrages. Immer noch, wenigstens in der akademischen Praxis im Rahmen von unserer Spezialisierung, d.h. Kulturmanagement, sind wir arme Verwandten von paneuropäischen Farmern, und im Rahmen vom wissenschaftlichen Milieu sind wir ein Paria unter Bio-, Astro-, Info-, etc. Nichts aber. Man soll ein eigenes Ding machen, besonders dann, wenn man von seiner Notwendigkeit überzeugt ist. Und – sooner or later – bekommt die Bezeichnung Culture matters eine substantielle Bedeutung.

D

ie zweite Ausgabe unterscheidet sich von der ersten in ihrer Komposition. Während die erste ein Katalog der Probleme und des Bestandes an Autoren war, konzentriert sich diese Ausgabe darauf, ein Paar Anhaltspunkte zu signalisieren, die im Moment essentiell und reflexionsbedürftig zu sein scheinen, besonders in einer territorialen Dimension, die in dieser Fachzeitschrift bevorzugt wird. Aus diesem Grund, abgesehen vom bedeutenden Artikel von P. Bendixen, der kein Kommentar seitens Kulturmanager braucht, berühren wir solche Themen wie Kulturpolitik anhand des Beispiels von Georgien oder auch die Frage nach der sogenannten historischen Politik anhand des Beispiels von Polen. Georgien und Polen dienen hier nur als Beispiel für Problemstellungen, die von großer Bedeutung überall, besonders in unserem Teil der Welt, sind.

Z

wei weitere Texte veranschaulichen bedeutsame und eher positive Phänomena, d.h. die gesellschaftliche Beteiligung an der Erneuerung der Denkmäler (am Beispiel von Krakow) und die Tendenz zum Veranstalten der kulturellen Events in der Form von Festspielen; diese Problematik, Methoden der Vorgehensweise und Ergebnisse sollen sicherlich zur Diskussion gestellt werden.

D

ie Probleme von Kulturökonomie und Wissensmanagement (hier anhand des Beispiels von einer Non-Profit Organisation) sind immer nennens-

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

wert. Es mag sein, dass sie ein Grund für die nächste empfehlenswerten Fallstudien werden.

W

ir möchten auch zusätzlich Ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf die Bedingungen wenden, in denen unsere Kollegen östlich der Europäischen Union arbeiten. Daher basieren zwei Texte auf der ukrainischen Realität.

E

ine gute Auskunft ist die Tatsache, dass Beiträge in der vorliegenden Ausgabe in gleichem Maße von bekannten Akademikern wie auch Doktoranden, die ihre Doktorarbeiten vorbereiten, verfasst wurden. Wir versprachen es und möchten diese Formel fortsetzen.

Z

um Schluss folgt eine kurze Information zu den zukünftigen Plänen. Alle Interessierten sind immer zum Einreichen von allerlei Texten eingeladen, die auch selbstverständlich von der Redaktion bewertet werden. Mit großer Zufriedenheit können wir hier signalisieren, dass ein Teil der Beiträge für die dritte Ausgabe schon gesammelt worden ist. Die künftige Ausgabe wird die Analyse des Kongresses für Polnische Kultur beinhalten. Der Kongress war unserer Meinung nach hauptsächlich für die Polen wichtig, aber organisatorisch gesehen bestimmte er ein neues Modell im Bereich Sozialdialog, was wiederum in einer breiteren Perspektive wichtig ist.

U

nsere Absicht ist es, die darauffolgende, vierte Ausgabe dem Thema rechtliche Lösungen, finanzielle und weitere Rahmenbedingungen zu widmen, dank denen vollkommene Beispiele der öffentlichprivaten Partnerschaft schon in unserem Teil Europas zu beobachten sind. Wir bitten Sie daher um Beiträge, die dieses Phänomenon illustrieren, die dessen positive wie auch negative Aspekte zeigen.

S

tatt der Pläne, weitere Ausgaben der Fachzeitschrift zu publizieren, ziehen wir unsere Erklärung nicht zurück, dass wir die Vorbereitung ganzer Ausgaben in die Hände der Partnerinstitutionen legen, die an der Zeitschrift mitarbeiten (Sie werden auch das thematische Profil dieser Spezialausgaben bestimmen können).

W

ir hoffen darauf, unsere Fachzeitschrift wird eine gemeinsame Sache von Redakteuren und Lesern/Innen, und vielleicht – was auch mag sein – Politikern, die für Kultur und Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft in neuem Europa zuständig sind.

109

ie Probleme von Kulturökonomie und Wissensmanagement (hier anhand des Beispiels von einer Non-Profit Organisation) sind immer nennens-

D

wei weitere Texte veranschaulichen bedeutsame und eher positive Phänomena, d.h. die gesellschaftliche Beteiligung an der Erneuerung der Denkmäler (am Beispiel von Krakow) und die Tendenz zum Veranstalten der kulturellen Events in der Form von Festspielen; diese Problematik, Methoden der Vorgehensweise und Ergebnisse sollen sicherlich zur Diskussion gestellt werden.

Z

ie zweite Ausgabe unterscheidet sich von der ersten in ihrer Komposition. Während die erste ein Katalog der Probleme und des Bestandes an Autoren war, konzentriert sich diese Ausgabe darauf, ein Paar Anhaltspunkte zu signalisieren, die im Moment essentiell und reflexionsbedürftig zu sein scheinen, besonders in einer territorialen Dimension, die in dieser Fachzeitschrift bevorzugt wird. Aus diesem Grund, abgesehen vom bedeutenden Artikel von P. Bendixen, der kein Kommentar seitens Kulturmanager braucht, berühren wir solche Themen wie Kulturpolitik anhand des Beispiels von Georgien oder auch die Frage nach der sogenannten historischen Politik anhand des Beispiels von Polen. Georgien und Polen dienen hier nur als Beispiel für Problemstellungen, die von großer Bedeutung überall, besonders in unserem Teil der Welt, sind.

D

nbei präsentieren wir Ihnen die zweite Ausgabe unserer Fachzeitschrift. Der halbjährige Herausgaberhythmus bleibt die Redaktionsabsicht, aber rein bürokratische Verfahren verursachen, dass es – wenigstens in der Anfangsphase – Verzögerungen gibt. Der Beweis für diese Unpünktlichkeit ist die vorliegende Ausgabe, die fast ein Jahr nach der ersten veröffentlicht wird. Das ist wieder ein Thema, das hier kurz kommentiert werden soll, denn so ein ähnliches Projekt trifft sehr viele Schwierigkeiten in der Realität des bestreitbaren Bologna-Prozesses und Lissabon-Vertrages. Immer noch, wenigstens in der akademischen Praxis im Rahmen von unserer Spezialisierung, d.h. Kulturmanagement, sind wir arme Verwandten von paneuropäischen Farmern, und im Rahmen vom wissenschaftlichen Milieu sind wir ein Paria unter Bio-, Astro-, Info-, etc. Nichts aber. Man soll ein eigenes Ding machen, besonders dann, wenn man von seiner Notwendigkeit überzeugt ist. Und – sooner or later – bekommt die Bezeichnung Culture matters eine substantielle Bedeutung.

A

Emil Orzechowski

Einführung

ir hoffen darauf, unsere Fachzeitschrift wird eine gemeinsame Sache von Redakteuren und Lesern/Innen, und vielleicht – was auch mag sein – Politikern, die für Kultur und Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft in neuem Europa zuständig sind.

W

tatt der Pläne, weitere Ausgaben der Fachzeitschrift zu publizieren, ziehen wir unsere Erklärung nicht zurück, dass wir die Vorbereitung ganzer Ausgaben in die Hände der Partnerinstitutionen legen, die an der Zeitschrift mitarbeiten (Sie werden auch das thematische Profil dieser Spezialausgaben bestimmen können).

S

nsere Absicht ist es, die darauffolgende, vierte Ausgabe dem Thema rechtliche Lösungen, finanzielle und weitere Rahmenbedingungen zu widmen, dank denen vollkommene Beispiele der öffentlichprivaten Partnerschaft schon in unserem Teil Europas zu beobachten sind. Wir bitten Sie daher um Beiträge, die dieses Phänomenon illustrieren, die dessen positive wie auch negative Aspekte zeigen.

U

um Schluss folgt eine kurze Information zu den zukünftigen Plänen. Alle Interessierten sind immer zum Einreichen von allerlei Texten eingeladen, die auch selbstverständlich von der Redaktion bewertet werden. Mit großer Zufriedenheit können wir hier signalisieren, dass ein Teil der Beiträge für die dritte Ausgabe schon gesammelt worden ist. Die künftige Ausgabe wird die Analyse des Kongresses für Polnische Kultur beinhalten. Der Kongress war unserer Meinung nach hauptsächlich für die Polen wichtig, aber organisatorisch gesehen bestimmte er ein neues Modell im Bereich Sozialdialog, was wiederum in einer breiteren Perspektive wichtig ist.

Z

ine gute Auskunft ist die Tatsache, dass Beiträge in der vorliegenden Ausgabe in gleichem Maße von bekannten Akademikern wie auch Doktoranden, die ihre Doktorarbeiten vorbereiten, verfasst wurden. Wir versprachen es und möchten diese Formel fortsetzen.

E

ir möchten auch zusätzlich Ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf die Bedingungen wenden, in denen unsere Kollegen östlich der Europäischen Union arbeiten. Daher basieren zwei Texte auf der ukrainischen Realität.

W

wert. Es mag sein, dass sie ein Grund für die nächste empfehlenswerten Fallstudien werden.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Peter Bendixen

110

1. Kultur und Management

Vgl. dazu sehr ausführlich und fundiert Karl H. Brodbeck: Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik. Darmstadt (Wiss. Buchgesellschaft) 2009. Zur Kritik des orthodoxen ökonomischen Denkens vgl. auch Peter Bendixen: Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens. (im Druck beim LIT-Verlag, erscheint voraussichtlich im Herbst 2009).

2

D

Ich beziehe mich auf Rüdiger Safranski: Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch. 2. Aufl. Frankfurt/M. 2006, S. 7: >Verstand< entdecken wir auch im Tierreich. Der Schimpanse, der durch Erfahrung lernt, mit einem Stock nach der Banane zu angeln, beweist verständiges Verhalten. Verstand ist am Werk, wo Werkzeuge hergestellt werden… Vernunft, im Unterschied zum Verstand, vermag über Zwecke zu disponieren. Das setzt ein Selbstverständnis voraus, das Selbstdistanz ermöglicht. Betriebswirtschaftliche Instrumente sind Mittel. Unternehmenszwecke werden in der Regel nicht diskutiert, sondern als Selbstverständlichkeit in Gestalt von Gewinnzielen als gegeben unterstellt.

1

Es geht indessen nicht nur um das inhaltliche Verständnis, sondern auch um den Kunstbegriff Kulturmanagement, welcher (in der deutschen Sprache) bei zusammengesetzten Wörtern den vorderen Wortteil zum Gegenstand und das zweite zum Agens macht. Sprachlich liegt der Begriff Kulturmanagement auf der gleichen Ebene wie Sportmanagement oder Umweltmanagement. Das Problem dabei ist nur, dass man die Kunst oder gar die Kultur so wenig managen kann wie den Sport oder die Umwelt. Kunst wird praktiziert durch Künstler, Sport wird betrieben von Sportlern und die Natur macht mit der Umwelt, was sie will, und lässt sich nicht ohne weiteres vom Menschen kommandieren. Kultur als die von Werten und Lebensmustern geprägte individuelle und soziale Welt mit all ihren lokalen, regionalen und nationalen Eigenheiten ist ein generationenlanges, organisch gewachsenes Werk der Geschichte. So etwas kann man nicht managen. Der gedankliche Fehler liegt hauptsächlich im Begriff Management und der damit verbundenen Vorstellung, man könne solche vitalen, gesellschaftlichen Lebensbereiche wie Kunst und andere kulturelle Aktivitäten, zu denen auch der Sport gehört, rational in den Griff nehmen, durchplanen und organisieren, strategisch ausrichten und am Ende einem klaren Ziel entgegen führen,

ie meisten heute international bekannten und unterrichteten Konzeptionen und Prinzipien des Kulturmanagements stehen unter dem Kommando der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementlehre. Kultur wird ökonomisch strukturiert und behandelt, genauer: optimiert im Sinne der Wirtschaftlichkeit und rationalen Ordnung von Strukturen und Abläufen und damit, wie man glaubt, auf eine Vernunftgrundlage gebracht. Dass dabei Vernunft und Verstand verwechselt werden1 und damit den betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumenten ohne weitere Reflexion Vernunft unterstellt wird, bekommt in den meisten Fällen der Kunst oder im erweiterten Verständnis der Kultur nicht. Betriebswirtschaftliche Instrumente beruhen im Geiste und in der Praxis auf der Herrschaft des Geldes; in der Wirtschaft sowieso, nun aber auch in Kunst und Kultur.2 Dass die Inhalte von Kultur und Kunst nicht thematisiert werden, unterstreicht den Anspruch der Betriebswirtschaftslehre auf Geltung in jedem gesellschaftlichen Bereich, in dem es etwas zu ordnen und strukturell auszurichten gibt. Die vermeintliche Beherrschung des Objektes mit den Instrumenten der Betriebswirtschaftslehre ist ein behebbarer Mangel, wenn das Verhältnis dialektisch angepackt wird.

ie meisten heute international bekannten und unterrichteten Konzeptionen und Prinzipien des Kulturmanagements stehen unter dem Kommando der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementlehre. Kultur wird ökonomisch strukturiert und behandelt, genauer: optimiert im Sinne der Wirtschaftlichkeit und rationalen Ordnung von Strukturen und Abläufen und damit, wie man glaubt, auf eine Vernunftgrundlage gebracht. Dass dabei Vernunft und Verstand verwechselt werden1 und damit den betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumenten ohne weitere Reflexion Vernunft unterstellt wird, bekommt in den meisten Fällen der Kunst oder im erweiterten Verständnis der Kultur nicht. Betriebswirtschaftliche Instrumente beruhen im Geiste und in der Praxis auf der Herrschaft des Geldes; in der Wirtschaft sowieso, nun aber auch in Kunst und Kultur.2 Dass die Inhalte von Kultur und Kunst nicht thematisiert werden, unterstreicht den Anspruch der Betriebswirtschaftslehre auf Geltung in jedem gesellschaftlichen Bereich, in dem es etwas zu ordnen und strukturell auszurichten gibt. Die vermeintliche Beherrschung des Objektes mit den Instrumenten der Betriebswirtschaftslehre ist ein behebbarer Mangel, wenn das Verhältnis dialektisch angepackt wird.

D

Es geht indessen nicht nur um das inhaltliche Verständnis, sondern auch um den Kunstbegriff Kulturmanagement, welcher (in der deutschen Sprache) bei zusammengesetzten Wörtern den vorderen Wortteil zum Gegenstand und das zweite zum Agens macht. Sprachlich liegt der Begriff Kulturmanagement auf der gleichen Ebene wie Sportmanagement oder Umweltmanagement. Das Problem dabei ist nur, dass man die Kunst oder gar die Kultur so wenig managen kann wie den Sport oder die Umwelt. Kunst wird praktiziert durch Künstler, Sport wird betrieben von Sportlern und die Natur macht mit der Umwelt, was sie will, und lässt sich nicht ohne weiteres vom Menschen kommandieren. Kultur als die von Werten und Lebensmustern geprägte individuelle und soziale Welt mit all ihren lokalen, regionalen und nationalen Eigenheiten ist ein generationenlanges, organisch gewachsenes Werk der Geschichte. So etwas kann man nicht managen. Der gedankliche Fehler liegt hauptsächlich im Begriff Management und der damit verbundenen Vorstellung, man könne solche vitalen, gesellschaftlichen Lebensbereiche wie Kunst und andere kulturelle Aktivitäten, zu denen auch der Sport gehört, rational in den Griff nehmen, durchplanen und organisieren, strategisch ausrichten und am Ende einem klaren Ziel entgegen führen,

Prof. Peter Bendixen – Hochschullehrer an den Universitäten in Lüneburg, Salzburg, Warwick, Istanbul. Mitbegründer des Studiengangs Kulturmanagement an der Hamburger Universität für Wirtschaft und Politik, wie auch des Rudolf-Arnheim-Institut für Kunst, Musik und Kulturökonomie in Hamburg. Seit 2003 ist er als Direktor für Forschung und Doktorandenprogramme am Wiener Studienzentrum Hohe Warte tätig. Der Autor von u.a.: Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik (2009), Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (2009), Die Unsichtbare Hand, Die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (2009).

1. Kultur und Management

1 Ich beziehe mich auf Rüdiger Safranski: Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch. 2. Aufl. Frankfurt/M. 2006, S. 7: >Verstand< entdecken wir auch im Tierreich. Der Schimpanse, der durch Erfahrung lernt, mit einem Stock nach der Banane zu angeln, beweist verständiges Verhalten. Verstand ist am Werk, wo Werkzeuge hergestellt werden… Vernunft, im Unterschied zum Verstand, vermag über Zwecke zu disponieren. Das setzt ein Selbstverständnis voraus, das Selbstdistanz ermöglicht. Betriebswirtschaftliche Instrumente sind Mittel. Unternehmenszwecke werden in der Regel nicht diskutiert, sondern als Selbstverständlichkeit in Gestalt von Gewinnzielen als gegeben unterstellt.

Prof. Peter Bendixen – Hochschullehrer an den Universitäten in Lüneburg, Salzburg, Warwick, Istanbul. Mitbegründer des Studiengangs Kulturmanagement an der Hamburger Universität für Wirtschaft und Politik, wie auch des Rudolf-Arnheim-Institut für Kunst, Musik und Kulturökonomie in Hamburg. Seit 2003 ist er als Direktor für Forschung und Doktorandenprogramme am Wiener Studienzentrum Hohe Warte tätig. Der Autor von u.a.: Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik (2009), Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (2009), Die Unsichtbare Hand, Die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (2009).

2 Vgl. dazu sehr ausführlich und fundiert Karl H. Brodbeck: Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik. Darmstadt (Wiss. Buchgesellschaft) 2009. Zur Kritik des orthodoxen ökonomischen Denkens vgl. auch Peter Bendixen: Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens. (im Druck beim LIT-Verlag, erscheint voraussichtlich im Herbst 2009).

Peter Bendixen

110

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme

5 Der Eindruck des Rationalen ist künstlich, wie wir aus den betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierungsmodellen wissen. Die Modelle werden solange getrimmt, bis nicht Irrationales mehr in ihnen enthalten ist. Dann ist es logisch, dass das Ergebnis rational genannt werden darf. Das Irrationale wird als Begriff und Idee des Nicht-Quantifizierbaren überindividuell Gültigen eingeengt. Solches Vorgehen könnte allenfalls ein heuristisches Intermezzo in einem Entscheidungsvorgang sein. 4

Zu brauchbaren Faustregeln und ein paar hilfreichen Einsichten aus der Spieltheorie vgl. Pierre Basieux: Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur. Reinbek b. Hamburg (Rowohlt) 2008.

Nach wie vor aktuell ist immer noch Friedrich Schiller: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den Augustenburger Briefen. Hrsg. v. Klaus L. Berghahn. Ditzingen 2000.

3

etwa höchste Wirtschaftlichkeit oder gar Profit. Kunst, Sport und viele andere Lebensäußerungen von Menschen leben von der Kreativitäten oder Schaffenslust. Kreativität aber ist keine Sache des Verstandes. Dieses Missverständnis wird rasch klar, wenn man akzeptiert, dass der Verstand zwar ordnen kann, was sich jemand denkt, aber das Schöpferische aus der Phantasie, also der Vorstellungskraft des Denkens, kommt. Grundlage der Kreativität ist ausnahmslos das menschliche Spiel in seinen ernsten und unterhaltsamen Komponenten. 3 Spiel aber ist nur dann Spiel, wenn der Zufall und andere Unberechenbarkeiten mitspielen, und das bedeutet nichts anderes als das gedankliche oder reale Eintauchen in Situationen von relativer Unordnung und chaotischer Unruhe. Menschliche Kreativität geht daraus hervor als das Finderische, welches Gestalten, die die Intuition im Denken zuspielt, spontan aufgreift und entweder als wertlos abweist oder aber mit einer gewissen Ahnung als ergiebig entgegen nimmt und, dann erst, mit den Mitteln des Verstandes klärt.4 Vergessen wir für eine Weile die betriebswirtschaftliche Managementlehre. Sie ist selbst im Kernbereich der Wirtschaft, der Unternehmenspraxis, nur eine instrumentell funktionierende Teilstütze. Wer die Wirtschaft kennt, weiß aus Erfahrung, dass weder der Mensch im Allgemeinen noch der trainierte Kopf eines Unternehmers oder Managers in seinem Entscheidungsverhalten ausschließlich oder sogar maßgeblich von bewusster Rationalität und differenzierter Situationsanalyse bestimmt wird. Es lässt sich zeigen, dass in der Unternehmenswelt mit ganzheitlicher Wahrnehmung und Situationseinschätzung gearbeitet wird, ergänzt durch handwerkliche Erfahrung und einem umfangreichen Arsenal bewährter intuitiver Faustregeln. Im Alltag, auch im Geschäftsleben, glauben wir oft nur, eine Lage klar zu überblicken und mit logischem Denken eine zielgerechte Entscheidung zu fällen. Allein der Glaube ist zu oft eine Selbsttäuschung. Was für die Wirtschaft gilt, nämlich das Vorherrschen von meistens unübersichtlichen Situationen und einer von Zufälligkeiten durchsetzten Zukunftsaussicht, wird im Bereich der

Künste und den ihnen nahe stehenden Institutionen wie Museen, Ausstellungen, Bibliotheken, Agenturen, Verlagen, Instrumentenbauern, Bühnenhandwerken oder Kunsthändlern um einige Besonderheiten verschärft, weil das Element des Kreativen dort eine spezifische Rolle spielt. Das Leben selbst zeichnet uns in alltäglichen Erfahrungen vor, in welcher Lage wir uns befinden. In vielen Fällen würde gar nicht die Zeit ausreichen, mit stressloser Ruhe die Lage analytisch bis ins Detail zu zerlegen, um daraus einen vermeintlich rationalen Entschluss zu fassen.5 Solche Gelassenheit haben nur Behörden, und die Qualität ihrer Entscheidungen liegt nicht im Kreativen, sondern in deterministischem Ordnungsstreben. Mag sein, dass das so sein muss. Man kann also weder die Kunst selbst noch die sie einrahmenden Kultureinrichtungen managen, falls man die betriebswirtschaftliche Managementlehre als Kommandozentrale versteht. Man kann sie nur mit sehr begrenzter Rationalität stützen, ohne jedoch die tatsächlichen Entscheidungen zu dominieren, auch nicht unter dem Dach kommerzieller Intentionen, in denen das Geld allein regiert. Das Geld ist nicht kreativ; es kann nur regieren, wenn es etwas Kreatives gibt, das sich am Markt verwerten lässt. Die Herrschaft des Geldes ist kein Göttergeschenk, sondern eine menschliche Erfindung von allerdings auch kulturell weit reichender Vorteilhaftigkeit. Vielleicht etwas übertrieben, aber mit einem wahren Kern, können wir es so sehen: Wer sein Geld im Lotto investiert, will bekanntlich einen Gewinn nach Hause tragen. Das einzig Kreative daran ist, dass man sein Schicksal dem Zufall überlässt. Das mag nicht besonders einfallsreich sein. Aber Gewinnerzielung unterliegt nicht immer oder nur selten einem kalkulierten Management, sondern folgt – natürlich nicht nur Lotto – Eingaben und unbewussten Signalen. Wo das Kreative fehlt, gehört an die Stelle von Management die auf bestehender Ordnung ausgerichtete Administration. Mit anderen Worten: Es geht darum, die Kunst des Managements aus ihrer betriebswirtschaftlichen Verkleidung herauszuholen und ihr in der weiten Spannung zwischen elementarer, inspirierender Unordnung

Peter Bendixen

Künste und den ihnen nahe stehenden Institutionen wie Museen, Ausstellungen, Bibliotheken, Agenturen, Verlagen, Instrumentenbauern, Bühnenhandwerken oder Kunsthändlern um einige Besonderheiten verschärft, weil das Element des Kreativen dort eine spezifische Rolle spielt. Das Leben selbst zeichnet uns in alltäglichen Erfahrungen vor, in welcher Lage wir uns befinden. In vielen Fällen würde gar nicht die Zeit ausreichen, mit stressloser Ruhe die Lage analytisch bis ins Detail zu zerlegen, um daraus einen vermeintlich rationalen Entschluss zu fassen.5 Solche Gelassenheit haben nur Behörden, und die Qualität ihrer Entscheidungen liegt nicht im Kreativen, sondern in deterministischem Ordnungsstreben. Mag sein, dass das so sein muss. Man kann also weder die Kunst selbst noch die sie einrahmenden Kultureinrichtungen managen, falls man die betriebswirtschaftliche Managementlehre als Kommandozentrale versteht. Man kann sie nur mit sehr begrenzter Rationalität stützen, ohne jedoch die tatsächlichen Entscheidungen zu dominieren, auch nicht unter dem Dach kommerzieller Intentionen, in denen das Geld allein regiert. Das Geld ist nicht kreativ; es kann nur regieren, wenn es etwas Kreatives gibt, das sich am Markt verwerten lässt. Die Herrschaft des Geldes ist kein Göttergeschenk, sondern eine menschliche Erfindung von allerdings auch kulturell weit reichender Vorteilhaftigkeit. Vielleicht etwas übertrieben, aber mit einem wahren Kern, können wir es so sehen: Wer sein Geld im Lotto investiert, will bekanntlich einen Gewinn nach Hause tragen. Das einzig Kreative daran ist, dass man sein Schicksal dem Zufall überlässt. Das mag nicht besonders einfallsreich sein. Aber Gewinnerzielung unterliegt nicht immer oder nur selten einem kalkulierten Management, sondern folgt – natürlich nicht nur Lotto – Eingaben und unbewussten Signalen. Wo das Kreative fehlt, gehört an die Stelle von Management die auf bestehender Ordnung ausgerichtete Administration. Mit anderen Worten: Es geht darum, die Kunst des Managements aus ihrer betriebswirtschaftlichen Verkleidung herauszuholen und ihr in der weiten Spannung zwischen elementarer, inspirierender Unordnung

Peter Bendixen

111

Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme

etwa höchste Wirtschaftlichkeit oder gar Profit. Kunst, Sport und viele andere Lebensäußerungen von Menschen leben von der Kreativitäten oder Schaffenslust. Kreativität aber ist keine Sache des Verstandes. Dieses Missverständnis wird rasch klar, wenn man akzeptiert, dass der Verstand zwar ordnen kann, was sich jemand denkt, aber das Schöpferische aus der Phantasie, also der Vorstellungskraft des Denkens, kommt. Grundlage der Kreativität ist ausnahmslos das menschliche Spiel in seinen ernsten und unterhaltsamen Komponenten. 3 Spiel aber ist nur dann Spiel, wenn der Zufall und andere Unberechenbarkeiten mitspielen, und das bedeutet nichts anderes als das gedankliche oder reale Eintauchen in Situationen von relativer Unordnung und chaotischer Unruhe. Menschliche Kreativität geht daraus hervor als das Finderische, welches Gestalten, die die Intuition im Denken zuspielt, spontan aufgreift und entweder als wertlos abweist oder aber mit einer gewissen Ahnung als ergiebig entgegen nimmt und, dann erst, mit den Mitteln des Verstandes klärt.4 Vergessen wir für eine Weile die betriebswirtschaftliche Managementlehre. Sie ist selbst im Kernbereich der Wirtschaft, der Unternehmenspraxis, nur eine instrumentell funktionierende Teilstütze. Wer die Wirtschaft kennt, weiß aus Erfahrung, dass weder der Mensch im Allgemeinen noch der trainierte Kopf eines Unternehmers oder Managers in seinem Entscheidungsverhalten ausschließlich oder sogar maßgeblich von bewusster Rationalität und differenzierter Situationsanalyse bestimmt wird. Es lässt sich zeigen, dass in der Unternehmenswelt mit ganzheitlicher Wahrnehmung und Situationseinschätzung gearbeitet wird, ergänzt durch handwerkliche Erfahrung und einem umfangreichen Arsenal bewährter intuitiver Faustregeln. Im Alltag, auch im Geschäftsleben, glauben wir oft nur, eine Lage klar zu überblicken und mit logischem Denken eine zielgerechte Entscheidung zu fällen. Allein der Glaube ist zu oft eine Selbsttäuschung. Was für die Wirtschaft gilt, nämlich das Vorherrschen von meistens unübersichtlichen Situationen und einer von Zufälligkeiten durchsetzten Zukunftsaussicht, wird im Bereich der

Nach wie vor aktuell ist immer noch Friedrich Schiller: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den Augustenburger Briefen. Hrsg. v. Klaus L. Berghahn. Ditzingen 2000.

3

4

Zu brauchbaren Faustregeln und ein paar hilfreichen Einsichten aus der Spieltheorie vgl. Pierre Basieux: Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur. Reinbek b. Hamburg (Rowohlt) 2008.

Der Eindruck des Rationalen ist künstlich, wie wir aus den betriebswirtschaftlichen Optimierungsmodellen wissen. Die Modelle werden solange getrimmt, bis nicht Irrationales mehr in ihnen enthalten ist. Dann ist es logisch, dass das Ergebnis rational genannt werden darf. Das Irrationale wird als Begriff und Idee des Nicht-Quantifizierbaren überindividuell Gültigen eingeengt. Solches Vorgehen könnte allenfalls ein heuristisches Intermezzo in einem Entscheidungsvorgang sein.

5

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

111


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

und dem Finden oder Erfinden von realisierbaren, Sinn vermittelnden Gestalten (nicht nur in der Kunst!) einen zweckdienlichen Platz zu geben. Die Aufgabe der Kunst des Managements ergibt sich aus dem professionellen Umgang mit unübersteigbaren Determinanten des Lebens, den Naturbedingungen auf der einen (etwa in der begrenzten Verfügbarkeit natürlicher Ressourcen) und dem sozialen Willen der Gesellschaft (etwa dem Streben nach friedlichem Zusammenleben und der gerechten Verteilung von Glückselementen, also Kultur) auf der anderen Seite. Manager sind Turmwächter, keine Diktatoren. Was die meisten Entscheidungen im Leben antreibt, ist Intuition oder das Bauchgefühl.6 Intuition ist keine subjektive Willkür, keine dem Zufall ausgelieferte Irrationalität, sondern beruht auf einer über Millionen von Jahren bis heute fortwirkenden natürlichen Evolution des menschlichen Gehirns. Unser Gehirn reagiert nicht erst, wenn die Lage weitgehend geklärt und verstanden ist, sondern schon deutlich früher und schneller durch unbewusstes Erfassen und Ergänzen einer undeutlichen Situation, und es bereitet die Entscheidung zur Tat vor, bevor der relativ langsamen Verstand begreift, was da gerade eben geschehen ist.7 Autofahrer kämen nie heil durch den Straßenverkehr, würden sie die Lage immer erst analytisch genau durchdringen und klären wollen. Mit der Fähigkeit, im Gehirn einer Situation weit vorauszuleiten, um frühzeitig Reaktionen einzuleiten, zeichnen sich mit Unterschieden alle höheren Tierarten aus, ob Fluchttiere oder Beutetiere. Der Mensch ist beides, und sein Gehirn besitzt, was wir alle natürlich gerne glauben, einen ungewöhnlich weiten inneren Horizont, also Weitblick im Sinne von Phantasie. Natürlich gibt es viele Situationen, in denen es ratsam erscheint, mehr über die Bedingungen und Möglichkeiten zum erfolgreichen Handeln zu wissen, bevor man eine vielleicht riskante Entscheidung trifft. Das ist häufig dann der Fall, wenn es sich um Neuland handelt und das Gehirn oder das kollektive Archiv (z. B. eine Fachbibliothek oder

ein elektronisches Speichermedium) noch keine Vorerfahrungen besitzt, die zu intuitiv gesicherten Handlungen führen. Wer ein vollkommen neuartiges Medikament entwickelt, wird aus guten Gründen (und nach der geltenden Gesetzeslage) eine umfangreiche Testserie durchführen müssen, bevor er damit auf den Markt gehen kann. Dem weiten Horizont im Denken folgen Taten mit analog weit reichenden Folgen, und die sind häufig nicht mehr intuitiv zu ermitteln. Genau hier setzt die Verantwortung an, insbesondere in der Wirtschaft.8 Der Verstand ist in der Lage, eine realisierte Handlung im Nachhinein zu untersuchen und zu erklären, warum etwas Bestimmtes geschehen ist oder aus den gegebenen Bedingungen der Situation so und nicht anders hatte erfolgen müssen. Dieser Erklärungsansatz, der nach Kausalitäten sucht, und zwar nicht nur in den Naturwissenschaften, sondern auch in den Geisteswissenschaften, zeichnet seriöse wissenschaftliche Forschung aus. Deshalb gilt in den meisten Wissenschaften eine Theorie erst dann als gründlich erhärtet, wenn sie empirisch genügend gesichert ist. Empirie aber ist stets eine Form des Heranziehens von Fakten, also von bereits Geschehenem. Was in der Zukunft der Fall sein wird, kann keine Beweiskraft im Sinne wissenschaftlicher Seriosität haben. Nun ist aber Managementpraxis wie überhaupt das auf dem Vorausdenken beruhende menschliche Handeln nie rückwärts gerichtet, sondern immer ein Denken und Tun in die Zukunft hinein. Der Pfeil der Zeit zeigt immer nur in einer Richtung: vorwärts.9 Es macht deshalb keinen Sinn, eine Managementlehre zu entwerfen, die allein auf empirischen Tatsachen beruht und so tut, als gelte sie zeitlos und könnte im Umkehrschluss direkt von der Empirie, also aus einer bloßen Faktenanalyse, in die Zukunft planen. Die Zeit läuft ab ohne Umkehr. Was geschehen ist, kehrt nicht zurück. Kein Mensch wird jemals jünger und eine begangene Tat kann nicht ungeschehen gemacht werden. Die Fakten verweisen nicht auf eindeutige Weise auf die Zukunft.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Vgl. Gerd Gigerenzer: Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition. München (Goldmann) 2008.

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6

Die unserem Alltagsempfinden geläufige Vorstellung von der Unumkehrbarkeit der Zeit hat die Philosophen und Naturwissenschaftler seit eh und je beschäftigt. Erst in unserer Zeit ist die Diskussion wieder aufgekommen, nachdem die Newtons Physik gerade auch an diesem Punkt gravierend revidiert werden musste. Vgl. dazu Coveney, Peter / Highfield, Roger: The Arrow of Time: A Voyage Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries. London 1990 (dtsch: Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens. Mit einem Vorwort von Ilya Prigogine. Reinbek b. Hamburg 1992.

9

7 Zu den jüngsten Erkenntnissen der Gehirnforschung dazu vgl. Benjamin Libet: Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein produziert. Frankfurt/M. 2007. Ernst Pöppel: Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt/M 1997. Ernst Pöppel: Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für Manager. München 2008

Vgl. Bendixen, Peter: Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik. Münster et al. 2009.

8

Vgl. Bendixen, Peter: Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik. Münster et al. 2009.

Zu den jüngsten Erkenntnissen der Gehirnforschung dazu vgl. Benjamin Libet: Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein produziert. Frankfurt/M. 2007. Ernst Pöppel: Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt/M 1997. Ernst Pöppel: Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für Manager. München 2008

7

8

Vgl. Gerd Gigerenzer: Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition. München (Goldmann) 2008.

6

9 Die unserem Alltagsempfinden geläufige Vorstellung von der Unumkehrbarkeit der Zeit hat die Philosophen und Naturwissenschaftler seit eh und je beschäftigt. Erst in unserer Zeit ist die Diskussion wieder aufgekommen, nachdem die Newtons Physik gerade auch an diesem Punkt gravierend revidiert werden musste. Vgl. dazu Coveney, Peter / Highfield, Roger: The Arrow of Time: A Voyage Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries. London 1990 (dtsch: Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens. Mit einem Vorwort von Ilya Prigogine. Reinbek b. Hamburg 1992.

ein elektronisches Speichermedium) noch keine Vorerfahrungen besitzt, die zu intuitiv gesicherten Handlungen führen. Wer ein vollkommen neuartiges Medikament entwickelt, wird aus guten Gründen (und nach der geltenden Gesetzeslage) eine umfangreiche Testserie durchführen müssen, bevor er damit auf den Markt gehen kann. Dem weiten Horizont im Denken folgen Taten mit analog weit reichenden Folgen, und die sind häufig nicht mehr intuitiv zu ermitteln. Genau hier setzt die Verantwortung an, insbesondere in der Wirtschaft.8 Der Verstand ist in der Lage, eine realisierte Handlung im Nachhinein zu untersuchen und zu erklären, warum etwas Bestimmtes geschehen ist oder aus den gegebenen Bedingungen der Situation so und nicht anders hatte erfolgen müssen. Dieser Erklärungsansatz, der nach Kausalitäten sucht, und zwar nicht nur in den Naturwissenschaften, sondern auch in den Geisteswissenschaften, zeichnet seriöse wissenschaftliche Forschung aus. Deshalb gilt in den meisten Wissenschaften eine Theorie erst dann als gründlich erhärtet, wenn sie empirisch genügend gesichert ist. Empirie aber ist stets eine Form des Heranziehens von Fakten, also von bereits Geschehenem. Was in der Zukunft der Fall sein wird, kann keine Beweiskraft im Sinne wissenschaftlicher Seriosität haben. Nun ist aber Managementpraxis wie überhaupt das auf dem Vorausdenken beruhende menschliche Handeln nie rückwärts gerichtet, sondern immer ein Denken und Tun in die Zukunft hinein. Der Pfeil der Zeit zeigt immer nur in einer Richtung: vorwärts.9 Es macht deshalb keinen Sinn, eine Managementlehre zu entwerfen, die allein auf empirischen Tatsachen beruht und so tut, als gelte sie zeitlos und könnte im Umkehrschluss direkt von der Empirie, also aus einer bloßen Faktenanalyse, in die Zukunft planen. Die Zeit läuft ab ohne Umkehr. Was geschehen ist, kehrt nicht zurück. Kein Mensch wird jemals jünger und eine begangene Tat kann nicht ungeschehen gemacht werden. Die Fakten verweisen nicht auf eindeutige Weise auf die Zukunft.

112

und dem Finden oder Erfinden von realisierbaren, Sinn vermittelnden Gestalten (nicht nur in der Kunst!) einen zweckdienlichen Platz zu geben. Die Aufgabe der Kunst des Managements ergibt sich aus dem professionellen Umgang mit unübersteigbaren Determinanten des Lebens, den Naturbedingungen auf der einen (etwa in der begrenzten Verfügbarkeit natürlicher Ressourcen) und dem sozialen Willen der Gesellschaft (etwa dem Streben nach friedlichem Zusammenleben und der gerechten Verteilung von Glückselementen, also Kultur) auf der anderen Seite. Manager sind Turmwächter, keine Diktatoren. Was die meisten Entscheidungen im Leben antreibt, ist Intuition oder das Bauchgefühl.6 Intuition ist keine subjektive Willkür, keine dem Zufall ausgelieferte Irrationalität, sondern beruht auf einer über Millionen von Jahren bis heute fortwirkenden natürlichen Evolution des menschlichen Gehirns. Unser Gehirn reagiert nicht erst, wenn die Lage weitgehend geklärt und verstanden ist, sondern schon deutlich früher und schneller durch unbewusstes Erfassen und Ergänzen einer undeutlichen Situation, und es bereitet die Entscheidung zur Tat vor, bevor der relativ langsamen Verstand begreift, was da gerade eben geschehen ist.7 Autofahrer kämen nie heil durch den Straßenverkehr, würden sie die Lage immer erst analytisch genau durchdringen und klären wollen. Mit der Fähigkeit, im Gehirn einer Situation weit vorauszuleiten, um frühzeitig Reaktionen einzuleiten, zeichnen sich mit Unterschieden alle höheren Tierarten aus, ob Fluchttiere oder Beutetiere. Der Mensch ist beides, und sein Gehirn besitzt, was wir alle natürlich gerne glauben, einen ungewöhnlich weiten inneren Horizont, also Weitblick im Sinne von Phantasie. Natürlich gibt es viele Situationen, in denen es ratsam erscheint, mehr über die Bedingungen und Möglichkeiten zum erfolgreichen Handeln zu wissen, bevor man eine vielleicht riskante Entscheidung trifft. Das ist häufig dann der Fall, wenn es sich um Neuland handelt und das Gehirn oder das kollektive Archiv (z. B. eine Fachbibliothek oder


113

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Das einzige Sinnvolle an empirischen Studien über die Möglichkeit, Situationen zu klären und sich vorblickend in die Zukunft hineinzutasten, besteht in der Aneignung und Anwendung von durchdachten Erfahrungen. Diese können in einer konkreten Entscheidungslage zur Grundlage von Intuition werden, weil sie in gewisser Weise das gedanklich Spielmaterial einbringen und dadurch Testläufe ermöglichen. Letztlich aber ist Intuition unumgänglich. Über die Intuition wird die Zukunft zur Gegenwart, wenn dadurch konkrete Schritte eingeleitet werden. Sie aber enthalten, unvermeidlich wie das nun mal beim großen Meister Zufall so ist, eine nicht auflösbare Portion an Risiken des Scheiterns. In der Managementlehre wie überhaupt in der traditionellen ökonomischen Theorie haben der Verstand und der Anspruch auf Rationalität die Oberhand erhalten, während die Geltung von Intuition und der auf ganzheitlicher Erfahrung beruhende, gekonnte Umgang mit offenen, zukunftweisenden Situationen weitgehend verdrängt wurde. Die Überbetonung der Verstandestätigkeit ist kein Zeichen von Vernunft, sondern eine Verengung der menschlichen Kreativität auf formale Methodologien. Dies ist allerdings ein Kennzeichen der kulturgeschichtlichen Entwicklung der westlichen, der Aufklärung zugewandten und von materiellen Lebenserfolgen gekennzeichneten Gesellschaften, deren Praxis dem allerdings bei weitem nicht immer folgt. Albert Einstein formulierte es einmal so: Der intuitive Geist ist ein heiliges Geschenk und der rationale Geist ein treuer Diener. Wir haben eine Gesellschaft erschaffen, die den Diener ehrt und das Geschenk vergessen hat [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Die betriebswirtschaftliche Managementlehre ist noch aus einem weiteren Grund problematisch. Sie hat Instrumente zur Problem- oder Situationsbehandlung entwickelt mit einem hohen Rationalitätsgrad und einer formallogischen Geltung, die sich unabhängig hat machen können von inhaltlichen Aspekten einer Situation. Sie bietet ein verallgemeinertes Arsenal von in der Vergangenheit bewährten Vorgehensweisen und Methoden der Situationsbewältigung. Mit dem Hang zur Verallgemeinerung hebt sich diese Methodologie ab über die jeweiligen Inhalte und behauptet damit eine Geltung auf formaler, angehobener Ebene, die dann – wie die vielen Managementkonzepte der Praxis zeigen und wie gern geglaubt wird – beliebig auf die unterschiedlichsten Bereiche der gesellschaftlichen Praxis angewendet werden

können: auf Kunst und Kultur, auf Sport oder auf die Umwelt, natürlich auch auf sämtliche Problemlagen in der Wirtschaft. Diese Methodologie ist nicht nur eine Täuschung oder Einbildung hinsichtlich der Vorherrschaft der Rationalität, sondern auch eine Täuschung hinsichtlich der prinzipiellen Offenheit der Zukunft und des (vergeblichen) Versuchs, durch deterministische Planung den Zufall außer Gefecht zu setzen. Dichter neigen zur Ironie, aber sie treffen oft den wahren Kern. So heißt es in Bert Brechts Dreigroschenoper: Ja, mach nur einen Plan Sei nur ein großes Licht Und mach dann noch ‚nen zweiten Plan Gehn tun sie beide nicht.

2. Das Geschenk der Kunst

K

unst entspringt dem Geist der Intuition und ist, wie Einstein es formulierte, ein Geschenk. Managementtechniken können der Kunst dienen, nicht aber sie kommandieren. Welche Voraussetzungen muss ein dienendes Management erfüllen, um sich in die Künste einzubringen und deren institutionelle Vorkehrungen als Bedingung für Kunst zu ordnen und zu einem stützenden Gerüst zu machen? Kunst mit ihrem geistigen Gehalt und ihrer Herkunft aus einer von Empfindungen, Intuitionen und ganzheitlicher Wahrnehmung inspirierten Vorstellungswelt enthält immer eine Botschaft, die so weit wie möglich unberührt und unverfälscht einem mehr oder weniger aufmerksamen und verständigen Publikum vorgeführt werden will. Diese Botschaft und nicht nur die äußerliche ästhetische Form kennzeichnet Kunst und unterscheidet sich vom bloßen Oberflächenzauber, den Werbung und Markting zu veranstalten pflegen. Ihre gesellschaftliche Bedeutung – sie ist viel überragender, als die meisten profanen Geister wahrhaben wollen – müssen und können wir hier nicht ausbreiten und im Detail diskutieren.10 Eine auf die dienende Rolle des Managements konsequent ausgerichtete Lehre ist nach meiner Kenntnis (noch) nicht in Sicht. Zu sehr hat die Betriebswirtschaftslehre oder außerhalb des deutschsprachigen Raumes Business Administration in der Form von Cultural Administration (manchmal auch Arts Management) bei der Entwicklung von pragmatischen Konzeptionen Pate

Vgl. dazu Bernd Kleimann/Reinold Schmücker (Hrsg.): Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach ihrer Funktion. Darmstadt (Wiss. Buchgesellschaft) 2001; Niklas Luhmann: Die Kunst der Gesellschaft. 5. Aufl. Frankfurt(M. 2007.

10

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

113

Vgl. dazu Bernd Kleimann/Reinold Schmücker (Hrsg.): Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach ihrer Funktion. Darmstadt (Wiss. Buchgesellschaft) 2001; Niklas Luhmann: Die Kunst der Gesellschaft. 5. Aufl. Frankfurt(M. 2007.

10

Das einzige Sinnvolle an empirischen Studien über die Möglichkeit, Situationen zu klären und sich vorblickend in die Zukunft hineinzutasten, besteht in der Aneignung und Anwendung von durchdachten Erfahrungen. Diese können in einer konkreten Entscheidungslage zur Grundlage von Intuition werden, weil sie in gewisser Weise das gedanklich Spielmaterial einbringen und dadurch Testläufe ermöglichen. Letztlich aber ist Intuition unumgänglich. Über die Intuition wird die Zukunft zur Gegenwart, wenn dadurch konkrete Schritte eingeleitet werden. Sie aber enthalten, unvermeidlich wie das nun mal beim großen Meister Zufall so ist, eine nicht auflösbare Portion an Risiken des Scheiterns. In der Managementlehre wie überhaupt in der traditionellen ökonomischen Theorie haben der Verstand und der Anspruch auf Rationalität die Oberhand erhalten, während die Geltung von Intuition und der auf ganzheitlicher Erfahrung beruhende, gekonnte Umgang mit offenen, zukunftweisenden Situationen weitgehend verdrängt wurde. Die Überbetonung der Verstandestätigkeit ist kein Zeichen von Vernunft, sondern eine Verengung der menschlichen Kreativität auf formale Methodologien. Dies ist allerdings ein Kennzeichen der kulturgeschichtlichen Entwicklung der westlichen, der Aufklärung zugewandten und von materiellen Lebenserfolgen gekennzeichneten Gesellschaften, deren Praxis dem allerdings bei weitem nicht immer folgt. Albert Einstein formulierte es einmal so: Der intuitive Geist ist ein heiliges Geschenk und der rationale Geist ein treuer Diener. Wir haben eine Gesellschaft erschaffen, die den Diener ehrt und das Geschenk vergessen hat [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Die betriebswirtschaftliche Managementlehre ist noch aus einem weiteren Grund problematisch. Sie hat Instrumente zur Problem- oder Situationsbehandlung entwickelt mit einem hohen Rationalitätsgrad und einer formallogischen Geltung, die sich unabhängig hat machen können von inhaltlichen Aspekten einer Situation. Sie bietet ein verallgemeinertes Arsenal von in der Vergangenheit bewährten Vorgehensweisen und Methoden der Situationsbewältigung. Mit dem Hang zur Verallgemeinerung hebt sich diese Methodologie ab über die jeweiligen Inhalte und behauptet damit eine Geltung auf formaler, angehobener Ebene, die dann – wie die vielen Managementkonzepte der Praxis zeigen und wie gern geglaubt wird – beliebig auf die unterschiedlichsten Bereiche der gesellschaftlichen Praxis angewendet werden

unst entspringt dem Geist der Intuition und ist, wie Einstein es formulierte, ein Geschenk. Managementtechniken können der Kunst dienen, nicht aber sie kommandieren. Welche Voraussetzungen muss ein dienendes Management erfüllen, um sich in die Künste einzubringen und deren institutionelle Vorkehrungen als Bedingung für Kunst zu ordnen und zu einem stützenden Gerüst zu machen? Kunst mit ihrem geistigen Gehalt und ihrer Herkunft aus einer von Empfindungen, Intuitionen und ganzheitlicher Wahrnehmung inspirierten Vorstellungswelt enthält immer eine Botschaft, die so weit wie möglich unberührt und unverfälscht einem mehr oder weniger aufmerksamen und verständigen Publikum vorgeführt werden will. Diese Botschaft und nicht nur die äußerliche ästhetische Form kennzeichnet Kunst und unterscheidet sich vom bloßen Oberflächenzauber, den Werbung und Markting zu veranstalten pflegen. Ihre gesellschaftliche Bedeutung – sie ist viel überragender, als die meisten profanen Geister wahrhaben wollen – müssen und können wir hier nicht ausbreiten und im Detail diskutieren.10 Eine auf die dienende Rolle des Managements konsequent ausgerichtete Lehre ist nach meiner Kenntnis (noch) nicht in Sicht. Zu sehr hat die Betriebswirtschaftslehre oder außerhalb des deutschsprachigen Raumes Business Administration in der Form von Cultural Administration (manchmal auch Arts Management) bei der Entwicklung von pragmatischen Konzeptionen Pate

K

2. Das Geschenk der Kunst Ja, mach nur einen Plan Sei nur ein großes Licht Und mach dann noch ‚nen zweiten Plan Gehn tun sie beide nicht. können: auf Kunst und Kultur, auf Sport oder auf die Umwelt, natürlich auch auf sämtliche Problemlagen in der Wirtschaft. Diese Methodologie ist nicht nur eine Täuschung oder Einbildung hinsichtlich der Vorherrschaft der Rationalität, sondern auch eine Täuschung hinsichtlich der prinzipiellen Offenheit der Zukunft und des (vergeblichen) Versuchs, durch deterministische Planung den Zufall außer Gefecht zu setzen. Dichter neigen zur Ironie, aber sie treffen oft den wahren Kern. So heißt es in Bert Brechts Dreigroschenoper:


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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

2.1. Empathische Kompetenz gestanden. Davon wird man sich lösen müssen, soll Management tatsächlich eine dienende Funktion im Ganzen einer Kunst- oder Kulturinstitution einnehmen.11 Wir können stattdessen eine Managementpraxis entwickeln, die den Geist dienender Unterstützung auf professioneller Basis in sich trägt und nun ihrerseits als ein Geschenk an die Kunst weitergerecht werden kann. Zu den zentralen Elementen einer solchen Konzeption rechnen – diese können natürlich nur als vorläufige, unvollständige und wenig spezifizierte Bausteine für eine breite Diskussion in der Fachwelt gedacht sein – die folgenden: 1. Empathische Kompetenz 2. Ganzheitliches Denken 3. Handwerkliches Können 4. Zukunftsorientierung Diese vier Bausteine lassen einen strukturierenden Rahmen auf relativ stabiler Grundlage zu, die für pragmatische Konzeptionen genutzt werden kann, nicht nur im Bereich des Kulturmanagements. Sie bedürfen allerdings mit Blick auf die Praxis einer ausführlichen Erläuterung mit einem speziellen Fokus auf die Praxis des Kulturmanagements und die daraus erwachsenden Anforderungen an entsprechende Ausbildungsprogramme.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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114

Die Fähigkeit zu empathischen Empfindungen auf der Grundlage eines starken Ich-Bewusstseins ist eine hochrangige psychische Kraft, die auf das Mitempfinden hinausläuft, ohne jedoch zwangläufig auch Zustimmung einzuschließen. Es geht also nicht um Identifikation, also einem – womöglich kopflosen – Einverständnis mit dem Ganzen einer Erscheinung. Man kann sich in diesem Sinne nicht einmal mit der Kultur des eigenen Landes identifizieren, wohl aber sie verstehen und auf der Basis eines hohen Grades an Kongruenz in Teilen verinnerlichen. Bei Empathie geht es um visionäre Projektion gegen einen krassen Egoismus, der nichts anderes kennt als egoistische Nutzenmaximierung, wie ihn sich die neoklassische Ökonomie vorstellt. Der empathisch empfindende Mensch bleibt stets ein eigenes Subjekt, schon deshalb, weil seine Empfindungen über die Lage anderer auch falsch oder fehlgeleitet sein könnten. Man glaubt, einen anderen zu verstehen, und liegt damit vielleicht gänzlich daneben. Man kann nicht vollständig aufgehen in einem anderen oder in einer fremden Situation, aber man kann sehr wohl erkennen, was das eigene Handeln in anderen Menschen oder in den Situationsbedingungen anderer anrichten könnte, Schädliches oder Förderliches. Empathie ist deshalb in dieser Perspektive zugleich eine moralische Kategorie. Empathie kann man als notwendige Vorstufe zur Verständigung betrachten, den Versuch also, durch Kommunikation einander näher zu rücken. Die sinnliche Beobachtung von Lebensumständen kann Empfindungen auslösen, wenn der Mensch selbst ähnliche Erlebnisse gehabt hat, und mit diesen bestimmte Erfahrungsmuster und Gefühlsregungen verbinden kann. Oft ist es schwierig, die eigenen Empfindungen in eine für andere verständliche Sprachform zu kleiden, und noch schwieriger, dies anderen in einer Weise mitzuteilen, dass sie ihrerseits empathische Fähigkeiten mobilisieren können. Voraussetzung dafür ist eine gemeinsame Sprache. Empathische Kompetenz muss daher, wenn sie sozial wirksam werden soll, in Sprachkompetenz überleiten, wobei Sprachkompetenz nicht nur die Wort- und Schriftsprache umfasst, sondern auch Bildsprache, Gestik, Mimik, Kör-

Sympathie ist der ähnlich gedachte Zentralbegriff in Adam Smiths Theorie of Moral Sentiments. London 1759. Dtsch. von W. Eckstein. Neuauflage d. Ausg. von 1925, Hamburg 2004.

13

mpathie, also die Fähigkeit, sich in andere Menschen oder fremde Lagen hineindenken zu können, gehört zu den geistig-emotionalen Baustoffen sozialer Beziehungen und zur Konstruktion und Entfaltung von Gesellschaften.12 Empathische Empfindungen sind mehr als nur ein Vorgang des mentalen Reagierens auf Begegnungen mit anderen Menschen und den Situationen, in denen sie leben und agieren. Empathie hat nichts mit Sentimentalität zu tun, auch nicht nur mit Passionsfähigkeit und Sympathie.13 Andererseits: Der kühle Verstand reicht für das gedankliche Nachvollziehen von äußeren Erscheinungen bei weitem nicht aus. Es geht um ein verstehendes Erfassen einer Situation und verlangt einen hohen Grad an Sensibilität (nicht Sentimentalität) und Vorstellungskraft.

Vgl. Fritz Breithaupt: Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frankfurt/M. (Suhrkamp) 2009.

12

11 Über die begriffliche Unterscheidung von Kunst und Kultur habe ich mich ausführlicher zu Wort gemeldet in: Bendixen, Peter: Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions. (im Druck beim LIT-Verlag, Münster, voraussichtlich September 2009). Mein Verständnis von Kunstmanagement ist darin in die Richtung der dienenden Funktion dieser Praxis gegangen.

Über die begriffliche Unterscheidung von Kunst und Kultur habe ich mich ausführlicher zu Wort gemeldet in: Bendixen, Peter: Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions. (im Druck beim LIT-Verlag, Münster, voraussichtlich September 2009). Mein Verständnis von Kunstmanagement ist darin in die Richtung der dienenden Funktion dieser Praxis gegangen.

11

Vgl. Fritz Breithaupt: Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frankfurt/M. (Suhrkamp) 2009.

mpathie, also die Fähigkeit, sich in andere Menschen oder fremde Lagen hineindenken zu können, gehört zu den geistig-emotionalen Baustoffen sozialer Beziehungen und zur Konstruktion und Entfaltung von Gesellschaften.12 Empathische Empfindungen sind mehr als nur ein Vorgang des mentalen Reagierens auf Begegnungen mit anderen Menschen und den Situationen, in denen sie leben und agieren. Empathie hat nichts mit Sentimentalität zu tun, auch nicht nur mit Passionsfähigkeit und Sympathie.13 Andererseits: Der kühle Verstand reicht für das gedankliche Nachvollziehen von äußeren Erscheinungen bei weitem nicht aus. Es geht um ein verstehendes Erfassen einer Situation und verlangt einen hohen Grad an Sensibilität (nicht Sentimentalität) und Vorstellungskraft.

12

E

Sympathie ist der ähnlich gedachte Zentralbegriff in Adam Smiths Theorie of Moral Sentiments. London 1759. Dtsch. von W. Eckstein. Neuauflage d. Ausg. von 1925, Hamburg 2004.

2.1. Empathische Kompetenz

Die Fähigkeit zu empathischen Empfindungen auf der Grundlage eines starken Ich-Bewusstseins ist eine hochrangige psychische Kraft, die auf das Mitempfinden hinausläuft, ohne jedoch zwangläufig auch Zustimmung einzuschließen. Es geht also nicht um Identifikation, also einem – womöglich kopflosen – Einverständnis mit dem Ganzen einer Erscheinung. Man kann sich in diesem Sinne nicht einmal mit der Kultur des eigenen Landes identifizieren, wohl aber sie verstehen und auf der Basis eines hohen Grades an Kongruenz in Teilen verinnerlichen. Bei Empathie geht es um visionäre Projektion gegen einen krassen Egoismus, der nichts anderes kennt als egoistische Nutzenmaximierung, wie ihn sich die neoklassische Ökonomie vorstellt. Der empathisch empfindende Mensch bleibt stets ein eigenes Subjekt, schon deshalb, weil seine Empfindungen über die Lage anderer auch falsch oder fehlgeleitet sein könnten. Man glaubt, einen anderen zu verstehen, und liegt damit vielleicht gänzlich daneben. Man kann nicht vollständig aufgehen in einem anderen oder in einer fremden Situation, aber man kann sehr wohl erkennen, was das eigene Handeln in anderen Menschen oder in den Situationsbedingungen anderer anrichten könnte, Schädliches oder Förderliches. Empathie ist deshalb in dieser Perspektive zugleich eine moralische Kategorie. Empathie kann man als notwendige Vorstufe zur Verständigung betrachten, den Versuch also, durch Kommunikation einander näher zu rücken. Die sinnliche Beobachtung von Lebensumständen kann Empfindungen auslösen, wenn der Mensch selbst ähnliche Erlebnisse gehabt hat, und mit diesen bestimmte Erfahrungsmuster und Gefühlsregungen verbinden kann. Oft ist es schwierig, die eigenen Empfindungen in eine für andere verständliche Sprachform zu kleiden, und noch schwieriger, dies anderen in einer Weise mitzuteilen, dass sie ihrerseits empathische Fähigkeiten mobilisieren können. Voraussetzung dafür ist eine gemeinsame Sprache. Empathische Kompetenz muss daher, wenn sie sozial wirksam werden soll, in Sprachkompetenz überleiten, wobei Sprachkompetenz nicht nur die Wort- und Schriftsprache umfasst, sondern auch Bildsprache, Gestik, Mimik, Kör-

13

gestanden. Davon wird man sich lösen müssen, soll Management tatsächlich eine dienende Funktion im Ganzen einer Kunst- oder Kulturinstitution einnehmen.11 Wir können stattdessen eine Managementpraxis entwickeln, die den Geist dienender Unterstützung auf professioneller Basis in sich trägt und nun ihrerseits als ein Geschenk an die Kunst weitergerecht werden kann. Zu den zentralen Elementen einer solchen Konzeption rechnen – diese können natürlich nur als vorläufige, unvollständige und wenig spezifizierte Bausteine für eine breite Diskussion in der Fachwelt gedacht sein – die folgenden: 1. Empathische Kompetenz 2. Ganzheitliches Denken 3. Handwerkliches Können 4. Zukunftsorientierung Diese vier Bausteine lassen einen strukturierenden Rahmen auf relativ stabiler Grundlage zu, die für pragmatische Konzeptionen genutzt werden kann, nicht nur im Bereich des Kulturmanagements. Sie bedürfen allerdings mit Blick auf die Praxis einer ausführlichen Erläuterung mit einem speziellen Fokus auf die Praxis des Kulturmanagements und die daraus erwachsenden Anforderungen an entsprechende Ausbildungsprogramme.


115

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

perhaltung und Stimmführung. Letztlich ist auch ein gestaltetes Ambiente eine Art Mitteilung, also ein hochkomplexes Sprachvehikel. Jeder Regisseur auf der Bühne oder im Film beherrscht diese Sprache (oder wird vom Publikum eben nicht verstanden). Kompliziert wird die Sache, wenn es im Zusammenhang mit Empathie nicht nur um andere Menschen geht, sondern um ein komplexes Lebensfeld wie die Künste, d. h. Künste an sich oder ein bestimmter Kunstbereich. Ohne eigene Erfahrungen in den Künsten oder exemplarisch (d. h. u. U. auch stellvertretend für andere Künste) in einer der gesellschaftlich verankerten Künste, beispielsweise in der klassischen Musik, kann ein angemessenes Empfinden für die Lebenslage von Künstlern (in diesem Beispiel von Musikern) und die historischen Umstände der Entstehung einer Vorführung oder gar der Komposition selbst kaum zustande kommen. Das allein genügt in der Regel nicht, denn in solchen Fällen kann und wird meist die gesamte Kunstpraxis im gesellschaftlichen Kontext von Bedeutung sein. Diese Anforderung betrifft in erster Linie die Kunst Schaffenden selbst. Gilt das auch für das Kulturmanagement? Eine brauchbare Antwort auf diese Frage ist die Ausgangslage für eine professionell ausgeübte Praxis als Kulturmanager. Dessen Funktion ist ein Musterbeispiel für die Notwendigkeit von empathischer Kompetenz, bei der es gerade nicht darauf ankommt, sich mit der anderen Seite zu identifizieren (der Kulturmanager ist nicht selbst der Künstler, nicht einmal dessen Fürsprecher) und völlig in der Sache der anderen Seite aufzugehen (was beispielsweise ein Schauspieler können muss, wenn er eine Rolle ausfüllen will). Vielmehr geht es darum, die besonderen Bedingungen einer konkreten Kunstpraxis, ihre Eigenarten und ihre Verletzlichkeiten, ihre zuweilen herrischen Attitüden und ihre stillen Weisheiten, zu empfinden und in die eigenen Handlungen als Kulturmanager hineinzuprojizieren. Der Kulturmanager ist ein freundlich oder förderlich gesonnener Türsteher vor den materiellen Bedingungen jeder Kunstausübung. Aus einem solchen, der Kunst dienenden Rollenverständnis macht eine Haltung Sinn, die im Kulturmanagement eine kunstverständige Figur gegenüber der Kunst ihrer jeweiligen Institution (und anderen kulturellen Praktiken) sieht und

nach Wegen der materiellen Handlungsspielräume sucht, nicht aber diese als unübersteigbare Grenze durchzusetzen trachtet. Empathische Fähigkeiten können bis zu einem gewissen Grad eingeübt werden. Die Kunst des Kulturmanagements besteht in diesem Baustein darin, den dialektischen Gegenpart aus dem instrumentellen Managementwissen spielen zu können, ohne einen kommandierenden Ehrgeiz daran anzuknüpfen. Kunst ist eben ein Geschenk, kein Spielmaterial für kommerziellen Ehrgeiz.14

2.2. Ganzheitliches Denken

D

ie geistige und emotionale Erfassung der nahen und fernen Welt, die uns umgibt, kann – vereinfacht gesagt – auf zweierlei Weise geschehen: analytisch oder holistisch. Analytisch zu untersuchen, was die Welt in ihrem Inneren zusammenhält, ist ehrenvoll und bringt Gewinn. Doch das reicht für die faustische Weisheit der Welterkenntnis und den Umgang mit dem Teuflischen in ihr nicht aus. Den Sinn eines Satzes versteht man nur aus seiner Gesamtwirkung heraus, nicht durch Analyse der einzelnen Wörter bis hinunter zu den Buchstaben, aus denen sie sich zusammensetzen. Wer im Dunkeln seinen Weg mit einer Taschenlampe sucht, sieht zwar die Einzelheiten des Weges unmittelbar vor sich und wird nicht stolpern und er kann Rückschlüsse ziehen, wie der noch im Dunkeln liegende Weg beschaffen sein wird. Doch derweil kann er sich gründlich verirren, weil das weite Umfeld finster bleibt. Er hat keine umfassende Ortsorientierung. Ohne Taschenlampe erkennt er aber die Umrisse der Umgebung besser, weil die Augen empfänglicher werden selbst für schwaches Licht. Unser Gehirn ist dafür ausgestattet, sich aus dem Wenigen, was ihm über das Auge und das Ohr vermittelt wird, ein brauchbares Bild des Ganzen zu machen, um sich darin zurechtzufinden. Es braucht keine genaue Analyse und hat auch meistens nicht die Zeit dafür. Das gleiche Phänomen erleben wir beim Autofahren. Würden wir ständig die gegenwärtige Lage präzise analysieren wollen, wären wir komplett fahrunfähig. In manchen Lebenslagen braucht man beides: die Analyse bestimmter Details und die ganzheitliche Situationseinschätzung. In vielen anderen

Um einem häufigen Missverständnis vorzubeugen: Dass Künstler ein angemessenes Honorar oder Entgelt für ihre Leistungen erwarten, hat nichts mit kommerziellem Ehrgeiz zu tun (obwohl der Übergang schwammig sein kann). Kommerzielle Interessen treten dadurch in Erscheinung, dass der Profit die Inhalte steuert, nicht umgekehrt. Wer an den Profit denkt, schafft keine rätselhaften oder nur mit Anstrengung dechiffrierbaren Kunstwerke.

14

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

115

14 Um einem häufigen Missverständnis vorzubeugen: Dass Künstler ein angemessenes Honorar oder Entgelt für ihre Leistungen erwarten, hat nichts mit kommerziellem Ehrgeiz zu tun (obwohl der Übergang schwammig sein kann). Kommerzielle Interessen treten dadurch in Erscheinung, dass der Profit die Inhalte steuert, nicht umgekehrt. Wer an den Profit denkt, schafft keine rätselhaften oder nur mit Anstrengung dechiffrierbaren Kunstwerke.

perhaltung und Stimmführung. Letztlich ist auch ein gestaltetes Ambiente eine Art Mitteilung, also ein hochkomplexes Sprachvehikel. Jeder Regisseur auf der Bühne oder im Film beherrscht diese Sprache (oder wird vom Publikum eben nicht verstanden). Kompliziert wird die Sache, wenn es im Zusammenhang mit Empathie nicht nur um andere Menschen geht, sondern um ein komplexes Lebensfeld wie die Künste, d. h. Künste an sich oder ein bestimmter Kunstbereich. Ohne eigene Erfahrungen in den Künsten oder exemplarisch (d. h. u. U. auch stellvertretend für andere Künste) in einer der gesellschaftlich verankerten Künste, beispielsweise in der klassischen Musik, kann ein angemessenes Empfinden für die Lebenslage von Künstlern (in diesem Beispiel von Musikern) und die historischen Umstände der Entstehung einer Vorführung oder gar der Komposition selbst kaum zustande kommen. Das allein genügt in der Regel nicht, denn in solchen Fällen kann und wird meist die gesamte Kunstpraxis im gesellschaftlichen Kontext von Bedeutung sein. Diese Anforderung betrifft in erster Linie die Kunst Schaffenden selbst. Gilt das auch für das Kulturmanagement? Eine brauchbare Antwort auf diese Frage ist die Ausgangslage für eine professionell ausgeübte Praxis als Kulturmanager. Dessen Funktion ist ein Musterbeispiel für die Notwendigkeit von empathischer Kompetenz, bei der es gerade nicht darauf ankommt, sich mit der anderen Seite zu identifizieren (der Kulturmanager ist nicht selbst der Künstler, nicht einmal dessen Fürsprecher) und völlig in der Sache der anderen Seite aufzugehen (was beispielsweise ein Schauspieler können muss, wenn er eine Rolle ausfüllen will). Vielmehr geht es darum, die besonderen Bedingungen einer konkreten Kunstpraxis, ihre Eigenarten und ihre Verletzlichkeiten, ihre zuweilen herrischen Attitüden und ihre stillen Weisheiten, zu empfinden und in die eigenen Handlungen als Kulturmanager hineinzuprojizieren. Der Kulturmanager ist ein freundlich oder förderlich gesonnener Türsteher vor den materiellen Bedingungen jeder Kunstausübung. Aus einem solchen, der Kunst dienenden Rollenverständnis macht eine Haltung Sinn, die im Kulturmanagement eine kunstverständige Figur gegenüber der Kunst ihrer jeweiligen Institution (und anderen kulturellen Praktiken) sieht und

ie geistige und emotionale Erfassung der nahen und fernen Welt, die uns umgibt, kann – vereinfacht gesagt – auf zweierlei Weise geschehen: analytisch oder holistisch. Analytisch zu untersuchen, was die Welt in ihrem Inneren zusammenhält, ist ehrenvoll und bringt Gewinn. Doch das reicht für die faustische Weisheit der Welterkenntnis und den Umgang mit dem Teuflischen in ihr nicht aus. Den Sinn eines Satzes versteht man nur aus seiner Gesamtwirkung heraus, nicht durch Analyse der einzelnen Wörter bis hinunter zu den Buchstaben, aus denen sie sich zusammensetzen. Wer im Dunkeln seinen Weg mit einer Taschenlampe sucht, sieht zwar die Einzelheiten des Weges unmittelbar vor sich und wird nicht stolpern und er kann Rückschlüsse ziehen, wie der noch im Dunkeln liegende Weg beschaffen sein wird. Doch derweil kann er sich gründlich verirren, weil das weite Umfeld finster bleibt. Er hat keine umfassende Ortsorientierung. Ohne Taschenlampe erkennt er aber die Umrisse der Umgebung besser, weil die Augen empfänglicher werden selbst für schwaches Licht. Unser Gehirn ist dafür ausgestattet, sich aus dem Wenigen, was ihm über das Auge und das Ohr vermittelt wird, ein brauchbares Bild des Ganzen zu machen, um sich darin zurechtzufinden. Es braucht keine genaue Analyse und hat auch meistens nicht die Zeit dafür. Das gleiche Phänomen erleben wir beim Autofahren. Würden wir ständig die gegenwärtige Lage präzise analysieren wollen, wären wir komplett fahrunfähig. In manchen Lebenslagen braucht man beides: die Analyse bestimmter Details und die ganzheitliche Situationseinschätzung. In vielen anderen

D

2.2. Ganzheitliches Denken nach Wegen der materiellen Handlungsspielräume sucht, nicht aber diese als unübersteigbare Grenze durchzusetzen trachtet. Empathische Fähigkeiten können bis zu einem gewissen Grad eingeübt werden. Die Kunst des Kulturmanagements besteht in diesem Baustein darin, den dialektischen Gegenpart aus dem instrumentellen Managementwissen spielen zu können, ohne einen kommandierenden Ehrgeiz daran anzuknüpfen. Kunst ist eben ein Geschenk, kein Spielmaterial für kommerziellen Ehrgeiz.14


Punkt hinaus zu erkennen, was Menschen in der Vergangenheit und in der Gegenwart in Sachen Wirtschaft gedacht und tatsächlich ausgeführt haben. Ökonomie ist eine Form der Selbstaufklärung des Menschen (falls sie methodologisch korrekt ausgeführt wird). Der bekannte Grundsatz, dass das Ganze mehr ist als die Summe seiner Teile, weist darauf hin, dass man den Sinn einer Gestalt nicht erfassen kann durch Analyse und Synthese seiner Teile. Das Ganze bildet sich durch die ordnende Hand des Menschen, und über diese Ordnungsvorstellung, etwa die figürliche Verteilung von Einzelheiten auf der Bildfläche eines Gemäldes, verwirklicht der gestaltende Mensch seine Ideen. Das gilt, wie leicht verständlich, für Kunstwerke, aber auch für Bauwerke oder Industrieprodukte. Die Formästhetik und Materialität solcher Objekte ist immer eine kulturelle Aussage, auch wenn sie scheinbar noch so primitiv oder banal daherkommt. Banalität ist sehr häufig die kulturelle Botschaft industrieller Massenware. Die Konsequenzen für eine praxisnahe Konzeption und Praxis des Kulturmanagements sind vielfältig. Zunächst ist festzuhalten, dass die Sinnerfassung von Objekten, also beispielsweise von Kunstwerken, und damit ihre ganzheitliche Wahrnehmung und Deutung die vor aller möglichen Analytik an der ersten Stelle stehen muss. Es geht in Kunst und Kultur immer um die Sinnerfassung, d. h. um die innere Botschaft einer Gestalt und seine Sinnbeziehung zur umgebenden Gesellschaft, vornehmlich natürlich dem Publikum. Um das noch einmal zu betonen: das Kulturmanagement tritt dabei nicht in die Fußstapfen der Künstler, sondern erfasst die Beziehung der künstlerischen Praxis zu den materiellen Rahmenbedingungen, an denen auch Künstler nicht vorbeikommen. Der erste Schritt für ganzheitliches Denken im Kulturmanagement besteht darin zu akzeptieren, dass die üblichen betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumente durchwegs analytisch angelegt sind und in vielen praktischen Lebenslagen bei weitem nicht immer nützlich angewendet werden können. Ihre Nutzung beschränkt sich auf Handlungssituationen, die hinsichtlich ihres Zweckes bereits vollständig geklärt und entschieden sind. Wie soll man auch analytisch aktiv werden, wenn der Gegenstand der Analyse noch gar nicht feststeht? Auch ein gedanklicher Test in der Planungsphase, beispielsweise eine vorsichtige Kalkulation für eine beabsichtigte Kunstausstellung, muss erhärtete Annahme machen, was denn konkret geschehen soll. Man kann nicht ins Nichts hinaus kalkulieren. Wir müssen daher die Kunst des Kulturmanagements erweitern um das Lernfeld des ganzheitlichen Denkens und Konzipierens von Handlungen im gedanklichen

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Lebenslagen aber kommt man nur mit dem ganzheitlichen Erfassen der Situation weiter [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Erstens weil oft die Zeit für ausführliche Analysen fehlt und zweitens, noch wichtiger, weil das menschliche Gehirn seit Millionen von Jahren der Evolution dazu eingerichtet ist, in kürzester Zeit aus wenigen Andeutungen von Umrissen sich vollständiges Bild zu konstruieren. Man geht heute davon aus, dass, bei aller Anfälligkeit für Irrtümer, die sinnlich-emotionale Wahrnehmung und Deutung von Ganzheiten, z. B. die Gefahrenträchtigkeit einer Lage oder das Verstehen eines Kunstwerkes, eine unverzichtbare Form der Lebenstüchtigkeit darstellt, die in vielen Fällen dem analytischen (relativ langsamen) Verstand weit überlegen ist. Pierre Basieux beschreibt zur Relativierung der Verstandestätigkeit und der Verstandesgläubigkeit: „Wenn es darum geht, eine richtige Wahl zu treffen, dürfen wir [sagen die Verstandesgläubigen – P. B.] keine Emotionen zulassen. Ungestört von Gefühlsvernebelungen sollen wir in der Lage sein, besonders klare Analysen anzustellen. Beispiele scheinen dies zu bestätigen, denn manchmal liegen wir mit unserer Intuition daneben. Jahrhunderte lang hat sie uns vorgegaukelt, die Sonne würde sich um die Erde drehen; es bedurfte schon des Verstandes, um dahinter zu kommen, wie es sich wirklich verhält. In vielen anderen Situationen aber ist, wie Versuche zeigen, unser Bauchgefühl dem analytischen Verstand überlegen – zum Beispiel wenn wir bereits Erfahrung auf einem Gebiet haben oder wenn die Situation sehr unübersichtlich ist“ [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Selbst wenn Erfahrungen auf falschen Annahmen beruhen, können sie im Alltag noch helfen, das Leben zu meistern. Für uns ist es nicht besonders relevant zu wissen, dass sich die Erde um die Sonne dreht und nicht umgekehrt. Diese falsche Vorstellung hat sich kulturelle sehr tief ins menschliche Denken eingegraben. Noch immer sagen wir, dass die Sonne morgens aufgeht und abends untergeht. Das ist ein sprachlicher Lapsus, denn das tut die Sonne nicht. Es ist die Erde, die sich um sich selbst dreht. Aber unser gesamtes Wissen ist ohnehin eine Geisteskonstruktion, die oft viel maßgeblicher für die Entwicklung von Kultur ist als alle sachlich korrekte Aufklärung. Vergessen wir also nicht, dass das gesamte ökonomischen Denken, alle Theorien und Modelle, alle Methoden und Instrumente Hirnkonstruktionen sind und dass wir mit ihnen nicht die Wahrheit in der Natur entdecken werden, sondern nur uns über unsere eigenen kulturellen Konstruktionen aufklären können. Das Nachdenken über die Wirtschaft kommt nicht über den

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

116

Punkt hinaus zu erkennen, was Menschen in der Vergangenheit und in der Gegenwart in Sachen Wirtschaft gedacht und tatsächlich ausgeführt haben. Ökonomie ist eine Form der Selbstaufklärung des Menschen (falls sie methodologisch korrekt ausgeführt wird). Der bekannte Grundsatz, dass das Ganze mehr ist als die Summe seiner Teile, weist darauf hin, dass man den Sinn einer Gestalt nicht erfassen kann durch Analyse und Synthese seiner Teile. Das Ganze bildet sich durch die ordnende Hand des Menschen, und über diese Ordnungsvorstellung, etwa die figürliche Verteilung von Einzelheiten auf der Bildfläche eines Gemäldes, verwirklicht der gestaltende Mensch seine Ideen. Das gilt, wie leicht verständlich, für Kunstwerke, aber auch für Bauwerke oder Industrieprodukte. Die Formästhetik und Materialität solcher Objekte ist immer eine kulturelle Aussage, auch wenn sie scheinbar noch so primitiv oder banal daherkommt. Banalität ist sehr häufig die kulturelle Botschaft industrieller Massenware. Die Konsequenzen für eine praxisnahe Konzeption und Praxis des Kulturmanagements sind vielfältig. Zunächst ist festzuhalten, dass die Sinnerfassung von Objekten, also beispielsweise von Kunstwerken, und damit ihre ganzheitliche Wahrnehmung und Deutung die vor aller möglichen Analytik an der ersten Stelle stehen muss. Es geht in Kunst und Kultur immer um die Sinnerfassung, d. h. um die innere Botschaft einer Gestalt und seine Sinnbeziehung zur umgebenden Gesellschaft, vornehmlich natürlich dem Publikum. Um das noch einmal zu betonen: das Kulturmanagement tritt dabei nicht in die Fußstapfen der Künstler, sondern erfasst die Beziehung der künstlerischen Praxis zu den materiellen Rahmenbedingungen, an denen auch Künstler nicht vorbeikommen. Der erste Schritt für ganzheitliches Denken im Kulturmanagement besteht darin zu akzeptieren, dass die üblichen betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumente durchwegs analytisch angelegt sind und in vielen praktischen Lebenslagen bei weitem nicht immer nützlich angewendet werden können. Ihre Nutzung beschränkt sich auf Handlungssituationen, die hinsichtlich ihres Zweckes bereits vollständig geklärt und entschieden sind. Wie soll man auch analytisch aktiv werden, wenn der Gegenstand der Analyse noch gar nicht feststeht? Auch ein gedanklicher Test in der Planungsphase, beispielsweise eine vorsichtige Kalkulation für eine beabsichtigte Kunstausstellung, muss erhärtete Annahme machen, was denn konkret geschehen soll. Man kann nicht ins Nichts hinaus kalkulieren. Wir müssen daher die Kunst des Kulturmanagements erweitern um das Lernfeld des ganzheitlichen Denkens und Konzipierens von Handlungen im gedanklichen

116

Lebenslagen aber kommt man nur mit dem ganzheitlichen Erfassen der Situation weiter [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Erstens weil oft die Zeit für ausführliche Analysen fehlt und zweitens, noch wichtiger, weil das menschliche Gehirn seit Millionen von Jahren der Evolution dazu eingerichtet ist, in kürzester Zeit aus wenigen Andeutungen von Umrissen sich vollständiges Bild zu konstruieren. Man geht heute davon aus, dass, bei aller Anfälligkeit für Irrtümer, die sinnlich-emotionale Wahrnehmung und Deutung von Ganzheiten, z. B. die Gefahrenträchtigkeit einer Lage oder das Verstehen eines Kunstwerkes, eine unverzichtbare Form der Lebenstüchtigkeit darstellt, die in vielen Fällen dem analytischen (relativ langsamen) Verstand weit überlegen ist. Pierre Basieux beschreibt zur Relativierung der Verstandestätigkeit und der Verstandesgläubigkeit: „Wenn es darum geht, eine richtige Wahl zu treffen, dürfen wir [sagen die Verstandesgläubigen – P. B.] keine Emotionen zulassen. Ungestört von Gefühlsvernebelungen sollen wir in der Lage sein, besonders klare Analysen anzustellen. Beispiele scheinen dies zu bestätigen, denn manchmal liegen wir mit unserer Intuition daneben. Jahrhunderte lang hat sie uns vorgegaukelt, die Sonne würde sich um die Erde drehen; es bedurfte schon des Verstandes, um dahinter zu kommen, wie es sich wirklich verhält. In vielen anderen Situationen aber ist, wie Versuche zeigen, unser Bauchgefühl dem analytischen Verstand überlegen – zum Beispiel wenn wir bereits Erfahrung auf einem Gebiet haben oder wenn die Situation sehr unübersichtlich ist“ [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Selbst wenn Erfahrungen auf falschen Annahmen beruhen, können sie im Alltag noch helfen, das Leben zu meistern. Für uns ist es nicht besonders relevant zu wissen, dass sich die Erde um die Sonne dreht und nicht umgekehrt. Diese falsche Vorstellung hat sich kulturelle sehr tief ins menschliche Denken eingegraben. Noch immer sagen wir, dass die Sonne morgens aufgeht und abends untergeht. Das ist ein sprachlicher Lapsus, denn das tut die Sonne nicht. Es ist die Erde, die sich um sich selbst dreht. Aber unser gesamtes Wissen ist ohnehin eine Geisteskonstruktion, die oft viel maßgeblicher für die Entwicklung von Kultur ist als alle sachlich korrekte Aufklärung. Vergessen wir also nicht, dass das gesamte ökonomischen Denken, alle Theorien und Modelle, alle Methoden und Instrumente Hirnkonstruktionen sind und dass wir mit ihnen nicht die Wahrheit in der Natur entdecken werden, sondern nur uns über unsere eigenen kulturellen Konstruktionen aufklären können. Das Nachdenken über die Wirtschaft kommt nicht über den


117

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Vorfeld einer Aktion. Für das Kulturmanagement ist das unverzichtbar. Ist, als Beispiel, durch die Intendanz eines Theaters entschieden, dass man in der gegenwärtigen Lage dem Publikum der Stadt endlich mal wieder Goethes Faust Teil II bieten muss, dann kann im Vorfeld schon eine Reihe von Managementtechniken wirksam eingesetzt werden, um dieses Ziel auf der Seite der materiellen Ressourcen bestmöglich zu unterstützen, jedoch erst, wenn die Akteure die Konturen der Bühnenproduktion bereits darlegen können. Die Managementinstrumente sind deshalb immer Nachzügler, niemals Vorreiter. Die klassischen betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumente (Kalkulation, Planungstechniken, Controlling, Organisation etc.) sind ungeeignet, die inhaltliche Inspiration, die zu dieser Programmentscheidung geführt hat, zu dirigieren. Allenfalls kann mit ganzheitlicher Einschätzung der zu erwartenden Lage in sehr vorläufiger Weise auf mögliche Konsequenzen hinsichtlich der Belastung der Haushaltsmittel hingewiesen werden. Ganzheitliches Denken bedeutet im Kulturmanagement das empathisch geschulte Mitempfinden der künstlerischen Vorhaben ohne Anspruch auf dirigistische Einwirkungen nach Maßstäben der Wirtschaftlichkeit. In der Kunst kann nur sie selbst, also die aktiven Künstler, den gesamten Prozess der Kreation, der Ideenfindung und ihrer inhaltlichen Umsetzung, in die Hand nehmen, wenn auch gestützt auf das formal (ökonomisch) Machbare. Hier wie auch sonst gilt das Prinzip, dass der Inhalt die Form bestimmt. Im Beispiel von Goethes Faust hieße das, dass die mit der Inszenierung beabsichtigte Botschaft an das Publikum den Charakter des künstlerischen Aufbaus (Szenenführung, Bühnenbild, Beleuchtung, Kostümierung etc.) bestimmt – auch dies ist keine Sache des Kulturmanagements – und erst auf dieser Realisierungsebene kommen die materiellen Bedingungen (Budget und verfügbare Ressourcen) ”ins Spiel“. Die Idee bestimmt die Form und diese schließlich baut eine mögliche Spannung auf zu den materiellen Bedingungen. Die materiellen Bedingungen können technischer Natur sein (manche Regieeinfälle sind technisch nicht umsetzbar) oder aus der Natur begrenzter

Ressourcen stammen (manche Vorhaben lassen sich eben nicht finanzieren). Die Reihenfolge aber bleibt: Idee, Form und Realisierbarkeit. Kulturmanagement hat es mit Letzterem zu tun.

2.3. Handwerkliches Können

D

ie Arbeit des Kulturmanagements ist ein eigenes Metier und verlangt Professionalität, aber sie ist nur in wenigen Fällen eine selbständige Tätigkeit, z. B. als Kunsthändler, Künstleragentur, Buch- oder Musikverleger. Die Regel ist die Integration des Kulturmanagements als Funktion innerhalb einer Kunst- und Kulturorganisation oder innerhalb eines Kunst- oder Kulturprojektes. Da der Begriff Kultur sehr weit zu fassen ist, jedenfalls sich nicht nur auf Kunst beschränkt15, ist das Feld beruflicher Tätigkeiten für Kulturmanager relativ offen. Kulturmanagement lässt sich, wenn es mit der entsprechenden inhaltlichen Aufgabe verschmilzt, auf viele Handwerke übertragen, z. B. Instrumentenbau, Bühnentechnik und Teile der Architektur. In diesem Fall kann man auch von einem Kulturunternehmen sprechen. Die Qualifikation von Kulturmanagern kann selbst für bestimmte Aufgaben in der Industrie oder in öffentlichen Verwaltungen, z. B. Kulturämtern, sehr nützlich sein. In beiden Fällen, ob als integrierte Funktion in einem Ganzen oder als selbständiges Unternehmen, gehört die inhaltliche Gestaltungsarbeit an den materiellen Bedingungen für ein Kunst- oder Kulturvorhaben zur pragmatischen Komposition des Kulturmanagements. Auch das Management arbeitet an einem Objekt, und eine umfassende Objektwahrnehmung ist die Basis der Praxis, auch im Kulturmanagement. Wer etwas managen will oder soll, muss selbstverständlich wissen, was der genaue Gegenstand des Managements ist und welche konditionellen Herausforderungen daraus erwachsen. Das gilt in der Industrie genauso wie im Kulturbereich. Dabei handelt es sich aber nicht (jedenfalls nicht nur) um ein objektiviertes Distanzwissen, sondern um ein Eintauchen in den Gestaltungsvorgang und damit um ein den Entstehungsprozess begleitendes Mitgehen aus dem Wissen um die materiellen Rahmenbedingungen heraus.16

15

Eine begriffliche Klärung und Definition kann in diesem Rahmen nicht geleistet werden. Siehe dazu Peter Bendixen: Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement. 3. Aufl. Wiesbaden 2006 sowie Peter Bendixen: Managing ‚Art – An Introduction into Principles and Conceptions. (im Druck, Herbst 2009).

16

Die große Kulturtragödie unserer Zeit ist die Ausbreitung einer Managementpraxis, massiv gefördert durch das verengte Weltbild der Ökonomen, die glaubt, aus der Distanz und Abgehobenheit von den Inhalten und Gegenständen ihres Dirigierens ein formales (auf Gelddispositionen aufgebautes) Regiment auf der Grundlage von Theorien, Modellen und abstrakten Verfahren wirksam meistern zu können. Wie soll man seine Gier als Manager selber zügeln können, wenn der sinnliche Kontakt zum Gegenstand des Managements unterbrochen ist?

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

117

16 15

Die große Kulturtragödie unserer Zeit ist die Ausbreitung einer Managementpraxis, massiv gefördert durch das verengte Weltbild der Ökonomen, die glaubt, aus der Distanz und Abgehobenheit von den Inhalten und Gegenständen ihres Dirigierens ein formales (auf Gelddispositionen aufgebautes) Regiment auf der Grundlage von Theorien, Modellen und abstrakten Verfahren wirksam meistern zu können. Wie soll man seine Gier als Manager selber zügeln können, wenn der sinnliche Kontakt zum Gegenstand des Managements unterbrochen ist? Eine begriffliche Klärung und Definition kann in diesem Rahmen nicht geleistet werden. Siehe dazu Peter Bendixen: Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement. 3. Aufl. Wiesbaden 2006 sowie Peter Bendixen: Managing ‚Art – An Introduction into Principles and Conceptions. (im Druck, Herbst 2009).

Vorfeld einer Aktion. Für das Kulturmanagement ist das unverzichtbar. Ist, als Beispiel, durch die Intendanz eines Theaters entschieden, dass man in der gegenwärtigen Lage dem Publikum der Stadt endlich mal wieder Goethes Faust Teil II bieten muss, dann kann im Vorfeld schon eine Reihe von Managementtechniken wirksam eingesetzt werden, um dieses Ziel auf der Seite der materiellen Ressourcen bestmöglich zu unterstützen, jedoch erst, wenn die Akteure die Konturen der Bühnenproduktion bereits darlegen können. Die Managementinstrumente sind deshalb immer Nachzügler, niemals Vorreiter. Die klassischen betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumente (Kalkulation, Planungstechniken, Controlling, Organisation etc.) sind ungeeignet, die inhaltliche Inspiration, die zu dieser Programmentscheidung geführt hat, zu dirigieren. Allenfalls kann mit ganzheitlicher Einschätzung der zu erwartenden Lage in sehr vorläufiger Weise auf mögliche Konsequenzen hinsichtlich der Belastung der Haushaltsmittel hingewiesen werden. Ganzheitliches Denken bedeutet im Kulturmanagement das empathisch geschulte Mitempfinden der künstlerischen Vorhaben ohne Anspruch auf dirigistische Einwirkungen nach Maßstäben der Wirtschaftlichkeit. In der Kunst kann nur sie selbst, also die aktiven Künstler, den gesamten Prozess der Kreation, der Ideenfindung und ihrer inhaltlichen Umsetzung, in die Hand nehmen, wenn auch gestützt auf das formal (ökonomisch) Machbare. Hier wie auch sonst gilt das Prinzip, dass der Inhalt die Form bestimmt. Im Beispiel von Goethes Faust hieße das, dass die mit der Inszenierung beabsichtigte Botschaft an das Publikum den Charakter des künstlerischen Aufbaus (Szenenführung, Bühnenbild, Beleuchtung, Kostümierung etc.) bestimmt – auch dies ist keine Sache des Kulturmanagements – und erst auf dieser Realisierungsebene kommen die materiellen Bedingungen (Budget und verfügbare Ressourcen) ”ins Spiel“. Die Idee bestimmt die Form und diese schließlich baut eine mögliche Spannung auf zu den materiellen Bedingungen. Die materiellen Bedingungen können technischer Natur sein (manche Regieeinfälle sind technisch nicht umsetzbar) oder aus der Natur begrenzter

ie Arbeit des Kulturmanagements ist ein eigenes Metier und verlangt Professionalität, aber sie ist nur in wenigen Fällen eine selbständige Tätigkeit, z. B. als Kunsthändler, Künstleragentur, Buch- oder Musikverleger. Die Regel ist die Integration des Kulturmanagements als Funktion innerhalb einer Kunst- und Kulturorganisation oder innerhalb eines Kunst- oder Kulturprojektes. Da der Begriff Kultur sehr weit zu fassen ist, jedenfalls sich nicht nur auf Kunst beschränkt15, ist das Feld beruflicher Tätigkeiten für Kulturmanager relativ offen. Kulturmanagement lässt sich, wenn es mit der entsprechenden inhaltlichen Aufgabe verschmilzt, auf viele Handwerke übertragen, z. B. Instrumentenbau, Bühnentechnik und Teile der Architektur. In diesem Fall kann man auch von einem Kulturunternehmen sprechen. Die Qualifikation von Kulturmanagern kann selbst für bestimmte Aufgaben in der Industrie oder in öffentlichen Verwaltungen, z. B. Kulturämtern, sehr nützlich sein. In beiden Fällen, ob als integrierte Funktion in einem Ganzen oder als selbständiges Unternehmen, gehört die inhaltliche Gestaltungsarbeit an den materiellen Bedingungen für ein Kunst- oder Kulturvorhaben zur pragmatischen Komposition des Kulturmanagements. Auch das Management arbeitet an einem Objekt, und eine umfassende Objektwahrnehmung ist die Basis der Praxis, auch im Kulturmanagement. Wer etwas managen will oder soll, muss selbstverständlich wissen, was der genaue Gegenstand des Managements ist und welche konditionellen Herausforderungen daraus erwachsen. Das gilt in der Industrie genauso wie im Kulturbereich. Dabei handelt es sich aber nicht (jedenfalls nicht nur) um ein objektiviertes Distanzwissen, sondern um ein Eintauchen in den Gestaltungsvorgang und damit um ein den Entstehungsprozess begleitendes Mitgehen aus dem Wissen um die materiellen Rahmenbedingungen heraus.16

D

2.3. Handwerkliches Können Ressourcen stammen (manche Vorhaben lassen sich eben nicht finanzieren). Die Reihenfolge aber bleibt: Idee, Form und Realisierbarkeit. Kulturmanagement hat es mit Letzterem zu tun.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

hinderlich erweisen könnten. Genau hier beginnt die Arbeit des im Entstehungsprozess integrierten Kulturmanagements. Das Kennzeichen eines guten Kulturmanagements ist Kongenialität. Die konzentrierte Arbeit des Künstlers am Objekt soll hinsichtlich der Reichweite seiner Phantasie nicht eingeschränkt werden, muss aber spätestens bei der Verwirklichung auf den Boden einiger realer Tatsachen herunter geholt werden. Das ist auch eine Frage des diplomatischen Geschicks eines Kulturmanagers. Aus diesem Aspekt heraus wird verständlich, warum wir bei der Anwendung betriebswirtschaftlicher Managementinstrumente mit höchster Vorsicht vorgehen müssen. Sie werden zwar in zahlreichen Einzelaspekten des Kulturmanagements benötigt, aber mehr als eine Art Schablone, verbunden mit der Notwendigkeit, sie auf die konkreten Umstände anzupassen. Ein Kulturmanager braucht die Souveränität, das betriebswirtschaftliche Instrumentarium zwar zu beherrschen und gezielt einzusetzen, muss es aber für die konkreten Aufgaben aus eigener Meisterschaft heraus umgestalten. Die Skepsis gegenüber dem herkömmlichen Managementwissen und den betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumenten hat seinen Grund in deren Herkunft aus den Arbeitsverhältnissen großer Industriebetriebe. Die wissenschaftliche Entwicklung des betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumentariums hat eine lange Geschichte innerhalb der Welt des traditionellen ökonomischen Denkens, welches sich von Anfang an im Kern auf die Bedingungen industrieller Betriebe bezog. Das Kennzeichen dieses traditionellen ökonomischen Denkens ist die Vorstellung eines (sozialmechanistischen) Systems, das der Ökonom (der Betriebswirt) in analoger Weise vor sich hat wie der Ingenieur seine technische Anlage.18 In dieser Vorstellung ist die Arbeitsteilung zwischen Kopfarbeit und ausführender manueller oder maschineller Arbeit weitgehend vollzogen. Eine sinnliche und kognitive Rückkopplung im konkreten Arbeiten, wie sie typischerweise bei einem Bildhauer oder einem Maler beobachtet werden kann, aber auch bei vielen anderen Handwerken oder in Forschungslabors, findet

118

Man kann diese integrierte Aufgabe auch als eine Art Navigation bezeichnen, vergleichbar der Aufgabe eines Nautikers, der mit Hilfe von Seekarten und Funkpeilung ständig die Situation des Schiffes bestimmt, ohne aber selbst der Kapitän zu sein. Kulturmanagement ist ein mit den Gestaltungsinhalten verbundene Kunst des Steuerns durch schwierige äußere Umstände; es bestimmt aber nicht selbst den Kurs. Der Kurs kann z. B. eine Ausstellung sein.17 Kulturmanagement ist die Navigation durch die Hürden der Bürokratie, die Unwilligkeit von Finanzierern und Sponsoren und die Untiefen eines schwer berechenbaren Publikums. Kulturmanagement ist in solchen Fällen ein prozessintegrierter Teil im Werden eines Kunstwerkes, etwa einer Ausstellung, und nicht ein arbeitsteilig ausgegliederter Funktionsbereich, der aus der Distanz operiert wie beispielsweise die Buchhaltung oder das Personalbüro eines Theaters. Buchhaltung und Personalverwaltung haben nichts mit Kulturmanagement zu tun. Für die Professionalisierung des Kulturmanagements ergibt sich eine Reihe von Folgerungen hinsichtlich der Grundqualifikation. Sie lassen sich in dem Begriff des handwerklichen Könnens zusammenfassen. Dessen Kennzeichen ist ein Prozessverlauf im Arbeiten, bei dem Kopf und Hand gemeinsame Sache machen. Der Kopf denkt gestalterisch und lenkt die Hand bei der physischen Ausführung. Das langsam entstehende Werk nimmt der Kopf permanent wahr (er beobachtet und überdenkt die Folgen für das mögliche Ende des Werkes: die fertige Gestalt) und korrigiert die ausführende Arbeit. Dies ist zunächst eine typisierende Beschreibung der Gestaltungsarbeit eines Künstlers. Für sie ist charakteristisch das zuweilen vollständige Abtauchen des arbeitenden Künstlers in sein Werk, und zwar mit höchster Konzentration auf die Sache und zugleich einem Verdrängen der äußeren Umgebungsfaktoren des Alltagslebens. Die konzentrierte Arbeit des Künstlers hat in diesem Punkt eine gewisse Ähnlichkeit mit der fernöstlichen Zen-Kultur. In Phasen der Konzentration auf die Sache werden auch solche Umgebungsfaktoren weggedrängt, die sich später in der Realisierung, also in der Publikation, als

Auf die methodologische Kritik an dieser Denktradition kann ich hier nicht eingehen. Das ist eine sehr fundamentale Angelegenheit. Aufschlussreich ist das Buch von Karl-Heinz Brodbeck: Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökonomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Wirtschaftswissenschaft. 3. Aufl. Darmstadt 2007. Noch tiefgründiger Karl H. Brodbeck: Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik. Darmstadt 2009. Die eigenartige Konstruktion auf diesem Feld liegt darin, dass in der Praxis der Kopf (das Management) von den Händen (den ausführenden Arbeitern) getrennt operiert, nun aber durch die Betriebswirtschaftslehre seinerseits in die Mangel genommen wird. Der bwl-hörige Manager ist nicht mehr frei, sondern folgt den Imperativen über ihm aus dem Geltungsanspruch einer pragmatisch ausgerichteten Wissenschaft.

Ausstellungen sind in gewisser Weise künstlerische Arrangements mit einer inhaltlichen Botschaft an das Publikum, auch wenn die Objekte der Ausstellung selbst keine Kunstwerkes sind, z. B. die Objekte einer archäologischen Ausgrabung.

18

17

Ausstellungen sind in gewisser Weise künstlerische Arrangements mit einer inhaltlichen Botschaft an das Publikum, auch wenn die Objekte der Ausstellung selbst keine Kunstwerkes sind, z. B. die Objekte einer archäologischen Ausgrabung.

18

17

Auf die methodologische Kritik an dieser Denktradition kann ich hier nicht eingehen. Das ist eine sehr fundamentale Angelegenheit. Aufschlussreich ist das Buch von Karl-Heinz Brodbeck: Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökonomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Wirtschaftswissenschaft. 3. Aufl. Darmstadt 2007. Noch tiefgründiger Karl H. Brodbeck: Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik. Darmstadt 2009. Die eigenartige Konstruktion auf diesem Feld liegt darin, dass in der Praxis der Kopf (das Management) von den Händen (den ausführenden Arbeitern) getrennt operiert, nun aber durch die Betriebswirtschaftslehre seinerseits in die Mangel genommen wird. Der bwl-hörige Manager ist nicht mehr frei, sondern folgt den Imperativen über ihm aus dem Geltungsanspruch einer pragmatisch ausgerichteten Wissenschaft.

hinderlich erweisen könnten. Genau hier beginnt die Arbeit des im Entstehungsprozess integrierten Kulturmanagements. Das Kennzeichen eines guten Kulturmanagements ist Kongenialität. Die konzentrierte Arbeit des Künstlers am Objekt soll hinsichtlich der Reichweite seiner Phantasie nicht eingeschränkt werden, muss aber spätestens bei der Verwirklichung auf den Boden einiger realer Tatsachen herunter geholt werden. Das ist auch eine Frage des diplomatischen Geschicks eines Kulturmanagers. Aus diesem Aspekt heraus wird verständlich, warum wir bei der Anwendung betriebswirtschaftlicher Managementinstrumente mit höchster Vorsicht vorgehen müssen. Sie werden zwar in zahlreichen Einzelaspekten des Kulturmanagements benötigt, aber mehr als eine Art Schablone, verbunden mit der Notwendigkeit, sie auf die konkreten Umstände anzupassen. Ein Kulturmanager braucht die Souveränität, das betriebswirtschaftliche Instrumentarium zwar zu beherrschen und gezielt einzusetzen, muss es aber für die konkreten Aufgaben aus eigener Meisterschaft heraus umgestalten. Die Skepsis gegenüber dem herkömmlichen Managementwissen und den betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumenten hat seinen Grund in deren Herkunft aus den Arbeitsverhältnissen großer Industriebetriebe. Die wissenschaftliche Entwicklung des betriebswirtschaftlichen Instrumentariums hat eine lange Geschichte innerhalb der Welt des traditionellen ökonomischen Denkens, welches sich von Anfang an im Kern auf die Bedingungen industrieller Betriebe bezog. Das Kennzeichen dieses traditionellen ökonomischen Denkens ist die Vorstellung eines (sozialmechanistischen) Systems, das der Ökonom (der Betriebswirt) in analoger Weise vor sich hat wie der Ingenieur seine technische Anlage.18 In dieser Vorstellung ist die Arbeitsteilung zwischen Kopfarbeit und ausführender manueller oder maschineller Arbeit weitgehend vollzogen. Eine sinnliche und kognitive Rückkopplung im konkreten Arbeiten, wie sie typischerweise bei einem Bildhauer oder einem Maler beobachtet werden kann, aber auch bei vielen anderen Handwerken oder in Forschungslabors, findet

118

Man kann diese integrierte Aufgabe auch als eine Art Navigation bezeichnen, vergleichbar der Aufgabe eines Nautikers, der mit Hilfe von Seekarten und Funkpeilung ständig die Situation des Schiffes bestimmt, ohne aber selbst der Kapitän zu sein. Kulturmanagement ist ein mit den Gestaltungsinhalten verbundene Kunst des Steuerns durch schwierige äußere Umstände; es bestimmt aber nicht selbst den Kurs. Der Kurs kann z. B. eine Ausstellung sein.17 Kulturmanagement ist die Navigation durch die Hürden der Bürokratie, die Unwilligkeit von Finanzierern und Sponsoren und die Untiefen eines schwer berechenbaren Publikums. Kulturmanagement ist in solchen Fällen ein prozessintegrierter Teil im Werden eines Kunstwerkes, etwa einer Ausstellung, und nicht ein arbeitsteilig ausgegliederter Funktionsbereich, der aus der Distanz operiert wie beispielsweise die Buchhaltung oder das Personalbüro eines Theaters. Buchhaltung und Personalverwaltung haben nichts mit Kulturmanagement zu tun. Für die Professionalisierung des Kulturmanagements ergibt sich eine Reihe von Folgerungen hinsichtlich der Grundqualifikation. Sie lassen sich in dem Begriff des handwerklichen Könnens zusammenfassen. Dessen Kennzeichen ist ein Prozessverlauf im Arbeiten, bei dem Kopf und Hand gemeinsame Sache machen. Der Kopf denkt gestalterisch und lenkt die Hand bei der physischen Ausführung. Das langsam entstehende Werk nimmt der Kopf permanent wahr (er beobachtet und überdenkt die Folgen für das mögliche Ende des Werkes: die fertige Gestalt) und korrigiert die ausführende Arbeit. Dies ist zunächst eine typisierende Beschreibung der Gestaltungsarbeit eines Künstlers. Für sie ist charakteristisch das zuweilen vollständige Abtauchen des arbeitenden Künstlers in sein Werk, und zwar mit höchster Konzentration auf die Sache und zugleich einem Verdrängen der äußeren Umgebungsfaktoren des Alltagslebens. Die konzentrierte Arbeit des Künstlers hat in diesem Punkt eine gewisse Ähnlichkeit mit der fernöstlichen Zen-Kultur. In Phasen der Konzentration auf die Sache werden auch solche Umgebungsfaktoren weggedrängt, die sich später in der Realisierung, also in der Publikation, als


119

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

unter industriellen Bedingungen nicht mehr statt. Die Kopfarbeit ist in einem Industriebetrieb, und zwar sowohl im Management als auch in der inhaltlichen Gestaltung von Erzeugnissen, die hergestellt und verkauft werden sollen, über die ausführende Arbeit (in der Verwaltung bzw. an der Werkbank oder dem Fließband) abgehoben. Der Kopf (in der Produktforschung und Konstruktion) arbeitet das Produkt in der funktionalen Konstruktion und in der ästhetischen Erscheinung zu einem Muster aus, das (meist nach einem Probelauf) in der physischen Ausführung nur noch als strikt anzuwendende Schablone genutzt werden kann. Eine direkte Rückkopplung im industriellen Gestaltungsprozess findet nicht mehr statt. Eine weitläufige indirekte Rückkopplung ergibt sich erst dann, wenn es Hindernisse am Markt gibt, wenn die Menge der Reklamationen zunimmt oder andere äußere Umstände, z. B. neue Gesetzeslagen, zu einer Anpassung der Produktqualitäten zwingen. Es sollte aber nicht vergessen werden, dass der Vorteil dieser Arbeitsweise im Gewinn einer im Prinzip unendlichen und, mit Hilfe geeigneter Fertigungstechniken, präzisen und schnellen Wiederholung immer desselben Arbeitsgangs liegt. Das ist immerhin die Basis der Wohlstandsentwicklung der letzten zweihundert Jahre gewesen. Nun stelle man sich ein Theater vor, das ein bestimmtes Stück mit eisenharter Disziplin und einer fertigen Schablone in eine standardisierte Aufführungspraxis verwandelt. Ein solches Stück lebt nicht. Es integriert wegen seiner abweisenden Härte nicht die mentale und emotionale Beteiligung der Zuschauer oder macht die Aufführung zu einem bloß oberflächlichen ästhetischen Spektakel, dem Reklamewirrwarr in einem Shoppingzentrum sehr ähnlich. Ganz ausgeschlossen sind solche “Inszenierungen“ natürlich nicht, wie wir aus einige Musical-Produktionen wissen. Das alte Handwerk mit seiner unvermittelten Kopplung von Kopf- und Handarbeit ist als Typus der gewerblichen Arbeit zwar nahezu verschwunden, aber die kreative Verknüpfung von Kopf- und Handarbeit als solche ist in vielen Bereichen auch heute noch erhalten geblieben und hat sich in vielen Fällen als sinnvoller und produktiver erwiesen als extreme Formen der Trennung von Denken und Ausführen. Das ist grundsätzlich dort der Fall, wo das entstehende Werk nicht

eine bloße Wiederholung dessen sein soll, was schon immer der Fall war, sondern sich auf dem Wege zu einem Einzelobjekt mit einer gewissen Einmaligkeit an gestalterischen Mustern und einer darin zum Ausdruck kommenden kulturellen Botschaft befindet.19 Für die Konzeption eines handwerklich orientierten Kulturmanagements20 gilt dies analog in zweifacher Weise: Erstens erfordert die Art und Weise des konzeptionellen und instrumentellen Zuschnitts der Aufgabe und der Rolle des Kulturmanagements eine Einstimmung auf die Bedingungen des Einzelfalls. Zweitens ist die integrierte Art der Mitwirkung des Kulturmanagements in einem künstlerischen Gestaltungsprozess gekennzeichnet durch das sensible nachrangige Mitgehen am Rande des künstlerischen Geschehens, also nicht in dessen Zentrum, muss aber ein ganzheitliches Verstehen der künstlerischen Absichten erreichen, was ein hohes Maß an Empathie erfordert. Empathie ist in diesem Fall die Kunst, sich in die Bedingungen der künstlerischen Gestaltung hineinzudenken, ohne diese selbst intervenierend zu tangieren, es sei denn, die absehbaren materiellen Folgen der künstlerischen Arbeit, etwa die Belastung des begrenzten Budgets, lassen Warnlampen aufleuchten.

2.4. Zukunftsorientierung

D

as Wissen um die Vergänglichkeit aller menschlichen Werke ist eine Selbstverständlichkeit des Alltags. Ebenso klar ist das Bewusstsein, dass wir über die Zukunft nicht viel Sicheres wissen können außer einigen Projektionen aus der Erfahrung heraus, dass weder die Natur selbst noch die menschliche Geschichte unerwartet große Sprünge macht, sondern aus dem Vergangenen und dem gegenwärtig Geschehenden heraus fließt in Konturen, die sich nicht abrupt ändern. Die Gegenwart ist, physikalisch gesehen, nur ein Punkt auf dem Pfeil der Zeit. Es ist jener Punkt, an dem die Vergangenheit als der Beendete entsteht und zugleich die Zukunft in Erscheinung tritt. Was wir alltagssprachlich als Gegenwart bezeichnen, umfasst einen Zeitabschnitt, der ein Stück weit in der Vergangenheit reicht (und nach Erfahrung sucht) und in die Zukunft hinaus blickt. Die Ungewissheit der Zukunft in Verbindung mit

19

Alle menschlichen Werke geben über ihre bewusst geformte Gestalt eine kulturelle Botschaft ab. Das gilt auch für Industrieprodukte. Industrieprodukte sind Kulturobjekte, wenn auch keine Kunstobjekte. Handwerkliche Erzeugnisse sind Einzelstücke, die aus dem je individuellen Gestaltkreis von Kopf- und Handarbeit hervorkommen.

20

Vgl. Peter Bendixen: Kulturmanagement als Handwerk. Im Druck in: Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Vgl. ausführlich auch Richard Sennett: HandWerk. Berlin 2008.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

119

Vgl. Peter Bendixen: Kulturmanagement als Handwerk. Im Druck in: Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Vgl. ausführlich auch Richard Sennett: HandWerk. Berlin 2008.

20

Alle menschlichen Werke geben über ihre bewusst geformte Gestalt eine kulturelle Botschaft ab. Das gilt auch für Industrieprodukte. Industrieprodukte sind Kulturobjekte, wenn auch keine Kunstobjekte. Handwerkliche Erzeugnisse sind Einzelstücke, die aus dem je individuellen Gestaltkreis von Kopf- und Handarbeit hervorkommen.

19

unter industriellen Bedingungen nicht mehr statt. Die Kopfarbeit ist in einem Industriebetrieb, und zwar sowohl im Management als auch in der inhaltlichen Gestaltung von Erzeugnissen, die hergestellt und verkauft werden sollen, über die ausführende Arbeit (in der Verwaltung bzw. an der Werkbank oder dem Fließband) abgehoben. Der Kopf (in der Produktforschung und Konstruktion) arbeitet das Produkt in der funktionalen Konstruktion und in der ästhetischen Erscheinung zu einem Muster aus, das (meist nach einem Probelauf) in der physischen Ausführung nur noch als strikt anzuwendende Schablone genutzt werden kann. Eine direkte Rückkopplung im industriellen Gestaltungsprozess findet nicht mehr statt. Eine weitläufige indirekte Rückkopplung ergibt sich erst dann, wenn es Hindernisse am Markt gibt, wenn die Menge der Reklamationen zunimmt oder andere äußere Umstände, z. B. neue Gesetzeslagen, zu einer Anpassung der Produktqualitäten zwingen. Es sollte aber nicht vergessen werden, dass der Vorteil dieser Arbeitsweise im Gewinn einer im Prinzip unendlichen und, mit Hilfe geeigneter Fertigungstechniken, präzisen und schnellen Wiederholung immer desselben Arbeitsgangs liegt. Das ist immerhin die Basis der Wohlstandsentwicklung der letzten zweihundert Jahre gewesen. Nun stelle man sich ein Theater vor, das ein bestimmtes Stück mit eisenharter Disziplin und einer fertigen Schablone in eine standardisierte Aufführungspraxis verwandelt. Ein solches Stück lebt nicht. Es integriert wegen seiner abweisenden Härte nicht die mentale und emotionale Beteiligung der Zuschauer oder macht die Aufführung zu einem bloß oberflächlichen ästhetischen Spektakel, dem Reklamewirrwarr in einem Shoppingzentrum sehr ähnlich. Ganz ausgeschlossen sind solche “Inszenierungen“ natürlich nicht, wie wir aus einige Musical-Produktionen wissen. Das alte Handwerk mit seiner unvermittelten Kopplung von Kopf- und Handarbeit ist als Typus der gewerblichen Arbeit zwar nahezu verschwunden, aber die kreative Verknüpfung von Kopf- und Handarbeit als solche ist in vielen Bereichen auch heute noch erhalten geblieben und hat sich in vielen Fällen als sinnvoller und produktiver erwiesen als extreme Formen der Trennung von Denken und Ausführen. Das ist grundsätzlich dort der Fall, wo das entstehende Werk nicht

as Wissen um die Vergänglichkeit aller menschlichen Werke ist eine Selbstverständlichkeit des Alltags. Ebenso klar ist das Bewusstsein, dass wir über die Zukunft nicht viel Sicheres wissen können außer einigen Projektionen aus der Erfahrung heraus, dass weder die Natur selbst noch die menschliche Geschichte unerwartet große Sprünge macht, sondern aus dem Vergangenen und dem gegenwärtig Geschehenden heraus fließt in Konturen, die sich nicht abrupt ändern. Die Gegenwart ist, physikalisch gesehen, nur ein Punkt auf dem Pfeil der Zeit. Es ist jener Punkt, an dem die Vergangenheit als der Beendete entsteht und zugleich die Zukunft in Erscheinung tritt. Was wir alltagssprachlich als Gegenwart bezeichnen, umfasst einen Zeitabschnitt, der ein Stück weit in der Vergangenheit reicht (und nach Erfahrung sucht) und in die Zukunft hinaus blickt. Die Ungewissheit der Zukunft in Verbindung mit

D

2.4. Zukunftsorientierung eine bloße Wiederholung dessen sein soll, was schon immer der Fall war, sondern sich auf dem Wege zu einem Einzelobjekt mit einer gewissen Einmaligkeit an gestalterischen Mustern und einer darin zum Ausdruck kommenden kulturellen Botschaft befindet.19 Für die Konzeption eines handwerklich orientierten Kulturmanagements20 gilt dies analog in zweifacher Weise: Erstens erfordert die Art und Weise des konzeptionellen und instrumentellen Zuschnitts der Aufgabe und der Rolle des Kulturmanagements eine Einstimmung auf die Bedingungen des Einzelfalls. Zweitens ist die integrierte Art der Mitwirkung des Kulturmanagements in einem künstlerischen Gestaltungsprozess gekennzeichnet durch das sensible nachrangige Mitgehen am Rande des künstlerischen Geschehens, also nicht in dessen Zentrum, muss aber ein ganzheitliches Verstehen der künstlerischen Absichten erreichen, was ein hohes Maß an Empathie erfordert. Empathie ist in diesem Fall die Kunst, sich in die Bedingungen der künstlerischen Gestaltung hineinzudenken, ohne diese selbst intervenierend zu tangieren, es sei denn, die absehbaren materiellen Folgen der künstlerischen Arbeit, etwa die Belastung des begrenzten Budgets, lassen Warnlampen aufleuchten.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

der Zeit zu wirken und müssen die Naturgesetze der materiellen Welt befolgt werden. Erst mit der Realisierung begeben wir uns in das Reich der Kausalgesetze und Notwendigkeiten. Im Denken sind wir frei. Offenheit des Gestaltens bietet sich im Denken an, weil die Arbeit des Gehirns zwar organisch nach Naturgesetzen abläuft, aber als geistige Bewegung deutliche Anzeichen chaotischer Zufälligkeiten trägt, die teils unbewusst, teils bewusst von im Tiefengedächtnis gespeicherten Erfahrungen strukturiert werden. Zu diesen vorbewussten Strukturen im Gedächtnis gehören auch die im Laufe eines Lebens gebildeten individuellen Weltsichten und einige fundamentale Reaktionsmuster des Gefühllebens. Dieses kleine (oder zuweilen auch große) Chaos der – übrigens vom Verstand nicht beherrschbaren und mit Logik nicht steuerbaren – neuronalen Gehirntätigkeit ist der Ausgangspunkt von Kreativität. Wir können Kreativität als eine Leistung des menschlichen Bewusstseins auffassen, aus dem ständigen Wirbel unkontrollierbarer Gedankenfetzen, die sich oft zufällig zu Gedankenkonturen verfestigen, jene herauszufischen, die vielversprechend sind und sich lohnen, hinsichtlich ihrer Realisierbarkeit überprüft zu werden. Zukunftsorientierung als kreatives Feld, aus dem Neues geschaffen wird, ist genau genommen der notwendige, aber ungerichtete Zeitstatus des menschlichen Denkens22, und nur im Denken gibt es die Freiheit des Gestaltens. Daraus folgt nun, dass ein pragmatisches Kulturmanagement eine Praxis der bewussten Zukunftsorientierung sein muss, durch welches sich eine – auf die dienende Rolle des Kulturmanagements in kulturellen Gestaltungsprozessen ausgerichtet – Vorstellung hinsichtlich der möglichen Folgen, aber auch der verschenkten Gelegenheiten eines kulturellen oder künstlerischen Vorhabens formt. Die Zukunftsorientierung ist weder im Allgemeinen noch im Kulturmanagement ein blindes Anwenden von fertigen Schablonen und Modellen der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementlehre. Wer so vorgeht, vergibt die Chance der kreativen Einbindung in ein bedeutungsvolles Geschehen aus der Position eines wichtigen Beitrags zur Bestimmung von Realisierungschancen unter den existierenden gesellschaftlichen Bedingungen. Professionalität des Kulturmanagement zeichnet sich aus durch die

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

der Erfahrung ihrer Gestaltbarkeit ist der Antrieb zum Handeln in der Gegenwart. Die Zukunft wird in der Gegenwart gemacht, sie ist also ein Abkömmling der Gegenwart durch die Gestaltarbeit des Menschen, der etwas schafft, was in die Zukunft hineinwirkt und unumkehrbar ist. 21 Was geschehen ist, lässt sich nicht mehr rückgängig machen, denn der Pfeil der Zeit läuft immer nur in einer einzigen Richtung ab: die Ungewissheit dessen, was kommen kann. Aber man muss auch wissen, dass jeder konkrete Schritt, der in der Welt Spuren hinterlässt, ein Faktum für die Zukunft schafft. Gestaltarbeit des Menschen, ob als Künstler oder Ingenieur, ob als Politiker oder Baumeister, ist stets eine Form der Begrenzung künftiger Möglichkeiten durch Fakten, die oft nur schwer zu überwinden sind. Vom Menschen geschaffene Fakten kennen wir unter dem Begriff der Empirie. Das Faktische gilt als hartes Beweismaterial für die Geltung einer Behauptung. Aber es ist immer nur die Behauptung über etwas Vergangenes und, das es Menschenwerk ist, bedarf es zugleich der Interpretation. Was haben sich die Vorfahren oder unsere Vorgänger dabei gedacht? Das Faktum, das Hamburg nahe der Mündung der Elbe liegt, ist eine lapidare Feststellung. Was sich aber die Hamburger über Jahrhunderte hinweg gedacht haben, als sie diese Stadt so gestalteten, wie sie heute erlebbar ist, kann man nicht empirisch beweisen, sondern nur durch Interpretation zu erhellen versuchen. Die Vergangenheit ist deshalb, wie alle Historiker wissen, eine auf Fakten und Dokumenten mehr oder weniger sicher errichtete geistige Konstruktion. Die Vergangenheit teilt hinsichtlich der Unsicherheiten, die in solcher Konstruktion steckt, einige Eigenschaften der Zukunft. Was immer der Mensch in der Vergangenheit tat und gegenwärtig zu tun beabsichtigt, hat stets und unausweichlich einen Denkprozess als Ausgang – wir sehen – wir sehen hier von unbewussten, vom Instinkt geleiteten oder zufälligen Taten ab. Die Zukunft ist daher etwas, das sich im Kopf des Menschen formiert und dort einen weiten, mehr oder weniger phantasiereichen Denkhorizont aufnehmen kann. In diesem Denkprozess ist die Zeit kein gerichteter Pfeil. Was man gerade gedacht hat, kann man im gleichen Augenblick wieder rückgängig machen. Erst wenn daraus Taten folgen, beginnt die Unumkehrbarkeit

120

Coveney, Peter / Highfield, Roger: Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens. Reinbek b. Hamburg 1992.

Das gilt selbst dann, wenn wir über die Vergangenheit nachdenken und Geschichtswissenschaft betreiben. Die Vergangenheit kann nur studiert werden, soweit sie Spuren hinterlässt. Aus diesen Spuren lassen sich, falls sie dicht genug sind, Vergangenheiten konstruieren. Wir können uns die Vergangenheit denken, nicht aber sie erleben. Solche Vergangenheitsentwürfe haben als Denkkonstrukte einen engen Bezug zur Zukunft.

21

Coveney, Peter / Highfield, Roger: Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens. Reinbek b. Hamburg 1992.

22

22

21

Das gilt selbst dann, wenn wir über die Vergangenheit nachdenken und Geschichtswissenschaft betreiben. Die Vergangenheit kann nur studiert werden, soweit sie Spuren hinterlässt. Aus diesen Spuren lassen sich, falls sie dicht genug sind, Vergangenheiten konstruieren. Wir können uns die Vergangenheit denken, nicht aber sie erleben. Solche Vergangenheitsentwürfe haben als Denkkonstrukte einen engen Bezug zur Zukunft.

der Zeit zu wirken und müssen die Naturgesetze der materiellen Welt befolgt werden. Erst mit der Realisierung begeben wir uns in das Reich der Kausalgesetze und Notwendigkeiten. Im Denken sind wir frei. Offenheit des Gestaltens bietet sich im Denken an, weil die Arbeit des Gehirns zwar organisch nach Naturgesetzen abläuft, aber als geistige Bewegung deutliche Anzeichen chaotischer Zufälligkeiten trägt, die teils unbewusst, teils bewusst von im Tiefengedächtnis gespeicherten Erfahrungen strukturiert werden. Zu diesen vorbewussten Strukturen im Gedächtnis gehören auch die im Laufe eines Lebens gebildeten individuellen Weltsichten und einige fundamentale Reaktionsmuster des Gefühllebens. Dieses kleine (oder zuweilen auch große) Chaos der – übrigens vom Verstand nicht beherrschbaren und mit Logik nicht steuerbaren – neuronalen Gehirntätigkeit ist der Ausgangspunkt von Kreativität. Wir können Kreativität als eine Leistung des menschlichen Bewusstseins auffassen, aus dem ständigen Wirbel unkontrollierbarer Gedankenfetzen, die sich oft zufällig zu Gedankenkonturen verfestigen, jene herauszufischen, die vielversprechend sind und sich lohnen, hinsichtlich ihrer Realisierbarkeit überprüft zu werden. Zukunftsorientierung als kreatives Feld, aus dem Neues geschaffen wird, ist genau genommen der notwendige, aber ungerichtete Zeitstatus des menschlichen Denkens22, und nur im Denken gibt es die Freiheit des Gestaltens. Daraus folgt nun, dass ein pragmatisches Kulturmanagement eine Praxis der bewussten Zukunftsorientierung sein muss, durch welches sich eine – auf die dienende Rolle des Kulturmanagements in kulturellen Gestaltungsprozessen ausgerichtet – Vorstellung hinsichtlich der möglichen Folgen, aber auch der verschenkten Gelegenheiten eines kulturellen oder künstlerischen Vorhabens formt. Die Zukunftsorientierung ist weder im Allgemeinen noch im Kulturmanagement ein blindes Anwenden von fertigen Schablonen und Modellen der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementlehre. Wer so vorgeht, vergibt die Chance der kreativen Einbindung in ein bedeutungsvolles Geschehen aus der Position eines wichtigen Beitrags zur Bestimmung von Realisierungschancen unter den existierenden gesellschaftlichen Bedingungen. Professionalität des Kulturmanagement zeichnet sich aus durch die

120

der Erfahrung ihrer Gestaltbarkeit ist der Antrieb zum Handeln in der Gegenwart. Die Zukunft wird in der Gegenwart gemacht, sie ist also ein Abkömmling der Gegenwart durch die Gestaltarbeit des Menschen, der etwas schafft, was in die Zukunft hineinwirkt und unumkehrbar ist. 21 Was geschehen ist, lässt sich nicht mehr rückgängig machen, denn der Pfeil der Zeit läuft immer nur in einer einzigen Richtung ab: die Ungewissheit dessen, was kommen kann. Aber man muss auch wissen, dass jeder konkrete Schritt, der in der Welt Spuren hinterlässt, ein Faktum für die Zukunft schafft. Gestaltarbeit des Menschen, ob als Künstler oder Ingenieur, ob als Politiker oder Baumeister, ist stets eine Form der Begrenzung künftiger Möglichkeiten durch Fakten, die oft nur schwer zu überwinden sind. Vom Menschen geschaffene Fakten kennen wir unter dem Begriff der Empirie. Das Faktische gilt als hartes Beweismaterial für die Geltung einer Behauptung. Aber es ist immer nur die Behauptung über etwas Vergangenes und, das es Menschenwerk ist, bedarf es zugleich der Interpretation. Was haben sich die Vorfahren oder unsere Vorgänger dabei gedacht? Das Faktum, das Hamburg nahe der Mündung der Elbe liegt, ist eine lapidare Feststellung. Was sich aber die Hamburger über Jahrhunderte hinweg gedacht haben, als sie diese Stadt so gestalteten, wie sie heute erlebbar ist, kann man nicht empirisch beweisen, sondern nur durch Interpretation zu erhellen versuchen. Die Vergangenheit ist deshalb, wie alle Historiker wissen, eine auf Fakten und Dokumenten mehr oder weniger sicher errichtete geistige Konstruktion. Die Vergangenheit teilt hinsichtlich der Unsicherheiten, die in solcher Konstruktion steckt, einige Eigenschaften der Zukunft. Was immer der Mensch in der Vergangenheit tat und gegenwärtig zu tun beabsichtigt, hat stets und unausweichlich einen Denkprozess als Ausgang – wir sehen – wir sehen hier von unbewussten, vom Instinkt geleiteten oder zufälligen Taten ab. Die Zukunft ist daher etwas, das sich im Kopf des Menschen formiert und dort einen weiten, mehr oder weniger phantasiereichen Denkhorizont aufnehmen kann. In diesem Denkprozess ist die Zeit kein gerichteter Pfeil. Was man gerade gedacht hat, kann man im gleichen Augenblick wieder rückgängig machen. Erst wenn daraus Taten folgen, beginnt die Unumkehrbarkeit


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Beherrschung von Methoden und Instrumenten statt ihrer unreflektierten Anwendung und durch eine dem Denken gemäße visionäre Fähigkeit, das konkrete Handeln in die Zukunft hinein zu überdenken und – hinsichtlich der ökonomischen, rechtlichen, kulturellen und natürlichen Limitationen – Gestaltungsräume offen zu halten.

3. Curriculare Konsequenzen

M

it den vier eben abgehandelten Bauelementen für eine pragmatische Konzeption des Kulturmanagements verbindet sich zwingend die Frage, wie diese durch eine entsprechend angeleitete Ausbildung auf akademischem Niveau in ein systematisches Curriculum eingebracht werden können und sich so allmählich zu einem konzeptionellen Ganzen einer fundierten Qualifikation für die Berufsausübung zusammenfügen. Die folgenden Anregungen sind nun ihrerseits keine logisch zwingenden Entwürfe, sondern wollen lediglich aufzeigen, was im konkreten Fall zu bedenken ist, wenn die Idee eines pragmatischen Kulturmanagements wirklich Fuß fassen soll, und das nicht in erster Linie in der akademischen Welt der Wissenschaften, sondern in der Berufswelt der Kulturinstitutionen. Dass ein solches Studium wissenschaftliches Niveau aufweisen muss, hat vielerlei Gründe, die im Einzelnen hier nicht reflektiert werden müssen. Wohlverstandene Wissenschaftlichkeit hat nichts mit Abgehobenheit zu tun, auch wenn gelegentlich eine Menge Philosophie dabei mitspielt, aber viel mit durchdachtem, auf breit gefächerten und gesicherten Erfahrungen stehendem und die Verflechtungen mit wichtigen wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen aufnehmendem Wahrnehmen der kulturellen Wirklichkeit und ihrer Interpretation. Bei einem Blick auf die üblichen Curricula für Kulturmanagement an Universitäten und Akademien fällt auf, dass die meisten mit Grundlagenwissen in Betriebswirtschaftslehre mit besonderer Betonung der Managementlehre beginnen. Diese Art des Beginns hat den Charakter der Indoktrination eines ungeklärten ökonomischen Vor-Bewusstseins, welches glaubt, dass die Ebene des Geldes und der Finanzdispositionen mitsamt ihren Seitenaspekten wie Planung, Unternehmensführung, Organisation, Kalkulation, Budgetierung usw. auch die Welt der Künste und anderen kulturellen Aktivitäten regiert und, wo nicht, regieren muss. Man sollte nicht die ver-

engende Wirkung unterschätzen, die durch eine solche Indoktrination entsteht, denn in der Tat wird die Welt heute unzweifelhaft vom Gelddenken beherrscht23, und es ist natürlich ein Leichtes, an diesen wie selbstverständlich erscheinenden Tatbestand anzuknüpfen und sich damit die Mühe weit reichender Reflexion zu ersparen. Genau darin aber liegt das ethische Grundproblem unserer Zeit, an dem auch ein Kulturmanagement in der Regel nicht vorbei kommt. Es ist eben ein gravierender Unterschied, ob man in der Formung dieses Berufsfeldes unkritisch mit diesen kommerziellen Aspekten beginnt oder diese – notwendigerweise - folgen lässt, nachdem bei den Studierenden die geistige Freiheit und Souveränität des gekonnten Umgangs mit den materiellen Rahmenbedingungen kultureller, insbesondere künstlerischer Tätigkeiten eine gewissen Bodensatz gefunden haben. Am Beginn eines Studiums könnte daher eine erste Phase der Behandlung des Themas Kulturmanagement als Handwerk liegen, eingerahmt in Lehrgebiete wie Kulturphilosophie, Kulturpolitik, Kulturgeschichte und Kulturanthropologie. Es könnte hier auch eine fundierte Einführung in das ökonomische Denken integriert werden, die auf den geschichtlichen Charakter und die kulturellen Rahmenbedingungen der Herausbildung von Wirtschaftsstilen wie der Markwirtschaft eingeht. Die Aspekte der Kreativität, der empathischen Kompetenz und des ganzheitlichen Denkens und Gestalten haben es – wie die Lehrpraxis der Vergangenheit immer wieder zutage gefördert hat – mit der wohl schon in den Schulen beginnenden und aus eigenem Erleben aufgenommenen Prägung des Vorrang der mentalen Kompetenz und des Aneignens von hartem Wissen zu tun vor den Kompetenzen der Phantasie und sinnlichen Weltdeutungen. Die Vorstellung, dass der menschliche Verstand die Welt regiert, ist indessen überholt, seit man weiß, dass Kreativität gerade nicht eine Leistung des Verstandes ist, sondern sich der Öffnung eines weiten inneren Phantasieraumes verdankt. Der Verstand engt ein, und bei vielen Studienanfängern ist dieses eingeengte Bewusstsein bis hin zur Scheu vor den eigenen Emotionen noch sehr stark. Es gibt unzählige Trainingsmethoden anhand von erhellenden Übungen und Fallbeispielen, mit denen eine geistige Horizonterweiterung erzielt werden kann. Solche Trainingseinheiten, verbundenen mit dem praktischen Erlebnis eigener, wenn auch in der Regel laienhafter, künstlerischer Tätigkeit, können in einer frühen Phase des

Wegen der Bedeutung dieses Problems sei hier noch einmal auf das Buch von Karl H. Brodbeck hingewiesen: Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik. Darmstadt (Wiss. Buchgesellschaft) 2009.

23

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

121

121

Wegen der Bedeutung dieses Problems sei hier noch einmal auf das Buch von Karl H. Brodbeck hingewiesen: Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik. Darmstadt (Wiss. Buchgesellschaft) 2009.

23

it den vier eben abgehandelten Bauelementen für eine pragmatische Konzeption des Kulturmanagements verbindet sich zwingend die Frage, wie diese durch eine entsprechend angeleitete Ausbildung auf akademischem Niveau in ein systematisches Curriculum eingebracht werden können und sich so allmählich zu einem konzeptionellen Ganzen einer fundierten Qualifikation für die Berufsausübung zusammenfügen. Die folgenden Anregungen sind nun ihrerseits keine logisch zwingenden Entwürfe, sondern wollen lediglich aufzeigen, was im konkreten Fall zu bedenken ist, wenn die Idee eines pragmatischen Kulturmanagements wirklich Fuß fassen soll, und das nicht in erster Linie in der akademischen Welt der Wissenschaften, sondern in der Berufswelt der Kulturinstitutionen. Dass ein solches Studium wissenschaftliches Niveau aufweisen muss, hat vielerlei Gründe, die im Einzelnen hier nicht reflektiert werden müssen. Wohlverstandene Wissenschaftlichkeit hat nichts mit Abgehobenheit zu tun, auch wenn gelegentlich eine Menge Philosophie dabei mitspielt, aber viel mit durchdachtem, auf breit gefächerten und gesicherten Erfahrungen stehendem und die Verflechtungen mit wichtigen wissenschaftlichen Disziplinen aufnehmendem Wahrnehmen der kulturellen Wirklichkeit und ihrer Interpretation. Bei einem Blick auf die üblichen Curricula für Kulturmanagement an Universitäten und Akademien fällt auf, dass die meisten mit Grundlagenwissen in Betriebswirtschaftslehre mit besonderer Betonung der Managementlehre beginnen. Diese Art des Beginns hat den Charakter der Indoktrination eines ungeklärten ökonomischen Vor-Bewusstseins, welches glaubt, dass die Ebene des Geldes und der Finanzdispositionen mitsamt ihren Seitenaspekten wie Planung, Unternehmensführung, Organisation, Kalkulation, Budgetierung usw. auch die Welt der Künste und anderen kulturellen Aktivitäten regiert und, wo nicht, regieren muss. Man sollte nicht die ver-

M

3. Curriculare Konsequenzen Beherrschung von Methoden und Instrumenten statt ihrer unreflektierten Anwendung und durch eine dem Denken gemäße visionäre Fähigkeit, das konkrete Handeln in die Zukunft hinein zu überdenken und – hinsichtlich der ökonomischen, rechtlichen, kulturellen und natürlichen Limitationen – Gestaltungsräume offen zu halten.

engende Wirkung unterschätzen, die durch eine solche Indoktrination entsteht, denn in der Tat wird die Welt heute unzweifelhaft vom Gelddenken beherrscht23, und es ist natürlich ein Leichtes, an diesen wie selbstverständlich erscheinenden Tatbestand anzuknüpfen und sich damit die Mühe weit reichender Reflexion zu ersparen. Genau darin aber liegt das ethische Grundproblem unserer Zeit, an dem auch ein Kulturmanagement in der Regel nicht vorbei kommt. Es ist eben ein gravierender Unterschied, ob man in der Formung dieses Berufsfeldes unkritisch mit diesen kommerziellen Aspekten beginnt oder diese – notwendigerweise - folgen lässt, nachdem bei den Studierenden die geistige Freiheit und Souveränität des gekonnten Umgangs mit den materiellen Rahmenbedingungen kultureller, insbesondere künstlerischer Tätigkeiten eine gewissen Bodensatz gefunden haben. Am Beginn eines Studiums könnte daher eine erste Phase der Behandlung des Themas Kulturmanagement als Handwerk liegen, eingerahmt in Lehrgebiete wie Kulturphilosophie, Kulturpolitik, Kulturgeschichte und Kulturanthropologie. Es könnte hier auch eine fundierte Einführung in das ökonomische Denken integriert werden, die auf den geschichtlichen Charakter und die kulturellen Rahmenbedingungen der Herausbildung von Wirtschaftsstilen wie der Markwirtschaft eingeht. Die Aspekte der Kreativität, der empathischen Kompetenz und des ganzheitlichen Denkens und Gestalten haben es – wie die Lehrpraxis der Vergangenheit immer wieder zutage gefördert hat – mit der wohl schon in den Schulen beginnenden und aus eigenem Erleben aufgenommenen Prägung des Vorrang der mentalen Kompetenz und des Aneignens von hartem Wissen zu tun vor den Kompetenzen der Phantasie und sinnlichen Weltdeutungen. Die Vorstellung, dass der menschliche Verstand die Welt regiert, ist indessen überholt, seit man weiß, dass Kreativität gerade nicht eine Leistung des Verstandes ist, sondern sich der Öffnung eines weiten inneren Phantasieraumes verdankt. Der Verstand engt ein, und bei vielen Studienanfängern ist dieses eingeengte Bewusstsein bis hin zur Scheu vor den eigenen Emotionen noch sehr stark. Es gibt unzählige Trainingsmethoden anhand von erhellenden Übungen und Fallbeispielen, mit denen eine geistige Horizonterweiterung erzielt werden kann. Solche Trainingseinheiten, verbundenen mit dem praktischen Erlebnis eigener, wenn auch in der Regel laienhafter, künstlerischer Tätigkeit, können in einer frühen Phase des


digen Lehrveranstaltung komplett aufzugeben zu Gunsten von Kompaktveranstaltungen. Der Lehr- und Lernstil verändert sich dadurch vorteilhaft zugunsten des aktiven Mitdenkens in den Lehrveranstaltungen, denn niemand könnte einen Tag lang ununterbrochen eine Vorlesung abhalten und noch viel weniger wären Studierende für solch massive Stoffladung aufnahmefähig. Die ständige Rückkopplung zwischen Lehrenden und Lernenden hat sich längst als sehr ergiebig erwiesen. Zur Didaktik des Kulturmanagements gehört – von wenigen Stoff vermittelnden Einheiten abgesehen – das Prinzip Werkstatt. Mit diesen, zugegeben spärlichen, Anregungen muss sich dieser Beitrag begnügen. Es wird zweifellos notwendig sein, eigene Überlegungen anzustellen, Erfahrungen zu machen, sie zu reflektieren und die Ergebnisse vielleicht einer Fachöffentlichkeit zur Diskussion vorzustellen. Eine solche Konzeption von pragmatischem Kulturmanagement muss sich nach dem Prinzip von Versuch und Irrtum formen, um mit der Zeit sowohl in der Praxis als auch auf akademischer Ebene einen festen Boden zu finden.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Studiums eingestreut und in Abständen mit einem Erweiterungspotenzial fortgesetzt werden. Die Vermittlung von Grundlagenwissen der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementlehre ist unumgänglich. Wenn aber bereits ein gewisses substanzielles Urteilspotenzial bei den Studierenden angelegt ist, lassen sich diese Grundlagen unter dem Aspekt ihrer instrumentellen Gestaltbarkeit ausbreiten und die Vorgehensweisen in solchen Anpassungen an die realen Bedingungen eines Einzelfalls einüben. Die Gestaltungskompetenz aus Souveränität kann schon im akademischen Unterricht in Übungsform gestärkt werden. Zu solchen Übungen könnte beispielsweise die Entwicklung eines Budgetierungsverfahrens für die Projektierung von Ausstellungen unter genau definierten realen Verhältnissen gehören. Darin ginge es nicht darum, wie Budgetierung funktioniert, sondern wie man sie auf den konkreten Fall bezogen konzipiert. Zur didaktischen Form eines pragmatischen Studiums sollte es unbedingt gehören, die veraltete Form von über ganze Semester verteilte Kleineinheiten in Form von ein- oder zweistün-

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Coveney P., Highfield R., The Arrow of Time: A Voyage Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries, London 1990 (in German Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Foreword: Ilya Prigogine, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992). Gigerenzer G., Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition, Monachium (Goldmann) 2008. Kleimann B., Schmücker R., Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach ihrer Funktion, Darmstadt 2001. Libet B., Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein produziert, Frankfurt am Main 2007. Luhmann N., Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft) 2007. Pöppel E., Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt am Main 1997. Pöppel E., Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für Manager, Monachium 2008. Safranski R., Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch, Frankfurt am Main 2006. Schillera F., Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den Augustenburger Briefen, published by K. L. Berghahna, Ditzingen 2000. Sennett R., HandWerk, Berlin 2008. Smith A., Theory of Moral Sentiments, Londyn 1759.

Bibliografie

Basieux P., Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur, Reinbek near Hamburg (Rowohlt) 2008. Bendixen P., Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in the autumn of 2009). Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement, Wiesbaden 2006. Bendixen P., Kulturmanagement als Handwerk [in:] Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Bendixen P., Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in the autumn of 2009). Bendixen P., Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik, Münster et al. 2009. Breithaupt F., Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frankfurt am Main (Suhrkamp) 2009. Brodbeck K. H., Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökonomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Darmstadt 2007. Brodbeck K. H., Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik, Darmstadt 2009. Coveney P., Highfield R., Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992.

Coveney P., Highfield R., The Arrow of Time: A Voyage Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries, London 1990 (in German Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Foreword: Ilya Prigogine, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992). Gigerenzer G., Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition, Monachium (Goldmann) 2008. Kleimann B., Schmücker R., Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach ihrer Funktion, Darmstadt 2001. Libet B., Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein produziert, Frankfurt am Main 2007. Luhmann N., Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt am Main (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft) 2007. Pöppel E., Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt am Main 1997. Pöppel E., Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für Manager, Monachium 2008. Safranski R., Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch, Frankfurt am Main 2006. Schillera F., Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den Augustenburger Briefen, published by K. L. Berghahna, Ditzingen 2000. Sennett R., HandWerk, Berlin 2008. Smith A., Theory of Moral Sentiments, Londyn 1759.

Bibliografie

Basieux P., Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft und Natur, Reinbek near Hamburg (Rowohlt) 2008. Bendixen P., Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in the autumn of 2009). Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement, Wiesbaden 2006. Bendixen P., Kulturmanagement als Handwerk [in:] Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Bendixen P., Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (publishing house LIT-Verlag will probably print it in the autumn of 2009). Bendixen P., Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik, Münster et al. 2009. Breithaupt F., Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frankfurt am Main (Suhrkamp) 2009. Brodbeck K. H., Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökonomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Darmstadt 2007. Brodbeck K. H., Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik, Darmstadt 2009. Coveney P., Highfield R., Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Reinbek near Hamburg 1992.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

digen Lehrveranstaltung komplett aufzugeben zu Gunsten von Kompaktveranstaltungen. Der Lehr- und Lernstil verändert sich dadurch vorteilhaft zugunsten des aktiven Mitdenkens in den Lehrveranstaltungen, denn niemand könnte einen Tag lang ununterbrochen eine Vorlesung abhalten und noch viel weniger wären Studierende für solch massive Stoffladung aufnahmefähig. Die ständige Rückkopplung zwischen Lehrenden und Lernenden hat sich längst als sehr ergiebig erwiesen. Zur Didaktik des Kulturmanagements gehört – von wenigen Stoff vermittelnden Einheiten abgesehen – das Prinzip Werkstatt. Mit diesen, zugegeben spärlichen, Anregungen muss sich dieser Beitrag begnügen. Es wird zweifellos notwendig sein, eigene Überlegungen anzustellen, Erfahrungen zu machen, sie zu reflektieren und die Ergebnisse vielleicht einer Fachöffentlichkeit zur Diskussion vorzustellen. Eine solche Konzeption von pragmatischem Kulturmanagement muss sich nach dem Prinzip von Versuch und Irrtum formen, um mit der Zeit sowohl in der Praxis als auch auf akademischer Ebene einen festen Boden zu finden.

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Studiums eingestreut und in Abständen mit einem Erweiterungspotenzial fortgesetzt werden. Die Vermittlung von Grundlagenwissen der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementlehre ist unumgänglich. Wenn aber bereits ein gewisses substanzielles Urteilspotenzial bei den Studierenden angelegt ist, lassen sich diese Grundlagen unter dem Aspekt ihrer instrumentellen Gestaltbarkeit ausbreiten und die Vorgehensweisen in solchen Anpassungen an die realen Bedingungen eines Einzelfalls einüben. Die Gestaltungskompetenz aus Souveränität kann schon im akademischen Unterricht in Übungsform gestärkt werden. Zu solchen Übungen könnte beispielsweise die Entwicklung eines Budgetierungsverfahrens für die Projektierung von Ausstellungen unter genau definierten realen Verhältnissen gehören. Darin ginge es nicht darum, wie Budgetierung funktioniert, sondern wie man sie auf den konkreten Fall bezogen konzipiert. Zur didaktischen Form eines pragmatischen Studiums sollte es unbedingt gehören, die veraltete Form von über ganze Semester verteilte Kleineinheiten in Form von ein- oder zweistün-


123

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung Bogusław Nierenberg

Einführung

R

ings um das Verhältnis zwischen Kultur und Marktmechanismen sind viele Mythen gewachsen. Im Großen und Ganzen können zwei gegensätzliche Problemauffassungen unterschieden werden: die Markt- und die Antimarktauffassung. Die Anhänger der ersten Option sind überzeugt, dass der Markt das wirksamste Heilmittel gegen alle Probleme ist, das Gleichgewicht zwischen dem Angebot und der Nachfrage ist ein Mechanismus, welcher am wirksamsten die sozialen Relationen regelt, die kulturellen auch. Dagegen sind die Gegner eines solchen Standpunkts überzeugt, dass die Marktmechanismen der größte Fluch der Kultur sind, besonders der Kunst. Die Marktrechte können nicht entscheiden, ob jemand Talent hat oder nicht, ob künstlerische Werke entstehen werden oder auch nicht – sagen die Gegner des Kommerzes. Der oben beschriebene Konflikt ist nicht lediglich ein erfundenes, abstraktives Dilemma. Er hat seine reale Wiederspiegelung in der alltäglichen Arbeit der Manager, die die Kulturinstitutionen verwalten. Es ist keine Bestreben des Autors dieses Artikels die Entscheidung zu treffen, wer in diesem Streit Recht hat, sondern lediglich die Abhängigkeiten zu beschreiben, die einen Einfluss haben können oder Einfluss haben auf die Verwaltung der Kulturinstitutionen.

Markt und Kultur

L

aut Philip Kotler besteht der Markt “aus allen potentielle Kunden, die ein bestimmtes Bedürfnis haben oder einen Wunsch, die zwecks ihrer Befriedigung bereit sind und imstande sind, einen Austausch vorzunehmen ”[Kotler, 1999, S. 9]. Dagegen bezeichnet Krystyna MazurekŁopacińska den Markt als ökonomische Katego-

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

rie der Warenproduktion und als solche bezieht sie es auf die Kunstwerke. Ihrer Meinung nach: “werden künstlerische Werke zu Waren auf dem Kunstmarkt, wenn sie zum Verkauf bestimmt sind” [Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, 1997, S. 14]. Wenn wir annehmen, dass die beiden Definitionen eine objektive Beschreibung der Realität sind, so werden wir gleich auf den ersten Widerspruch stoßen. Wenn die Kulturprodukte, darunter auch die Kunstwerke, ein wesentlicher Motor der sozialen Entwicklung sind, so soll die Prämisse für den Erwerb dieser Produkte ihr künstlerischer Wert sein, was wir auch immer unter diesem Begriff verstehen sollten. Inzwischen ist es bekannt, dass für viele Menschen die Kunstwerke lediglich eine ausgezeichnete Form der Kapitalanlage sind. Wesentlich besser als andere Marktinstrumente, z.B. Bankanlagen, Termineinlagen, Obligationen oder Aktien. Selbstverständlich müssen diese beiden Motivationen nicht widersprüchlich sein. Wir können uns ohne Mühe einen Sammler der Kunstwerke vorstellen, der, indem er den Wert seines Vermögens vermehrt, die Schönheit der gesammelten Kollektion genießt. Viele Publizisten, aber auch Gelehrte haben “Gründe zur Klage” an den Markt, dass er die Kultur destruktiv beeinflusst, dass er den Wert der Kunstwerke senkt, dass er wertloses Schaffen, Kitsch, Nullachtfünfzehnramsch begünstigt. Und es ist schwer, damit nicht einverstanden zu sein. Jedoch es soll in Erinnerung behalten werden, dass der Markt lediglich Wiederspiegelung menschlicher Bedürfnisse ist. Wenn wir wollen, dass die Menschen andere, raffiniertere Bedürfnisse haben, so ist Bildung erforderlich. Die Forderung des Lehrens der Sensibilität für das Schöne, die Kunst ist nicht nur eine Forderung unterschiedlicher Schöngeister. Sie hat am meisten eine ökonomische Begründung. Laut K. Mazurek-Łopacińska beschränkt sich das Wesen der Frage darauf, dass ein Kunstwerk hoher Klasse eine entsprechende Nachfrage auf

123

Dr. habil. Bogusław Nierenberg, Professor der Universität in Opole Wissenschaftlicher Angestellte, Journalist, Ökonom. Der Direktor des Kulturinstitutes an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Als Professor ist er am Studienzentrum für Journalismus und Soziale Kommunikation der Universität in Opole tätig. Er ist der Leiter des einzigen in Polen Studienzentrums für Medienmanagement und -ökonomie an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Experte im Bereich Kultur- und Medienökonomie, Medienmanagement, Marktkommunikation und Werbung. Der Autor von 7 Monographien und Dutzenden wissenschaftlichen Artikeln über Medien, Werbung, Management und Marktkommunikation, wie auch Journalismus und journalistische Gattungen. Er ist Autor eines Gedichtbandes „Dychotomia uczuć” („Dichotomie der Gefühle“).

aut Philip Kotler besteht der Markt “aus allen potentielle Kunden, die ein bestimmtes Bedürfnis haben oder einen Wunsch, die zwecks ihrer Befriedigung bereit sind und imstande sind, einen Austausch vorzunehmen ”[Kotler, 1999, S. 9]. Dagegen bezeichnet Krystyna MazurekŁopacińska den Markt als ökonomische Katego-

L

Markt und Kultur ings um das Verhältnis zwischen Kultur und Marktmechanismen sind viele Mythen gewachsen. Im Großen und Ganzen können zwei gegensätzliche Problemauffassungen unterschieden werden: die Markt- und die Antimarktauffassung. Die Anhänger der ersten Option sind überzeugt, dass der Markt das wirksamste Heilmittel gegen alle Probleme ist, das Gleichgewicht zwischen dem Angebot und der Nachfrage ist ein Mechanismus, welcher am wirksamsten die sozialen Relationen regelt, die kulturellen auch. Dagegen sind die Gegner eines solchen Standpunkts überzeugt, dass die Marktmechanismen der größte Fluch der Kultur sind, besonders der Kunst. Die Marktrechte können nicht entscheiden, ob jemand Talent hat oder nicht, ob künstlerische Werke entstehen werden oder auch nicht – sagen die Gegner des Kommerzes. Der oben beschriebene Konflikt ist nicht lediglich ein erfundenes, abstraktives Dilemma. Er hat seine reale Wiederspiegelung in der alltäglichen Arbeit der Manager, die die Kulturinstitutionen verwalten. Es ist keine Bestreben des Autors dieses Artikels die Entscheidung zu treffen, wer in diesem Streit Recht hat, sondern lediglich die Abhängigkeiten zu beschreiben, die einen Einfluss haben können oder Einfluss haben auf die Verwaltung der Kulturinstitutionen.

R

Einführung

Bogusław Nierenberg

rie der Warenproduktion und als solche bezieht sie es auf die Kunstwerke. Ihrer Meinung nach: “werden künstlerische Werke zu Waren auf dem Kunstmarkt, wenn sie zum Verkauf bestimmt sind” [Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, 1997, S. 14]. Wenn wir annehmen, dass die beiden Definitionen eine objektive Beschreibung der Realität sind, so werden wir gleich auf den ersten Widerspruch stoßen. Wenn die Kulturprodukte, darunter auch die Kunstwerke, ein wesentlicher Motor der sozialen Entwicklung sind, so soll die Prämisse für den Erwerb dieser Produkte ihr künstlerischer Wert sein, was wir auch immer unter diesem Begriff verstehen sollten. Inzwischen ist es bekannt, dass für viele Menschen die Kunstwerke lediglich eine ausgezeichnete Form der Kapitalanlage sind. Wesentlich besser als andere Marktinstrumente, z.B. Bankanlagen, Termineinlagen, Obligationen oder Aktien. Selbstverständlich müssen diese beiden Motivationen nicht widersprüchlich sein. Wir können uns ohne Mühe einen Sammler der Kunstwerke vorstellen, der, indem er den Wert seines Vermögens vermehrt, die Schönheit der gesammelten Kollektion genießt. Viele Publizisten, aber auch Gelehrte haben “Gründe zur Klage” an den Markt, dass er die Kultur destruktiv beeinflusst, dass er den Wert der Kunstwerke senkt, dass er wertloses Schaffen, Kitsch, Nullachtfünfzehnramsch begünstigt. Und es ist schwer, damit nicht einverstanden zu sein. Jedoch es soll in Erinnerung behalten werden, dass der Markt lediglich Wiederspiegelung menschlicher Bedürfnisse ist. Wenn wir wollen, dass die Menschen andere, raffiniertere Bedürfnisse haben, so ist Bildung erforderlich. Die Forderung des Lehrens der Sensibilität für das Schöne, die Kunst ist nicht nur eine Forderung unterschiedlicher Schöngeister. Sie hat am meisten eine ökonomische Begründung. Laut K. Mazurek-Łopacińska beschränkt sich das Wesen der Frage darauf, dass ein Kunstwerk hoher Klasse eine entsprechende Nachfrage auf

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung

Dr. habil. Bogusław Nierenberg, Professor der Universität in Opole Wissenschaftlicher Angestellte, Journalist, Ökonom. Der Direktor des Kulturinstitutes an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Als Professor ist er am Studienzentrum für Journalismus und Soziale Kommunikation der Universität in Opole tätig. Er ist der Leiter des einzigen in Polen Studienzentrums für Medienmanagement und -ökonomie an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Experte im Bereich Kultur- und Medienökonomie, Medienmanagement, Marktkommunikation und Werbung. Der Autor von 7 Monographien und Dutzenden wissenschaftlichen Artikeln über Medien, Werbung, Management und Marktkommunikation, wie auch Journalismus und journalistische Gattungen. Er ist Autor eines Gedichtbandes „Dychotomia uczuć” („Dichotomie der Gefühle“).


124

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

sich decken mit den voluntativen und kognitiven Bedürfnissen”[Maslow, 1990, S. 72–102]. Aus den Forschungen von Maslow ergibt sich auch, dass die weiteren Etappen der Pyramide überhaupt nicht hintereinander auftreten müssen. Indem wir die Biografien vieler Künstler untersuchen, finden wir leicht Beispiele, dass die Grundbedürfnisse, z.B. Hungerbefriedigung, überhaupt nicht befriedigt werden müssen, dass sich das Bedürfnis der Selbstverwirklichung stark sichtbar macht und realisiert wird. Kotler macht aufmerksam, dass “das menschliche Bedürfnis ein Zustand der Empfindung des Fehlens an Befriedigung ist ”, dagegen “sind die Wünsche der Ausdruck einer besonderen Art der Befriedigung der Urbedürfnisse”[Kotler, 1999, S. 6]. Für die Befriedigung der Bedürfnisse und Wünsche muss der Mensch entsprechende Handlungen unternehmen. Aus der ökonomischen Sicht teilt sich diese besondere Art der menschlichen Aktivität, kulturelle Tätigkeit genannt, in [Grzelońska, 2008]: 1. Kunst, 2. Kulturindustrien. Im Bereich Kultur entstehen Kunstprodukte oder Kunstwerke, die: 1. Von den Schöpfern selbst geschaffen werden – Künstlern, 2. individuell hergestellt werden, 3. außer der physischen Form, eine Bedeutungsschicht, symbolische Schicht, Träger der Werte, Symbole, usw. enthalten. Zu der Kunst rechnen wir folgende Branchen: 1. künstlerisches Schaffen (Malerei, Skulptur, usw.), 2. ausführende Kunst (Live-Aufführung der Musik, Opern, Dramen, Komödien, usw.), 3. Schutz und Zugänglichmachung der Objekte des materiellen und geistigen Erbes (Museen, Bibliotheken, Archive, usw.) [Ebenda]. Die Institutionen, angerechnet zu den Kulturindustrien erzeugen die Güter, die Träger der Bedeu-

Quelle: eigene Bearbeitung auf der Grundlage von: A. H. Maslow, Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa 1990, S. 72–102.

dem Markt findet [Ebenda, S. 18]. In diesem Fall sprechen wir über die effektive Nachfrage, also solche, in der das “Wollen” eine Wiederspiegelung in den Taschen der “Wollenden” hat. Wir können also mit einer gewissen Vereinfachung feststellen, dass die Ökonomik der Kultur zwischen zwei Bezugspunkten (Maßen) ausgebreitet ist: MM dem Maß des Wertes (Bezug auf den Markt); MM der Wertordnung (Bezug auf die Kunst). Zwischen diesen Maßen entsteht ein Raum, in dem der Staat einschreiten und solche Einwirkungsinstrumente in Bewegung setzen kann, die verursachen, dass sich manche Kulturbereiche besser entwickeln werden, und manche schlechter oder gar nicht. Wir nennen das kulturelle Politik des Staates. Urszula Grzelońska, wo sie selbst Wirtschaftswissenschaftlerin ist, warnt jedoch vor übermäßiger Zuversicht in die Marktmethoden in Bezug auf die Kultur. Ihrer Meinung nach ist es schwer, die Kultursphäre auszugliedern, indem man sich lediglich der in der Ökonomie angenommenen Methoden bedient [Grzelońska, 2008]. Das kommt aus zwei Grundunterschieden, die zwischen der wirtschaftlichen und der kulturellen Sphäre auftreten: 1. die zu befriedigenden Bedürfnisse, 2. der Charakter angefertigter und erzielter Produkte. Abraham Harold Maslow unterschied fünf Grundbedürfnisse und Wünsche (siehe Zeichnung 1, Bedürfnispyramide), die Antriebsmotor der Wirkung jedes Menschen sind. Die Grundlage bestimmen die Grundbedürfnisse. Zu den Grundbedürfnissen rechnete Maslow auch ästhetische Bedürfnisse: “Scharfe Ausstrahlung der ästhetischen Bedürfnisse ist nicht möglich aufgrund dessen, dass sie

Physiologische Bedürfnisse

Zeichnung. 1 Pyramide der Bedürfnisse

Bedürfnisse der Sicherheit

Selbstverwirklichung

Bedürfnisse der Angehörigkeit und der Liebe

Bedürfnisse der Achtung

Bedürfnisse der Achtung

Bedürfnisse der Angehörigkeit und der Liebe

Selbstverwirklichung

Bedürfnisse der Sicherheit

Zeichnung. 1 Pyramide der Bedürfnisse

Physiologische Bedürfnisse

sich decken mit den voluntativen und kognitiven Bedürfnissen”[Maslow, 1990, S. 72–102]. Aus den Forschungen von Maslow ergibt sich auch, dass die weiteren Etappen der Pyramide überhaupt nicht hintereinander auftreten müssen. Indem wir die Biografien vieler Künstler untersuchen, finden wir leicht Beispiele, dass die Grundbedürfnisse, z.B. Hungerbefriedigung, überhaupt nicht befriedigt werden müssen, dass sich das Bedürfnis der Selbstverwirklichung stark sichtbar macht und realisiert wird. Kotler macht aufmerksam, dass “das menschliche Bedürfnis ein Zustand der Empfindung des Fehlens an Befriedigung ist ”, dagegen “sind die Wünsche der Ausdruck einer besonderen Art der Befriedigung der Urbedürfnisse”[Kotler, 1999, S. 6]. Für die Befriedigung der Bedürfnisse und Wünsche muss der Mensch entsprechende Handlungen unternehmen. Aus der ökonomischen Sicht teilt sich diese besondere Art der menschlichen Aktivität, kulturelle Tätigkeit genannt, in [Grzelońska, 2008]: 1. Kunst, 2. Kulturindustrien. Im Bereich Kultur entstehen Kunstprodukte oder Kunstwerke, die: 1. Von den Schöpfern selbst geschaffen werden – Künstlern, 2. individuell hergestellt werden, 3. außer der physischen Form, eine Bedeutungsschicht, symbolische Schicht, Träger der Werte, Symbole, usw. enthalten. Zu der Kunst rechnen wir folgende Branchen: 1. künstlerisches Schaffen (Malerei, Skulptur, usw.), 2. ausführende Kunst (Live-Aufführung der Musik, Opern, Dramen, Komödien, usw.), 3. Schutz und Zugänglichmachung der Objekte des materiellen und geistigen Erbes (Museen, Bibliotheken, Archive, usw.) [Ebenda]. Die Institutionen, angerechnet zu den Kulturindustrien erzeugen die Güter, die Träger der Bedeu-

Quelle: eigene Bearbeitung auf der Grundlage von: A. H. Maslow, Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa 1990, S. 72–102.

dem Markt findet [Ebenda, S. 18]. In diesem Fall sprechen wir über die effektive Nachfrage, also solche, in der das “Wollen” eine Wiederspiegelung in den Taschen der “Wollenden” hat. Wir können also mit einer gewissen Vereinfachung feststellen, dass die Ökonomik der Kultur zwischen zwei Bezugspunkten (Maßen) ausgebreitet ist: MM dem Maß des Wertes (Bezug auf den Markt); MM der Wertordnung (Bezug auf die Kunst). Zwischen diesen Maßen entsteht ein Raum, in dem der Staat einschreiten und solche Einwirkungsinstrumente in Bewegung setzen kann, die verursachen, dass sich manche Kulturbereiche besser entwickeln werden, und manche schlechter oder gar nicht. Wir nennen das kulturelle Politik des Staates. Urszula Grzelońska, wo sie selbst Wirtschaftswissenschaftlerin ist, warnt jedoch vor übermäßiger Zuversicht in die Marktmethoden in Bezug auf die Kultur. Ihrer Meinung nach ist es schwer, die Kultursphäre auszugliedern, indem man sich lediglich der in der Ökonomie angenommenen Methoden bedient [Grzelońska, 2008]. Das kommt aus zwei Grundunterschieden, die zwischen der wirtschaftlichen und der kulturellen Sphäre auftreten: 1. die zu befriedigenden Bedürfnisse, 2. der Charakter angefertigter und erzielter Produkte. Abraham Harold Maslow unterschied fünf Grundbedürfnisse und Wünsche (siehe Zeichnung 1, Bedürfnispyramide), die Antriebsmotor der Wirkung jedes Menschen sind. Die Grundlage bestimmen die Grundbedürfnisse. Zu den Grundbedürfnissen rechnete Maslow auch ästhetische Bedürfnisse: “Scharfe Ausstrahlung der ästhetischen Bedürfnisse ist nicht möglich aufgrund dessen, dass sie


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

tungs- und der symbolischen Schicht sind, aber aus der Definition weder Objekte, die persönlich von den Künstlern geschaffen werden, noch werden sie einzeln hergestellt. Normalerweise sind sie kopierte (replizierte, vervielfältigte) Kunstwerke (z.B. Bücher, Platten). Laut U. Grzelońska werden die Produkte der Kulturindustrien zu den Kulturgütern gerechnet, aber sie sind keine Kulturgüter in der vollen Bedeutung dieses Wortes. Ihrer Meinung nach sind lediglich die Kunstprodukte der Kulturgüter in der vollsten Bedeutung [Ebenda]. Zu der Sphäre der kulturellen Tätigkeit werden auch zwei anderen Gebiete gerechnet, welche: 1. den Empfang der Kunstwerke ermöglichen (z.B. phonographische Industrie), 2. Kunstwerke benutzen (z.B. architektonische Projekte). Laut U. Grzelońska ist die Anrechnung eines Gebiets zum Kultursektor mehr die Frage der Konvention als einer logischen Aufteilung [Ebenda]. Allgemein werden die Verlage für die Firmen gehalten, die in der Kultursphäre tätig sind, und die Baufirmen schon nicht mehr. Währenddessen beschäftigen sich sowohl die einen, als auch die anderen mit der Vervielfältigung der Werke der Künstler. Im ersten Fall der Schriftsteller oder Komponisten, im zweiten der Architekten.

Warum soll zur Kunst zugezahlt werden?

D

as Problem des Kunstdefizits ist so alt, wie alt ist unsere Zivilisation. Die Kunst war immer gesponsert und nur im Laufe der Jahrhunderten veränderte sich das Gewicht der Faktoren, die über den defizitären Charakter voreilig entscheiden, sowie die Struktur der Sponsoren. Das Kunstwerk wird zur Ware, wenn es Nutzwert besitzt, also die Fähigkeit zur Befriedigung bestimmter Bedürfnisse, sowie Austauschwert (Marktwert). Jedoch belehrt uns die Erfahrung in diesem Bereich, dass mindestens manche von den Kulturgütern im Austauschprozess keinen solchen Preis erlangen, der die Aufopferung für ihre Anfertigung begründen würde und Lieferung an die Konsumenten einer solchen Menge an Beständen, welche sie tatsächlich verschlingen. Also muss zu ihrer Produktion zugezahlt werden. Aber muss sicherlich zugezahlt werden? Die Antwort auf diese Frage ist gar nicht so einfach, noch eindeutig, wie das scheinen könnte. Mit der Untersuchung der ökonomischen Aspekte der Kultur, darunter der

1

Kunst haben sich Wissenschaftler erst in den letzten Jahrzehnten beschäftigt. Die Ergebnisse ihrer Arbeiten waren oft überraschend, aber gleichzeitig brachten sie Erklärung der Natur mancher Prozesse. Das spektakulärste Beispiel sind die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen von William Baumol, wovon die Rede im weiteren Teil dieses Kapitels sein wird. In Polen führt die am bekanntesten Untersuchungen Prof. Urszula Grzelońska. Als sie im April 2007 die Ergebnisse ihrer Arbeiten während des Konversatoriums “Ökonomie in der Kultur – Schaffen in der Kultur” vorgestellt hat rief sie eine stürmische Reaktion der Zuhörer hervor, besonders der Schöpfer. Die Vorsitzende der Beratungen, Prof. Elżbieta Mączyńska stellte geradezu fest: “Sie haben tatsächlich ein für viele von uns schockierendes Reden über das Schöpfen vorgeschlagen…”1. Tatsächlich kann der Einsatz der ökonomischen Maße in Bezug auf die Kunst für viele, besonders die Künstler, schockierend sein. Am allgemeinsten gesagt haben die Forscher die Antwort auf zwei Fragen gesucht: 1. Warum benötigt die kulturelle Tätigkeit das Mäzenatentum? (Warum erfordert sie die Zuzahlung?); 2. Auf welche Weise soll das wirksamste und sparsamste Mäzenatentum, sowie die Produktion der Kulturgüter organisiert werden? Indem die Antwort auf diese Fragen gesucht wird, soll zuerst auf die Frage geantwortet werden: warum kann sich die Kultur nicht selbst unterhalten? Es wurde schon erwähnt, dass dies aus dem ökonomischen Gesichtspunkt bedeutet, dass die Güter, die in der Kultursphäre hergestellt werden, auf dem Markt keinen solchen Preis erzielen können, der alle Kosten ihrer Herstellung decken würde. In der Kultursphäre gibt es selbstverständlich solche Künstler, deren Werke solche Preise erzielen, dass ihre Tätigkeit keine Dotierung erfordert, aber sie bestimmen eine entschiedene Minderheit. Im Fall der Kultur (wie auch jeder anderen Tätigkeit des Menschen) sind die Kosten zweierlei Art: 1. Personenkosten (in diesem Fall die Vergütung der Künstler), 2. Materialkosten (der Wert der im Prozess des Schaffens verbrauchter Werkzeuge und Materialien). Wenn die Kosten die Einkünfte übersteigen, haben wir mit Defizit zu tun. In einer solchen Situation sind zwei Lösungen möglich: entweder soll eine solche Defizittätigkeit eingestellt werden, oder es soll eine Quelle der Defizitfinanzierung gefunden werden.

Stenografische Aufzeichnung des Konversatoriums “Donnerstage bei den Ökonomisten”, organisiert von der Polnischen Ökonomischen Gesellschaft, sowie dem Klub der Business-Journalisten des Vereins der Polnischen Journalisten unter dem Titel “Ökonomie in der Kultur – Schaffen in der Ökonomie” im Warschauer Haus des Wirtschaftswissenschaftlers am 19. April 2007; http://www. pte.pl/pliki/1/92/8_czwartek_%2019_04_2007.doc.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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1

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Stenografische Aufzeichnung des Konversatoriums “Donnerstage bei den Ökonomisten”, organisiert von der Polnischen Ökonomischen Gesellschaft, sowie dem Klub der Business-Journalisten des Vereins der Polnischen Journalisten unter dem Titel “Ökonomie in der Kultur – Schaffen in der Ökonomie” im Warschauer Haus des Wirtschaftswissenschaftlers am 19. April 2007; http://www. pte.pl/pliki/1/92/8_czwartek_%2019_04_2007.doc.

as Problem des Kunstdefizits ist so alt, wie alt ist unsere Zivilisation. Die Kunst war immer gesponsert und nur im Laufe der Jahrhunderten veränderte sich das Gewicht der Faktoren, die über den defizitären Charakter voreilig entscheiden, sowie die Struktur der Sponsoren. Das Kunstwerk wird zur Ware, wenn es Nutzwert besitzt, also die Fähigkeit zur Befriedigung bestimmter Bedürfnisse, sowie Austauschwert (Marktwert). Jedoch belehrt uns die Erfahrung in diesem Bereich, dass mindestens manche von den Kulturgütern im Austauschprozess keinen solchen Preis erlangen, der die Aufopferung für ihre Anfertigung begründen würde und Lieferung an die Konsumenten einer solchen Menge an Beständen, welche sie tatsächlich verschlingen. Also muss zu ihrer Produktion zugezahlt werden. Aber muss sicherlich zugezahlt werden? Die Antwort auf diese Frage ist gar nicht so einfach, noch eindeutig, wie das scheinen könnte. Mit der Untersuchung der ökonomischen Aspekte der Kultur, darunter der

D

Warum soll zur Kunst zugezahlt werden? tungs- und der symbolischen Schicht sind, aber aus der Definition weder Objekte, die persönlich von den Künstlern geschaffen werden, noch werden sie einzeln hergestellt. Normalerweise sind sie kopierte (replizierte, vervielfältigte) Kunstwerke (z.B. Bücher, Platten). Laut U. Grzelońska werden die Produkte der Kulturindustrien zu den Kulturgütern gerechnet, aber sie sind keine Kulturgüter in der vollen Bedeutung dieses Wortes. Ihrer Meinung nach sind lediglich die Kunstprodukte der Kulturgüter in der vollsten Bedeutung [Ebenda]. Zu der Sphäre der kulturellen Tätigkeit werden auch zwei anderen Gebiete gerechnet, welche: 1. den Empfang der Kunstwerke ermöglichen (z.B. phonographische Industrie), 2. Kunstwerke benutzen (z.B. architektonische Projekte). Laut U. Grzelońska ist die Anrechnung eines Gebiets zum Kultursektor mehr die Frage der Konvention als einer logischen Aufteilung [Ebenda]. Allgemein werden die Verlage für die Firmen gehalten, die in der Kultursphäre tätig sind, und die Baufirmen schon nicht mehr. Währenddessen beschäftigen sich sowohl die einen, als auch die anderen mit der Vervielfältigung der Werke der Künstler. Im ersten Fall der Schriftsteller oder Komponisten, im zweiten der Architekten.

Kunst haben sich Wissenschaftler erst in den letzten Jahrzehnten beschäftigt. Die Ergebnisse ihrer Arbeiten waren oft überraschend, aber gleichzeitig brachten sie Erklärung der Natur mancher Prozesse. Das spektakulärste Beispiel sind die Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen von William Baumol, wovon die Rede im weiteren Teil dieses Kapitels sein wird. In Polen führt die am bekanntesten Untersuchungen Prof. Urszula Grzelońska. Als sie im April 2007 die Ergebnisse ihrer Arbeiten während des Konversatoriums “Ökonomie in der Kultur – Schaffen in der Kultur” vorgestellt hat rief sie eine stürmische Reaktion der Zuhörer hervor, besonders der Schöpfer. Die Vorsitzende der Beratungen, Prof. Elżbieta Mączyńska stellte geradezu fest: “Sie haben tatsächlich ein für viele von uns schockierendes Reden über das Schöpfen vorgeschlagen…”1. Tatsächlich kann der Einsatz der ökonomischen Maße in Bezug auf die Kunst für viele, besonders die Künstler, schockierend sein. Am allgemeinsten gesagt haben die Forscher die Antwort auf zwei Fragen gesucht: 1. Warum benötigt die kulturelle Tätigkeit das Mäzenatentum? (Warum erfordert sie die Zuzahlung?); 2. Auf welche Weise soll das wirksamste und sparsamste Mäzenatentum, sowie die Produktion der Kulturgüter organisiert werden? Indem die Antwort auf diese Fragen gesucht wird, soll zuerst auf die Frage geantwortet werden: warum kann sich die Kultur nicht selbst unterhalten? Es wurde schon erwähnt, dass dies aus dem ökonomischen Gesichtspunkt bedeutet, dass die Güter, die in der Kultursphäre hergestellt werden, auf dem Markt keinen solchen Preis erzielen können, der alle Kosten ihrer Herstellung decken würde. In der Kultursphäre gibt es selbstverständlich solche Künstler, deren Werke solche Preise erzielen, dass ihre Tätigkeit keine Dotierung erfordert, aber sie bestimmen eine entschiedene Minderheit. Im Fall der Kultur (wie auch jeder anderen Tätigkeit des Menschen) sind die Kosten zweierlei Art: 1. Personenkosten (in diesem Fall die Vergütung der Künstler), 2. Materialkosten (der Wert der im Prozess des Schaffens verbrauchter Werkzeuge und Materialien). Wenn die Kosten die Einkünfte übersteigen, haben wir mit Defizit zu tun. In einer solchen Situation sind zwei Lösungen möglich: entweder soll eine solche Defizittätigkeit eingestellt werden, oder es soll eine Quelle der Defizitfinanzierung gefunden werden.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

heit oder Baumol-Effekt genannt, zunimmt. Beim Fehlen des Zuwachses an Arbeitsproduktivität im Bereich der Kunst und bei dem wachsenden Druck auf höhere Löhne, wird die Lücke zwischen den Einkünften und den Kosten immer größer. In Erwägung der von Baumol beschriebenen Erscheinung soll bemerkt werden, dass sofern aus dem sozialen Gesichtspunkt es sinnvoll ist, zur Kunst zuzuzahlen, soweit wäre einer solchen Chance die Zuzahlung zu den Kulturindustrien entledigt. Niemand bei Verstand fordert, dass die Baufirmen dotiert werden, aber es gibt solche, denen scheint begründet das Postulat der Dotierung von Verlagen. Währenddessen vervielfältigen sowohl die einen, als auch die anderen lediglich die Werke der Schöpfer. Ein weiterer Grund der Notwendigkeit der Dotierung von Kultur, bezeichnet als Mega-Star sein verbindet sich mit dem Globalismus der Kommunikationsprozesse. Und die globale Welt bringt Nachfrage nach globalen Stars. Besonders in der Welt von Sport und Unterhaltungsmusik. Gäbe es nicht die Unterstützung der Sponsoren, könnten sich nur wenige ein “Live“-Treffen mit solchen Stars erlauben. Paradox haben wir mit einem ähnlichen Problem zu tun bei dem Schutz des nationalen Erbes (historischen) der Gesellschaften. Keine museale Einrichtung wäre imstande ein Bild eines großen Meisters zu kaufen (nicht einmal zu versichern) lediglich aus den Gebühren der Besucher. In diesem Fall erfüllen die Rolle der Mega-Stars die großen Maler oder Bildhauer. Die Erscheinung, beschrieben von Baumol betrifft nicht nur einzelne Schöpfer, sondern auch Institutionen, die im Bereich Kunst wirken, wie Theater, Oper, Galerien, Museen. Das Subjekt der Kultur, das mit der Verwaltungsentscheidung subventioniert wird (eben aufgrund der Lücke zwischen den Kosten der Anfertigung der Produkte und der Nachfrage nach ihnen) verliert das Interesse an der Begrenzung der Ausmaße dieser Lücke (es fehlen die Impulse für die effektive Allokation der Mittel). Das schafft einen eigenartigen Opportunismus auf der Seite des Angebots. Die Mehrheit der künstlerischen Institutionen wirken in Anlehnung an den Mechanismus, der verursacht, dass das Subjekt, welches die Kosten seiner Tätigkeit senkt, automatisch kleinere Zuwendungen bekommt. Es ist eine Haltung, die für viele Manager charakteristisch ist, die in der Kultursphäre tätig sind. Auf diesen Opportunismus überlagert sich die Tätigkeit der sog. Rentensucher2 die im Bereich der Kultur

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Im allgemeinen werden vier Gründe des Mangels in der Kultur genannt [Ebenda]: 1. Baumol’s cost disease-Erscheinung (BaumolKostenkrankheit), 2. Mega-Starsein, 3. Tätigkeit der Opportunisten und Rentier, 4. Überangebot auf dem Kunstmarkt, William Baumol, der amerikanische Ökonomist bemerkte, dass die künstlerische Tätigkeit dem technischen Fortschritt nicht in solchem Maß klein beigibt, wie andere Wirtschaftssektoren. Als Folge des technischen Fortschritts werden die Kosten gesenkt, und die Produktivität wächst, und was dem folgt, kann die Gehaltserhöhung aus den wachsenden Einkünften finanziert werden. Inzwischen bleibt im Kunstsektor die Arbeitsproduktivität eigentlich unveränderlich. Baumol beschrieb diese Erscheinung in den 60. Jahren des 20. Jh. Für ihre Schilderung bediente er sich des Beispiels des Streichquintetts g-mol von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Als der Komponist im Jahre 1787 dieses Werk schrieb, wurden für seine Ausführung fünf Musiker benötigt: zwei Geigenspieler, zwei Bratschisten und ein Cellist. Das Spielen dieses Quintetts nimmt genauso viel Zeit in Anspruch und der gleichen Zahl an Musiker heute, wie vor zwei hundert Jahren. Also aus dem ökonomischen Gesichtspunkt, während der zwei Jahrhunderten stieg die Effizienz der Künstler, die dieses Werk ausführen, nicht [Surowiecki, 2003]. Zum Vergleich ruft James Surowiecki, indem er diese Erscheinung beschriebt, den Fortschritt herbei, der sich in der Autoindustrie vollzog. 1979 brauchten die Arbeiter von General Motors 41 Stunden zum Montieren eines Autos. Zwei Dekaden später benötigten sie für die Montage eines Autos lediglich 24 Stunden. Folglich wurde der Lohnanstieg im Konzern General Motors mit dem Zuwachs der Arbeitsproduktivität finanziert. Im Falle der Künstler wächst die Effizienz nicht, aber wenn es allen rundherum besser geht, so wächst der Druck darauf, dass es auch den Personen besser geht, die sich mit der künstlerischen Tätigkeit beschäftigen. Es wachsen also auch die Einkünfte der Schöpfer, und letztendlich wachsen die Fertigungskosten der Kulturgüter. Die Erscheinung, beschrieben von Baumol betrifft nicht nur die Künstler. Die Vorlesung des Universitätsprofessors dauerte vor zwei Jahrhunderten genauso lange wie heute. Der Kellner braucht zum Servieren der Mahlzeit heute genauso viel Zeit wie vor Jahren. Es soll dabei bemerkt werden, dass die Erscheinung, beschrieben von Baumol, Baumol-Kostenkrank-

126

Es ist eine Erscheinung, im Westen Europas weit verbreitet, in Polen verhältnismäßig wenig verbreitet.

Es ist eine Erscheinung, im Westen Europas weit verbreitet, in Polen verhältnismäßig wenig verbreitet.

2

2

heit oder Baumol-Effekt genannt, zunimmt. Beim Fehlen des Zuwachses an Arbeitsproduktivität im Bereich der Kunst und bei dem wachsenden Druck auf höhere Löhne, wird die Lücke zwischen den Einkünften und den Kosten immer größer. In Erwägung der von Baumol beschriebenen Erscheinung soll bemerkt werden, dass sofern aus dem sozialen Gesichtspunkt es sinnvoll ist, zur Kunst zuzuzahlen, soweit wäre einer solchen Chance die Zuzahlung zu den Kulturindustrien entledigt. Niemand bei Verstand fordert, dass die Baufirmen dotiert werden, aber es gibt solche, denen scheint begründet das Postulat der Dotierung von Verlagen. Währenddessen vervielfältigen sowohl die einen, als auch die anderen lediglich die Werke der Schöpfer. Ein weiterer Grund der Notwendigkeit der Dotierung von Kultur, bezeichnet als Mega-Star sein verbindet sich mit dem Globalismus der Kommunikationsprozesse. Und die globale Welt bringt Nachfrage nach globalen Stars. Besonders in der Welt von Sport und Unterhaltungsmusik. Gäbe es nicht die Unterstützung der Sponsoren, könnten sich nur wenige ein “Live“-Treffen mit solchen Stars erlauben. Paradox haben wir mit einem ähnlichen Problem zu tun bei dem Schutz des nationalen Erbes (historischen) der Gesellschaften. Keine museale Einrichtung wäre imstande ein Bild eines großen Meisters zu kaufen (nicht einmal zu versichern) lediglich aus den Gebühren der Besucher. In diesem Fall erfüllen die Rolle der Mega-Stars die großen Maler oder Bildhauer. Die Erscheinung, beschrieben von Baumol betrifft nicht nur einzelne Schöpfer, sondern auch Institutionen, die im Bereich Kunst wirken, wie Theater, Oper, Galerien, Museen. Das Subjekt der Kultur, das mit der Verwaltungsentscheidung subventioniert wird (eben aufgrund der Lücke zwischen den Kosten der Anfertigung der Produkte und der Nachfrage nach ihnen) verliert das Interesse an der Begrenzung der Ausmaße dieser Lücke (es fehlen die Impulse für die effektive Allokation der Mittel). Das schafft einen eigenartigen Opportunismus auf der Seite des Angebots. Die Mehrheit der künstlerischen Institutionen wirken in Anlehnung an den Mechanismus, der verursacht, dass das Subjekt, welches die Kosten seiner Tätigkeit senkt, automatisch kleinere Zuwendungen bekommt. Es ist eine Haltung, die für viele Manager charakteristisch ist, die in der Kultursphäre tätig sind. Auf diesen Opportunismus überlagert sich die Tätigkeit der sog. Rentensucher2 die im Bereich der Kultur

126

Im allgemeinen werden vier Gründe des Mangels in der Kultur genannt [Ebenda]: 1. Baumol’s cost disease-Erscheinung (BaumolKostenkrankheit), 2. Mega-Starsein, 3. Tätigkeit der Opportunisten und Rentier, 4. Überangebot auf dem Kunstmarkt, William Baumol, der amerikanische Ökonomist bemerkte, dass die künstlerische Tätigkeit dem technischen Fortschritt nicht in solchem Maß klein beigibt, wie andere Wirtschaftssektoren. Als Folge des technischen Fortschritts werden die Kosten gesenkt, und die Produktivität wächst, und was dem folgt, kann die Gehaltserhöhung aus den wachsenden Einkünften finanziert werden. Inzwischen bleibt im Kunstsektor die Arbeitsproduktivität eigentlich unveränderlich. Baumol beschrieb diese Erscheinung in den 60. Jahren des 20. Jh. Für ihre Schilderung bediente er sich des Beispiels des Streichquintetts g-mol von Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Als der Komponist im Jahre 1787 dieses Werk schrieb, wurden für seine Ausführung fünf Musiker benötigt: zwei Geigenspieler, zwei Bratschisten und ein Cellist. Das Spielen dieses Quintetts nimmt genauso viel Zeit in Anspruch und der gleichen Zahl an Musiker heute, wie vor zwei hundert Jahren. Also aus dem ökonomischen Gesichtspunkt, während der zwei Jahrhunderten stieg die Effizienz der Künstler, die dieses Werk ausführen, nicht [Surowiecki, 2003]. Zum Vergleich ruft James Surowiecki, indem er diese Erscheinung beschriebt, den Fortschritt herbei, der sich in der Autoindustrie vollzog. 1979 brauchten die Arbeiter von General Motors 41 Stunden zum Montieren eines Autos. Zwei Dekaden später benötigten sie für die Montage eines Autos lediglich 24 Stunden. Folglich wurde der Lohnanstieg im Konzern General Motors mit dem Zuwachs der Arbeitsproduktivität finanziert. Im Falle der Künstler wächst die Effizienz nicht, aber wenn es allen rundherum besser geht, so wächst der Druck darauf, dass es auch den Personen besser geht, die sich mit der künstlerischen Tätigkeit beschäftigen. Es wachsen also auch die Einkünfte der Schöpfer, und letztendlich wachsen die Fertigungskosten der Kulturgüter. Die Erscheinung, beschrieben von Baumol betrifft nicht nur die Künstler. Die Vorlesung des Universitätsprofessors dauerte vor zwei Jahrhunderten genauso lange wie heute. Der Kellner braucht zum Servieren der Mahlzeit heute genauso viel Zeit wie vor Jahren. Es soll dabei bemerkt werden, dass die Erscheinung, beschrieben von Baumol, Baumol-Kostenkrank-


127

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

funktionieren (rent seeking activity). Ein Beispiel sind die Tätigkeiten unterschiedlicher (oft unnötiger) Organisationen oder Expertenkommissionen. Ihre Tätigkeit vergrößert beträchtlich die Angebotslücke. Als vierten Grund der Notwendigkeit der Dotierung der Kultur wird das Überangebot auf dem Kulturmarkt aufgezeigt. Es ist eine kontroverse These, die sowohl Befürworter hat, als auch Gegner. Als Grund des Überangebots werden im allgemeinen zwei Erscheinungen genannt: 1. Arbeit für niedrigere Löhne von den alternativen Kosten, 2. Übermaß an Künstler. Für viele Schöpfer ist ihre Arbeit nicht nur die Unterhaltsquelle, sondern auch die Quelle der Befriedigung. Daher die Neigung zur Arbeit für niedrigeren Lohn als die alternativen Kosten. Diese Befriedigung betrachten die Künstler als Entschädigung für die verlorenen Verdienste, die sie erlangen könnten, wenn sie in den anderen Wirtschaftszweigen beschäftigt wären. Daher kann anerkannt werden, dass für viele Künstler die Höhe des von ihnen erlangten Einkommens nicht das Instrument bestimmt, welches die Grenze des Produktionsengagements im Kunstsektor begrenzt. In den anderen Wirtschaftssektoren ist der Lohn die natürliche ökonomische Barriere für das Angebot. In Bezug auf die Kunst ist das eine genauso kontroverse These, wie die Behauptung, dass das Überangebot an Kulturgütern ein Effekt der übermäßigen Zahl der auf Kosten der Gesellschaft ausgebildeten Künstler ist (Musiker, Schauspieler, Maler, Grafiker, usw.). Diese Art des Gedankengangs, verbunden mit der “Zuzahlung zu den unnötigen Künstlern” könnte uns an die Grenze bringen, außerhalb der die Freiheit endet. Die moderne Welt erkennt als eine der Grundnormen der Zivilisation die Wahl eines beliebigen Berufs an, welchen der Mensch ausüben möchte. Man kann selbstverständlich anspornen, dass die Einzelnen die aus der sozialen Sicht wünschenswerten Berufe wählen, aber man kann keinen dazu zwingen. Das ist das Fundament jedes demokratischen Systems. Ein demokratischer Staat durch verschiedene Ansporne, Erleichterungen, Präferenzen kann verschiedene Lebensbereiche beeinflussen, darunter des kulturellen Lebens. Eine solche Art der Einwirkung ist das Wesen der kulturellen Politik des gegebenen Landes. Zum Beispiel mit Hilfe der politischen Instrumente versuchen die Schweizer, ihre Multikulturalität zu

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

festigen [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, S. 87–88], und die Franzosen geradezu umgekehrt [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2006, S. 137–142].

Zusammenfassung

L

aut Peter Bendixen “bestimmt die gegenseitige Einwirkung zwischen der Kultur und der Wirtschaft ein Bereich des Kulturmanagements”[Ben dixen, 2001, S. 12]. Jedoch wäre das Messen aller Erscheinungen, besonders der künstlerischen, mit Hilfe von ökonomischen Instrumenten, ein Fehler. Mehr noch, das könnte die soziale Entwicklung schädigen. Die Ausgaben für die Kultur sind nicht nur Kosten, es sind auch messbare Gewinne. Die Franzosen haben die Kultur als ein Faktor des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums anerkannt [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, S. 93]. Die breit verstandene Kultur hat eine fundamentale Bedeutung für die Wirtschaft nicht nur im materiellen Sinn, sondern auch vor allem im intellektuellen. Es wurde früher erwähnt, dass die Grundlage der modernen Wirtschaft der Austauschprozess ist. Der hl. Thomas meinte, dass der gerechte Austausch sich auf den Austausch von Äquivalenten stützt, der Gleichheit dessen, was man gibt, damit, etwas erhalten wird (do ut des – “ich gebe, damit du gibst”). Dieses Äquivalent muss gar nicht ein materielles Ausmaß haben. Peter F. Drucker, der bekannteste Forscher der Managementprozesse der Welt stellte ausdrücklich fest: “Die Ansicht, dass das Management vor allem Management im Business ist, ist nach wie vor lebendig. Dennoch soll mit voller Sicherheit festgestellt werden, dass diese These falsch ist…” [Drucker, 2000, S. 7]. Die moderne Welt beginnt, sich darüber im Klaren zu werden, dass das Kapital sich nicht nur auf das Geld bezieht. Immer häufiger bedienen wir uns der Termini: soziales Kapital, kulturelles Kapital. Die Kultur, ähnlich wie das Gesundheitswesen, soziale Betreuung, Umweltschutz – sind Bereiche, in denen die ökonomischen Aspekte eine wesentliche Rolle spielen. Jedoch dort, wo wir mit einer Mission oder sozialem Dienst zu tun haben, fällt es schwer, sich lediglich von der Gewinn- und Verlustrechnung leiten zu lassen. Es scheint, dass ein wesentlich besserer Maßstab der Managementprozesse im Bereich Kultur Effektivität und die Qualität der unternommenen Aufgaben sein soll.

127

funktionieren (rent seeking activity). Ein Beispiel sind die Tätigkeiten unterschiedlicher (oft unnötiger) Organisationen oder Expertenkommissionen. Ihre Tätigkeit vergrößert beträchtlich die Angebotslücke. Als vierten Grund der Notwendigkeit der Dotierung der Kultur wird das Überangebot auf dem Kulturmarkt aufgezeigt. Es ist eine kontroverse These, die sowohl Befürworter hat, als auch Gegner. Als Grund des Überangebots werden im allgemeinen zwei Erscheinungen genannt: 1. Arbeit für niedrigere Löhne von den alternativen Kosten, 2. Übermaß an Künstler. Für viele Schöpfer ist ihre Arbeit nicht nur die Unterhaltsquelle, sondern auch die Quelle der Befriedigung. Daher die Neigung zur Arbeit für niedrigeren Lohn als die alternativen Kosten. Diese Befriedigung betrachten die Künstler als Entschädigung für die verlorenen Verdienste, die sie erlangen könnten, wenn sie in den anderen Wirtschaftszweigen beschäftigt wären. Daher kann anerkannt werden, dass für viele Künstler die Höhe des von ihnen erlangten Einkommens nicht das Instrument bestimmt, welches die Grenze des Produktionsengagements im Kunstsektor begrenzt. In den anderen Wirtschaftssektoren ist der Lohn die natürliche ökonomische Barriere für das Angebot. In Bezug auf die Kunst ist das eine genauso kontroverse These, wie die Behauptung, dass das Überangebot an Kulturgütern ein Effekt der übermäßigen Zahl der auf Kosten der Gesellschaft ausgebildeten Künstler ist (Musiker, Schauspieler, Maler, Grafiker, usw.). Diese Art des Gedankengangs, verbunden mit der “Zuzahlung zu den unnötigen Künstlern” könnte uns an die Grenze bringen, außerhalb der die Freiheit endet. Die moderne Welt erkennt als eine der Grundnormen der Zivilisation die Wahl eines beliebigen Berufs an, welchen der Mensch ausüben möchte. Man kann selbstverständlich anspornen, dass die Einzelnen die aus der sozialen Sicht wünschenswerten Berufe wählen, aber man kann keinen dazu zwingen. Das ist das Fundament jedes demokratischen Systems. Ein demokratischer Staat durch verschiedene Ansporne, Erleichterungen, Präferenzen kann verschiedene Lebensbereiche beeinflussen, darunter des kulturellen Lebens. Eine solche Art der Einwirkung ist das Wesen der kulturellen Politik des gegebenen Landes. Zum Beispiel mit Hilfe der politischen Instrumente versuchen die Schweizer, ihre Multikulturalität zu

aut Peter Bendixen “bestimmt die gegenseitige Einwirkung zwischen der Kultur und der Wirtschaft ein Bereich des Kulturmanagements”[Ben dixen, 2001, S. 12]. Jedoch wäre das Messen aller Erscheinungen, besonders der künstlerischen, mit Hilfe von ökonomischen Instrumenten, ein Fehler. Mehr noch, das könnte die soziale Entwicklung schädigen. Die Ausgaben für die Kultur sind nicht nur Kosten, es sind auch messbare Gewinne. Die Franzosen haben die Kultur als ein Faktor des wirtschaftlichen Wachstums anerkannt [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, S. 93]. Die breit verstandene Kultur hat eine fundamentale Bedeutung für die Wirtschaft nicht nur im materiellen Sinn, sondern auch vor allem im intellektuellen. Es wurde früher erwähnt, dass die Grundlage der modernen Wirtschaft der Austauschprozess ist. Der hl. Thomas meinte, dass der gerechte Austausch sich auf den Austausch von Äquivalenten stützt, der Gleichheit dessen, was man gibt, damit, etwas erhalten wird (do ut des – “ich gebe, damit du gibst”). Dieses Äquivalent muss gar nicht ein materielles Ausmaß haben. Peter F. Drucker, der bekannteste Forscher der Managementprozesse der Welt stellte ausdrücklich fest: “Die Ansicht, dass das Management vor allem Management im Business ist, ist nach wie vor lebendig. Dennoch soll mit voller Sicherheit festgestellt werden, dass diese These falsch ist…” [Drucker, 2000, S. 7]. Die moderne Welt beginnt, sich darüber im Klaren zu werden, dass das Kapital sich nicht nur auf das Geld bezieht. Immer häufiger bedienen wir uns der Termini: soziales Kapital, kulturelles Kapital. Die Kultur, ähnlich wie das Gesundheitswesen, soziale Betreuung, Umweltschutz – sind Bereiche, in denen die ökonomischen Aspekte eine wesentliche Rolle spielen. Jedoch dort, wo wir mit einer Mission oder sozialem Dienst zu tun haben, fällt es schwer, sich lediglich von der Gewinn- und Verlustrechnung leiten zu lassen. Es scheint, dass ein wesentlich besserer Maßstab der Managementprozesse im Bereich Kultur Effektivität und die Qualität der unternommenen Aufgaben sein soll.

L

Zusammenfassung festigen [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, S. 87–88], und die Franzosen geradezu umgekehrt [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2006, S. 137–142].


128

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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http://www.inepan.waw.pl/seminarium38.html;

w warszawskim Domu Ekonomisty 19 kwietnia

Grzelońska U., Ekonomiczny zarys sfery kultury; Bieroń B., Kraków 2006, t. II. Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, red. GieratBieroń B., Kowalski K., Kraków 2005, t. I. Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, red. GieratWarszawa 2000. Drucker P., Zarządzanie w XXI w., Wydawnictwo Muza, tuki, Kraków 2001. Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i sz-

Biznesowych Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich Towarzystwo Ekonomiczne oraz Klub Dziennikarzy u ekonomistów” zorganizowanego przez Polskie – zapis stenograficzny konwersatorium “Czwartki “Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii” 07/030707ta_talk_surowiecki 2003; http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2003/07/ Surowiecki J., What ails us, “The New Yorker” 07 lipca 1990. Maslow A. H., Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Bibliografie

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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

1. Einführung

H

ervorragende Experten im Bereich Verwaltung (P. Drucker, A. Toffler) sowie internationale Institutionen (OECD, Weltbank) unterstreichen die Bedeutung Wissensmanagements in der Situation des Übergangs von der Industriewirtschaft zur wissensbasierten Wirtschaft. Die Konsequenz dieses Prozesses ist eine immer größere Rolle, welche das Wissen, Schaffen und die immateriellen Ressourcen in der Wirtschaft und im Business spielen. Einen besonderen Einfluss auf diese Situation haben die dynamischen Prozesse der Globalisierung in der Weltwirtschaft, sowie die Bedeutung der technologischen Innovationen in der sog. Wissensära. Einer der Hauptschöpfer der neoklassizistischen Ökonomie, A. Marshall, bemerkte, dass “das Kapital in hohem Maß aus Wissen und Organisation besteht. […] Das Wissen ist unser stärkster Produktionsmotor […] Die Organisation unterstützt das Wissen” [Nonaka, Takeuchi, 2004, S. 12]. P. Drucker, indem er die Bezeichnungen “Arbeit mit Wissen”, “Angestellter des Wissens”, “Wissensgesellschaft”[Drucker, 2004, S. 13] einführte, unterstrich, dass das Wissen der Schlüsselfaktor der Kreativität in allen Lebensbereichen sei, und die sog. traditionellen Ressourcen, wie Kapital, Boden oder Arbeit an Bedeutung verlierten. Die Untersuchungen zum Begriff Wissensmanagement, die 1997 an der Cranfield School of Management in Großbritannien durchgeführt worden sind, zeigen in der Literatur auf die po-

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

pulärste Definition dieses Begriffs, die besagt, dass “Wissensmanagement die Gesamtheit der Prozesse ist, die Schaffung, Verallgemeinerung und Verwendung des Wissens für die Erfüllung der Organisationszwecke ermöglichen”[Kisielnicki, 2008, S. 11]. Wissensmanagement kann verschiedenartig betrachtet werden. An dieser Stelle soll an die japanische Auffassung angeknüpft werden, deren Initiatoren I. Nonaka und H. Takeuchi waren. Die Forscher sind der Meinung, dass das formalisierte Wissen (öffentliche), ausgedrückt in Worten und Zahlen, lediglich die Spitze des Eisberges bildete. Sie beurteilen das Wissen vor allem als “verborgenes Wissen” (stilles), also als etwas, was nicht direkt wahrnehmbar und ausdrückbar sei. Das Wissen, welches den Wert der Organisationen beeinflüsse, charakterisiere sich mit großem Grad an Individualität und sei auch schwer zu formalisieren, wodurch es schwer zu vermitteln oder mit anderen zu teilen sei. Zu dieser Kategorie des Wissens würden u.a. die Intuition, Denkmodelle, Organisationskultur, Fertigkeiten und Veranlagungen der Angestellten eingerechnet – dieses Wissen bildete das grundlegende intellektuelle Kapital. Auf dieser Grundlage schufen die japanischen Wissenschaftler die Konzeption der sog. “Spirale des Wissens”, die die Konversion des Wissens in den Organisationen betrifft. A. Toffler unterstreicht charakteristische Merkmale, die das Wissen von den traditionellen Ressourcen unterscheiden: seine Dominanz (Priorität des Wissens über andere), Unversieglichkeit (der

129

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć Die Absolventin des Studienganges „Kulturmanagement“ an der Jagiellonen Universität und des UNESCO-Studienganges „Kulturmanagement“ an der Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz, der in der Zusammenarbeit mit dem Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen durchgeführt wurde. Sie absolvierte auch die Studienrichtung „Polnisch-Deutsche Übersetzungen“ am UNESCO-Lehrstuhl der Jagiellonen Universität. Die Stipendiatin des Programmes „Voluntary Visitor Program“, das von US Department of State organisiert wurde (2007). Die Übersetzerin und Redaktorin zahlreicher Publikationen, Kulturmanagerin der Villa Decius in Krakow, wo sie für Management von internationalen Projekten verantwortlich ist. Zur Zeit ist sie die Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität.

ervorragende Experten im Bereich Verwaltung (P. Drucker, A. Toffler) sowie internationale Institutionen (OECD, Weltbank) unterstreichen die Bedeutung Wissensmanagements in der Situation des Übergangs von der Industriewirtschaft zur wissensbasierten Wirtschaft. Die Konsequenz dieses Prozesses ist eine immer größere Rolle, welche das Wissen, Schaffen und die immateriellen Ressourcen in der Wirtschaft und im Business spielen. Einen besonderen Einfluss auf diese Situation haben die dynamischen Prozesse der Globalisierung in der Weltwirtschaft, sowie die Bedeutung der technologischen Innovationen in der sog. Wissensära. Einer der Hauptschöpfer der neoklassizistischen Ökonomie, A. Marshall, bemerkte, dass “das Kapital in hohem Maß aus Wissen und Organisation besteht. […] Das Wissen ist unser stärkster Produktionsmotor […] Die Organisation unterstützt das Wissen” [Nonaka, Takeuchi, 2004, S. 12]. P. Drucker, indem er die Bezeichnungen “Arbeit mit Wissen”, “Angestellter des Wissens”, “Wissensgesellschaft”[Drucker, 2004, S. 13] einführte, unterstrich, dass das Wissen der Schlüsselfaktor der Kreativität in allen Lebensbereichen sei, und die sog. traditionellen Ressourcen, wie Kapital, Boden oder Arbeit an Bedeutung verlierten. Die Untersuchungen zum Begriff Wissensmanagement, die 1997 an der Cranfield School of Management in Großbritannien durchgeführt worden sind, zeigen in der Literatur auf die po-

H

1. Einführung

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

129

pulärste Definition dieses Begriffs, die besagt, dass “Wissensmanagement die Gesamtheit der Prozesse ist, die Schaffung, Verallgemeinerung und Verwendung des Wissens für die Erfüllung der Organisationszwecke ermöglichen”[Kisielnicki, 2008, S. 11]. Wissensmanagement kann verschiedenartig betrachtet werden. An dieser Stelle soll an die japanische Auffassung angeknüpft werden, deren Initiatoren I. Nonaka und H. Takeuchi waren. Die Forscher sind der Meinung, dass das formalisierte Wissen (öffentliche), ausgedrückt in Worten und Zahlen, lediglich die Spitze des Eisberges bildete. Sie beurteilen das Wissen vor allem als “verborgenes Wissen” (stilles), also als etwas, was nicht direkt wahrnehmbar und ausdrückbar sei. Das Wissen, welches den Wert der Organisationen beeinflüsse, charakterisiere sich mit großem Grad an Individualität und sei auch schwer zu formalisieren, wodurch es schwer zu vermitteln oder mit anderen zu teilen sei. Zu dieser Kategorie des Wissens würden u.a. die Intuition, Denkmodelle, Organisationskultur, Fertigkeiten und Veranlagungen der Angestellten eingerechnet – dieses Wissen bildete das grundlegende intellektuelle Kapital. Auf dieser Grundlage schufen die japanischen Wissenschaftler die Konzeption der sog. “Spirale des Wissens”, die die Konversion des Wissens in den Organisationen betrifft. A. Toffler unterstreicht charakteristische Merkmale, die das Wissen von den traditionellen Ressourcen unterscheiden: seine Dominanz (Priorität des Wissens über andere), Unversieglichkeit (der

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć Die Absolventin des Studienganges „Kulturmanagement“ an der Jagiellonen Universität und des UNESCO-Studienganges „Kulturmanagement“ an der Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz, der in der Zusammenarbeit mit dem Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen durchgeführt wurde. Sie absolvierte auch die Studienrichtung „Polnisch-Deutsche Übersetzungen“ am UNESCO-Lehrstuhl der Jagiellonen Universität. Die Stipendiatin des Programmes „Voluntary Visitor Program“, das von US Department of State organisiert wurde (2007). Die Übersetzerin und Redaktorin zahlreicher Publikationen, Kulturmanagerin der Villa Decius in Krakow, wo sie für Management von internationalen Projekten verantwortlich ist. Zur Zeit ist sie die Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität.


130

Wert der Wissensressourcen verringert sich nicht im Moment seiner Übermittlung, es wird zusätzlich um neue Elemente entwickelt, die während des Unterrichtsprozesses gewonnen wurden), Simultanität (Gleichzeitigkeit der Wissensverwendung von vielen Personen), Nichtlinearität (das Fehlen einer deutlichen Interdependenz zwischen der Größe der Wissensressourcen und dem daraus resultierenden Gewinn). Wissen und Information, ihre Qualität und Aktualität werden also für ein Unternehmen zu wesentlichen Faktoren der Konkurrenzfähigkeit. Der Erfolg wird in der Wirtschaft der Informationsära nicht nur an der Größe der Aktiva gemessen, über die man verfügt, sondern auch an den Erfolgen in Wissensmanagement und in der Verwendung des intellektuellen Kapitals eines Unternehmens. Beim Aufbau der wissensbasierten Wirtschaft wird eine wesentliche Rolle auch den nichtkommerziellen Organisationen zugeschrieben. Immer deutlicher wird die Tätigkeit der Nichtregierungsorganisationen bemerkt, die soziale Aufgaben realisieren, auch deswegen, dass die Demokratie ein Element ist, welches die Entwicklung der Bürgergesellschaft begünstigt. Eine wesentliche Eigenschaft der zeitgenössischen Organisationen ist eine immer allgemeinere Tendenz zur Betrachtung der Angestellten als strategischer Bestand, in welchen investiert werden soll. Die Wissensorganisationen sind Organisationen, deren grundsätzlicher Bestand immaterielle wissensbasierte Ressourcen sind (sachliche, finanzielle, informative, menschliche Kompetenzen und Relationen). Die Ressourcen solcher Organisationen bilden die Konfiguration der gemeinsam genutzten Ressourcen [Mikuła 2006, S. 27]. K. Zimniewicz versteht wissensbasierte Organisationen als eine Konzeption der Verwaltung, die sich auf eine Gesamtheit des Wissens stütze, über das einzelne Angestellten verfügten – Wissen, welches fortdauernd bereichert und dem Unternehmen “zugänglich gemacht” werde [Zimniewicz, 2003, S. 108–109].

2. Wissensmanagement im operativen Ausmaß – Fall des Vereins Villa Decius Nichtregierungsorganisationen gewidmet sind. Erwähnungswert ist hier der Artikel Knowledge Management and the Nonprofit Industry: A Within and Between Approach [Hurley, Green, 2005] von T. A. Hurley und C. W. Green, der im Januar 2005 veröffentlicht worden ist. Er legt nahe, dass die Nichtregierungsorganisationen das Wissen analog wie die Organisationen, die Gewinne generieren, verwalten sollten. Die Autorinnen machen auf zwei Betrachtungsweisen des Wissensmanagements aufmerksam: “innere” (Bedürfnis der Änderungen der Organisationskultur) und “dazwischen” (Koordination der Kultur des Wissensmanagements unter den Organisationen für effektive Nutzung der Fonds, sowie neuer Wissensressourcen) [Łapniewska, 2008]. In Polen fehlt es an fundierten Daten zum Stand Wissensmanagements in den Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Eine der Untersuchungen, die 2005 von Z. Łapniewska durchgeführt worden ist, hatte zum Ziel, den aktuellen Zustand der Kenntnisse und der Nutzung wissensbasierter Systeme in verschiedenen polnischen Nichtregierungsorganisationen zu zeigen. Dem diente die Identifizierung der Initiativen, die besseres Wissensmanagement, sowie die Verbesserung der Effektivität anstreben, wie auch der Vergleich des Fortschrittsniveaus in der Einführung von wissensbasierten Lösungen. Diese Untersuchungen zeigten, dass 100% der analisierten Organisationen weder eine formalisierte, noch eine nicht formalisierte Strategie des Wissensmanagements besitzen. Trotz des Fehlens wissensbasierter Systeme bestätigten über 52% der Befragten, dass Wissensmanagement sehr wichtig für die von ihnen repräsentierte Organisation sei. Dagegen wären die weiteren 36% Befragten der Meinung gewesen, dass Wissensmanagement wichtig, aber nicht vorrangig sei. Dieses Ergebnis zeigt laut Z. Łapniewska die Offenheit und die Bereitschaft zu organisatorischen Änderungen im Milieu der Non-Profit-Organisationen [Łapniewska, Szczerbiński, 2005].

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

2.1 Das Organisationsprofil

er Verein Villa Decius führt seine Tätigkeit seit 1995 auf der Grundlage der Vorschriften des Gesetzes vom 7. April 1989 Vereinsrecht. Er realisiert Projekte mit interdisziplinärem Charakter, welche einen mehrschichtigen Blick auf die Rolle der breit verstandenen Kultur in der heutigen Welt ermöglichen und behandelt Fragen der internationalen kulturellen Zusammenarbeit im Bereich der

1.1. Der Einsatz wissensbasierter Systeme in den Nichtregierungsorganisationen

D

D

130

2.1 Das Organisationsprofil

W

W

issensmanagement ist eine Kunst des Bauens einer wissensbasierten Organisation, die “für das Wissen offen ist”. Diese Kunst integriert Firmenstrategie, Angestellte, Organisationskultur und Technologie zur effektiven Wissensverwendung. Es gibt wenige wissenschaftliche Artikel, die dem Wissensmanagement oder dem praktischen Einsatz wissensbasierter Systeme in den

2. Wissensmanagement im operativen Ausmaß – Fall des Vereins Villa Decius

er Verein Villa Decius führt seine Tätigkeit seit 1995 auf der Grundlage der Vorschriften des Gesetzes vom 7. April 1989 Vereinsrecht. Er realisiert Projekte mit interdisziplinärem Charakter, welche einen mehrschichtigen Blick auf die Rolle der breit verstandenen Kultur in der heutigen Welt ermöglichen und behandelt Fragen der internationalen kulturellen Zusammenarbeit im Bereich der

1.1. Der Einsatz wissensbasierter Systeme in den Nichtregierungsorganisationen

Nichtregierungsorganisationen gewidmet sind. Erwähnungswert ist hier der Artikel Knowledge Management and the Nonprofit Industry: A Within and Between Approach [Hurley, Green, 2005] von T. A. Hurley und C. W. Green, der im Januar 2005 veröffentlicht worden ist. Er legt nahe, dass die Nichtregierungsorganisationen das Wissen analog wie die Organisationen, die Gewinne generieren, verwalten sollten. Die Autorinnen machen auf zwei Betrachtungsweisen des Wissensmanagements aufmerksam: “innere” (Bedürfnis der Änderungen der Organisationskultur) und “dazwischen” (Koordination der Kultur des Wissensmanagements unter den Organisationen für effektive Nutzung der Fonds, sowie neuer Wissensressourcen) [Łapniewska, 2008]. In Polen fehlt es an fundierten Daten zum Stand Wissensmanagements in den Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Eine der Untersuchungen, die 2005 von Z. Łapniewska durchgeführt worden ist, hatte zum Ziel, den aktuellen Zustand der Kenntnisse und der Nutzung wissensbasierter Systeme in verschiedenen polnischen Nichtregierungsorganisationen zu zeigen. Dem diente die Identifizierung der Initiativen, die besseres Wissensmanagement, sowie die Verbesserung der Effektivität anstreben, wie auch der Vergleich des Fortschrittsniveaus in der Einführung von wissensbasierten Lösungen. Diese Untersuchungen zeigten, dass 100% der analisierten Organisationen weder eine formalisierte, noch eine nicht formalisierte Strategie des Wissensmanagements besitzen. Trotz des Fehlens wissensbasierter Systeme bestätigten über 52% der Befragten, dass Wissensmanagement sehr wichtig für die von ihnen repräsentierte Organisation sei. Dagegen wären die weiteren 36% Befragten der Meinung gewesen, dass Wissensmanagement wichtig, aber nicht vorrangig sei. Dieses Ergebnis zeigt laut Z. Łapniewska die Offenheit und die Bereitschaft zu organisatorischen Änderungen im Milieu der Non-Profit-Organisationen [Łapniewska, Szczerbiński, 2005].

issensmanagement ist eine Kunst des Bauens einer wissensbasierten Organisation, die “für das Wissen offen ist”. Diese Kunst integriert Firmenstrategie, Angestellte, Organisationskultur und Technologie zur effektiven Wissensverwendung. Es gibt wenige wissenschaftliche Artikel, die dem Wissensmanagement oder dem praktischen Einsatz wissensbasierter Systeme in den

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Wert der Wissensressourcen verringert sich nicht im Moment seiner Übermittlung, es wird zusätzlich um neue Elemente entwickelt, die während des Unterrichtsprozesses gewonnen wurden), Simultanität (Gleichzeitigkeit der Wissensverwendung von vielen Personen), Nichtlinearität (das Fehlen einer deutlichen Interdependenz zwischen der Größe der Wissensressourcen und dem daraus resultierenden Gewinn). Wissen und Information, ihre Qualität und Aktualität werden also für ein Unternehmen zu wesentlichen Faktoren der Konkurrenzfähigkeit. Der Erfolg wird in der Wirtschaft der Informationsära nicht nur an der Größe der Aktiva gemessen, über die man verfügt, sondern auch an den Erfolgen in Wissensmanagement und in der Verwendung des intellektuellen Kapitals eines Unternehmens. Beim Aufbau der wissensbasierten Wirtschaft wird eine wesentliche Rolle auch den nichtkommerziellen Organisationen zugeschrieben. Immer deutlicher wird die Tätigkeit der Nichtregierungsorganisationen bemerkt, die soziale Aufgaben realisieren, auch deswegen, dass die Demokratie ein Element ist, welches die Entwicklung der Bürgergesellschaft begünstigt. Eine wesentliche Eigenschaft der zeitgenössischen Organisationen ist eine immer allgemeinere Tendenz zur Betrachtung der Angestellten als strategischer Bestand, in welchen investiert werden soll. Die Wissensorganisationen sind Organisationen, deren grundsätzlicher Bestand immaterielle wissensbasierte Ressourcen sind (sachliche, finanzielle, informative, menschliche Kompetenzen und Relationen). Die Ressourcen solcher Organisationen bilden die Konfiguration der gemeinsam genutzten Ressourcen [Mikuła 2006, S. 27]. K. Zimniewicz versteht wissensbasierte Organisationen als eine Konzeption der Verwaltung, die sich auf eine Gesamtheit des Wissens stütze, über das einzelne Angestellten verfügten – Wissen, welches fortdauernd bereichert und dem Unternehmen “zugänglich gemacht” werde [Zimniewicz, 2003, S. 108–109].


131

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Menschenrechte. Der Verein gewinnt öffentliche Mittel (Zufinanzierung der Zielprojekte, Zuschüsse – in Wettbewerben, die durch die öffentliche Hand auf der lokalen und zentralen Stufe, sowie durch die Europäischen Union organisiert werden) und private Mittel (Stiftungen, Sponsoren, kommerzielle Stifter). Er führt auch eine wirtschaftliche Tätigkeit im Bereich der Vermietung der Räume und Gästezimmer. Die Betrachtung Wissensmanagements im operativen Ausmaß stützt sich auf die Schaffung des formellen Wissens – welches möglich zu artikulieren ist (z.B. in Form von Dokumenten) und des stillen Wissens – welches schwierig oder unmöglich zu artikulieren ist (z.B. Erfahrung), dann auf seine Verarbeitung und Sammlung, auf seinen Schutz sowie auf das praktische Wissensverwenden für die Erlangung der vorausgesetzten Organisationsziele [Błaszczuk, 2004, S. 23]. Die folgenden Elemente können im Rahmen dieses Ausmaßes berücksichtigt werden: Gewinnung von Angestellten/Mitarbeitern, Motivationssystem, Informationsgewinnung und ihre praktische Umsetzung, Entschlussfassung während der Projektdurchführung, Gewinnung der sachlichen und finanziellen Mittel, Koordinierung der Tätigkeiten. Laut T. A. Hurley und C. W. Green solle sich Wissensmanagement in der Organisation auf ein viergliedriges Modell konzentrieren, welches laut H. Leavitt aus folgenden Elementen bestehe: Menschen, Ziele (Aufgaben), die von Menschen bestimmt würden, Technik, sowie Struktur. Ohne eine entsprechende Balance unter diesen miteinander verbundenen Systemen und ohne die Koordinierung ihrer gegenseitigen Relationen werde die Kultur des effektiven Wissensmanagements nicht entstehen [Łapniewska, 2008].

2.2. Aufgaben

I

ntellektuelle Aktiva des Vereins, die in Form von Dokumenten sowie als Fertigkeiten der Angestellten gesammelt werden, werden in ökonomische Effekte umgestaltet (vergrößerte Produktivität, Vergrößerung der Konkurrenzfähigkeit, Steigerung der Kompetenzen, Vergrößerung der Schnelligkeit des Handelns, der Effizienz und Rentabilität in der Realisierung der satzungsgemäßen Aufgaben). Projektmanagement lehrt die Angestellten des Vereins, wie ihre Fertigkeiten im Rahmen der individuellen und

1

der Teamarbeit zu optimalisieren sind und wie das Wissen in das Grundkapital der Organisation umzugestalten ist. Eine wesentliche Bedeutung haben die Aufgaben, die vor die Angestellten und Mitarbeiter gestellt werden. Die von den Koordinatoren realisierten Projekte sind aufgrund des Organisationscharakters motivierend, innovativ, interessant. Häufig sind das Autorenprogramme der vor ihnen stehenden Verantwortung bewusst, sie können auch selbst eigene Projekte kreieren, was bei den Angestellten und Mitarbeitern Begeisterung und Enthusiasmus hervorruft, was wieder für die Projektdurchführung unentbehrlich ist. Die Angestellten und Mitarbeiter haben außerdem die Unterstützung seitens des Direktors, sie haben das Bewusstsein, dass ihr Wissen und die Fertigkeiten den lebendigen Bestand der Organisation bilden. Die individuelle Projektbetrachtung begünstigt das Teilen des Wissens und die Erschaffung nichtformeller Konsultationsgruppen innerhalb oder außerhalb des Vereins mit anderen kompetenten Personen, die schon Erfahrungen im gegebenen Bereich gesammelt haben.

2.3. Menschliches Kapital

D

er wichtigste Bestandteil des menschlichen Kapitals im Verein sind die Kompetenzen, die sich aus dem Wissen ergeben, Fertigkeiten, “Know-How” und die Begabungen angestellter Personen (15 Angestellte und 5 ständige Mitarbeiter). In den Umfragen zur Entwicklung der Vereinsstrategie, die im Januar 2008 sowohl im inneren, als auch im äußeren Milieu durchgeführt worden sind, wurden die Kompetenzen der Angestellten als gut beurteilt1. Die Qualifikationen umfassen im breiten Sinne Berufswissen, praktische Fertigkeiten, Begabungen, besondere Persönlichkeitsmerkmale, die zur Arbeitsausübung im Verein prädisponieren. Das Wissen der Angestellten – sowohl das theoretische, als auch das sich aus Erfahrung ergebende, wird als Trumpf der Organisation anerkannt. Die Angestellten und die Projektmitarbeiter sind Absolventen des Hochschulstudiums im In- oder im Ausland im Bereich der humanistischen Wissenschaften, bedienen sich im kommunikativen Grad mindestens einer Fremdsprache sowie besitzen zusätzliche Spezialisierungen, beendete spezialisierte Kurse oder Nachdiplomstudium. 26% des Personals

Die Untersuchung wurde im Januar 2008 durchgeführt von W. Odzimek und A. Kowalska für die Bedürfnisse der Bearbeitung eines Plans der Strategie des Vereins Villa Decius für die Jahre 2008–2012.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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1

Die Untersuchung wurde im Januar 2008 durchgeführt von W. Odzimek und A. Kowalska für die Bedürfnisse der Bearbeitung eines Plans der Strategie des Vereins Villa Decius für die Jahre 2008–2012.

ntellektuelle Aktiva des Vereins, die in Form von Dokumenten sowie als Fertigkeiten der Angestellten gesammelt werden, werden in ökonomische Effekte umgestaltet (vergrößerte Produktivität, Vergrößerung der Konkurrenzfähigkeit, Steigerung der Kompetenzen, Vergrößerung der Schnelligkeit des Handelns, der Effizienz und Rentabilität in der Realisierung der satzungsgemäßen Aufgaben). Projektmanagement lehrt die Angestellten des Vereins, wie ihre Fertigkeiten im Rahmen der individuellen und

I

2.2. Aufgaben Menschenrechte. Der Verein gewinnt öffentliche Mittel (Zufinanzierung der Zielprojekte, Zuschüsse – in Wettbewerben, die durch die öffentliche Hand auf der lokalen und zentralen Stufe, sowie durch die Europäischen Union organisiert werden) und private Mittel (Stiftungen, Sponsoren, kommerzielle Stifter). Er führt auch eine wirtschaftliche Tätigkeit im Bereich der Vermietung der Räume und Gästezimmer. Die Betrachtung Wissensmanagements im operativen Ausmaß stützt sich auf die Schaffung des formellen Wissens – welches möglich zu artikulieren ist (z.B. in Form von Dokumenten) und des stillen Wissens – welches schwierig oder unmöglich zu artikulieren ist (z.B. Erfahrung), dann auf seine Verarbeitung und Sammlung, auf seinen Schutz sowie auf das praktische Wissensverwenden für die Erlangung der vorausgesetzten Organisationsziele [Błaszczuk, 2004, S. 23]. Die folgenden Elemente können im Rahmen dieses Ausmaßes berücksichtigt werden: Gewinnung von Angestellten/Mitarbeitern, Motivationssystem, Informationsgewinnung und ihre praktische Umsetzung, Entschlussfassung während der Projektdurchführung, Gewinnung der sachlichen und finanziellen Mittel, Koordinierung der Tätigkeiten. Laut T. A. Hurley und C. W. Green solle sich Wissensmanagement in der Organisation auf ein viergliedriges Modell konzentrieren, welches laut H. Leavitt aus folgenden Elementen bestehe: Menschen, Ziele (Aufgaben), die von Menschen bestimmt würden, Technik, sowie Struktur. Ohne eine entsprechende Balance unter diesen miteinander verbundenen Systemen und ohne die Koordinierung ihrer gegenseitigen Relationen werde die Kultur des effektiven Wissensmanagements nicht entstehen [Łapniewska, 2008].

er wichtigste Bestandteil des menschlichen Kapitals im Verein sind die Kompetenzen, die sich aus dem Wissen ergeben, Fertigkeiten, “Know-How” und die Begabungen angestellter Personen (15 Angestellte und 5 ständige Mitarbeiter). In den Umfragen zur Entwicklung der Vereinsstrategie, die im Januar 2008 sowohl im inneren, als auch im äußeren Milieu durchgeführt worden sind, wurden die Kompetenzen der Angestellten als gut beurteilt1. Die Qualifikationen umfassen im breiten Sinne Berufswissen, praktische Fertigkeiten, Begabungen, besondere Persönlichkeitsmerkmale, die zur Arbeitsausübung im Verein prädisponieren. Das Wissen der Angestellten – sowohl das theoretische, als auch das sich aus Erfahrung ergebende, wird als Trumpf der Organisation anerkannt. Die Angestellten und die Projektmitarbeiter sind Absolventen des Hochschulstudiums im In- oder im Ausland im Bereich der humanistischen Wissenschaften, bedienen sich im kommunikativen Grad mindestens einer Fremdsprache sowie besitzen zusätzliche Spezialisierungen, beendete spezialisierte Kurse oder Nachdiplomstudium. 26% des Personals

D

2.3. Menschliches Kapital der Teamarbeit zu optimalisieren sind und wie das Wissen in das Grundkapital der Organisation umzugestalten ist. Eine wesentliche Bedeutung haben die Aufgaben, die vor die Angestellten und Mitarbeiter gestellt werden. Die von den Koordinatoren realisierten Projekte sind aufgrund des Organisationscharakters motivierend, innovativ, interessant. Häufig sind das Autorenprogramme der vor ihnen stehenden Verantwortung bewusst, sie können auch selbst eigene Projekte kreieren, was bei den Angestellten und Mitarbeitern Begeisterung und Enthusiasmus hervorruft, was wieder für die Projektdurchführung unentbehrlich ist. Die Angestellten und Mitarbeiter haben außerdem die Unterstützung seitens des Direktors, sie haben das Bewusstsein, dass ihr Wissen und die Fertigkeiten den lebendigen Bestand der Organisation bilden. Die individuelle Projektbetrachtung begünstigt das Teilen des Wissens und die Erschaffung nichtformeller Konsultationsgruppen innerhalb oder außerhalb des Vereins mit anderen kompetenten Personen, die schon Erfahrungen im gegebenen Bereich gesammelt haben.


132

3.1. Psychologische Faktoren 3. Probleme und Hindernisse lediglich wichtigsten Artikeln oder Zeitungsinseraten). Trümpfe der digitalen Zeitungen sind vor allem das einfache Durchsuchen von Informationen, sowie auch Möglichkeit der Bereicherung um interaktive und multimediale Elemente (z.B. Hyperlinks auf andere Artikel oder WWW-Seiten, Videowerbung oder Animationen, die erklären, wie gegebene Gegenstände funktionieren).

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

D

ine wesentliche Barriere für die volle Einführung der Wissensteilungsprinzipien im Verein bildet der Zeitmangel für die Wissensteilung. Die Projektkoordinatoren (4 Angestellte, sowie

setzt die Bildung im Rahmen des Studiums des 2. oder 3. Grades fort. Die Angestellten des Vereins rekrutieren sich oft aus der Gruppe der Mitarbeiter, Volontäre oder Praktikanten, was positiv die Wahl der Angestellten beeinflusst, die gut funktionierende nichtformelle Netze der zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen bilden und sich Vertrauen schenken. Die Koordinatoren, indem sie Projekte konstruieren, spezialisieren sich gemäß ihren Interessen in den gewählten Bereichen (Menschenrechte, Internationale Beziehungen, Literatur). Zwecks Gewinnung von Informationen, die zur Ausführung alltäglicher Pflichten an dem Arbeitsposten notwendig sind, haben die Projektmitarbeiter die Möglichkeit, an externen Schulungen im In- und im Ausland teilzunehmen. Außerdem nehmen die Angestellten und Mitarbeiter des Vereins an den Schulungen zur Geschichte des Palast-Parkkomplexes Villa Decius teil. Sie basieren auf dem Wissen z.B. während der Führung von Ausflugsgruppen aus dem In- und Ausland. Die Mehrheit der im Verein beschäftigten Personen baut auf eine mehr oder weniger bewusste Weise eigene Datenbanken. Einerseits bereichern die Angestellten die Wissensaktiva in der Organisation, andererseits steigern sie eigene Fertigkeiten und Kompetenzen.

E

2.4. Technologie

3.2. Zeitmangel

W

132

ie Untersuchungen, die durch den Lehrstuhl für Managementtheorie der Haupthandelsschule (Szkoła Główna Handlowa) durchgeführt worden sind, beweisen, dass 80% der befragten polnischen Direktoren der Meinung sind, dass der Wettbewerb unter den Angestellten die Kultur der Wissensteilung vernichtete [Kisielicki, 2008, S. 17]. Angesichts dieser Tendenz wird die Überwindung der Befürchtungen von Angestellten vor der Wissensteilung, sowie die Ausbildung ihrer Lust zur Wissensteilung mit anderen Angestellten zur großen Herausforderung. Die Angestellten des Vereins wissen nicht immer, wie das sich in ihrem Besitz befindliche Wissen ausgenutzt wird, wer aus dieser Tatsache Vorteile erzielen wird. Sie wissen nicht, ob sie ausreichend ausgezeichnet werden, wenn ihr Wissen zum Erfolg beitragen wird, z.B. während der Projektdurchführung. Auch die Art des Wettbewerbs innerhalb der Organisation (z.B. unter den Angestellten und Mitarbeitern) hindert die volle Nutzung der Wissensressourcen. Oft sind die mehrjährigen Angestellten den Standardlösungen ergeben, was sich auf den Prozess der Wissensgewinnung der Angestellten hemmend auswirken kann. Eins der schwierigeren Probleme der Vereinsleitung ist es, die Angestellten dazu zu motivieren, dass sie regelmäßig ihr Wissen teilen und in diesem Bereich mit anderen Angestellten zusammenarbeiten. Ein sehr wesentlicher Faktor ist hier die Erarbeitung eines effektiven Motivationssystems, welches die Zahlungs- und Nichtzahlungselemente umfasst. Jeder Angestellte soll überzeugt werden, dass es sich lohnt, das Wissen zu teilen, dass es seinen Wert in den Augen des Vorstands nicht verringern wird.

ie Untersuchungen, die durch den Lehrstuhl für Managementtheorie der Haupthandelsschule (Szkoła Główna Handlowa) durchgeführt worden sind, beweisen, dass 80% der befragten polnischen Direktoren der Meinung sind, dass der Wettbewerb unter den Angestellten die Kultur der Wissensteilung vernichtete [Kisielicki, 2008, S. 17]. Angesichts dieser Tendenz wird die Überwindung der Befürchtungen von Angestellten vor der Wissensteilung, sowie die Ausbildung ihrer Lust zur Wissensteilung mit anderen Angestellten zur großen Herausforderung. Die Angestellten des Vereins wissen nicht immer, wie das sich in ihrem Besitz befindliche Wissen ausgenutzt wird, wer aus dieser Tatsache Vorteile erzielen wird. Sie wissen nicht, ob sie ausreichend ausgezeichnet werden, wenn ihr Wissen zum Erfolg beitragen wird, z.B. während der Projektdurchführung. Auch die Art des Wettbewerbs innerhalb der Organisation (z.B. unter den Angestellten und Mitarbeitern) hindert die volle Nutzung der Wissensressourcen. Oft sind die mehrjährigen Angestellten den Standardlösungen ergeben, was sich auf den Prozess der Wissensgewinnung der Angestellten hemmend auswirken kann. Eins der schwierigeren Probleme der Vereinsleitung ist es, die Angestellten dazu zu motivieren, dass sie regelmäßig ihr Wissen teilen und in diesem Bereich mit anderen Angestellten zusammenarbeiten. Ein sehr wesentlicher Faktor ist hier die Erarbeitung eines effektiven Motivationssystems, welches die Zahlungs- und Nichtzahlungselemente umfasst. Jeder Angestellte soll überzeugt werden, dass es sich lohnt, das Wissen zu teilen, dass es seinen Wert in den Augen des Vorstands nicht verringern wird.

issensmanagement erfordert in jeder Organisation ein effizientes Wissen speicherndes System, welches es in der Firma lokalisiert (“wer was weiß”) sowie seinen Durchfluss erleichtert. Ein solches System besteht aus einfachen Applikationen, dem Zugang an die Datenbanken, Expertisen, Rechtsakten, Projektdokumentationen, Vorgehensprozeduren. Die Technologie erleichtert das Teilen des Wissens unter den Angestellten. Der Verein führt technische Neuigkeiten ein, hat auch die Möglichkeit, die Punkte des drahtlosen Internetzugangs aufzubauen. Im Rahmen des Computernetzes Intranet haben die Angestellten Zugang zu solchen Dienstleistungen, wie WWW-Seiten und E-Mail. Intranet ist auch außerhalb von der Organisation zugänglich (man kann sich in die Vereinsbestände mittels Internets einloggen z.B. durch ein Login und Passwort), was während der Projektdurchführung und in dringenden Situationen sehr hilfreich ist. Im 2008 begann der Verein, das Abo von Zeitschriften in elektronischer Form zu testen. Die Gründe dafür waren ökonomische (Finanzen), logistische (Ort, unentbehrlich für die Pressearchivierung) sowie ökologische (Ausdruck von

D

3.2. Zeitmangel

W

3.1. Psychologische Faktoren

E

3. Probleme und Hindernisse

ine wesentliche Barriere für die volle Einführung der Wissensteilungsprinzipien im Verein bildet der Zeitmangel für die Wissensteilung. Die Projektkoordinatoren (4 Angestellte, sowie

2.4. Technologie

lediglich wichtigsten Artikeln oder Zeitungsinseraten). Trümpfe der digitalen Zeitungen sind vor allem das einfache Durchsuchen von Informationen, sowie auch Möglichkeit der Bereicherung um interaktive und multimediale Elemente (z.B. Hyperlinks auf andere Artikel oder WWW-Seiten, Videowerbung oder Animationen, die erklären, wie gegebene Gegenstände funktionieren).

issensmanagement erfordert in jeder Organisation ein effizientes Wissen speicherndes System, welches es in der Firma lokalisiert (“wer was weiß”) sowie seinen Durchfluss erleichtert. Ein solches System besteht aus einfachen Applikationen, dem Zugang an die Datenbanken, Expertisen, Rechtsakten, Projektdokumentationen, Vorgehensprozeduren. Die Technologie erleichtert das Teilen des Wissens unter den Angestellten. Der Verein führt technische Neuigkeiten ein, hat auch die Möglichkeit, die Punkte des drahtlosen Internetzugangs aufzubauen. Im Rahmen des Computernetzes Intranet haben die Angestellten Zugang zu solchen Dienstleistungen, wie WWW-Seiten und E-Mail. Intranet ist auch außerhalb von der Organisation zugänglich (man kann sich in die Vereinsbestände mittels Internets einloggen z.B. durch ein Login und Passwort), was während der Projektdurchführung und in dringenden Situationen sehr hilfreich ist. Im 2008 begann der Verein, das Abo von Zeitschriften in elektronischer Form zu testen. Die Gründe dafür waren ökonomische (Finanzen), logistische (Ort, unentbehrlich für die Pressearchivierung) sowie ökologische (Ausdruck von

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

setzt die Bildung im Rahmen des Studiums des 2. oder 3. Grades fort. Die Angestellten des Vereins rekrutieren sich oft aus der Gruppe der Mitarbeiter, Volontäre oder Praktikanten, was positiv die Wahl der Angestellten beeinflusst, die gut funktionierende nichtformelle Netze der zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen bilden und sich Vertrauen schenken. Die Koordinatoren, indem sie Projekte konstruieren, spezialisieren sich gemäß ihren Interessen in den gewählten Bereichen (Menschenrechte, Internationale Beziehungen, Literatur). Zwecks Gewinnung von Informationen, die zur Ausführung alltäglicher Pflichten an dem Arbeitsposten notwendig sind, haben die Projektmitarbeiter die Möglichkeit, an externen Schulungen im In- und im Ausland teilzunehmen. Außerdem nehmen die Angestellten und Mitarbeiter des Vereins an den Schulungen zur Geschichte des Palast-Parkkomplexes Villa Decius teil. Sie basieren auf dem Wissen z.B. während der Führung von Ausflugsgruppen aus dem In- und Ausland. Die Mehrheit der im Verein beschäftigten Personen baut auf eine mehr oder weniger bewusste Weise eigene Datenbanken. Einerseits bereichern die Angestellten die Wissensaktiva in der Organisation, andererseits steigern sie eigene Fertigkeiten und Kompetenzen.


133

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

2 Mitarbeiter) realisieren Projekte (jährlich etwa 60 Ereignisse insgesamt) mit verschiedenem Charakter, die oft aus vielen Tätigkeiten bestehen, darunter zyklische Projekte, langfristige (z.B. Studiobesuche, Sommerschulen, Gesangkurse, Stipendienprogramme), indem sie sich mit allen Phasen des Projektmanagements beschäftigen (darunter Programmplanung und –bearbeitung, Projektbudget, Projektfinanzierung, -vorbereitung und -durchführung, sowie -evaluierung). Das Wissen wird somit hauptsächlich während nichtformellen Treffen und Diskussionen übertragen. D. Owens, der stellvertretende Präsident des Wissensmanagement in der Körperschaft Unisys suggeriert, lediglich 2% der Informationen werde aufgeschrieben – der Rest verbleibe im menschlichen Gehirn, deswegen seien die nichtformellen Treffen und Gespräche so wesentlich [Łapniewska, 15.01.2008].

3.3. Das fehlende Vertrauen zur Technologie

L

eider bleibt das technologische Potential des Vereins ungenutzt. Die Mehrheit der Angestellten hat kein ausreichendes Wissen zu zugänglichen Instrumenten und Wissensmanagementsystemen (der Verein benutzt weder Entscheidungsunterstützungsysteme, noch moderne Systeme der Verwaltung von Kundenbeziehungen, oder Gruppenarbeit unterstützende Systeme, weder Extranet, noch Systeme der Lokalisierung des Expertenwissens). Alte Gewohnheiten und die Angst vor der modernen Technologie hemmen oft die Entwicklung der Angestellten. Die Ressourcenverwendung und die Einführung der komplexen Lösungen im Bereich wissensbasierter Systeme bleibt eine Herausforderung für die Zukunft.

3.4. Technische Barrieren

D

er Verein erarbeitete kein System der Datenarchivierung (Projektdokumentationen, Fotound Tonträgerdokumentationen), auch Informationen sind nicht im Falle vom Verlust infolge einer technischen Störung, Computerviren, oder auch im Falle von der Vertragslösung eines Angestellten oder eines Mitarbeiters adäquat gesichert. Das führte ein paar Mal zum unersetzlichen Verlust wertvoller Daten und Informationen, die nicht in der ursprünglichen Version wiederherzustellen sind. Die Angestellten des Vereins haben auch keine Möglichkeit, Vertretung für die Zeitdauer einer Schulung, einer ausländischen Dienstreise oder

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

eines Urlaubs zu finden, was mit dem Übermaß an Arbeitspflichten verbunden ist. Es ist auch unmöglich, eine zusätzliche Person für die bestimmte Zeit anzustellen. Die historische Substanz des Villa Decius Palastes hindert die Einführung von architektonischen Innovationen, die optimale Nutzung der Büroräume und ihre Anpassung an die Anforderungen von Angestellten und an die Standards von Arbeitssicherheit und Gesundheitsschutz zum Ziel haben.

4. Abschluss

J

ede Organisation hat ihre eigene Spezifität, die verursacht, dass die Lösungen, die mit Erfolg an einem Ort angewandt werden, an einem anderen Misserfolg bringen können. Ein Organisationsleiter, der an der Einführung des Wissensmanagement interessiert ist, soll die Kenntnisse dieser Konzeption und der eigenen Organisation zeigen. Er soll aber noch das Wesen der von der wachsenden Rolle des Wissens verursachten Verwandlungen verstehen, die Business und alltägliches Leben beeinflussen. Bei der Anpassung der in der Businesswelt erarbeiteten Modelle und Praktiken an die Wirklichkeit der Non-Profit-Organisationen soll vor allem die Rolle des intellektuellen Potentials der Angestellten unterstrichen werden, die ein wesentliches Fundament solcher Organisationen bilden. Begründet scheint es hier die Förderung von Wissensmanagement, dessen Ziel ist es: “den Organisationen die effektive Verwendung des Wissens und intellektuellen Kapitals zu garantieren, und in der Folge die Innovationen zu schaffen, die zum Wettbewerbsvorteil führen” [Strojny, 2000, S. 22]. Um ein Wissensmanagementsystem zu gestalten, ist es unentbehrlich, dieser Aspekt in die Organisationsmission einzutragen, wie auch entsprechende Verwaltungssysteme und Methoden zur Messung der Effektivität von Wissensverwendung und vom sog. intellektuellen Kapital (z.B. Balanced Score-Card, Monitoring der immateriellen Aktiva oder Skandia Navigator) einzusetzen. Für den Verein Villa Decius ist es wichtig, eine größere Effektivität in der Befriedigung der Bedürfnisse von seinen Zielgruppen zu gewinnen, an die die Programme gerichtet werden. Diese Aspekte stehen mit der Erfüllung von Organisationssatzungszielen, sowie dem allgemein verstandenen Sinn der Organisationsexistenz in Zusammenhang. Die Angestellten des Vereins sind offen und lernen gern, was ein großes Potential der Organisationsentwicklung bildet, wenn es um das Schaffen von immer mehr bedeutsameren

133

er Verein erarbeitete kein System der Datenarchivierung (Projektdokumentationen, Fotound Tonträgerdokumentationen), auch Informationen sind nicht im Falle vom Verlust infolge einer technischen Störung, Computerviren, oder auch im Falle von der Vertragslösung eines Angestellten oder eines Mitarbeiters adäquat gesichert. Das führte ein paar Mal zum unersetzlichen Verlust wertvoller Daten und Informationen, die nicht in der ursprünglichen Version wiederherzustellen sind. Die Angestellten des Vereins haben auch keine Möglichkeit, Vertretung für die Zeitdauer einer Schulung, einer ausländischen Dienstreise oder

D

3.4. Technische Barrieren

eider bleibt das technologische Potential des Vereins ungenutzt. Die Mehrheit der Angestellten hat kein ausreichendes Wissen zu zugänglichen Instrumenten und Wissensmanagementsystemen (der Verein benutzt weder Entscheidungsunterstützungsysteme, noch moderne Systeme der Verwaltung von Kundenbeziehungen, oder Gruppenarbeit unterstützende Systeme, weder Extranet, noch Systeme der Lokalisierung des Expertenwissens). Alte Gewohnheiten und die Angst vor der modernen Technologie hemmen oft die Entwicklung der Angestellten. Die Ressourcenverwendung und die Einführung der komplexen Lösungen im Bereich wissensbasierter Systeme bleibt eine Herausforderung für die Zukunft.

L

3.3. Das fehlende Vertrauen zur Technologie 2 Mitarbeiter) realisieren Projekte (jährlich etwa 60 Ereignisse insgesamt) mit verschiedenem Charakter, die oft aus vielen Tätigkeiten bestehen, darunter zyklische Projekte, langfristige (z.B. Studiobesuche, Sommerschulen, Gesangkurse, Stipendienprogramme), indem sie sich mit allen Phasen des Projektmanagements beschäftigen (darunter Programmplanung und –bearbeitung, Projektbudget, Projektfinanzierung, -vorbereitung und -durchführung, sowie -evaluierung). Das Wissen wird somit hauptsächlich während nichtformellen Treffen und Diskussionen übertragen. D. Owens, der stellvertretende Präsident des Wissensmanagement in der Körperschaft Unisys suggeriert, lediglich 2% der Informationen werde aufgeschrieben – der Rest verbleibe im menschlichen Gehirn, deswegen seien die nichtformellen Treffen und Gespräche so wesentlich [Łapniewska, 15.01.2008].

ede Organisation hat ihre eigene Spezifität, die verursacht, dass die Lösungen, die mit Erfolg an einem Ort angewandt werden, an einem anderen Misserfolg bringen können. Ein Organisationsleiter, der an der Einführung des Wissensmanagement interessiert ist, soll die Kenntnisse dieser Konzeption und der eigenen Organisation zeigen. Er soll aber noch das Wesen der von der wachsenden Rolle des Wissens verursachten Verwandlungen verstehen, die Business und alltägliches Leben beeinflussen. Bei der Anpassung der in der Businesswelt erarbeiteten Modelle und Praktiken an die Wirklichkeit der Non-Profit-Organisationen soll vor allem die Rolle des intellektuellen Potentials der Angestellten unterstrichen werden, die ein wesentliches Fundament solcher Organisationen bilden. Begründet scheint es hier die Förderung von Wissensmanagement, dessen Ziel ist es: “den Organisationen die effektive Verwendung des Wissens und intellektuellen Kapitals zu garantieren, und in der Folge die Innovationen zu schaffen, die zum Wettbewerbsvorteil führen” [Strojny, 2000, S. 22]. Um ein Wissensmanagementsystem zu gestalten, ist es unentbehrlich, dieser Aspekt in die Organisationsmission einzutragen, wie auch entsprechende Verwaltungssysteme und Methoden zur Messung der Effektivität von Wissensverwendung und vom sog. intellektuellen Kapital (z.B. Balanced Score-Card, Monitoring der immateriellen Aktiva oder Skandia Navigator) einzusetzen. Für den Verein Villa Decius ist es wichtig, eine größere Effektivität in der Befriedigung der Bedürfnisse von seinen Zielgruppen zu gewinnen, an die die Programme gerichtet werden. Diese Aspekte stehen mit der Erfüllung von Organisationssatzungszielen, sowie dem allgemein verstandenen Sinn der Organisationsexistenz in Zusammenhang. Die Angestellten des Vereins sind offen und lernen gern, was ein großes Potential der Organisationsentwicklung bildet, wenn es um das Schaffen von immer mehr bedeutsameren

J

4. Abschluss eines Urlaubs zu finden, was mit dem Übermaß an Arbeitspflichten verbunden ist. Es ist auch unmöglich, eine zusätzliche Person für die bestimmte Zeit anzustellen. Die historische Substanz des Villa Decius Palastes hindert die Einführung von architektonischen Innovationen, die optimale Nutzung der Büroräume und ihre Anpassung an die Anforderungen von Angestellten und an die Standards von Arbeitssicherheit und Gesundheitsschutz zum Ziel haben.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Wissensmanagement wird neulich als nützliches Werkzeug nicht nur für Unternehmen, sondern auch für die Nichtregierungsorganisationen wahrgenommen. Sollten Gewinne aus der Wissensverwendung populärer werden, wird es möglich sein, wissensbasierte Systeme auch im breiteren Ausmaß, u.a. in den Nichtregierungsorganisationen einzuleiten. Die Non-Profit-Organisationen bemühen sich auch um ein gutes Image im Bereich ihrer Tätigkeiten; sie konkurrieren nämlich nicht nur um einen Empfänger, sondern auch um einen Zuschussgeber oder Sponsor, der ihre Aktivitäten finanzieren kann. Das impliziert die Tatsache, dass sie auf neue Lösungen, sowie die Einführung neuer Ideen, die ihre Tätigkeiten verbessern, orientiert sein müssen, damit sie auf eine effektivere Weise an die Zielgruppen gelangen. Deswegen sollen die Non-Profit-Organisationen die Investitionen in diesem Bereich nicht vernachlässigen, die für den Absorptionsprozess des entsprechenden Wissens und für seine effektive Verwendung unentbehrlich sind.

Wissensmanagement wird neulich als nützliches Werkzeug nicht nur für Unternehmen, sondern auch für die Nichtregierungsorganisationen wahrgenommen. Sollten Gewinne aus der Wissensverwendung populärer werden, wird es möglich sein, wissensbasierte Systeme auch im breiteren Ausmaß, u.a. in den Nichtregierungsorganisationen einzuleiten. Die Non-Profit-Organisationen bemühen sich auch um ein gutes Image im Bereich ihrer Tätigkeiten; sie konkurrieren nämlich nicht nur um einen Empfänger, sondern auch um einen Zuschussgeber oder Sponsor, der ihre Aktivitäten finanzieren kann. Das impliziert die Tatsache, dass sie auf neue Lösungen, sowie die Einführung neuer Ideen, die ihre Tätigkeiten verbessern, orientiert sein müssen, damit sie auf eine effektivere Weise an die Zielgruppen gelangen. Deswegen sollen die Non-Profit-Organisationen die Investitionen in diesem Bereich nicht vernachlässigen, die für den Absorptionsprozess des entsprechenden Wissens und für seine effektive Verwendung unentbehrlich sind. Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Projektentwürfe geht. Wertvoll für die Entwicklung der Angestellten würden spezialisierte Schulungen, die sich in eine größere Effektivität in der Erlangung von Zuschüssen und Zuwendungen, sowie die Teilung guter Praktiken im Bereich Projektmanagement umsetzen würden. Anhand der Fallanalyse von der Villa Decius Aktivitäten kann ein Schluss gezogen werden, dass selbst trotz des Fehlens einer Wissensmanagementstrategie der Verein zufälligerweise wissensbasierte Initiativen realisiert und er ist interessiert am Zuwachs an Kenntnissen im Bereich Wissensmanagement, sowie am Aufbau des wissensbasierten Organisationsimages. Reguläre Praxis des schöpferischen Gruppendenkens über eine Problemlösung scheint in einer Nichtregierungsorganisation eine große Bedeutung für die Einführung von wissensbasierten Lösungen zu haben. Dies trägt zur Erlangung von Synergieeffekten bei, was wiederum über die Erfolgserzielung in der Projektdurchführung entscheiden kann.

134

134

Projektentwürfe geht. Wertvoll für die Entwicklung der Angestellten würden spezialisierte Schulungen, die sich in eine größere Effektivität in der Erlangung von Zuschüssen und Zuwendungen, sowie die Teilung guter Praktiken im Bereich Projektmanagement umsetzen würden. Anhand der Fallanalyse von der Villa Decius Aktivitäten kann ein Schluss gezogen werden, dass selbst trotz des Fehlens einer Wissensmanagementstrategie der Verein zufälligerweise wissensbasierte Initiativen realisiert und er ist interessiert am Zuwachs an Kenntnissen im Bereich Wissensmanagement, sowie am Aufbau des wissensbasierten Organisationsimages. Reguläre Praxis des schöpferischen Gruppendenkens über eine Problemlösung scheint in einer Nichtregierungsorganisation eine große Bedeutung für die Einführung von wissensbasierten Lösungen zu haben. Dies trägt zur Erlangung von Synergieeffekten bei, was wiederum über die Erfolgserzielung in der Projektdurchführung entscheiden kann.


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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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135

Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach niekomercyjnych,


Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Franciszek Ziejka

136

1.

riegsstürme, die immer wieder über die polnischen Gebiete rollten, verschonten besonders im 17. und 18. Jh. Kraków nicht. Im Jahre 1655 wurde unsere Stadt von den Schweden ausgeplündert. Es wurden viele Stadtviertel niedergebrannt, und vor allem wurden den Stadtbewohnern Kontributionen auferlegt auch in den ersten Jahren des 18. Jh. Nicht weniger gefährliche Angreifer waren die Österreicher oder die Russen, die in der Epoche des Endes der Republik immer wieder nach Kraków einmarschierten, wobei seine Bebauung zerstört wurde und von der Bevölkerung riesige Kontributionen eingezogen wurden. Neben den fremden Armeen hatte Kraków auch andere Feinde. Das waren Epidemien, Hochwasser und vor allem Brände. Die Historiker behaupten, dass seit dem 12. Jh. bis zu der Mitte des 19. Jh. dieses Element die Stadt über vierzig Mal vernichtet hatte! Nach dem Durchgang einer jeden solchen weiteren Naturkatastrophe hat sich die Stadt jedoch aus der Asche erhoben. Die Häuser wurden wiederaufgebaut, die Pracht wurde den Gotteshäusern wiederverliehen, neue wurden gebaut. Die Stadt hat sich auch den Niederlagen nicht ergeben, die in der 2. Hälfte des 18. Jh. auf sie einstürzten. Walerian Kalinka schrieb, dass innerhalb der sieben Augusttage des Jahres 1767 (vom 6. bis zum 12. August) ein großer Brand Zwierzyniec, Kleparz, Lubicz, Wesoła, Nowy Świat, Wielopole, Garbarze, Krupniki und die königlichen Mühlen restlos verzehrte. Piasek,

K

K

Biskupie, Bebauungen bei den Schwestern des Ordens von der Heimsuchung Mariens, königliche Gärten, Smoleńsk, und am letzten Tag die Straßen Długa und Szlak, einst Eigentum der italienischen Familie Montelupi. Innerhalb der nächsten Jahre haben Kraków abwechselnd die russischen und polnischen Armeen eingenommen [Kalinka, 1850, s. 9; Siehe auch: Łepkowski, 1846]. Die Stadt begann sich zu entvölkern. Nach dem KościuszkoAufstand verließen die Bewohner die Stadt, wie zum Zerstören übergeben, ließen sie die Häuser in Gottes Gnade, sodass eins nach dem anderen einstürzte, dass es gar keine Straße und Platz gab, wo du die Häuser nicht sehen würdest, die entweder schon umgefallen sind, oder mit Stöcken abgestützt wurden [Wie oben, S. 11]. Stanisław Krzyżanowski erinnerte im Jahre 1902, dass nach der Volkszählung des Jahres 1795 in Kraków (und in den benachbarten Ämtern, d.h. stadtnahen Ansiedlungen wie: Rybaki, Pędzichów, Biskupie, Smoleńsko, Szlak, Groble, Garbary) ein wenig über 11 Tausend Einwohner wohnten, wovon nur im jüdischen Kazimierz selbst fast 2 Tausend [Krzyżanowski, 1901, S. 50–54]. Auf eine andere Seite des Falls von Kraków im Umbruch des 18. und 19. Jh. machten Marian Sokołowski und Władysław Łuszczkiewicz aufmerksam in der Erinnerung über den ersten Regierungskonservator Westgaliziens, Paweł Popiel. Wir lesen in ihrem Text, dass am Anfang dieses Jahrhunderts [d.h. des 19.] Kraków völlig vergaß, welche künstlerische Schätze es in sich verbirgt. Von den durchfahrenden Ausländern erfuhr es manchmal beiläufig, dass es Meister-

Biskupie, Bebauungen bei den Schwestern des Ordens von der Heimsuchung Mariens, königliche Gärten, Smoleńsk, und am letzten Tag die Straßen Długa und Szlak, einst Eigentum der italienischen Familie Montelupi. Innerhalb der nächsten Jahre haben Kraków abwechselnd die russischen und polnischen Armeen eingenommen [Kalinka, 1850, s. 9; Siehe auch: Łepkowski, 1846]. Die Stadt begann sich zu entvölkern. Nach dem KościuszkoAufstand verließen die Bewohner die Stadt, wie zum Zerstören übergeben, ließen sie die Häuser in Gottes Gnade, sodass eins nach dem anderen einstürzte, dass es gar keine Straße und Platz gab, wo du die Häuser nicht sehen würdest, die entweder schon umgefallen sind, oder mit Stöcken abgestützt wurden [Wie oben, S. 11]. Stanisław Krzyżanowski erinnerte im Jahre 1902, dass nach der Volkszählung des Jahres 1795 in Kraków (und in den benachbarten Ämtern, d.h. stadtnahen Ansiedlungen wie: Rybaki, Pędzichów, Biskupie, Smoleńsko, Szlak, Groble, Garbary) ein wenig über 11 Tausend Einwohner wohnten, wovon nur im jüdischen Kazimierz selbst fast 2 Tausend [Krzyżanowski, 1901, S. 50–54]. Auf eine andere Seite des Falls von Kraków im Umbruch des 18. und 19. Jh. machten Marian Sokołowski und Władysław Łuszczkiewicz aufmerksam in der Erinnerung über den ersten Regierungskonservator Westgaliziens, Paweł Popiel. Wir lesen in ihrem Text, dass am Anfang dieses Jahrhunderts [d.h. des 19.] Kraków völlig vergaß, welche künstlerische Schätze es in sich verbirgt. Von den durchfahrenden Ausländern erfuhr es manchmal beiläufig, dass es Meister-

1.

riegsstürme, die immer wieder über die polnischen Gebiete rollten, verschonten besonders im 17. und 18. Jh. Kraków nicht. Im Jahre 1655 wurde unsere Stadt von den Schweden ausgeplündert. Es wurden viele Stadtviertel niedergebrannt, und vor allem wurden den Stadtbewohnern Kontributionen auferlegt auch in den ersten Jahren des 18. Jh. Nicht weniger gefährliche Angreifer waren die Österreicher oder die Russen, die in der Epoche des Endes der Republik immer wieder nach Kraków einmarschierten, wobei seine Bebauung zerstört wurde und von der Bevölkerung riesige Kontributionen eingezogen wurden. Neben den fremden Armeen hatte Kraków auch andere Feinde. Das waren Epidemien, Hochwasser und vor allem Brände. Die Historiker behaupten, dass seit dem 12. Jh. bis zu der Mitte des 19. Jh. dieses Element die Stadt über vierzig Mal vernichtet hatte! Nach dem Durchgang einer jeden solchen weiteren Naturkatastrophe hat sich die Stadt jedoch aus der Asche erhoben. Die Häuser wurden wiederaufgebaut, die Pracht wurde den Gotteshäusern wiederverliehen, neue wurden gebaut. Die Stadt hat sich auch den Niederlagen nicht ergeben, die in der 2. Hälfte des 18. Jh. auf sie einstürzten. Walerian Kalinka schrieb, dass innerhalb der sieben Augusttage des Jahres 1767 (vom 6. bis zum 12. August) ein großer Brand Zwierzyniec, Kleparz, Lubicz, Wesoła, Nowy Świat, Wielopole, Garbarze, Krupniki und die königlichen Mühlen restlos verzehrte. Piasek,

Prof. Dr. habil. Franciszek Ziejka Der Historiker polnischer Literatur, In den Jahren 1999-2005 war er der Rektor der Jagiellonen Universität. 1996 wurde er zum Mitglied-Korrespondenten der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaft und Kunst, 2002 zum aktiven Mitglied. Er ist Mitglied des wissenschaftlichen Rates der Polnischen Bibliothek in Paris und Vorsitzender des Nationalmuseumsrates in Krakow. Seit 2005 ist er auch Vorsitzender des Gesellschaftlichen Komitees für die Erneuerung der Denkmäler Krakows. Er wurde mit dem portugiesischen Verdienstorden (Grande Oficial da Ordem do Mérito), wie auch mit einigen bedeutsamen französischen Verdienstorden: Palmes Académiques (1994; 2001), Order National du Mérite (2002) und Légion d’Honneur (2006)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Prof. Dr. habil. Franciszek Ziejka Der Historiker polnischer Literatur, In den Jahren 1999-2005 war er der Rektor der Jagiellonen Universität. 1996 wurde er zum Mitglied-Korrespondenten der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaft und Kunst, 2002 zum aktiven Mitglied. Er ist Mitglied des wissenschaftlichen Rates der Polnischen Bibliothek in Paris und Vorsitzender des Nationalmuseumsrates in Krakow. Seit 2005 ist er auch Vorsitzender des Gesellschaftlichen Komitees für die Erneuerung der Denkmäler Krakows. Er wurde mit dem portugiesischen Verdienstorden (Grande Oficial da Ordem do Mérito), wie auch mit einigen bedeutsamen französischen Verdienstorden: Palmes Académiques (1994; 2001), Order National du Mérite (2002) und Légion d’Honneur (2006)

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Franciszek Ziejka

136

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

stücke hat, die den erstklassigen Hauptstädten würdig sind. Man fuhr zwar nach Italien, es wurden sogar Werke der fremden Kunstfertigkeit als Mode gesammelt, aber eigene Denkmäler konnte man nicht bewerten, da im voraus die Überzeugung getroffen wurde, dass es in Polen nichts Hervorragendes in dieser Hinsicht geben kann [Sokołowski, Łuszczkiewicz, 1893, s. 8]. Zu einem nicht geringen Anteil waren die Entscheidungen der Teilungsmächte für die Schicksäle des damalige Kraków ausschlaggebend. Schon in den ersten Jahren des 19. Jh. haben die österreichischen Mächte, indem sie sich auf gesundheitliche Gründe beriefen, eine Anordnung erlassen der Zerstörung der Verteidigungsmauer und Eindämmungen. Die Abrissarbeiten an den Mauern wurde viele Jahre lang geführt, wobei die gewonnene Ziegel und Steine versteigert wurden. Es änderten sich lediglich Prämissen dieser Arbei-

Viel Wahrheit musste drin sein, was die Zeugen der damaligen Jahre bestätigen. K. Bąkowski zitiert in seiner Historii Krakowa (Geschichte Krakaus) die Meinung eines österreichischen Konservators, J. A. Schultes, der im Jahre 1806 die Krakauer Mauer so beschrieben hat: Türme (sind) alt, Mauer und Glockentürme sind Brutstätten der Dohlen. Am Tage (ist es) sogar dunkel von ihnen, diese Vögel finden Futter in den ehemaligen städtischen Gräben, die als Kloaken dienen (K. Bąkowski, Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898, S. 165 (Serie: “Biblioteka Krakowska”, Nr. 6). Ungewöhnlich bildlich und zugleich ohne Verschönerung zeigte den Zustand der Verteidigungsmauer von Kraków an der Schwelle des 19. Jh. Ambroży Grabowski. Es lohnt sich, zumindest in Fragmenten hier seine Bemerkungen aufzuführen, denn sie besitzen einen dokumentarischen Wert. Es schrieb also Grabowski, dass Kraków mit einer Doppelmauer umgeben war und ringsherum mit Basteien umstellt. Der äußere Raum um die Mauer, der die Stadt von der Vorstadt trennte, war eine unzugängliche Gegend, mit Bergen von Müll, Schlamm und Schutt zugeschüttet, die aus der Stadt herausgefahren wurden und ohne Sinn und Verstand aufgeschüttet, zugewachsen mit einem Wald aus Disteln, Brennnesseln, Wasserschierling und Gänsedisteln, durchschnitten in verschiedenen Richtungen mit sumpfigen und stinkenden Abwässern, die aus der Stadt flossen, woher ein unerträglicher Gestank herrührte, besonders in der Zeit der Sommerhitze [...] Der Raum vom Seitentor bis zum Weichseltor. Nur auf einem schmalen Pfad konnte man vom Seitentor direkt am Wawel bis zum Weichseltor kommen und gehen. Dieser ganze Raum neben der Mauer wurde mit Müll und Trümmern zugeschüttet [...] In den Gruben dagegen zwischen diesen lagerte stinkende Jauche, und an den Ufern wuchsen Unkraut und Stängel [...] Vom Weichseltor bis zur Szewska - Pforte. Am Weichseltor selbst, es fast berührend, war ein ziemlich breiter Graben, gefüllt mit Ungeziefer im Zustand einer dicken Flüssigkeit, der mit seinem Dunst die ganze Fläche vergiftete, und aus diesem stinkenden Bach gelang in Bläschen ein Moorgas abscheulichen Gestanks, das die ganze Oberfläche bedeckte. Hinter diesem Graben unter der St. Norbert-Kirche war ein Stück Ackerland, welches mit Hirse besät wurde, usw. [...] Weiter zu der Szewska-Pforte gab es noch Spuren der alten Festungsgräben, jedoch waren diese schon mit Müll und Bauschutt fest zugeschüttet. [...] Von der Szewska-Pforte bis zum Sławkowski-Tor. Hier waren schon deutlicher die alten Festungsgräben sichtbar, in denen stellenweise Gras wuchs und das Vieh graste. Im Winter dagegen, wenn das Wasser von den Herbst-Platzregen gefroren war, gab es gort ausgezeichnete Rutschbahnen [...] Hier hinter der Reformaten-Kirche war eine Erdaufschüttung, also dieser unvollendete Rondell, welchen die Moskowiter während der Konföderation von Bar, wobei sie Kraków einnahmen, für den besseren Schutz der Stadt aufzuschütten begannen, und zwar indem sie Krakauer zur Arbeit zwangen [...] Diesen Stadtteil, wie andere, umgab eine Doppelmauer, zwischen der, wie überall, gab es lange und schmale Gärten, in denen auch zu meinen Zeiten Kegelbahnen waren und Bier gezapft wurde. [...] Von Sławkowska bis Floriańska. Der geringe Raum von einem Tor zum anderen. Hier war ein tiefer Graben mit Stein gemauert und er war am besten konserviert. Dieser Graben ging am städtischen Arsenal selbst bisher stehend. [...] Vom Florianstor bis zur Mikołajska-Pforte. In diesem Raum waren die alten Befestigungen der Stadt, Graben, zwei Mauern und Basteien am besten erhalten. Das Florianstor selbst war umgeben mit einem tiefen Graben, gemauert aus gehauenem Stein, und von außen von Kleparz gab es über diesen Graben im 15. und 16. Jh. eine Zugbrücke, wie in allen Toren. [...] Vom Florianstor selbst zur Mikołajska-Pforte waren zwischen den Mauern Gärten; in einem von ihnen, in den man vom Florianstor kam, waren Pulverkramläden an die Mauer gesteckt, vielleicht in der Anzahl zehn. [...] Innerhalb der Mikołajska-Pforte war der Eingang in den Garten zwischen den Mauern, wo ein Schießstand eingerichtet war (er wurde Celestat genannt), in dem vor der Teilung Polens die Krakauer auf den Hahn schossen. [...] Von der Mikołajska-Pforte zum Neuen-Tor. Hier war auch ein Damm, der den Graben umgab, und in ihm Pfützen und stinkender Schlamm. Der Damm war niedrig aber breit, denn er wurde täglich mit dem Schlamm erweitert, der von den Krakauer Straßen abgefahren wurde. [...] Vom Neuen zum Grodzki-Tor. Hier hinter der Kirche der Hl. Dreifaltigkeit (befand sich) eine Mauer und Basteien. Weiter neben der St. Josefs-Kirche und hinter der St. Peter und Paul-Kirche war die Mauer schon ohne Basteien, die hier früher herunterkamen. Die Gegend war leer, schlammig, in Unordnung, und die Gräben gefüllt mit faulendem Abfall. Dieser Ort war wenig besucht und es führte hier lediglich ein schmaler Steg neben der St. Sebastian-Wiese, auf dem vom Grodzki-Tor nach Wesoła und Kleparz gefahren wurde. [...] Noch wurde mehr von diesem nicht netten Anblick gab es, als zu den österreichischen Zeiten und während des Warschauer Herzogtums man anfing, die Mauern und Basteien abzureißen, und nachdem sie ruiniert waren, wurde nirgendwo ordentlich geebnet. (A. Grabowski, Wspomnienia. Wyd. S. Estreicher, Kraków 1909, B. II, S. 182 – 188).

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł 1

1

Franciszek Ziejka

Viel Wahrheit musste drin sein, was die Zeugen der damaligen Jahre bestätigen. K. Bąkowski zitiert in seiner Historii Krakowa (Geschichte Krakaus) die Meinung eines österreichischen Konservators, J. A. Schultes, der im Jahre 1806 die Krakauer Mauer so beschrieben hat: Türme (sind) alt, Mauer und Glockentürme sind Brutstätten der Dohlen. Am Tage (ist es) sogar dunkel von ihnen, diese Vögel finden Futter in den ehemaligen städtischen Gräben, die als Kloaken dienen (K. Bąkowski, Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898, S. 165 (Serie: “Biblioteka Krakowska”, Nr. 6). Ungewöhnlich bildlich und zugleich ohne Verschönerung zeigte den Zustand der Verteidigungsmauer von Kraków an der Schwelle des 19. Jh. Ambroży Grabowski. Es lohnt sich, zumindest in Fragmenten hier seine Bemerkungen aufzuführen, denn sie besitzen einen dokumentarischen Wert. Es schrieb also Grabowski, dass Kraków mit einer Doppelmauer umgeben war und ringsherum mit Basteien umstellt. Der äußere Raum um die Mauer, der die Stadt von der Vorstadt trennte, war eine unzugängliche Gegend, mit Bergen von Müll, Schlamm und Schutt zugeschüttet, die aus der Stadt herausgefahren wurden und ohne Sinn und Verstand aufgeschüttet, zugewachsen mit einem Wald aus Disteln, Brennnesseln, Wasserschierling und Gänsedisteln, durchschnitten in verschiedenen Richtungen mit sumpfigen und stinkenden Abwässern, die aus der Stadt flossen, woher ein unerträglicher Gestank herrührte, besonders in der Zeit der Sommerhitze [...] Der Raum vom Seitentor bis zum Weichseltor. Nur auf einem schmalen Pfad konnte man vom Seitentor direkt am Wawel bis zum Weichseltor kommen und gehen. Dieser ganze Raum neben der Mauer wurde mit Müll und Trümmern zugeschüttet [...] In den Gruben dagegen zwischen diesen lagerte stinkende Jauche, und an den Ufern wuchsen Unkraut und Stängel [...] Vom Weichseltor bis zur Szewska - Pforte. Am Weichseltor selbst, es fast berührend, war ein ziemlich breiter Graben, gefüllt mit Ungeziefer im Zustand einer dicken Flüssigkeit, der mit seinem Dunst die ganze Fläche vergiftete, und aus diesem stinkenden Bach gelang in Bläschen ein Moorgas abscheulichen Gestanks, das die ganze Oberfläche bedeckte. Hinter diesem Graben unter der St. Norbert-Kirche war ein Stück Ackerland, welches mit Hirse besät wurde, usw. [...] Weiter zu der Szewska-Pforte gab es noch Spuren der alten Festungsgräben, jedoch waren diese schon mit Müll und Bauschutt fest zugeschüttet. [...] Von der Szewska-Pforte bis zum Sławkowski-Tor. Hier waren schon deutlicher die alten Festungsgräben sichtbar, in denen stellenweise Gras wuchs und das Vieh graste. Im Winter dagegen, wenn das Wasser von den Herbst-Platzregen gefroren war, gab es gort ausgezeichnete Rutschbahnen [...] Hier hinter der Reformaten-Kirche war eine Erdaufschüttung, also dieser unvollendete Rondell, welchen die Moskowiter während der Konföderation von Bar, wobei sie Kraków einnahmen, für den besseren Schutz der Stadt aufzuschütten begannen, und zwar indem sie Krakauer zur Arbeit zwangen [...] Diesen Stadtteil, wie andere, umgab eine Doppelmauer, zwischen der, wie überall, gab es lange und schmale Gärten, in denen auch zu meinen Zeiten Kegelbahnen waren und Bier gezapft wurde. [...] Von Sławkowska bis Floriańska. Der geringe Raum von einem Tor zum anderen. Hier war ein tiefer Graben mit Stein gemauert und er war am besten konserviert. Dieser Graben ging am städtischen Arsenal selbst bisher stehend. [...] Vom Florianstor bis zur Mikołajska-Pforte. In diesem Raum waren die alten Befestigungen der Stadt, Graben, zwei Mauern und Basteien am besten erhalten. Das Florianstor selbst war umgeben mit einem tiefen Graben, gemauert aus gehauenem Stein, und von außen von Kleparz gab es über diesen Graben im 15. und 16. Jh. eine Zugbrücke, wie in allen Toren. [...] Vom Florianstor selbst zur Mikołajska-Pforte waren zwischen den Mauern Gärten; in einem von ihnen, in den man vom Florianstor kam, waren Pulverkramläden an die Mauer gesteckt, vielleicht in der Anzahl zehn. [...] Innerhalb der Mikołajska-Pforte war der Eingang in den Garten zwischen den Mauern, wo ein Schießstand eingerichtet war (er wurde Celestat genannt), in dem vor der Teilung Polens die Krakauer auf den Hahn schossen. [...] Von der Mikołajska-Pforte zum Neuen-Tor. Hier war auch ein Damm, der den Graben umgab, und in ihm Pfützen und stinkender Schlamm. Der Damm war niedrig aber breit, denn er wurde täglich mit dem Schlamm erweitert, der von den Krakauer Straßen abgefahren wurde. [...] Vom Neuen zum Grodzki-Tor. Hier hinter der Kirche der Hl. Dreifaltigkeit (befand sich) eine Mauer und Basteien. Weiter neben der St. Josefs-Kirche und hinter der St. Peter und Paul-Kirche war die Mauer schon ohne Basteien, die hier früher herunterkamen. Die Gegend war leer, schlammig, in Unordnung, und die Gräben gefüllt mit faulendem Abfall. Dieser Ort war wenig besucht und es führte hier lediglich ein schmaler Steg neben der St. Sebastian-Wiese, auf dem vom Grodzki-Tor nach Wesoła und Kleparz gefahren wurde. [...] Noch wurde mehr von diesem nicht netten Anblick gab es, als zu den österreichischen Zeiten und während des Warschauer Herzogtums man anfing, die Mauern und Basteien abzureißen, und nachdem sie ruiniert waren, wurde nirgendwo ordentlich geebnet. (A. Grabowski, Wspomnienia. Wyd. S. Estreicher, Kraków 1909, B. II, S. 182 – 188).

Franciszek Ziejka

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Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.

ten. Wenn anfänglich vor allem von den sanitären Gründen gesprochen wurde,1 so erschien bald ein neuer Terminus, der zum Schlüsselwort wurde: Verschönerung der Stadt. Mit diesem Spruch um sich werfend wurden nicht nur die Verteidigungsmauer der Stadt abgerissen (letztendlich fiel die entschiedene Mehrheit der Mauer, darunter 44 Tore und Basteien! zum Opfer der “Mauerzerstörer”), aber auch eine Reihe anderer historischer Bauwerke. So zum Beispiel wurde im Jahre 1819, nach zweijährigen Diskussionen im Senat der Stadt Kraków, über den Abriss des städtischen Rathauses entschieden (der Rathausturm blieb nur deswegen unversehrt, da er als ein guter Beobachtungspunkt für die Feuerwehrleute anerkannt wurde). Über zig Jahre, ab den 80er Jahren des 18. Jh., dauerte in Kraków eine große Aktion des Abrisses alter, gotischer und barocken Kirchen. Typisch, dass allein in den Jahren 1796 – 1809 hier

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh. Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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ausgezeichnet. Der österreichische Bundeskanzler verlieh an ihn das Große Ehrenzeichen für Verdienste um die Republik Österreich im Jahre 2002. 2005 wurde er mit dem Großen Verdienstorden vom Präsidenten der Bundesrepublik Deutschlands geehrt. Das Internationale Mauthausen Komitee zeichnete Prof. Ziejka mit der „Pro Meritis“ Medaille im Jahre 2002 aus. Er ist Ehrendoktor (Dr. h.c.) der Päpstlichen Fakultät für Theologie in Wroclaw, der Universität für Pädagogik in Krakow, der GeisteswissenschaftlichNaturwissenschaftlichen Universität in Kielce, der Päpstlichen Johannes Paul II. Universität in Krakow und der Maria Curie-Skłodowska Universität in Lublin. Preisträger vom u.a. Merentibus-Orden, der an ihn für besondere Verdienste um die Universität von Prof. Karol Musioł, den Rektor der Jagiellonen Universität, am 1. Oktober 2009 verliehen wurde. Der Autor zahlreicher Bücher und Theaterstücke für das polnische Fernsehserie TV-Theater, vieler RadioHörspiele, der langjährige Chefredakteur von „Ruch Literacki”.

stücke hat, die den erstklassigen Hauptstädten würdig sind. Man fuhr zwar nach Italien, es wurden sogar Werke der fremden Kunstfertigkeit als Mode gesammelt, aber eigene Denkmäler konnte man nicht bewerten, da im voraus die Überzeugung getroffen wurde, dass es in Polen nichts Hervorragendes in dieser Hinsicht geben kann [Sokołowski, Łuszczkiewicz, 1893, s. 8]. Zu einem nicht geringen Anteil waren die Entscheidungen der Teilungsmächte für die Schicksäle des damalige Kraków ausschlaggebend. Schon in den ersten Jahren des 19. Jh. haben die österreichischen Mächte, indem sie sich auf gesundheitliche Gründe beriefen, eine Anordnung erlassen der Zerstörung der Verteidigungsmauer und Eindämmungen. Die Abrissarbeiten an den Mauern wurde viele Jahre lang geführt, wobei die gewonnene Ziegel und Steine versteigert wurden. Es änderten sich lediglich Prämissen dieser Arbei-

ten. Wenn anfänglich vor allem von den sanitären Gründen gesprochen wurde,1 so erschien bald ein neuer Terminus, der zum Schlüsselwort wurde: Verschönerung der Stadt. Mit diesem Spruch um sich werfend wurden nicht nur die Verteidigungsmauer der Stadt abgerissen (letztendlich fiel die entschiedene Mehrheit der Mauer, darunter 44 Tore und Basteien! zum Opfer der “Mauerzerstörer”), aber auch eine Reihe anderer historischer Bauwerke. So zum Beispiel wurde im Jahre 1819, nach zweijährigen Diskussionen im Senat der Stadt Kraków, über den Abriss des städtischen Rathauses entschieden (der Rathausturm blieb nur deswegen unversehrt, da er als ein guter Beobachtungspunkt für die Feuerwehrleute anerkannt wurde). Über zig Jahre, ab den 80er Jahren des 18. Jh., dauerte in Kraków eine große Aktion des Abrisses alter, gotischer und barocken Kirchen. Typisch, dass allein in den Jahren 1796 – 1809 hier

ausgezeichnet. Der österreichische Bundeskanzler verlieh an ihn das Große Ehrenzeichen für Verdienste um die Republik Österreich im Jahre 2002. 2005 wurde er mit dem Großen Verdienstorden vom Präsidenten der Bundesrepublik Deutschlands geehrt. Das Internationale Mauthausen Komitee zeichnete Prof. Ziejka mit der „Pro Meritis“ Medaille im Jahre 2002 aus. Er ist Ehrendoktor (Dr. h.c.) der Päpstlichen Fakultät für Theologie in Wroclaw, der Universität für Pädagogik in Krakow, der GeisteswissenschaftlichNaturwissenschaftlichen Universität in Kielce, der Päpstlichen Johannes Paul II. Universität in Krakow und der Maria Curie-Skłodowska Universität in Lublin. Preisträger vom u.a. Merentibus-Orden, der an ihn für besondere Verdienste um die Universität von Prof. Karol Musioł, den Rektor der Jagiellonen Universität, am 1. Oktober 2009 verliehen wurde. Der Autor zahlreicher Bücher und Theaterstücke für das polnische Fernsehserie TV-Theater, vieler RadioHörspiele, der langjährige Chefredakteur von „Ruch Literacki”.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

des völligen Verlustes des politischen Daseins hat man angefangen, tiefer in die Vergangenheit hineinzusehen und trotz des Fehlens der über die Archäologie als Wissenschaft allgemeinen Begriffe sehen wir begierig, die Denkmäler der nationalen Bestreben zu erhalten [Łepkowski, 1851, s. 229]. Das Bewusstsein der Wichtigkeit der historischen Bauwerke und künstlerischer Werke aus den vergangenen Jahrhunderten, erschien in der ersten Reihe unter den Bewohnern von Kraków. Manche von ihnen haben schon in den ersten Jahren des 19. Jh. Tätigkeiten unternommen, die zum Ziel das Retten des kulturellen Erbes der vergangenen Jahrhunderte hatten. Den Vorrang in dieser ehrenvollen Reihe der “Retter” des polnischen nationalen Erbes fällt dem Professor für Architektur der Krakauer Universität zu, Feliks Radwański (1756 – 1826). Dieser ausgezeichnet ausgebildete Architekt, Baumeister vieler ausgezeichneter Bauwerke (u.a. projektierte und erbaute er das Kołłątajowski-Collegium an der St. Anna-Straße, das Astronomische Observatorium im Botanischen Garten) und Senator der Stadt Kraków auf Lebenszeit, schrieb sich in den

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15 Kirchen abgerissen wurden! In den nächsten 30 Jahren wurden noch weitere zehn abgerissen. Ein paar andere wurden desakralisiert.2 Zum Glück langsam, aber systematisch hat sich die Idee der Rettung der Denkmäler der Vergangenheit den Weg ins Bewusstsein der Krakauer geebnet. Unter den Gründen, die diese Veränderungen eingeleitet haben, soll paradox der Verlust der Unabhängigkeit in Polen Ende des 18. Jh. genannt werden. Zwar rief die Tatsache des Ausradierens Polens von der Karte Europas unter den Polen verschiedene Reaktionen hervor, die nicht immer lobenswert waren,3 aber mit dem Verlauf der Jahre begann das Bewusstsein der Ausmaße dieser Tragödie, welche der Verlust der Unabhängigkeit war, an immer mehr Polen zu gelangen. Immer mehr Personen haben angefangen, sich im Klaren zu werden darüber, dass von den Zeiten des ehemaligen Glanzes vor allem Denkmäler übriggeblieben sind. Das bestätigte nach Jahren einer der am meisten verdienten Menschen für die Angelegenheit der Rettung unseres kulturellen Erbes – Prof. Józef Łepkowski. Im Jahre 1851 schrieb er: Von dem Augenblick

Wie die Zeugen der Epoche angeben, eilten die Vertreter der aristokratischen Geschlechter mit großer Lust im Jahre 1796 nach Warszawa oder nach Kraków, damit sie in den dortigen Kathedralen ein Homagium den Repräsentanten der Besatzungsmächten hinterlegen. Wie Józef Ignacy Kraszewski schrieb, veranstalteten sie aus diesem Anlass sehr oft große Bälle und Empfänge. Vor diesem erniedrigenden Akt der Eidleistung der Treue auf fremde Herrscher zog sich auch der Adel oder die Vertreter der polnischen Städte nicht zurück. Doch die Menschen, die zur intellektuellen Elite der Nation gehörten waren sich der Tragödie bewußt, welcher sie Zeugen waren. Nicht zufällig werden also Fakten der dramatischen Reaktion mancher Personen, die zu dieser Sphäre gehörten, erinnert. Es ist zum Beispiel bekannt, dass auf die Nachricht über die Unterschreibung in Petersburg der 3. Teilung Polens ist Jan Śniadecki, einer der größten Gelehrten der damaligen Zeit, innerhalb einer Nacht ergraut. Es ist auch bekannt, dass der führende Dichter der damaligen Zeit, Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin aus dem gleichen Grund Sinnesverirrungen bekam. Dieser Umstand verursachte, dass solche bekannten Künstler, wie Franciszek Karpiński oder Franciszek Zabłocki, die literarische Schöpfung aufgegeben haben.

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Die Aktion des Abrisses der Krakauer Kirchen begann Anfang der 80er Jahre des 18. Jh. der damalige Primas Polens – Erzbischof Michał Poniatowski, der die Krakauer Diözese verwaltete im Namen des psychisch kranken Bischofs Kajetan Sołtyk. Angefangen in den 80er Jahren des 18. Jh. Dauerte die Aktion des Abrisses der alten Kirchen über ein halbes Jahrhundert. In dieser Zeit wurden abgerissen: Kirche zu Mariä Verkündigung und der Hl. Scholastika (Benediktiner-Schwester) – an der Ecke der Św. Krzyża-Str. und des Hl. Markus (1782); Kirche des Hl. Apostels Jakobs an der Skawińska-Str. (1787); Kirche des Hl. Peters – an der Ecke der Grodzka-Str. und Poselska-Str. (1791); Kirche der Hl. Michael und Josef – an der Poselska-Str. (1797); Kirche der Hl. Filip und Jakob - in Kleparz (1801); Kirche des Hl. Peters – in der Łobzowska-Str. (1801); Kirche des Hl. Szczepan – auf dem Szczepański-Platz (1802); Kirche des Hl. Jerzy – auf der Wawel-Anhöhe (1803-04); Kirche des Hl. Michaels – auf der Wawel-Anhöhe (1803-04); desakralisiert schon im Jahre 1797 Kirche der Hl. Matthias und Matthäus – auf dem Szczepański-Platz (1809); Kirche der Hl. Gertrud – an der St. Gertruda-Str. (1810); Kirche der Hl. Maria Magdalena – am Magdalena-Platz (1811); Kirche des Hl. Kreuzes – an der Słowiańska-Str. (1818); Kirche des Hl. Valentin – in Pędzichów (1818); Kirche des Hl. Sebastian – an der Sebastian-Str. (1821); Kirche der Allerheiligen – auf dem Allerheiligen-Platz (1835 – 38). Außerdem wurden ein paar Kirchen desakralisiert, indem die Bauwerke für andere Ziele bestimmt wurden: Kirche des Hl. Geistes – auf dem Hl. Geist-Platz (desakralisiert 1783 gewidmet für die Wohnungen für Priester–Rentner, die 1879 in das Lazarus-Krankenhaus verlagert wurden; abgerissen im Jahre 1892); Kirche der Hl. Agnes – an der Dietla-Allee (desakralisiert 1788; verkauft als Lager; freigekauft aus den öffentlichen Beiträgen im Jahre 1926 und bestimmt als Garnisonskirche); St.-Katharinien-Kirche – an der Augistiańska-Str. (desakralisiert 1796 und gewidmet als Lager für die österreichische Armee; wurden den Augustianern 1814 zurückgegeben, im Jahre 1827 bestimmt für den Abriss, am Anfang der 30er Jahre zum Teil repariert. Erst 1852 wurden in der Kirche Restaurierungsarbeiten aufgenommen, die zu ihrer Rettung geführt haben und Rückverleihung des Kultus); Kirche der Hl. Hedwig – auf Stradom (desakralisiert etwa 1799; das Gebäude wurde in den benachbarten Bürgerhäusern integriert); Bernhardinerkirche (Krippe) – an der Ecke der St. Jan-Str. und St. Thomas-Str. (desakralisiert im Jahre 1802; verkauft dem ungarischen Kaufmann Maciej Knoztz, der sie in ein Wirtshaus umwandelte “Zum ungarischen König”, dann – Saski-Hotel); Kirche der Hl. Ursula – an der Ecke der St. Jan-Str. und St. Markus-Str. (desakralisiert 1812, gekauft von Maciej Knotz; seit 1830 – befand sich in ihr ein Theater). (siehe.: A. Grabowski, Wspomnienia, wie oben., B. II, S. 209 passim; J. Lepiarczyk, Konserwacja zabytków architektury, Kraków 1954, S. 23 passim; W. Ślesiński, Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku in: “Ochrona Zabytków” 1963, Nr. 1, S. 3 15; J. Piekarczyk, Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory, “Kraków” 1984, Nr. 1, S. 18 – 21; M. Rożek, Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa, “Biuletyn Biblioteki jagiellońskiej”, r. xxxIII (1983), S. 95 – 120).

Die Aktion des Abrisses der Krakauer Kirchen begann Anfang der 80er Jahre des 18. Jh. der damalige Primas Polens – Erzbischof Michał Poniatowski, der die Krakauer Diözese verwaltete im Namen des psychisch kranken Bischofs Kajetan Sołtyk. Angefangen in den 80er Jahren des 18. Jh. Dauerte die Aktion des Abrisses der alten Kirchen über ein halbes Jahrhundert. In dieser Zeit wurden abgerissen: Kirche zu Mariä Verkündigung und der Hl. Scholastika (Benediktiner-Schwester) – an der Ecke der Św. Krzyża-Str. und des Hl. Markus (1782); Kirche des Hl. Apostels Jakobs an der Skawińska-Str. (1787); Kirche des Hl. Peters – an der Ecke der Grodzka-Str. und Poselska-Str. (1791); Kirche der Hl. Michael und Josef – an der Poselska-Str. (1797); Kirche der Hl. Filip und Jakob - in Kleparz (1801); Kirche des Hl. Peters – in der Łobzowska-Str. (1801); Kirche des Hl. Szczepan – auf dem Szczepański-Platz (1802); Kirche des Hl. Jerzy – auf der Wawel-Anhöhe (1803-04); Kirche des Hl. Michaels – auf der Wawel-Anhöhe (1803-04); desakralisiert schon im Jahre 1797 Kirche der Hl. Matthias und Matthäus – auf dem Szczepański-Platz (1809); Kirche der Hl. Gertrud – an der St. Gertruda-Str. (1810); Kirche der Hl. Maria Magdalena – am Magdalena-Platz (1811); Kirche des Hl. Kreuzes – an der Słowiańska-Str. (1818); Kirche des Hl. Valentin – in Pędzichów (1818); Kirche des Hl. Sebastian – an der Sebastian-Str. (1821); Kirche der Allerheiligen – auf dem Allerheiligen-Platz (1835 – 38). Außerdem wurden ein paar Kirchen desakralisiert, indem die Bauwerke für andere Ziele bestimmt wurden: Kirche des Hl. Geistes – auf dem Hl. Geist-Platz (desakralisiert 1783 gewidmet für die Wohnungen für Priester–Rentner, die 1879 in das Lazarus-Krankenhaus verlagert wurden; abgerissen im Jahre 1892); Kirche der Hl. Agnes – an der Dietla-Allee (desakralisiert 1788; verkauft als Lager; freigekauft aus den öffentlichen Beiträgen im Jahre 1926 und bestimmt als Garnisonskirche); St.-Katharinien-Kirche – an der Augistiańska-Str. (desakralisiert 1796 und gewidmet als Lager für die österreichische Armee; wurden den Augustianern 1814 zurückgegeben, im Jahre 1827 bestimmt für den Abriss, am Anfang der 30er Jahre zum Teil repariert. Erst 1852 wurden in der Kirche Restaurierungsarbeiten aufgenommen, die zu ihrer Rettung geführt haben und Rückverleihung des Kultus); Kirche der Hl. Hedwig – auf Stradom (desakralisiert etwa 1799; das Gebäude wurde in den benachbarten Bürgerhäusern integriert); Bernhardinerkirche (Krippe) – an der Ecke der St. Jan-Str. und St. Thomas-Str. (desakralisiert im Jahre 1802; verkauft dem ungarischen Kaufmann Maciej Knoztz, der sie in ein Wirtshaus umwandelte “Zum ungarischen König”, dann – Saski-Hotel); Kirche der Hl. Ursula – an der Ecke der St. Jan-Str. und St. Markus-Str. (desakralisiert 1812, gekauft von Maciej Knotz; seit 1830 – befand sich in ihr ein Theater). (siehe.: A. Grabowski, Wspomnienia, wie oben., B. II, S. 209 passim; J. Lepiarczyk, Konserwacja zabytków architektury, Kraków 1954, S. 23 passim; W. Ślesiński, Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku in: “Ochrona Zabytków” 1963, Nr. 1, S. 3 15; J. Piekarczyk, Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory, “Kraków” 1984, Nr. 1, S. 18 – 21; M. Rożek, Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa, “Biuletyn Biblioteki jagiellońskiej”, r. xxxIII (1983), S. 95 – 120).

3

2

Wie die Zeugen der Epoche angeben, eilten die Vertreter der aristokratischen Geschlechter mit großer Lust im Jahre 1796 nach Warszawa oder nach Kraków, damit sie in den dortigen Kathedralen ein Homagium den Repräsentanten der Besatzungsmächten hinterlegen. Wie Józef Ignacy Kraszewski schrieb, veranstalteten sie aus diesem Anlass sehr oft große Bälle und Empfänge. Vor diesem erniedrigenden Akt der Eidleistung der Treue auf fremde Herrscher zog sich auch der Adel oder die Vertreter der polnischen Städte nicht zurück. Doch die Menschen, die zur intellektuellen Elite der Nation gehörten waren sich der Tragödie bewußt, welcher sie Zeugen waren. Nicht zufällig werden also Fakten der dramatischen Reaktion mancher Personen, die zu dieser Sphäre gehörten, erinnert. Es ist zum Beispiel bekannt, dass auf die Nachricht über die Unterschreibung in Petersburg der 3. Teilung Polens ist Jan Śniadecki, einer der größten Gelehrten der damaligen Zeit, innerhalb einer Nacht ergraut. Es ist auch bekannt, dass der führende Dichter der damaligen Zeit, Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin aus dem gleichen Grund Sinnesverirrungen bekam. Dieser Umstand verursachte, dass solche bekannten Künstler, wie Franciszek Karpiński oder Franciszek Zabłocki, die literarische Schöpfung aufgegeben haben.

des völligen Verlustes des politischen Daseins hat man angefangen, tiefer in die Vergangenheit hineinzusehen und trotz des Fehlens der über die Archäologie als Wissenschaft allgemeinen Begriffe sehen wir begierig, die Denkmäler der nationalen Bestreben zu erhalten [Łepkowski, 1851, s. 229]. Das Bewusstsein der Wichtigkeit der historischen Bauwerke und künstlerischer Werke aus den vergangenen Jahrhunderten, erschien in der ersten Reihe unter den Bewohnern von Kraków. Manche von ihnen haben schon in den ersten Jahren des 19. Jh. Tätigkeiten unternommen, die zum Ziel das Retten des kulturellen Erbes der vergangenen Jahrhunderte hatten. Den Vorrang in dieser ehrenvollen Reihe der “Retter” des polnischen nationalen Erbes fällt dem Professor für Architektur der Krakauer Universität zu, Feliks Radwański (1756 – 1826). Dieser ausgezeichnet ausgebildete Architekt, Baumeister vieler ausgezeichneter Bauwerke (u.a. projektierte und erbaute er das Kołłątajowski-Collegium an der St. Anna-Straße, das Astronomische Observatorium im Botanischen Garten) und Senator der Stadt Kraków auf Lebenszeit, schrieb sich in den

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15 Kirchen abgerissen wurden! In den nächsten 30 Jahren wurden noch weitere zehn abgerissen. Ein paar andere wurden desakralisiert.2 Zum Glück langsam, aber systematisch hat sich die Idee der Rettung der Denkmäler der Vergangenheit den Weg ins Bewusstsein der Krakauer geebnet. Unter den Gründen, die diese Veränderungen eingeleitet haben, soll paradox der Verlust der Unabhängigkeit in Polen Ende des 18. Jh. genannt werden. Zwar rief die Tatsache des Ausradierens Polens von der Karte Europas unter den Polen verschiedene Reaktionen hervor, die nicht immer lobenswert waren,3 aber mit dem Verlauf der Jahre begann das Bewusstsein der Ausmaße dieser Tragödie, welche der Verlust der Unabhängigkeit war, an immer mehr Polen zu gelangen. Immer mehr Personen haben angefangen, sich im Klaren zu werden darüber, dass von den Zeiten des ehemaligen Glanzes vor allem Denkmäler übriggeblieben sind. Das bestätigte nach Jahren einer der am meisten verdienten Menschen für die Angelegenheit der Rettung unseres kulturellen Erbes – Prof. Józef Łepkowski. Im Jahre 1851 schrieb er: Von dem Augenblick


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Krakauer Chroniken vor allem als Beschützer der die Stadt umgebenden Mauern, sowie auch als Gründer der Grünanlage Planty ein. Seine Aktion begann er im Jahre 1817, als die Krakauer Mächte den Abriss der Barbakane bewilligten, welche vor dem Sławkowski-Tor stand und es erschien eine reale Gefahr des Abrisses auch der Barbakane, welche vor dem Florian-Tor steht samt diesem Tor und den benachbarten Basteien: Pasamoników, Stolarskiej und Ciesielskiej. Und tatsächlich, im Januar 1817 wurde in der Sitzung des Senats der Freien Stadt Kraków der formelle Antrag gestellt zum Abriss der erwähnten Bauwerke, und das zwecks Lieferung des Materials für den Bau der Brücke über die Alte Weichsel zwischen Stradom und Kazimierz und über die Rudawa in Zwierzyniec [Chmiel, 1939–1947, S. 173]. Damals meldete Radwański in der Senatsitzung ein Sondervotum gegenüber dem projektierten Beschluss an und im Rahmen der Begründung stellte er ein Dokument vor, in dem er die Notwendigkeit der Erhaltung und der Reparatur des Florian-Tors, sowie der Barbakane begründete. Seine Argumentation war soweit überzeugend, dass die Senatoren von der Absicht des Abrisses dieser Denkmäler abgesehen haben.4 Noch zu seinen Lebzeiten fand der Senator Radwański in der Person von Artur Potocki (1787 – 1832) einen Verbündeten, der sich nach dem Ankauf des Palastes “Pod Baranami” im Jahre 1822 aktiv in das Leben der Stadt einbrachte. Als Mitglied der Repräsentantenkammer der Krakauer Republik wendete er sich schon im ersten Jahr

seiner Anwesenheit an sie. In den letzten Dezembertagen des Jahres 1825 wendete er sich an die Stadtmächte mit einem Appell um die Rettung der historischen Bauwerke in den Worten: Umgeben mit Denkmälern großartiger Zeiten sind wir verantwortlich für ihre Erhaltung, und sogar ihre Verzierung. Auf diesem klassischen Boden unserer Andenken haben die Steine die Stimme, damit die Vergangenheit der Zukunft erzählt wird. Wir befürchten, dass sie sich irgendwann gegen uns nicht auflehnen und sagen: viel haben sie getan für die Bequemlichkeit und den Gebrauch, nichts für die Pflicht. Ich reiche ein, dass der Senat um die Angabe in der künftigen Repräsentierung des Projekts des Rechts hinsichtlich der Erhaltung und Verzierung unserer altertümlichen Gebäude angefleht wird [“Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826; Siehe auch: Palarczykowa, 1995]. Zum Rang des Symbols wächst auch die Tatsache der Ernennung von eben Artur Potocki im Jahre 1830 als Vorsitzender des durch den Senat der Stadt Kraków berufenen Komitees der Reparationen des Krakauer Schlosses (er war auch unter den ersten Spendern für dieses Ziel – er widmete auch für die Restaurierung des Schlosses 10 Tausend polnische Zloty). 5 Der Kampf solcher Menschen, wie Radwański oder Potocki um die Rettung der historischen Gebäude in Kraków begann, immer mehr Befürworter zu erlangen. Glücklicherweise befand sich unter ihnen Florian Straszewski (1766 – 1847) – Senator der Stadt Kraków, einer der Initiatoren der Aufschüttung des Kościuszko-Hügels. Im Jahre 1822 stellte er sich an die Stirn des Ökono-

4

Zur Krakauer Legende wurde die Argumentation des Senators Radwański in Sachen des Schutzes dieser Denkmäler. In der ersten Reihe stellte er historische Argumente vor, die für die Errettung des Tores sprachen. Er schrieb also, dass außer dem Verteidigungscharakter (er) auch einen zeremonialen Charakter hatte, er war bestimmt für den feierlichen Empfang der Könige, die aus den rühmlichen Feldzügen zurückkommen. Von den äußeren Galerien grüßte sie von weitem mit schreienden Trompeten, von nahem mit lauten Schreien des Volkes, innerhalb besetzte das schöne Geschlecht die Galerien, geschmückt mit reichen Wandbehängen und Teppichen: die Frauen, Mütter und Schwestern spendeten Beifall den tapferen Ehemännern, Söhnen und Brüdern, dass sie, treu dem König und der Heimat kommen, geschmückt mit Siegeslorbeeren. Die Beamten der Krone, der treue Magistrat, huldigten eine Verehrung, die den Königen, die mit tapferen Hetmanen, Führern, Kämpfern umgeben wurden gebührte. Da der Senator nicht überzeugt war, ob diese Argumentation den Vorsitzenden Wodzicki und seine Kollegen-Senatoren ansprechen wird, hat er sich auf eine meteorologische Argumentation berufen. Er schrieb also: Der Nord- und Nordwest-Wind bringen uns gewöhnlich Schneegestöber, solche würden sie heftig aus Kleparz selbst in die Mitte des Hauptmarktes schleudern und wenn diese herrschen würden, wäre es schwierig, sich auf den Beinen zu halten, desto mehr, als dass der Kleparz-Marktplatz gewaltig (ist), umgeben zum großen Teil mit waagerechten Häusern, von der Warszawska-Straße mit nichts verhüllt, würde die Stürme auf gerader Straße in die Mitte der Stadt schicken. Durch Rücksicht auf die Gesundheit, Liebkosung [sic] wären die erzogenen Frauen und Kinder den häufigen Entzündungen, Rheumas, und vielleicht auch Lähmungen ausgestellt.(wie oben., S. 174-175). Chmiel erinnert, dass noch einmal, im Jahre 1827, die Drohung des Abrisses auf dem Florianstor und der Barbakane lag. Diesmal in Verteidigung dieser Denkmäler trat der Friedensrichter Jan Librowski auf, der sich in seiner Rede auf die gleichen Prämissen berief, auf die sich auch Radwański berief. Das bestätigt die Lektüre der Broschüre von Leon Cyfrowicz aus dem Jahre 1884 unter dem Titel Bild der Mutter Gottes und Sparbüchse für die Armen im Florianstor in Kraków, in der der Autor die Argumente des Richters Librowski herbeirief, die für die Errettung des Floriantores sprechen, gehalten auf der Sitzung des Senats der Krakauer Republik am 17. Januar 1827. Es zeigt sich, dass Librowski einfach alle Argumente von Radwański wiederholte. Auch diesmal siegte die Furcht der Krakauer Räte vor den heftigen Stürmen, die ihren Frauen und Töchtern einen Schaden verursachen könnten (nicht nur einen gesundheitlichen, sondern auch moralischen!), dank dessen erfreuen wir uns bis heute an dem Anblick des Floriantors und der Barbakane.

5

Der Ausbruch des November-Aufstands verursachte, dass das Komitee die Restaurierungsarbeiten am Schloss endgültig nicht aufgenommen hat. Der Wahrheit wegen soll zugegeben werden, dass der Beitrag für die “Reparation” des Schlosses in dieser Zeit auch dem Zaren Russlands, Nikolai I., unterlag.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

139

139

Der Ausbruch des November-Aufstands verursachte, dass das Komitee die Restaurierungsarbeiten am Schloss endgültig nicht aufgenommen hat. Der Wahrheit wegen soll zugegeben werden, dass der Beitrag für die “Reparation” des Schlosses in dieser Zeit auch dem Zaren Russlands, Nikolai I., unterlag.

5

Zur Krakauer Legende wurde die Argumentation des Senators Radwański in Sachen des Schutzes dieser Denkmäler. In der ersten Reihe stellte er historische Argumente vor, die für die Errettung des Tores sprachen. Er schrieb also, dass außer dem Verteidigungscharakter (er) auch einen zeremonialen Charakter hatte, er war bestimmt für den feierlichen Empfang der Könige, die aus den rühmlichen Feldzügen zurückkommen. Von den äußeren Galerien grüßte sie von weitem mit schreienden Trompeten, von nahem mit lauten Schreien des Volkes, innerhalb besetzte das schöne Geschlecht die Galerien, geschmückt mit reichen Wandbehängen und Teppichen: die Frauen, Mütter und Schwestern spendeten Beifall den tapferen Ehemännern, Söhnen und Brüdern, dass sie, treu dem König und der Heimat kommen, geschmückt mit Siegeslorbeeren. Die Beamten der Krone, der treue Magistrat, huldigten eine Verehrung, die den Königen, die mit tapferen Hetmanen, Führern, Kämpfern umgeben wurden gebührte. Da der Senator nicht überzeugt war, ob diese Argumentation den Vorsitzenden Wodzicki und seine Kollegen-Senatoren ansprechen wird, hat er sich auf eine meteorologische Argumentation berufen. Er schrieb also: Der Nord- und Nordwest-Wind bringen uns gewöhnlich Schneegestöber, solche würden sie heftig aus Kleparz selbst in die Mitte des Hauptmarktes schleudern und wenn diese herrschen würden, wäre es schwierig, sich auf den Beinen zu halten, desto mehr, als dass der Kleparz-Marktplatz gewaltig (ist), umgeben zum großen Teil mit waagerechten Häusern, von der Warszawska-Straße mit nichts verhüllt, würde die Stürme auf gerader Straße in die Mitte der Stadt schicken. Durch Rücksicht auf die Gesundheit, Liebkosung [sic] wären die erzogenen Frauen und Kinder den häufigen Entzündungen, Rheumas, und vielleicht auch Lähmungen ausgestellt.(wie oben., S. 174-175). Chmiel erinnert, dass noch einmal, im Jahre 1827, die Drohung des Abrisses auf dem Florianstor und der Barbakane lag. Diesmal in Verteidigung dieser Denkmäler trat der Friedensrichter Jan Librowski auf, der sich in seiner Rede auf die gleichen Prämissen berief, auf die sich auch Radwański berief. Das bestätigt die Lektüre der Broschüre von Leon Cyfrowicz aus dem Jahre 1884 unter dem Titel Bild der Mutter Gottes und Sparbüchse für die Armen im Florianstor in Kraków, in der der Autor die Argumente des Richters Librowski herbeirief, die für die Errettung des Floriantores sprechen, gehalten auf der Sitzung des Senats der Krakauer Republik am 17. Januar 1827. Es zeigt sich, dass Librowski einfach alle Argumente von Radwański wiederholte. Auch diesmal siegte die Furcht der Krakauer Räte vor den heftigen Stürmen, die ihren Frauen und Töchtern einen Schaden verursachen könnten (nicht nur einen gesundheitlichen, sondern auch moralischen!), dank dessen erfreuen wir uns bis heute an dem Anblick des Floriantors und der Barbakane.

4

Krakauer Chroniken vor allem als Beschützer der die Stadt umgebenden Mauern, sowie auch als Gründer der Grünanlage Planty ein. Seine Aktion begann er im Jahre 1817, als die Krakauer Mächte den Abriss der Barbakane bewilligten, welche vor dem Sławkowski-Tor stand und es erschien eine reale Gefahr des Abrisses auch der Barbakane, welche vor dem Florian-Tor steht samt diesem Tor und den benachbarten Basteien: Pasamoników, Stolarskiej und Ciesielskiej. Und tatsächlich, im Januar 1817 wurde in der Sitzung des Senats der Freien Stadt Kraków der formelle Antrag gestellt zum Abriss der erwähnten Bauwerke, und das zwecks Lieferung des Materials für den Bau der Brücke über die Alte Weichsel zwischen Stradom und Kazimierz und über die Rudawa in Zwierzyniec [Chmiel, 1939–1947, S. 173]. Damals meldete Radwański in der Senatsitzung ein Sondervotum gegenüber dem projektierten Beschluss an und im Rahmen der Begründung stellte er ein Dokument vor, in dem er die Notwendigkeit der Erhaltung und der Reparatur des Florian-Tors, sowie der Barbakane begründete. Seine Argumentation war soweit überzeugend, dass die Senatoren von der Absicht des Abrisses dieser Denkmäler abgesehen haben.4 Noch zu seinen Lebzeiten fand der Senator Radwański in der Person von Artur Potocki (1787 – 1832) einen Verbündeten, der sich nach dem Ankauf des Palastes “Pod Baranami” im Jahre 1822 aktiv in das Leben der Stadt einbrachte. Als Mitglied der Repräsentantenkammer der Krakauer Republik wendete er sich schon im ersten Jahr

seiner Anwesenheit an sie. In den letzten Dezembertagen des Jahres 1825 wendete er sich an die Stadtmächte mit einem Appell um die Rettung der historischen Bauwerke in den Worten: Umgeben mit Denkmälern großartiger Zeiten sind wir verantwortlich für ihre Erhaltung, und sogar ihre Verzierung. Auf diesem klassischen Boden unserer Andenken haben die Steine die Stimme, damit die Vergangenheit der Zukunft erzählt wird. Wir befürchten, dass sie sich irgendwann gegen uns nicht auflehnen und sagen: viel haben sie getan für die Bequemlichkeit und den Gebrauch, nichts für die Pflicht. Ich reiche ein, dass der Senat um die Angabe in der künftigen Repräsentierung des Projekts des Rechts hinsichtlich der Erhaltung und Verzierung unserer altertümlichen Gebäude angefleht wird [“Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826; Siehe auch: Palarczykowa, 1995]. Zum Rang des Symbols wächst auch die Tatsache der Ernennung von eben Artur Potocki im Jahre 1830 als Vorsitzender des durch den Senat der Stadt Kraków berufenen Komitees der Reparationen des Krakauer Schlosses (er war auch unter den ersten Spendern für dieses Ziel – er widmete auch für die Restaurierung des Schlosses 10 Tausend polnische Zloty). 5 Der Kampf solcher Menschen, wie Radwański oder Potocki um die Rettung der historischen Gebäude in Kraków begann, immer mehr Befürworter zu erlangen. Glücklicherweise befand sich unter ihnen Florian Straszewski (1766 – 1847) – Senator der Stadt Kraków, einer der Initiatoren der Aufschüttung des Kościuszko-Hügels. Im Jahre 1822 stellte er sich an die Stirn des Ökono-


nationalen Andenken, oder bei der Förderung der Idee der Denkmalrettung, im Werk der Rettung und Erneuerung der konkreten Bauwerke, aber auch – durch Vorbereitung von historischen Bearbeitungen, gewidmet den bestimmten oder gruppierten Denkmälern. Die ins Leben rufen der Idee der Rettung und Erneuerung der Denkmäler war nicht einfach. Davon zeugt u.a. das Beispiel des Priesters Sebastian Sierakowski (1743 – 1824). Dieser Professor der Architektur an der Krakauer Hauptschule, ein paar Mal in das Amt des Rektors dieser Hochschule gewählt, verdienter Restaurator der Wawel-Kathedrale, des Collegium Maius (in den Jahren 1816 – 1821 erneuerte auf eigene Kosten den Jagiellonen-Saal oder die Aula), der Sigismundus-Kapelle und vieler anderer Gebäude, Kirchenbaumeister, besaß noch kein Bewusstsein des Wertes einzelner Denkmäler, daher protestierte er nicht gegen die Tätigkeit der “Mauerzerstörer”, sondern zeigte selbst weitere Gebäuden aus der alten Innenstadt, oft aus der Epoche des Mittelalters, zum Abriss auf. In seiner Tätigkeit als Architekt griff er tief in die Substanz der historischen Bauwerke ein, indem er zum Beispiel den Umbau der Fassade des Wawel-Doms im neoklassizistischen Stil projektierte, oder auch den Umbau der Tuchhallen sowie des Rathausturmes in diesem Stil [Siehe u.a. Lepiarczyk, 1968]. Es ist nicht Zeit und Ort, um hier die Verdienste jeden Beschützers der Krakauer Denkmäler aus dem 19. Jh. aufzuzählen. Tatsache ist, dass dank ihnen, sowie auch - dank ihren Nachfolgern, wurden im 19. und Anfang des 20. Jh. Hunderte von historischen Gebäuden in Kraków gerettet, und vielen von ihnen wurde die Schönheit von damals wiederverliehen. In Kraków fanden sie mit dem Verlauf der Zeit einen beträchtlichen Anhängerkreis, die ihre Arbeiten finanziell, sowie auch moralisch unterstützt haben. Eben diese Liebhaber des “alten” Kraków haben begonnen, sich in den Vereinen und Kreisen zu versammeln, die zum Ziel die Unterstützung der Idee der Erhaltung der Krakauer Denkmäler für die Nachwelt hatten. Wie erwähnt wurde, wurde schon im Jahre 1830 das Komitee der Reparationen des Königlichen Schlosses ins Leben gerufen. Im gleichen Jahr entstand in Kraków das Komitee zur Verschönerung der Stadt (einer seiner tätigen Mitglieder war Florian Straszewski), der jedoch keine lobenswerte Rolle in der Geschichte der Stadt gespielt hat, indem er mit der Aktion des Abrisses der historischen Objekte einverstanden war. Die Bewegung des Denkmalschutzes gewann erst nach den Folgen des tragischen Brandes im Jahre 1850 an Kraft, wo über 160 Gebäude den Flammen zum Opfer fielen (darunter vier Kirchen und vier Klöster,

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mischen Komitees, welches Geld sammelte für die Umgestaltung der Gebiete um die Altstadt in die Planty (im Jahre 1830 bildete er aus eigenen Fonds die Stiftung für ihre Aufrechterhaltung). Ein Teil der Gewinne aus der von der Stadt gepachteten Zahlenlotterie widmete er systematisch für die “Verschönerung” von Kraków. Das Werk von Straszewski wurde von den Gebrüdern Kremer fortgesetzt: Karol (1812 – 1860) und Józef (1806 – 1875). Der erste von ihnen war Architekt und Konservator. Im Jahre 1838 wurde er zum Direktor des Bauwesens der Krakauer Republik ernannt. Als Mitglied des Krakauer Wissenschaftlichen Vereins verdiente er sich als Restaurator des Collegium Maius (in den Jahren 1840 - 1848), der Marienkirche (im Jahre 1841 hat er den höheren Turm des Gotteshauses erneuert), Gebäude des Alten Theaters (in den Jahren 1841-43) sowie auch der im Jahre 1850 verbrannten Franziskanerkirche. Józef Kremer, ein ausgezeichneter Philosoph und Kunsthistoriker, Professor, sowie auch Rektor der Jagiellonen-Universität, langjähriger Hochschullehrer der Ästhetik in der Schule der Schönen Künste in Kraków, forderte auch den Schutz der Krakauer Denkmäler. Eben seine Bemühungen verursachten, dass im Jahre 1874 nicht erneut die Aktion des Abrisses der Reste der Verteidigungsmauer der Stadt Kraków vorgenommen wurde! Gemeinsam mit diesen Pionieren des Schutzes der Krakauer Denkmäler wirkten andere. Es waren Historiker, Archäologen, Konservatoren, Architekten und über alles – Kunsthistoriker. Es fehlte auch nicht an ausgezeichneten Amateuren, die der Angelegenheit des Denkmalschutzes völlig ergeben waren. Ihre Liste ist lang, da eben auch die Angelegenheit der Rettung der Krakauer Denkmäler im 19. Jh. immer mehr attraktiv wurde. In der Geschichte der Rettung der Krakauer Denkmäler haben sich dauerhaft viele aufgeklärte Vertreter der intellektuellen und künstlerischen Krakauer Elite eingeschrieben. Jeder von ihnen aus einem anderen Grund, jedoch nicht ausgeschlossen, dass ausführlich über sie alle geschrieben wird. Es reicht aus, ihre Namen zu erwähnen: Bischof Jan Paweł Woronicz (1757 – 1829), Ambroży Grabowski (1782 – 1868), Józef Muczkowski (1795 – 1858), Franciszek M. Lanci (1799 – 1875), Wincenty Pol (1807 – 1872), Teofil Żebrawski (1800 – 1887), Paweł Popiel (1807 - 1892), Józef Łepkowski (1826 – 1897), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (1828 – 1900), Sławomir Odrzywolski (1846 – 1933), Tomasz Pryliński (1847 – 1895), Włodzimierz Demetrykiewicz (1858 – 1937), Zygmunt Hendel (1862 – 1929), Klemens Bąkowski ((1860 – 1938) oder endlich Stanisław Tomkowicz (1850 – 1933). Diese Leute haben, jeder auf die eigene Art und Weise, einen bedeutenden Beitrag geleistet, entweder im Bereich der Sammlung der

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nationalen Andenken, oder bei der Förderung der Idee der Denkmalrettung, im Werk der Rettung und Erneuerung der konkreten Bauwerke, aber auch – durch Vorbereitung von historischen Bearbeitungen, gewidmet den bestimmten oder gruppierten Denkmälern. Die ins Leben rufen der Idee der Rettung und Erneuerung der Denkmäler war nicht einfach. Davon zeugt u.a. das Beispiel des Priesters Sebastian Sierakowski (1743 – 1824). Dieser Professor der Architektur an der Krakauer Hauptschule, ein paar Mal in das Amt des Rektors dieser Hochschule gewählt, verdienter Restaurator der Wawel-Kathedrale, des Collegium Maius (in den Jahren 1816 – 1821 erneuerte auf eigene Kosten den Jagiellonen-Saal oder die Aula), der Sigismundus-Kapelle und vieler anderer Gebäude, Kirchenbaumeister, besaß noch kein Bewusstsein des Wertes einzelner Denkmäler, daher protestierte er nicht gegen die Tätigkeit der “Mauerzerstörer”, sondern zeigte selbst weitere Gebäuden aus der alten Innenstadt, oft aus der Epoche des Mittelalters, zum Abriss auf. In seiner Tätigkeit als Architekt griff er tief in die Substanz der historischen Bauwerke ein, indem er zum Beispiel den Umbau der Fassade des Wawel-Doms im neoklassizistischen Stil projektierte, oder auch den Umbau der Tuchhallen sowie des Rathausturmes in diesem Stil [Siehe u.a. Lepiarczyk, 1968]. Es ist nicht Zeit und Ort, um hier die Verdienste jeden Beschützers der Krakauer Denkmäler aus dem 19. Jh. aufzuzählen. Tatsache ist, dass dank ihnen, sowie auch - dank ihren Nachfolgern, wurden im 19. und Anfang des 20. Jh. Hunderte von historischen Gebäuden in Kraków gerettet, und vielen von ihnen wurde die Schönheit von damals wiederverliehen. In Kraków fanden sie mit dem Verlauf der Zeit einen beträchtlichen Anhängerkreis, die ihre Arbeiten finanziell, sowie auch moralisch unterstützt haben. Eben diese Liebhaber des “alten” Kraków haben begonnen, sich in den Vereinen und Kreisen zu versammeln, die zum Ziel die Unterstützung der Idee der Erhaltung der Krakauer Denkmäler für die Nachwelt hatten. Wie erwähnt wurde, wurde schon im Jahre 1830 das Komitee der Reparationen des Königlichen Schlosses ins Leben gerufen. Im gleichen Jahr entstand in Kraków das Komitee zur Verschönerung der Stadt (einer seiner tätigen Mitglieder war Florian Straszewski), der jedoch keine lobenswerte Rolle in der Geschichte der Stadt gespielt hat, indem er mit der Aktion des Abrisses der historischen Objekte einverstanden war. Die Bewegung des Denkmalschutzes gewann erst nach den Folgen des tragischen Brandes im Jahre 1850 an Kraft, wo über 160 Gebäude den Flammen zum Opfer fielen (darunter vier Kirchen und vier Klöster,

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mischen Komitees, welches Geld sammelte für die Umgestaltung der Gebiete um die Altstadt in die Planty (im Jahre 1830 bildete er aus eigenen Fonds die Stiftung für ihre Aufrechterhaltung). Ein Teil der Gewinne aus der von der Stadt gepachteten Zahlenlotterie widmete er systematisch für die “Verschönerung” von Kraków. Das Werk von Straszewski wurde von den Gebrüdern Kremer fortgesetzt: Karol (1812 – 1860) und Józef (1806 – 1875). Der erste von ihnen war Architekt und Konservator. Im Jahre 1838 wurde er zum Direktor des Bauwesens der Krakauer Republik ernannt. Als Mitglied des Krakauer Wissenschaftlichen Vereins verdiente er sich als Restaurator des Collegium Maius (in den Jahren 1840 - 1848), der Marienkirche (im Jahre 1841 hat er den höheren Turm des Gotteshauses erneuert), Gebäude des Alten Theaters (in den Jahren 1841-43) sowie auch der im Jahre 1850 verbrannten Franziskanerkirche. Józef Kremer, ein ausgezeichneter Philosoph und Kunsthistoriker, Professor, sowie auch Rektor der Jagiellonen-Universität, langjähriger Hochschullehrer der Ästhetik in der Schule der Schönen Künste in Kraków, forderte auch den Schutz der Krakauer Denkmäler. Eben seine Bemühungen verursachten, dass im Jahre 1874 nicht erneut die Aktion des Abrisses der Reste der Verteidigungsmauer der Stadt Kraków vorgenommen wurde! Gemeinsam mit diesen Pionieren des Schutzes der Krakauer Denkmäler wirkten andere. Es waren Historiker, Archäologen, Konservatoren, Architekten und über alles – Kunsthistoriker. Es fehlte auch nicht an ausgezeichneten Amateuren, die der Angelegenheit des Denkmalschutzes völlig ergeben waren. Ihre Liste ist lang, da eben auch die Angelegenheit der Rettung der Krakauer Denkmäler im 19. Jh. immer mehr attraktiv wurde. In der Geschichte der Rettung der Krakauer Denkmäler haben sich dauerhaft viele aufgeklärte Vertreter der intellektuellen und künstlerischen Krakauer Elite eingeschrieben. Jeder von ihnen aus einem anderen Grund, jedoch nicht ausgeschlossen, dass ausführlich über sie alle geschrieben wird. Es reicht aus, ihre Namen zu erwähnen: Bischof Jan Paweł Woronicz (1757 – 1829), Ambroży Grabowski (1782 – 1868), Józef Muczkowski (1795 – 1858), Franciszek M. Lanci (1799 – 1875), Wincenty Pol (1807 – 1872), Teofil Żebrawski (1800 – 1887), Paweł Popiel (1807 - 1892), Józef Łepkowski (1826 – 1897), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (1828 – 1900), Sławomir Odrzywolski (1846 – 1933), Tomasz Pryliński (1847 – 1895), Włodzimierz Demetrykiewicz (1858 – 1937), Zygmunt Hendel (1862 – 1929), Klemens Bąkowski ((1860 – 1938) oder endlich Stanisław Tomkowicz (1850 – 1933). Diese Leute haben, jeder auf die eigene Art und Weise, einen bedeutenden Beitrag geleistet, entweder im Bereich der Sammlung der


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sowie ein paar großartige Paläste mit dem Bischofspalast, sowie dem Wielopolski-Palast an der Spitze). Angesichts dieser Katastrophe traten vor allem die Mitglieder der in der Wawel-Burg seit dem Jahr 1815 wirkenden Krakauer Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft in Aktion. Aus der Initiative der Mitglieder der Abteilungen der Archäologie und der Schönen Künste dieser Gesellschaft, in Antwort auf den Appell des Pogorzeli Komitees der Brandstätte der Stadt Kraków (vom 16. November 1850), ist die Kommission der Restaurierung der Denkmäler entstanden. Ihre Arbeiten leitete Professor Józef Łepkowski, langjähriger Rektor der Jagiellonen-Universität. Die Kommission trat sofort an die Inventurarbeiten heran, sowie der vorläufigen Sicherung der Denkmäler in zwei Kirchen: Franziskaner- und Dominikanerkirche. Innerhalb von zehn Jahren wurden durch Bemühungen der Kommission und dank den von verschiedenen Seiten erworbenen Fonds, in diesen zwei altertümlichen Gotteshäusern die Gräber, Denkmäler, Porträts, sowie auch viele bewegliche Denkmäler erneuert. Die Mitglieder der Kommission der Restaurierung der Denkmäler beaufsichtigten auch die konservatorischen Arbeiten, die in den Fünfziger-Sechziger Jahren im Wawel-Dom geführt wurden (in den Kapellen: Lipski und Sigismund). Die Kommission beschäftigte sich außerdem mit der Aufsicht über die Arbeiten bei der berühmten Restaurierung des Grabmals von Kasimir dem Großen (1869), des Veit-Stoß-Altars (seit 1863), der St. Katharinen-Kirche und anderen. Im Jahre 1886 ist die Gesellschaft für die Verschönerung der Stadt Kraków und der Gegend entstanden. Zwar befindet sich in der Satzung dieses Vereins unter den Zielen der Tätigkeit keine Informationen zum Thema des direkten Denkmalschutzes (man könnte jedoch darin lesen, dass er beabsichtigte, sich mit der Gründung der Museen aus verschiedenen Bereichen der Wissenschaft, der Industrie und der Kunst, oder auch Bereicherung der schon bestehenden) zu beschäftigen. Aus verschiedenen Unterfangen, welche er unternahm, gehört es hier Aufmerksamkeit auf sein Einschalten bei der Verteidigung der Häuschen an der St. Ägidius-Kirche in den ersten Jahren des 20. Jh. zu lenken, sowie auch des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory”, welchen Denkmälern eben der Abriss drohte, worüber noch ausführlicher gesprochen wird. Direkt verbunden mit der Idee des Denkmalschutzes war der Verein unter dem Namen: Konservatorenkreis von Westgalizien. Er entstand im Jahre 1888, als sozialer “Arm” der seit 1853 in Wien wirkenden Zentral-Kommission für die Erforschung und Erhaltung der Kunst- und Historischen Denkmale. Die Kommission wirkte in der ganzen

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Monarchie mit Vermittlung der durch die österreichischen Behörden ernannten Konservatoren. In Westgalizien wurde diese amtliche Funktion Prof. Paweł Popiel anvertraut, der sie bis zum Tod im Jahre 1892 mit großer Gewissenhaftigkeit und Vorteil für die polnische Kultur füllte. Der Konservatorenkreis versammelte Kunsthistoriker, Architekten, Konservatoren und Historiker. Sein Satzungsziel war die Führung der Inventarisierung der Denkmäler, Gewinnung der Fonds für die Rettung der ruinierten Denkmäler, sowie auch – die Verbreitung der Idee des Denkmalschutzes in der Gesellschaft. Von den wichtigeren Schritten dieses Vereins gehört hier zu verzeichnen die Organisation des Ersten Treffens der Liebhaber der Denkmäler und der Geschichte in Kraków im Jahre 1911, zu dem ein paar Hundert Personen eintrafen aus allen polnischen Gebieten [Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu…, 1912]. Ein Beweis für die erfolgreiche Tätigkeit des Konservatorenkreises sind u.a. sechs Bände des Verlags unter dem Titel Portfolio des Konservatorenkreises von Westgalizien (herausgegeben in den Jahren 1900 – 1916). Der Kreis beendete seine Tätigkeit im Jahre 1923. Sein erster Vorsitzender war Józef Łepkowski (1889-94), nach dem Marian Sokołowski (18941900) sowie Stanisław Tomkowicz (1900 – 1923) die Leitung im Kreis hatten. Große Verdienste für den Denkmalschutz nicht nur in Kraków, sondern bis zum 1. Weltkrieg auf den Gebieten aller drei Besatzungsgebiete ergab die in Kraków im Jahre 1902 am Nationalmuseum gegründete Gesellschaft des Schutzes der polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur. Wie sich aus den in den Sammlungen des Staatlichen Archivs in Kraków erhaltenen Dokumente ergibt, traten mit der Initiative diesen Verein ins Leben zu rufen die Studenten der Jagiellonen-Universität und der Akademie für die Schönen Künste im März 1901 auf. Sie wandten sich an die Menschen der Krakauer Wissenschaft und der Kunst mit der Bitte um Hilfe. Diese unterstützten mit großen Enthusiasmus die Initiative. An der Stirn des Vorläufigen Komitees stellte sich Prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki von der Jagiellonen-Universität. Am 6. Juni 1901 rief er eine Außerordentliche Sitzung der Gesellschaft herbei in Sachen der Verabschiedung der Satzung, welche Michał Dzieduszycki ausarbeitete. Im Kreis der Initiatoren der Ernennung dieser Gesellschaft fanden sich u.a.: Jerzy Mycielski, Marian Sokołowski, Leon Wyczółkowski, Feliks Kopera, Leonard Lepszy, Konstanty Marian Górski. Ende 1901 verabschiedete die Statthalterschaft den Text der Satzung, dank dem am 23. Februar eine Generalversammlung der Gesellschaft einberufen wurde, die 108 Mitglieder versammelte. Zum ersten Vorsitzende wurde Jerzy Mycielski

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sowie ein paar großartige Paläste mit dem Bischofspalast, sowie dem Wielopolski-Palast an der Spitze). Angesichts dieser Katastrophe traten vor allem die Mitglieder der in der Wawel-Burg seit dem Jahr 1815 wirkenden Krakauer Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft in Aktion. Aus der Initiative der Mitglieder der Abteilungen der Archäologie und der Schönen Künste dieser Gesellschaft, in Antwort auf den Appell des Pogorzeli Komitees der Brandstätte der Stadt Kraków (vom 16. November 1850), ist die Kommission der Restaurierung der Denkmäler entstanden. Ihre Arbeiten leitete Professor Józef Łepkowski, langjähriger Rektor der Jagiellonen-Universität. Die Kommission trat sofort an die Inventurarbeiten heran, sowie der vorläufigen Sicherung der Denkmäler in zwei Kirchen: Franziskaner- und Dominikanerkirche. Innerhalb von zehn Jahren wurden durch Bemühungen der Kommission und dank den von verschiedenen Seiten erworbenen Fonds, in diesen zwei altertümlichen Gotteshäusern die Gräber, Denkmäler, Porträts, sowie auch viele bewegliche Denkmäler erneuert. Die Mitglieder der Kommission der Restaurierung der Denkmäler beaufsichtigten auch die konservatorischen Arbeiten, die in den Fünfziger-Sechziger Jahren im Wawel-Dom geführt wurden (in den Kapellen: Lipski und Sigismund). Die Kommission beschäftigte sich außerdem mit der Aufsicht über die Arbeiten bei der berühmten Restaurierung des Grabmals von Kasimir dem Großen (1869), des Veit-Stoß-Altars (seit 1863), der St. Katharinen-Kirche und anderen. Im Jahre 1886 ist die Gesellschaft für die Verschönerung der Stadt Kraków und der Gegend entstanden. Zwar befindet sich in der Satzung dieses Vereins unter den Zielen der Tätigkeit keine Informationen zum Thema des direkten Denkmalschutzes (man könnte jedoch darin lesen, dass er beabsichtigte, sich mit der Gründung der Museen aus verschiedenen Bereichen der Wissenschaft, der Industrie und der Kunst, oder auch Bereicherung der schon bestehenden) zu beschäftigen. Aus verschiedenen Unterfangen, welche er unternahm, gehört es hier Aufmerksamkeit auf sein Einschalten bei der Verteidigung der Häuschen an der St. Ägidius-Kirche in den ersten Jahren des 20. Jh. zu lenken, sowie auch des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory”, welchen Denkmälern eben der Abriss drohte, worüber noch ausführlicher gesprochen wird. Direkt verbunden mit der Idee des Denkmalschutzes war der Verein unter dem Namen: Konservatorenkreis von Westgalizien. Er entstand im Jahre 1888, als sozialer “Arm” der seit 1853 in Wien wirkenden Zentral-Kommission für die Erforschung und Erhaltung der Kunst- und Historischen Denkmale. Die Kommission wirkte in der ganzen

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Monarchie mit Vermittlung der durch die österreichischen Behörden ernannten Konservatoren. In Westgalizien wurde diese amtliche Funktion Prof. Paweł Popiel anvertraut, der sie bis zum Tod im Jahre 1892 mit großer Gewissenhaftigkeit und Vorteil für die polnische Kultur füllte. Der Konservatorenkreis versammelte Kunsthistoriker, Architekten, Konservatoren und Historiker. Sein Satzungsziel war die Führung der Inventarisierung der Denkmäler, Gewinnung der Fonds für die Rettung der ruinierten Denkmäler, sowie auch – die Verbreitung der Idee des Denkmalschutzes in der Gesellschaft. Von den wichtigeren Schritten dieses Vereins gehört hier zu verzeichnen die Organisation des Ersten Treffens der Liebhaber der Denkmäler und der Geschichte in Kraków im Jahre 1911, zu dem ein paar Hundert Personen eintrafen aus allen polnischen Gebieten [Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu…, 1912]. Ein Beweis für die erfolgreiche Tätigkeit des Konservatorenkreises sind u.a. sechs Bände des Verlags unter dem Titel Portfolio des Konservatorenkreises von Westgalizien (herausgegeben in den Jahren 1900 – 1916). Der Kreis beendete seine Tätigkeit im Jahre 1923. Sein erster Vorsitzender war Józef Łepkowski (1889-94), nach dem Marian Sokołowski (18941900) sowie Stanisław Tomkowicz (1900 – 1923) die Leitung im Kreis hatten. Große Verdienste für den Denkmalschutz nicht nur in Kraków, sondern bis zum 1. Weltkrieg auf den Gebieten aller drei Besatzungsgebiete ergab die in Kraków im Jahre 1902 am Nationalmuseum gegründete Gesellschaft des Schutzes der polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur. Wie sich aus den in den Sammlungen des Staatlichen Archivs in Kraków erhaltenen Dokumente ergibt, traten mit der Initiative diesen Verein ins Leben zu rufen die Studenten der Jagiellonen-Universität und der Akademie für die Schönen Künste im März 1901 auf. Sie wandten sich an die Menschen der Krakauer Wissenschaft und der Kunst mit der Bitte um Hilfe. Diese unterstützten mit großen Enthusiasmus die Initiative. An der Stirn des Vorläufigen Komitees stellte sich Prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki von der Jagiellonen-Universität. Am 6. Juni 1901 rief er eine Außerordentliche Sitzung der Gesellschaft herbei in Sachen der Verabschiedung der Satzung, welche Michał Dzieduszycki ausarbeitete. Im Kreis der Initiatoren der Ernennung dieser Gesellschaft fanden sich u.a.: Jerzy Mycielski, Marian Sokołowski, Leon Wyczółkowski, Feliks Kopera, Leonard Lepszy, Konstanty Marian Górski. Ende 1901 verabschiedete die Statthalterschaft den Text der Satzung, dank dem am 23. Februar eine Generalversammlung der Gesellschaft einberufen wurde, die 108 Mitglieder versammelte. Zum ersten Vorsitzende wurde Jerzy Mycielski


sie führte zur Konservierung der Porträts von Anna und Stanisław Oświęcim aus der Kapelle der Franziskaner in Krosno, sie beschäftigte sich mit dem Schicksal der Schlösser in Lipowiec und in Troki, Restaurierung der Porträts der Krakauer Bischöfe aus der Franziskanerkirche in Kraków, sowie auch Erneuerung der Zunftbilder aus der St. Katharinien-Kirche [Siehe auch den Artikel von Żmudziński, 1997, SS. 187-203]. Leider ist es der Gesellschaft nicht gelungen und den anderen Vertretern der künstlerisch-kulturellen Welt von Kraków die mittelalterlichen Reste des Krankenhauses und der Kirche des hl. Geistes zu retten. Mit Erfolg jedoch endete ihr Kampf um die Errettung vor dem Abriss der Häuschen an der St. Ägidius-Kirche sowie des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory”. Da diese Sachen in der Epoche des Durchbruchs des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts ein großes Interesse erweckten, gehört es sich, ihnen ein wenig mehr Aufmerksamkeit zu widmen. Die seit dem Anfang des 19. Jh. andauernde große Schlacht der “Mauerabreißer” zur Verschönerung von Kraków nahm im Durchbruch der Achtziger und Neunziger Jahre dieses Jahrhunderts zu. Angefangen mit dem Jahr 1872 wurden in Kraków Diskussionen geführt zum Thema der Errichtung eines neuen Gebäudes des Stadttheaters in der Stadt. Unter den glühenden Befürwortern eines solchen Theaters befanden sich u.a. Władysław Ludwik Anczyc sowie Walery Rzewuski, Inhaber der bekannten Fotowerkstatt. Eben Rzewuski schlug bereits im Jahre 1877 die Errichtung des Theaters auf dem Hl. Geist-Platz vor, auf der Stelle der teilweise ruinierten Bebauungen des Krankenhauses und der Kirche des hl. Geistes. Dieser Standort unterstützte der Architekt Karol Zaremba, der vom Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Feliks Szlachtowski, den Auftrag der Wahl des Platzes für das zukünftige Theater erhielt. Im Herbst 1886 akzeptierte der Stadtrat diese Wahl (unter mehr als einem guten Dutzend Standorten). Gegen diese Entscheidung gab es eine große Aktion seitens der Vertreter der intellektuellen und künstlerischen Elite von Kraków. Unter den Protestierenden befanden sich: Józef Łepkowski, Marian Sokolowski, Paweł Popiel, Stanisław Tomkowicz und über alles Jan Matejko. Die Verteidiger der historischen Bauwerke am Platz des Hl. Geistes fanden Unterstützung unter den Mitgliedern der Wiener Zentralen Kommission für den Denkmalschutz. Leider zeigten die Proteste keine Wirkung. Auch die vielsagende Geste von

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

gewählt, ein für die Kunstgeschichte sehr verdienter Professor der Jagiellonen-Universität. Der stellvertretende Vorsitzende wurde der erwähnte Prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki, und im Vorstand befanden sich bekannte Vertreter der intellektuellen und künstlerischen Elite von Kraków, u.a.: Marian Zdziechowski, Feliks Kopera, Jan Stanisławski, Konstanty M. Górski.6 Die Gesellschaft stellte vor sich drei erhabene Aufgaben: 1) Aussuchen und Inventarisieren der Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, die einen Zusammenhang mit der Vergangenheit Polens haben, wo auch immer sie sich befinden; 2) Schutz dieser Denkmäler durch Beschützung vor Zerstörung, ferner der Erwerb und Sammlung der beweglichen Denkmäler; 3) Die Erweckung der Kenntnisse und der Vorliebe zu den Denkmälern der polnischen Kunst und Kultur in der polnischen Gesellschaft [Statut Towarzystwa…, 1901, S. 3]. Diese erhabenen Ziele beabsichtigten die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft zu realisieren durch Veranstaltung von Vorträgen und populärwissenschaftlichen Auftritten zum Thema der Denkmäler, die Herausgabe einer eigenen Zeitschrift, die Bildung einer spezialisierten Bibliothek, sowie auch die Bestimmung der Delegierten der Gesellschaft in allen drei Besatzungsgebieten, die eine große Aktion der Inventarisierung und des Schutzes der Denkmäler auf dem Gebiet aller polnischen Gebiete unternehmen würden. Damit soll erklärt werden der bedeutende Zuwachs der Mitglieder der Gesellschaft: Ende 1902 zählte sie 180 Mitglieder, im Jahre 1903 – 225, und 1907 – 262. Bald bereiteten die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft eine Ordnung für die Untersuchung und das Inventarisieren der Kunstwerke und der künstlerischen Industrie vor, welche an die Delegierten im Polnischen Königreich und im Großfürstentum Posen versendet wurde. Das erste große Unternehmen, welches durch die Gesellschaft signiert wurde, war die am 17. Juni 1902 in den Tuchhallen geöffnete Ausstellung der Bilder der alten italienischen, französischen, flämischen und deutschen Maler (insgesamt 48 Bilder, die bei dieser Gelegenheit in Berlin erneuert wurden). Der Erfolg dieser Ausstellung verursachte, dass die Gesellschaft von da an jedes Jahr weitere Ausstellungen organisierte (bis 1914 haben achtzehn solche Ausstellungen stattgefunden!). Die Gesellschaft unternahm eine Reihe andere Unterfangen. Unter anderem wurden mit ihrer Mühe im Jahre 1907 die Schlossmauern in Odrzykoń erneuert,

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Charakteristisch ist, dass in der Abstimmung zur Fakultät (Vorstand) vor allem Künstler-Maler verschwanden (Teodor Axentowicz, Walery Eliasz, Józef Mehoffer, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Wyspiański. Abgefallen sind auch Stanisław Kutrzeba, Karol Potkański, Feliks Jasieński und Rudolf Starzewski.

Charakteristisch ist, dass in der Abstimmung zur Fakultät (Vorstand) vor allem Künstler-Maler verschwanden (Teodor Axentowicz, Walery Eliasz, Józef Mehoffer, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Wyspiański. Abgefallen sind auch Stanisław Kutrzeba, Karol Potkański, Feliks Jasieński und Rudolf Starzewski.

6

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) 6

sie führte zur Konservierung der Porträts von Anna und Stanisław Oświęcim aus der Kapelle der Franziskaner in Krosno, sie beschäftigte sich mit dem Schicksal der Schlösser in Lipowiec und in Troki, Restaurierung der Porträts der Krakauer Bischöfe aus der Franziskanerkirche in Kraków, sowie auch Erneuerung der Zunftbilder aus der St. Katharinien-Kirche [Siehe auch den Artikel von Żmudziński, 1997, SS. 187-203]. Leider ist es der Gesellschaft nicht gelungen und den anderen Vertretern der künstlerisch-kulturellen Welt von Kraków die mittelalterlichen Reste des Krankenhauses und der Kirche des hl. Geistes zu retten. Mit Erfolg jedoch endete ihr Kampf um die Errettung vor dem Abriss der Häuschen an der St. Ägidius-Kirche sowie des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory”. Da diese Sachen in der Epoche des Durchbruchs des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts ein großes Interesse erweckten, gehört es sich, ihnen ein wenig mehr Aufmerksamkeit zu widmen. Die seit dem Anfang des 19. Jh. andauernde große Schlacht der “Mauerabreißer” zur Verschönerung von Kraków nahm im Durchbruch der Achtziger und Neunziger Jahre dieses Jahrhunderts zu. Angefangen mit dem Jahr 1872 wurden in Kraków Diskussionen geführt zum Thema der Errichtung eines neuen Gebäudes des Stadttheaters in der Stadt. Unter den glühenden Befürwortern eines solchen Theaters befanden sich u.a. Władysław Ludwik Anczyc sowie Walery Rzewuski, Inhaber der bekannten Fotowerkstatt. Eben Rzewuski schlug bereits im Jahre 1877 die Errichtung des Theaters auf dem Hl. Geist-Platz vor, auf der Stelle der teilweise ruinierten Bebauungen des Krankenhauses und der Kirche des hl. Geistes. Dieser Standort unterstützte der Architekt Karol Zaremba, der vom Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Feliks Szlachtowski, den Auftrag der Wahl des Platzes für das zukünftige Theater erhielt. Im Herbst 1886 akzeptierte der Stadtrat diese Wahl (unter mehr als einem guten Dutzend Standorten). Gegen diese Entscheidung gab es eine große Aktion seitens der Vertreter der intellektuellen und künstlerischen Elite von Kraków. Unter den Protestierenden befanden sich: Józef Łepkowski, Marian Sokolowski, Paweł Popiel, Stanisław Tomkowicz und über alles Jan Matejko. Die Verteidiger der historischen Bauwerke am Platz des Hl. Geistes fanden Unterstützung unter den Mitgliedern der Wiener Zentralen Kommission für den Denkmalschutz. Leider zeigten die Proteste keine Wirkung. Auch die vielsagende Geste von

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gewählt, ein für die Kunstgeschichte sehr verdienter Professor der Jagiellonen-Universität. Der stellvertretende Vorsitzende wurde der erwähnte Prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki, und im Vorstand befanden sich bekannte Vertreter der intellektuellen und künstlerischen Elite von Kraków, u.a.: Marian Zdziechowski, Feliks Kopera, Jan Stanisławski, Konstanty M. Górski.6 Die Gesellschaft stellte vor sich drei erhabene Aufgaben: 1) Aussuchen und Inventarisieren der Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, die einen Zusammenhang mit der Vergangenheit Polens haben, wo auch immer sie sich befinden; 2) Schutz dieser Denkmäler durch Beschützung vor Zerstörung, ferner der Erwerb und Sammlung der beweglichen Denkmäler; 3) Die Erweckung der Kenntnisse und der Vorliebe zu den Denkmälern der polnischen Kunst und Kultur in der polnischen Gesellschaft [Statut Towarzystwa…, 1901, S. 3]. Diese erhabenen Ziele beabsichtigten die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft zu realisieren durch Veranstaltung von Vorträgen und populärwissenschaftlichen Auftritten zum Thema der Denkmäler, die Herausgabe einer eigenen Zeitschrift, die Bildung einer spezialisierten Bibliothek, sowie auch die Bestimmung der Delegierten der Gesellschaft in allen drei Besatzungsgebieten, die eine große Aktion der Inventarisierung und des Schutzes der Denkmäler auf dem Gebiet aller polnischen Gebiete unternehmen würden. Damit soll erklärt werden der bedeutende Zuwachs der Mitglieder der Gesellschaft: Ende 1902 zählte sie 180 Mitglieder, im Jahre 1903 – 225, und 1907 – 262. Bald bereiteten die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft eine Ordnung für die Untersuchung und das Inventarisieren der Kunstwerke und der künstlerischen Industrie vor, welche an die Delegierten im Polnischen Königreich und im Großfürstentum Posen versendet wurde. Das erste große Unternehmen, welches durch die Gesellschaft signiert wurde, war die am 17. Juni 1902 in den Tuchhallen geöffnete Ausstellung der Bilder der alten italienischen, französischen, flämischen und deutschen Maler (insgesamt 48 Bilder, die bei dieser Gelegenheit in Berlin erneuert wurden). Der Erfolg dieser Ausstellung verursachte, dass die Gesellschaft von da an jedes Jahr weitere Ausstellungen organisierte (bis 1914 haben achtzehn solche Ausstellungen stattgefunden!). Die Gesellschaft unternahm eine Reihe andere Unterfangen. Unter anderem wurden mit ihrer Mühe im Jahre 1907 die Schlossmauern in Odrzykoń erneuert,


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Matejki, der den Stadtbehörden das Restaurieren der Hl. Geist-Kirche auf eigene Kosten anbot und als Malerwerkstatt bestimmte, war vergebens. Der Stadtrat wich nicht zurück. Letztendlich wurden die historischen Gebäude des Krankenhauses und der Kirche des Hl. Geistes abgerissen, was u.a. Matejko zur Rückgabe der Ehrenbürgerschaft an die Stadtbehörden provozierte, sowie den Erlass eines Ausstellungsverbots seiner Werke in Kraków.7 Mehr Glück hatten die Künstler und Krakauer Intellektuellen Anfang des 20. Jh., als sie bei der Verteidigung von zwei Häuschen auftraten, die sich an der Hl. Ägidius-Kirche befanden. Die Angelegenheit begann im Jahre 1905. Am 13. November dieses Jahres fasste der Rat der Stadt Kraków, in Beantwortung des Gesuchs der Dominikaner-Patres, die die Hl. Ägidius-Kirche verwalteten, den Beschluss über das Abreißen von zwei historischen, stark zerstörten Häuschen. In Verteidigung der beiden Bauwerke trat jetzt das ganze künstlerisch-kulturelle Milieu von Kraków auf. In der ersten Reihenfolge trat zum Kampf um die Errettung der Häuschen die Gesellschaft des Schutzes über Polnische Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur auf. Am 24. November 1905 erschien in den Spalten von “Czas” in dieser Angelegenheit ein Brief, unterschrieben vom Vorsitzenden der Gesellschaft – Jerzy Graf Mycielski, sowie vom Sekretär – Marian Gumowski, in dem die Autoren, den historischen Wert beider Häuschen unterstreichend, im Namen der Gesellschaft die Sicherung der Häuschen vorschlugen, ihre Restaurierung und dann – Rückgabe an die Gemeinde der Stadt Kraków mit der Bestimmung für das Adam Mickiewicz-Museum (Andenken an die Person des Dichters, darunter von seinem Sohn Władysław übergebene, wurden damals in einem recht kleinen Saal des National Museums ausgestellt). Mycielski meldete außerdem die Bereitschaft der Bearbeitung eines Plans der Bewirtschaftung der Umgebung der WawelAnhöhe von den Mitgliedern der Gesellschaft. In der gleichen Zeit traten an die Verteidigung der Häuschen an der Hl. Ägidius-Kirche andere Vereine heran. Am 25. November dieses Jahres gab “Czas” in dieser Angelegenheit die Erklärung der Gesellschaft “Polnische Angewandte

7

Kunst” unterschrieben vom Vorsitzenden Karol Potkański und zig anderer Mitglieder bekannt (u.a. durch Jan Stanisławski, Henryk Uziembło, Feliks Kopera, Karol Frycz, Stanisław Wyspiański, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Kamocki, Wojciech Weiss, Julian Fałat, Teodor Axentowicz, Kazimierz Sichulski und Konstanty Laszczka), in dem auf die ästhetischen Gründe des Bedürfnisses der Erhaltung der erwähnten Häuschen aufmerksam gemacht wurde. Die Autoren dieser Erklärung schrieben: Die Kirche des Hl. Ägidius und die mit ihr verbundenen Gebäude bilden eine malerische Gruppe am Fuße des Wawels, und von der Seite der Kurza Stopka sind sie gewissermaßen die direkte Grundlage der sich in der Perspektive auftürmenden Mauern und Schlossgebäuden, die in Kürze im früheren Glanz aufleuchten sollen. Das Malerische und die Schönheit der allgemeinen Silhouette des Wawel fließen nicht nur aus der wundersamen Harmonie, in welche die Jahrhunderte weitere Brandmale der Epochen und Stilen angepasst haben, sondern auch aus den Resten der einst würdigen Fassung, die einerseits aus den Gewässern von Weichsel bestand, andererseits – Mündungen schmaler Straßen, voller malerischer Schönheit, die sich aus der Burg zum Fuße des Schlosses begaben. Ihre Erklärung haben die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft “Polnische Angewandte Kunst” mit den Worten gekrönt: Da die zur Vernichtung verurteilte Behausung schon in sich der richtige und verschwindende Typ des stadtnahen Denkmals einheimischen Bauwesens ist mit dem außergewöhnlichen Charme der malerischen Silhouette, und sein Abriss wäre ein Fehler, der nicht zu verzeihen wäre sowohl aus dem Gesichtspunkt der historischen Logik, wie auch der malerischen Gestaltung der Wawel-Umgebung, legen wir den heißesten Protest gegen den Beschluss des Stadtrates ein, indem wir dabei die Hoffnung ausdrücken, dass der Rat seinen Beschluss abschaffen wird und das genannte Denkmal erhalten und gehörig restauriert wird [“Czas”, 25. November 1905]. In Verteidigung der Häuschen an der Kirche des Hl. Ägidius sprach sich auch die Gesellschaft der Verschönerung der Stadt Kraków und der Umgebung aus. Die Mitglieder dieser Gesellschaft haben jedoch auf einen anderen Aspekt der Angelegenheit aufmerksam

Allgemein sind die Proteste der Gruppe der Gelehrten und Künstler mit Jan Matejka an der Stirn in der Angelegenheit des Abrisses der Hl. Geist-Kirche bekannt. Es lohnt sich hier zuzugeben, dass in dieser Sache sich auch ein anderer Professor der Schule der Schönen Künste ausgesprochen hat, Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. Im Jahre 1889 in den Spalten der Krakauer Wochenzeitschrift “Świat” verkündete er den Artikel unter dem Titel: Altertümliche Bauwerke beim Hl. Geist in Kraków, in dem er die Krakauer Räte überzeugte – leider, unwirksam – zur Änderung der Entscheidung über den Abriss dieser Bauwerke. Er stellte auch den interessanten Vorschlag vor, sie für soziale Ziele auszunutzen. Er schrieb: Obwohl es sich nicht ziemt, mit dem Wert der architektonischen Einzelheiten, die an den Gebäuden des Hl. Geistes erhalten wurden, zu übertreiben, soll zugegeben werden, dass eine Wiederherstellung der Bauwerke im Gewand der Gotik des 15. Jh. nicht schwierig wäre.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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7

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Allgemein sind die Proteste der Gruppe der Gelehrten und Künstler mit Jan Matejka an der Stirn in der Angelegenheit des Abrisses der Hl. Geist-Kirche bekannt. Es lohnt sich hier zuzugeben, dass in dieser Sache sich auch ein anderer Professor der Schule der Schönen Künste ausgesprochen hat, Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. Im Jahre 1889 in den Spalten der Krakauer Wochenzeitschrift “Świat” verkündete er den Artikel unter dem Titel: Altertümliche Bauwerke beim Hl. Geist in Kraków, in dem er die Krakauer Räte überzeugte – leider, unwirksam – zur Änderung der Entscheidung über den Abriss dieser Bauwerke. Er stellte auch den interessanten Vorschlag vor, sie für soziale Ziele auszunutzen. Er schrieb: Obwohl es sich nicht ziemt, mit dem Wert der architektonischen Einzelheiten, die an den Gebäuden des Hl. Geistes erhalten wurden, zu übertreiben, soll zugegeben werden, dass eine Wiederherstellung der Bauwerke im Gewand der Gotik des 15. Jh. nicht schwierig wäre.

Matejki, der den Stadtbehörden das Restaurieren der Hl. Geist-Kirche auf eigene Kosten anbot und als Malerwerkstatt bestimmte, war vergebens. Der Stadtrat wich nicht zurück. Letztendlich wurden die historischen Gebäude des Krankenhauses und der Kirche des Hl. Geistes abgerissen, was u.a. Matejko zur Rückgabe der Ehrenbürgerschaft an die Stadtbehörden provozierte, sowie den Erlass eines Ausstellungsverbots seiner Werke in Kraków.7 Mehr Glück hatten die Künstler und Krakauer Intellektuellen Anfang des 20. Jh., als sie bei der Verteidigung von zwei Häuschen auftraten, die sich an der Hl. Ägidius-Kirche befanden. Die Angelegenheit begann im Jahre 1905. Am 13. November dieses Jahres fasste der Rat der Stadt Kraków, in Beantwortung des Gesuchs der Dominikaner-Patres, die die Hl. Ägidius-Kirche verwalteten, den Beschluss über das Abreißen von zwei historischen, stark zerstörten Häuschen. In Verteidigung der beiden Bauwerke trat jetzt das ganze künstlerisch-kulturelle Milieu von Kraków auf. In der ersten Reihenfolge trat zum Kampf um die Errettung der Häuschen die Gesellschaft des Schutzes über Polnische Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur auf. Am 24. November 1905 erschien in den Spalten von “Czas” in dieser Angelegenheit ein Brief, unterschrieben vom Vorsitzenden der Gesellschaft – Jerzy Graf Mycielski, sowie vom Sekretär – Marian Gumowski, in dem die Autoren, den historischen Wert beider Häuschen unterstreichend, im Namen der Gesellschaft die Sicherung der Häuschen vorschlugen, ihre Restaurierung und dann – Rückgabe an die Gemeinde der Stadt Kraków mit der Bestimmung für das Adam Mickiewicz-Museum (Andenken an die Person des Dichters, darunter von seinem Sohn Władysław übergebene, wurden damals in einem recht kleinen Saal des National Museums ausgestellt). Mycielski meldete außerdem die Bereitschaft der Bearbeitung eines Plans der Bewirtschaftung der Umgebung der WawelAnhöhe von den Mitgliedern der Gesellschaft. In der gleichen Zeit traten an die Verteidigung der Häuschen an der Hl. Ägidius-Kirche andere Vereine heran. Am 25. November dieses Jahres gab “Czas” in dieser Angelegenheit die Erklärung der Gesellschaft “Polnische Angewandte

Kunst” unterschrieben vom Vorsitzenden Karol Potkański und zig anderer Mitglieder bekannt (u.a. durch Jan Stanisławski, Henryk Uziembło, Feliks Kopera, Karol Frycz, Stanisław Wyspiański, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Kamocki, Wojciech Weiss, Julian Fałat, Teodor Axentowicz, Kazimierz Sichulski und Konstanty Laszczka), in dem auf die ästhetischen Gründe des Bedürfnisses der Erhaltung der erwähnten Häuschen aufmerksam gemacht wurde. Die Autoren dieser Erklärung schrieben: Die Kirche des Hl. Ägidius und die mit ihr verbundenen Gebäude bilden eine malerische Gruppe am Fuße des Wawels, und von der Seite der Kurza Stopka sind sie gewissermaßen die direkte Grundlage der sich in der Perspektive auftürmenden Mauern und Schlossgebäuden, die in Kürze im früheren Glanz aufleuchten sollen. Das Malerische und die Schönheit der allgemeinen Silhouette des Wawel fließen nicht nur aus der wundersamen Harmonie, in welche die Jahrhunderte weitere Brandmale der Epochen und Stilen angepasst haben, sondern auch aus den Resten der einst würdigen Fassung, die einerseits aus den Gewässern von Weichsel bestand, andererseits – Mündungen schmaler Straßen, voller malerischer Schönheit, die sich aus der Burg zum Fuße des Schlosses begaben. Ihre Erklärung haben die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft “Polnische Angewandte Kunst” mit den Worten gekrönt: Da die zur Vernichtung verurteilte Behausung schon in sich der richtige und verschwindende Typ des stadtnahen Denkmals einheimischen Bauwesens ist mit dem außergewöhnlichen Charme der malerischen Silhouette, und sein Abriss wäre ein Fehler, der nicht zu verzeihen wäre sowohl aus dem Gesichtspunkt der historischen Logik, wie auch der malerischen Gestaltung der Wawel-Umgebung, legen wir den heißesten Protest gegen den Beschluss des Stadtrates ein, indem wir dabei die Hoffnung ausdrücken, dass der Rat seinen Beschluss abschaffen wird und das genannte Denkmal erhalten und gehörig restauriert wird [“Czas”, 25. November 1905]. In Verteidigung der Häuschen an der Kirche des Hl. Ägidius sprach sich auch die Gesellschaft der Verschönerung der Stadt Kraków und der Umgebung aus. Die Mitglieder dieser Gesellschaft haben jedoch auf einen anderen Aspekt der Angelegenheit aufmerksam


Gnädigen Hochwohlgeborenen Herrn mit der höflichen Bitte um die Intervention zwecks Erhaltung nicht nur dieses alten Gebäudes, sondern auch dieses so netten Platzes, aufgrund seiner Lage am Fuße des Schlossberges, sowie um die Verursachung der Veränderung des schon gefassten Beschlusses des Stadtrates, was schon aus diesem Grund nicht auf Hindernisse stoßen sollte, so die Erneuerung dieser Gebäude sich einfach unter den Begriff der Restaurierung alter Denkmäler einordnen lässt. In dieser Hinsicht erwartet die Zentralkommission eine gütige Antwort [“Czas”, 7. Dezember 1905]. Viel weist darauf hin, dass der Präsident Helfart das Schreiben unterschrieben hat, welches von Jerzy Mycielski vorbereitet wurde, denn es erscheinen in ihm Argumente, die uns schon bekannt sind aus der Rede dieses Autors im Namen der Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur. Am 7. Dezember 1905 stellte der Präsident der Stadt Kraków, Juliusz Leo, dem Stadtrat alle zugesandten Schreiben vor. Nach einer Woche annullierte der Rat den vorigen Beschluss. Endgültig gewann die Vernunft und das stattlichste Häuschen wurde gelassen. Heute nach wie vor erfreut es die Augen der Touristen. Schade nur, dass statt seiner Abgabe für Musealzwecke (z.B. für ein Adam MickiewiczMuzeum – wie Jerzy Mycielski wollte) in ihm sich, ähnlich wie zu den Zeiten der Volksrepublik Polen, eine Kinderkrippe befindet.8 Eine genauso schöne Schlacht – und genauso siegreich – schlug die Gesellschaft des Schutzes der Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur samt anderen ähnlichen Gesellschaften und Kreisen Anfang der Zwanziger Jahre des 20. Jh. um den Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory” vor dem Abriss zu retten. Dieses prächtige Gebäude, das größte wohl nach dem Wawel-Schloss im damaligen Kraków, wurde in der 1. Hälfte des 17. Jh. vom Hofmarschall Adam Kazanowski, einem der nächsten Freunde des Königs Władysław IV. Wasa, gebaut. Innerhalb von fast vier hundert Jahren des Bestehens ging der Palast in immer wieder neue Hände über. In der 2. Hälfte des 17. Jh. kaufte ihn Wawrzyniec Jan Wodzicki, Warschauer Mundschenk und Salis zupparius in Wieliczka sowie Bochnia. Im Palast hielt sich im Jahre 1668 kurz der nach Frankreich fahrende König Jan Kazimierz auf. Drei Jahre später zog kurz der König Michał Wiśniowiecki ein. Wie im Jahre 1914 Franciszek Klein [Klein, 1914] erinnerte, wurde seitdem dieser Palast allgemein für den zweiten Sitz – nach dem Wawel – gehalten, Eines Monarchen würdig.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

gemacht. Wir lesen in ihrer Erklärung (vom 20. November dieses Jahres), dass die Beraubung großer Bauwerke von der niedrigen Umgebung (wie das in Köln oder Paris passiert ist) beeinflusst fatal das Malerische und den ästhetischen Eindruck. Zwar stammen die beiden Häuschen aus dem 18. Jh., aber sie knüpfen deutlich mit ihrer Form an die Tradition der mittleren Jahrhunderte an. Ihr Abriss würde verursachen, dass die so oder so monotone Grodzka-Straße viel an der Schönheit verlieren würde. Charakteristisch ist, dass die Autoren der Erklärung nicht so viel protestieren, so bitten sie den Stadtrat um die Änderung der Entscheidung. Sie schreiben also: Indem wir unser schönes Kraków lieben, haben wir mit großer Trauer die Nachricht über den Beschluss des vornehmen Rates zur Kenntnis genommen, der, wenn er ausgeführt wäre, wieder den altertümlichen Nachlass der großartigen Vergangenheit um einen Teil verringern würde. Kraków repräsentiert gegenüber der ausländischen Welt eine Fundgrube der Denkmäler, in ihnen liest das Ausland leidenschaftlich über die berühmte Vergangenheit, über unsere kulturellen Verdienste in der allgemeinen Geschichte, also appellieren wir an die patriotischen Herzen und aufgeklärten Geister des vornehmen Stadtrates, dass er uns nicht unseres allerliebsten Nachlasses vermindert und seinen Beschluss reassumieren möge [“Czas”, 27. November 1905]. Die Beschützer der Häuschen an der Kirche des Hl. Ägidius haben angesehen, dass alle Feder in Bewegung gesetzt werden sollen, die die Gebäuden retten könnten. In ihrer Aktion haben sie auch Unterstützung erhalten seitens der Zentral-Kommission für die Erforschung und Erhaltung der Kunst- und Historischen Denkmale in Wien. Ihr Präsident, Herr Helfart, wandte sich auch mit dem Brief vom 24. November 1905 an den Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Juliusz Leo, in dem er eine Änderung der Entscheidung des Stadtrates in der erwähnten Angelegenheit forderte. Er schrieb: Es kam zur Kenntnis der Generalkommission, dass der Rat der Stadt Kraków Entschluss fasste hinsichtlich des Abrisses der Gebäude, die die Kirche des Hl. Ägidius umgeben. Die Zentralkommission muss aufgrund dieses Beschlusses ihr reges Bedauern ausdrücken, denn im Falle ihrer Ausführung wird Kraków nicht nur unter dem künstlerischen und historischen Gesichtspunkt sehr typischen Gebäude entledigt, sondern auch eines seiner meist malerischen und reizvollen Plätze. Die Kommission wendet sich auch mit vollem Vertrauen an den

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Es ist sowieso besser, als die Realisierung der Idee aus dem Jahre 1906, als vorgeschlagen wurde, dass in den Gebäuden eine “Anstalt für Findelkinder” eingerichtet wird.

Es ist sowieso besser, als die Realisierung der Idee aus dem Jahre 1906, als vorgeschlagen wurde, dass in den Gebäuden eine “Anstalt für Findelkinder” eingerichtet wird.

8

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) 8

Gnädigen Hochwohlgeborenen Herrn mit der höflichen Bitte um die Intervention zwecks Erhaltung nicht nur dieses alten Gebäudes, sondern auch dieses so netten Platzes, aufgrund seiner Lage am Fuße des Schlossberges, sowie um die Verursachung der Veränderung des schon gefassten Beschlusses des Stadtrates, was schon aus diesem Grund nicht auf Hindernisse stoßen sollte, so die Erneuerung dieser Gebäude sich einfach unter den Begriff der Restaurierung alter Denkmäler einordnen lässt. In dieser Hinsicht erwartet die Zentralkommission eine gütige Antwort [“Czas”, 7. Dezember 1905]. Viel weist darauf hin, dass der Präsident Helfart das Schreiben unterschrieben hat, welches von Jerzy Mycielski vorbereitet wurde, denn es erscheinen in ihm Argumente, die uns schon bekannt sind aus der Rede dieses Autors im Namen der Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur. Am 7. Dezember 1905 stellte der Präsident der Stadt Kraków, Juliusz Leo, dem Stadtrat alle zugesandten Schreiben vor. Nach einer Woche annullierte der Rat den vorigen Beschluss. Endgültig gewann die Vernunft und das stattlichste Häuschen wurde gelassen. Heute nach wie vor erfreut es die Augen der Touristen. Schade nur, dass statt seiner Abgabe für Musealzwecke (z.B. für ein Adam MickiewiczMuzeum – wie Jerzy Mycielski wollte) in ihm sich, ähnlich wie zu den Zeiten der Volksrepublik Polen, eine Kinderkrippe befindet.8 Eine genauso schöne Schlacht – und genauso siegreich – schlug die Gesellschaft des Schutzes der Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur samt anderen ähnlichen Gesellschaften und Kreisen Anfang der Zwanziger Jahre des 20. Jh. um den Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory” vor dem Abriss zu retten. Dieses prächtige Gebäude, das größte wohl nach dem Wawel-Schloss im damaligen Kraków, wurde in der 1. Hälfte des 17. Jh. vom Hofmarschall Adam Kazanowski, einem der nächsten Freunde des Königs Władysław IV. Wasa, gebaut. Innerhalb von fast vier hundert Jahren des Bestehens ging der Palast in immer wieder neue Hände über. In der 2. Hälfte des 17. Jh. kaufte ihn Wawrzyniec Jan Wodzicki, Warschauer Mundschenk und Salis zupparius in Wieliczka sowie Bochnia. Im Palast hielt sich im Jahre 1668 kurz der nach Frankreich fahrende König Jan Kazimierz auf. Drei Jahre später zog kurz der König Michał Wiśniowiecki ein. Wie im Jahre 1914 Franciszek Klein [Klein, 1914] erinnerte, wurde seitdem dieser Palast allgemein für den zweiten Sitz – nach dem Wawel – gehalten, Eines Monarchen würdig.

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gemacht. Wir lesen in ihrer Erklärung (vom 20. November dieses Jahres), dass die Beraubung großer Bauwerke von der niedrigen Umgebung (wie das in Köln oder Paris passiert ist) beeinflusst fatal das Malerische und den ästhetischen Eindruck. Zwar stammen die beiden Häuschen aus dem 18. Jh., aber sie knüpfen deutlich mit ihrer Form an die Tradition der mittleren Jahrhunderte an. Ihr Abriss würde verursachen, dass die so oder so monotone Grodzka-Straße viel an der Schönheit verlieren würde. Charakteristisch ist, dass die Autoren der Erklärung nicht so viel protestieren, so bitten sie den Stadtrat um die Änderung der Entscheidung. Sie schreiben also: Indem wir unser schönes Kraków lieben, haben wir mit großer Trauer die Nachricht über den Beschluss des vornehmen Rates zur Kenntnis genommen, der, wenn er ausgeführt wäre, wieder den altertümlichen Nachlass der großartigen Vergangenheit um einen Teil verringern würde. Kraków repräsentiert gegenüber der ausländischen Welt eine Fundgrube der Denkmäler, in ihnen liest das Ausland leidenschaftlich über die berühmte Vergangenheit, über unsere kulturellen Verdienste in der allgemeinen Geschichte, also appellieren wir an die patriotischen Herzen und aufgeklärten Geister des vornehmen Stadtrates, dass er uns nicht unseres allerliebsten Nachlasses vermindert und seinen Beschluss reassumieren möge [“Czas”, 27. November 1905]. Die Beschützer der Häuschen an der Kirche des Hl. Ägidius haben angesehen, dass alle Feder in Bewegung gesetzt werden sollen, die die Gebäuden retten könnten. In ihrer Aktion haben sie auch Unterstützung erhalten seitens der Zentral-Kommission für die Erforschung und Erhaltung der Kunst- und Historischen Denkmale in Wien. Ihr Präsident, Herr Helfart, wandte sich auch mit dem Brief vom 24. November 1905 an den Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Juliusz Leo, in dem er eine Änderung der Entscheidung des Stadtrates in der erwähnten Angelegenheit forderte. Er schrieb: Es kam zur Kenntnis der Generalkommission, dass der Rat der Stadt Kraków Entschluss fasste hinsichtlich des Abrisses der Gebäude, die die Kirche des Hl. Ägidius umgeben. Die Zentralkommission muss aufgrund dieses Beschlusses ihr reges Bedauern ausdrücken, denn im Falle ihrer Ausführung wird Kraków nicht nur unter dem künstlerischen und historischen Gesichtspunkt sehr typischen Gebäude entledigt, sondern auch eines seiner meist malerischen und reizvollen Plätze. Die Kommission wendet sich auch mit vollem Vertrauen an den


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Eben deswegen lud Ende des 17. Jh. der damalige Besitzer des Schlosses, Krzysztof Wodzicki, den ausgezeichneten italienischen Künstler, Baltazar Fontane, nach Kraków gekommen, um die St. Anna-Kirche zu erbauen, zum Schmücken von zwei Palastsälen mit Stuckarbeiten (sie haben sich bis heute erhalten!) ein. In den Händen der Sippe Wodzicki blieb der Palast bis zum Jahr 1774, als Franciszek Wodzicki ihn dem Bischof Kajetan Sołtyk verkaufte. Dieser unglückliche kirchliche Hierarch wohnte im Palast acht Jahre, bis 1782 (in dieser Zeit verließ er wohl nur einmal – im Jahre 1781 – den Palast, um sich im großen Gefolge der Geistlichkeit in den Wawel-Dom zu begeben um dort einen Gottesdienst abzuhalten). Im Jahre 1782 hielt im Palast der incognito in Europa reisende Zarensohn Paweł an. In der Familie Sołtyk blieb der Palast bis zum Ende des 18. Jh. Im Jahre 1796 wurde in ihm der Sitz des militärischen Gouverneurs – des österreichischen Fähnrich Margelik errichtet. Im 19. Jh. war der Palast eine gewisse Zeit Eigentum des bekannten Direktors des Krakauer Theaters Jacek Kluszewski, und dann des Barons Edward Rastawiecki. Im Jahre 1843 kaufte ihn der Krakauer Kaufmann, Jan Walter. In den Händen der Familie Walter blieb er bis zum Jahr 1910. In diesem Jahr erschienen über dem stark verwüsteten Palast wirklich schwarze Wolken. Zuerst trat ein reicher Magnat aus Podolien in Aktion, der sich entschied, ihn zu kaufen und – nach dem Abriss – an seiner Stelle einen Komplex von Hotel-Handelsgebäuden zu errichten. Die Absicht hat er jedoch nicht realisiert, also im Jahre 1911 trat ein Krakauer Industriepotentat, Gustaw Gerson Bazes, in Aktion. Er gründete im Jahre 1912 die Krakauer Bau- und Industriegesellschaft, die im März des nächsten Jahres den Palast kaufte. Bis Ende 1913 dauerte die Aktion der Räumung des Palastes von den Mietern. Im Frühjahr 1914 erließ der Stadtrat sein Einverständnis für den Abriss des monumentalen Bauwerks. In dieser Situation trat die künstlerische und kulturelle Welt von Kraków zur Verteidigung des Palastes in Aktion. An der Stirn der Beschützer von “Krzysztofory” stellte sich die Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur. Anfang 1914 schien es, dass der Palast gerettet wird, da Jakub Graf Potocki einverstanden war,

ihn der erwähnten Bausgesellschaft abzukaufen, und die Bereitschaft meldete, den Palast zu restaurieren. Leider, nach ein paar Wochen, zog sich der Graf aus der Transaktion zurück. In dieser Situation kam im April die Angelegenheit des Abrisses des Palastes zurück. Zwei Wochen vor dem Beginn dieser Arbeiten entschied sich Prof. Jerzy Mycielski (auf Zureden von Franciszek Klein) zum endgültigen Schritt: er machte sich nach Wien auf, zum Thronfolger Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand, mit der Bitte um Intervention. Erzherzog, eingedenk der Verdienste, welche ihm seinerzeit der Graf Mycielski9 einräumte, schickte sofort einen Brief an den Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Juliusz Leo, mit Empfehlung der Einstellung der Abrissarbeiten des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory”. So ist es auch geschehen. Mit dem Augenblick des Ausbruchs des 1. Weltkrieges wurde der Palast vom österreichischen 13. Heeresinfanterieregiment eingenommen. Im November 1917 kaufte der damalige Statthalter Galiziens, Baron Diller, den Palast mit der Bestimmung die Räumlichkeiten für das Büro des Wiederaufbaus Galiziens zu nutzen. Sofort hat er das Anwesen der Komplexrestaurierung unterstellt. Mit dem Augenblick des Falls Österreichs ging der Palast “Pod Krzysztofory” in das Eigentum des polnischen Staates über.10 Die oberhalb herbeigerufene Geschichte des Kampfes der Mitglieder der Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, unterstützt durch andere Vereine, die die Liebhaber der ehemaligen Hauptstadt Polens gruppierten, beweist die Aktivität des künstlerisch-kulturellen Milieus von Kraków im Denkmalschutz. Und obwohl nicht immer ein solcher Kampf mit Erfolg gekrönt wurde11, so bewies er doch die Stärke dieses Milieus, welches das Bewusstsein der Bedeutung des Erbes hatte, welches die Generation des Umbruchs des 19. und 20. Jh. nach ihren Vorfahren geerbt hatte. Wie erwähnt wurde, konnte die Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur immer mit der Unterstützung anderer Krakauer Gesellschaften mit ähnlichem Charakter rechnen. In der ersten Reihe – mit der Unterstützung seitens der noch 1896 gegründeten Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und der

9

Bekannter Kunsthistoriker und Historiker, Professor der Jagiellonen-Universität, dokumentierte seinerzeit entsprechende Herkunft der Gemahlin des Erzherzogs, Gräfin-Tochter Chotko, dank dessen sie vom kaiserlichen Hof anerkannt wurde!

10

Dramatische Geschichte der Kämpfe um die Errettung des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory” vor dem Ausbruch des 1. Weltkrieges beschrieb Franciszek Klein im Buch: Notatnik krakowski (Kraków 1965, S. 7 – 16).

11

Ein Beispiel kann hier die Tatsache des Abrisses der sog. Kościuszko-Bastei von einem Krakauer Kaufmann, dem späteren Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Jan Kanty Federowicz, im Jahre 1909 sein.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

145

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Ein Beispiel kann hier die Tatsache des Abrisses der sog. Kościuszko-Bastei von einem Krakauer Kaufmann, dem späteren Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Jan Kanty Federowicz, im Jahre 1909 sein.

11

Dramatische Geschichte der Kämpfe um die Errettung des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory” vor dem Ausbruch des 1. Weltkrieges beschrieb Franciszek Klein im Buch: Notatnik krakowski (Kraków 1965, S. 7 – 16).

10

Bekannter Kunsthistoriker und Historiker, Professor der Jagiellonen-Universität, dokumentierte seinerzeit entsprechende Herkunft der Gemahlin des Erzherzogs, Gräfin-Tochter Chotko, dank dessen sie vom kaiserlichen Hof anerkannt wurde!

9

Eben deswegen lud Ende des 17. Jh. der damalige Besitzer des Schlosses, Krzysztof Wodzicki, den ausgezeichneten italienischen Künstler, Baltazar Fontane, nach Kraków gekommen, um die St. Anna-Kirche zu erbauen, zum Schmücken von zwei Palastsälen mit Stuckarbeiten (sie haben sich bis heute erhalten!) ein. In den Händen der Sippe Wodzicki blieb der Palast bis zum Jahr 1774, als Franciszek Wodzicki ihn dem Bischof Kajetan Sołtyk verkaufte. Dieser unglückliche kirchliche Hierarch wohnte im Palast acht Jahre, bis 1782 (in dieser Zeit verließ er wohl nur einmal – im Jahre 1781 – den Palast, um sich im großen Gefolge der Geistlichkeit in den Wawel-Dom zu begeben um dort einen Gottesdienst abzuhalten). Im Jahre 1782 hielt im Palast der incognito in Europa reisende Zarensohn Paweł an. In der Familie Sołtyk blieb der Palast bis zum Ende des 18. Jh. Im Jahre 1796 wurde in ihm der Sitz des militärischen Gouverneurs – des österreichischen Fähnrich Margelik errichtet. Im 19. Jh. war der Palast eine gewisse Zeit Eigentum des bekannten Direktors des Krakauer Theaters Jacek Kluszewski, und dann des Barons Edward Rastawiecki. Im Jahre 1843 kaufte ihn der Krakauer Kaufmann, Jan Walter. In den Händen der Familie Walter blieb er bis zum Jahr 1910. In diesem Jahr erschienen über dem stark verwüsteten Palast wirklich schwarze Wolken. Zuerst trat ein reicher Magnat aus Podolien in Aktion, der sich entschied, ihn zu kaufen und – nach dem Abriss – an seiner Stelle einen Komplex von Hotel-Handelsgebäuden zu errichten. Die Absicht hat er jedoch nicht realisiert, also im Jahre 1911 trat ein Krakauer Industriepotentat, Gustaw Gerson Bazes, in Aktion. Er gründete im Jahre 1912 die Krakauer Bau- und Industriegesellschaft, die im März des nächsten Jahres den Palast kaufte. Bis Ende 1913 dauerte die Aktion der Räumung des Palastes von den Mietern. Im Frühjahr 1914 erließ der Stadtrat sein Einverständnis für den Abriss des monumentalen Bauwerks. In dieser Situation trat die künstlerische und kulturelle Welt von Kraków zur Verteidigung des Palastes in Aktion. An der Stirn der Beschützer von “Krzysztofory” stellte sich die Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur. Anfang 1914 schien es, dass der Palast gerettet wird, da Jakub Graf Potocki einverstanden war,

ihn der erwähnten Bausgesellschaft abzukaufen, und die Bereitschaft meldete, den Palast zu restaurieren. Leider, nach ein paar Wochen, zog sich der Graf aus der Transaktion zurück. In dieser Situation kam im April die Angelegenheit des Abrisses des Palastes zurück. Zwei Wochen vor dem Beginn dieser Arbeiten entschied sich Prof. Jerzy Mycielski (auf Zureden von Franciszek Klein) zum endgültigen Schritt: er machte sich nach Wien auf, zum Thronfolger Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand, mit der Bitte um Intervention. Erzherzog, eingedenk der Verdienste, welche ihm seinerzeit der Graf Mycielski9 einräumte, schickte sofort einen Brief an den Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, Juliusz Leo, mit Empfehlung der Einstellung der Abrissarbeiten des Palastes “Pod Krzysztofory”. So ist es auch geschehen. Mit dem Augenblick des Ausbruchs des 1. Weltkrieges wurde der Palast vom österreichischen 13. Heeresinfanterieregiment eingenommen. Im November 1917 kaufte der damalige Statthalter Galiziens, Baron Diller, den Palast mit der Bestimmung die Räumlichkeiten für das Büro des Wiederaufbaus Galiziens zu nutzen. Sofort hat er das Anwesen der Komplexrestaurierung unterstellt. Mit dem Augenblick des Falls Österreichs ging der Palast “Pod Krzysztofory” in das Eigentum des polnischen Staates über.10 Die oberhalb herbeigerufene Geschichte des Kampfes der Mitglieder der Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, unterstützt durch andere Vereine, die die Liebhaber der ehemaligen Hauptstadt Polens gruppierten, beweist die Aktivität des künstlerisch-kulturellen Milieus von Kraków im Denkmalschutz. Und obwohl nicht immer ein solcher Kampf mit Erfolg gekrönt wurde11, so bewies er doch die Stärke dieses Milieus, welches das Bewusstsein der Bedeutung des Erbes hatte, welches die Generation des Umbruchs des 19. und 20. Jh. nach ihren Vorfahren geerbt hatte. Wie erwähnt wurde, konnte die Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur immer mit der Unterstützung anderer Krakauer Gesellschaften mit ähnlichem Charakter rechnen. In der ersten Reihe – mit der Unterstützung seitens der noch 1896 gegründeten Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und der


schloss sich die Gesellschaft sehr aktiv (finanziell!) dem Werk der Rettung der Gebäude an der St. Ägidius-Kirche an. Es soll mit Kraft unterstrichen werden, dass es der Gesellschaft des Schutzes der Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, sowie der Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und der Denkmäler von Kraków gelungen ist bei der Gelegenheit des Kampfes um die Errettung der Häuschen an der St. Ägidius-Kirche neun andere Krakauer kulturelle Vereine in die Zusammenarbeit einzubeziehen. Auftretend seitdem unter dem Namen: “Verein der Elf Kulturellen Gesellschaften”, wurde an der Schwelle des 20. Jh. in Kraków ein sehr starkes meinungsbildendes Milieu geschaffen, mit dem sowohl die Stadtbehörden rechnen mussten, wie auch die Eigentümer der historischen Gebäude (im Falle der erwähnten Häuschen – die Dominikaner-Patres).12 Viel Energie steckten die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und Denkmäler von Kraków in die Aktion der Verewigung der hervorragenden Persönlichkeiten der Stadt, sowie auch Ankömmlingen, durch Tafeln. Sie haben u.a. die Einmauerung der Gedächtnistafeln von Marcin Oracewicz (an der Verteidigungsmauer neben dem Florianstor), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (an der Wand der Marienkirche), Wincenty Pol (am Gebäude an der ul. Szpitalna 26), P. Piotr Skarga (an der Wand des Gebäudes an der ul. Sienna), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (Hauptmarkt) u.a. geschaffen. Leider endeten nicht alle Gefechte der Gesellschaft um die Errettung der Krakauer Denkmäler mit Sieg. Trotz der Proteste aller elf Krakauer kulturellen Gesellschaften wurde im Jahre 1909 die Kościuszko-Bastei abgerissen. Die österreichischen Militärbehörden erlaubten nicht, dass die durch die Gesellschaft der Liebhaber die dem Verfall unterliegenden Hügel von Wanda und Krakus mit Schutz umgeben wurden. Nicht nähertretend in die Einzelheiten der Wirkungen einzelner Gesellschaften oder individueller Personen aus der 2. Hälfte des 19. Jh. und der Jahre, die dem Ausbruch des 1. Weltkrieges vorangingen, gehört sich eins zu unterstreichen:

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Denkmäler von Kraków. Das Satzungsziel dieser Gesellschaft war: Kennenlernen der historischen Vergangenheit von Kraków und seiner Umgebung sowie auch – Erwecken der Achtung für die Andenken und Denkmäler von Kraków unter der Gesamtheit seiner Bewohner [Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników…, 1896, S. 1]. Diese Gesellschaft versammelte einen ausgezeichneten Kreis Krakauer Wissenschaftler, unter denen sich die Professoren der Jagiellonen-Universität (Stanisław Krzyżanowski - der erste Vorsitzende der Gesellschaft, Stanisław Estreicher, Adam Krzyżanowski, Leonard Lepszy, Franciszek Piekosiński, Marian Sokołowski, Bolesław Ulanowski), aber auch Menschen der Kultur (Klemens Bąkowski, Adam Chmiel, Zygmunt Hendel, Stanisław Tomkowicz), wie auch Künstler (Władysław Łuszczkiewicz und Stanisław Wyspiański) befanden. Es ist nicht Zeit und Ort, um hier die Geschichte dieser Gesellschaft herbeizurufen, die bis heute existiert [Siehe: Bieńkowski, 1997; Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków…, 1997]. Es gehört sich jedoch, mindestens manches Unternehmen der Gesellschaft zu erwähnen, die zum Ziel die Rettung der Denkmäler hatten. Charakteristisch war, dass eine der ersten Kommissionen der Gesellschaft, welche im Jahre 1897 berufen wurde, die Berufung der Konservatorenkommission. Wirkend im Namen der ganzen Gesellschaft trat diese Kommission mit immer wieder neuen, wichtigen Initiativen auf. Unter anderem Ende der 90er Jahren hat die Gesellschaft – gemeinsam mit anderen – die Barbakane vor der Übergabe dem Volkstheater “beschützt” (und im Jahre 1909 – vor den Gelüsten ihrer Umgestaltung von Jan Styka in den Sitz des “Tannenberg-Panorama”). Im Jahre 1913 protestierte sie wirksam gegen die Pläne der Bebauung der Błonia. Mit ihrer Mühe und dank den durch die Gesellschaft gesammelten Fonds, wurde Anfang des 20. Jh. die gotische Ölbergszene an der St. Barbara-Kirche restauriert. Im Jahre 1906 initiierte die Gesellschaft eine Aktion, die zum Ziel hatte, die Gebäude der St. Agnes-Kirche aus privater Hand zu kaufen (in ihm befand sich in dieser Zeit ein Eisenmetalllager). Im Jahre 1905

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In den Bestand des informellen “Verbandes der 11 Kulturellen Gesellschaften” kamen: Gesellschaft der Freunde der Schönen Künste, Gesellschaft der Verschönerung der Stadt Kraków und der Umgebung, Krakauer technische Gesellschaft, KünstlerischLiterarischer Kreis, Numismatisch-Archäologische Gesellschaft, Kreis der Konservatoren von Westgalizien, Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und der Denkmäler von Kraków, Gesellschaft der Polnischen Künstler “Kunst”, Gesellschaft “Polnische Angewandte Kunst”, Inländischer Touristischer Verein. In den Sammlungen des Staatsarchivs in Kraków (Akz. I.T. 1100, S. 623) befindet sich ein Dokument von September 1908, welches die Erscheinung der Initiative der Aufgabe dem “Verein” des formellen Status des “Vereins der Künstlerisch-Kulturellen Institutionen Künstlerische Wache in Kraków” bestätigt, dessen Ziel Bestimmung der kollektiven Meinung, Initiative und die Ausführung einer gemeinsamen, solidarischen Aktion in den künstlerisch-kulturellen Angelegenheiten, die Kraków angehen sein sollte. Obwohl es formal zur Berufung von einem solchen Verein nicht gekommen ist, so trat von da an bis zum Ausbruch des 1. Weltkrieges der “Verein der Elf” systematisch in der Verteidigung des von den Vorfahren übertragenen reichen kulturellen Erbes auf.

In den Bestand des informellen “Verbandes der 11 Kulturellen Gesellschaften” kamen: Gesellschaft der Freunde der Schönen Künste, Gesellschaft der Verschönerung der Stadt Kraków und der Umgebung, Krakauer technische Gesellschaft, KünstlerischLiterarischer Kreis, Numismatisch-Archäologische Gesellschaft, Kreis der Konservatoren von Westgalizien, Gesellschaft des Schutzes über die Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und der Denkmäler von Kraków, Gesellschaft der Polnischen Künstler “Kunst”, Gesellschaft “Polnische Angewandte Kunst”, Inländischer Touristischer Verein. In den Sammlungen des Staatsarchivs in Kraków (Akz. I.T. 1100, S. 623) befindet sich ein Dokument von September 1908, welches die Erscheinung der Initiative der Aufgabe dem “Verein” des formellen Status des “Vereins der Künstlerisch-Kulturellen Institutionen Künstlerische Wache in Kraków” bestätigt, dessen Ziel Bestimmung der kollektiven Meinung, Initiative und die Ausführung einer gemeinsamen, solidarischen Aktion in den künstlerisch-kulturellen Angelegenheiten, die Kraków angehen sein sollte. Obwohl es formal zur Berufung von einem solchen Verein nicht gekommen ist, so trat von da an bis zum Ausbruch des 1. Weltkrieges der “Verein der Elf” systematisch in der Verteidigung des von den Vorfahren übertragenen reichen kulturellen Erbes auf.

12

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) 12

schloss sich die Gesellschaft sehr aktiv (finanziell!) dem Werk der Rettung der Gebäude an der St. Ägidius-Kirche an. Es soll mit Kraft unterstrichen werden, dass es der Gesellschaft des Schutzes der Polnischen Denkmäler der Kunst und Kultur, sowie der Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und der Denkmäler von Kraków gelungen ist bei der Gelegenheit des Kampfes um die Errettung der Häuschen an der St. Ägidius-Kirche neun andere Krakauer kulturelle Vereine in die Zusammenarbeit einzubeziehen. Auftretend seitdem unter dem Namen: “Verein der Elf Kulturellen Gesellschaften”, wurde an der Schwelle des 20. Jh. in Kraków ein sehr starkes meinungsbildendes Milieu geschaffen, mit dem sowohl die Stadtbehörden rechnen mussten, wie auch die Eigentümer der historischen Gebäude (im Falle der erwähnten Häuschen – die Dominikaner-Patres).12 Viel Energie steckten die Mitglieder der Gesellschaft der Liebhaber der Geschichte und Denkmäler von Kraków in die Aktion der Verewigung der hervorragenden Persönlichkeiten der Stadt, sowie auch Ankömmlingen, durch Tafeln. Sie haben u.a. die Einmauerung der Gedächtnistafeln von Marcin Oracewicz (an der Verteidigungsmauer neben dem Florianstor), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (an der Wand der Marienkirche), Wincenty Pol (am Gebäude an der ul. Szpitalna 26), P. Piotr Skarga (an der Wand des Gebäudes an der ul. Sienna), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (Hauptmarkt) u.a. geschaffen. Leider endeten nicht alle Gefechte der Gesellschaft um die Errettung der Krakauer Denkmäler mit Sieg. Trotz der Proteste aller elf Krakauer kulturellen Gesellschaften wurde im Jahre 1909 die Kościuszko-Bastei abgerissen. Die österreichischen Militärbehörden erlaubten nicht, dass die durch die Gesellschaft der Liebhaber die dem Verfall unterliegenden Hügel von Wanda und Krakus mit Schutz umgeben wurden. Nicht nähertretend in die Einzelheiten der Wirkungen einzelner Gesellschaften oder individueller Personen aus der 2. Hälfte des 19. Jh. und der Jahre, die dem Ausbruch des 1. Weltkrieges vorangingen, gehört sich eins zu unterstreichen:

146

Denkmäler von Kraków. Das Satzungsziel dieser Gesellschaft war: Kennenlernen der historischen Vergangenheit von Kraków und seiner Umgebung sowie auch – Erwecken der Achtung für die Andenken und Denkmäler von Kraków unter der Gesamtheit seiner Bewohner [Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników…, 1896, S. 1]. Diese Gesellschaft versammelte einen ausgezeichneten Kreis Krakauer Wissenschaftler, unter denen sich die Professoren der Jagiellonen-Universität (Stanisław Krzyżanowski - der erste Vorsitzende der Gesellschaft, Stanisław Estreicher, Adam Krzyżanowski, Leonard Lepszy, Franciszek Piekosiński, Marian Sokołowski, Bolesław Ulanowski), aber auch Menschen der Kultur (Klemens Bąkowski, Adam Chmiel, Zygmunt Hendel, Stanisław Tomkowicz), wie auch Künstler (Władysław Łuszczkiewicz und Stanisław Wyspiański) befanden. Es ist nicht Zeit und Ort, um hier die Geschichte dieser Gesellschaft herbeizurufen, die bis heute existiert [Siehe: Bieńkowski, 1997; Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków…, 1997]. Es gehört sich jedoch, mindestens manches Unternehmen der Gesellschaft zu erwähnen, die zum Ziel die Rettung der Denkmäler hatten. Charakteristisch war, dass eine der ersten Kommissionen der Gesellschaft, welche im Jahre 1897 berufen wurde, die Berufung der Konservatorenkommission. Wirkend im Namen der ganzen Gesellschaft trat diese Kommission mit immer wieder neuen, wichtigen Initiativen auf. Unter anderem Ende der 90er Jahren hat die Gesellschaft – gemeinsam mit anderen – die Barbakane vor der Übergabe dem Volkstheater “beschützt” (und im Jahre 1909 – vor den Gelüsten ihrer Umgestaltung von Jan Styka in den Sitz des “Tannenberg-Panorama”). Im Jahre 1913 protestierte sie wirksam gegen die Pläne der Bebauung der Błonia. Mit ihrer Mühe und dank den durch die Gesellschaft gesammelten Fonds, wurde Anfang des 20. Jh. die gotische Ölbergszene an der St. Barbara-Kirche restauriert. Im Jahre 1906 initiierte die Gesellschaft eine Aktion, die zum Ziel hatte, die Gebäude der St. Agnes-Kirche aus privater Hand zu kaufen (in ihm befand sich in dieser Zeit ein Eisenmetalllager). Im Jahre 1905


147

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

in der 2. Hälfte des 19. Jh. entstand in Kraków eine soziale Bewegung, die zum Ziel die Rettung der historischen Bauwerke vor der Zerstörung hatte, sowie auch der beweglichen Denkmäler. Den Anfang dieser Bewegung gaben die Menschen des Schlags von Feliks Radwański (Vater), Florian Straszewski, Karol Kremer, oder Ambroży Grabowski. Mit der Zeit sind kulturelle Vereine entstanden, die – wirkend auf verschiedenen Feldern –eine immer größere Bedeutung an den Denkmalschutz legten. Das Erscheinen des Vereins

der Elf Kulturellen Gesellschaften Anfang des 20. Jh., bei der Gelegenheit des Kampfes um die Errettung der Häuschen neben der St. Ägidius-Kirche vor dem Abriss, der auf eine koordinierte Weise gemeinsam zu wirken begann, ist der einzige in seiner Art, ein in anderen polnischen und europäischen Städten unbekanntes Beispiel der Verbindung der Anstrengungen vieler Menschen zwecks Rettung des Nationalerbes. Es gehört sich also, diese Menschen und ihre selbstlose Arbeit in Erinnerung zu behalten.

Bibliografie

Łuszczkiewicz W., Sokołowski M., Paweł Popiel (1807

Bąkowski K., Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898.

Palarczykowa A., Artur Potocki i jego pałac “Pod Bara-

wego Krakowskiego”, t. 23, 1851. po Sądecczyźnie [in:] “Rocznik Towarzystwa NaukoBieńkowski W., Strażnicy dziejów miasta narodowej pamięci. Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa w latach 1896 – 1996, Kraków 1997 Chmiel A., Feliks Radwański (1926) [in:] Chmiel A., Szkice krakowskie, Kraków 1939-1947. Grabowski A., Wspomnienia, red. Estreicher S., Kraków 1909, t. II. Klein F., Notatnik krakowski, Kraków 1965. Klein F., Pałac “Pod Krzysztofory“ w Krakowie, Kraków 1914. Krzyżanowski S., Ludność Krakowa z końcem XVIII w. [in:] “Kalendarz Krakowski Józefa Czecha na rok 1902”, Kraków 1901. Lepiarczyk J., Działalność architektoniczna Sebastiana Sierakowskiego. Projekty klasycystyczne i neogotyckie (1777 – 1824), Kraków 1968. Lepiarczyk J., Konserwacja zabytków architektury, Kraków 1954. Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków. Założyciele Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, pod

– 1892), Kraków 1893. nami” w Krakowie, Kraków 1995. Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu miłośników ojczystych zabytków w Krakowie w dniach 3 i 4 lipca 1911 roku, Kraków 1912. Piekarczyk J., Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory [in:] “Kraków” 1984, nr 1. Rożek M., Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa [in:] “Biuletyn Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej” XXXIII (1983). Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, Kraków 1896. Statut Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, Kraków 1901. Ślesiński W., Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku [in:] “Ochrona Zabytków” 1963, nr 1, Żmudziński J., Restauracja zabytków malarstwa sztalugowego w działalności krakowskiego Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury (1902 – 1926) [in:] “Rocznik Biblioteki PAN w Krakowie” XLII, 1997.

red. W. Bieńkowskiego, Kraków 1997. Łepkowski J., Sprawozdanie z podróży archeologicznej

Łepkowski J., Sprawozdanie z podróży archeologicznej red. W. Bieńkowskiego, Kraków 1997. twa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, pod Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków. Założyciele TowarzysKraków 1954. Lepiarczyk J., Konserwacja zabytków architektury, tyckie (1777 – 1824), Kraków 1968. Sierakowskiego. Projekty klasycystyczne i neogoLepiarczyk J., Działalność architektoniczna Sebastiana 1902”, Kraków 1901. [in:] “Kalendarz Krakowski Józefa Czecha na rok Krzyżanowski S., Ludność Krakowa z końcem XVIII w. 1914. Klein F., Pałac “Pod Krzysztofory“ w Krakowie, Kraków Klein F., Notatnik krakowski, Kraków 1965. 1909, t. II. Grabowski A., Wspomnienia, red. Estreicher S., Kraków krakowskie, Kraków 1939-1947. Chmiel A., Feliks Radwański (1926) [in:] Chmiel A., Szkice Krakowa w latach 1896 – 1996, Kraków 1997 pamięci. Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Bieńkowski W., Strażnicy dziejów miasta narodowej Bąkowski K., Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898.

Bibliografie

XLII, 1997. – 1926) [in:] “Rocznik Biblioteki PAN w Krakowie” Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury (1902 lugowego w działalności krakowskiego Towarzystwa Żmudziński J., Restauracja zabytków malarstwa sztabytków” 1963, nr 1, w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku [in:] “Ochrona ZaŚlesiński W., Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa Sztuki i Kultury, Kraków 1901. Statut Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Krakowa, Kraków 1896. Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej” XXXIII (1983). Rożek M., Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa [in:] “Biuletyn [in:] “Kraków” 1984, nr 1. Piekarczyk J., Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory Kraków 1912. zabytków w Krakowie w dniach 3 i 4 lipca 1911 roku, Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu miłośników ojczystych nami” w Krakowie, Kraków 1995. Palarczykowa A., Artur Potocki i jego pałac “Pod Bara– 1892), Kraków 1893. Łuszczkiewicz W., Sokołowski M., Paweł Popiel (1807

po Sądecczyźnie [in:] “Rocznik Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego”, t. 23, 1851.

in der 2. Hälfte des 19. Jh. entstand in Kraków eine soziale Bewegung, die zum Ziel die Rettung der historischen Bauwerke vor der Zerstörung hatte, sowie auch der beweglichen Denkmäler. Den Anfang dieser Bewegung gaben die Menschen des Schlags von Feliks Radwański (Vater), Florian Straszewski, Karol Kremer, oder Ambroży Grabowski. Mit der Zeit sind kulturelle Vereine entstanden, die – wirkend auf verschiedenen Feldern –eine immer größere Bedeutung an den Denkmalschutz legten. Das Erscheinen des Vereins Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

147

der Elf Kulturellen Gesellschaften Anfang des 20. Jh., bei der Gelegenheit des Kampfes um die Errettung der Häuschen neben der St. Ägidius-Kirche vor dem Abriss, der auf eine koordinierte Weise gemeinsam zu wirken begann, ist der einzige in seiner Art, ein in anderen polnischen und europäischen Städten unbekanntes Beispiel der Verbindung der Anstrengungen vieler Menschen zwecks Rettung des Nationalerbes. Es gehört sich also, diese Menschen und ihre selbstlose Arbeit in Erinnerung zu behalten.


148

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden1

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

148

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Der dargestellte Text wurde auf der Grundlage des internationalen vergleichenden Berichts und des polnischen Berichts, bearbeitet im Rahmen der internationalen Untersuchung, realisiert im Herbst 2007 durch CIRCLE (Netz europäischer Untersuchungsinstitute und Dokumentationszentren) vorbereitet und tituliert: Festival Policies of Public Authorithies in Europe. Die vorbereitenden Resultate der Untersuchung wurden auf der Konferenz, organisiert durch Interarts in Barcelona am 19. und 20. Oktober 2007, besprochen. Gegenstand der Untersuchung war das Engagement der öffentlichen Behörden in die Unterstützung der Festivals in 20 Ländern Europas. Jeder der Vertreter der 20 Länder, die an der Untersuchung teilnahmen, bereitete einen Landesbericht vor, welcher aus zwei wesentlichen Teilen bestand: Skizze der allgemeinen Situation der öffentlich unterstützten künstlerischen Festivals, sowie ein Fallstudium, betreffen das ausgewählte Festival. Autoren des Vergleichsberichts waren Dorota Ilczuk und Magdalena Kulikowska, und des polnischen Berichts Michał Merczyński und das Team der Stiftung Pro Cultura.

F

ie europäische Festivallandschaft ist unheimlich reich. Es wird eine generelle Wachstumstendenz der Zahl der organisierten Festivals beobachtet. Das betrifft auch die Festivals, die den Untersuchungsgegenstand bestimmen – künstlerischen, internationalen und aus öffentlichen Mitteln unterstützten. Eine solche Situation

lediglich in Italien, Frankreich, Österreich und Finnland untersucht, und die Untersuchungen bezogen sich gewöhnlich nur auf ausgewählte Aspekte des Engagements öffentlicher Behörden bei Festivals. In Ungarn wurde 2005 ein Bericht National Survey on Festival in Hungary veröffentlicht. Er hat einen angewandten Charakter und diente als Hilfe bei der Bearbeitung des Aktionsplanes der Behörden. Trotzdem wurde der Einfluss, welchen die Festivals ausüben auf das Gesamtbild des Kulturgebietes des gegebenen Territoriums in den skandinavischen Ländern sowohl von den Gesellschaften, als auch den öffentlichen Behörden bemerkt, die die Festivals in den Bereich ihres Interesses einschlossen. Im vorliegenden Text ist der Gesichtspunkt der Herangehensweise der öffentlichen Behörden zu den Festivals der führende Aspekt.

D

1. FESTIVALS IN EUROPA

1.1. Zahl der Festivals und Orte ihrer Organisation

1.1. Zahl der Festivals und Orte ihrer Organisation

1. FESTIVALS IN EUROPA

D

1

lediglich in Italien, Frankreich, Österreich und Finnland untersucht, und die Untersuchungen bezogen sich gewöhnlich nur auf ausgewählte Aspekte des Engagements öffentlicher Behörden bei Festivals. In Ungarn wurde 2005 ein Bericht National Survey on Festival in Hungary veröffentlicht. Er hat einen angewandten Charakter und diente als Hilfe bei der Bearbeitung des Aktionsplanes der Behörden. Trotzdem wurde der Einfluss, welchen die Festivals ausüben auf das Gesamtbild des Kulturgebietes des gegebenen Territoriums in den skandinavischen Ländern sowohl von den Gesellschaften, als auch den öffentlichen Behörden bemerkt, die die Festivals in den Bereich ihres Interesses einschlossen. Im vorliegenden Text ist der Gesichtspunkt der Herangehensweise der öffentlichen Behörden zu den Festivals der führende Aspekt.

ie europäische Festivallandschaft ist unheimlich reich. Es wird eine generelle Wachstumstendenz der Zahl der organisierten Festivals beobachtet. Das betrifft auch die Festivals, die den Untersuchungsgegenstand bestimmen – künstlerischen, internationalen und aus öffentlichen Mitteln unterstützten. Eine solche Situation

estivals sind Ereignisse mit nationalem und transnationalem Ausmaß, die zum Ziel die Promotion einer oder vieler künstlerischen Disziplinen haben, organisiert an einem bestimmten Ort und zu einer bestimmten Zeit. Festivals sind oft die Arena der interkulturellen Interaktionen, sowie auch ein wichtiger Faktor, der die Reorganisation des öffentlichen Raumes beeinflusst. Der Hauptort ihrer Organisation sind europäische Städte, und besonders die Metropolen. Die Stadtbehörden haben schnell begonnen, ihren komplexen Charakter zu schätzen, die Vielfalt der sozialen, künstlerischen, kulturellen und ökonomischen Funktionen, sowie auch die Kraft ihrer Einwirkung. Die gegenwärtigen Festivals werden zu einem der wichtigsten Phänomene auf der europäischen kulturellen Bühne. Dieser Text wird sich lediglich auf die Festivals konzentrieren, die öffentliche finanzielle Unterstützung erhalten und zwei zusätzliche Kriterien: internationaler Charakter und künstlerisches Profil, erfüllen. Unterscheiden sie sich vom Rest der Festivals? Bis zu einem gewissen Grad ja. Vor allem aufgrund der oben erwähnten Merkmalen erfreuen sie sich einem hohen Ansehen. Außerdem finanzieren die öffentlichen Behörden lieber die internationalen Festivals mit, als diese mit lokaler Bedeutung, indem sie verursachen, dass sie eine größere finanzielle Stabilität haben. Der bisherige Zustand der Untersuchungen, Berichte und Studien über die Festivals in Europa präsentiert sich nicht allzu gut. Die Festivals wurden

estivals sind Ereignisse mit nationalem und transnationalem Ausmaß, die zum Ziel die Promotion einer oder vieler künstlerischen Disziplinen haben, organisiert an einem bestimmten Ort und zu einer bestimmten Zeit. Festivals sind oft die Arena der interkulturellen Interaktionen, sowie auch ein wichtiger Faktor, der die Reorganisation des öffentlichen Raumes beeinflusst. Der Hauptort ihrer Organisation sind europäische Städte, und besonders die Metropolen. Die Stadtbehörden haben schnell begonnen, ihren komplexen Charakter zu schätzen, die Vielfalt der sozialen, künstlerischen, kulturellen und ökonomischen Funktionen, sowie auch die Kraft ihrer Einwirkung. Die gegenwärtigen Festivals werden zu einem der wichtigsten Phänomene auf der europäischen kulturellen Bühne. Dieser Text wird sich lediglich auf die Festivals konzentrieren, die öffentliche finanzielle Unterstützung erhalten und zwei zusätzliche Kriterien: internationaler Charakter und künstlerisches Profil, erfüllen. Unterscheiden sie sich vom Rest der Festivals? Bis zu einem gewissen Grad ja. Vor allem aufgrund der oben erwähnten Merkmalen erfreuen sie sich einem hohen Ansehen. Außerdem finanzieren die öffentlichen Behörden lieber die internationalen Festivals mit, als diese mit lokaler Bedeutung, indem sie verursachen, dass sie eine größere finanzielle Stabilität haben. Der bisherige Zustand der Untersuchungen, Berichte und Studien über die Festivals in Europa präsentiert sich nicht allzu gut. Die Festivals wurden

F

Dr. habil. Dorota Ilczuk Die Professorin der Geiseswissenschaften der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa, Mitbegründerin und Präsidentin der Pro Cultura Stiftung, Mitgliederin des Europäischen Kulturparlaments. Bis zum Jahre 2001 war sie als wissenschaftliche Angestellte im Kulturinstitut in Warszawa tätig. In den Jahren 2002-2007 war sie CIRCLE-Präsidentin (CIRCLE ist das europäische Netzwerk von Institutionen, die im Bereich Kulturforschung, -dokumentation und -information aktiv sind). Sie arbeitet mit ausländischen Organisationen und wissenschaftlichen Instituten wie z.B. ERICArts, Association for Cultural Economics, ISTR zusammen. Sie nahm an über hundert wissenschaftlichen Konferenzen im In- und Ausland teil. Sie ist

Dr. habil. Dorota Ilczuk Die Professorin der Geiseswissenschaften der Hochschule für Sozialpsychologie in Warszawa, Mitbegründerin und Präsidentin der Pro Cultura Stiftung, Mitgliederin des Europäischen Kulturparlaments. Bis zum Jahre 2001 war sie als wissenschaftliche Angestellte im Kulturinstitut in Warszawa tätig. In den Jahren 2002-2007 war sie CIRCLE-Präsidentin (CIRCLE ist das europäische Netzwerk von Institutionen, die im Bereich Kulturforschung, -dokumentation und -information aktiv sind). Sie arbeitet mit ausländischen Organisationen und wissenschaftlichen Instituten wie z.B. ERICArts, Association for Cultural Economics, ISTR zusammen. Sie nahm an über hundert wissenschaftlichen Konferenzen im In- und Ausland teil. Sie ist

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Der dargestellte Text wurde auf der Grundlage des internationalen vergleichenden Berichts und des polnischen Berichts, bearbeitet im Rahmen der internationalen Untersuchung, realisiert im Herbst 2007 durch CIRCLE (Netz europäischer Untersuchungsinstitute und Dokumentationszentren) vorbereitet und tituliert: Festival Policies of Public Authorithies in Europe. Die vorbereitenden Resultate der Untersuchung wurden auf der Konferenz, organisiert durch Interarts in Barcelona am 19. und 20. Oktober 2007, besprochen. Gegenstand der Untersuchung war das Engagement der öffentlichen Behörden in die Unterstützung der Festivals in 20 Ländern Europas. Jeder der Vertreter der 20 Länder, die an der Untersuchung teilnahmen, bereitete einen Landesbericht vor, welcher aus zwei wesentlichen Teilen bestand: Skizze der allgemeinen Situation der öffentlich unterstützten künstlerischen Festivals, sowie ein Fallstudium, betreffen das ausgewählte Festival. Autoren des Vergleichsberichts waren Dorota Ilczuk und Magdalena Kulikowska, und des polnischen Berichts Michał Merczyński und das Team der Stiftung Pro Cultura.

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

1

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden1


149

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

TABELLE 1: Zahl der internationalen, künstlerischen Festivals, die aus den öffentlichen Mitteln in den gewählten Ländern unterstützt werden STAAT

ZAHL*

Frankreich

etwa 1 000

Spanien

etwa 700

Deutschland

474

Italien

200

Polen

163

Russland

über 100

Ungarn

89

Bulgarien

85

Portugal

77

Slowakei

16

*Aufgrund des Fehlens von offiziellen Statistiken, haben die Daten meistens den Charakter eines Schätzwertes.

Die Mehrheit der Festivals in den mit Erkennung umfassten Ländern findet in großen Stadtzentren und touristischen Regionen statt. Ein gutes Beispiel ist Spanien, wo im Jahre 2005 Andalusien, Katalonien und die Region von Madrid entsprechend 18%, 14% und 13% aller Theaterfestivals, sowie 16%, 23% und 9% der Musikfestivals zu Gast hatten, eingeschlossen die Jazzwettbewerbe.

1.2. Festivalarten

U

nter den internationalen und künstlerischen Festivals in Europa überwiegen die Musikfestivals nicht nur unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Menge, sondern auch der Höhe der Zuschüsse aus den öffentlichen Mitteln. Beispielsweise betrugen die Ausgaben für die Musikfestivals auf der zentralen Stufe in Italien im Jahre 2005 8,84 Millionen Euro, was ganze 83,6% aller Ausgaben aus dieser Stufe ausmachte, die für die Unterstützung der Festivals bestimmt wurden. Von diesen Mitteln profitierten 68 Festivals – wovon viele der Oper gewidmeten waren, wie z.B. Ros-

1.3. Motive

M

otive, von denen sich die öffentlichen Behörden leiten lassen, indem sie die Unterstützung der Festivals entscheiden, können am kürzesten folgendermaßen bezeichnet werden: auf der Stufe des Staates geht es hauptsächlich um die Realisierung der künstlerischen Zwecke, mit Nachdruck auf die Prestigeveranstaltungen, die das Land im Ausland fördern, dagegen auf der regionalen und lokalen Stufe vermischen sich die künstlerischen Ziele mit den politischen, ökonomischen und sozialen. Oft sind die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden in einem viel kleineren Grad an dem künstlerischen Wert des gegebenen Festivals interessiert, als an seinen anderen Werten, zum Beispiel den ökonomischen. Eine solche Situation herrscht unter anderem in Österreich, Finnland, Belgien und Deutschland. Beispielsweise in Österreich werden systematische Untersuchungen geführt zum Thema des ökonomischen Einflusses der Festivals auf die Region, in der sie organisiert werden. Diese Untersuchungen beeinflussen auf bedeutsame Weise den Prozess der Entscheidungen, betreffend die Unterstützung der Festivals. Zum Beispiel generiert das Festival Bregenzer Festspiele (Land Vorarlberg), welches von den regionalen und lokalen Behörden insgesamt 2,65 Million Euro bekommt und fast das Doppelte von den zentralen Behörden, durchschnittlich jährlich Gewinne in Höhe von 167 Millionen Euro und schafft gleichzeitig jährlich 1 160 Volletat-Arbeitsplätze.

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden1

U

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

otive, von denen sich die öffentlichen Behörden leiten lassen, indem sie die Unterstützung der Festivals entscheiden, können am kürzesten folgendermaßen bezeichnet werden: auf der Stufe des Staates geht es hauptsächlich um die Realisierung der künstlerischen Zwecke, mit Nachdruck auf die Prestigeveranstaltungen, die das Land im Ausland fördern, dagegen auf der regionalen und lokalen Stufe vermischen sich die künstlerischen Ziele mit den politischen, ökonomischen und sozialen. Oft sind die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden in einem viel kleineren Grad an dem künstlerischen Wert des gegebenen Festivals interessiert, als an seinen anderen Werten, zum Beispiel den ökonomischen. Eine solche Situation herrscht unter anderem in Österreich, Finnland, Belgien und Deutschland. Beispielsweise in Österreich werden systematische Untersuchungen geführt zum Thema des ökonomischen Einflusses der Festivals auf die Region, in der sie organisiert werden. Diese Untersuchungen beeinflussen auf bedeutsame Weise den Prozess der Entscheidungen, betreffend die Unterstützung der Festivals. Zum Beispiel generiert das Festival Bregenzer Festspiele (Land Vorarlberg), welches von den regionalen und lokalen Behörden insgesamt 2,65 Million Euro bekommt und fast das Doppelte von den zentralen Behörden, durchschnittlich jährlich Gewinne in Höhe von 167 Millionen Euro und schafft gleichzeitig jährlich 1 160 Volletat-Arbeitsplätze.

1.2. Festivalarten Die Mehrheit der Festivals in den mit Erkennung umfassten Ländern findet in großen Stadtzentren und touristischen Regionen statt. Ein gutes Beispiel ist Spanien, wo im Jahre 2005 Andalusien, Katalonien und die Region von Madrid entsprechend 18%, 14% und 13% aller Theaterfestivals, sowie 16%, 23% und 9% der Musikfestivals zu Gast hatten, eingeschlossen die Jazzwettbewerbe. *Aufgrund des Fehlens von offiziellen Statistiken, haben die Daten meistens den Charakter eines Schätzwertes.

16

Slowakei

77

Portugal

85

Bulgarien

89

Ungarn

über 100

Russland

163

Polen

200

Italien

474

Deutschland

etwa 700

Spanien

etwa 1 000

Frankreich

ZAHL*

STAAT

TABELLE 1: Zahl der internationalen, künstlerischen Festivals, die aus den öffentlichen Mitteln in den gewählten Ländern unterstützt werden

findet besonders in solchen Ländern wie Spanien, Finnland, Deutschland (vor allem in Bezug auf die Periode nach der Wiedervereinigung), oder Kroatien statt, wo in der letzten Dekade der Zuwachs der Festivalmenge um 100% verzeichnet wurde. Jedoch, wie die Tabelle 1 zeigt, ist die Zahl der organisierten Festivals in einzelnen Ländern verschieden und hängt von einem breiten Fächer der ökonomischen, kulturellen und sozialen Bedingtheiten ab.

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

sini Opera Festival, Torre del Lago-Puccini, Valle d’Itria. Eine solche Situation tritt beinahe in allen untersuchten Ländern auf. Die einzige Ausnahme ist Polen, wo es mehr Theaterfestivals, als Musikfestivals gibt. Gewöhnlich platzieren sich die Theaterfestivals auf der zweiten Position. Die weiteren Plätze nehmen meistens Tanz- und Filmfestivals ein. Es wächst auch die Zahl der interdisziplinären Festivals, die von der Bindung an die eine Gattung der künstlerischen Expression weggehen. Bisher ist es schwierig, die Höhe der Zuschüsse zu diesem Festivaltyp einzuschätzen, denn sie werden gewöhnlich den Veranstaltungen zugeordnet, gewidmet einer der künstlerischen Formen. Das einzige der Länder, in welchem die interdisziplinären Festivals unterschieden und als eine getrennte Kategorie qualifiziert werden, ist Frankreich. Interdisziplinäre Festivals nehmen dort den zweiten Platz ein, hinter den Musikfestivals, in der Rangliste der Höhe der öffentlichen Subventionierung.

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

nter den internationalen und künstlerischen Festivals in Europa überwiegen die Musikfestivals nicht nur unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Menge, sondern auch der Höhe der Zuschüsse aus den öffentlichen Mitteln. Beispielsweise betrugen die Ausgaben für die Musikfestivals auf der zentralen Stufe in Italien im Jahre 2005 8,84 Millionen Euro, was ganze 83,6% aller Ausgaben aus dieser Stufe ausmachte, die für die Unterstützung der Festivals bestimmt wurden. Von diesen Mitteln profitierten 68 Festivals – wovon viele der Oper gewidmeten waren, wie z.B. Ros-

Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden1

findet besonders in solchen Ländern wie Spanien, Finnland, Deutschland (vor allem in Bezug auf die Periode nach der Wiedervereinigung), oder Kroatien statt, wo in der letzten Dekade der Zuwachs der Festivalmenge um 100% verzeichnet wurde. Jedoch, wie die Tabelle 1 zeigt, ist die Zahl der organisierten Festivals in einzelnen Ländern verschieden und hängt von einem breiten Fächer der ökonomischen, kulturellen und sozialen Bedingtheiten ab.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

149

die Leiterin zahlreicher Forschungsprogramme. Als Expertin der Europäischen Kommission und des Europäischen Parlaments nimmt sie an internationalen Forschungsprojekten teil, die Kulturprobleme anbelangen. Die Autorin und Koautorin zahlreicher Publikationen und über hundert Expertisen und Artikel in den folgenden Forschungsbereichen: 1) ökonomische Aspekte von kulturellen Aktivitäten, d.h. Kulturökonomie; 2) Verflechtungen zwischen Kulturpolitik und der Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft; 3) Kulturmanagement. Ihre bisherigen Forschungen konzentrierten sich auf die folgenden Aspekten: ausländische Modelle der Kulturfinanzierung, Kulturkommerzialisierung, Markt in der Kultur, Regeln, Formen und Kriterien öffentlicher Kulturfinanzierung, Möglichkeiten im Bereich Kulturorganisierung und -finanzierung im Rahmen vom dritten Sektor, Mäzenatentum und Kultursponsoring, ökonomische Bedeutung des kreativen Sektors und der Kulturindustrie, Änderungen in öffentlichen Kultureinrichtungen. Praxisnahe Projekte im Bereich Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik von Metropolen nehmen in ihren beruflichen Aktivitäten einen besonderen Platz ein.

M

1.3. Motive sini Opera Festival, Torre del Lago-Puccini, Valle d’Itria. Eine solche Situation tritt beinahe in allen untersuchten Ländern auf. Die einzige Ausnahme ist Polen, wo es mehr Theaterfestivals, als Musikfestivals gibt. Gewöhnlich platzieren sich die Theaterfestivals auf der zweiten Position. Die weiteren Plätze nehmen meistens Tanz- und Filmfestivals ein. Es wächst auch die Zahl der interdisziplinären Festivals, die von der Bindung an die eine Gattung der künstlerischen Expression weggehen. Bisher ist es schwierig, die Höhe der Zuschüsse zu diesem Festivaltyp einzuschätzen, denn sie werden gewöhnlich den Veranstaltungen zugeordnet, gewidmet einer der künstlerischen Formen. Das einzige der Länder, in welchem die interdisziplinären Festivals unterschieden und als eine getrennte Kategorie qualifiziert werden, ist Frankreich. Interdisziplinäre Festivals nehmen dort den zweiten Platz ein, hinter den Musikfestivals, in der Rangliste der Höhe der öffentlichen Subventionierung.

die Leiterin zahlreicher Forschungsprogramme. Als Expertin der Europäischen Kommission und des Europäischen Parlaments nimmt sie an internationalen Forschungsprojekten teil, die Kulturprobleme anbelangen. Die Autorin und Koautorin zahlreicher Publikationen und über hundert Expertisen und Artikel in den folgenden Forschungsbereichen: 1) ökonomische Aspekte von kulturellen Aktivitäten, d.h. Kulturökonomie; 2) Verflechtungen zwischen Kulturpolitik und der Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft; 3) Kulturmanagement. Ihre bisherigen Forschungen konzentrierten sich auf die folgenden Aspekten: ausländische Modelle der Kulturfinanzierung, Kulturkommerzialisierung, Markt in der Kultur, Regeln, Formen und Kriterien öffentlicher Kulturfinanzierung, Möglichkeiten im Bereich Kulturorganisierung und -finanzierung im Rahmen vom dritten Sektor, Mäzenatentum und Kultursponsoring, ökonomische Bedeutung des kreativen Sektors und der Kulturindustrie, Änderungen in öffentlichen Kultureinrichtungen. Praxisnahe Projekte im Bereich Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik von Metropolen nehmen in ihren beruflichen Aktivitäten einen besonderen Platz ein.


1.4. Stufen des öffentlichen Sektors, verantwortlich für die Unterstützung der Festivals in Europa

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

A

150

wirken, die sich mit den Angelegenheiten der Festivals beschäftigen – das Krakauer Festivalbüro. Es lohnt sich, auf ein Beispiel außerhalb von Europa aufmerksam zu werden. In Chicago funktioniert MOSE – Mayor’s Office of Special Events – ein Department des Rathauses von Chicago, welches für die Organisation oder Koproduktion der größten allgemeinzugänglichen Stadtfestivals verantwortlich ist. Dagegen nutzen die europäischen Selbstverwaltungen, besonders in den Metropolen, (und das vor allem der postkomunistischen Länder) zum Engagieren in die Organisation der für die Stadt besonders wichtigen Festivals eigene Institutionen. Ein Beispiel ist die polnische Stołeczna Estrada, städtische Kulturinstitution, die sich mit der Organisation der eigenen und in Auftrag gegebenen kulturellen Veranstaltungen, Festivals, kultureller Aktionen in Warschau beschäftigt. Die Aufzeigung einer engagiertesten Stufe der öffentlichen Behörden in die Unterstützung der Festivals ist schwierig. Die Situation kann als differenziert bezeichnet werden. Oft ist die zentrale Stufe am meisten engagiert (Tab. 2). So ist es u.a. in der Türkei, Finnland, der Slowakei, Polen und Kroatien. Beispielsweise verlieh das finnische Bildungsministerium im Jahre 2007 3,7 Millionen Euro den 147 kulturellen Ereignissen, von denen die Mehrheit die Festivals bestimmten. In der gleichen Zeit gewährten die lokalen Behörden 1,3 Millionen Euro an 43 Festivals. Im Fall von Polen kann festgestellt werden, dass in der Praxis das Kultusministerium und die Gemeinden grundsätzlich einzige Einheiten sind, die aktiv auf diesem Feld bleiben. Auf der anderen Seite delegiert das französische Kultusministerium seit 2001 die Verantwortung für die Unterstützung der Festivals an die regionalen und lokalen Behörden. Auch zeigt das Beispiel des slowakischen Festivals Divadelna Nitra Interantional Festiwal auf das hohe Niveau der Finanzierung aus der zentralen Stufe – 54,5% des gesamten Budgets erhielt das Festival aus dieser Quelle und lediglich 2,6% von den Behörden der übrigen Stufen öffentlicher Verwaltung. In den Ländern mit der Bundesstruktur (Deutschland, Belgien) engagiert sich die zentrale Stufe nur sporadisch in die Unterstützung der Festivals. Die Aktivität der regionalen und lokalen Behörden in einzelnen Ländern in Bezug auf die Unterstützung der Festivals ist auch sichtbar. In Abhängigkeit von dem Land unterscheidet sich der Grad des Engagements einzelner Stufen der Selbstverwaltungsbehörden. In Österreich, Belgien und Frankreich sind die regionalen Stufen mehr aktiv. Beispielsweise erhält das

uf der zentralen Stufe des öffentlichen Sektors ist für die Unterstützung der Festivals in erster Reihe das Kultusministerium oder das Ministerium, welches sich mit den Kulturangelegenheiten beschäftigt (z.B. in Finnland das Bildungsministerium) verantwortlich. Es kann kein Department innerhalb der Kulturministerien aufgezeigt werden, welches entscheidend für die Unterstützung der Festivals verantwortlich ist. Es sind gewöhnlich verschiedene Departments, die für verschiedene Kunstbereiche verantwortlich sind. In der Türkei beispielsweise sind das General Directorate for Research and Education – Department of Folk Culture, General Directorate for Fine Arts, General Directorate for State Opera and Ballets und das General Directorate for State Theatres. In Portugal dagegen befindet sich das Direcçăo-Geral das Artes (Directorate-General for the Arts). In den Bundesländern ist die Situation eine andere ausschließlich aufgrund der Last des Engagements der öffentlichen Behörden verschiedener Stufen – hier kommt auf die Stirn die regionale Stufe (Bundesländer). Diese Länder, die wie Frankreich staatliche Strukturen der kulturellen Administration besitzen, die für die Regionen verantwortlich sind (z.B. DRAC’s), schließen sie aus den zentralen Mitteln in die Finanzierung der regionalen und lokalen Festivals ein. In den Ländern, in denen es Organisationen vom Typ Quango gibt, unterstützen eben sie aktiv die Festivals, beispielsweise Arts Council in Finnland, Kultuurkapital in Estland, National Film Centre in Bulgarien, Film and Audiovisual Institute in Portugal oder Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography in Russland. Wenn auf der zentralen Stufe des europäischen öffentlichen Sektors die Europäische Union und ihre Strukturen platziert werden, so können wir sie als Partner der Festivals beurteilen, nach wie vor einen seltenen, aber allmählich seine Tätigkeit aktivisierenden. Das zweite wichtige Kettenglied des öffentlichen Sektors, engagiert in die Unterstützung der Festivals in Europa sind die Selbstverwaltungen der regionalen und lokalen Stufe. Die Selbstverwaltungen ernennen die Berechtigungen zur Unterstützung der Festivals gewöhnlich ihren Büros/Departments/Abteilungen, die sich mit den Angelegenheiten der Kultur und Promotion der Stadt beschäftigen. Unter den analysierten Ländern wurde nur ein Beispiel gefunden der Schaffung von den Selbstverwaltungsbehörden spezieller Zellen/Büros, die innerhalb der Ämter

uf der zentralen Stufe des öffentlichen Sektors ist für die Unterstützung der Festivals in erster Reihe das Kultusministerium oder das Ministerium, welches sich mit den Kulturangelegenheiten beschäftigt (z.B. in Finnland das Bildungsministerium) verantwortlich. Es kann kein Department innerhalb der Kulturministerien aufgezeigt werden, welches entscheidend für die Unterstützung der Festivals verantwortlich ist. Es sind gewöhnlich verschiedene Departments, die für verschiedene Kunstbereiche verantwortlich sind. In der Türkei beispielsweise sind das General Directorate for Research and Education – Department of Folk Culture, General Directorate for Fine Arts, General Directorate for State Opera and Ballets und das General Directorate for State Theatres. In Portugal dagegen befindet sich das Direcçăo-Geral das Artes (Directorate-General for the Arts). In den Bundesländern ist die Situation eine andere ausschließlich aufgrund der Last des Engagements der öffentlichen Behörden verschiedener Stufen – hier kommt auf die Stirn die regionale Stufe (Bundesländer). Diese Länder, die wie Frankreich staatliche Strukturen der kulturellen Administration besitzen, die für die Regionen verantwortlich sind (z.B. DRAC’s), schließen sie aus den zentralen Mitteln in die Finanzierung der regionalen und lokalen Festivals ein. In den Ländern, in denen es Organisationen vom Typ Quango gibt, unterstützen eben sie aktiv die Festivals, beispielsweise Arts Council in Finnland, Kultuurkapital in Estland, National Film Centre in Bulgarien, Film and Audiovisual Institute in Portugal oder Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography in Russland. Wenn auf der zentralen Stufe des europäischen öffentlichen Sektors die Europäische Union und ihre Strukturen platziert werden, so können wir sie als Partner der Festivals beurteilen, nach wie vor einen seltenen, aber allmählich seine Tätigkeit aktivisierenden. Das zweite wichtige Kettenglied des öffentlichen Sektors, engagiert in die Unterstützung der Festivals in Europa sind die Selbstverwaltungen der regionalen und lokalen Stufe. Die Selbstverwaltungen ernennen die Berechtigungen zur Unterstützung der Festivals gewöhnlich ihren Büros/Departments/Abteilungen, die sich mit den Angelegenheiten der Kultur und Promotion der Stadt beschäftigen. Unter den analysierten Ländern wurde nur ein Beispiel gefunden der Schaffung von den Selbstverwaltungsbehörden spezieller Zellen/Büros, die innerhalb der Ämter

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

A

wirken, die sich mit den Angelegenheiten der Festivals beschäftigen – das Krakauer Festivalbüro. Es lohnt sich, auf ein Beispiel außerhalb von Europa aufmerksam zu werden. In Chicago funktioniert MOSE – Mayor’s Office of Special Events – ein Department des Rathauses von Chicago, welches für die Organisation oder Koproduktion der größten allgemeinzugänglichen Stadtfestivals verantwortlich ist. Dagegen nutzen die europäischen Selbstverwaltungen, besonders in den Metropolen, (und das vor allem der postkomunistischen Länder) zum Engagieren in die Organisation der für die Stadt besonders wichtigen Festivals eigene Institutionen. Ein Beispiel ist die polnische Stołeczna Estrada, städtische Kulturinstitution, die sich mit der Organisation der eigenen und in Auftrag gegebenen kulturellen Veranstaltungen, Festivals, kultureller Aktionen in Warschau beschäftigt. Die Aufzeigung einer engagiertesten Stufe der öffentlichen Behörden in die Unterstützung der Festivals ist schwierig. Die Situation kann als differenziert bezeichnet werden. Oft ist die zentrale Stufe am meisten engagiert (Tab. 2). So ist es u.a. in der Türkei, Finnland, der Slowakei, Polen und Kroatien. Beispielsweise verlieh das finnische Bildungsministerium im Jahre 2007 3,7 Millionen Euro den 147 kulturellen Ereignissen, von denen die Mehrheit die Festivals bestimmten. In der gleichen Zeit gewährten die lokalen Behörden 1,3 Millionen Euro an 43 Festivals. Im Fall von Polen kann festgestellt werden, dass in der Praxis das Kultusministerium und die Gemeinden grundsätzlich einzige Einheiten sind, die aktiv auf diesem Feld bleiben. Auf der anderen Seite delegiert das französische Kultusministerium seit 2001 die Verantwortung für die Unterstützung der Festivals an die regionalen und lokalen Behörden. Auch zeigt das Beispiel des slowakischen Festivals Divadelna Nitra Interantional Festiwal auf das hohe Niveau der Finanzierung aus der zentralen Stufe – 54,5% des gesamten Budgets erhielt das Festival aus dieser Quelle und lediglich 2,6% von den Behörden der übrigen Stufen öffentlicher Verwaltung. In den Ländern mit der Bundesstruktur (Deutschland, Belgien) engagiert sich die zentrale Stufe nur sporadisch in die Unterstützung der Festivals. Die Aktivität der regionalen und lokalen Behörden in einzelnen Ländern in Bezug auf die Unterstützung der Festivals ist auch sichtbar. In Abhängigkeit von dem Land unterscheidet sich der Grad des Engagements einzelner Stufen der Selbstverwaltungsbehörden. In Österreich, Belgien und Frankreich sind die regionalen Stufen mehr aktiv. Beispielsweise erhält das

150

1.4. Stufen des öffentlichen Sektors, verantwortlich für die Unterstützung der Festivals in Europa


151

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

KROATIEN

FINNLAND

FRANKREICH

PORTUGAL

POLEN

SLOWAKEI

SPANIEN

hoch

Regionen/ Kreise

Gemeinden

Zentrum

Zentrum

Regionen/ Kreise

centrum/ Gminy

Zentrum

Zentrum

Gemeinden

mittel

Gemeinden

Zentrum

Regionen/ Kreise

Gemeinden

Gemeinden

-

Gemeinden

Regionen/ Kreise

Regionen

niedrig

-

-

-

Regionen/ Kreise

Zentrum

-

-

Gemeinden

Zentrum

BELGIEN

BULGARIEN

NIVEAU DES ENGAGEMENTS

Tabelle 2: Unterstützung der öffentlichen Behörden für die Festivals nach dem Grad des Engagements

österreichische Festival Steirischer Herbst Mittel aus der regionalen Stufe, die 47% des gesamten Budgets decken. Dagegen sind die lokalen Behörden verantwortlich für die Unterstützung der Festivals in solchen Ländern wie: Bulgarien, Belgien (Summer of Antwerp: lokale Stufe – 65%, regionale – 12,5%), oder Spanien (Dancing Days – International Dance Festival in Urban Landscapes: lokale Stufe – 53%, regionale – 22%, zentrale – 12%). Die Situation präsentiert sich anders im Falle des Engagements der öffentlichen Behörden in die Unterstützung der Festivals durch Sachhilfe. Es scheint, dass die zentralen Behörden selten eine solche Unterstützung gewähren. Es kann gesagt werden, dass je niedrigere Stufe der öffentlichen Verwaltung, desto häufiger wird die Sachunterstützung erteilt. Am häufigsten nimmt sie die Form der kostenlosen zur Verfügung stellen der öffentlichen Räume an. Die Festivals bedürfen der infrastrukturellen Hilfsmittel und eben das können ihnen die lokalen Behörden versichern. Es kommt auch vor, wie im Falle mancher kleineren französischen Städte, dass auf ihrem Gebiet Festivals mit regionalem oder internationalem Charakter organisiert werden, und das Budget der Stadtbehörden ist zu bescheiden, um sie finanziell zu unterstützen. Im Effekt erteilt die Stadt die Sachunterstützung (z.B. das Festival Ile-de-France sowie das Festival Automne en Normandie). Die aufgezeichnete Tendenz tritt aus selbstverständlichen Gründen nicht auf, wenn die öffentlichen Behörden Mitorganisator des Festivals sind oder wenn dieses durch die öffentlichen Institutionen organisiert wird. In solchen Fällen ist die sachliche Unterstützung allgemein auf allen Stufen der öffentlichen Behörden. niedrig mittel hoch NIVEAU DES ENGAGEMENTS

ie Bestimmung klarer Tendenzen, betreffend das öffentliche Finanzieren der Festivals ist nicht möglich, da die Festivals, wie das früher

D

1.6. Bandbreite der Finanzierung der Festivals aus den öffentlichen Quellen n Europa kann das Finanzieren der Projekte (project funding) als diese Form des öffentlichen Finanzierens der Festivals aufgezeigt werden, die in allen analysierten Ländern auftritt. Das Finanzieren der Projekte wird mit verschiedener Stärke realisiert – von dem in diesem Gebiet krabbelnden Bulgarien zu Finnland, wo das Prinzip die Annahme dieser Form vom Kultusministerium einzige Form, eingesetzt bei der Finanzierung der Festivals, ist. Das Finanzieren der Projekte kann eine unterschiedliche Zeitperspektive haben, verschiedene Empfänger, verschiedene Art der Selektion und Kontrolle der ausgegebenen Mittel und verschieden sein im Falle verschiedener Kulturgebiete. Es ist eine populäre Form, aber selbstverständlich nicht die einzige. Neben ihr können die finanziellen Mittel auf der Grundlage des u.a. Einverständnisses, abgeschlossen als öffentlich-private Partnerschaft (z.B. Slowakei), im Rahmen der Programme (Budgetlinie – budgetary lines, z.B. Spanien), sowie der ministerialen Dekrete (z.B. Italien) übergeben werden. Außerdem wird die Übertragung der Subventionen für die Organisation des Festivals angetroffen. Die Subventionen treten gewöhnlich in den Situationen auf, wo die Selbstverwaltung selbst das Festival organisiert oder eine Selbstverwaltungskulturinstitution (z.B. Frankreich, Bulgarien, Polen).

I

1.5. Formen der Finanzierung -

Zentrum

Regionen/ Kreise

-

-

-

Gemeinden

Gemeinden

Regionen/ Kreise

Zentrum

Gemeinden

Zentrum

Zentrum

Gemeinden

Regionen/ Kreise

Zentrum

Gemeinden

-

Regionen

Regionen/ Kreise

Gemeinden

-

Gemeinden

Zentrum

Zentrum

centrum/ Gminy

Regionen/ Kreise FRANKREICH

BELGIEN

PORTUGAL

BULGARIEN

POLEN

KROATIEN

SLOWAKEI

FINNLAND

SPANIEN

österreichische Festival Steirischer Herbst Mittel aus der regionalen Stufe, die 47% des gesamten Budgets decken. Dagegen sind die lokalen Behörden verantwortlich für die Unterstützung der Festivals in solchen Ländern wie: Bulgarien, Belgien (Summer of Antwerp: lokale Stufe – 65%, regionale – 12,5%), oder Spanien (Dancing Days – International Dance Festival in Urban Landscapes: lokale Stufe – 53%, regionale – 22%, zentrale – 12%). Die Situation präsentiert sich anders im Falle des Engagements der öffentlichen Behörden in die Unterstützung der Festivals durch Sachhilfe. Es scheint, dass die zentralen Behörden selten eine solche Unterstützung gewähren. Es kann gesagt werden, dass je niedrigere Stufe der öffentlichen Verwaltung, desto häufiger wird die Sachunterstützung erteilt. Am häufigsten nimmt sie die Form der kostenlosen zur Verfügung stellen der öffentlichen Räume an. Die Festivals bedürfen der infrastrukturellen Hilfsmittel und eben das können ihnen die lokalen Behörden versichern. Es kommt auch vor, wie im Falle mancher kleineren französischen Städte, dass auf ihrem Gebiet Festivals mit regionalem oder internationalem Charakter organisiert werden, und das Budget der Stadtbehörden ist zu bescheiden, um sie finanziell zu unterstützen. Im Effekt erteilt die Stadt die Sachunterstützung (z.B. das Festival Ile-de-France sowie das Festival Automne en Normandie). Die aufgezeichnete Tendenz tritt aus selbstverständlichen Gründen nicht auf, wenn die öffentlichen Behörden Mitorganisator des Festivals sind oder wenn dieses durch die öffentlichen Institutionen organisiert wird. In solchen Fällen ist die sachliche Unterstützung allgemein auf allen Stufen der öffentlichen Behörden.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

1.5. Formen der Finanzierung

I

n Europa kann das Finanzieren der Projekte (project funding) als diese Form des öffentlichen Finanzierens der Festivals aufgezeigt werden, die in allen analysierten Ländern auftritt. Das Finanzieren der Projekte wird mit verschiedener Stärke realisiert – von dem in diesem Gebiet krabbelnden Bulgarien zu Finnland, wo das Prinzip die Annahme dieser Form vom Kultusministerium einzige Form, eingesetzt bei der Finanzierung der Festivals, ist. Das Finanzieren der Projekte kann eine unterschiedliche Zeitperspektive haben, verschiedene Empfänger, verschiedene Art der Selektion und Kontrolle der ausgegebenen Mittel und verschieden sein im Falle verschiedener Kulturgebiete. Es ist eine populäre Form, aber selbstverständlich nicht die einzige. Neben ihr können die finanziellen Mittel auf der Grundlage des u.a. Einverständnisses, abgeschlossen als öffentlich-private Partnerschaft (z.B. Slowakei), im Rahmen der Programme (Budgetlinie – budgetary lines, z.B. Spanien), sowie der ministerialen Dekrete (z.B. Italien) übergeben werden. Außerdem wird die Übertragung der Subventionen für die Organisation des Festivals angetroffen. Die Subventionen treten gewöhnlich in den Situationen auf, wo die Selbstverwaltung selbst das Festival organisiert oder eine Selbstverwaltungskulturinstitution (z.B. Frankreich, Bulgarien, Polen).

1.6. Bandbreite der Finanzierung der Festivals aus den öffentlichen Quellen

D

ie Bestimmung klarer Tendenzen, betreffend das öffentliche Finanzieren der Festivals ist nicht möglich, da die Festivals, wie das früher

151

Tabelle 2: Unterstützung der öffentlichen Behörden für die Festivals nach dem Grad des Engagements


152

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Musik und Tanz, verlieh das Ministerium die Zuschüsse den 26 Festivals mit dem Gesamtbetrag in Höhe von 385 000 Euro (gemittelter Zuschuss – 14 800 Euro). Ein separater Wettbewerb, gewidmet den Musikfestivals, den Kongressen und anderen Ereignissen, erlaubte die Erteilung der Unterstützung den weiteren 65 Veranstaltungen in Höhe von 795 000 Euro (gemittelter Zuschuss – 12 000 Euro). Die Festivals, gewidmet den darstellenden Künsten in Portugal erhielten 2006 eine Unterstützung aus der zentralen Stufe mit der Gesamthöhe von fast 4 Millionen Euro. 7 Tanzfestivals erhielten 242 000 Euro (was 13% aller Ausgaben für den Tanz darstellte), 14 Tanzfestivals erhielten 1,17 Millionen Euro (11%) und 18 multidisziplinären - 1,5 Millionen Euro (44%).

enn wir die kulturelle Politik als zweckmäßigen und systematischen Interventionismus verschiedener Behördenstufen definieren, betreffend die Festivals, so wurde eine solche Betrachtungsweise zu der Unterstützung der Festivals in vielen Ländern nicht gefunden. Die Experten aus verschiedenen Ländern, gefragt, ob das bei ihnen existiert, haben gewöhnlich folgendermaßen geantwortet: MM Spanien: “Keine offizielle Politik wurde in diesem Bereich identifiziert.” MM Slowakei: “Die öffentlichen Behörden besitzen keine systematische Strategie der Unterstützung der Festivals.” MM Deutschland: “Keine Stufe der öffentlichen Behörden führte eine abgesonderte Regulierung betreffend die Festivals ein.” Es kann also festgestellt werden, dass die Fragen, verbunden mit den Festivals, durch einen Satz an Regulationen, Lösungen, Arten und Programmen reguliert werden, den wir symbolisch Praktiken nennen wollen, die sich aus den allgemeinen Voraussetzungen der kulturellen Politik des gegebenen Landes ergeben. Im Effekt, beispielsweise werden die Theaterfestivals wie die Theater selbst betrachtet und unterliegen den gleichen, wie Theater, Regulierungen oder werden angerechnet zu der allgemeinen Kategorie “andere Ereignisse” und dann betrachtet gleich mit den Konferenzen, Festen oder Freilichtveranstaltungen. Der Satz von Praktiken, über den hier die Rede ist, ist eine allgemeine Erscheinung in allen europäischen Ländern, da alle von ihnen die öffentliche Unterstützung den Festivals erteilen. Zu ihnen werden u.a. angerechnet:

1.7. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden gegenüber den Festivals in Europa

W

W

1.7. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden gegenüber den Festivals in Europa

enn wir die kulturelle Politik als zweckmäßigen und systematischen Interventionismus verschiedener Behördenstufen definieren, betreffend die Festivals, so wurde eine solche Betrachtungsweise zu der Unterstützung der Festivals in vielen Ländern nicht gefunden. Die Experten aus verschiedenen Ländern, gefragt, ob das bei ihnen existiert, haben gewöhnlich folgendermaßen geantwortet: MM Spanien: “Keine offizielle Politik wurde in diesem Bereich identifiziert.” MM Slowakei: “Die öffentlichen Behörden besitzen keine systematische Strategie der Unterstützung der Festivals.” MM Deutschland: “Keine Stufe der öffentlichen Behörden führte eine abgesonderte Regulierung betreffend die Festivals ein.” Es kann also festgestellt werden, dass die Fragen, verbunden mit den Festivals, durch einen Satz an Regulationen, Lösungen, Arten und Programmen reguliert werden, den wir symbolisch Praktiken nennen wollen, die sich aus den allgemeinen Voraussetzungen der kulturellen Politik des gegebenen Landes ergeben. Im Effekt, beispielsweise werden die Theaterfestivals wie die Theater selbst betrachtet und unterliegen den gleichen, wie Theater, Regulierungen oder werden angerechnet zu der allgemeinen Kategorie “andere Ereignisse” und dann betrachtet gleich mit den Konferenzen, Festen oder Freilichtveranstaltungen. Der Satz von Praktiken, über den hier die Rede ist, ist eine allgemeine Erscheinung in allen europäischen Ländern, da alle von ihnen die öffentliche Unterstützung den Festivals erteilen. Zu ihnen werden u.a. angerechnet:

152

Musik und Tanz, verlieh das Ministerium die Zuschüsse den 26 Festivals mit dem Gesamtbetrag in Höhe von 385 000 Euro (gemittelter Zuschuss – 14 800 Euro). Ein separater Wettbewerb, gewidmet den Musikfestivals, den Kongressen und anderen Ereignissen, erlaubte die Erteilung der Unterstützung den weiteren 65 Veranstaltungen in Höhe von 795 000 Euro (gemittelter Zuschuss – 12 000 Euro). Die Festivals, gewidmet den darstellenden Künsten in Portugal erhielten 2006 eine Unterstützung aus der zentralen Stufe mit der Gesamthöhe von fast 4 Millionen Euro. 7 Tanzfestivals erhielten 242 000 Euro (was 13% aller Ausgaben für den Tanz darstellte), 14 Tanzfestivals erhielten 1,17 Millionen Euro (11%) und 18 multidisziplinären - 1,5 Millionen Euro (44%).

erwähnt wurde, in den offiziellen Statistiken nicht berücksichtigt werden. Das betrifft auch die öffentlichen Ausgaben. Es kann also lediglich festgestellt werden, dass die “öffentlich finanzierten Festivals” wirklich die “Festivals, mitfinanziert aus den öffentlichen Quellen” sind. Die Höhe der Unterstützung für die Festivals in einzelnen europäischen Ländern ist differenziert. Unterhalb stellen wir ein paar Beispiele vor, die die Situation veranschaulichen. 2005 bestimmte das Österreichische Department für Kunst etwa 13,2 Millionen Euro für die Unterstützung und die Promotion der Festivals. Das bildete 15,6% des gesamten Budgets des Departments – damit sind die Festivals der dritte Kunstbereich, was die Höhe der aus dieser Quelle erlangten Unterstützung anbetrifft. Beispielsweise erhielt das Festival Salzburger Festspiele etwa 5,2 Millionen Euro aus dem Kunstdepartment, 2,74 Millionen Euro aus der Salzburger Provinz und 2,6 Millionen Euro von den Behörden der Stadt Salzburg. Das finnische Kultusministerium widmete 2007 3,7 Millionen Euro für die Unterstützung der wichtigsten kulturellen Ereignisse, von denen die Mehrheit Festivals sind. Die wichtigsten Zuschüsse wurden anerkannt: Savonlinna Opera Festival (660 000 Euro), Tampere Theatre Festival (217 000 Euro), Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (172 000 Euro), Kuopio Dance Festival (151 000 Uuro) und Kaustinen Folk Music Festival (150 000 Euro). Das französische Kultusministerium widmete 2006 7,5 Millionen Euro für die direkte Finanzierung von drei Festivals (Operfestival Lyrique d’Aix en Provence, Theaterfestival Festival d’Avignon, sowie das Musikfestival Festival d’Automne). Zusätzlich hat es 400 Festivals auf der regionalen Stufe im Betrag von insgesamt 11,6 Millionen Euro unterstützt. Diese Daten betreffen lediglich die Festivals, gewidmet den darstellenden Künsten und berücksichtigen nicht die Zuschüsse für die Kulturinstitutionen, die die Festivals organisieren. Die Musik-, Tanz- und Theaterfestivals in Italien erhielten insgesamt aus der zentralen Stufe im Jahre 2005 über 10,5 Millionen Euro. Die gemittelte Höhe des gewährten Zuschusses betrug 89,000 Euro. Diese Festivals erhielten am meisten auch die Mittel von den Selbstverwaltungsbehörden. In Spanien, wie schon früher erwähnt, gewährt das Kultusministerium die Zuschüsse im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe für einzelne Kunstbereiche. Und so, im Rahmen des Wettbewerbs für die Theaterund Zirkustätigkeit, im Jahre 2006, gewährte das Ministerium über eine Million Euro 87 Festivals (gemittelt betrugen die Zuschüsse 12 000 Euro). Im gleichen Jahr, für die Tätigkeit, verbunden mit

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

erwähnt wurde, in den offiziellen Statistiken nicht berücksichtigt werden. Das betrifft auch die öffentlichen Ausgaben. Es kann also lediglich festgestellt werden, dass die “öffentlich finanzierten Festivals” wirklich die “Festivals, mitfinanziert aus den öffentlichen Quellen” sind. Die Höhe der Unterstützung für die Festivals in einzelnen europäischen Ländern ist differenziert. Unterhalb stellen wir ein paar Beispiele vor, die die Situation veranschaulichen. 2005 bestimmte das Österreichische Department für Kunst etwa 13,2 Millionen Euro für die Unterstützung und die Promotion der Festivals. Das bildete 15,6% des gesamten Budgets des Departments – damit sind die Festivals der dritte Kunstbereich, was die Höhe der aus dieser Quelle erlangten Unterstützung anbetrifft. Beispielsweise erhielt das Festival Salzburger Festspiele etwa 5,2 Millionen Euro aus dem Kunstdepartment, 2,74 Millionen Euro aus der Salzburger Provinz und 2,6 Millionen Euro von den Behörden der Stadt Salzburg. Das finnische Kultusministerium widmete 2007 3,7 Millionen Euro für die Unterstützung der wichtigsten kulturellen Ereignisse, von denen die Mehrheit Festivals sind. Die wichtigsten Zuschüsse wurden anerkannt: Savonlinna Opera Festival (660 000 Euro), Tampere Theatre Festival (217 000 Euro), Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (172 000 Euro), Kuopio Dance Festival (151 000 Uuro) und Kaustinen Folk Music Festival (150 000 Euro). Das französische Kultusministerium widmete 2006 7,5 Millionen Euro für die direkte Finanzierung von drei Festivals (Operfestival Lyrique d’Aix en Provence, Theaterfestival Festival d’Avignon, sowie das Musikfestival Festival d’Automne). Zusätzlich hat es 400 Festivals auf der regionalen Stufe im Betrag von insgesamt 11,6 Millionen Euro unterstützt. Diese Daten betreffen lediglich die Festivals, gewidmet den darstellenden Künsten und berücksichtigen nicht die Zuschüsse für die Kulturinstitutionen, die die Festivals organisieren. Die Musik-, Tanz- und Theaterfestivals in Italien erhielten insgesamt aus der zentralen Stufe im Jahre 2005 über 10,5 Millionen Euro. Die gemittelte Höhe des gewährten Zuschusses betrug 89,000 Euro. Diese Festivals erhielten am meisten auch die Mittel von den Selbstverwaltungsbehörden. In Spanien, wie schon früher erwähnt, gewährt das Kultusministerium die Zuschüsse im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe für einzelne Kunstbereiche. Und so, im Rahmen des Wettbewerbs für die Theaterund Zirkustätigkeit, im Jahre 2006, gewährte das Ministerium über eine Million Euro 87 Festivals (gemittelt betrugen die Zuschüsse 12 000 Euro). Im gleichen Jahr, für die Tätigkeit, verbunden mit


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

differenzierte Finanzierungsformen und andere in einzelnen Ländern Kriterien der Erteilung den Festivals der Unterstützung; MM bevorzugen der Finanzierung durch Projekte; MM Grundsätze der Zusammenarbeit zwischen einzelnen Stufen der öffentlichen Behörden und den Nichtregierungsorganisationen bei der Organisation und Finanzierung der Festivals; MM Einführung spezieller Programme (z.B. Spanien), etc. Jedoch können die Praktiken von diesem Typ nicht als schlüssige Politik gegenüber den Festivals angesehen werden. Wie schon früher erwähnt wurde, bemerkten die öffentlichen Behörden in der Mehrheit der europäischen Ländern die wachsende Rolle der Festivals, und was dem folgt, auch die Notwendigkeit der Einführung separaten Regulierungen im Bereich ihrer Unterstützung. Beispielsweise initiieren in vielen Ländern die öffentlichen Behörden Debatten betreffend das Fehlen der “Festivalpolitik”. In manchen Ländern wurden weitere Schritte unternommen. Als Beispiel kann hier Belgien dienen, wo das Hauptgesetz – Flemish Parliament Act, das die kulturelle Tätigkeit reguliert, auch manche Regulierungen die Festivals betreffend enthält. Obwohl das ein Gesetz ist, welches die gesamte Sphäre der Kultur umfasst, so jedoch durch die Berücksichtigung in ihm der Festivals legitimiert es klar die Unterstützung der Ereignisse von diesem Typ. Obwohl das keine schlüssige Politik ist, die ausschließlich an die Festivals gerichtet wird, kann sie als ein bedeutender Versuch des Baus von einer solchen betrachtet werden. Drei Länder weichen von den anderen ab. In Frankreich, Österreich und Portugal kann auf das Bestehen von mindestens Elementen der öffentlichen Festivalpolitik aufgezeigt werden. In Frankreich kann angenommen werden, dass wir, hauptsächlich auf der staatlichen Stufe, mit der Unterstützung der Festivals gemäß der überdachten Linie der kulturellen Politik zu tun haben. Wir haben es hier zu tun mit einer klar bestimmten Bereichspriorität auf dem Gebiet der Festivals – dem Tanz. In Frankreich entscheidet sich der Staat zum kompensieren der Ausgaben für teure öffentliche Tanzinstitutionen mit der Unterstützung der Festivals in diesem Bereich. Man kann mit einer solchen Entscheidung des Staates einverstanden sein oder nicht, aber sie ist ein Beweis für den bewussten Interventionismus des Staates. Das bedeutet die Annahme eines konkreten Wirkungsweges: wir unterstützen die Tanzfestivals, denn wir begrenzen die Finanzierung der Kulturinstitutionen in diesem Bereich. Außerdem MM

153

bestimmt das französische Ministerium klar, indem es die Mehrheit der Verantwortung für die Unterstützung der Festivals auf die regionale und lokale Stufe ernennt, wer der “Hauptspieler” auf diesem Feld sein soll. In Österreich ist die Unterstützung der Festivals eine der Hauptprioritäten der kulturellen Bundespolitik. Sie werden bewusst betrachtet als ein wesentlicher Faktor, welcher das Image des Staates, der Regionen und Städte baut, ein Element, welches die nationale oder regionale Identität beeinflusst. Auch in Portugal sind Beispiele der schlüssigen Politik der öffentlichen Behörden gegenüber den Festivals sichtbar. Das Hauptziel der Regierungen Portugals seit der Mitte der 90er Jahren ist im Bereich der Kultur die “Unterstützung der künstlerischen Produktion und die Verbreitung der Kultur”. Die Festivals werden als eins der wesentlichen Werkzeuge in diesem Kontext angesehen – eine Plattform, auf der sich der Sektor entwickelt durch die Hervorhebung der Arbeit der Künstler, sowohl im In- als auch im Ausland. Indem die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden ein so klar bestimmtes Verhältnis zu den Festivals auf der zentralen Stufe haben, geben sie sich eine besondere Mühe, dass die Fragen der Festivals auch in die Strategie der Städteentwicklung inkorporiert. Außerdem erlebten die Regulierungen, betreffend die Festivals, Platz in der Mehrheit der allgemeinen legislativen Dokumente, betreffend Kultur und Kunst, sowie auch diesen, die ihnen ausschließlich gewidmet sind. Im Effekt kann mit voller Sicherheit festgestellt werden, dass in Portugal schon Grundlagen für die Schaffung der kulturellen Politik gegenüber den Festivals existieren. Es gibt auch Länder, wo die Situation viel mehr kompliziert ist. Sie können nicht als Länder klassifiziert werden, in denen es überhaupt keine Elemente der kulturellen Politik gegenüber den Festivals gibt, noch sind sie zu solchen Ländern zuzuordnen, wo schon die Diskussion angefangen wurde, noch zu solchen, die eine schlüssige Festivalpolitik besitzen. Als Beispiel kann hier England dienen. Dort besitzt der Kunstrat einerseits keine Festivalpolitik, und die Mehrheit der lokalen Behörden (71%) erteilt den Festivals Unterstützung auf der Grundlage der breit verstandenen allgemeinen Richtlinien der kulturellen Politik. Jedoch auf der anderen Seite, deklarieren 12% der öffentlichen Behörden, dass sie in den Plänen haben, zu verabschieden und ins Leben zu rufen, innerhalb des nächsten Jahres, Regulierungen, gewidmet ausschließlich den Festivals. Endlich bis 16% Einheiten der lokalen Behörden deklarieren, dass sie schon eine eigene Festivalpolitik besitzen.

MM differenzierte Finanzierungsformen und andere in einzelnen Ländern Kriterien der Erteilung den Festivals der Unterstützung; MM bevorzugen der Finanzierung durch Projekte; MM Grundsätze der Zusammenarbeit zwischen einzelnen Stufen der öffentlichen Behörden und den Nichtregierungsorganisationen bei der Organisation und Finanzierung der Festivals; MM Einführung spezieller Programme (z.B. Spanien), etc. Jedoch können die Praktiken von diesem Typ nicht als schlüssige Politik gegenüber den Festivals angesehen werden. Wie schon früher erwähnt wurde, bemerkten die öffentlichen Behörden in der Mehrheit der europäischen Ländern die wachsende Rolle der Festivals, und was dem folgt, auch die Notwendigkeit der Einführung separaten Regulierungen im Bereich ihrer Unterstützung. Beispielsweise initiieren in vielen Ländern die öffentlichen Behörden Debatten betreffend das Fehlen der “Festivalpolitik”. In manchen Ländern wurden weitere Schritte unternommen. Als Beispiel kann hier Belgien dienen, wo das Hauptgesetz – Flemish Parliament Act, das die kulturelle Tätigkeit reguliert, auch manche Regulierungen die Festivals betreffend enthält. Obwohl das ein Gesetz ist, welches die gesamte Sphäre der Kultur umfasst, so jedoch durch die Berücksichtigung in ihm der Festivals legitimiert es klar die Unterstützung der Ereignisse von diesem Typ. Obwohl das keine schlüssige Politik ist, die ausschließlich an die Festivals gerichtet wird, kann sie als ein bedeutender Versuch des Baus von einer solchen betrachtet werden. Drei Länder weichen von den anderen ab. In Frankreich, Österreich und Portugal kann auf das Bestehen von mindestens Elementen der öffentlichen Festivalpolitik aufgezeigt werden. In Frankreich kann angenommen werden, dass wir, hauptsächlich auf der staatlichen Stufe, mit der Unterstützung der Festivals gemäß der überdachten Linie der kulturellen Politik zu tun haben. Wir haben es hier zu tun mit einer klar bestimmten Bereichspriorität auf dem Gebiet der Festivals – dem Tanz. In Frankreich entscheidet sich der Staat zum kompensieren der Ausgaben für teure öffentliche Tanzinstitutionen mit der Unterstützung der Festivals in diesem Bereich. Man kann mit einer solchen Entscheidung des Staates einverstanden sein oder nicht, aber sie ist ein Beweis für den bewussten Interventionismus des Staates. Das bedeutet die Annahme eines konkreten Wirkungsweges: wir unterstützen die Tanzfestivals, denn wir begrenzen die Finanzierung der Kulturinstitutionen in diesem Bereich. Außerdem

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

bestimmt das französische Ministerium klar, indem es die Mehrheit der Verantwortung für die Unterstützung der Festivals auf die regionale und lokale Stufe ernennt, wer der “Hauptspieler” auf diesem Feld sein soll. In Österreich ist die Unterstützung der Festivals eine der Hauptprioritäten der kulturellen Bundespolitik. Sie werden bewusst betrachtet als ein wesentlicher Faktor, welcher das Image des Staates, der Regionen und Städte baut, ein Element, welches die nationale oder regionale Identität beeinflusst. Auch in Portugal sind Beispiele der schlüssigen Politik der öffentlichen Behörden gegenüber den Festivals sichtbar. Das Hauptziel der Regierungen Portugals seit der Mitte der 90er Jahren ist im Bereich der Kultur die “Unterstützung der künstlerischen Produktion und die Verbreitung der Kultur”. Die Festivals werden als eins der wesentlichen Werkzeuge in diesem Kontext angesehen – eine Plattform, auf der sich der Sektor entwickelt durch die Hervorhebung der Arbeit der Künstler, sowohl im In- als auch im Ausland. Indem die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden ein so klar bestimmtes Verhältnis zu den Festivals auf der zentralen Stufe haben, geben sie sich eine besondere Mühe, dass die Fragen der Festivals auch in die Strategie der Städteentwicklung inkorporiert. Außerdem erlebten die Regulierungen, betreffend die Festivals, Platz in der Mehrheit der allgemeinen legislativen Dokumente, betreffend Kultur und Kunst, sowie auch diesen, die ihnen ausschließlich gewidmet sind. Im Effekt kann mit voller Sicherheit festgestellt werden, dass in Portugal schon Grundlagen für die Schaffung der kulturellen Politik gegenüber den Festivals existieren. Es gibt auch Länder, wo die Situation viel mehr kompliziert ist. Sie können nicht als Länder klassifiziert werden, in denen es überhaupt keine Elemente der kulturellen Politik gegenüber den Festivals gibt, noch sind sie zu solchen Ländern zuzuordnen, wo schon die Diskussion angefangen wurde, noch zu solchen, die eine schlüssige Festivalpolitik besitzen. Als Beispiel kann hier England dienen. Dort besitzt der Kunstrat einerseits keine Festivalpolitik, und die Mehrheit der lokalen Behörden (71%) erteilt den Festivals Unterstützung auf der Grundlage der breit verstandenen allgemeinen Richtlinien der kulturellen Politik. Jedoch auf der anderen Seite, deklarieren 12% der öffentlichen Behörden, dass sie in den Plänen haben, zu verabschieden und ins Leben zu rufen, innerhalb des nächsten Jahres, Regulierungen, gewidmet ausschließlich den Festivals. Endlich bis 16% Einheiten der lokalen Behörden deklarieren, dass sie schon eine eigene Festivalpolitik besitzen.

153


2. FESTIWALS IN POLEN

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

2.1. Zahl und Charakter der Festivals

154

D

er Aufschwung der Festivals in Polen erfolgte nach 1989. Dazu trugen sowohl die allgemeinen Welttendenzen der Entwicklung dieser kulturellen Form und die Möglichkeit ihrer Implementierung auf dem Territorium Polens bei, sowie auch grundsätzliche Veränderungen in der polnischen kulturellen Politik selbst, die begonnen hat, verschiedenen kulturellen Initiativen wohlgesonnen zu sein und elastisch auf die Bedürfnisse der Kulturkonsumenten zu reagieren. Es ist sehr schwer, voll glaubwürdige Informationen zu erhalten, betreffend die Zahl und den Charakter der Festivals in Polen. Das Hauptstatistische Amt sammelt nicht systematisch die gesammelten Daten über die polnischen Festivals. Das macht auch nicht das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe. Passiv wie bisher in der Überwachung der Festivals waren die polnischen Selbstverwaltungen. Die geführte Erkennung ist der erste Versuch einer systemartigen Beurteilung der Erscheinung der Festivals in der Formel der Expertise oder des Berichts. Aufgrund des Charakters der genutzten Quellen, sind die im Bericht angegebenen Daten stichprobenhaft und sie haben vor allem die Branchenanordnung. Sie stammen aus dem Polnischen Institut für die Filmkunst, dem Polnischen Zentrum für Musikinformation, dem Zbigniew Raszewski-Theaterinstitut, dem Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, sowie den Magistraten in Warszawa und Poznań. Als eine hilfreiche Quelle erwiesen sich die Internet-Bestände, z.B. POLMIC.PL (Musikinternetdatenbank), regionale und lokale Internetportale, sowie auch nicht veröffentlichte Lizenziats- und Magisterarbeiten. Und so informiert das Zbigniew RaszewskiTheaterinstitut mit Vermittlung des Internetportals www.teatr.pl, dass in Polen regelmäßig etwa 280 Theaterfestivals stattfinden. Unter ihnen haben etwa 80 den internationalen Charakter. Die Mehrheit findet in großen Städten statt: in Warszawa sind es 18, in Kraków 15, in Wrocław 10, in Poznań 6, in Lublin 5, in Gdańsk 3. Die größte Gruppe unter den internationalen Festivals bilden die dem dramatischen Theater gewidmeten (es sind 30, was 37,5% der allgemeinen Zahl der Veranstaltungen ergibt), obwohl zahlreich auch Festivals des Tanztheaters und der Straßenvorstellungen sind (entsprechend 11 und 17 Ereignisse). Andere Veranstaltungen betreffen das Wiesentheater (9), Oper (8) sowie darstellende Kunst (5).

In dem gleichen Jahr 2006 fanden statt 199 Musikfestivals. Die Mehrheit (genau 134) von ihnen war mindestens teilweise finanziert aus den öffentlichen Mitteln. Die Organisatoren der Festivalveranstaltungen erhielten die Unterstützung von den Behörden aus verschiedenen Stufen (Gemeinde, Kreis, Wojewodschaft und zentrale Stufe). In vielen Fällen, außer der öffentlichen Zuschüsse, wurde Privatsponsoring genutzt. Von den erwähnten 134 Festivals hatte genau die Hälfte, also 67, internationale Ausmaße. Die Festivals mit einer solchen Orientierung fanden vor allem in den Wojewodschaftsstädten statt: in Warszawa waren es 10, in Kraków 8, in Wrocław 6, in Gdańsk 4 und in Poznań und Toruń zu je 3. Die Thematik vieler von ihnen bildete die alte und religiöse Musik (insgesamt 20 Veranstaltungen) sowie Musik, aufgeführt auf einem Instrument, wie Gitarre, Orgel, etc. (18 Veranstaltungen). Andere Festivals waren gewidmet der folkloristischen, modernen Musik, der Gesangs- und Chorschöpfung, sowie dem Werk konkreter Komponisten. Im Jahre 2006 fanden in Polen 29 Filmfestivals statt, darunter 14 internationale. Alle erhielten Zuschüsse aus den öffentlichen Mitteln, vor allem mit Vermittlung des schon erwähnten Polnischen Instituts der Filmkunst, welcher eine Regierungsagentur ist, einberufen durch das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe zwecks der finanziellen Unterstützung der Filmproduktion und anderer Tätigkeiten im Bereich der Kinematografie. Jedes Jahr finden in Polen 16 literarische Festivals statt. Gerade vier sind internationale Veranstaltungen: Port Wrocław (organisiert von einer privaten Verlagsfirma Biuro Literackie und finanziell unterstützt durch das Amt der Stadt Wrocław, Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe, Buchinstitut, sowie organisatorisch durch städtische Kulturinstitutionen), welches u.a. die Dichtkunst aus einem konkreten Land präsentiert, 2007 waren es Vereinigte Staaten; Spoken’Word Festival (mitfinanziert durch British Council, Französisches Institut, sowie das Zentrum für Gegenwärtige Kunst in Warszaw) – eine Veranstaltung, gewidmet dem literarischen Vortragswettbewerb, an der die Künstler aus Frankreich, Großbritannien sowie Polen teilnehmen; Internationales Festival der Erzählkunst (mitfinanziert durch das Amt der Hauptstadt Warszawa); Internationales Festival der Wortkunst “Verba Sacra” (mitfinanziert durch das Amt der Stadt Poznań). Auf der Grundlage der gesammelten Daten für die Bedürfnisse des Berichts kann man eine gewisse Verallgemeinerung wagen und angeben, dass mindestens 162 Festivals, die in Polen realisiert werden, die in der Untersuchung angenommenen Kriterien erfüllen, d.h. sie haben künstleri-

D

er Aufschwung der Festivals in Polen erfolgte nach 1989. Dazu trugen sowohl die allgemeinen Welttendenzen der Entwicklung dieser kulturellen Form und die Möglichkeit ihrer Implementierung auf dem Territorium Polens bei, sowie auch grundsätzliche Veränderungen in der polnischen kulturellen Politik selbst, die begonnen hat, verschiedenen kulturellen Initiativen wohlgesonnen zu sein und elastisch auf die Bedürfnisse der Kulturkonsumenten zu reagieren. Es ist sehr schwer, voll glaubwürdige Informationen zu erhalten, betreffend die Zahl und den Charakter der Festivals in Polen. Das Hauptstatistische Amt sammelt nicht systematisch die gesammelten Daten über die polnischen Festivals. Das macht auch nicht das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe. Passiv wie bisher in der Überwachung der Festivals waren die polnischen Selbstverwaltungen. Die geführte Erkennung ist der erste Versuch einer systemartigen Beurteilung der Erscheinung der Festivals in der Formel der Expertise oder des Berichts. Aufgrund des Charakters der genutzten Quellen, sind die im Bericht angegebenen Daten stichprobenhaft und sie haben vor allem die Branchenanordnung. Sie stammen aus dem Polnischen Institut für die Filmkunst, dem Polnischen Zentrum für Musikinformation, dem Zbigniew Raszewski-Theaterinstitut, dem Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, sowie den Magistraten in Warszawa und Poznań. Als eine hilfreiche Quelle erwiesen sich die Internet-Bestände, z.B. POLMIC.PL (Musikinternetdatenbank), regionale und lokale Internetportale, sowie auch nicht veröffentlichte Lizenziats- und Magisterarbeiten. Und so informiert das Zbigniew RaszewskiTheaterinstitut mit Vermittlung des Internetportals www.teatr.pl, dass in Polen regelmäßig etwa 280 Theaterfestivals stattfinden. Unter ihnen haben etwa 80 den internationalen Charakter. Die Mehrheit findet in großen Städten statt: in Warszawa sind es 18, in Kraków 15, in Wrocław 10, in Poznań 6, in Lublin 5, in Gdańsk 3. Die größte Gruppe unter den internationalen Festivals bilden die dem dramatischen Theater gewidmeten (es sind 30, was 37,5% der allgemeinen Zahl der Veranstaltungen ergibt), obwohl zahlreich auch Festivals des Tanztheaters und der Straßenvorstellungen sind (entsprechend 11 und 17 Ereignisse). Andere Veranstaltungen betreffen das Wiesentheater (9), Oper (8) sowie darstellende Kunst (5).

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

2.1. Zahl und Charakter der Festivals

In dem gleichen Jahr 2006 fanden statt 199 Musikfestivals. Die Mehrheit (genau 134) von ihnen war mindestens teilweise finanziert aus den öffentlichen Mitteln. Die Organisatoren der Festivalveranstaltungen erhielten die Unterstützung von den Behörden aus verschiedenen Stufen (Gemeinde, Kreis, Wojewodschaft und zentrale Stufe). In vielen Fällen, außer der öffentlichen Zuschüsse, wurde Privatsponsoring genutzt. Von den erwähnten 134 Festivals hatte genau die Hälfte, also 67, internationale Ausmaße. Die Festivals mit einer solchen Orientierung fanden vor allem in den Wojewodschaftsstädten statt: in Warszawa waren es 10, in Kraków 8, in Wrocław 6, in Gdańsk 4 und in Poznań und Toruń zu je 3. Die Thematik vieler von ihnen bildete die alte und religiöse Musik (insgesamt 20 Veranstaltungen) sowie Musik, aufgeführt auf einem Instrument, wie Gitarre, Orgel, etc. (18 Veranstaltungen). Andere Festivals waren gewidmet der folkloristischen, modernen Musik, der Gesangs- und Chorschöpfung, sowie dem Werk konkreter Komponisten. Im Jahre 2006 fanden in Polen 29 Filmfestivals statt, darunter 14 internationale. Alle erhielten Zuschüsse aus den öffentlichen Mitteln, vor allem mit Vermittlung des schon erwähnten Polnischen Instituts der Filmkunst, welcher eine Regierungsagentur ist, einberufen durch das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe zwecks der finanziellen Unterstützung der Filmproduktion und anderer Tätigkeiten im Bereich der Kinematografie. Jedes Jahr finden in Polen 16 literarische Festivals statt. Gerade vier sind internationale Veranstaltungen: Port Wrocław (organisiert von einer privaten Verlagsfirma Biuro Literackie und finanziell unterstützt durch das Amt der Stadt Wrocław, Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe, Buchinstitut, sowie organisatorisch durch städtische Kulturinstitutionen), welches u.a. die Dichtkunst aus einem konkreten Land präsentiert, 2007 waren es Vereinigte Staaten; Spoken’Word Festival (mitfinanziert durch British Council, Französisches Institut, sowie das Zentrum für Gegenwärtige Kunst in Warszaw) – eine Veranstaltung, gewidmet dem literarischen Vortragswettbewerb, an der die Künstler aus Frankreich, Großbritannien sowie Polen teilnehmen; Internationales Festival der Erzählkunst (mitfinanziert durch das Amt der Hauptstadt Warszawa); Internationales Festival der Wortkunst “Verba Sacra” (mitfinanziert durch das Amt der Stadt Poznań). Auf der Grundlage der gesammelten Daten für die Bedürfnisse des Berichts kann man eine gewisse Verallgemeinerung wagen und angeben, dass mindestens 162 Festivals, die in Polen realisiert werden, die in der Untersuchung angenommenen Kriterien erfüllen, d.h. sie haben künstleri-

154

2. FESTIWALS IN POLEN


155

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

TABELLE: Internationale künstlerische Festivals mitfinanziert aus den öffentlichen Mitteln in Polen 2006

2

Festivalart

Film

Literatur

Musik

Theater

Zusammen

Zahl

14

4

64

80

162

schen Charakter, internationale Komponente und öffentliche Unterstützung. Jedoch soll man ständig in Erinnerung behalten, dass das ausschließlich Schätzungsberechnungen sind, die sich aus der Analyse der gewählten Quellen ergeben und keine offiziellen statistischen Daten. Bemerkbar ist eine neue Wirkungsrichtung der größten Festivals, die in Richtung der Multidisziplin evolvieren. Praktisch sind das Theater-, Film- oder Musikfestivals nur vom Namen her, und gleichzeitig präsentieren sie eine Reihe von Konzerten, Projektionen, Vorstellungen, usw. (Festival Malta, Heineken Open’er, Era Nowe Horyzonty, Festiwal des Dialogs der Vier Kulturen).

2.2. Unterstützung der öffentlichen Behörden für die Festivals – Breite und Formen

D

ie Unterstützung, welche den Festivals durch die öffentlichen Behörden erteilt wird, sowohl auf der Regierungsstufe, als auch der Selbstverwaltung, nimmt vor allem die finanzielle Form an, sowie auch der sachlichen Unterstützung. Ungewöhnlich selten sind die öffentlichen Behörden direkt in die Organisation der Festivals engagiert. Oftmals dagegen motivieren sie die ihnen unterstellten kulturellen Institutionen zur Zusammenarbeit mit den Organisatoren der Festivals (vorwiegend mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen). Im Resultat stellen die öffentlichen Institutionen u.a. Konzertsäle und die unentbehrlichen Geräte zur Verfügung. Die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden unterstützen sporadisch die internationalen Festivals. Die Situation sieht anders aus im Falle von großen Städten, besonders der Wojewodschaftsstädte, wo das Engagement in die Unterstützung und die Organisation der Festivals größer ist. Dort unterstützen die Wojewodschaftsselbstverwaltungen, wie auch Stadtselbstverwaltungen, gern die Festivals, die auf dem Gebiet stattfinden, die mit ihrer Jurisdiktion umfasst ist, denn diese Ereignisse tragen zur Entwicklung der kulturellen Touristik und der Promotion der Stadt bei.

2

An dieser Stelle soll verzeichnet werden, dass der rechtliche Partner der öffentlichen Behörden im Falle der Festivals gewöhnlich ihr Organisator ist. In Polen existiert kein abgesonderter juristischer Akt, betreffend die Festivals. Die Behörden halten sie für “andere Formen der kulturellen Tätigkeit”. Die Festivals können sowohl durch Nichtregierungsorganisationen realisiert werden, öffentliche Institutionen oder private Unternehmen. In Wirklichkeit werden lediglich ein paar Festivals durch private Unternehmen organisiert und die Mehrheit von ihnen existieren dank den Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Selbstverständlich ist der Eintritt in die Partnerschaft mit der öffentlichen Institution eine wesentliche Erleichterung bei der Organisation des Festivals, desto mehr, dass eine solche Zusammenarbeit durch lokale Behörden sogar oft gefordert wird. Die überwiegende Zahl der Festivals besitzt gemischte Budgets. Sie bestehen im größeren Teil aus öffentlichen Mitteln, die von den Behörden der verschiedenen Verwaltungsstufen kommen und in dem kleineren aus den privaten Mitteln. Zentrale Stufe Auf dem Niveau des Staates ist der Hauptkörper, der die Festivals unterstützt das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, welches viele polnische Festivals finanziert und mitfinanziert, eingeschlossen darin auch internationale Festivals. Das Hauptwerkzeug der Zufinanzierung der Festivals ist das Operationsprogramm des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe (=MKiDN) Promotion des Schaffens im Rahmen der Priorität I Unterstützung der künstlerischen Ereignisse in Polen. Im Rahmen dieser Priorität werden die “wichtigsten künstlerischen Ereignisse, die in Polen organisiert werden mit internationalem Charakter, gesamtpolnischen oder überregionalem und regionalem, aus dem Umfang aller Bereiche der Kunst – Festivals, Wettbewerbe, Konzerte, Schauen, Premierenvorstellungen, Ausstellungen und andere künstlerische Veranstaltungen”2 zufinanziert. Die Festivals sind erwähnt an erster Stelle unter den unterstützten Aufgaben und eben sie dominieren auf der Liste der Anträge, die positiv geprüft wurden.

Reglement des Operationsprogramms Promotion des Schaffens, 2006.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

155

Reglement des Operationsprogramms Promotion des Schaffens, 2006.

ie Unterstützung, welche den Festivals durch die öffentlichen Behörden erteilt wird, sowohl auf der Regierungsstufe, als auch der Selbstverwaltung, nimmt vor allem die finanzielle Form an, sowie auch der sachlichen Unterstützung. Ungewöhnlich selten sind die öffentlichen Behörden direkt in die Organisation der Festivals engagiert. Oftmals dagegen motivieren sie die ihnen unterstellten kulturellen Institutionen zur Zusammenarbeit mit den Organisatoren der Festivals (vorwiegend mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen). Im Resultat stellen die öffentlichen Institutionen u.a. Konzertsäle und die unentbehrlichen Geräte zur Verfügung. Die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden unterstützen sporadisch die internationalen Festivals. Die Situation sieht anders aus im Falle von großen Städten, besonders der Wojewodschaftsstädte, wo das Engagement in die Unterstützung und die Organisation der Festivals größer ist. Dort unterstützen die Wojewodschaftsselbstverwaltungen, wie auch Stadtselbstverwaltungen, gern die Festivals, die auf dem Gebiet stattfinden, die mit ihrer Jurisdiktion umfasst ist, denn diese Ereignisse tragen zur Entwicklung der kulturellen Touristik und der Promotion der Stadt bei.

D

2.2. Unterstützung der öffentlichen Behörden für die Festivals – Breite und Formen schen Charakter, internationale Komponente und öffentliche Unterstützung. Jedoch soll man ständig in Erinnerung behalten, dass das ausschließlich Schätzungsberechnungen sind, die sich aus der Analyse der gewählten Quellen ergeben und keine offiziellen statistischen Daten. Bemerkbar ist eine neue Wirkungsrichtung der größten Festivals, die in Richtung der Multidisziplin evolvieren. Praktisch sind das Theater-, Film- oder Musikfestivals nur vom Namen her, und gleichzeitig präsentieren sie eine Reihe von Konzerten, Projektionen, Vorstellungen, usw. (Festival Malta, Heineken Open’er, Era Nowe Horyzonty, Festiwal des Dialogs der Vier Kulturen). 14

Zahl

Film

Festivalart

4 Literatur

Zentrale Stufe Auf dem Niveau des Staates ist der Hauptkörper, der die Festivals unterstützt das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, welches viele polnische Festivals finanziert und mitfinanziert, eingeschlossen darin auch internationale Festivals. Das Hauptwerkzeug der Zufinanzierung der Festivals ist das Operationsprogramm des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe (=MKiDN) Promotion des Schaffens im Rahmen der Priorität I Unterstützung der künstlerischen Ereignisse in Polen. Im Rahmen dieser Priorität werden die “wichtigsten künstlerischen Ereignisse, die in Polen organisiert werden mit internationalem Charakter, gesamtpolnischen oder überregionalem und regionalem, aus dem Umfang aller Bereiche der Kunst – Festivals, Wettbewerbe, Konzerte, Schauen, Premierenvorstellungen, Ausstellungen und andere künstlerische Veranstaltungen”2 zufinanziert. Die Festivals sind erwähnt an erster Stelle unter den unterstützten Aufgaben und eben sie dominieren auf der Liste der Anträge, die positiv geprüft wurden. An dieser Stelle soll verzeichnet werden, dass der rechtliche Partner der öffentlichen Behörden im Falle der Festivals gewöhnlich ihr Organisator ist. In Polen existiert kein abgesonderter juristischer Akt, betreffend die Festivals. Die Behörden halten sie für “andere Formen der kulturellen Tätigkeit”. Die Festivals können sowohl durch Nichtregierungsorganisationen realisiert werden, öffentliche Institutionen oder private Unternehmen. In Wirklichkeit werden lediglich ein paar Festivals durch private Unternehmen organisiert und die Mehrheit von ihnen existieren dank den Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Selbstverständlich ist der Eintritt in die Partnerschaft mit der öffentlichen Institution eine wesentliche Erleichterung bei der Organisation des Festivals, desto mehr, dass eine solche Zusammenarbeit durch lokale Behörden sogar oft gefordert wird. Die überwiegende Zahl der Festivals besitzt gemischte Budgets. Sie bestehen im größeren Teil aus öffentlichen Mitteln, die von den Behörden der verschiedenen Verwaltungsstufen kommen und in dem kleineren aus den privaten Mitteln. 64 Musik

80 Theater

162 Zusammen

TABELLE: Internationale künstlerische Festivals mitfinanziert aus den öffentlichen Mitteln in Polen 2006


156

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Das Ministerium finanziert gleichzeitig Festivals in separaten Arten der Zuwendungen mit. In einzelnen Fällen im Rahmen des Programms Promotion des Schaffens (Priorität I) “kann der Antraggeber sich um Zufinanzierung der Festivals, Wettbewerben und Schauen für die Zeit der folgenden nächsten 3 Jahre bewerben”. Die Veranstaltungen, deren Organisatoren sich um die dreijährige Zufinanzierung bewerben, müssen weitere Kriterien erfüllen. Es sind: dokumentierte feste Finanzierungsquelle in Höhe der mindestens 20% der Kosten der Aufgabe für die Zeit der 3 folgenden Jahren; mehrjährige Tradition; Budget über 1 Million Zloty jährlich; bedeutender Beitrag in das Schaffen der polnischen Kultur, Reichweite mindestens gesamtpolnisch. Diese Möglichkeit wurde im Jahre 2005 geschafft zwecks Erleichterung den Organisatoren der Festivals der Planung von dem Programm für ein paar Jahre im voraus – die besten ausländischen Künstler oder Gruppen reservieren die Termine mit ein paar Jahren Vorsprung.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Budget des Operationsprogramms Promotion des Schaffens 20063

156

100,00%

Eigene Kalkulation auf der Grundlage der Daten des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe. Ähnlich im Falle der zweiten Tabelle

3

40 000 000

22%

Budget des Operationsprogramms

6 489 000

darin:

Ausgaben aus der I. Priorität für die Festivals insgesamt

4 523 000

0,50%

Budget für dreijährige Zuschüsse

100 000

29 734 311

Tanzfestivals

Budget der Priorität des I. Programms (Unterstützung der künstlerischen Ereignisse in Polen)

2%

Ausgaben des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe für internationale Festivals aus dem Budget der Priorität I des Operationsprogramms Promotion des Schaffens 2006

616 000

100,00%

Filmfestivals

29 734 311

7%

Budget der Priorität des I. Programms (Unterstützung der künstlerischen Ereignisse in Polen)

2 040 000

8,50%

Theaterfestivals

2 544 000

4%

Musikfestivals

1 190 000

4%

Festivals der Schönen Künste und kulturelle

1 190 000

8,50%

Festivals der Schönen Künste und kulturelle

2 544 000

7%

Musikfestivals

2 040 000

100,00%

Theaterfestivals

29 734 311

2%

Budget der Priorität des I. Programms (Unterstützung der künstlerischen Ereignisse in Polen)

616 000

Ausgaben des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe für internationale Festivals aus dem Budget der Priorität I des Operationsprogramms Promotion des Schaffens 2006

Filmfestivals

29 734 311

0,50%

Budget der Priorität des I. Programms (Unterstützung der künstlerischen Ereignisse in Polen)

100 000

4 523 000

Tanzfestivals

Budget für dreijährige Zuschüsse

Die Festivalorganisatoren können sich um Zuschüsse auch aus den ministerialen Operationsprogrammen wenden (PO) Fryderyk Chopin, Wyspiański (Tätigkeiten, gewidmet den hervorragenden Künstlern), Kulturelle Bildung und Verbreitung der Kultur (Popularisierung der Amateurschöpfung, darin hauptsächlich für Kinder), Entwicklung der lokalen Initiativen (Niedrigbudgetaufgaben, Zuschuss bis 25 Tausend Zloty), Patriotismus von morgen (Organisation der Bildungsprogramme, sozialer Aktionen und kultureller Ereignisse, die das historische Bewusstsein und die Kenntnis der Geschichte der polnischen Kultur steigern, die die Bürgerhaltung und die Verantwortung für den Staat fördern). Dagegen unterstützt das Operationsprogramm PO Promotion der polnischen Kultur im Ausland die Teilnahme der polnischen Künstler an den “internationalen Unternehmen von Schlüsselbedeutung (Festivals, Konzerten, Ausstellungen, künstlerischen Tourneen, Wettbewerben und künstlerischen Werkstätten, usw.), die außerhalb der Landesgrenzen stattfinden.” Im Jahre 2006 unterstützte MKiDN 158 Festivals im Rahmen der Aufnahme von Anträgen (darunter 95 internationalen; den höchsten Zuschuss erhielt das Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival – 1 300 000 Zloty) sowie 10 Festivals im Rahmen der dreijährigen Aufgaben (8 internationale, den größten Jahreszuschuss erhielt das Festival der Zeitgenössischen Musik Warschauer Herbst 1 500 000 Zloty). Der minimale Unterstützungsbetrag sind 25 000 Zloty. Das Ministerium kann sogar 90% Kosten des Unterfangens decken (in besonderen Fällen sogar mehr, sogar 100%), obwohl ein wichtiges Kriterium ist, dass die Mittel aus verschiedenen Quellen stammen. Auf der Grundlage der Zwischenregierungsabkommen werden spezielle Ereignisse, einmalige Festivals im Rahmen des Polnischen Jahres z.B. in Belgien, Frankreich, Russland oder Israel zufinanziert. Das zweite Ressort, welches eine Reihe von kulturellen Festivals oft im Ganzen finanziert, ist das Ministerium für die Nationalverteidigung. Dazu gehört das Internationale Festival der Militärorchester in Kraków. In besonderen Fällen kann der Organisator des Festivals an den Premierminister einen Antrag stellen um die Zuerkennung eines Zuschusses aus der Allgemeinen Reserve des Staatsbudgets. Der Antrag wird durch MkiDN begutachtet. Die endgültige Entscheidung trifft der Premierminister.

darin:

22%

100,00%

6 489 000

40 000 000

Ausgaben aus der I. Priorität für die Festivals insgesamt

Budget des Operationsprogramms

Eigene Kalkulation auf der Grundlage der Daten des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe. Ähnlich im Falle der zweiten Tabelle

Budget des Operationsprogramms Promotion des Schaffens 20063

Die Festivalorganisatoren können sich um Zuschüsse auch aus den ministerialen Operationsprogrammen wenden (PO) Fryderyk Chopin, Wyspiański (Tätigkeiten, gewidmet den hervorragenden Künstlern), Kulturelle Bildung und Verbreitung der Kultur (Popularisierung der Amateurschöpfung, darin hauptsächlich für Kinder), Entwicklung der lokalen Initiativen (Niedrigbudgetaufgaben, Zuschuss bis 25 Tausend Zloty), Patriotismus von morgen (Organisation der Bildungsprogramme, sozialer Aktionen und kultureller Ereignisse, die das historische Bewusstsein und die Kenntnis der Geschichte der polnischen Kultur steigern, die die Bürgerhaltung und die Verantwortung für den Staat fördern). Dagegen unterstützt das Operationsprogramm PO Promotion der polnischen Kultur im Ausland die Teilnahme der polnischen Künstler an den “internationalen Unternehmen von Schlüsselbedeutung (Festivals, Konzerten, Ausstellungen, künstlerischen Tourneen, Wettbewerben und künstlerischen Werkstätten, usw.), die außerhalb der Landesgrenzen stattfinden.” Im Jahre 2006 unterstützte MKiDN 158 Festivals im Rahmen der Aufnahme von Anträgen (darunter 95 internationalen; den höchsten Zuschuss erhielt das Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival – 1 300 000 Zloty) sowie 10 Festivals im Rahmen der dreijährigen Aufgaben (8 internationale, den größten Jahreszuschuss erhielt das Festival der Zeitgenössischen Musik Warschauer Herbst 1 500 000 Zloty). Der minimale Unterstützungsbetrag sind 25 000 Zloty. Das Ministerium kann sogar 90% Kosten des Unterfangens decken (in besonderen Fällen sogar mehr, sogar 100%), obwohl ein wichtiges Kriterium ist, dass die Mittel aus verschiedenen Quellen stammen. Auf der Grundlage der Zwischenregierungsabkommen werden spezielle Ereignisse, einmalige Festivals im Rahmen des Polnischen Jahres z.B. in Belgien, Frankreich, Russland oder Israel zufinanziert. Das zweite Ressort, welches eine Reihe von kulturellen Festivals oft im Ganzen finanziert, ist das Ministerium für die Nationalverteidigung. Dazu gehört das Internationale Festival der Militärorchester in Kraków. In besonderen Fällen kann der Organisator des Festivals an den Premierminister einen Antrag stellen um die Zuerkennung eines Zuschusses aus der Allgemeinen Reserve des Staatsbudgets. Der Antrag wird durch MkiDN begutachtet. Die endgültige Entscheidung trifft der Premierminister.

3

Das Ministerium finanziert gleichzeitig Festivals in separaten Arten der Zuwendungen mit. In einzelnen Fällen im Rahmen des Programms Promotion des Schaffens (Priorität I) “kann der Antraggeber sich um Zufinanzierung der Festivals, Wettbewerben und Schauen für die Zeit der folgenden nächsten 3 Jahre bewerben”. Die Veranstaltungen, deren Organisatoren sich um die dreijährige Zufinanzierung bewerben, müssen weitere Kriterien erfüllen. Es sind: dokumentierte feste Finanzierungsquelle in Höhe der mindestens 20% der Kosten der Aufgabe für die Zeit der 3 folgenden Jahren; mehrjährige Tradition; Budget über 1 Million Zloty jährlich; bedeutender Beitrag in das Schaffen der polnischen Kultur, Reichweite mindestens gesamtpolnisch. Diese Möglichkeit wurde im Jahre 2005 geschafft zwecks Erleichterung den Organisatoren der Festivals der Planung von dem Programm für ein paar Jahre im voraus – die besten ausländischen Künstler oder Gruppen reservieren die Termine mit ein paar Jahren Vorsprung.


157

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Auf diese Weise wird der internationale Festival des Dialogs der Vier Kulturen in Łódź zufinanziert (Zuschussbetrag 900 000 Zloty). Selbstverwaltungsstufe Die Tendenzen in der Finanzierung der Festivals durch die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden lassen sich nicht präzise bestimmen. Der Grund ihres Engagements sind gewöhnlich individuelle Preferenzen und Prioritäten einzelner Selbstverwaltungen, in denen vergeblich Anzeichen eines gemeinsamen Denkens zu suchen sind. Die Formel, in der in der ersten Reihe die Selbstverwaltungen die Unterstützung der Festivals erteilen, sind Wettbewerbe von Projekten. In ihren Rahmen werden die Projekte sichtbar, die, laut spezieller Kommissionen, eine Mitfinanzierung verdienen. Kraków ist die einzige polnische Stadt, welches ein Festivalbüro besitzt (städtische Kulturinstitution). Es wurde 1997 berufen, als die Stadt den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt für das Jahr 2000 erhielt. Im Jahre 2005, wurde mit Entscheidung des Stadtrates der Name geändert in “Krakauer Festivalbüro”. Das Büro untersteht direkt dem Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, dagegen ist das Organ, welches die Richtungen seiner Tätigkeit begutachtet, ein 10-Personen Programmrat [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/index.php]. Zu den wichtigsten Aufgaben des Büros gehören die Realisierung und die Promotion der kulturellen Ereignisse mit lokalem, nationalem und internationalem Ausmaß. Es arbeitet zusammen mit Kultur- und Bildungsinstitutionen, Kunstvereinen und ausländischen Kulturzentren. In Warszawa wirkt “Stołeczna Estrada“ (Hauptstadtbühne), die im Jahre 1995 gegründet wurde als städtische Institution, gewidmet zur Organisation und Führung der kulturellen Tätigkeit (Konzerte und andere Veranstaltungen). Gegenwärtig organisiert “Stołeczna Estrada“ zwei internationale Festivals und ein paar lokale. Es soll die Aufmerksamkeit gelenkt werden auf eine gewisse Spezifik der Tätigkeiten der Selbstverwaltungen gegenüber den Festivals. Die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden bemerken oft den Wert der auf ihrem Gebiet organisierten Veranstaltungen in dem Augenblick, wenn ein anderes Zentrum mit dem Vorschlag des Transfers erschient. Die Stadt Gdynia finanziert aus Prestigegründen das Festival der Polnischen Spielfilme zu – die wichtigste Veranstaltung der inländischen Filmindustrie – seit dem Moment, als Mitte der 90er Jahren Vorschläge erschienen, dass die Veranstaltung nach Warszawa verlegt wird. Oft werden die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden zum Initiator des Festivaltransfers. Die Behörden versprechen Organisationshilfsmittel und größere finanzielle

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Unterstützung wie bisher. Vor vier Jahren brachten die Behörden von Gdynia das Musikfestival Heineken Open’er zur Verlegung von Warszawa nach Gdynia. In der gleichen Zeit wurde das Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival von Kraków nach Warszawa verlegt (stark verbunden mit der Person von Krzysztof Penderecki). Das Filmfestival “Era Nowe Horyzonty” (Ära Neue Horizonte) begann in folgenden Städten: Sanok, dann kam Cieszyn (umso attraktiver, da es eine Stadt ist, durch die die polnisch-tschechische Grenze verläuft), und seit 2006 wird das Festival im großstädtischen Wrocław organisiert. Der Urheber und Organisator des Festivals – Roman Gutek erklärte, dass über die Verlegung des Festivals infrastrukturelle Fragen entschieden (in kleineren Städten gab es Probleme mit den Projektionssälen), besonders aufgrund der wachsenden Zuschaueranzahl (Im Jahre 2006 – 118 Tausend Personen, 2007 - über 120 Tausend Personen) In Situationen von einer solchen Art unterschreiben beide Seiten – Behörden und die Organisatoren des Festivals – Verträge, in denen sie klar ihre Verpflichtungen festlegen. Im Falle des Festivals “Nowe Horyzonty” hat Gutek sich die Erhaltung des bisherigen Charakters des Festivals vorbehalten. Auf der anderen Seite schlugen die Stadtbehörden eine breitere Öffnung des Festivals für die Einwohner von Wrocław vor – auf dem Markt von Wrocław wurden kostenlose Open-Air-Projektionen organisiert.

2.3. Hauptmotive und Erwartungen der Selbstverwaltungsbehörden gegenüber den Festivals

A

uf der Grundlage der Interviews mit den Vertretern der Selbstverwaltungen wurden folgende Motive und Erwartungen der Selbstverwaltungen, die die Festivals finanzieren, definiert:

MM

MM

MM

MM

Motive: Aufbau des Zivilisationsstatuses der Stadt – ein wichtiger Aspekt für große Investoren Verbesserung der Lebensqualität – Schaffung einer freundlichen Umwelt für die Angestellten und Erschaffung der Möglichkeit der Selbstrealisierung (Wrocław, Kraków) Promovieren der Kulturbeteiligung (einer breiteren sozialen Tätigkeit), als Erschaffung des Raumes für die Realisierung der außerberuflichen Ehrgefühle (Wrocław) Unterstützung der Vielfältigkeit des Kulturangebots (hohe Kultur, mittlere und die Popkultur) – Befriedigung verschiedener Geschmäcker der Einwohner (Wrocław)

157

Selbstverwaltungsstufe Die Tendenzen in der Finanzierung der Festivals durch die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden lassen sich nicht präzise bestimmen. Der Grund ihres Engagements sind gewöhnlich individuelle Preferenzen und Prioritäten einzelner Selbstverwaltungen, in denen vergeblich Anzeichen eines gemeinsamen Denkens zu suchen sind. Die Formel, in der in der ersten Reihe die Selbstverwaltungen die Unterstützung der Festivals erteilen, sind Wettbewerbe von Projekten. In ihren Rahmen werden die Projekte sichtbar, die, laut spezieller Kommissionen, eine Mitfinanzierung verdienen. Kraków ist die einzige polnische Stadt, welches ein Festivalbüro besitzt (städtische Kulturinstitution). Es wurde 1997 berufen, als die Stadt den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt für das Jahr 2000 erhielt. Im Jahre 2005, wurde mit Entscheidung des Stadtrates der Name geändert in “Krakauer Festivalbüro”. Das Büro untersteht direkt dem Präsidenten der Stadt Kraków, dagegen ist das Organ, welches die Richtungen seiner Tätigkeit begutachtet, ein 10-Personen Programmrat [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/index.php]. Zu den wichtigsten Aufgaben des Büros gehören die Realisierung und die Promotion der kulturellen Ereignisse mit lokalem, nationalem und internationalem Ausmaß. Es arbeitet zusammen mit Kultur- und Bildungsinstitutionen, Kunstvereinen und ausländischen Kulturzentren. In Warszawa wirkt “Stołeczna Estrada“ (Hauptstadtbühne), die im Jahre 1995 gegründet wurde als städtische Institution, gewidmet zur Organisation und Führung der kulturellen Tätigkeit (Konzerte und andere Veranstaltungen). Gegenwärtig organisiert “Stołeczna Estrada“ zwei internationale Festivals und ein paar lokale. Es soll die Aufmerksamkeit gelenkt werden auf eine gewisse Spezifik der Tätigkeiten der Selbstverwaltungen gegenüber den Festivals. Die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden bemerken oft den Wert der auf ihrem Gebiet organisierten Veranstaltungen in dem Augenblick, wenn ein anderes Zentrum mit dem Vorschlag des Transfers erschient. Die Stadt Gdynia finanziert aus Prestigegründen das Festival der Polnischen Spielfilme zu – die wichtigste Veranstaltung der inländischen Filmindustrie – seit dem Moment, als Mitte der 90er Jahren Vorschläge erschienen, dass die Veranstaltung nach Warszawa verlegt wird. Oft werden die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden zum Initiator des Festivaltransfers. Die Behörden versprechen Organisationshilfsmittel und größere finanzielle Auf diese Weise wird der internationale Festival des Dialogs der Vier Kulturen in Łódź zufinanziert (Zuschussbetrag 900 000 Zloty).

MM MM MM MM

Motive: Aufbau des Zivilisationsstatuses der Stadt – ein wichtiger Aspekt für große Investoren Verbesserung der Lebensqualität – Schaffung einer freundlichen Umwelt für die Angestellten und Erschaffung der Möglichkeit der Selbstrealisierung (Wrocław, Kraków) Promovieren der Kulturbeteiligung (einer breiteren sozialen Tätigkeit), als Erschaffung des Raumes für die Realisierung der außerberuflichen Ehrgefühle (Wrocław) Unterstützung der Vielfältigkeit des Kulturangebots (hohe Kultur, mittlere und die Popkultur) – Befriedigung verschiedener Geschmäcker der Einwohner (Wrocław)

uf der Grundlage der Interviews mit den Vertretern der Selbstverwaltungen wurden folgende Motive und Erwartungen der Selbstverwaltungen, die die Festivals finanzieren, definiert:

A

2.3. Hauptmotive und Erwartungen der Selbstverwaltungsbehörden gegenüber den Festivals Unterstützung wie bisher. Vor vier Jahren brachten die Behörden von Gdynia das Musikfestival Heineken Open’er zur Verlegung von Warszawa nach Gdynia. In der gleichen Zeit wurde das Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival von Kraków nach Warszawa verlegt (stark verbunden mit der Person von Krzysztof Penderecki). Das Filmfestival “Era Nowe Horyzonty” (Ära Neue Horizonte) begann in folgenden Städten: Sanok, dann kam Cieszyn (umso attraktiver, da es eine Stadt ist, durch die die polnisch-tschechische Grenze verläuft), und seit 2006 wird das Festival im großstädtischen Wrocław organisiert. Der Urheber und Organisator des Festivals – Roman Gutek erklärte, dass über die Verlegung des Festivals infrastrukturelle Fragen entschieden (in kleineren Städten gab es Probleme mit den Projektionssälen), besonders aufgrund der wachsenden Zuschaueranzahl (Im Jahre 2006 – 118 Tausend Personen, 2007 - über 120 Tausend Personen) In Situationen von einer solchen Art unterschreiben beide Seiten – Behörden und die Organisatoren des Festivals – Verträge, in denen sie klar ihre Verpflichtungen festlegen. Im Falle des Festivals “Nowe Horyzonty” hat Gutek sich die Erhaltung des bisherigen Charakters des Festivals vorbehalten. Auf der anderen Seite schlugen die Stadtbehörden eine breitere Öffnung des Festivals für die Einwohner von Wrocław vor – auf dem Markt von Wrocław wurden kostenlose Open-Air-Projektionen organisiert.


158

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

MM MM MM MM MM

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

MM

158

Aufbau der Position, des Images und der Marke der Stadt Absorption der europäischen Fonds (Entlastung des Budgets der Selbstverwaltung, Entwicklung der Infrastruktur) – zum Beispiel mit zusätzlichen Mitteln rechnen die Selbstverwaltungen, die sich um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt bewerben Festivals werden eingeschlossen in das “kulturelle Paket der Stadt” (Wrocław, Gdynia) – ergänzen das alltägliche Angebot der Kulturinstitutionen; Aufbau des kulturellen Angebots aufgrund der Anmeldung der Kandidatur für die Europäische Kulturstadt im Jahre 2016 (Toruń, Łódź, Gdańsk, Lublin, Poznań, Warszawa) Anziehen der kulturellen Touristen Festival, organisiert und ausgedacht durch das Stadtamt, als Produkt betrachtet (touristische Marke), welches sich für das touristische Angebot der Stadt vereinigt (Elbląg)

32

MM

60

MM

Zusammen

Erwartungen: Zuwachs des Touristenverkehrs Anheben der Attraktivität der Region in den Augen der Investoren Aufbau des Prestiges der Stadt und der lokalen Behörden

1

MM

1

2.4. Festivals in WARSZAWA

Fotofestivals

I

1

Zloty), und unter den Musikfestivals für: Warszawska Jesień (Warschauer Herbst) (900 Tausend Zloty), Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival (2 350 Tausend Zloty). Kleinere und debütierende Veranstaltungen erhielten niedrigere Zufinanzierungen (von 20 Tausend bis 120 Tausend Zloty). Aus der obigen Zusammenstellung ergibt sich, dass die Musikfestivals überwiegen, sowohl in Anbetracht der Menge, wie auch der Höhe der Zufinanzierung. Obwohl die Stadt Warszawa keine eigene öffentliche Musikinstitution besitzt, vernachlässigt sie diese Sphäre des Schaffens nicht und erteilt vielen Veranstaltungen Unterstützung, wie beispielsweise DJ-Kunstfestivals, Festivals der Alten Musik, Festivals der Trommler und solche, die den gegenwärtigen Komponisten gewidmet sind. Die Warschauer Behörden unterstützen die Festivals nicht nur durch die Zuschüsse, um die sich in den Wettbewerben beworben werden kann. Im Falle der Prioritätsereignisse, besonders wenn eine hohe Zufinanzierung unentbehrlich ist, werden spezielle Abkommen mit den Organisatoren unterschrieben. Eine solche Prozedur wird am häufigsten verwendet, wenn ein Festival durch die öffentlichen Institutionen organisiert wird, oder mitorganisiert. In solchen Fällen vergrößern die Behörden das Budget der gegebenen Institution um die Summe, die den Betrag bestimmen soll, welcher notwendig ist zum Organisieren eines Festivals. Im Jahre 2007 wurden auf diese Weise folgende Festival finanziert: Warszawska Jesień, Musikfestival Praga, Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival, Festival Skrzyżowanie Kultur (Kreuzung der Kulturen) (mitorganisiert durch Stołeczna Estrada), Festival der Theaterfestivals “Spotkania” (Treffen) (organisiert durch das Dramatische Theater der Hauptstadt Warszawa). Ein Jahr zuvor erhielten Warszawska Jesień sowie das Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival hohe finanzielle Hilfe auf dem Wettbewerbsweg. Ein anderes Beispiel des öffentlichen Engagements dieser Art war das IV. Internationale

2

m Jahre 2007 finanzierte das Amt der Stadt Warszawa 60 Festivals mit (32 von ihnen haben internationalen Status) auf dem Wege des Antragswettbewerbs. Die zahlreichsten unter ihnen waren die Musikfestivals. Elf internationale Festivals erhielten öffentliche Unterstützung in einer größeren Höhe, als 120 Tausend Zloty. Die höchsten Summen wurden bestimmt für: das Internationale Filmfestival “Żydowskie Motywy” ( Jüdische Motive) (531 Tausend Zloty), Warschauer Filmfestival (385 Tausend

Tanzfestivals

Festivals, die durch das Amt der Hauptstadt Warszawa mitfinanziert werden

2 1

Internationale Festivals

7 4

Festivals insgesamt

Theaterfestivals Multidisziplinäre Festivals

Festivaltyp

7

20

9

37

Filmfestivals

Musikfestivals

20

7

37

9

Musikfestivals

Filmfestivals

Internationale Festivals

2

Festivals insgesamt

7

Festivaltyp

Theaterfestivals

Festivals, die durch das Amt der Hauptstadt Warszawa mitfinanziert werden

1

m Jahre 2007 finanzierte das Amt der Stadt Warszawa 60 Festivals mit (32 von ihnen haben internationalen Status) auf dem Wege des Antragswettbewerbs. Die zahlreichsten unter ihnen waren die Musikfestivals. Elf internationale Festivals erhielten öffentliche Unterstützung in einer größeren Höhe, als 120 Tausend Zloty. Die höchsten Summen wurden bestimmt für: das Internationale Filmfestival “Żydowskie Motywy” ( Jüdische Motive) (531 Tausend Zloty), Warschauer Filmfestival (385 Tausend

4

I

Multidisziplinäre Festivals

2.4. Festivals in WARSZAWA

1

MM

2

MM

Erwartungen: Zuwachs des Touristenverkehrs Anheben der Attraktivität der Region in den Augen der Investoren Aufbau des Prestiges der Stadt und der lokalen Behörden

Tanzfestivals

MM

1

MM

1

MM

Fotofestivals

MM

32

MM

Zloty), und unter den Musikfestivals für: Warszawska Jesień (Warschauer Herbst) (900 Tausend Zloty), Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival (2 350 Tausend Zloty). Kleinere und debütierende Veranstaltungen erhielten niedrigere Zufinanzierungen (von 20 Tausend bis 120 Tausend Zloty). Aus der obigen Zusammenstellung ergibt sich, dass die Musikfestivals überwiegen, sowohl in Anbetracht der Menge, wie auch der Höhe der Zufinanzierung. Obwohl die Stadt Warszawa keine eigene öffentliche Musikinstitution besitzt, vernachlässigt sie diese Sphäre des Schaffens nicht und erteilt vielen Veranstaltungen Unterstützung, wie beispielsweise DJ-Kunstfestivals, Festivals der Alten Musik, Festivals der Trommler und solche, die den gegenwärtigen Komponisten gewidmet sind. Die Warschauer Behörden unterstützen die Festivals nicht nur durch die Zuschüsse, um die sich in den Wettbewerben beworben werden kann. Im Falle der Prioritätsereignisse, besonders wenn eine hohe Zufinanzierung unentbehrlich ist, werden spezielle Abkommen mit den Organisatoren unterschrieben. Eine solche Prozedur wird am häufigsten verwendet, wenn ein Festival durch die öffentlichen Institutionen organisiert wird, oder mitorganisiert. In solchen Fällen vergrößern die Behörden das Budget der gegebenen Institution um die Summe, die den Betrag bestimmen soll, welcher notwendig ist zum Organisieren eines Festivals. Im Jahre 2007 wurden auf diese Weise folgende Festival finanziert: Warszawska Jesień, Musikfestival Praga, Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival, Festival Skrzyżowanie Kultur (Kreuzung der Kulturen) (mitorganisiert durch Stołeczna Estrada), Festival der Theaterfestivals “Spotkania” (Treffen) (organisiert durch das Dramatische Theater der Hauptstadt Warszawa). Ein Jahr zuvor erhielten Warszawska Jesień sowie das Ludwig von Beethoven-Osterfestival hohe finanzielle Hilfe auf dem Wettbewerbsweg. Ein anderes Beispiel des öffentlichen Engagements dieser Art war das IV. Internationale

60

MM

Aufbau der Position, des Images und der Marke der Stadt Absorption der europäischen Fonds (Entlastung des Budgets der Selbstverwaltung, Entwicklung der Infrastruktur) – zum Beispiel mit zusätzlichen Mitteln rechnen die Selbstverwaltungen, die sich um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt bewerben Festivals werden eingeschlossen in das “kulturelle Paket der Stadt” (Wrocław, Gdynia) – ergänzen das alltägliche Angebot der Kulturinstitutionen; Aufbau des kulturellen Angebots aufgrund der Anmeldung der Kandidatur für die Europäische Kulturstadt im Jahre 2016 (Toruń, Łódź, Gdańsk, Lublin, Poznań, Warszawa) Anziehen der kulturellen Touristen Festival, organisiert und ausgedacht durch das Stadtamt, als Produkt betrachtet (touristische Marke), welches sich für das touristische Angebot der Stadt vereinigt (Elbląg)

Zusammen

MM


159

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Festival der Theaterschulen. In diesem Fall war die Grundlage der Unterstützung außer des früher erwähnten speziellen Verständigung das Gesetz über das Hochschulwesen. Das Festival wurde organisiert durch die Staatliche Höhere Theaterschule, der aus dem Stadtbudget 500 Tausend Zloty (59,5% des Gesamtbudgets des Festivals) übergeben wurden. Das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe hat nach der Durchführung des Wettbewerbs die Veranstaltung mit einem Zuschuss in Höhe von 280 Tausend Zloty (33,3% des Gesamtbudgets des Festivals) zufinanziert.

2.5. “Festival”politik der öffentlichen Behörden in Polen

D

as Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe der Republik Polen erarbeitete kein spezielles Programm der Festivalunterstützung. Es kann auch kein spezifisches Paradigma des Vorgehens aufgezeigt werden, nach dem sich die lokalen Behörden bei der Finanzierung der Festivals richten sollten. Es kann jedoch bemerkt werden, dass die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden immer mehr bewußt die lokale kulturelle Politik gestalten und immer besser die Finanzen für die kulturellen Veranstaltungen verwalten, zu denen Festivals zählen. Selten auch passiert es noch, dass ein Festival “aus Gewohnheit” finanziert wird. Die Behörden finanzieren vorwiegend diese Festivals, die ihr Prestige aufbauen – meistens sind die Einwohner breit über das Engagement der Behörden informiert. Es können zwei Arten dieses Engagements aufgezeigt werden – die einen Entscheidungsträger wollen sich im Glanz der Künstler sonnen und ihre Position in der lokalen Gemeinschaft ausbauen, die anderen sorgen durch die Finanzierung großer Veranstaltungen für den Aufbau der Position der Stadt oder der Region. Weiterhin, allgemein gesagt, bilden die Festivals eher ein zweitrangiges Element des Interesses der Behörden, die für die städtische kulturelle Politik verantwortlich sind. Für manche Ausnahmen können hier Wrocław, Gdynia, Kraków, und letztens auch Warszawa angesehen werden. Es kann festgestellt werden, dass die öffentlichen Behörden in Polen keine klar präzisierte “Festival“politik führen. Jedoch, wie die Untersuchung zeigte, gibt es deutliche Beispiele der guten Praxis auf diesem Feld und immer mehr Behörden versuchen, die Festivals mindestens in den Bereich der strategischen Tätigkeiten für die lokale kulturelle Landschaft einzuschließen.

4

Zuwendungen für die kulturellen Projekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 20064 Zuwendungen

in PLN

Kulturelle Projekte insgesamt

21 989 789

darunter Festivals insgesamt

8 627 100

Internationale Festivals insgesamt

6 941 800

Zuwendungen für die kulturellen Projekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 2006 Art der Zuwendung

in PLN

Zuwendungen für Projekte, betreffend die Aufgaben im Bereich der Kultur (z.B. Film, Tanz, Fotografie, Ausstellungen, schöne Künste, Bildung)

7 039 760

darunter Zuschüsse für: Filmfestivals insgesamt

1 359 800

Darunter internationale Filmfestivals

1 309 800

Multidisziplinäre Festivals insgesamt

393 000

darunter internationale multidisziplinäre Festivals

73 000

Tanzfestivals insgesamt

89 900

darunter internationale Tanzfestivals

50 000

Fotofestivals insgesamt

130 000

darunter internationale Fotofestivals

130 000

Zuwendungen für Theaterprojekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 2006 Art der Zuwendung

in PLN

Zuwendungen für Projekte, betreffend die Promotion der Theatertätigkeit

3 690 309

darunter Zuwendungen für: Theaterfestivals insgesamt

610 800

darunter internationale Theaterfestivals

488 800

Zuwendungen für Musikprojekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 2006 Art der Zuwendung

in PLN

Zuwendungen für Projekte, betreffend die Promotion der Musiktätigkeit

5 023 000

darunter Zuwendungen für: Musikfestivals insgesamt

2 873 000

darunter internationale Musikfestivals

2 175 000

Eigene Berechnungen auf der Grundlage der Daten des Amtes der Hauptstadt Warszawa. Ähnlich im Falle der weiteren Tabellen, betreffend die Ausgaben des Amtes der Hauptstadt Warszawa.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

159

4

Eigene Berechnungen auf der Grundlage der Daten des Amtes der Hauptstadt Warszawa. Ähnlich im Falle der weiteren Tabellen, betreffend die Ausgaben des Amtes der Hauptstadt Warszawa.

as Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe der Republik Polen erarbeitete kein spezielles Programm der Festivalunterstützung. Es kann auch kein spezifisches Paradigma des Vorgehens aufgezeigt werden, nach dem sich die lokalen Behörden bei der Finanzierung der Festivals richten sollten. Es kann jedoch bemerkt werden, dass die Selbstverwaltungsbehörden immer mehr bewußt die lokale kulturelle Politik gestalten und immer besser die Finanzen für die kulturellen Veranstaltungen verwalten, zu denen Festivals zählen. Selten auch passiert es noch, dass ein Festival “aus Gewohnheit” finanziert wird. Die Behörden finanzieren vorwiegend diese Festivals, die ihr Prestige aufbauen – meistens sind die Einwohner breit über das Engagement der Behörden informiert. Es können zwei Arten dieses Engagements aufgezeigt werden – die einen Entscheidungsträger wollen sich im Glanz der Künstler sonnen und ihre Position in der lokalen Gemeinschaft ausbauen, die anderen sorgen durch die Finanzierung großer Veranstaltungen für den Aufbau der Position der Stadt oder der Region. Weiterhin, allgemein gesagt, bilden die Festivals eher ein zweitrangiges Element des Interesses der Behörden, die für die städtische kulturelle Politik verantwortlich sind. Für manche Ausnahmen können hier Wrocław, Gdynia, Kraków, und letztens auch Warszawa angesehen werden. Es kann festgestellt werden, dass die öffentlichen Behörden in Polen keine klar präzisierte “Festival“politik führen. Jedoch, wie die Untersuchung zeigte, gibt es deutliche Beispiele der guten Praxis auf diesem Feld und immer mehr Behörden versuchen, die Festivals mindestens in den Bereich der strategischen Tätigkeiten für die lokale kulturelle Landschaft einzuschließen.

D

2.5. “Festival”politik der öffentlichen Behörden in Polen Festival der Theaterschulen. In diesem Fall war die Grundlage der Unterstützung außer des früher erwähnten speziellen Verständigung das Gesetz über das Hochschulwesen. Das Festival wurde organisiert durch die Staatliche Höhere Theaterschule, der aus dem Stadtbudget 500 Tausend Zloty (59,5% des Gesamtbudgets des Festivals) übergeben wurden. Das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe hat nach der Durchführung des Wettbewerbs die Veranstaltung mit einem Zuschuss in Höhe von 280 Tausend Zloty (33,3% des Gesamtbudgets des Festivals) zufinanziert.

darunter internationale Musikfestivals Musikfestivals insgesamt

2 175 000 2 873 000

darunter Zuwendungen für: Zuwendungen für Projekte, betreffend die Promotion der Musiktätigkeit Art der Zuwendung

5 023 000 in PLN

Zuwendungen für Musikprojekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 2006 488 800

darunter internationale Theaterfestivals

610 800

Theaterfestivals insgesamt darunter Zuwendungen für:

3 690 309

Zuwendungen für Projekte, betreffend die Promotion der Theatertätigkeit

in PLN

Art der Zuwendung

Zuwendungen für Theaterprojekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 2006 130 000

darunter internationale Fotofestivals

130 000

Fotofestivals insgesamt

50 000

darunter internationale Tanzfestivals

89 900

Tanzfestivals insgesamt

73 000

darunter internationale multidisziplinäre Festivals

393 000

Multidisziplinäre Festivals insgesamt

1 309 800

Darunter internationale Filmfestivals

1 359 800

Filmfestivals insgesamt darunter Zuschüsse für: Zuwendungen für Projekte, betreffend die Aufgaben im Bereich der Kultur (z.B. Film, Tanz, Fotografie, Ausstellungen, schöne Künste, Bildung) Art der Zuwendung

7 039 760 in PLN

Zuwendungen für die kulturellen Projekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 2006 Internationale Festivals insgesamt Festivals insgesamt

6 941 800 8 627 100

darunter 21 989 789

Kulturelle Projekte insgesamt

in PLN

Zuwendungen

Zuwendungen für die kulturellen Projekte, gewährt durch die Behörden von Warszawa im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe im Jahre 20064


3. Organisation und Finanzierung des Festivals MALTA – ein Fallstudium5 Name des Festivals und die wichtigsten Informationen über seine Mission, Charakter, dem Planungsprozess und der Realisierung: MM INTERNATIONALES FESTIVAL MALTA (www.malta-festival.pl) Das Internationale Theaterfestival MALTA findet seit 1991 in Poznań statt und ist gegenwärtig eins der größten Theaterfestivals in Zentraleuropa. Der Name des Festivals stammt vom Namen des künstlichen Sees in Poznań, um welchen herum Open-Air-Vorstellungen gespielt werden. Seit der ersten Edition des Festivals wächst die Zahl der Teilnehmer fortwährend. Es wächst auch die Zahl der Zuschauer, die an dem alternativen/experimentellen Theater interessiert sind. Jedes Jahr, über mindestens fünf Tage und Nächte der Festivaldauer, sieht sich das fast 200 Tausend zählende Publikum die Vorstellungen verschiedener Art an. Straßen, Parks, Plätze, Höfe, Markthallen, verlassene Fabriken, das Gebiet um den See Malta herum und andere öffentliche Plätze werden für die Bedürfnisse des Festivals umgestaltet. Seit ein paar Jahren besitzt das Festival eine Konzertbühne von großen Ausmaßen unter freiem Himmel. Eben hier, am See Malta, begann Goran Bregovic seine Karierre in Polen; an diesem Ort traten zum ersten Mal in Polen Gruppen von Weltruhm auf, wie Buena Vista Social Club, Orchestra BAOBAB, Philip Glass and the Philip Glass Ensemble und Leningrad Cowboys. Es fanden hier auch die Konzerte von Jan A.P. Kaczmarek, Wojciech Kilar und Alberto Iglesias, Sinead O’Connor, Toumani Diabe & Symmetric Orchestra statt, auf der Malta-Szene trat Beirut auf. Jedes von diesen musikalischen Ereignissen zog Tausende von Zuschauern an. Vor allem jedoch ist MALTA das Fest des Theaters, sowohl des traditionellen, wie auch des avantgardistischen.

Das Programm des Festivals MALTA umfasst sechs Bereiche: 1. Theater – präsentiert werden hier innovative und bedeutende Open-Air-Vorstellungen sowie Auftritte ausländischer Gruppen des Straßentheaters. Die Mehrheit der Aufführungen wird am Malta See gespielt, auf den Straßen und Plätzen von Poznań, aber es werden auch Vorstellungen gezeigt, die in geschlossenen Räumen stattfinden. Eins der Kriterien ihrer Einbeziehung in das Festivalprogramm ist eine nicht konventionelle

Betrachtung des Theaterraums. Besonders unterstützt werden die Produktionen, die speziell für das Festival geschaffen wurden. Die Teilnahmebedingungen im Rahmen dieser Sektion (jedes Jahr werden etwa zwanzig Aufführungen angerechnet) werden individuell mit den Organisatoren verhandelt. 2. Tanz, 3. Musik, 4. Film, 5. Neue Situation /Wettbewerbsgebiet/. Zu diesem Gebiet werden die innovativsten und interessantesten Präsentationen der visuellen Künste, theatralische und musikalische gerechnet. Die Schöpfer sind hier Vertreter der jüngeren Generation der polnischen Künstler. Die Frage der Einladungen zur Teilnahme wird das ganze Jahr diskutiert, und die Anträge auf die Aufnahme strömen aus dem ganzen Land heran. Das ist das einzige Gebiet, welches die Wettbewerbsform annimmt. MALTA und das Zbigniew Raszewskieg-Theaterinstitut verleihen den “Preis für das beste Team im Programm ”. Er beträgt 30 Tausend Zloty. 6. Verschiedene Das Festival MALTA ist ein wichtiger Treffpunkt der Direktoren der europäischen Festivals, wie auch der Podiumsdiskussionen zum Thema des gegenwärtigen Theaters und seiner Rolle in der heutigen Gesellschaft. Während des Diskussionsforums werden solche Themen angesprochen, wie die Organisationsprobleme der Theaterfestivals, sowie der Einfluss der meistbedeutenden Theaterereignisse auf die kulturelle Atmosphäre Europas. Im laufenden Jahr wird die 17. Edition des Festivals stattfinden. Fast 2 Tausend Künstler und Performance-Künstler wurden zur Teilnahme eingeladen. Organisations-rechtlicher Status des Festivals: Stiftung Zeitdauer und Ort: Alljährliches Ereignis. Zeitdauer – jedes Jahr 5-10 Tage, Ort – Poznań Gesamtzahl der Zuschauer aller künstlerischen Ereignisse der letzten Edition: 200.000 Zuschauer Zahl der verkauften Eintrittskarten: 10.000

Bearbeitung – Michał Merczyński (Direktor des Festivals Malta)

5

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Zahl der verkauften Eintrittskarten: 10.000 Gesamtzahl der Zuschauer aller künstlerischen Ereignisse der letzten Edition: 200.000 Zuschauer Zeitdauer und Ort: Alljährliches Ereignis. Zeitdauer – jedes Jahr 5-10 Tage, Ort – Poznań Organisations-rechtlicher Status des Festivals: Stiftung Im laufenden Jahr wird die 17. Edition des Festivals stattfinden. Fast 2 Tausend Künstler und Performance-Künstler wurden zur Teilnahme eingeladen. Das Festival MALTA ist ein wichtiger Treffpunkt der Direktoren der europäischen Festivals, wie auch der Podiumsdiskussionen zum Thema des gegenwärtigen Theaters und seiner Rolle in der heutigen Gesellschaft. Während des Diskussionsforums werden solche Themen angesprochen, wie die Organisationsprobleme der Theaterfestivals, sowie der Einfluss der meistbedeutenden Theaterereignisse auf die kulturelle Atmosphäre Europas. Betrachtung des Theaterraums. Besonders unterstützt werden die Produktionen, die speziell für das Festival geschaffen wurden. Die Teilnahmebedingungen im Rahmen dieser Sektion (jedes Jahr werden etwa zwanzig Aufführungen angerechnet) werden individuell mit den Organisatoren verhandelt. 2. Tanz, 3. Musik, 4. Film, 5. Neue Situation /Wettbewerbsgebiet/. Zu diesem Gebiet werden die innovativsten und interessantesten Präsentationen der visuellen Künste, theatralische und musikalische gerechnet. Die Schöpfer sind hier Vertreter der jüngeren Generation der polnischen Künstler. Die Frage der Einladungen zur Teilnahme wird das ganze Jahr diskutiert, und die Anträge auf die Aufnahme strömen aus dem ganzen Land heran. Das ist das einzige Gebiet, welches die Wettbewerbsform annimmt. MALTA und das Zbigniew Raszewskieg-Theaterinstitut verleihen den “Preis für das beste Team im Programm ”. Er beträgt 30 Tausend Zloty. 6. Verschiedene

160

160 Bearbeitung – Michał Merczyński (Direktor des Festivals Malta)

5

Das Programm des Festivals MALTA umfasst sechs Bereiche: 1. Theater – präsentiert werden hier innovative und bedeutende Open-Air-Vorstellungen sowie Auftritte ausländischer Gruppen des Straßentheaters. Die Mehrheit der Aufführungen wird am Malta See gespielt, auf den Straßen und Plätzen von Poznań, aber es werden auch Vorstellungen gezeigt, die in geschlossenen Räumen stattfinden. Eins der Kriterien ihrer Einbeziehung in das Festivalprogramm ist eine nicht konventionelle INTERNATIONALES FESTIVAL MALTA (www.malta-festival.pl) Das Internationale Theaterfestival MALTA findet seit 1991 in Poznań statt und ist gegenwärtig eins der größten Theaterfestivals in Zentraleuropa. Der Name des Festivals stammt vom Namen des künstlichen Sees in Poznań, um welchen herum Open-Air-Vorstellungen gespielt werden. Seit der ersten Edition des Festivals wächst die Zahl der Teilnehmer fortwährend. Es wächst auch die Zahl der Zuschauer, die an dem alternativen/experimentellen Theater interessiert sind. Jedes Jahr, über mindestens fünf Tage und Nächte der Festivaldauer, sieht sich das fast 200 Tausend zählende Publikum die Vorstellungen verschiedener Art an. Straßen, Parks, Plätze, Höfe, Markthallen, verlassene Fabriken, das Gebiet um den See Malta herum und andere öffentliche Plätze werden für die Bedürfnisse des Festivals umgestaltet. Seit ein paar Jahren besitzt das Festival eine Konzertbühne von großen Ausmaßen unter freiem Himmel. Eben hier, am See Malta, begann Goran Bregovic seine Karierre in Polen; an diesem Ort traten zum ersten Mal in Polen Gruppen von Weltruhm auf, wie Buena Vista Social Club, Orchestra BAOBAB, Philip Glass and the Philip Glass Ensemble und Leningrad Cowboys. Es fanden hier auch die Konzerte von Jan A.P. Kaczmarek, Wojciech Kilar und Alberto Iglesias, Sinead O’Connor, Toumani Diabe & Symmetric Orchestra statt, auf der Malta-Szene trat Beirut auf. Jedes von diesen musikalischen Ereignissen zog Tausende von Zuschauern an. Vor allem jedoch ist MALTA das Fest des Theaters, sowohl des traditionellen, wie auch des avantgardistischen. MM

Name des Festivals und die wichtigsten Informationen über seine Mission, Charakter, dem Planungsprozess und der Realisierung:

3. Organisation und Finanzierung des Festivals MALTA – ein Fallstudium5

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)


161

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Teilnahmebedingungen (Proportion der kostenlosen Veranstaltungen, Eintrittskartenpreise, usw.): kostenlose Eintritte - 70 %, Eintrittskartenereignisse – 30%. Kartenpreise: von 5 Zloty bis 80 Zloty. /1,2 Euro – 20 Euro /. Die teuersten Karten - Konzert von Sinead O’Connor.

Hat das Festival Aufsichts- oder Beratungskörper? (z.B. Aufsichtsrat, usw.)? Stiftung des Internationalen Theaterfestivals MALTA: Stifter: Grażyna Kulczyk Jan Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Michał Merczyński

Organisationsstruktur des Festivals: Tabelle 1 – Organisationsstruktur

Eingestellt in Vollzeit/ Dienstleistungsvertrag (f/vf)*

Techniker

Verwaltung

Künstler und Darsteller

Organisationsteam

25

120

Eingestellt in Vollzeit/ Dienstleistungsvertrag (f/vf)*

0

4

1

Volontäre

0

30

0

Stiftungsrat: Ryszard Grobelny, Vorstandsvorsitzender Grażyna Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Grzegorz Ganowicz

Künstler und Darsteller

Foundation Board: Michał Merczynski, Vorstandsvorsitzender Renata Borowska, stelltv. Vorstandsvorsitzender

1000

Ausführliche Beschreibung des Festivalbudgets (Einnahmequellen und Ausgabearten)

* Während des Festivals (f) und in der Vorfestivalzeit (vf)

Tabelle 2 – Einnahmequellen Einnahmequellen

Betrag in Euro

% des Gesamtbudgets

Kommentare (wenn notwendig)

Öffentliche Finanzierung:

565 760,33 €

Summe

0,00

Andere

97 434,86 €

Eigener Beitrag (u.a. Einnahmen von den Karten, Promotionsmaterialien, Vermietungen, usw.)

0,00

Private Stifter

82 894,74 €

Sponsoren Zuschüsse von den internationalen Körpern (EU, Vishegrad, Nordic Council usw.) Mittel von dem Non-Profit-Sektor (Stiftungen, Vereine, usw.)

100% 0,00 17,22% 0,00

13 157,89 € 29 930,15 € 0,00

Andere öffentliche Quellen (z.B. Kunsträte, spezielle Fonds, usw.)

78 947,37 € x x 263 157,89 €

Behörden: staatliche/zentrale regionale Kreisbehörden Gemeindebehörden

14,65% 2,33% 5,29% 0,00 46,51% 13,95%

Öffentliche Finanzierung: Einnahmequellen

Betrag in Euro

% des Gesamtbudgets

Kommentare (wenn notwendig)

Tabelle 2 – Einnahmequellen

* Während des Festivals (f) und in der Vorfestivalzeit (vf) 0

Volontäre

0

Eingestellt in Vollzeit/ Dienstleistungsvertrag (f/vf)* Eingestellt in Vollzeit/ Dienstleistungsvertrag (f/vf)*

30

0

4 25

Künstler und Darsteller

Ausführliche Beschreibung des Festivalbudgets (Einnahmequellen und Ausgabearten)

1 120

Verwaltung

Techniker

Behörden: staatliche/zentrale regionale Kreisbehörden Gemeindebehörden

78 947,37 € x x 263 157,89 €

13,95%

Andere öffentliche Quellen (z.B. Kunsträte, spezielle Fonds, usw.)

0,00

0,00

Zuschüsse von den internationalen Körpern (EU, Vishegrad, Nordic Council usw.) Mittel von dem Non-Profit-Sektor (Stiftungen, Vereine, usw.)

29 930,15 €

5,29%

13 157,89 €

2,33%

Sponsoren

82 894,74 €

14,65%

Private Stifter

0,00

0,00

Eigener Beitrag (u.a. Einnahmen von den Karten, Promotionsmaterialien, Vermietungen, usw.)

97 434,86 €

17,22%

Andere

0,00

0,00

Summe

565 760,33 €

100%

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

46,51%

161

1000 Künstler und Darsteller

Organisationsteam Tabelle 1 – Organisationsstruktur

Organisationsstruktur des Festivals: Teilnahmebedingungen (Proportion der kostenlosen Veranstaltungen, Eintrittskartenpreise, usw.): kostenlose Eintritte - 70 %, Eintrittskartenereignisse – 30%. Kartenpreise: von 5 Zloty bis 80 Zloty. /1,2 Euro – 20 Euro /. Die teuersten Karten - Konzert von Sinead O’Connor.

Foundation Board: Michał Merczynski, Vorstandsvorsitzender Renata Borowska, stelltv. Vorstandsvorsitzender Stiftungsrat: Ryszard Grobelny, Vorstandsvorsitzender Grażyna Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Grzegorz Ganowicz Stifter: Grażyna Kulczyk Jan Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Michał Merczyński Hat das Festival Aufsichts- oder Beratungskörper? (z.B. Aufsichtsrat, usw.)? Stiftung des Internationalen Theaterfestivals MALTA:


162

6,98%

Summe

565 760,33 €

100%

* Szenografie, Licht und Ton, technische Dienstleistungen, usw. ** Betriebskosten und Kosten der Büroausstattung, Reise-, Hotel-, Transport-, Druck-, Schutzkosten, usw.

5,65%

Verwaltungs- und Organisationsausgaben ** 20,93% 20,31% 46,13% Kommentare (wenn notwendig)

Tabelle 3 – Ausgaben nach Kategorie

für ein wichtiges kulturelles Ereignis mit internationaler Bedeutung. Für das Büro des Großpolen-Wojewoden ist MALTA eine einmalige Gelegenheit zur Entwicklung der regionalen künstlerischen Tätigkeit.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

6,98%

162

Welche Art Kontrolle und Beurteilung der Tätigkeiten haben die Einheiten eingesetzt, die die Quellen der öffentlichen Finanzierung sind? Jedes Jahr nach dem Festival senden die Organisatoren finanzielle und sachliche Berichte an die Stadtbehörden in Poznań, das Büro des Großpolen-Wojewoden, sowie das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe.

100%

Wie verlief der Entscheidungsprozess der öffentlichen Behörden (z.B. welche waren die Motive des Engagements und/oder Finanzierung des Festivals und welche waren ihre Erwartungen; wie lange dauerte die Entscheidungsfassung; was das Festival ein Teil der langfristigen Strategie, oder eine Entscheidung ad hoc? Welche waren die juristischen Grundlagen des Engagements der Behörden – war es erforderlich, eine Ausschreibung zu organisieren, Bewerbungen zu hinterlegen, oder andere)? Die Stadtbehörden von Poznań sind einer der wichtigsten Mitorganisatoren seit den Anfängen des Bestehens des Festivals. Das Festival MALTA wird für die kulturelle Visitenkarte von Poznań gehalten und wird in der Strategie der Bemühungen um den Titel der Kulturellen Hauptstadt Europas 2016 unterstrichen. Die Organisatoren des Festivals schlossen mit den Stadtbehörden einen 3-jährigen Vertrag ab. Das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe unterstützt jedes Jahr das Festival und hält es

Auf welchen Grundsätzen war die Zusammenarbeit der Behörden und der Organisatoren realisiert? Engagierten sich die Behörden nur als Stifter (beschreiben Sie bitte die Bedingungen der Mitfinanzierung), wenn nicht, welche andere Rolle spielten die Behörden bei der Organisation des Festivals? Die Stadtbehörden von Poznań bieten, außer den Zuwendungen, eine große Hilfe in den organisatorischen Fragen. Alle Stadtinstitutionen – Polizei, Stadtdienstleistungen, Kulturzentren, Theater – helfen beim Festival. Mit einer solchen Hilfe ist es wesentlich einfacher, beispielsweise ein Erlaubnis für die Organisation der kulturellen Ereignisse an den nichtalltäglichen Orten wie alten Fabriken oder Straßen zu erlangen.

* Szenografie, Licht und Ton, technische Dienstleistungen, usw. ** Betriebskosten und Kosten der Büroausstattung, Reise-, Hotel-, Transport-, Druck-, Schutzkosten, usw.

Das Engagieren der öffentlichen Behörden (staatlichen, regionalen, provinzialen, lokalen) in den Prozess der Organisation und Finanzierung des Festivals

Wenn man eine beträchtliche Unterstützung erhalten hat, beschreiben Sie ihre Art, indem die Bedeutung für das Budget berücksichtigt wird (z.B. kostenslose Vermietung des Platzes, PR-Möglichkeiten, Versicherung der Unterkünfte, usw.)

39 456,09 €

% des esamtbudgets

Andere

Betrag in Euro

5,65%

Ausgaben

31 960,88 €

261 010,61 €

Reklame und PR

Verwaltungs- und Organisationsausgaben **

Vergütung und die Ausgaben, verbunden mit der künstlerischen Arbeit der qualifizierten Produktionen (Autorenrechte, usw.)

20,93%

114 911,70 €

118 421,05 €

Vergütung für das Festivalteam: Verwaltung, Techniker, usw.

Technische Kosten *

118 421,05 €

20,31%

Technische Kosten *

114 911,70 €

31 960,88 €

Vergütung für das Festivalteam: Verwaltung, Techniker, usw.

Reklame und PR

46,13%

39 456,09 €

261 010,61 €

Andere

Vergütung und die Ausgaben, verbunden mit der künstlerischen Arbeit der qualifizierten Produktionen (Autorenrechte, usw.)

Kommentare (wenn notwendig)

565 760,33 €

% des esamtbudgets

Summe

Betrag in Euro

Das Engagieren der öffentlichen Behörden (staatlichen, regionalen, provinzialen, lokalen) in den Prozess der Organisation und Finanzierung des Festivals

Ausgaben

Auf welchen Grundsätzen war die Zusammenarbeit der Behörden und der Organisatoren realisiert? Engagierten sich die Behörden nur als Stifter (beschreiben Sie bitte die Bedingungen der Mitfinanzierung), wenn nicht, welche andere Rolle spielten die Behörden bei der Organisation des Festivals? Die Stadtbehörden von Poznań bieten, außer den Zuwendungen, eine große Hilfe in den organisatorischen Fragen. Alle Stadtinstitutionen – Polizei, Stadtdienstleistungen, Kulturzentren, Theater – helfen beim Festival. Mit einer solchen Hilfe ist es wesentlich einfacher, beispielsweise ein Erlaubnis für die Organisation der kulturellen Ereignisse an den nichtalltäglichen Orten wie alten Fabriken oder Straßen zu erlangen.

Tabelle 3 – Ausgaben nach Kategorie

Welche Art Kontrolle und Beurteilung der Tätigkeiten haben die Einheiten eingesetzt, die die Quellen der öffentlichen Finanzierung sind? Jedes Jahr nach dem Festival senden die Organisatoren finanzielle und sachliche Berichte an die Stadtbehörden in Poznań, das Büro des Großpolen-Wojewoden, sowie das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe.

für ein wichtiges kulturelles Ereignis mit internationaler Bedeutung. Für das Büro des Großpolen-Wojewoden ist MALTA eine einmalige Gelegenheit zur Entwicklung der regionalen künstlerischen Tätigkeit.

Wie verlief der Entscheidungsprozess der öffentlichen Behörden (z.B. welche waren die Motive des Engagements und/oder Finanzierung des Festivals und welche waren ihre Erwartungen; wie lange dauerte die Entscheidungsfassung; was das Festival ein Teil der langfristigen Strategie, oder eine Entscheidung ad hoc? Welche waren die juristischen Grundlagen des Engagements der Behörden – war es erforderlich, eine Ausschreibung zu organisieren, Bewerbungen zu hinterlegen, oder andere)? Die Stadtbehörden von Poznań sind einer der wichtigsten Mitorganisatoren seit den Anfängen des Bestehens des Festivals. Das Festival MALTA wird für die kulturelle Visitenkarte von Poznań gehalten und wird in der Strategie der Bemühungen um den Titel der Kulturellen Hauptstadt Europas 2016 unterstrichen. Die Organisatoren des Festivals schlossen mit den Stadtbehörden einen 3-jährigen Vertrag ab. Das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe unterstützt jedes Jahr das Festival und hält es

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Wenn man eine beträchtliche Unterstützung erhalten hat, beschreiben Sie ihre Art, indem die Bedeutung für das Budget berücksichtigt wird (z.B. kostenslose Vermietung des Platzes, PR-Möglichkeiten, Versicherung der Unterkünfte, usw.)


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

usammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass in Europa die Zahl dieser Länder überwiegend ist, wo die öffentlichen Behörden noch keine erarbeitete klare und transparente Politik oder Strategie der Tätigkeiten gegenüber den Festivals haben. Die Festivals erlangten währenddessen eine starke Position auf der Karte des kulturellen Lebens, besonders der Metropolstädte, oft auf Kosten der mehr konventionellen und traditionellen Formen der künstlerischen Aktivität. In der nahen Zukunft wird diese Po-

Z

4. Hinweise nicht nur für Warszawa stark

in einem gew. Grad

unwesentlich

überhaupt nicht

Touristik

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

ökonomische Entwicklung

[  ]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

Beschäftigung

[  ]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

soziale Kohärenz

[  ]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

lokale Aktivität

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

In welchem Grad beeinflusst die öffentliche Politik, die in anderen sozialen Bereichen realisiert wird, die Festivals? Herausforderungen Die Verträge, abgeschlossen für eine längere Zeit würden uns erlauben, das Festival zu entfalten, mehr spezielle Produktionen zu realisieren, atypische Projekte einzuladen, zu experimentieren, neue junge Künstler zu suchen. Dem Festival wäre ein ständiges Gebäude von den Stadtbehörden nützlich. An diesem Ort würde das Werkstadtzentrum, Residenzen für die Theater und ein Archiv organisiert werden. Beurteilung des Engagements der öffentlichen Behörden aus beiden Perspektiven: der Behörden und der Organisatoren Hindernisse Als eine Non-Profit-Organisation können wir Zuschüsse gewinnen und den Vertrag mit den öffentlichen Behörden lediglich auf Maximum 3 Jahre unterschreiben. Das erlaubt nicht, eine langfristige Strategie der Entwicklung des Festivals zu realisieren. Es tritt auch ein Bedürfnis auf, eine größere Menge Treffen mit den Repräsentanten der Stadtbehörden und der Stadtdienstleistungen während der Vorbereitungen für das Festival zu organisieren.

163

sition wahrscheinlich noch mehr bedeutend. Deswegen ist wahrscheinlich die wichtigste Schlussfolgerung und gleichzeitig Empfehlung die Tatsache, dass der Frage der Festivals mehr Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet werden soll. Die öffentlichen Behörden der europäischen Länder sollten also ihre “Festival”politik auf eine ähnliche Weise bestimmen, wie sie das vorgenommen haben in Bezug auf die Theater, Museen, Bibliotheken. Diese Empfehlung bezieht sich besonders auf die Metropolstädte, wo die meisten Festivals organisiert werden. Es soll jedoch die Eigentümlichkeit der Festivals unterstrichen werden, die sie von anderen Typen des kulturellen Ausdrucks unterscheidet. Deswegen ist es schwer zu erwarten, dass eine Nachahmung der schon bestehenden Politiken, betreffend andere Bereiche des kulturellen Lebens möglich wäre, oder die Erarbeitung einer Politik in Bezug auf die Festivals, die in verschiedenen Ländern vervielfältigt werden könnte. Das Definieren der Festivalpolitik soll begonnen werden von der Erkennung der Eigentümlichkeit der Festivals und ihrer Verdichtung im gegebenen Land, der Region oder der Stadt, sowie von der Bestimmung, wie stark die Position der Festivals in der Landschaft des kulturellen Lebens ist. Dieses anscheinend einfache Unternehmen kann erschwert werden durch das Fehlen der allgemein angenommenen Definition der Festivals. Die meisten Bedenken erweckt wohl die große Zahl der Volksfeste verschiedener Art, die oft den Namen der Festivals annehmen. Angebracht wäre, sich mit der Definition, angenommen durch die Europäischen Festivalvereine, wie z.B. der Europäische Festivalverein (European Association of Festivals) zu bedienen, aber diese Definition kann durch historische Umstände modifiziert werden, die für die Entwicklung des gegebenen Landes, der Region wichtig sind. Eine präzise Erkennung der Erscheinung kann nicht auf die Festivals beschränkt werden, deren Hauptorganisatoren Behörden sind; es muss sich auf ein wesentlich breiteres Spektrum beziehen. Indem sie an die Festivalpolitik denken, sollen sich die öffentlichen Behörden nicht nur der großen Differenzierung, die die Festivals kennzeichnet bewusst, sondern sich auch über ihre Polyfunktionalität im klaren sein. In diesem Text wurde schon darüber geschrieben, also entscheiden wir uns nicht zu einer Wiederholung. Es soll jedoch unterstrichen werden, dass die Erarbeitung der Festivalpolitik nicht nur eine Gelegenheit ist zur Verdeutlichung dieser Funktionen, sondern auch zur Bestimmung der Sammlung der Ziele, die, unterstützt durch die öffentlichen Behörden, die Festivals erreichen sollen. Selbstverständlich ist,

Beurteilung des Engagements der öffentlichen Behörden aus beiden Perspektiven: der Behörden und der Organisatoren Hindernisse Als eine Non-Profit-Organisation können wir Zuschüsse gewinnen und den Vertrag mit den öffentlichen Behörden lediglich auf Maximum 3 Jahre unterschreiben. Das erlaubt nicht, eine langfristige Strategie der Entwicklung des Festivals zu realisieren. Es tritt auch ein Bedürfnis auf, eine größere Menge Treffen mit den Repräsentanten der Stadtbehörden und der Stadtdienstleistungen während der Vorbereitungen für das Festival zu organisieren. Herausforderungen Die Verträge, abgeschlossen für eine längere Zeit würden uns erlauben, das Festival zu entfalten, mehr spezielle Produktionen zu realisieren, atypische Projekte einzuladen, zu experimentieren, neue junge Künstler zu suchen. Dem Festival wäre ein ständiges Gebäude von den Stadtbehörden nützlich. An diesem Ort würde das Werkstadtzentrum, Residenzen für die Theater und ein Archiv organisiert werden. In welchem Grad beeinflusst die öffentliche Politik, die in anderen sozialen Bereichen realisiert wird, die Festivals? stark in einem gew. Grad

[x]

lokale Aktivität

[  ]

soziale Kohärenz

[  ]

Beschäftigung

[  ]

ökonomische Entwicklung

[x]

Touristik

[  ] [x] [x] [x] [  ]

unwesentlich [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ]

überhaupt nicht [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ] [  ]

4. Hinweise nicht nur für Warszawa

Z

usammenfassend kann festgestellt werden, dass in Europa die Zahl dieser Länder überwiegend ist, wo die öffentlichen Behörden noch keine erarbeitete klare und transparente Politik oder Strategie der Tätigkeiten gegenüber den Festivals haben. Die Festivals erlangten währenddessen eine starke Position auf der Karte des kulturellen Lebens, besonders der Metropolstädte, oft auf Kosten der mehr konventionellen und traditionellen Formen der künstlerischen Aktivität. In der nahen Zukunft wird diese Po-

sition wahrscheinlich noch mehr bedeutend. Deswegen ist wahrscheinlich die wichtigste Schlussfolgerung und gleichzeitig Empfehlung die Tatsache, dass der Frage der Festivals mehr Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet werden soll. Die öffentlichen Behörden der europäischen Länder sollten also ihre “Festival”politik auf eine ähnliche Weise bestimmen, wie sie das vorgenommen haben in Bezug auf die Theater, Museen, Bibliotheken. Diese Empfehlung bezieht sich besonders auf die Metropolstädte, wo die meisten Festivals organisiert werden. Es soll jedoch die Eigentümlichkeit der Festivals unterstrichen werden, die sie von anderen Typen des kulturellen Ausdrucks unterscheidet. Deswegen ist es schwer zu erwarten, dass eine Nachahmung der schon bestehenden Politiken, betreffend andere Bereiche des kulturellen Lebens möglich wäre, oder die Erarbeitung einer Politik in Bezug auf die Festivals, die in verschiedenen Ländern vervielfältigt werden könnte. Das Definieren der Festivalpolitik soll begonnen werden von der Erkennung der Eigentümlichkeit der Festivals und ihrer Verdichtung im gegebenen Land, der Region oder der Stadt, sowie von der Bestimmung, wie stark die Position der Festivals in der Landschaft des kulturellen Lebens ist. Dieses anscheinend einfache Unternehmen kann erschwert werden durch das Fehlen der allgemein angenommenen Definition der Festivals. Die meisten Bedenken erweckt wohl die große Zahl der Volksfeste verschiedener Art, die oft den Namen der Festivals annehmen. Angebracht wäre, sich mit der Definition, angenommen durch die Europäischen Festivalvereine, wie z.B. der Europäische Festivalverein (European Association of Festivals) zu bedienen, aber diese Definition kann durch historische Umstände modifiziert werden, die für die Entwicklung des gegebenen Landes, der Region wichtig sind. Eine präzise Erkennung der Erscheinung kann nicht auf die Festivals beschränkt werden, deren Hauptorganisatoren Behörden sind; es muss sich auf ein wesentlich breiteres Spektrum beziehen. Indem sie an die Festivalpolitik denken, sollen sich die öffentlichen Behörden nicht nur der großen Differenzierung, die die Festivals kennzeichnet bewusst, sondern sich auch über ihre Polyfunktionalität im klaren sein. In diesem Text wurde schon darüber geschrieben, also entscheiden wir uns nicht zu einer Wiederholung. Es soll jedoch unterstrichen werden, dass die Erarbeitung der Festivalpolitik nicht nur eine Gelegenheit ist zur Verdeutlichung dieser Funktionen, sondern auch zur Bestimmung der Sammlung der Ziele, die, unterstützt durch die öffentlichen Behörden, die Festivals erreichen sollen. Selbstverständlich ist,

163

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)


Gruppen oder sei es auch nur an der Existenz der Festivals interessierten. Das hilft auch sicherlich in der Promotion des Unterfangens, und sogar seiner Verbreitung auf einem wesentlich größeren Gebiet, als ursprünglich angenommen wurde. Die Frage der Evaluierung der Handlungen soll schon während der Konzeptionsarbeiten über der Festivalpolitik erscheinen. Wenn es gelingt, präzise definierte strategische Ziele und Kriterien zu schaffen, auf der Grundlage deren die Entscheidung über die Zufinanzierung einzelner Festivals getroffen wird, so wird nachher einfacher, sie in die Kriterien der Beurteilung und der Evaluierung zu transformieren. Ausführlich bestimmte Ziele müssen jedoch nicht Zahl- /Mengenrichtwerte bedeuten. Oft reichen klar bestimmte Erwartungen der öffentlichen Behörden gegenüber dem Festival. Präzise Richtlinien/Richtwerte bilden eine unheimliche Hilfe für jede der interessierten Parteien, für Zuschussgeber, Festivalorganisatoren, den überwachenden und beurteilenden Subjekten. Ein zusätzlicher Vorteil erscheint, wenn die erwähnten Richtlinien/Richtwerte ausgenutzt werden können in den vergleichenden Analysen, die beurteilen lassen, wie in Praxis die öffentlichen Behörden die Festivals unterstützen. Trotz des großen Reichtums an Ideen für die Bildung der evaluativen Instrumente, die nicht nur das Niveau der Realisierung der festgelegten Ziele bewerten würden, sondern auch ökonomische, soziale und andere Folgen der Festivals, können nicht wirklich effektive und empfehlenswürdige Werkzeuge von diesem Typ aufgezeigt werden. Es kann dafür den öffentlichen Behörden die Vorsicht in der Beurteilung des Einflusses der Festivals auf die umgebende Wirklichkeit empfohlen werden, jedoch gleichzeitig erfordern, dass sie nicht aufhören, die direkten und langfristigen Vorteile, die aus der Festivalpolitik strömen, zu suchen.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

dass diese Ziele mit den durch die öffentlichen Behörden angenommenen allgemeinen Prioritäten übereinstimmend sein sollen, denn die Politik/Strategie gegenüber den Festivals schlüssig sein muss mit der allgemeinen kulturellen Politik der öffentlichen Behörden. Die Bezeichnung der Werkzeuge und der finanziellen Ressourcen bildet den Grundteil des Prozesses der Bearbeitung von Strategien, die sich auf die Festivals beziehen. Die finanzielle Intervention ist das selbstverständlichste Werkzeug in den Händen der öffentlichen Behörden. In diesem Kontext ist die Vorhersehbarkeit der Höhe der öffentlichen Auflagen genauso wichtig, wie ihre tatsächliche Höhe. Die notwendigen und gleichzeitig selbstverständlichen Bedingungen ist die Transparenz der Prozeduren der Zuerkennung der finanziellen Unterstützung und die Konsequenz in der Realisierung der Verpflichtungen. Außer der Finanzierung ist auch das Demonstrieren des Willens der politischen Unterstützung wichtig, sowie auch der Lust der Promotion des gesamten Unternehmens. Die Schaffung der Atmosphäre der Zusammenarbeit, des gegenseitigen Vertrauens ist genauso wichtig, wie die Zuerkennung der Fonds für kulturelle Ziele. Indem sie die Festivalpolitik definieren, sollen die Behörden die Erschaffung von verschiedenen Verständigungen in Erwägung ziehen und die Notwendigkeit der Bestimmung von Rahmen und Grundsätzen der Zusammenarbeit mit verschiedenen Subjekten. Zu solchen rechnen z.B. Verständigungen mit den Kulturmanagern, Initiatoren und den “geistigen” Patronen der Festivals, kulturellen Institutionen, sowie anderen Vertretern der subventionierten Subjekte (inländische, regionale und lokale Behördenorgane), Organisatoren der Festivals, karitativen Organisationen, usw. Die Festivalpolitik muss Möglichkeiten schaffen zur Schließung der Bündnisse mit vielen engagierten

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

164

Gruppen oder sei es auch nur an der Existenz der Festivals interessierten. Das hilft auch sicherlich in der Promotion des Unterfangens, und sogar seiner Verbreitung auf einem wesentlich größeren Gebiet, als ursprünglich angenommen wurde. Die Frage der Evaluierung der Handlungen soll schon während der Konzeptionsarbeiten über der Festivalpolitik erscheinen. Wenn es gelingt, präzise definierte strategische Ziele und Kriterien zu schaffen, auf der Grundlage deren die Entscheidung über die Zufinanzierung einzelner Festivals getroffen wird, so wird nachher einfacher, sie in die Kriterien der Beurteilung und der Evaluierung zu transformieren. Ausführlich bestimmte Ziele müssen jedoch nicht Zahl- /Mengenrichtwerte bedeuten. Oft reichen klar bestimmte Erwartungen der öffentlichen Behörden gegenüber dem Festival. Präzise Richtlinien/Richtwerte bilden eine unheimliche Hilfe für jede der interessierten Parteien, für Zuschussgeber, Festivalorganisatoren, den überwachenden und beurteilenden Subjekten. Ein zusätzlicher Vorteil erscheint, wenn die erwähnten Richtlinien/Richtwerte ausgenutzt werden können in den vergleichenden Analysen, die beurteilen lassen, wie in Praxis die öffentlichen Behörden die Festivals unterstützen. Trotz des großen Reichtums an Ideen für die Bildung der evaluativen Instrumente, die nicht nur das Niveau der Realisierung der festgelegten Ziele bewerten würden, sondern auch ökonomische, soziale und andere Folgen der Festivals, können nicht wirklich effektive und empfehlenswürdige Werkzeuge von diesem Typ aufgezeigt werden. Es kann dafür den öffentlichen Behörden die Vorsicht in der Beurteilung des Einflusses der Festivals auf die umgebende Wirklichkeit empfohlen werden, jedoch gleichzeitig erfordern, dass sie nicht aufhören, die direkten und langfristigen Vorteile, die aus der Festivalpolitik strömen, zu suchen.

164

dass diese Ziele mit den durch die öffentlichen Behörden angenommenen allgemeinen Prioritäten übereinstimmend sein sollen, denn die Politik/Strategie gegenüber den Festivals schlüssig sein muss mit der allgemeinen kulturellen Politik der öffentlichen Behörden. Die Bezeichnung der Werkzeuge und der finanziellen Ressourcen bildet den Grundteil des Prozesses der Bearbeitung von Strategien, die sich auf die Festivals beziehen. Die finanzielle Intervention ist das selbstverständlichste Werkzeug in den Händen der öffentlichen Behörden. In diesem Kontext ist die Vorhersehbarkeit der Höhe der öffentlichen Auflagen genauso wichtig, wie ihre tatsächliche Höhe. Die notwendigen und gleichzeitig selbstverständlichen Bedingungen ist die Transparenz der Prozeduren der Zuerkennung der finanziellen Unterstützung und die Konsequenz in der Realisierung der Verpflichtungen. Außer der Finanzierung ist auch das Demonstrieren des Willens der politischen Unterstützung wichtig, sowie auch der Lust der Promotion des gesamten Unternehmens. Die Schaffung der Atmosphäre der Zusammenarbeit, des gegenseitigen Vertrauens ist genauso wichtig, wie die Zuerkennung der Fonds für kulturelle Ziele. Indem sie die Festivalpolitik definieren, sollen die Behörden die Erschaffung von verschiedenen Verständigungen in Erwägung ziehen und die Notwendigkeit der Bestimmung von Rahmen und Grundsätzen der Zusammenarbeit mit verschiedenen Subjekten. Zu solchen rechnen z.B. Verständigungen mit den Kulturmanagern, Initiatoren und den “geistigen” Patronen der Festivals, kulturellen Institutionen, sowie anderen Vertretern der subventionierten Subjekte (inländische, regionale und lokale Behördenorgane), Organisatoren der Festivals, karitativen Organisationen, usw. Die Festivalpolitik muss Möglichkeiten schaffen zur Schließung der Bündnisse mit vielen engagierten


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs Jan Sadkiewicz

D

er Begriff “Historische Politik” machte im zeitgenössischen Polen eine glänzende Karriere und ist heute Gegenstand der – nicht selten stürmischen – Debatte, die Philosophen, Politiker, Historiker oder Publizisten verwickelt. Der Begriff selbst ist übrigens erschienen im Kontext des allgemeinen Interessenzuwachses an Geschichte, dessen Erscheinungen wir heute auf jedem Schritt beobachten können. Die Zeitungen und Zeitschriften übertreffen sich in der Veröffentlichung der Beilagen mit den Titeln “Geschichte” oder “Zivilisation”, die Radiosender widmen ganzen Sendungen den Jahrestagen der wichtigen historischen Ereignisse, die Gemeindebehörden organisieren Inszenierungen der Schlachten, die auf gegebenem Gebiet stattgefunden haben. Den Themenkanal, der der Geschichte gewidmet wurde, hat nicht nur das öffentliche Fernsehen initiiert, sondern auch der kommerzielle Sender TVN. Zu Bestsellern werden historische Bücher, und die Ausgaben weiterer Bücher dieser Reihe werden zu berühmten kulturellen Ereignissen. Es muss wohl nicht unterstrichen werden, welche Emotionen die Rückkehr wichtiger und nicht bis zu Ende geklärter Angelegenheiten aus der neuesten Geschichte Polens weckt, vor allem der Durchleuchtung oder Aburteilung der kommunistischen Verbrecher. Die historische Politik wurde jedoch nicht nur zu einem neuen Forschungsfeld im Bereich der Sozialwissenschaften, sondern auch zu einer Zone politischer Gefechte. Die Hineinziehung dieses Begriffs in den Bereich des Kampfes unter den einzelnen Parteien und den Interessengruppen drängte der Diskussion über die historische Politik eine spezifische Sprache auf, die der polnischen politischen Szene eigen ist, oder geradezu überhaupt für jegliche öffentliche Debatte im Zeitalter elektronischer Medien; die kreierte Vision der historischen Politik hat immer weniger Gemeinsames mit der Wirklichkeit. Eine Beurteilung der

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Erscheinung wurde in vielen Fällen den partikulären Interessen der Gruppierung unterordnet, die der Beurteilende repräsentiert. Daher zieht in der besagten Diskussion das Fehlen einer klaren Formulierung die Aufmerksamkeit, was eigentlich die historische Politik ist, auf sich. Wie sieht die praktische Realisierung ihrer Postulate aus? Eine solche Einsicht in die Frage, welche die Aufmerksamkeit auf die institutionellen Formen der Einführung der Idee der historischen Politik lenkt, ist dagegen besonders vom Standpunkt eines Kulturmanagers interessant. Diese Frage ist für die Leute, die mit der Kulturverwaltung verbunden sind, desto interessanter, als dass der Hauptakteur der Tätigkeiten, die mit der historischen Politik verbunden sind, bis vor kurzem das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe war, und sie selbst wurde nach 2005 ein wesentliches Element der neuen kulturellen Politik. Dem Minister Kazimierz Ujazdowski soll die Gerechtigkeit widerfahren, als dem Initiator der Aktion, die kühn für den Anfang der historischen Politik als Begriff anerkannt werden kann, auch wenn nicht als Erscheinung; eine Aktion, die in dem Moment unternommen wurde, als die Idee der “Rückkehr zur Geschichte” selbst noch weder populär, noch breit akzeptiert war. Im November 2000, als Kazimierz Ujazdowski das Kultusministerium leitete, noch im Rahmen der Regierung von Jerzy Buzek, erschien auf Plakaten und Reklametafeln in den 26 größten polnischen Städten die Frage: Das Leben widmen für die Heimat?! Das war der Anfang der visuellen Werbekampagne der Ausstellung Helden unserer Freiheit, die die Ehrerbietung den Helden der polnischen Kämpfe um die Unabhängigkeit erwies. Seit dem 11. November wurden Plakat-Antworten hervorgehoben, die die Fotos der verdienten Personen in der Geschichte Polens des 20. Jhs. darstellten. Dieses Unterfangen wurde von Jugendlichen für Jugendliche realisiert. Seine moderne Form hat

165

Jan Sadkiewicz Der Absolvent des Studienganges „Kulturmanagement“ im Institut für öffentliche Angelegenheiten der Jagiellonen Universität, Student des 5. Studienjahres im Bereich Geschichte an derselben Universität. Im Jahre 2006 studierte er im Rahmen vom Socrates/Erasmus Programm an Roskilde Universitetscenter in Dänemark 6 Monate lang. Der Stipendiat des polnischen Ministeriums für Wissenschaft und Hochschulwesen für ausgezeichnete Leistungen im Studienjahr 2006/2007. Der Vizedirektor der Redaktion im Universitas Verlag in Krakow.

er Begriff “Historische Politik” machte im zeitgenössischen Polen eine glänzende Karriere und ist heute Gegenstand der – nicht selten stürmischen – Debatte, die Philosophen, Politiker, Historiker oder Publizisten verwickelt. Der Begriff selbst ist übrigens erschienen im Kontext des allgemeinen Interessenzuwachses an Geschichte, dessen Erscheinungen wir heute auf jedem Schritt beobachten können. Die Zeitungen und Zeitschriften übertreffen sich in der Veröffentlichung der Beilagen mit den Titeln “Geschichte” oder “Zivilisation”, die Radiosender widmen ganzen Sendungen den Jahrestagen der wichtigen historischen Ereignisse, die Gemeindebehörden organisieren Inszenierungen der Schlachten, die auf gegebenem Gebiet stattgefunden haben. Den Themenkanal, der der Geschichte gewidmet wurde, hat nicht nur das öffentliche Fernsehen initiiert, sondern auch der kommerzielle Sender TVN. Zu Bestsellern werden historische Bücher, und die Ausgaben weiterer Bücher dieser Reihe werden zu berühmten kulturellen Ereignissen. Es muss wohl nicht unterstrichen werden, welche Emotionen die Rückkehr wichtiger und nicht bis zu Ende geklärter Angelegenheiten aus der neuesten Geschichte Polens weckt, vor allem der Durchleuchtung oder Aburteilung der kommunistischen Verbrecher. Die historische Politik wurde jedoch nicht nur zu einem neuen Forschungsfeld im Bereich der Sozialwissenschaften, sondern auch zu einer Zone politischer Gefechte. Die Hineinziehung dieses Begriffs in den Bereich des Kampfes unter den einzelnen Parteien und den Interessengruppen drängte der Diskussion über die historische Politik eine spezifische Sprache auf, die der polnischen politischen Szene eigen ist, oder geradezu überhaupt für jegliche öffentliche Debatte im Zeitalter elektronischer Medien; die kreierte Vision der historischen Politik hat immer weniger Gemeinsames mit der Wirklichkeit. Eine Beurteilung der

D

Jan Sadkiewicz

165

Erscheinung wurde in vielen Fällen den partikulären Interessen der Gruppierung unterordnet, die der Beurteilende repräsentiert. Daher zieht in der besagten Diskussion das Fehlen einer klaren Formulierung die Aufmerksamkeit, was eigentlich die historische Politik ist, auf sich. Wie sieht die praktische Realisierung ihrer Postulate aus? Eine solche Einsicht in die Frage, welche die Aufmerksamkeit auf die institutionellen Formen der Einführung der Idee der historischen Politik lenkt, ist dagegen besonders vom Standpunkt eines Kulturmanagers interessant. Diese Frage ist für die Leute, die mit der Kulturverwaltung verbunden sind, desto interessanter, als dass der Hauptakteur der Tätigkeiten, die mit der historischen Politik verbunden sind, bis vor kurzem das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe war, und sie selbst wurde nach 2005 ein wesentliches Element der neuen kulturellen Politik. Dem Minister Kazimierz Ujazdowski soll die Gerechtigkeit widerfahren, als dem Initiator der Aktion, die kühn für den Anfang der historischen Politik als Begriff anerkannt werden kann, auch wenn nicht als Erscheinung; eine Aktion, die in dem Moment unternommen wurde, als die Idee der “Rückkehr zur Geschichte” selbst noch weder populär, noch breit akzeptiert war. Im November 2000, als Kazimierz Ujazdowski das Kultusministerium leitete, noch im Rahmen der Regierung von Jerzy Buzek, erschien auf Plakaten und Reklametafeln in den 26 größten polnischen Städten die Frage: Das Leben widmen für die Heimat?! Das war der Anfang der visuellen Werbekampagne der Ausstellung Helden unserer Freiheit, die die Ehrerbietung den Helden der polnischen Kämpfe um die Unabhängigkeit erwies. Seit dem 11. November wurden Plakat-Antworten hervorgehoben, die die Fotos der verdienten Personen in der Geschichte Polens des 20. Jhs. darstellten. Dieses Unterfangen wurde von Jugendlichen für Jugendliche realisiert. Seine moderne Form hat

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs

Jan Sadkiewicz Der Absolvent des Studienganges „Kulturmanagement“ im Institut für öffentliche Angelegenheiten der Jagiellonen Universität, Student des 5. Studienjahres im Bereich Geschichte an derselben Universität. Im Jahre 2006 studierte er im Rahmen vom Socrates/Erasmus Programm an Roskilde Universitetscenter in Dänemark 6 Monate lang. Der Stipendiat des polnischen Ministeriums für Wissenschaft und Hochschulwesen für ausgezeichnete Leistungen im Studienjahr 2006/2007. Der Vizedirektor der Redaktion im Universitas Verlag in Krakow.


ein gewisses Interesse und Anerkennung erregt, aber generell hat die Ausstellung keinen breiteren Widerhall hervorgerufen, und ist sogar auf Ausdrücke der Missbilligung gestoßen.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Geschichte und Politik

166

I

n der damaligen Zeit war die historische Politik nicht populär, erst die Eröffnung des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands sollte diese Einstellung ändern. Inzwischen jedoch gestaltete sich schon seit der 2. Hälfte der 90er Jahre eine Gruppe Philosophen, Historiker und Publizisten in Polen, die die Bedeutung der Sorge um das Bild der Vergangenheit zu schätzen wussten und für die Notwendigkeit der Führung der historischen Politik argumentierten. Zu dieser Gruppe, mit der auch Kazimierz Ujazdowski verbunden ist, gehörten u.a.: Marek A. Cichocki, Dariusz Gawin, Andrzej Gniazdowski, Dariusz Karłowicz, Robert Krasowski, Tomasz Merta, Janusz Ostrowski, Paweł Paliwoda. Die Grundlage ihrer publizistischen Tätigkeit war ein kohärentes philosophisches System, geschaffen im Rahmen des Warschauer Clubs der Politischen Kritik. Im Rahmen dieses Systems finden wir Begründung und Ziele der Führung der historischen Politik, motiviert mit dem inneren Standpunkt des Staates. Diese Erkenntnis ist desto wertvoller, dass die Clubmitglieder in der letzten Zeit auf die polnische Wirklichkeit schon nicht nur mit der Feder einwirken, sondern indem sie eine reale Macht ausüben: T. Merta ist Unterstaatssekretär im Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, M.A. Cichocki der gesellschaftliche Berater des Präsidenten der Republik Polen, dagegen D. Gawin stellvertretende Direktor des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands. Das Projekt der historischen Politik ist ein Element eines erweiterten Blicks auf das Wesen und die Rolle eines modernen Staates. Unterstrichen wird vor allem die Tatsache des Determinierens der Wirksamkeit des Funktionierens der Demokratie durch die Tradition und das historische Habe eines Volkes. Die Staatsform muss auf die in der Kultur der gegebenen Gesellschaft verwurzelten Werte gestützt werden, denn die Verpflanzung der Institutionen, die sich woanders bewährt haben, garantieren keinen Erfolg, was zum Beispiel die (bisher) misslungenen Versuche der “Installation” der Demokratie im Nahen Osten beweisen. In diesem Licht ist die historische Politik eine Mission der Kultivierung der Tradition, Kultur und des Nationalerbes; notwendig, da diese Werte sich nicht eigenständig rekonstruieren. Eine Vernachlässigung dieser Mission in der ersten Dekade der polnischen Freiheit nach 1989, verursacht laut den

Warschauer Konservative, die Schwäche des Staates in die Pathologien der Gesellschaft. Mit dem katastrophalen Bild des gegenwärtigen Polens lässt sich sicher polemisieren, aber die Idee der historischen Politik verdient eine Anerkennung, auch nach der Herausnahme aus dem oben erwähnten Kontext. Die Notwendigkeit der Kultivierung der Geschichte des Volkes ergibt sich nicht ausschließlich aus ihrer subjektiven Anerkennung als einen Wert, der für die Gesamtheit emotional wertvoll ist, sondern auch aus der objektiven Anerkennung des Schaffens der Generationen als einen wichtigen staatsbildenden Faktor. Der Aufbau einer stabilen Demokration kann nicht auf dem Weg eines technokratischen Projekts erfolgen; Achtung für die eigene Tradition und die Vergangenheit ist hier genauso wichtig wie die Errichtung eines guten Rechts und der Aufbau der sozialen Verhältnisse, die auf gesunden Prinzipien gestützt werden. Die historische Politik soll auch ein wesentliches Element zum Aufbau des positiven Images Polens im Bereich der internationalen Verhältnisse werden. “Die Methodologie der Wissenschaft unterscheidet Geschichte als das, was passiert ist, von dem, wie das in den Quellen und Beschreibungen festgehalten wurde. Ähnlich verhält es sich mit der Rolle des Staates oder des Volkes in der Geschichte. Wie sie wirklich ausgesehen hat, und wie sie im Bewusstsein der Menschen funktioniert, sind zwei verschiedene Sachen” [Roszkowski, 2005, S. 115]. Die Wahrheit verteidigt sich nicht alleine, daher ist der Verzicht auf eine offensive historische Politik eine strafwürdige Schwächung der eigenen Position in den Verhältnissen mit internationalen Subjekten. Eine solche Haltung wird von den Beispielen einer ähnlichen Tätigkeit aus dem Ausland gestärkt, obwohl das in den anderen Ländern häufig nicht historische Politik genannt wird. Eine besondere Rolle in der Veränderung der polnischen Stimmungen gegenüber der Vergangenheit spielte die Konfrontation mit dem radikalen Projekt der deutschen historischen Politik; Deutschland ist nota bene Heimat dieses Begriffs – er erschien dort schon im Jahre 1989. Russland dagegen schuf eine kohärente, konsequente, mit verschiedenen Kanälen realisierte Vision der historischen Politik, die einerseits das Volk um den Begriff des Imperiums vereinigen soll, und andererseits bestimmt sie ein Instrument der Außenpolitik, welches zur Erweiterung der Einflüsse über die ehemaligen Republiken und Satellitenstaaten der UdSSR dient, sowie auch zur Stärkung der eigenen Position in den Verhältnissen mit dem Westen. Eins seiner Ziele, wie Prof. Andrzej Nowak [Panewka, 2005, S. 128]

I

n der damaligen Zeit war die historische Politik nicht populär, erst die Eröffnung des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands sollte diese Einstellung ändern. Inzwischen jedoch gestaltete sich schon seit der 2. Hälfte der 90er Jahre eine Gruppe Philosophen, Historiker und Publizisten in Polen, die die Bedeutung der Sorge um das Bild der Vergangenheit zu schätzen wussten und für die Notwendigkeit der Führung der historischen Politik argumentierten. Zu dieser Gruppe, mit der auch Kazimierz Ujazdowski verbunden ist, gehörten u.a.: Marek A. Cichocki, Dariusz Gawin, Andrzej Gniazdowski, Dariusz Karłowicz, Robert Krasowski, Tomasz Merta, Janusz Ostrowski, Paweł Paliwoda. Die Grundlage ihrer publizistischen Tätigkeit war ein kohärentes philosophisches System, geschaffen im Rahmen des Warschauer Clubs der Politischen Kritik. Im Rahmen dieses Systems finden wir Begründung und Ziele der Führung der historischen Politik, motiviert mit dem inneren Standpunkt des Staates. Diese Erkenntnis ist desto wertvoller, dass die Clubmitglieder in der letzten Zeit auf die polnische Wirklichkeit schon nicht nur mit der Feder einwirken, sondern indem sie eine reale Macht ausüben: T. Merta ist Unterstaatssekretär im Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, M.A. Cichocki der gesellschaftliche Berater des Präsidenten der Republik Polen, dagegen D. Gawin stellvertretende Direktor des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands. Das Projekt der historischen Politik ist ein Element eines erweiterten Blicks auf das Wesen und die Rolle eines modernen Staates. Unterstrichen wird vor allem die Tatsache des Determinierens der Wirksamkeit des Funktionierens der Demokratie durch die Tradition und das historische Habe eines Volkes. Die Staatsform muss auf die in der Kultur der gegebenen Gesellschaft verwurzelten Werte gestützt werden, denn die Verpflanzung der Institutionen, die sich woanders bewährt haben, garantieren keinen Erfolg, was zum Beispiel die (bisher) misslungenen Versuche der “Installation” der Demokratie im Nahen Osten beweisen. In diesem Licht ist die historische Politik eine Mission der Kultivierung der Tradition, Kultur und des Nationalerbes; notwendig, da diese Werte sich nicht eigenständig rekonstruieren. Eine Vernachlässigung dieser Mission in der ersten Dekade der polnischen Freiheit nach 1989, verursacht laut den

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Geschichte und Politik

Warschauer Konservative, die Schwäche des Staates in die Pathologien der Gesellschaft. Mit dem katastrophalen Bild des gegenwärtigen Polens lässt sich sicher polemisieren, aber die Idee der historischen Politik verdient eine Anerkennung, auch nach der Herausnahme aus dem oben erwähnten Kontext. Die Notwendigkeit der Kultivierung der Geschichte des Volkes ergibt sich nicht ausschließlich aus ihrer subjektiven Anerkennung als einen Wert, der für die Gesamtheit emotional wertvoll ist, sondern auch aus der objektiven Anerkennung des Schaffens der Generationen als einen wichtigen staatsbildenden Faktor. Der Aufbau einer stabilen Demokration kann nicht auf dem Weg eines technokratischen Projekts erfolgen; Achtung für die eigene Tradition und die Vergangenheit ist hier genauso wichtig wie die Errichtung eines guten Rechts und der Aufbau der sozialen Verhältnisse, die auf gesunden Prinzipien gestützt werden. Die historische Politik soll auch ein wesentliches Element zum Aufbau des positiven Images Polens im Bereich der internationalen Verhältnisse werden. “Die Methodologie der Wissenschaft unterscheidet Geschichte als das, was passiert ist, von dem, wie das in den Quellen und Beschreibungen festgehalten wurde. Ähnlich verhält es sich mit der Rolle des Staates oder des Volkes in der Geschichte. Wie sie wirklich ausgesehen hat, und wie sie im Bewusstsein der Menschen funktioniert, sind zwei verschiedene Sachen” [Roszkowski, 2005, S. 115]. Die Wahrheit verteidigt sich nicht alleine, daher ist der Verzicht auf eine offensive historische Politik eine strafwürdige Schwächung der eigenen Position in den Verhältnissen mit internationalen Subjekten. Eine solche Haltung wird von den Beispielen einer ähnlichen Tätigkeit aus dem Ausland gestärkt, obwohl das in den anderen Ländern häufig nicht historische Politik genannt wird. Eine besondere Rolle in der Veränderung der polnischen Stimmungen gegenüber der Vergangenheit spielte die Konfrontation mit dem radikalen Projekt der deutschen historischen Politik; Deutschland ist nota bene Heimat dieses Begriffs – er erschien dort schon im Jahre 1989. Russland dagegen schuf eine kohärente, konsequente, mit verschiedenen Kanälen realisierte Vision der historischen Politik, die einerseits das Volk um den Begriff des Imperiums vereinigen soll, und andererseits bestimmt sie ein Instrument der Außenpolitik, welches zur Erweiterung der Einflüsse über die ehemaligen Republiken und Satellitenstaaten der UdSSR dient, sowie auch zur Stärkung der eigenen Position in den Verhältnissen mit dem Westen. Eins seiner Ziele, wie Prof. Andrzej Nowak [Panewka, 2005, S. 128]

166

ein gewisses Interesse und Anerkennung erregt, aber generell hat die Ausstellung keinen breiteren Widerhall hervorgerufen, und ist sogar auf Ausdrücke der Missbilligung gestoßen.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

behauptet, ist der Beweis der These, dass Polen während des 2. Weltkriegs Kollaborateur der Nazis war. Dieses Bild ergänzt die allgemeine Ignoranz der Geschichte von Mittel- und Osteuropa im Westen, die in den Versuchen der Schuldabwälzung der Verantwortung auf die Polen für den Holocaust Früchte trägt oder Behauptungen über ihren “eingeborenen Antisemitismus”. In der modernen Welt, wo das Bild des Staates und des Volkes in messbare Vorteile umgesetzt wird, geschweige denn die höheren Gründe, wie der Nationalstolz, ist der Übergang zur Tagesordnung über dem oben beschriebenen Zustand nicht annehmbar. Desto mehr, dass die historischen Argumente heute auch gern ausgenutzt werden, und das nicht nur von Polen, während verschiedener Verhandlungen im Forum der Europäischen Union. Das Projekt der historischen Politik hat heutzutage in Polen sowohl treue Beschützer, als auch leidenschaftliche Gegner. Die Vorwürfe stützen sich auf die Gleichsetzung der historischen Politik mit den Propaganda-Praktiken, die durch die Tätigkeit der Totalitarismen aus dem 20. Jh. diskreditiert wurden. Solche Befürchtungen verstärken die Erfahrungen aus den Jahren der Volksrepublik Polen, wo die Tätigkeit des Staates im Bereich des Gedächtnisses lediglich ordinäre Manipulation war, eine rücksichtslose Gegnerin der historischen Wahrheit. Es erscheinen oft Anschuldigungen auf Instrumentalisierung der Geschichte und die Versuche der Schaffung einer bestimmten Vision der Zukunft, die für das aktuelle regierende Lager bequem ist. In diesem Licht ist die historische Politik eine Form des politischen Marketings, die die Wähler gewinnen soll durch die Berufung auf die von ihnen bekennenden Werte, sowie auch ein Werkzeug der Verteidigung oder des Kampfes mit der 3. Republik Polens. Eine solche historische Politik soll eine Reihe Gefährdungen mit sich bringen: Aufteilungen bauen, Geschichte fälschen, den stumpfen Nationalismus und Selbstgefälligkeit anregen, Schäden in der Außenpolitik. Zu wenig ist in ihr Platz für die Kritikfähigkeit im Verhältnis zu der eigenen Geschichte, sowie der Lust zur Versöhnung. Den Forderern der historischen Politik wird die Lust des Baus einer schmalen, geradezu einer Stammesgemeinschaft inkriminiert, durch grobe Indoktrination in ihrer, der einzig richtigen und keiner Kritik unterliegenden Vision der Geschichte, was in der heutigen Realität ein Anachronismus sein soll und von der fehlenden Möglichkeit zeugen, den Anforderungen des Modernen gewachsen zu sein.

Währenddessen halten die Warschauer Konservativen die eigene Konzeption der historischen Politik für die am meisten angepasste an die Anforderungen der Wirklichkeit des 21. Jahrhunderts. Es ist eine Herausforderung, der Polen gerecht werden muss, wenn im vereinten Europa es nicht nur Konsument der Vorteile, die von der Hilfe seiner Partner fließen, sein will, sondern auch aktiver Teilnehmer des Aufbaus der gemeinsamen europäischen Identität. Es soll hier bemerkt werden, dass die Annahmen der historischen Politik, welche auch immer, in eine reale Situation hineintreten, in gewisse politische Realien. Die Initiativen, die in der intellektuellen Ordnung gestellt werden, werden in einer konkreten Situation von konkreten Menschen realisiert, die gerade an der Macht sind. Zwangsläufig haben sie auch eine Opposition, die, wie die Praxis der polnischen politischen Szene beweist, jede Situation ausnutzen, um die Regierenden anzugreifen. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba macht aufmerksam, dass die Schaffung des Programmselements aus der historischen Politik der Partei Recht und Gerechtigkeit ihr viele Gegner brachte, die sie hauptsächlich aus dem Grunde kritisierten, dass es eine Idee von PiS war1. Es kann getrost angenommen werden, dass der absolute, volksallgemeine Konsens in Sachen der Geschichtsversion, die alle für die “eigene” anerkennen würden, unmöglich ist. Immer wird es doch eine Opposition gegen die aktuelle Macht geben, die, ehrlich oder nicht, aus politischen Gründen ihre Tätigkeiten in der Sphäre des Gedächtnisses verurteilen wird – wenn nicht die Prinzipien, so mindestens die Methoden ihrer Realisierung. Es ist keineswegs ein Mangel, sondern ein Vorteil der zeitgenössischen historischen Politik, der sie von den Propaganda-Praktiken der Totalitarismen aus dem 20. Jh. unterscheidet. Gemäß der Definition von Marek A. Cichocki ist sie “Verstärkung des öffentlichen Diskurses über die Vergangenheit, sowohl im Landesinneren, als auch nach außen, durch verschiedene Formen der Institutionalisierung dieses Diskurses”[Cichocki]. Jeder kann in diesem Diskurs das Wort ergreifen, auch die Kritiker der Tätigkeiten der Regierung. Im Lichte dieser Definition auch fehlgeschlagene Initiativen, bekommen paradox ein positives Ausmaß, da ihr richtiges Ziel nicht die Übertragung einer bestimmten Vision der Vergangenheit ist, sondern die Anregung der Diskussion zu ihrem Thema. Dank einer solchen Diskussion, wenn nur auf Tatsachen gestützt, erweitert sich das gesellschaftliche Bewusstsein der eigenen Geschichte,

Interview des Autors mit Prof. Dr. Habil. Andrzej Chwalba, Leiter der Anstalt für Sozial-Religiöse Geschichte des 19. und 20. Jh. im Institut für Geschichte der Jagiellonen-Universität, durchgeführt am 16.05.2007.

1

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

167

167

Interview des Autors mit Prof. Dr. Habil. Andrzej Chwalba, Leiter der Anstalt für Sozial-Religiöse Geschichte des 19. und 20. Jh. im Institut für Geschichte der Jagiellonen-Universität, durchgeführt am 16.05.2007.

1

behauptet, ist der Beweis der These, dass Polen während des 2. Weltkriegs Kollaborateur der Nazis war. Dieses Bild ergänzt die allgemeine Ignoranz der Geschichte von Mittel- und Osteuropa im Westen, die in den Versuchen der Schuldabwälzung der Verantwortung auf die Polen für den Holocaust Früchte trägt oder Behauptungen über ihren “eingeborenen Antisemitismus”. In der modernen Welt, wo das Bild des Staates und des Volkes in messbare Vorteile umgesetzt wird, geschweige denn die höheren Gründe, wie der Nationalstolz, ist der Übergang zur Tagesordnung über dem oben beschriebenen Zustand nicht annehmbar. Desto mehr, dass die historischen Argumente heute auch gern ausgenutzt werden, und das nicht nur von Polen, während verschiedener Verhandlungen im Forum der Europäischen Union. Das Projekt der historischen Politik hat heutzutage in Polen sowohl treue Beschützer, als auch leidenschaftliche Gegner. Die Vorwürfe stützen sich auf die Gleichsetzung der historischen Politik mit den Propaganda-Praktiken, die durch die Tätigkeit der Totalitarismen aus dem 20. Jh. diskreditiert wurden. Solche Befürchtungen verstärken die Erfahrungen aus den Jahren der Volksrepublik Polen, wo die Tätigkeit des Staates im Bereich des Gedächtnisses lediglich ordinäre Manipulation war, eine rücksichtslose Gegnerin der historischen Wahrheit. Es erscheinen oft Anschuldigungen auf Instrumentalisierung der Geschichte und die Versuche der Schaffung einer bestimmten Vision der Zukunft, die für das aktuelle regierende Lager bequem ist. In diesem Licht ist die historische Politik eine Form des politischen Marketings, die die Wähler gewinnen soll durch die Berufung auf die von ihnen bekennenden Werte, sowie auch ein Werkzeug der Verteidigung oder des Kampfes mit der 3. Republik Polens. Eine solche historische Politik soll eine Reihe Gefährdungen mit sich bringen: Aufteilungen bauen, Geschichte fälschen, den stumpfen Nationalismus und Selbstgefälligkeit anregen, Schäden in der Außenpolitik. Zu wenig ist in ihr Platz für die Kritikfähigkeit im Verhältnis zu der eigenen Geschichte, sowie der Lust zur Versöhnung. Den Forderern der historischen Politik wird die Lust des Baus einer schmalen, geradezu einer Stammesgemeinschaft inkriminiert, durch grobe Indoktrination in ihrer, der einzig richtigen und keiner Kritik unterliegenden Vision der Geschichte, was in der heutigen Realität ein Anachronismus sein soll und von der fehlenden Möglichkeit zeugen, den Anforderungen des Modernen gewachsen zu sein.

Währenddessen halten die Warschauer Konservativen die eigene Konzeption der historischen Politik für die am meisten angepasste an die Anforderungen der Wirklichkeit des 21. Jahrhunderts. Es ist eine Herausforderung, der Polen gerecht werden muss, wenn im vereinten Europa es nicht nur Konsument der Vorteile, die von der Hilfe seiner Partner fließen, sein will, sondern auch aktiver Teilnehmer des Aufbaus der gemeinsamen europäischen Identität. Es soll hier bemerkt werden, dass die Annahmen der historischen Politik, welche auch immer, in eine reale Situation hineintreten, in gewisse politische Realien. Die Initiativen, die in der intellektuellen Ordnung gestellt werden, werden in einer konkreten Situation von konkreten Menschen realisiert, die gerade an der Macht sind. Zwangsläufig haben sie auch eine Opposition, die, wie die Praxis der polnischen politischen Szene beweist, jede Situation ausnutzen, um die Regierenden anzugreifen. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba macht aufmerksam, dass die Schaffung des Programmselements aus der historischen Politik der Partei Recht und Gerechtigkeit ihr viele Gegner brachte, die sie hauptsächlich aus dem Grunde kritisierten, dass es eine Idee von PiS war1. Es kann getrost angenommen werden, dass der absolute, volksallgemeine Konsens in Sachen der Geschichtsversion, die alle für die “eigene” anerkennen würden, unmöglich ist. Immer wird es doch eine Opposition gegen die aktuelle Macht geben, die, ehrlich oder nicht, aus politischen Gründen ihre Tätigkeiten in der Sphäre des Gedächtnisses verurteilen wird – wenn nicht die Prinzipien, so mindestens die Methoden ihrer Realisierung. Es ist keineswegs ein Mangel, sondern ein Vorteil der zeitgenössischen historischen Politik, der sie von den Propaganda-Praktiken der Totalitarismen aus dem 20. Jh. unterscheidet. Gemäß der Definition von Marek A. Cichocki ist sie “Verstärkung des öffentlichen Diskurses über die Vergangenheit, sowohl im Landesinneren, als auch nach außen, durch verschiedene Formen der Institutionalisierung dieses Diskurses”[Cichocki]. Jeder kann in diesem Diskurs das Wort ergreifen, auch die Kritiker der Tätigkeiten der Regierung. Im Lichte dieser Definition auch fehlgeschlagene Initiativen, bekommen paradox ein positives Ausmaß, da ihr richtiges Ziel nicht die Übertragung einer bestimmten Vision der Vergangenheit ist, sondern die Anregung der Diskussion zu ihrem Thema. Dank einer solchen Diskussion, wenn nur auf Tatsachen gestützt, erweitert sich das gesellschaftliche Bewusstsein der eigenen Geschichte,


168

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Historische Politik und kulturelle Politik

168

H

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. Dr. Habil. Piotr Franaszek, Leiter der Anstalt für Wirtschaftliche und Soziale Geschichte im Institut für Geschichte der Jagiellonen-Universität, durchgeführt am 30.05.2007.

istorische Politik kann (und soll) ein Wirkungsbereich verschiedener Ministerien sein, jedoch die Tatsache, dass das Ministerium für Außenangelegenheiten auf die Art wirkte, umsichtig gesagt, sehr diskret, dagegen waren die Initiativen des Ministeriums für Nationalbildung auf andere Bereiche konzentriert. Eine besondere Rolle fiel dem Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe zu. Das impliziert eine Reflexion zum Thema der Bestimmung des Platzes der historischen Politik gegenüber anderen Sphären der Tätigkeit des Staates, im besonderen gegenüber der bisher für die Hauptaufgabe des Kultusministeriums gehaltenen Kultur der kulturellen Politik . Dariusz Gawin und Paweł Kowal legen nahe [Dort, S. 13], dass die historische Politik ein neues (neu entdecktes) Element der Staatstätigkeit ist, parallel gegenüber anderen Bereichen. Die historische Politik – schreiben sie – wird also ein vollberechtigtes Element der polnischen Politik neben der wirtschaftlichen, sozialen oder Außenpolitik. Eine ähnliche Meinung hat Prof. Andrzej Nowak, der die historische Politik jedoch eng mit der kulturellen Politik verbindet, und vor allem mit der Bildungspolitik des Staates, und eventuelle Widersprüche in diesen Bereichen als Erscheinung einer gewissen Art Schizophrenie halten würde2. Dagegen repräsentiert Prof. Andrzej Chwalba eine gegenteilige Meinung, gemäß der die Geschichte in allen anderen Bereichen präsent ist, in der kulturellen Politik, Bildungs-, Außenpolitik, wirtschaftlichen, finanziellen Politik, usw3. Angesichts dessen ist die historische Politik keine Tätigkeit, die parallel den anderen gegenüber wäre, sondern sie ist in verschiedenen Bereichen präsent. Diese Ansicht ergänzt der Satz von Prof. Piotr Franaszek, der meint, dass die kulturelle Politik eine dienliche Rolle gegenüber der historischen Politik4 spielt. Durch die kulturelle Politik werden manche Konzeptionen der historischen Politik realisiert. In diesem Sinn ist die Sorge um das Bild der Vergangenheit etwas Übergeordnetes gegenüber der Kultur-, Bildungs- oder Außenpolitik, die anerkannt werden können als Instrumente der Realisierung der Forderungen und Ideen

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. Chwalba.

4

zum Thema welcher jeder freie Bürger sich die eigene Meinung bilden kann. Das Vorwerfen der Versuche von Seiten der Behörden, der gesamten Gesellschaft eine Vision der Zukunft aufzuzwingen, ist reine Demagogie, so etwas in einem demokratischen und pluralistischen Staat, welcher durch zahlreiche Institutionen kontrolliert wird, in den Bedingungen der Freiheit des Wortes und der Privatmedien, einfach unmöglich ist. Allerdings, wie Dr. Hab. Antoni Dudek [Panewka, 2005, S. 84– 85], behauptet, ist ein Element der Willkürlichkeit im Kreieren der Ziele und Mittel der historischen Politik nicht zu vermeiden, und der Wahlsieger wird immer seine Konzeptionen aufzwingen, aber auch wenn jemand Propaganda betreiben möchte, so gibt es heute keine Instrumente, die erlauben würde so zu wirken, wie z.B. die Propaganda in der VRP – obwohl andererseits andere Werkzeuge der Manipulation vervollkommnet worden sind, wobei sie heute eher eine Domäne der Medien sind, und nicht der Politik. Die öffentliche Debatte zum Thema der historischen Politik trägt leider ein starkes Brandmal der laufenden politischen Intrigen. Die Formation, die dieses Problem berührte, und dann, nach der Machtübernahme, die Realisierung eines gewissen Projekts des “Kampfes ums Gedächtnis”, also Recht und Gerechtigkeit, angefangen hat, verband diese Frage mit der Idee der Abrechnung mit der Vergangenheit, unter anderem mit der Durchleuchtung. Die Einflechtung der historischen Politik in das Netz der gegenwärtigen Probleme der polnischen Gesellschaft, und besonders ihres Establishments, bewies einerseits den wesentlichen Einfluss der Geschichte auf die heutige Wirklichkeit, andererseits dagegen führte sie zur starken Polarisierung der Meinungen zum Thema der Tätigkeiten der damaligen Regierenden, darunter der Tätigkeiten in der Vergangenheitssphäre, was das Erreichens eines Konsensus erschwert und die Erarbeitung einer allgemein akzeptierten Vision der historischen Politik. Dieses Projekt sollte jedoch auf dem Wege der Analyse der konkreten Handlungen der Machtorgane beurteilt werden, was eine redliche Antwort auf die Frage erlauben könnte: Erfüllt die historische Politik die Bedingungen, die von ihren Apologeten bestimmt werden, oder vielleicht bestätigt sie die Richtigkeit der ihr gestellten Vorwürfe.

3

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. der Jagiellonen-Universität, Dr. Habil. Andrzej Nowak, Leiter der Anstalt für Geschichte von Osteuropa im Institut für Geschichte der Jagiellonen-Universität, durchgeführt am 27.04.2007.

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. der Jagiellonen-Universität, Dr. Habil. Andrzej Nowak, Leiter der Anstalt für Geschichte von Osteuropa im Institut für Geschichte der Jagiellonen-Universität, durchgeführt am 27.04.2007.

2

istorische Politik kann (und soll) ein Wirkungsbereich verschiedener Ministerien sein, jedoch die Tatsache, dass das Ministerium für Außenangelegenheiten auf die Art wirkte, umsichtig gesagt, sehr diskret, dagegen waren die Initiativen des Ministeriums für Nationalbildung auf andere Bereiche konzentriert. Eine besondere Rolle fiel dem Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe zu. Das impliziert eine Reflexion zum Thema der Bestimmung des Platzes der historischen Politik gegenüber anderen Sphären der Tätigkeit des Staates, im besonderen gegenüber der bisher für die Hauptaufgabe des Kultusministeriums gehaltenen Kultur der kulturellen Politik . Dariusz Gawin und Paweł Kowal legen nahe [Dort, S. 13], dass die historische Politik ein neues (neu entdecktes) Element der Staatstätigkeit ist, parallel gegenüber anderen Bereichen. Die historische Politik – schreiben sie – wird also ein vollberechtigtes Element der polnischen Politik neben der wirtschaftlichen, sozialen oder Außenpolitik. Eine ähnliche Meinung hat Prof. Andrzej Nowak, der die historische Politik jedoch eng mit der kulturellen Politik verbindet, und vor allem mit der Bildungspolitik des Staates, und eventuelle Widersprüche in diesen Bereichen als Erscheinung einer gewissen Art Schizophrenie halten würde2. Dagegen repräsentiert Prof. Andrzej Chwalba eine gegenteilige Meinung, gemäß der die Geschichte in allen anderen Bereichen präsent ist, in der kulturellen Politik, Bildungs-, Außenpolitik, wirtschaftlichen, finanziellen Politik, usw3. Angesichts dessen ist die historische Politik keine Tätigkeit, die parallel den anderen gegenüber wäre, sondern sie ist in verschiedenen Bereichen präsent. Diese Ansicht ergänzt der Satz von Prof. Piotr Franaszek, der meint, dass die kulturelle Politik eine dienliche Rolle gegenüber der historischen Politik4 spielt. Durch die kulturelle Politik werden manche Konzeptionen der historischen Politik realisiert. In diesem Sinn ist die Sorge um das Bild der Vergangenheit etwas Übergeordnetes gegenüber der Kultur-, Bildungs- oder Außenpolitik, die anerkannt werden können als Instrumente der Realisierung der Forderungen und Ideen

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. Chwalba.

H

3

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. Dr. Habil. Piotr Franaszek, Leiter der Anstalt für Wirtschaftliche und Soziale Geschichte im Institut für Geschichte der Jagiellonen-Universität, durchgeführt am 30.05.2007.

2

Historische Politik und kulturelle Politik

4

zum Thema welcher jeder freie Bürger sich die eigene Meinung bilden kann. Das Vorwerfen der Versuche von Seiten der Behörden, der gesamten Gesellschaft eine Vision der Zukunft aufzuzwingen, ist reine Demagogie, so etwas in einem demokratischen und pluralistischen Staat, welcher durch zahlreiche Institutionen kontrolliert wird, in den Bedingungen der Freiheit des Wortes und der Privatmedien, einfach unmöglich ist. Allerdings, wie Dr. Hab. Antoni Dudek [Panewka, 2005, S. 84– 85], behauptet, ist ein Element der Willkürlichkeit im Kreieren der Ziele und Mittel der historischen Politik nicht zu vermeiden, und der Wahlsieger wird immer seine Konzeptionen aufzwingen, aber auch wenn jemand Propaganda betreiben möchte, so gibt es heute keine Instrumente, die erlauben würde so zu wirken, wie z.B. die Propaganda in der VRP – obwohl andererseits andere Werkzeuge der Manipulation vervollkommnet worden sind, wobei sie heute eher eine Domäne der Medien sind, und nicht der Politik. Die öffentliche Debatte zum Thema der historischen Politik trägt leider ein starkes Brandmal der laufenden politischen Intrigen. Die Formation, die dieses Problem berührte, und dann, nach der Machtübernahme, die Realisierung eines gewissen Projekts des “Kampfes ums Gedächtnis”, also Recht und Gerechtigkeit, angefangen hat, verband diese Frage mit der Idee der Abrechnung mit der Vergangenheit, unter anderem mit der Durchleuchtung. Die Einflechtung der historischen Politik in das Netz der gegenwärtigen Probleme der polnischen Gesellschaft, und besonders ihres Establishments, bewies einerseits den wesentlichen Einfluss der Geschichte auf die heutige Wirklichkeit, andererseits dagegen führte sie zur starken Polarisierung der Meinungen zum Thema der Tätigkeiten der damaligen Regierenden, darunter der Tätigkeiten in der Vergangenheitssphäre, was das Erreichens eines Konsensus erschwert und die Erarbeitung einer allgemein akzeptierten Vision der historischen Politik. Dieses Projekt sollte jedoch auf dem Wege der Analyse der konkreten Handlungen der Machtorgane beurteilt werden, was eine redliche Antwort auf die Frage erlauben könnte: Erfüllt die historische Politik die Bedingungen, die von ihren Apologeten bestimmt werden, oder vielleicht bestätigt sie die Richtigkeit der ihr gestellten Vorwürfe.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

der ersten. Das Problem der Bestimmung des Platzes der historischen Politik unter den anderen Tätigkeiten des Staates vertieft das Dominieren der Frage durch das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, was nahe legen kann, dass die historische Politik ein Teil der kulturellen Politik des Staates wäre. Wie kann man sich also aus diesem Definitionschaos befreien? Meiner Meinung nach sollte die historische Politik abgegrenzt werden als eine Art intellektuelle Tendenz, die zur Gewährung der Geschichte einer wesentlichen Rolle in der Gestaltung des Bildes der gegenwärtigen Welt bringt und die zum Nichtvergessen der Vergangenheit aufruft, sowie die historische Politik als konkrete Tätigkeit des Staates und seiner Organe. Diese zweite bestimmt am besten die oben erwähnte Definition von M. Cichocki, die mir die passendste Bezeichnung der modernen historischen Politik scheint. In einer weiteren Bedeutung ist die letztere in vielen Bereichen gegenwärtig, was übrigens nichts Neues ist. In der Außenpolitik waren, sind und werden, zum Beispiel die Berufungen auf die Geschichte, immer anwesend sein, schon alleine in der Frage der Beachtung oder Neuverhandlung der in der Vergangenheit abgeschlossenen Verträge. Dagegen das von den Warschauer Konservativen vorgeschlagene Projekt der Institutionalisierung des Diskurses über die Geschichte ist eine neue Qualität im polnischen öffentlichen Leben. Die Aufnahme dieser Aufgabe durch das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe verursacht eine Umdefinierung des Begriffs “kulturelle Politik”, die auf eine wesentliche Erweiterung ihres Begriffs beruht. Es ist nämlich schwer, die historische Politik für eine neue, völlig separate Tätigkeit des Kultusministeriums anzuerkennen, die neben der bisherigen kulturellen Politik funktioniert. Die Erhaltung der nationalen Identität ist eins der traditionellen Elemente der zweiten. Die historische Politik führt jedoch in diesem Bereich einen qualitativen Fortschritt ein. Bisher wurde auf das Nationalerbe vor allem durch das Prisma seiner materiellen Zeugnissen, die bis zu den heutigen Zeiten überdauert haben, gesehen; in diesem Sinn ist das Erbe das Wawel-Schloss, der Säbel von Żółkiewski oder der Bauernrock von Kościuszko. Die Fordernden der historischen Politik sind die ersten, die in so einem hohen Grad Nachdruck auf die Werte, die im Geist der Gemeinschaft verankert wurden, legten, welche die Polen bestimmen. Aus diesem Gesichtsfeld entscheiden über die Gestalt des Erbes Mythen, Symbolen, Glaube, Traditionen des Landes, seiner Institutionen und des Rechtssystems. Die Sorge um die polnische Kultur, sowohl diese

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

gegenwärtige, als auch die vergangene, ist ein natürliches Element der Tätigkeit des Kultusministeriums, aber es wurden in ihr neue Prioritäten ausgesteckt. Die Tätigkeiten, die sich auf die Vergangenheit beziehen, sollen neben der Erschaffung von starken finanziell-rechtlichen Grundlagen der Kulturentwicklung, Verbreitung des zeitgenössischen Schaffens, sowie Wiederaufbau der Autorität der öffentlichen Medien, aus dem Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe ein modernes und wirksames Instrument der Regierung über den Staat schaffen, welches mit Institutionen und Personen zusammenarbeitet, die für die polnische Kultur tätig sind. Ein Ausdruck der neuen kulturellen Politik, allerdings nur symbolisch, aber die historische Politik selbst könnte man “Symbolverwaltung” nennen, wurde die Wiederherstellung des Segments des “Kulturerbes”, entfernt von Andrzej Celiński im Jahre 2001, in den Namen des Ministeriums, was mit den konstitutionellen Verpflichtungen begründet wurde. Die Präambel des im Jahre 1997 angenommenen Grundgesetzes ruft die Bürger der Republik Polen auf, dass sie “dankbar unseren Vorfahren für ihre Arbeit, für den Kampf um die Unabhängigkeit, der mit gewaltigen Opfern bezahlt wurde, für die Kultur, verwurzelt im christlichen Erbe des Volkes und den allgemeinmenschlichen Werten, in Anknüpfung an die besten Traditionen der Ersten und Zweiten Republik, verpflichtet, um den künftigen Generationen alles zu übermitteln, was wertvoll ist aus dem mehr als tausendjährigen Schaffen [...] das tun, indem sie Sorge um die Einhaltung der eingeborenen Würde des Menschen tragen, seitens des Rechts auf Freiheit und die Pflicht der Solidarität mit den Anderen, und dass sie die Achtung dieser Grundsätze für die unerschütterliche Grundlage der Republik Polen haben”. Die Rolle des Nationalerbes in der Gestaltung der Nationalidentität, sowie die Pflicht seines Schutzes bestimmen auch Artikel 5 und 6 der Verfassung. In diesem Kontext ist die historische Politik die konstitutionelle Pflicht des Staates, und die Ergänzung des Namens des Ministeriums mit der Benennung des Gebiets, auf dem die Tätigkeit unternommen wird, übereinstimmend mit den Annahmen dieser Politik. 1. Künstlerische Ereignisse 2. Entwicklung der Infrastruktur der Kultur 3. Kulturelle Bildung und die Diagnose der Kultur 4. Kulturerbe 5. Literatur und Lesekompetenz 6. Vermarktung der polnischen Kultur im Ausland

169

der ersten. Das Problem der Bestimmung des Platzes der historischen Politik unter den anderen Tätigkeiten des Staates vertieft das Dominieren der Frage durch das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, was nahe legen kann, dass die historische Politik ein Teil der kulturellen Politik des Staates wäre. Wie kann man sich also aus diesem Definitionschaos befreien? Meiner Meinung nach sollte die historische Politik abgegrenzt werden als eine Art intellektuelle Tendenz, die zur Gewährung der Geschichte einer wesentlichen Rolle in der Gestaltung des Bildes der gegenwärtigen Welt bringt und die zum Nichtvergessen der Vergangenheit aufruft, sowie die historische Politik als konkrete Tätigkeit des Staates und seiner Organe. Diese zweite bestimmt am besten die oben erwähnte Definition von M. Cichocki, die mir die passendste Bezeichnung der modernen historischen Politik scheint. In einer weiteren Bedeutung ist die letztere in vielen Bereichen gegenwärtig, was übrigens nichts Neues ist. In der Außenpolitik waren, sind und werden, zum Beispiel die Berufungen auf die Geschichte, immer anwesend sein, schon alleine in der Frage der Beachtung oder Neuverhandlung der in der Vergangenheit abgeschlossenen Verträge. Dagegen das von den Warschauer Konservativen vorgeschlagene Projekt der Institutionalisierung des Diskurses über die Geschichte ist eine neue Qualität im polnischen öffentlichen Leben. Die Aufnahme dieser Aufgabe durch das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe verursacht eine Umdefinierung des Begriffs “kulturelle Politik”, die auf eine wesentliche Erweiterung ihres Begriffs beruht. Es ist nämlich schwer, die historische Politik für eine neue, völlig separate Tätigkeit des Kultusministeriums anzuerkennen, die neben der bisherigen kulturellen Politik funktioniert. Die Erhaltung der nationalen Identität ist eins der traditionellen Elemente der zweiten. Die historische Politik führt jedoch in diesem Bereich einen qualitativen Fortschritt ein. Bisher wurde auf das Nationalerbe vor allem durch das Prisma seiner materiellen Zeugnissen, die bis zu den heutigen Zeiten überdauert haben, gesehen; in diesem Sinn ist das Erbe das Wawel-Schloss, der Säbel von Żółkiewski oder der Bauernrock von Kościuszko. Die Fordernden der historischen Politik sind die ersten, die in so einem hohen Grad Nachdruck auf die Werte, die im Geist der Gemeinschaft verankert wurden, legten, welche die Polen bestimmen. Aus diesem Gesichtsfeld entscheiden über die Gestalt des Erbes Mythen, Symbolen, Glaube, Traditionen des Landes, seiner Institutionen und des Rechtssystems. Die Sorge um die polnische Kultur, sowohl diese

169

gegenwärtige, als auch die vergangene, ist ein natürliches Element der Tätigkeit des Kultusministeriums, aber es wurden in ihr neue Prioritäten ausgesteckt. Die Tätigkeiten, die sich auf die Vergangenheit beziehen, sollen neben der Erschaffung von starken finanziell-rechtlichen Grundlagen der Kulturentwicklung, Verbreitung des zeitgenössischen Schaffens, sowie Wiederaufbau der Autorität der öffentlichen Medien, aus dem Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe ein modernes und wirksames Instrument der Regierung über den Staat schaffen, welches mit Institutionen und Personen zusammenarbeitet, die für die polnische Kultur tätig sind. Ein Ausdruck der neuen kulturellen Politik, allerdings nur symbolisch, aber die historische Politik selbst könnte man “Symbolverwaltung” nennen, wurde die Wiederherstellung des Segments des “Kulturerbes”, entfernt von Andrzej Celiński im Jahre 2001, in den Namen des Ministeriums, was mit den konstitutionellen Verpflichtungen begründet wurde. Die Präambel des im Jahre 1997 angenommenen Grundgesetzes ruft die Bürger der Republik Polen auf, dass sie “dankbar unseren Vorfahren für ihre Arbeit, für den Kampf um die Unabhängigkeit, der mit gewaltigen Opfern bezahlt wurde, für die Kultur, verwurzelt im christlichen Erbe des Volkes und den allgemeinmenschlichen Werten, in Anknüpfung an die besten Traditionen der Ersten und Zweiten Republik, verpflichtet, um den künftigen Generationen alles zu übermitteln, was wertvoll ist aus dem mehr als tausendjährigen Schaffen [...] das tun, indem sie Sorge um die Einhaltung der eingeborenen Würde des Menschen tragen, seitens des Rechts auf Freiheit und die Pflicht der Solidarität mit den Anderen, und dass sie die Achtung dieser Grundsätze für die unerschütterliche Grundlage der Republik Polen haben”. Die Rolle des Nationalerbes in der Gestaltung der Nationalidentität, sowie die Pflicht seines Schutzes bestimmen auch Artikel 5 und 6 der Verfassung. In diesem Kontext ist die historische Politik die konstitutionelle Pflicht des Staates, und die Ergänzung des Namens des Ministeriums mit der Benennung des Gebiets, auf dem die Tätigkeit unternommen wird, übereinstimmend mit den Annahmen dieser Politik. 1. Künstlerische Ereignisse 2. Entwicklung der Infrastruktur der Kultur 3. Kulturelle Bildung und die Diagnose der Kultur 4. Kulturerbe 5. Literatur und Lesekompetenz 6. Vermarktung der polnischen Kultur im Ausland


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2) Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Fürsorge, wodurch sie der lokalen Gemeinschaft wiedergegeben wurden. Die Mission des Projekts war die Überzeugung, dass die Jugendlichen, indem sie die Vergangenheit ihrer Region und die lokale Tradition entdecken, ihre eigene Identität gestalten und das Gefühl der Verantwortung für die eigene Zukunft und die Zukunft anderer bilden. Ein anderes Projekt, welches im Rahmen dieses Programms subventioniert wurde, war die Breslauer Aktion “Fest auf dem Plakat”, welche zum Schmücken der Schulfenster und der Fenster der Familienhäuser mit Plakaten, die die Nationalfeste unvergesslich machen, angespornt hat. Dagegen wurde in der Hauptstadt durch den “Patriotismus von morgen” der Wettbewerb “Warschauer Triptychon” unterstützt, welcher sich zum Ziel machte zu veranschaulichen, wie drei Generationen Warschauer um die Freiheit der Heimat kämpften während der Warschauer Schlacht im Jahre 1920, des 2. Weltkrieges sowie des “Karnevals von Solidarność”. Kinder und Jugendlichen, geteilt in drei Alterskategorien, sprachen über diese Ereignisse unter Verwendung von verschiedenen Formen künstlerischen Ausdrucks: Kunstwerke, Inszenierungen und multimedialen Präsentationen. Unter den anderen Initiativen, die einen Zuschuss aus dem Programm erhalten haben, können das von Zin Zin Press realisierte Projekt der Schaffung eines Comics, welches die Ereignisse des Posener Juni 1956 beschreiben würde, das Konzert Auf den Spuren des Warschauer Aufstands der Gruppe Lao Che, organisiert durch den Verband für Gesellschaftliche Initiativen, die Rekonstruktion der Schlacht von Raszyn aus dem Jahre 1809, durchgeführt von der Gemeinde Raszyn, oder das Fest des Polnischen Parlamentarismus in Chęciny genannt werden. Die Unterstützung solcher Unterfangen sollte, gemäß den Richtlinien des Programms, das Kreieren der ständigen Erscheinung der patriotischen Erziehung in Polen erlauben. Es wurde angenommen, dass die patriotische Bildung in ihren Inhalten nicht von oben dekretiert wird, sondern auf die Förderung der von unten kommenden Initiativen beruhen wird. Im Jahre 2006 wurden im Rahmen des Programms über 6,5 Mio. Zloty Zuschuss verliehen, und sein Budget für das Jahr 2007 betrug 5 Mio. Zloty6.

170

7. Promesse des Ministers für Kultur und Nationalerbe 8. Fryderyk Chopin 9. Infrastruktur der Bibliotheken5 Tätigkeit des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe Das Kultusministerium realisiert heute Postulate der historischen Politik vor allem durch die sog. Operationsprogramme10. Mit ihrer Vermittlung können sich die Selbstverwaltungsinstitutionen, Kirchen und Glaubensverbände, Schulen und künstlerische Hochschulen, Nichtregierungsorganisationen, wirtschaftliche Subjekte und andere um die finanziellen Mittel für die Realisierung der Aufgaben aus dem Bereich der Kultur bewerben. 2006 erschien auf der Liste der Programme, die 11 Positionen umfasste, ein Operationsprogramm “Patriotismus von morgen”. An die Idee der Realisierung der historischen Politik knüpfte auch das Programm “Kulturerbe” an. Das Operationsprogramm “Patriotismus von morgen” wurde aus Berechtigung des Ministers für Kultur und das Nationalerbe geführt, durch das Nationalzentrum für Kultur. Sein Ziel war die Unterstützung der Initiativen, die auf eine systematische Weise, bei Ausnutzung der tragfähigen, modernen und vor allem wirksamen Übertragungsformen, die patriotischen und bürgerlichen Haltungen gestalten, das Wissen zum Thema der polnischen historischen Erfahrung, der nationalen und Staatstradition verbreiten, auf eine interessante Weise über die polnische Vergangenheit sprechen. Das Programm erlaubte auch, Mittel für die Untersuchung und Dokumentation im Rahmen der Kulturgeschichte, sowie der Geschichte des Volkes und des polnischen Staates zu erlangen. Der “Patriotismus von morgen” sollte einerseits neue Unternehmungen initiieren, und andererseits das Aussuchen und die Unterstützung der schon bestehenden zu erlauben. Ein Beispiel dafür kann sein, gerichtet an die Schüler der Grundund Oberschulen, das Bildungsprojekt “Spuren der Vergangenheit”. Sein Organisator, Zentrum für Bürgerbildung, spornte die jungen Menschen zum Wiederfinden in der Heimatortschaft und der Umgebung vernachlässigter Objekte (Friedhöfe, Kreuze, Kapellen, Denkmäler, Kirchen, Häuser, Alleen, Nutzgeräte) oder vergessener Elemente der immateriellen Kultur (Legenden, Bräuche, lokale Helden) an, und dann ihre Erneuerung und

Leider verband sich der Wechsel der regierenden Partei mit dm Verwerfen des Programms “Patriotismus von morgen”.

5

6

Im laufenden Jahr (2009) gab der Minister für Kultur und das Nationalerbe folgende Programme bekannt: 1) Künstlerisches Ereignis; 2) Entwicklung der Infrastruktur der Kultur; 3) Kulturelle Bildung und die Diagnose der Kultur; 4) Kulturerbe; 5) Literatur und Lesewesen; 6) Vermarktung der polnischen Kultur im Ausland; 7) Promesse des Ministers für Kultur und Nationalerbe; 8) Fryderyk Chopin; 9) Infrastruktur der Bibliotheken.

Im laufenden Jahr (2009) gab der Minister für Kultur und das Nationalerbe folgende Programme bekannt: 1) Künstlerisches Ereignis; 2) Entwicklung der Infrastruktur der Kultur; 3) Kulturelle Bildung und die Diagnose der Kultur; 4) Kulturerbe; 5) Literatur und Lesewesen; 6) Vermarktung der polnischen Kultur im Ausland; 7) Promesse des Ministers für Kultur und Nationalerbe; 8) Fryderyk Chopin; 9) Infrastruktur der Bibliotheken.

Leider verband sich der Wechsel der regierenden Partei mit dm Verwerfen des Programms “Patriotismus von morgen”.

5

6

Fürsorge, wodurch sie der lokalen Gemeinschaft wiedergegeben wurden. Die Mission des Projekts war die Überzeugung, dass die Jugendlichen, indem sie die Vergangenheit ihrer Region und die lokale Tradition entdecken, ihre eigene Identität gestalten und das Gefühl der Verantwortung für die eigene Zukunft und die Zukunft anderer bilden. Ein anderes Projekt, welches im Rahmen dieses Programms subventioniert wurde, war die Breslauer Aktion “Fest auf dem Plakat”, welche zum Schmücken der Schulfenster und der Fenster der Familienhäuser mit Plakaten, die die Nationalfeste unvergesslich machen, angespornt hat. Dagegen wurde in der Hauptstadt durch den “Patriotismus von morgen” der Wettbewerb “Warschauer Triptychon” unterstützt, welcher sich zum Ziel machte zu veranschaulichen, wie drei Generationen Warschauer um die Freiheit der Heimat kämpften während der Warschauer Schlacht im Jahre 1920, des 2. Weltkrieges sowie des “Karnevals von Solidarność”. Kinder und Jugendlichen, geteilt in drei Alterskategorien, sprachen über diese Ereignisse unter Verwendung von verschiedenen Formen künstlerischen Ausdrucks: Kunstwerke, Inszenierungen und multimedialen Präsentationen. Unter den anderen Initiativen, die einen Zuschuss aus dem Programm erhalten haben, können das von Zin Zin Press realisierte Projekt der Schaffung eines Comics, welches die Ereignisse des Posener Juni 1956 beschreiben würde, das Konzert Auf den Spuren des Warschauer Aufstands der Gruppe Lao Che, organisiert durch den Verband für Gesellschaftliche Initiativen, die Rekonstruktion der Schlacht von Raszyn aus dem Jahre 1809, durchgeführt von der Gemeinde Raszyn, oder das Fest des Polnischen Parlamentarismus in Chęciny genannt werden. Die Unterstützung solcher Unterfangen sollte, gemäß den Richtlinien des Programms, das Kreieren der ständigen Erscheinung der patriotischen Erziehung in Polen erlauben. Es wurde angenommen, dass die patriotische Bildung in ihren Inhalten nicht von oben dekretiert wird, sondern auf die Förderung der von unten kommenden Initiativen beruhen wird. Im Jahre 2006 wurden im Rahmen des Programms über 6,5 Mio. Zloty Zuschuss verliehen, und sein Budget für das Jahr 2007 betrug 5 Mio. Zloty6.

170

7. Promesse des Ministers für Kultur und Nationalerbe 8. Fryderyk Chopin 9. Infrastruktur der Bibliotheken5 Tätigkeit des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe Das Kultusministerium realisiert heute Postulate der historischen Politik vor allem durch die sog. Operationsprogramme10. Mit ihrer Vermittlung können sich die Selbstverwaltungsinstitutionen, Kirchen und Glaubensverbände, Schulen und künstlerische Hochschulen, Nichtregierungsorganisationen, wirtschaftliche Subjekte und andere um die finanziellen Mittel für die Realisierung der Aufgaben aus dem Bereich der Kultur bewerben. 2006 erschien auf der Liste der Programme, die 11 Positionen umfasste, ein Operationsprogramm “Patriotismus von morgen”. An die Idee der Realisierung der historischen Politik knüpfte auch das Programm “Kulturerbe” an. Das Operationsprogramm “Patriotismus von morgen” wurde aus Berechtigung des Ministers für Kultur und das Nationalerbe geführt, durch das Nationalzentrum für Kultur. Sein Ziel war die Unterstützung der Initiativen, die auf eine systematische Weise, bei Ausnutzung der tragfähigen, modernen und vor allem wirksamen Übertragungsformen, die patriotischen und bürgerlichen Haltungen gestalten, das Wissen zum Thema der polnischen historischen Erfahrung, der nationalen und Staatstradition verbreiten, auf eine interessante Weise über die polnische Vergangenheit sprechen. Das Programm erlaubte auch, Mittel für die Untersuchung und Dokumentation im Rahmen der Kulturgeschichte, sowie der Geschichte des Volkes und des polnischen Staates zu erlangen. Der “Patriotismus von morgen” sollte einerseits neue Unternehmungen initiieren, und andererseits das Aussuchen und die Unterstützung der schon bestehenden zu erlauben. Ein Beispiel dafür kann sein, gerichtet an die Schüler der Grundund Oberschulen, das Bildungsprojekt “Spuren der Vergangenheit”. Sein Organisator, Zentrum für Bürgerbildung, spornte die jungen Menschen zum Wiederfinden in der Heimatortschaft und der Umgebung vernachlässigter Objekte (Friedhöfe, Kreuze, Kapellen, Denkmäler, Kirchen, Häuser, Alleen, Nutzgeräte) oder vergessener Elemente der immateriellen Kultur (Legenden, Bräuche, lokale Helden) an, und dann ihre Erneuerung und


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Das bis zum heutigen Tag realisierte Operationsprogramm “Kulturerbe” sieht die Subventionierung der Projekte vor, die mit der Erhaltung der beweglichen und unbeweglichen Denkmäler verbunden ist. Im Jahre 2006 wurden in das Programm zwei neue Prioritäten eingeführt: 1) Schutz des Nationalerbes außerhalb der Landesgrenzen, 2) Schutz der archäologischen Denkmäler. Die erste von ihnen sollte die Verstärkung der Arbeiten sichern, die mit der Dokumentierung der Denkmäler verbunden sind, Sanierung von historischen Friedhöfen und den Orten des Martyriums, sowie Renovierung der Denkmäler, die dringendste Konservierung erfordern. Ziel der zweiten war u.a. die Erschaffung des ständigen Mechanismus des Schutzes von archäologischen Denkmälern, sowie die Fortsetzung des archäologischen Projekts “Polens Bilder”, die der Wiederfindung der archäologischen Denkmäler dienen, sowie dem Schutz dieser am meisten gefährdeten. Bis 2006 wurden im Rahmen des Programms wurden über 48 Mio. Zloty Zuschuss verliehen, und die Subventionierung umfasste über 150 Objekte. Neben den Operationsprogrammen unternahm das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, in Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Subjekten, eine Reihe anderer Tätigkeiten, die mit der historischen Politik verbunden waren. Eins von ihnen ist das Programm “Zeugen der Geschichte”, welches gemeinsam mit dem Institut für Nationales Gedenken initiiert, und vom Nationalen Zentrum für Kultur realisiert wurde. Es bildet die Fortsetzung der Aktion der Sammlung von Zeugnissen, die mit der Geschichte der Entstehung von “Solidarność” verbunden ist, welche 2000 unternommen wurde. Das Programm beruht auf das Sammeln und die multimediale Archivierung der Zeugnissen von Personen, die Zeugen der Geschichte des 20. Jhs. waren. Es geht vor allem um die Menschen, deren Haltung in den schwierigen Momenten des vergangenen Jahrhunderts heute als Muster der patriotischen und bürgerlichen Werte dargestellt werden kann. Die gesammelten Materialien sollen dann allen Interessierten mit Einsatz von modernen Techniken präsentiert werden, sowie auch in den Bildungs-Untersuchungsprogrammen des entstehenden Museums für die Geschichte Polens genutzt werden. Am 27. März 2007 nahm der Minister für Kultur und das Nationalerbe die Eröffnung des Dokumentationsnetzes des Programms “Zeugen der Geschichte” vor, welche die komplexe Basis aller Subjekte, Vereine und Organisationen in Polen ist, die sammeln oder in ihrem Besitz Berichte und Erinnerungen der Zeugen der Geschichte des 20. Jhs. haben. Im Mai 2007 wurden in den Handelszentren in Warschau

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

sowie in Lodz die ersten multimedialen Posten aufgestellt, die kurze Filme darstellten, die die Helden des Programms annäherten. Ein weiteres Unterfangen, welches durch das Kultusministerium gemeinsam mit dem Institut für Nationales Gedenken unternommen wurde, war das Untersuchungs-wissenschaftliche Programm “Personenverluste und die Repressionsopfer unter der deutschen Besatzung”, welches am 1. September 2006 feierlich eröffnet wurde. Seine Begründung war der unvollständige Charakter der bisherigen Bearbeitungen, betreffend die Personenzahl, die in den Konzentrationslagern umgekommen sind, oder den Repressionen verschiedener Art unterstellt wurden. Im Juni 2007 wurden die Bemühungen des Kultusministeriums um die Änderung des Namens des ehemaligen Konzentrationslagers Auschwitz-Birkenau auf der Liste des Weltkulturerbes UNESCO mit Erfolg gekrönt. Der neue Name, lautend: “AuschwitzBirkenau. Deutsches nationalsozialistisches Konzentrations- und Vernichtungslager (1940 - 1945)”, hat die Wiedergabe der historischen Wahrheit über den wirklichen Charakter des Lagers zum Ziel und ist eine Reaktion auf die in den ausländischen Medien erscheinenden Fälle der Benennung der “polnischen Konzentrationslager”. Im Ministerium wurde auch aufmerksam gemacht auf die Rolle der kulturellen Diplomatie als ein wichtiges Element der Außenpolitik des Staates. Im Zusammenhang damit rief im März 2006 der Minister für Kultur und das Nationalerbe die Aufteilung des Adam Mickiewicz-Instituts in zwei unabhängige und verschiedene Missionen erfüllende Institutionen ins Leben zurück: Adam Mickiewicz-Institut sowie das Nationale Zentrum für Kultur. Diese zweite soll sich mit der Popularisierung der Fragen der Kultur, der nationalen und staatlichen Tradition auf dem Gebiet Polens, der Promotion des polnischen Nationalerbes, der kulturellen Bildung, sowie dem Kreieren des Interesses an Kultur und Kunst befassen, kulturelle Informationen erteilen, sowie auch mit den territorialen Selbstverwaltungen zusammenarbeiten bei der Führung der Untersuchungs- und Expertenarbeiten aus dem Bereich der Kultur und des Nationalerbes. Das NCK (Nationales Zentrum für Kultur) ist in eine Reihe von Programmen engagiert, darunter die oben erwähnten, und mit der historischen Politik verbundenen “Patriotismus von morgen” und “Zeugen der Geschichte”. Dagegen soll die Folge der Reorganisierung für das Adam Mickiewicz-Institut die Wiederherstellung seiner Rolle als Hauptinstrument der polnischen kulturellen Diplomatie sein. Seine Aufgabe ist die Realisierung der Unterfangen auf eine moderne und wirksame Weise, die im Ausland das histo-

171

Das bis zum heutigen Tag realisierte Operationsprogramm “Kulturerbe” sieht die Subventionierung der Projekte vor, die mit der Erhaltung der beweglichen und unbeweglichen Denkmäler verbunden ist. Im Jahre 2006 wurden in das Programm zwei neue Prioritäten eingeführt: 1) Schutz des Nationalerbes außerhalb der Landesgrenzen, 2) Schutz der archäologischen Denkmäler. Die erste von ihnen sollte die Verstärkung der Arbeiten sichern, die mit der Dokumentierung der Denkmäler verbunden sind, Sanierung von historischen Friedhöfen und den Orten des Martyriums, sowie Renovierung der Denkmäler, die dringendste Konservierung erfordern. Ziel der zweiten war u.a. die Erschaffung des ständigen Mechanismus des Schutzes von archäologischen Denkmälern, sowie die Fortsetzung des archäologischen Projekts “Polens Bilder”, die der Wiederfindung der archäologischen Denkmäler dienen, sowie dem Schutz dieser am meisten gefährdeten. Bis 2006 wurden im Rahmen des Programms wurden über 48 Mio. Zloty Zuschuss verliehen, und die Subventionierung umfasste über 150 Objekte. Neben den Operationsprogrammen unternahm das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe, in Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Subjekten, eine Reihe anderer Tätigkeiten, die mit der historischen Politik verbunden waren. Eins von ihnen ist das Programm “Zeugen der Geschichte”, welches gemeinsam mit dem Institut für Nationales Gedenken initiiert, und vom Nationalen Zentrum für Kultur realisiert wurde. Es bildet die Fortsetzung der Aktion der Sammlung von Zeugnissen, die mit der Geschichte der Entstehung von “Solidarność” verbunden ist, welche 2000 unternommen wurde. Das Programm beruht auf das Sammeln und die multimediale Archivierung der Zeugnissen von Personen, die Zeugen der Geschichte des 20. Jhs. waren. Es geht vor allem um die Menschen, deren Haltung in den schwierigen Momenten des vergangenen Jahrhunderts heute als Muster der patriotischen und bürgerlichen Werte dargestellt werden kann. Die gesammelten Materialien sollen dann allen Interessierten mit Einsatz von modernen Techniken präsentiert werden, sowie auch in den Bildungs-Untersuchungsprogrammen des entstehenden Museums für die Geschichte Polens genutzt werden. Am 27. März 2007 nahm der Minister für Kultur und das Nationalerbe die Eröffnung des Dokumentationsnetzes des Programms “Zeugen der Geschichte” vor, welche die komplexe Basis aller Subjekte, Vereine und Organisationen in Polen ist, die sammeln oder in ihrem Besitz Berichte und Erinnerungen der Zeugen der Geschichte des 20. Jhs. haben. Im Mai 2007 wurden in den Handelszentren in Warschau

171

sowie in Lodz die ersten multimedialen Posten aufgestellt, die kurze Filme darstellten, die die Helden des Programms annäherten. Ein weiteres Unterfangen, welches durch das Kultusministerium gemeinsam mit dem Institut für Nationales Gedenken unternommen wurde, war das Untersuchungs-wissenschaftliche Programm “Personenverluste und die Repressionsopfer unter der deutschen Besatzung”, welches am 1. September 2006 feierlich eröffnet wurde. Seine Begründung war der unvollständige Charakter der bisherigen Bearbeitungen, betreffend die Personenzahl, die in den Konzentrationslagern umgekommen sind, oder den Repressionen verschiedener Art unterstellt wurden. Im Juni 2007 wurden die Bemühungen des Kultusministeriums um die Änderung des Namens des ehemaligen Konzentrationslagers Auschwitz-Birkenau auf der Liste des Weltkulturerbes UNESCO mit Erfolg gekrönt. Der neue Name, lautend: “AuschwitzBirkenau. Deutsches nationalsozialistisches Konzentrations- und Vernichtungslager (1940 - 1945)”, hat die Wiedergabe der historischen Wahrheit über den wirklichen Charakter des Lagers zum Ziel und ist eine Reaktion auf die in den ausländischen Medien erscheinenden Fälle der Benennung der “polnischen Konzentrationslager”. Im Ministerium wurde auch aufmerksam gemacht auf die Rolle der kulturellen Diplomatie als ein wichtiges Element der Außenpolitik des Staates. Im Zusammenhang damit rief im März 2006 der Minister für Kultur und das Nationalerbe die Aufteilung des Adam Mickiewicz-Instituts in zwei unabhängige und verschiedene Missionen erfüllende Institutionen ins Leben zurück: Adam Mickiewicz-Institut sowie das Nationale Zentrum für Kultur. Diese zweite soll sich mit der Popularisierung der Fragen der Kultur, der nationalen und staatlichen Tradition auf dem Gebiet Polens, der Promotion des polnischen Nationalerbes, der kulturellen Bildung, sowie dem Kreieren des Interesses an Kultur und Kunst befassen, kulturelle Informationen erteilen, sowie auch mit den territorialen Selbstverwaltungen zusammenarbeiten bei der Führung der Untersuchungs- und Expertenarbeiten aus dem Bereich der Kultur und des Nationalerbes. Das NCK (Nationales Zentrum für Kultur) ist in eine Reihe von Programmen engagiert, darunter die oben erwähnten, und mit der historischen Politik verbundenen “Patriotismus von morgen” und “Zeugen der Geschichte”. Dagegen soll die Folge der Reorganisierung für das Adam Mickiewicz-Institut die Wiederherstellung seiner Rolle als Hauptinstrument der polnischen kulturellen Diplomatie sein. Seine Aufgabe ist die Realisierung der Unterfangen auf eine moderne und wirksame Weise, die im Ausland das histo-


rische und gegenwärtige Schaffen der polnischen Kultur fördern. Dem soll die Organisierung der ausländischen kulturellen Veranstaltungen dienen, sowie die Produktion der Werbematerialien. Intensive Kontakte mit ähnlichen Institutionen in der Welt sollen eins der Elemente des aktiven Kreierens des positiven Images Polens sein, ähnlich wie die enge Zusammenarbeit mit den polnischen kulturellen Zentren im Ausland. Im Institut wirkt ein Kollegium, welches sich aus den Vertretern des Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe zusammensetzt, sowie des Ministeriums für Außenangelegenheiten, die Hauptrichtungen der gemeinsamen Wirkungen im Bereich der Popularisierung der polnischen Kultur ausstecken.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Museum der Geschichte Polens

172

D

Gemäß den Richtlinien wird der Sitz des Museums bis 2013 errichtet, und etwa 80% der für den Bau notwendigen Mittel werden von europäischen Fonds stammen.

opa und der westlichen Zivilisation. Affirmatives Verhältnis zu der nationalen Vergangenheit kann jedoch weder die Berücksichtigung des europäischen Kontextes, noch eine kritische Beurteilung ausschließen. Die Wirksamkeit der Bildungs- und der Popularisierungstätigkeiten hängt vor allem von der Lieferung des fundierten Wissens, sowie Materials für die Reflexion und der selbständigen Interpretation der historischen Dilemmas, und nicht vom tendenziösen Aufzwingen der Schlussfolgerungen ab. Das Museum soll Bildungs- und Popularisierungsprojekte schaffen und führend, die die Jugend aktivieren, welche auch wirksame Werkzeuge den Lehrern liefert; es soll aktiv mit den akademischen Zentren und den wissenschaftlichen Instituten zusammenarbeiten in der Debatte zum Thema Geschichte Polens durch die Organisierung von temporären Ausstellungen, Konferenzen, Initiieren der Veröffentlichungen. Die Einrichtung soll langfristige wissenschaftliche, Untersuchungs- und übersetzerische Projekte führen und koordinieren. Eine der Satzungsaufgaben des Museums ist die Gestaltung des internationalen Images Polens, Popularisieren der polnischen Geschichte und der Kultur im Ausland; deswegen soll es internationale Kontakte aufrechterhalten, mit dem Adam Mickiewicz-Institut, dem Institut des Buches, Institut des Nationalen Gedächtnisses, Polnischen Instituten, sowie anderen Geschäftsstellen der Regierung, Institutionen des akademischen Lebens und den Nichtregierungsorganisationen zusammenarbeiten, die sich mit der Promotion Polens beschäftigen. In den Plänen des Museums ist die Schöpfung eines Stipendiensystems für die jungen ausländischen Wissenschaftler, die die polnische Geschichte und Kultur untersuchen. Das Museum ist auf den Erwerb vor allem des jungen Publikums eingestellt, der Schuljugend im Alter von 11–19, deswegen ist die Bedingung für den Erfolg die geschickte Ausnutzung der modernen Übertragungsformen, darunter Multimedien, sowie die Interaktivität der Ausstellung. Die übrigen, wichtigsten Zielgruppen sind die polnischen Touristen, die Warschau besuchen, ausländische Gäste und die Geschichteliebhaber. Die Schöpfer nehmen an, dass die Mehrheit der Besucher die Geschichte schwach kennen wird, deswegen soll das Museum ein möglichst breites Panorama der Geschichte Polens zeigen bei gleichzeitiger Konzentration auf ihre gewählten Aspekte, wie die Geschichte des polnischen Parlamentarismus oder der Einsatz beim Sturz des Kommunismus.

7

as Museum der Geschichte Polens, berufen, als staatliche Kulturinstitution am 2. Mai 2006, wurde zum führenden Projekt des Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe in der Sphäre der historischen Politik7. Das Grundziel seiner Berufung ist die Erschaffung einer attraktiven Einrichtung, die das Interesse an der Geschichte und der nationalen Tradition erwecken wird, zur Vertiefung des historischen Wissens und des besseren Verständnisses der Wurzel der Gegenwart beitragen wird. Das Museum soll auch ein Zentrum der Gestaltung der bürgerlichen und patriotischen Initiativen sein bei der Beachtung des Schaffens anderer nationalen, ethnischen und religiösen Gruppen, eine Institution, die die Debatte und die Untersuchungen zum Thema Geschichte anregt. Die Tätigkeit des Museums ist auf die Hervorhebung der spezifischen und faszinierenden Aspekte der polnischen Geschichte konzentriert, und die führende Idee der Ausstellung soll Freiheit sein, als ein Wert, der sowohl im Leben des Einzelnen, als auch der Gemeinschaft wichtig ist. Das Museum soll das Problem des Gleichgewichts der Freiheit und der Autorität, des Individualismus und der Solidarität berühren, als einer der wichtigsten Herausforderungen in den Zeiten der Unabhängigkeit. Neben der Freiheit soll die Übermittlung der Ausstellung und anderer Formen der Tätigkeit die positive Erfahrung der Kontinuität des Staates mit über tausendjähriger Geschichte unterstreichen, die originelle, synkretische Kultur, die Rolle Polens als Ort der Zuflucht für die Vertriebenen, endlich die Befestigung Polens in Eur-

as Museum der Geschichte Polens, berufen, als staatliche Kulturinstitution am 2. Mai 2006, wurde zum führenden Projekt des Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe in der Sphäre der historischen Politik7. Das Grundziel seiner Berufung ist die Erschaffung einer attraktiven Einrichtung, die das Interesse an der Geschichte und der nationalen Tradition erwecken wird, zur Vertiefung des historischen Wissens und des besseren Verständnisses der Wurzel der Gegenwart beitragen wird. Das Museum soll auch ein Zentrum der Gestaltung der bürgerlichen und patriotischen Initiativen sein bei der Beachtung des Schaffens anderer nationalen, ethnischen und religiösen Gruppen, eine Institution, die die Debatte und die Untersuchungen zum Thema Geschichte anregt. Die Tätigkeit des Museums ist auf die Hervorhebung der spezifischen und faszinierenden Aspekte der polnischen Geschichte konzentriert, und die führende Idee der Ausstellung soll Freiheit sein, als ein Wert, der sowohl im Leben des Einzelnen, als auch der Gemeinschaft wichtig ist. Das Museum soll das Problem des Gleichgewichts der Freiheit und der Autorität, des Individualismus und der Solidarität berühren, als einer der wichtigsten Herausforderungen in den Zeiten der Unabhängigkeit. Neben der Freiheit soll die Übermittlung der Ausstellung und anderer Formen der Tätigkeit die positive Erfahrung der Kontinuität des Staates mit über tausendjähriger Geschichte unterstreichen, die originelle, synkretische Kultur, die Rolle Polens als Ort der Zuflucht für die Vertriebenen, endlich die Befestigung Polens in Eur-

Gemäß den Richtlinien wird der Sitz des Museums bis 2013 errichtet, und etwa 80% der für den Bau notwendigen Mittel werden von europäischen Fonds stammen.

D

7

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Museum der Geschichte Polens

opa und der westlichen Zivilisation. Affirmatives Verhältnis zu der nationalen Vergangenheit kann jedoch weder die Berücksichtigung des europäischen Kontextes, noch eine kritische Beurteilung ausschließen. Die Wirksamkeit der Bildungs- und der Popularisierungstätigkeiten hängt vor allem von der Lieferung des fundierten Wissens, sowie Materials für die Reflexion und der selbständigen Interpretation der historischen Dilemmas, und nicht vom tendenziösen Aufzwingen der Schlussfolgerungen ab. Das Museum soll Bildungs- und Popularisierungsprojekte schaffen und führend, die die Jugend aktivieren, welche auch wirksame Werkzeuge den Lehrern liefert; es soll aktiv mit den akademischen Zentren und den wissenschaftlichen Instituten zusammenarbeiten in der Debatte zum Thema Geschichte Polens durch die Organisierung von temporären Ausstellungen, Konferenzen, Initiieren der Veröffentlichungen. Die Einrichtung soll langfristige wissenschaftliche, Untersuchungs- und übersetzerische Projekte führen und koordinieren. Eine der Satzungsaufgaben des Museums ist die Gestaltung des internationalen Images Polens, Popularisieren der polnischen Geschichte und der Kultur im Ausland; deswegen soll es internationale Kontakte aufrechterhalten, mit dem Adam Mickiewicz-Institut, dem Institut des Buches, Institut des Nationalen Gedächtnisses, Polnischen Instituten, sowie anderen Geschäftsstellen der Regierung, Institutionen des akademischen Lebens und den Nichtregierungsorganisationen zusammenarbeiten, die sich mit der Promotion Polens beschäftigen. In den Plänen des Museums ist die Schöpfung eines Stipendiensystems für die jungen ausländischen Wissenschaftler, die die polnische Geschichte und Kultur untersuchen. Das Museum ist auf den Erwerb vor allem des jungen Publikums eingestellt, der Schuljugend im Alter von 11–19, deswegen ist die Bedingung für den Erfolg die geschickte Ausnutzung der modernen Übertragungsformen, darunter Multimedien, sowie die Interaktivität der Ausstellung. Die übrigen, wichtigsten Zielgruppen sind die polnischen Touristen, die Warschau besuchen, ausländische Gäste und die Geschichteliebhaber. Die Schöpfer nehmen an, dass die Mehrheit der Besucher die Geschichte schwach kennen wird, deswegen soll das Museum ein möglichst breites Panorama der Geschichte Polens zeigen bei gleichzeitiger Konzentration auf ihre gewählten Aspekte, wie die Geschichte des polnischen Parlamentarismus oder der Einsatz beim Sturz des Kommunismus.

172

rische und gegenwärtige Schaffen der polnischen Kultur fördern. Dem soll die Organisierung der ausländischen kulturellen Veranstaltungen dienen, sowie die Produktion der Werbematerialien. Intensive Kontakte mit ähnlichen Institutionen in der Welt sollen eins der Elemente des aktiven Kreierens des positiven Images Polens sein, ähnlich wie die enge Zusammenarbeit mit den polnischen kulturellen Zentren im Ausland. Im Institut wirkt ein Kollegium, welches sich aus den Vertretern des Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe zusammensetzt, sowie des Ministeriums für Außenangelegenheiten, die Hauptrichtungen der gemeinsamen Wirkungen im Bereich der Popularisierung der polnischen Kultur ausstecken.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Dagegen sollen die interessierten Personen die Möglichkeit haben, die computerisierte Datenbank zu nutzen, die eine möglichst ausführliche Auswahl an Quellen und wissenschaftlichen Kommentaren enthält. Den Schlüsselplatz in der Struktur des Museums wird das Ausstellungsteam einnehmen, verantwortlich für die Hauptausstellung und die temporären Ausstellungen. Eine große Rolle spielen auch die Bildungs- und Untersuchungsabteilung, die schon seit dem Moment der rechtlichen Gründung des Museums wirken, vor der Entstehung des Bestimmungssitzes und der grundlegenden Ausstellung. In der Zukunft wird die Berufung einer genauso wichtigen Abteilung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit geplant. Der Sitz selbst soll die Realisierung der Ziele und der Funktionen des Museums erlauben, nicht nur die ständige und die temporären Ausstellungen unterbringen, sondern auch das moderne Konferenzzentrum, wie auch die Räumlichkeiten, die die Führung der wissenschaftlichen und der bildenden Tätigkeit erlauben. Das Gebäude soll ein Symbol der Bindung zwischen der Tradition und der Modernität sein, wie auch das lebendige kulturelle Zentrum, welches von den Touristen aus Polen und dem Ausland besucht wird. Das Museum der Geschichte Polens soll eine erzählerische Einrichtung sein. Eine solche Formel erlaubt einerseits die Begrenzungen, die mit dem Fehlen an Zugänglichkeit der Exponate verbunden sind, zu vermeiden, was besonders in Polen ein ernstes Hindernis auf dem Wege der Schaffung einer vollwertigen Kollektionen sein kann, und andererseits ist sie attraktiv für die Zuschauer, die sachlich schlechter vorbereitet sind. Das bedeutet nicht, dass im erzählerischen Museum die historischen Gegenstände keine Rolle spielen, aber die Achse der Ausstellung nicht auf sie gestützt ist, sondern, indem sie die Ideen des modernen Museumswesen ausnutzt, erlaubt, die Zielgruppen zu erreichen, die gewöhnlich den Aufenthalt im Museum nicht als eine attraktive Art, die Freizeit zu verbringen, betrachten. Die erzählerische Methode nutzen gegenwärtig auch wichtige Einrichtungen in der Welt, wie das Holocaust-Museum in Washington, das Museum der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Bonn oder das Haus des Terrors in Budapest. Die Hauptausstellung soll einen ständigen Charakter haben, jedoch ihre periodischen Modifikationen können eine Methode sein, die Überlieferung des Museums attraktiver zu machen. Außerdem soll immer mindestens eine temporäre Ausstellung geöffnet sein. Ihre Vorbereitung wird eine der Aufgaben des Ausstellungsteams. Das Museum soll sowohl die temporären Ausstel-

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

lungen von außen aufnehmen, wie nach dem Präsentieren eigener Ausstellungen in anderen musealen Einrichtungen im In- wie auch im Ausland streben. Die temporären Ausstellungen können manche interessante Motive exponieren, die in der Hauptausstellung vermerkt werden, die Geschichte Polens mit der damaligen Situation anderer Staaten konfrontieren, die Aspekte der Vergangenheit präsentieren, die aus welchem Grund auch immer im laufenden Kontext wichtig sind (z.B. Jahrestage wichtiger Ereignisse). Die Interaktivität der Ausstellung sollen nicht nur multimediale technische Lösungen sichern, sondern auch die Versuche, den Zuschauer zu aktivieren, seiner Anregung zum selbständigen Denken und Hineinziehung in die Diskussion. Die historischen Fragen sollen auf eine Art präsentiert werden, die die Rechte verschiedener Parteien zeigen, die anderen Interpretationen und Beurteilungen der Ereignisse, indem die eigenen Schlussfolgerungen erlaubt werden. Im Museum sollen auch Ausstellungen erscheinen, die die Probleme der Definition des Polentums berühren, des Platzes Polens in Europa und in der Welt; jede von ihnen soll eine Inspiration sein zur Gestaltung der eigenen Meinung zum gegebenen Thema. Es lohnt sich zu vermerken, dass zur Bearbeitung der Aussicht der künftigen Ausstellung des Museums viele Historiker einbezogen wurden, die nicht nur die Themen der Ausstellungen nahe legen (Prof. Urszula Augustyniak, Prof. Andrzej Nowak), sondern auch ganzheitliche Expertisen verbreitet haben, betreffend die allgemeine Struktur der Ausstellung (Prof. Andrzej Rottermund, Prof. Krzysztof Konarzewski, Prof. Andrzej Nowak, Dr. Habil. Antoni Dudek). Außer der Sammlung, einer entsprechenden Aufbewahrung und Zugänglichmachung der Sammlungen sieht die Satzung eine Reihe anderer Methoden der Realisierung der Einrichtungsziele vor. Das kann die Werbe-, Bildungs-, Untersuchungstätigkeit sein, Bearbeitung, Veröffentlichung und Verbreitung der gedruckten, sowie multimedialen Ausgaben, Verbreitung der Kultur, Zusammenarbeit mit jeglichen, auch ausländischen, verwandten Institutionen, Erschaffung von Stipendienprogrammen, Organisierung von Versammlungen, Konferenzen und andere. Die Bildungs- und Popularisierungsprogramme sollen verschiedene Formen einnehmen und sowohl auf das inländische, als auch auf das ausländische Publikum gerichtet sein. Auf der Konferenz Geschichte entdecken – Freiheit verstehen, welche am 11. Mai 2006 in Warschau stattgefunden hat, haben die Behörden des Museums eine vorläufige Liste der Vorschläge dieser Programme angegeben [Matusiak, 2006, S. 25]:

173

Dagegen sollen die interessierten Personen die Möglichkeit haben, die computerisierte Datenbank zu nutzen, die eine möglichst ausführliche Auswahl an Quellen und wissenschaftlichen Kommentaren enthält. Den Schlüsselplatz in der Struktur des Museums wird das Ausstellungsteam einnehmen, verantwortlich für die Hauptausstellung und die temporären Ausstellungen. Eine große Rolle spielen auch die Bildungs- und Untersuchungsabteilung, die schon seit dem Moment der rechtlichen Gründung des Museums wirken, vor der Entstehung des Bestimmungssitzes und der grundlegenden Ausstellung. In der Zukunft wird die Berufung einer genauso wichtigen Abteilung der internationalen Zusammenarbeit geplant. Der Sitz selbst soll die Realisierung der Ziele und der Funktionen des Museums erlauben, nicht nur die ständige und die temporären Ausstellungen unterbringen, sondern auch das moderne Konferenzzentrum, wie auch die Räumlichkeiten, die die Führung der wissenschaftlichen und der bildenden Tätigkeit erlauben. Das Gebäude soll ein Symbol der Bindung zwischen der Tradition und der Modernität sein, wie auch das lebendige kulturelle Zentrum, welches von den Touristen aus Polen und dem Ausland besucht wird. Das Museum der Geschichte Polens soll eine erzählerische Einrichtung sein. Eine solche Formel erlaubt einerseits die Begrenzungen, die mit dem Fehlen an Zugänglichkeit der Exponate verbunden sind, zu vermeiden, was besonders in Polen ein ernstes Hindernis auf dem Wege der Schaffung einer vollwertigen Kollektionen sein kann, und andererseits ist sie attraktiv für die Zuschauer, die sachlich schlechter vorbereitet sind. Das bedeutet nicht, dass im erzählerischen Museum die historischen Gegenstände keine Rolle spielen, aber die Achse der Ausstellung nicht auf sie gestützt ist, sondern, indem sie die Ideen des modernen Museumswesen ausnutzt, erlaubt, die Zielgruppen zu erreichen, die gewöhnlich den Aufenthalt im Museum nicht als eine attraktive Art, die Freizeit zu verbringen, betrachten. Die erzählerische Methode nutzen gegenwärtig auch wichtige Einrichtungen in der Welt, wie das Holocaust-Museum in Washington, das Museum der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Bonn oder das Haus des Terrors in Budapest. Die Hauptausstellung soll einen ständigen Charakter haben, jedoch ihre periodischen Modifikationen können eine Methode sein, die Überlieferung des Museums attraktiver zu machen. Außerdem soll immer mindestens eine temporäre Ausstellung geöffnet sein. Ihre Vorbereitung wird eine der Aufgaben des Ausstellungsteams. Das Museum soll sowohl die temporären Ausstel-

173

lungen von außen aufnehmen, wie nach dem Präsentieren eigener Ausstellungen in anderen musealen Einrichtungen im In- wie auch im Ausland streben. Die temporären Ausstellungen können manche interessante Motive exponieren, die in der Hauptausstellung vermerkt werden, die Geschichte Polens mit der damaligen Situation anderer Staaten konfrontieren, die Aspekte der Vergangenheit präsentieren, die aus welchem Grund auch immer im laufenden Kontext wichtig sind (z.B. Jahrestage wichtiger Ereignisse). Die Interaktivität der Ausstellung sollen nicht nur multimediale technische Lösungen sichern, sondern auch die Versuche, den Zuschauer zu aktivieren, seiner Anregung zum selbständigen Denken und Hineinziehung in die Diskussion. Die historischen Fragen sollen auf eine Art präsentiert werden, die die Rechte verschiedener Parteien zeigen, die anderen Interpretationen und Beurteilungen der Ereignisse, indem die eigenen Schlussfolgerungen erlaubt werden. Im Museum sollen auch Ausstellungen erscheinen, die die Probleme der Definition des Polentums berühren, des Platzes Polens in Europa und in der Welt; jede von ihnen soll eine Inspiration sein zur Gestaltung der eigenen Meinung zum gegebenen Thema. Es lohnt sich zu vermerken, dass zur Bearbeitung der Aussicht der künftigen Ausstellung des Museums viele Historiker einbezogen wurden, die nicht nur die Themen der Ausstellungen nahe legen (Prof. Urszula Augustyniak, Prof. Andrzej Nowak), sondern auch ganzheitliche Expertisen verbreitet haben, betreffend die allgemeine Struktur der Ausstellung (Prof. Andrzej Rottermund, Prof. Krzysztof Konarzewski, Prof. Andrzej Nowak, Dr. Habil. Antoni Dudek). Außer der Sammlung, einer entsprechenden Aufbewahrung und Zugänglichmachung der Sammlungen sieht die Satzung eine Reihe anderer Methoden der Realisierung der Einrichtungsziele vor. Das kann die Werbe-, Bildungs-, Untersuchungstätigkeit sein, Bearbeitung, Veröffentlichung und Verbreitung der gedruckten, sowie multimedialen Ausgaben, Verbreitung der Kultur, Zusammenarbeit mit jeglichen, auch ausländischen, verwandten Institutionen, Erschaffung von Stipendienprogrammen, Organisierung von Versammlungen, Konferenzen und andere. Die Bildungs- und Popularisierungsprogramme sollen verschiedene Formen einnehmen und sowohl auf das inländische, als auch auf das ausländische Publikum gerichtet sein. Auf der Konferenz Geschichte entdecken – Freiheit verstehen, welche am 11. Mai 2006 in Warschau stattgefunden hat, haben die Behörden des Museums eine vorläufige Liste der Vorschläge dieser Programme angegeben [Matusiak, 2006, S. 25]:


MM Modernes Internetportal (auch in der englischsprachigen Version), welches Basissätze an Materialien enthält, die für die Geschichteliebhaber, Lehrer und Schüler nützlich sind, darunter ein Internet-Wörterbuch und ein Archiv der Ikonographie, Filme und Aufnahmen, betreffend die Geschichte Polens, MM Museale Stunden, MM Wettbewerbe und Bildungsprojekte, MM Ein Lehrerklubnetz in verschiedenen Regionen Polens, MM Quellenpublikationen und andere didaktische Materialien, MM Ein Übersetzungsprogramm, MM Reagieren auf ausländische Publikationen, die die Problematik, die sich mit der Geschichte Polens verbindet, im falschen Licht darstellen, MM Didaktisches Bulletin für Geschichtslehrer, Lehrer der polnischen Sprache und der Sozialkunde, MM Offene Vorlesungen und Diskussionen. MM Die Leitung des Museums nimmt auch die Einführung der Untersuchungs- und Dokumentationsprogramme an, solcher, wie [Dort, S. 25–26]: MM Organisieren der Konferenzen und wissenschaftlichen Seminaren, MM Initiieren mehrschichtiger Untersuchungsprojekte, die im Einverständnis mit den wissenschaftlichen Instituten und den Universitäten realisiert werden, MM Organisieren von Debatten und Projekten, die die Geschichte betreffen mit Teilnahme von Menschen der Kultur, Werkstätte, betreffend die Ausnutzung der historischen Fäden in der Kunst, MM Führung von Untersuchungen über das historische Bewusstsein der Polen, MM Führung von Dokumentationsarbeiten, z.B. Registrieren der Zeugnisse von Personen, die in den Kampf um die Unabhängigkeit und die Demokratie engagiert waren, MM Digitalisieren und Zugänglichmachung von schwer zugänglichen Materialien mit dem archivalen Charakter (u.a. der Dokumente, die sich außerhalb den Grenzen Polens befinden). Wie der stellvertretende Minister der Kultur und des Nationalerbes, Tomasz Merta, schreibt, ist das “Bedeutungsfeld des Wortes Museum in der polnischen Sprache ziemlich beständig und verweist eindeutig an die Einrichtung, deren ganze Tätigkeit auf die Hauptausstellung gerichtet ist. […] Eben soll das Museum der Geschichte Polens versuchen, wenn auch nicht ändern, so

8

mindestens sehr das Bedeutungsfeld des Wortes Museum zu verbreiten. Es muss eine Institution sein, in der sich viele verschiedene Initiativen entwickeln werden” [Dort, S. 13]. Das erzählerische Museum soll ein lebendiges kulturelles Zentrum werden, welches von Touristen aus Polen und dem Ausland besucht wird.

Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes

E

s geht nicht, über die historische Politik in Polen zu sprechen, wenn diese Institution nicht erwähnt wird. Das festliche Begehen des 60. Jahrestages des Ausbruchs des Warschauer Aufstands und das damit verbundene Aufsehen der Eröffnung des Museums schufen aus der neuen Einrichtung ein eigenartiges Symbol der historischen Politik. Marek A. Cichocki nannte sie im August 2006 geradezu “das einzige reale Beispiel der Institutionalisierung der historischen Politik in Polen ” [Cichocki M., Marek A., 2006]. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba bemerkt, dass der Eindruck geschaffen wurde, dass es eine Einrichtung ist, die sozusagen zur Führung der historischen Politik delegiert wurde8. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes ist eingestellt auf die breit verstandene Kommunikation mit dem Rezipienten und die Bildung, worin es im Propagieren des historischen Wissens an die wirksamsten Museen in der Welt anknüpft. Solche Formen der Expression wie szenografische visuelle Mittel, Fotografien, Computeranimationen, Filmmaterialien, musikalische Übermittlung oder Internet sollen das Interesse der Rezipienten sichern. Dagegen dient die Darstellung der individuellen Schicksäle der Aufstandsteilnehmer, in Form von Vorlesungen, Fotos, Stimmenaufnahmen, Aufzeichnungen und familiären Dokumente der Einführung in die Atmosphäre des kämpfenden Warschaus und soll auf die Emotionen der Besucher einwirken. Das Bildungselement, verkörpert in den modernen Formen der Popularisierung der Aufstandsthematik, ist genauso wichtig, wie die klassischen Funktionen des Museums, wie das Sammeln, Konservierung und Zugänglichmachung der Sammlungen. Die Ausstellung soll an die intellektuellen und emotionalen Möglichkeiten der Kinder angepasst sein, so, dass die Überlieferung verständlich und “spürbar” wird, auch für die jüngsten Zuschauer. Das Unterstreichen des Heldentums der Mitglieder der Grauen Reihen (Pfadfinderbewegung) , wie auch der Dramatik der Teilnahme an den Kämpfen der Kinder, soll

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. Chwalba.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Interview des Autors mit dem Prof. Chwalba.

s geht nicht, über die historische Politik in Polen zu sprechen, wenn diese Institution nicht erwähnt wird. Das festliche Begehen des 60. Jahrestages des Ausbruchs des Warschauer Aufstands und das damit verbundene Aufsehen der Eröffnung des Museums schufen aus der neuen Einrichtung ein eigenartiges Symbol der historischen Politik. Marek A. Cichocki nannte sie im August 2006 geradezu “das einzige reale Beispiel der Institutionalisierung der historischen Politik in Polen ” [Cichocki M., Marek A., 2006]. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba bemerkt, dass der Eindruck geschaffen wurde, dass es eine Einrichtung ist, die sozusagen zur Führung der historischen Politik delegiert wurde8. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes ist eingestellt auf die breit verstandene Kommunikation mit dem Rezipienten und die Bildung, worin es im Propagieren des historischen Wissens an die wirksamsten Museen in der Welt anknüpft. Solche Formen der Expression wie szenografische visuelle Mittel, Fotografien, Computeranimationen, Filmmaterialien, musikalische Übermittlung oder Internet sollen das Interesse der Rezipienten sichern. Dagegen dient die Darstellung der individuellen Schicksäle der Aufstandsteilnehmer, in Form von Vorlesungen, Fotos, Stimmenaufnahmen, Aufzeichnungen und familiären Dokumente der Einführung in die Atmosphäre des kämpfenden Warschaus und soll auf die Emotionen der Besucher einwirken. Das Bildungselement, verkörpert in den modernen Formen der Popularisierung der Aufstandsthematik, ist genauso wichtig, wie die klassischen Funktionen des Museums, wie das Sammeln, Konservierung und Zugänglichmachung der Sammlungen. Die Ausstellung soll an die intellektuellen und emotionalen Möglichkeiten der Kinder angepasst sein, so, dass die Überlieferung verständlich und “spürbar” wird, auch für die jüngsten Zuschauer. Das Unterstreichen des Heldentums der Mitglieder der Grauen Reihen (Pfadfinderbewegung) , wie auch der Dramatik der Teilnahme an den Kämpfen der Kinder, soll

E

Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes mindestens sehr das Bedeutungsfeld des Wortes Museum zu verbreiten. Es muss eine Institution sein, in der sich viele verschiedene Initiativen entwickeln werden” [Dort, S. 13]. Das erzählerische Museum soll ein lebendiges kulturelles Zentrum werden, welches von Touristen aus Polen und dem Ausland besucht wird.

174

174 8

Modernes Internetportal (auch in der englischsprachigen Version), welches Basissätze an Materialien enthält, die für die Geschichteliebhaber, Lehrer und Schüler nützlich sind, darunter ein Internet-Wörterbuch und ein Archiv der Ikonographie, Filme und Aufnahmen, betreffend die Geschichte Polens, MM Museale Stunden, MM Wettbewerbe und Bildungsprojekte, MM Ein Lehrerklubnetz in verschiedenen Regionen Polens, MM Quellenpublikationen und andere didaktische Materialien, MM Ein Übersetzungsprogramm, MM Reagieren auf ausländische Publikationen, die die Problematik, die sich mit der Geschichte Polens verbindet, im falschen Licht darstellen, MM Didaktisches Bulletin für Geschichtslehrer, Lehrer der polnischen Sprache und der Sozialkunde, MM Offene Vorlesungen und Diskussionen. MM Die Leitung des Museums nimmt auch die Einführung der Untersuchungs- und Dokumentationsprogramme an, solcher, wie [Dort, S. 25–26]: MM Organisieren der Konferenzen und wissenschaftlichen Seminaren, MM Initiieren mehrschichtiger Untersuchungsprojekte, die im Einverständnis mit den wissenschaftlichen Instituten und den Universitäten realisiert werden, MM Organisieren von Debatten und Projekten, die die Geschichte betreffen mit Teilnahme von Menschen der Kultur, Werkstätte, betreffend die Ausnutzung der historischen Fäden in der Kunst, MM Führung von Untersuchungen über das historische Bewusstsein der Polen, MM Führung von Dokumentationsarbeiten, z.B. Registrieren der Zeugnisse von Personen, die in den Kampf um die Unabhängigkeit und die Demokratie engagiert waren, MM Digitalisieren und Zugänglichmachung von schwer zugänglichen Materialien mit dem archivalen Charakter (u.a. der Dokumente, die sich außerhalb den Grenzen Polens befinden). Wie der stellvertretende Minister der Kultur und des Nationalerbes, Tomasz Merta, schreibt, ist das “Bedeutungsfeld des Wortes Museum in der polnischen Sprache ziemlich beständig und verweist eindeutig an die Einrichtung, deren ganze Tätigkeit auf die Hauptausstellung gerichtet ist. […] Eben soll das Museum der Geschichte Polens versuchen, wenn auch nicht ändern, so MM

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

der Jugend von heute zur Anregung der Diskussion über den Patriotismus dienen. Eine weitere Funktion des Museums soll die Annahme der Rolle des Ortes für die Freizeitverbringung sein für die Touristen, Jugendlichen, Studenten, Veteranen des Aufstands, welches diesen Gruppen verschiedene Formen der Aktivität anbietet. Und so kann das Museum sein, in Abhängigkeit von den Erwartungen des Besuchers, ein Ort des Lernens mit Ausnutzung der Quellenmaterialien, ein Raum der schöpferischen Unterhaltung, ein Treffpunkt für gesellige Treffen. Die Vielfältigkeit der vorgeschlagenen Aktivitäten soll zum mehrmaligem Besuch der Einrichtung anregen. Eine wichtige Aufgabe ist die Verbindung der Ausstellung mit hohem inhaltlichem Wert mit dem die Geschichte popularisierendem multimedialen Teil; in der Erlangung dessen kann die Konsultierung der Tätigkeiten mit den Spezialisten aus verschiedenen Bereichen helfen: Psychologen, Historiker, Soziologen. Das Museum ist ein Ausdruck der Ehrerbietung gegenüber den Gefallenen und das Geschenk der Gemeinschaft von Warschau für die noch lebenden Aufständischen. Das unterstreicht nicht nur die Eröffnungszeremonie der Einrichtung zum 60. Jahrestag des Kampfausbruchs, sondern auch die architektonischen Richtlinien des Gebäudes und seiner Umgebung. Der das Museum umgebende Park der Freiheit akzentuiert das Hauptziel, um welches die Aufständischen gekämpft haben, es ist ein Ausdruck des Stolzes der Polen auf seine Helden; in der Zukunft sollen darin die Namen aller verewigt werden, der Lebendigen, Verstorbenen und Gefallenen Teilnehmer des Aufstandes. Das Museum soll eine Kommunikationsebene sein zwischen den Jugendlichen von heute und nicht nur den Kriegsteilnehmern, sondern auch jungen Menschen aus den vergangenen Jahren, die ähnliche Träume hatten. Die Institution soll der Förderung der Ideale dienen, welche die Großväter während des Krieges verteidigt haben, und welche die Enkelkinder während des Friedens realisieren können. Das Museum setzt sich zum Ziel die Darstellung des Warschauer Aufstands im breiten Kontext der politischen und militaristischen Realitäten des Jahres 1944. Es ist wichtig, dass die Besucher die internationale Situation der damaligen Zeit kennen lernen und die Motivationen der einzelnen Parteien: der polnischen Behörden, westlichen Alliierten, des Sowjetunion und der Deutschen. In diesem Bereich realisiert das Museum ein konkretes Programmprofil, welches unter drei Hauptmotiven schwankt: MM Der Aufstand war nicht sinnlos, MM Misserfolg (Tragik, Zweideutigkeit) der Politik der westlichen Alliierten, MM Gefährdung seitens der Sowjetunion.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Die Ausstellung berücksichtigt verschiedene Interpretationen des Aufstandes in der Historiographie, aber auch widersetzt sich den Versuchen der Verunstaltung seines Bildes entgegen den selbstverständlichen Tatsachen. Die Überlieferung beruft sich auf die Darstellungen des Aufstandes im Kino, Literatur und der Kunst ab, auf die Grundikonen, Symbole und Assoziationen, verbunden mit dem Aufstand, solcher, wie zum Beispiel ein kleiner Soldat, Aufständischenhochzeit oder das Zeichen des “Kämpfenden Polens”. Das Museum soll den Aufstand präsentieren nicht nur als historische Tatsache, sondern auch als Ereignis, welches seinen Stempel auf viele polnische Familien aufdrückte, dessen Folgen selbstverständlich sind bis zu den gegenwärtigen Zeiten. In diesem Sinne ist die Organisation des Aufstandes, neben der individuellen Erfahrung Tausender Personen, ein gemeinsames Gut der Bürger des gegenwärtigen Polens. Die Konzeption des Museums nimmt die Schaffung der Institution an, die “aufwächst unter den Augen der Hauptstadtbewohner”, die “auf allen Straßen, der U-Bahn und den Straßenbahnen gegenwärtig ist”, die ein Kommunikationsmittel mit den Warschauern ist, ihrer Einbeziehung in die Diskussion über den Aufstand und den gegenwärtigen Patriotismus. Damit dieses Ziel erreicht wird, wurde eine Informationskampagne über das entstehende Museum durchgeführt noch während der Realisierung des Projekts, es werden offene Wettbewerbe und öffentliche Aktionen der Sammlung an Andenken, sowie der Zeugnisse des Aufstandes organisiert, endlich wird das Engagement der Stadtbehörden in den Bau der Einrichtung unterstrichen. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes ist, ähnlich wie das Museum der Geschichte Polens, eine erzählerische Einrichtung. Wie der Direktor des Museums Jan Ołdakowski sagte, soll “die Ausstellung wie ein guter Film sein und den Zuschauer durch eine eng bestimmte Erzählung führen ” [Kraj, 2005, S. 2]. Sie soll mit Licht, Klang und Bild einwirken; die traditionelle Ausstellung mit Schaukästen soll hier die Erzählung ersetzen, die den Besuchern erklärt, was wirklich dieses Auflehnen war und wie das Leben in der kämpfenden Stadt aussah. Die Grundabnehmergruppen des Museums sind die Kinder, Schuljugend und Studenten, Kriegsveteranen und ihre Familien, polnische und ausländische Touristen (besonders die Polen aus dem Ausland), Studenten und Wissenschaftler, die wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen führen, Liebhaber der modernsten Geschichte Polens, Soldaten, die gegenwärtig dienen. Die Differenzierung der Erwartungen einzelner Gruppen erfordert eine entsprechende Anpassung der Überlieferung des Museums; jede von ihnen soll etwas für sich in ihm finden.

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der Jugend von heute zur Anregung der Diskussion über den Patriotismus dienen. Eine weitere Funktion des Museums soll die Annahme der Rolle des Ortes für die Freizeitverbringung sein für die Touristen, Jugendlichen, Studenten, Veteranen des Aufstands, welches diesen Gruppen verschiedene Formen der Aktivität anbietet. Und so kann das Museum sein, in Abhängigkeit von den Erwartungen des Besuchers, ein Ort des Lernens mit Ausnutzung der Quellenmaterialien, ein Raum der schöpferischen Unterhaltung, ein Treffpunkt für gesellige Treffen. Die Vielfältigkeit der vorgeschlagenen Aktivitäten soll zum mehrmaligem Besuch der Einrichtung anregen. Eine wichtige Aufgabe ist die Verbindung der Ausstellung mit hohem inhaltlichem Wert mit dem die Geschichte popularisierendem multimedialen Teil; in der Erlangung dessen kann die Konsultierung der Tätigkeiten mit den Spezialisten aus verschiedenen Bereichen helfen: Psychologen, Historiker, Soziologen. Das Museum ist ein Ausdruck der Ehrerbietung gegenüber den Gefallenen und das Geschenk der Gemeinschaft von Warschau für die noch lebenden Aufständischen. Das unterstreicht nicht nur die Eröffnungszeremonie der Einrichtung zum 60. Jahrestag des Kampfausbruchs, sondern auch die architektonischen Richtlinien des Gebäudes und seiner Umgebung. Der das Museum umgebende Park der Freiheit akzentuiert das Hauptziel, um welches die Aufständischen gekämpft haben, es ist ein Ausdruck des Stolzes der Polen auf seine Helden; in der Zukunft sollen darin die Namen aller verewigt werden, der Lebendigen, Verstorbenen und Gefallenen Teilnehmer des Aufstandes. Das Museum soll eine Kommunikationsebene sein zwischen den Jugendlichen von heute und nicht nur den Kriegsteilnehmern, sondern auch jungen Menschen aus den vergangenen Jahren, die ähnliche Träume hatten. Die Institution soll der Förderung der Ideale dienen, welche die Großväter während des Krieges verteidigt haben, und welche die Enkelkinder während des Friedens realisieren können. Das Museum setzt sich zum Ziel die Darstellung des Warschauer Aufstands im breiten Kontext der politischen und militaristischen Realitäten des Jahres 1944. Es ist wichtig, dass die Besucher die internationale Situation der damaligen Zeit kennen lernen und die Motivationen der einzelnen Parteien: der polnischen Behörden, westlichen Alliierten, des Sowjetunion und der Deutschen. In diesem Bereich realisiert das Museum ein konkretes Programmprofil, welches unter drei Hauptmotiven schwankt: MM Der Aufstand war nicht sinnlos, MM Misserfolg (Tragik, Zweideutigkeit) der Politik der westlichen Alliierten, Gefährdung seitens der Sowjetunion. MM

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Die Ausstellung berücksichtigt verschiedene Interpretationen des Aufstandes in der Historiographie, aber auch widersetzt sich den Versuchen der Verunstaltung seines Bildes entgegen den selbstverständlichen Tatsachen. Die Überlieferung beruft sich auf die Darstellungen des Aufstandes im Kino, Literatur und der Kunst ab, auf die Grundikonen, Symbole und Assoziationen, verbunden mit dem Aufstand, solcher, wie zum Beispiel ein kleiner Soldat, Aufständischenhochzeit oder das Zeichen des “Kämpfenden Polens”. Das Museum soll den Aufstand präsentieren nicht nur als historische Tatsache, sondern auch als Ereignis, welches seinen Stempel auf viele polnische Familien aufdrückte, dessen Folgen selbstverständlich sind bis zu den gegenwärtigen Zeiten. In diesem Sinne ist die Organisation des Aufstandes, neben der individuellen Erfahrung Tausender Personen, ein gemeinsames Gut der Bürger des gegenwärtigen Polens. Die Konzeption des Museums nimmt die Schaffung der Institution an, die “aufwächst unter den Augen der Hauptstadtbewohner”, die “auf allen Straßen, der U-Bahn und den Straßenbahnen gegenwärtig ist”, die ein Kommunikationsmittel mit den Warschauern ist, ihrer Einbeziehung in die Diskussion über den Aufstand und den gegenwärtigen Patriotismus. Damit dieses Ziel erreicht wird, wurde eine Informationskampagne über das entstehende Museum durchgeführt noch während der Realisierung des Projekts, es werden offene Wettbewerbe und öffentliche Aktionen der Sammlung an Andenken, sowie der Zeugnisse des Aufstandes organisiert, endlich wird das Engagement der Stadtbehörden in den Bau der Einrichtung unterstrichen. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes ist, ähnlich wie das Museum der Geschichte Polens, eine erzählerische Einrichtung. Wie der Direktor des Museums Jan Ołdakowski sagte, soll “die Ausstellung wie ein guter Film sein und den Zuschauer durch eine eng bestimmte Erzählung führen ” [Kraj, 2005, S. 2]. Sie soll mit Licht, Klang und Bild einwirken; die traditionelle Ausstellung mit Schaukästen soll hier die Erzählung ersetzen, die den Besuchern erklärt, was wirklich dieses Auflehnen war und wie das Leben in der kämpfenden Stadt aussah. Die Grundabnehmergruppen des Museums sind die Kinder, Schuljugend und Studenten, Kriegsveteranen und ihre Familien, polnische und ausländische Touristen (besonders die Polen aus dem Ausland), Studenten und Wissenschaftler, die wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen führen, Liebhaber der modernsten Geschichte Polens, Soldaten, die gegenwärtig dienen. Die Differenzierung der Erwartungen einzelner Gruppen erfordert eine entsprechende Anpassung der Überlieferung des Museums; jede von ihnen soll etwas für sich in ihm finden.


haben, eine möglichst breite Empfängergruppe zu erreichen, deren Wirksamkeit und Übereinstimmung mit der Mission der Institution vom Treuhandrat und dem Direktor verifiziert werden, die auch die Prioritäten der Tätigkeit der Einrichtung bestimmen. Einer seiner Hauptgedanken ist die möglichst große Anwesenheit in der öffentlichen Sphäre, was desto einfacher ist, dass auf der Welle des Interesses für Geschichte und der Diskussion zum Thema historischer Politik die Medien dem Museum viel Aufmerksamkeit widmen. Die Tätigkeiten der Public relations führt hauptsächlich das Informationszentrum des Museums, und sie werden gerichtet nicht nur auf das Anziehen der maximalen Anzahl an Gästen, sowohl der polnischen, als auch der ausländischen, aber auch auf das Engagement der Interessierten, hauptsächlich der Jugendlichen, zu Projekten verschiedener Art, die in ganz Polen stattfinden. Im Werk der Popularisierung der Geschichte und des Museums selbst erfüllen die musealen Geschäfte eine wichtige Rolle. Dort kann man die Veröffentlichungen des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands kaufen, Bücher aus anderen Verlagen, betreffend den Aufstand und den 2. Weltkrieg, wie auch der modernen Debatten über die Geschichte, sowie auch Plakate, Alben, Fremdenführer im Museum selbst und für Warschau, Zeitschriften, Musik-CD, Filme, strategische Spiele. Der Laden verkauft auch Gadgets verschiedener Art, die mit dem Logo des Museums versehen werden, welches natürlich das Symbol des “Kämpfenden Polens” ist. Es sind z.B. Schlüsselanhänger, Figuren der Autos, Flugzeuge oder der Soldaten aus der Zeit des 2. Weltkrieges, Schachspiele, Becher, aus welchen die Aufständischen getrunken haben, wie auch Schokolade, Getreidekaffee oder Bonbons in Verpackungen, die den Originalen aus den 40er Jahren nachgebildet wurden. Diese unkonventionellen Gadgets sind ein wichtiges Element der Marketingtätigkeit des Museums. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes, veröffentlicht durch den eigenen Verlag Alben, Ansichtskarten, Flugblätter, populärwissenschaftliche Texte, sowie Arbeiten mit wissenschaftlichem Charakter. Es wird auch dafür gesorgt, dass diese Veröffentlichungen an entsprechende Personen und Institutionen gelangen: der Bericht Große Koalition von Prof. Norman Davies wurde an die ausländischen Universitätsbibliotheken geschickt, europäische Parlamentäre, Kongressleute aus den USA, meinungsbildenden Medien in der Welt, und im Europäischen Parlament präsentiert, ähnlich wie The Shadow of Yalta, ein Buch von Prof. Wojciech Roszkowski. Es werden Ausstellungen im Ausland organisiert. Eine spezielle Ausstellung wird in den Schulen in ganz Polen

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Das Sammeln und die Ausstellung der Sammlungen sind die wichtigsten Formen der Tätigkeit des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands, aber nicht die einzigen. Eine große Bedeutung wird darin der Förderung der Geschichte Polens, der Bildungs-, der Veröffentlichungs- und der Wissenschaftlich-Untersuchungstätigkeit beigemessen. Das Museum ist dabei eine Kulturinstitution, und was dem folgt ist eins seiner Ziele die breit verstandene Verbreitung der Kultur. Es wird erreicht durch die strikte Realisierung der kulturellen Projekte, die scheinbar nichts gemeinsames mit dem Warschauer Aufstand zu tun haben, aber schon durch das Aufsehen selbst die Leute ins Museum anziehen. Eine Reihe von Aktionen unter den Warschauern wurden noch vor der Eröffnung des Museums durchgeführt. Für die Sammlung von künftigen Ausstellungsstücken im November 2003 warben die Plakate mit dem Spruch Wirst du uns im Gedächtnis bewahren, Warschau?, stilisiert auf authentische Aufrufe, die an die Bewohner der Hauptstadt an diesen denkwürdigen Tagen des Jahres 1944 gerichtet wurden. Die ganze Woche lang vor der Sammlung fuhr in Warschau eine historische Straßenbahn, in welcher die aufständische Musik spielte, und die Pfadfinder verteilten Flugblätter, die über die Sammlung informierten. Anfang des Jahres 2004 erschienen auf den Bus- und Straßenbahnscheiben, sowie auf den Haltestellen Gedichte über den Warschauer Aufstand. Henryk Chmielewski “Jupiter”, auch als Papcio Chmiel bekannt, Autor des Comics über die Abenteuer von Tytus, Romek und A’Tomek, erarbeitete eine dem Museum gewidmete spezielle Ausgabe seiner Comics. Unmittelbar vor der Eröffnung der Einrichtung wurden auf den Straßen Warschaus Plakate aufgehängt mit der Aufschrift auf einer Ziegelmauer: Der einzige derartige Jahrestag. Das einzige derartige Museum. Eins der Projekte, die schon nach der Eröffnung des Museums realisiert wurden, war die Ausstellung “Mauer der Kunst”; auf der anderen Seite der Gedächtnismauer haben Künstler ihre Arbeiten präsentiert, die mit ihrer Kunst den Aufständischen Ehrerbietung erwiesen. Die Jazzkonzerte des Festivals “Die Unschuldigen Zauberer – Tyrmand*Komeda*Polański” haben an die Atmosphäre Warschaus der 50er Jahre angeknüpft. Es wurde auch eine Schule der Vorkriegstänze organisiert. Das Museum versucht, möglichst viele Veranstaltungen dieser Art zu organisieren, sowie auch Förderung der Filme und Bücher, die mit dem 2. Weltkrieg verbunden sind. Das Museum hat keine bestimmte und definierte Strategie der Public relations; es führt jedoch eine Reihe von Handlungen, die zum Ziel

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

176

haben, eine möglichst breite Empfängergruppe zu erreichen, deren Wirksamkeit und Übereinstimmung mit der Mission der Institution vom Treuhandrat und dem Direktor verifiziert werden, die auch die Prioritäten der Tätigkeit der Einrichtung bestimmen. Einer seiner Hauptgedanken ist die möglichst große Anwesenheit in der öffentlichen Sphäre, was desto einfacher ist, dass auf der Welle des Interesses für Geschichte und der Diskussion zum Thema historischer Politik die Medien dem Museum viel Aufmerksamkeit widmen. Die Tätigkeiten der Public relations führt hauptsächlich das Informationszentrum des Museums, und sie werden gerichtet nicht nur auf das Anziehen der maximalen Anzahl an Gästen, sowohl der polnischen, als auch der ausländischen, aber auch auf das Engagement der Interessierten, hauptsächlich der Jugendlichen, zu Projekten verschiedener Art, die in ganz Polen stattfinden. Im Werk der Popularisierung der Geschichte und des Museums selbst erfüllen die musealen Geschäfte eine wichtige Rolle. Dort kann man die Veröffentlichungen des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands kaufen, Bücher aus anderen Verlagen, betreffend den Aufstand und den 2. Weltkrieg, wie auch der modernen Debatten über die Geschichte, sowie auch Plakate, Alben, Fremdenführer im Museum selbst und für Warschau, Zeitschriften, Musik-CD, Filme, strategische Spiele. Der Laden verkauft auch Gadgets verschiedener Art, die mit dem Logo des Museums versehen werden, welches natürlich das Symbol des “Kämpfenden Polens” ist. Es sind z.B. Schlüsselanhänger, Figuren der Autos, Flugzeuge oder der Soldaten aus der Zeit des 2. Weltkrieges, Schachspiele, Becher, aus welchen die Aufständischen getrunken haben, wie auch Schokolade, Getreidekaffee oder Bonbons in Verpackungen, die den Originalen aus den 40er Jahren nachgebildet wurden. Diese unkonventionellen Gadgets sind ein wichtiges Element der Marketingtätigkeit des Museums. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstandes, veröffentlicht durch den eigenen Verlag Alben, Ansichtskarten, Flugblätter, populärwissenschaftliche Texte, sowie Arbeiten mit wissenschaftlichem Charakter. Es wird auch dafür gesorgt, dass diese Veröffentlichungen an entsprechende Personen und Institutionen gelangen: der Bericht Große Koalition von Prof. Norman Davies wurde an die ausländischen Universitätsbibliotheken geschickt, europäische Parlamentäre, Kongressleute aus den USA, meinungsbildenden Medien in der Welt, und im Europäischen Parlament präsentiert, ähnlich wie The Shadow of Yalta, ein Buch von Prof. Wojciech Roszkowski. Es werden Ausstellungen im Ausland organisiert. Eine spezielle Ausstellung wird in den Schulen in ganz Polen

176

Das Sammeln und die Ausstellung der Sammlungen sind die wichtigsten Formen der Tätigkeit des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands, aber nicht die einzigen. Eine große Bedeutung wird darin der Förderung der Geschichte Polens, der Bildungs-, der Veröffentlichungs- und der Wissenschaftlich-Untersuchungstätigkeit beigemessen. Das Museum ist dabei eine Kulturinstitution, und was dem folgt ist eins seiner Ziele die breit verstandene Verbreitung der Kultur. Es wird erreicht durch die strikte Realisierung der kulturellen Projekte, die scheinbar nichts gemeinsames mit dem Warschauer Aufstand zu tun haben, aber schon durch das Aufsehen selbst die Leute ins Museum anziehen. Eine Reihe von Aktionen unter den Warschauern wurden noch vor der Eröffnung des Museums durchgeführt. Für die Sammlung von künftigen Ausstellungsstücken im November 2003 warben die Plakate mit dem Spruch Wirst du uns im Gedächtnis bewahren, Warschau?, stilisiert auf authentische Aufrufe, die an die Bewohner der Hauptstadt an diesen denkwürdigen Tagen des Jahres 1944 gerichtet wurden. Die ganze Woche lang vor der Sammlung fuhr in Warschau eine historische Straßenbahn, in welcher die aufständische Musik spielte, und die Pfadfinder verteilten Flugblätter, die über die Sammlung informierten. Anfang des Jahres 2004 erschienen auf den Bus- und Straßenbahnscheiben, sowie auf den Haltestellen Gedichte über den Warschauer Aufstand. Henryk Chmielewski “Jupiter”, auch als Papcio Chmiel bekannt, Autor des Comics über die Abenteuer von Tytus, Romek und A’Tomek, erarbeitete eine dem Museum gewidmete spezielle Ausgabe seiner Comics. Unmittelbar vor der Eröffnung der Einrichtung wurden auf den Straßen Warschaus Plakate aufgehängt mit der Aufschrift auf einer Ziegelmauer: Der einzige derartige Jahrestag. Das einzige derartige Museum. Eins der Projekte, die schon nach der Eröffnung des Museums realisiert wurden, war die Ausstellung “Mauer der Kunst”; auf der anderen Seite der Gedächtnismauer haben Künstler ihre Arbeiten präsentiert, die mit ihrer Kunst den Aufständischen Ehrerbietung erwiesen. Die Jazzkonzerte des Festivals “Die Unschuldigen Zauberer – Tyrmand*Komeda*Polański” haben an die Atmosphäre Warschaus der 50er Jahre angeknüpft. Es wurde auch eine Schule der Vorkriegstänze organisiert. Das Museum versucht, möglichst viele Veranstaltungen dieser Art zu organisieren, sowie auch Förderung der Filme und Bücher, die mit dem 2. Weltkrieg verbunden sind. Das Museum hat keine bestimmte und definierte Strategie der Public relations; es führt jedoch eine Reihe von Handlungen, die zum Ziel


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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

präsentiert. Das Museum unterhält Kontakte mit ausländischen musealen Einrichtungen. Die Studienaufenthalte in Collage Park in der Nähe von Washington, sowie auch in den Londoner Imperial War Museum und Museum of London erlaubten manche Ausstellungsideen zu beobachten, Arten und Weisen an den Zuschauer zu gelangen, und die Konzeption des Museums zu verbessern. Die Konsultationszusammenarbeit wird mit solchen Institutionen, wie: Haus des Terrors in Budapest, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, Museum Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, Museum of London, Imperial War Museum in London, Smithsonian Institution in Washington und dem Museum des Hungers in Kiew geführt. Die Anfragen werden geführt im Studium des polnischen Untergrunds in London, in Collage Park in der Nähe von Washington, im Imperial War Museum und im RAF Museum in Hendon. Ein wichtiger Aspekt der Tätigkeit des Museums ist das Angebot, gerichtet an die Lehrer und die Studenten der Geschichte und der Polonistik. Die Einrichtung führt Schulungen, die das Wissen der Lehrer erweitern und präsentiert moderne methodische Lösungen beim Lehren zum Thema Warschauer Aufstand und der Okkupationszeit, kostenlose Vorlesungen, sowie offene Treffen. Das Museum organisiert auch langfristige Seminare aus dem gleichen Bereich, welche Elemente der Bildung in der Arbeit und der musealen Bildung enthalten, die 12 Treffen umfassen, die innerhalb von sechs Monaten stattfinden. Der Unterricht im Museum wird von erfahrenen Wissenschaftlern und Pädagogen geführt, ist honoriert durch Institutionen, die im Prozess des Berufsbeförderung des Lehrers begutachten. Das Museum führt musealen Unterricht (auch in der englischen Sprache) für –Kindergartenkinder, Schüler der Grundschulen, Gymnasien und Oberschulen. Die Unterrichtsthemen sind an das Entwicklungsniveau der Kinder und Jugendlichen angepasst. Die Kosten einer Lektion betragen lediglich 50 Zloty pro Gruppe. Im Oktober 2004 ist das Archiv der Gesprochenen Geschichte entstanden. Seine Hauptaufgabe ist die Festigung der Relationen von mehreren Tausend Soldaten der polnischen Heimatarmee (Armii Krajowej) – Teilnehmer des Warschauer Aufstandes, die heute in Polen und im Ausland leben. Die Fragen sind so formuliert, dass verschiedene Aspekte der aufständischen Schicksäle fixiert werden können, nicht nur des Kampfes, sondern auch des alltäglichen Lebens. Bis Ende 2006 wurde ein Tausend solcher, oft ein paar Stunden dauernden Aufnahmen gesammelt. Sie alle werden in elektronischer Version aufgezeichnet und auf der Seite des Museums des

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Warschauer Aufstands veröffentlicht. Die Filmaufzeichnungen der Gespräche werden sukzessiv im Lesesaal des Museums zugänglich gemacht. Das Ziel des Archivs ist das Schaffen eines in seiner Bandbreite beispiellosen Untersuchungsmaterials, welches den gegenwärtigen und den künftigen Generationen der Historiker und Pädagogen dient, sowie auch Porträtieren der Generation, die im Vorkriegspolen geboren wurde, ihrer Nachkriegsschicksäle im Inland, wie in der Emigration, sowie die Erweisung der Ehrerbietung für die unter uns noch anwesenden Veteranen des Aufstandes. Das Museum gewann schnell die internationale Dimension. Die Besprechungen seiner Ausstellungen erschienen in den wichtigsten musealen Periodiken der Welt. In der polnischen und internationalen Presse sind über ein Tausend Artikel erschienen, verbunden mit der Eröffnung der Einrichtung. Die Tätigkeit des Museums schuf ein freundliches Klima für ähnliche Initiativen. Es wird das Museum der Geschichte Polens gebaut, geplant ist der Bau des Museums des Kommunismus SocLand, des Museums der Geschichte der Polnischen Juden, sowie des Museums von Solidarność. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstands wurde zum aktiven Teilnehmer und Animateur der Debatte zum Thema Geschichte und ihrer Bedeutung.

Chancen und Gefährdungen

M

an kann den Eindruck haben, dass viele Teilnehmer der öffentlichen Debatte zum Thema Geschichte und ihrer Rolle im alltäglichen Funktionieren der modernen Gesellschaft, zur Tagesordnung über die Tätigkeiten, die mit der historischen Politik verbunden sind, übergehen, indem sie sich in eine wirklichkeitsfremde Diskussion engagieren. Oft fallen schon gängige Worte über die “Ausnutzung der Geschichte”, die die historische Politik auf den von vornherein verlorenen Posten stellen. Negative Konotationen des Wortes “Ausnutzung” schlagen a priori die Waffe aus den Händen der Verteidiger des “Kampfes ums Gedächtnis”; was oft mit dem fehlenden Platz für die redliche Beurteilung der praktischen Arten der Realisierung der historischen Politik folgt, und eben sie entscheiden über ihr Antlitz. Die Frage danach, ob die historische Politik, in sich selbst, gut oder schlecht ist, hat keine Daseinsberechtigung. Ihre Existenz ist eine objektive Tatsache. Der Beurteilung sollen vor allem die Methoden ihre Einführung ins Leben unterliegen, die, ähnlich wie das im Falle einer jeden anderen Aktivität der Fall ist, übereinstimmend oder nicht übereinstimmend mit den Standards der modernen Demokratie

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präsentiert. Das Museum unterhält Kontakte mit ausländischen musealen Einrichtungen. Die Studienaufenthalte in Collage Park in der Nähe von Washington, sowie auch in den Londoner Imperial War Museum und Museum of London erlaubten manche Ausstellungsideen zu beobachten, Arten und Weisen an den Zuschauer zu gelangen, und die Konzeption des Museums zu verbessern. Die Konsultationszusammenarbeit wird mit solchen Institutionen, wie: Haus des Terrors in Budapest, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, Museum Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, Museum of London, Imperial War Museum in London, Smithsonian Institution in Washington und dem Museum des Hungers in Kiew geführt. Die Anfragen werden geführt im Studium des polnischen Untergrunds in London, in Collage Park in der Nähe von Washington, im Imperial War Museum und im RAF Museum in Hendon. Ein wichtiger Aspekt der Tätigkeit des Museums ist das Angebot, gerichtet an die Lehrer und die Studenten der Geschichte und der Polonistik. Die Einrichtung führt Schulungen, die das Wissen der Lehrer erweitern und präsentiert moderne methodische Lösungen beim Lehren zum Thema Warschauer Aufstand und der Okkupationszeit, kostenlose Vorlesungen, sowie offene Treffen. Das Museum organisiert auch langfristige Seminare aus dem gleichen Bereich, welche Elemente der Bildung in der Arbeit und der musealen Bildung enthalten, die 12 Treffen umfassen, die innerhalb von sechs Monaten stattfinden. Der Unterricht im Museum wird von erfahrenen Wissenschaftlern und Pädagogen geführt, ist honoriert durch Institutionen, die im Prozess des Berufsbeförderung des Lehrers begutachten. Das Museum führt musealen Unterricht (auch in der englischen Sprache) für –Kindergartenkinder, Schüler der Grundschulen, Gymnasien und Oberschulen. Die Unterrichtsthemen sind an das Entwicklungsniveau der Kinder und Jugendlichen angepasst. Die Kosten einer Lektion betragen lediglich 50 Zloty pro Gruppe. Im Oktober 2004 ist das Archiv der Gesprochenen Geschichte entstanden. Seine Hauptaufgabe ist die Festigung der Relationen von mehreren Tausend Soldaten der polnischen Heimatarmee (Armii Krajowej) – Teilnehmer des Warschauer Aufstandes, die heute in Polen und im Ausland leben. Die Fragen sind so formuliert, dass verschiedene Aspekte der aufständischen Schicksäle fixiert werden können, nicht nur des Kampfes, sondern auch des alltäglichen Lebens. Bis Ende 2006 wurde ein Tausend solcher, oft ein paar Stunden dauernden Aufnahmen gesammelt. Sie alle werden in elektronischer Version aufgezeichnet und auf der Seite des Museums des

an kann den Eindruck haben, dass viele Teilnehmer der öffentlichen Debatte zum Thema Geschichte und ihrer Rolle im alltäglichen Funktionieren der modernen Gesellschaft, zur Tagesordnung über die Tätigkeiten, die mit der historischen Politik verbunden sind, übergehen, indem sie sich in eine wirklichkeitsfremde Diskussion engagieren. Oft fallen schon gängige Worte über die “Ausnutzung der Geschichte”, die die historische Politik auf den von vornherein verlorenen Posten stellen. Negative Konotationen des Wortes “Ausnutzung” schlagen a priori die Waffe aus den Händen der Verteidiger des “Kampfes ums Gedächtnis”; was oft mit dem fehlenden Platz für die redliche Beurteilung der praktischen Arten der Realisierung der historischen Politik folgt, und eben sie entscheiden über ihr Antlitz. Die Frage danach, ob die historische Politik, in sich selbst, gut oder schlecht ist, hat keine Daseinsberechtigung. Ihre Existenz ist eine objektive Tatsache. Der Beurteilung sollen vor allem die Methoden ihre Einführung ins Leben unterliegen, die, ähnlich wie das im Falle einer jeden anderen Aktivität der Fall ist, übereinstimmend oder nicht übereinstimmend mit den Standards der modernen Demokratie

M

Chancen und Gefährdungen Warschauer Aufstands veröffentlicht. Die Filmaufzeichnungen der Gespräche werden sukzessiv im Lesesaal des Museums zugänglich gemacht. Das Ziel des Archivs ist das Schaffen eines in seiner Bandbreite beispiellosen Untersuchungsmaterials, welches den gegenwärtigen und den künftigen Generationen der Historiker und Pädagogen dient, sowie auch Porträtieren der Generation, die im Vorkriegspolen geboren wurde, ihrer Nachkriegsschicksäle im Inland, wie in der Emigration, sowie die Erweisung der Ehrerbietung für die unter uns noch anwesenden Veteranen des Aufstandes. Das Museum gewann schnell die internationale Dimension. Die Besprechungen seiner Ausstellungen erschienen in den wichtigsten musealen Periodiken der Welt. In der polnischen und internationalen Presse sind über ein Tausend Artikel erschienen, verbunden mit der Eröffnung der Einrichtung. Die Tätigkeit des Museums schuf ein freundliches Klima für ähnliche Initiativen. Es wird das Museum der Geschichte Polens gebaut, geplant ist der Bau des Museums des Kommunismus SocLand, des Museums der Geschichte der Polnischen Juden, sowie des Museums von Solidarność. Das Museum des Warschauer Aufstands wurde zum aktiven Teilnehmer und Animateur der Debatte zum Thema Geschichte und ihrer Bedeutung.


das Überdauern der materiellen Zeugnisse der Vergangenheit ist, sondern vor allem die Pflege des Kulturstammes, auf den die Nationalgemeinschaft gestützt ist. Seine Initiativen, indem sie viel Platz für die Bürgerinitiativen hinterlassen, verbleiben dabei im Einklang mit den Standards der modernen Demokratie und der Bürgergesellschaft; man kann ihnen unmöglich einen Versuch des Kreierens und Aufzwingens irgendwelcher bestimmten historischen Vision der Ereignisse vorwerfen, der mit den Fakten widersprüchlich wäre. Dabei unterliegt die Tätigkeit der Regierung auf diesem Gebiet der Kritik genauso, wie auch auf jedem anderen. Das größte Projekt des Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe, das Museum der Geschichte Polens, befindet sich erst im Bau, also muss mit der vollen Beurteilung des Schaffens des Teams von Minister Ujazdowski noch gewartet werden. Bisher jedoch denke ich, dass die historische Politik in ihrer Ausführung anerkannt werden kann eher nicht für die “Ausnutzung der Geschichte” für politische Zwecke, sondern für eine ausgezeichnete Chance der Ausnutzung der Formen und der Institutionen der kulturellen Politik des Staates für die Verbreitung und die Förderung der Geschichte. Die Zukunft der historischen Politik ist in Polen nicht frei von Gefährdungen. Eine davon ist die Erscheinung, die entweder als kritischer Patriotismus bezeichnet wird, oder als historischer Nihilismus, also intellektuelle Tendenz im Hinblick auf die Geschichte, die sich mit dem Misstrauen äußert gegenüber angeblich von der Natur aus potentiell gefährlicher Idee des Volkes und mit der ständigen Bereitschaft zum Diskreditieren des Schaffens der vergangenen Generationen. Außerdem die Fragen der Durchleuchtung und Abrechnung der Volksrepublikperiode, die die historische Politik auf direkte Art mit der neuesten Geschichte verbinden, und vor allem mit den politischen Intrigen, bereiten ihr weitere Feinde. In Gesprächen, die ich mit den Historikern der Jagiellonen-Universität durchgeführt habe fiel mir vor allem das auf, dass viele von ihnen Probleme hatten mit dem Formulieren der Definition der historischen Politik oder der Angabe beispielhafter Formen ihrer praktischen Realisierung. Sie wird leider mehr als Gefährdung als eine Chance gesehen. Andererseits jedoch fällt es genauso schwer, konkrete Beispiele der schädlichen Tätigkeit zu erlangen. Die in Polen seit ein paar Jahren laufende Diskussion zum Thema der historischen Politik kreierte in einem großen Teil der Gesellschaft ein völlig verzerrtes Bild von ihr. Auf das Projekt der Popularisierung der Geschichte wurde mit einem starken Kontraprojekt geantwortet, welches die

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

und der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft sein können; sie können verzerren den Sinn der Idee selbst, oder nicht. Die Fordernden der historischen Politik werfen den Entscheidungsträgern aus den 90er Jahren eine Reihe Vorwürfe um Verzichten auf die Sorge um das Bild der Vergangenheit oder geradezu Amputation des Sammelgedächtnisses vor. Das erste Jahrzehnt des freien Polens sollte eine Periode sein, in der die Sprache der öffentlichen Debatte von den ökonomischen Fragen dominiert wurde. Der Staat wurde für eine Art Unternehmen gehalten, und das Treiben der Politik wurde auf die Frage der Verwaltung der Prozesse des wirtschaftlichen Zuwachses begrenzt. Währenddessen denke ich, dass – paradox – im Bereich der Verwaltung eine interessante Analogie zur historischen Politik gefunden werden kann. Die Unternehmen führen doch Tätigkeiten verschiedener Art, die die Integration der Mitarbeiter zum Ziel haben, sowie ihrer Selbstidentifizierung mit der Firma. Die historische Politik kann als eine ähnliche Tätigkeit auf dem Niveau des Staates anerkannt werden. Ein führendes Beispiel der institutionalisierten Führung der historischen Politik wurde das Museum des Warschauer Aufstands. In diesem Namen befindet sich ein geschicktes und wirksam realisiertes Projekt, welches in die Tat die Postulate des “Kampfes ums Gedächtnis” im besten Sinne umsetzt. Dieser Ort, geschaffen als ein Ausdruck der Ehrerbietung für die Helden des Untergrundpolens, erinnerte die Polen und die Ausländer nicht nur an ein solches Ereignis wie der Warschauer Aufstand, sondern wurde auch zur wichtigen und deutlich im öffentlichen Raum präsenten Kulturinstitution, die sowohl das Wissen über historische Fakten verbreitet, wie auch die breit verstandene Kultur. Den Schöpfern des Museums, dank der Anlehnung der Konzeption auf den tragenden Übertragungsmitteln, ist es gelungen, eine neue Qualität zu erschaffen: eine Institution, die sich nicht mit der Ausstrahlung der zeitlich begrenzten Überlieferung begnügt, sondern inspiriert zu der Rolle des freundlichen Platzes, der zum Verbringen dort der Freizeit anspornt, wodurch seine Einwirkungsmöglichkeiten vervielfacht wurden. Die Ideen der historischen Politik können einen wirklichen Ausmaß in der Tätigkeit vieler Subjekte finden, jedoch spielt in diesem Bereich das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe (besonders in der Zeit als Kazimierz Michał Ujazdowski Minister war) bisher die dominierende Rolle in Polen. Die Aktivität dieses Ressorts verleiht einen neuen Sinn diesem Teil der kulturellen Politik, deren Domäne der Schutz des Nationalerbes ist. Es macht aufmerksam, dass sein Ziel nicht nur

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

178

das Überdauern der materiellen Zeugnisse der Vergangenheit ist, sondern vor allem die Pflege des Kulturstammes, auf den die Nationalgemeinschaft gestützt ist. Seine Initiativen, indem sie viel Platz für die Bürgerinitiativen hinterlassen, verbleiben dabei im Einklang mit den Standards der modernen Demokratie und der Bürgergesellschaft; man kann ihnen unmöglich einen Versuch des Kreierens und Aufzwingens irgendwelcher bestimmten historischen Vision der Ereignisse vorwerfen, der mit den Fakten widersprüchlich wäre. Dabei unterliegt die Tätigkeit der Regierung auf diesem Gebiet der Kritik genauso, wie auch auf jedem anderen. Das größte Projekt des Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe, das Museum der Geschichte Polens, befindet sich erst im Bau, also muss mit der vollen Beurteilung des Schaffens des Teams von Minister Ujazdowski noch gewartet werden. Bisher jedoch denke ich, dass die historische Politik in ihrer Ausführung anerkannt werden kann eher nicht für die “Ausnutzung der Geschichte” für politische Zwecke, sondern für eine ausgezeichnete Chance der Ausnutzung der Formen und der Institutionen der kulturellen Politik des Staates für die Verbreitung und die Förderung der Geschichte. Die Zukunft der historischen Politik ist in Polen nicht frei von Gefährdungen. Eine davon ist die Erscheinung, die entweder als kritischer Patriotismus bezeichnet wird, oder als historischer Nihilismus, also intellektuelle Tendenz im Hinblick auf die Geschichte, die sich mit dem Misstrauen äußert gegenüber angeblich von der Natur aus potentiell gefährlicher Idee des Volkes und mit der ständigen Bereitschaft zum Diskreditieren des Schaffens der vergangenen Generationen. Außerdem die Fragen der Durchleuchtung und Abrechnung der Volksrepublikperiode, die die historische Politik auf direkte Art mit der neuesten Geschichte verbinden, und vor allem mit den politischen Intrigen, bereiten ihr weitere Feinde. In Gesprächen, die ich mit den Historikern der Jagiellonen-Universität durchgeführt habe fiel mir vor allem das auf, dass viele von ihnen Probleme hatten mit dem Formulieren der Definition der historischen Politik oder der Angabe beispielhafter Formen ihrer praktischen Realisierung. Sie wird leider mehr als Gefährdung als eine Chance gesehen. Andererseits jedoch fällt es genauso schwer, konkrete Beispiele der schädlichen Tätigkeit zu erlangen. Die in Polen seit ein paar Jahren laufende Diskussion zum Thema der historischen Politik kreierte in einem großen Teil der Gesellschaft ein völlig verzerrtes Bild von ihr. Auf das Projekt der Popularisierung der Geschichte wurde mit einem starken Kontraprojekt geantwortet, welches die

178

und der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft sein können; sie können verzerren den Sinn der Idee selbst, oder nicht. Die Fordernden der historischen Politik werfen den Entscheidungsträgern aus den 90er Jahren eine Reihe Vorwürfe um Verzichten auf die Sorge um das Bild der Vergangenheit oder geradezu Amputation des Sammelgedächtnisses vor. Das erste Jahrzehnt des freien Polens sollte eine Periode sein, in der die Sprache der öffentlichen Debatte von den ökonomischen Fragen dominiert wurde. Der Staat wurde für eine Art Unternehmen gehalten, und das Treiben der Politik wurde auf die Frage der Verwaltung der Prozesse des wirtschaftlichen Zuwachses begrenzt. Währenddessen denke ich, dass – paradox – im Bereich der Verwaltung eine interessante Analogie zur historischen Politik gefunden werden kann. Die Unternehmen führen doch Tätigkeiten verschiedener Art, die die Integration der Mitarbeiter zum Ziel haben, sowie ihrer Selbstidentifizierung mit der Firma. Die historische Politik kann als eine ähnliche Tätigkeit auf dem Niveau des Staates anerkannt werden. Ein führendes Beispiel der institutionalisierten Führung der historischen Politik wurde das Museum des Warschauer Aufstands. In diesem Namen befindet sich ein geschicktes und wirksam realisiertes Projekt, welches in die Tat die Postulate des “Kampfes ums Gedächtnis” im besten Sinne umsetzt. Dieser Ort, geschaffen als ein Ausdruck der Ehrerbietung für die Helden des Untergrundpolens, erinnerte die Polen und die Ausländer nicht nur an ein solches Ereignis wie der Warschauer Aufstand, sondern wurde auch zur wichtigen und deutlich im öffentlichen Raum präsenten Kulturinstitution, die sowohl das Wissen über historische Fakten verbreitet, wie auch die breit verstandene Kultur. Den Schöpfern des Museums, dank der Anlehnung der Konzeption auf den tragenden Übertragungsmitteln, ist es gelungen, eine neue Qualität zu erschaffen: eine Institution, die sich nicht mit der Ausstrahlung der zeitlich begrenzten Überlieferung begnügt, sondern inspiriert zu der Rolle des freundlichen Platzes, der zum Verbringen dort der Freizeit anspornt, wodurch seine Einwirkungsmöglichkeiten vervielfacht wurden. Die Ideen der historischen Politik können einen wirklichen Ausmaß in der Tätigkeit vieler Subjekte finden, jedoch spielt in diesem Bereich das Ministerium für Kultur und das Nationalerbe (besonders in der Zeit als Kazimierz Michał Ujazdowski Minister war) bisher die dominierende Rolle in Polen. Die Aktivität dieses Ressorts verleiht einen neuen Sinn diesem Teil der kulturellen Politik, deren Domäne der Schutz des Nationalerbes ist. Es macht aufmerksam, dass sein Ziel nicht nur


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Kenntnis und die Bindung an die heimatliche Geschichte als unnötige Sache, oder geradezu schädliche, darstellt. Es wurde anerkannt, dass sich mit der Geschichte Wissenschaftler beschäftigen sollen, eingeschlossen in den Mauern der Hochschule, welche die Ergebnisse ihrer Unteruschungen der Allgemeinheit nicht darstellen. Leider ist die Wechselwirkungskraft dieser Ansicht so groß, dass in einem Land – dessen Beitrag nicht nur in die Besiegung des Dritten Reiches, sondern auch in das Demontieren des Kommunismus in der Welt vergessen worden ist, und in dem die überwältigende Mehrheit der Bürger die einfachsten historischen Daten nicht identifizieren kann – viele Personen sind der Meinung, dass über die polnische Geschichte unnötig und zu viel gesprochen wird. Die Konzeption des Staates, aufgestellt von den Warschauer Konservativen, die mit ihr

verbundene historische Politik, sowie auch die Arten ihrer Realisierung, die von den Schöpfern des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands, sowie des Teams vom Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe in den Zeiten der Regierung von Recht und Gerechtigkeit vorgeschlagen werden, haben ihre Gegner, und sie werden sie wohl immer haben. Es ist aber ein Projekt, welches man verteidigen kann und welches es sich lohnt, zu verteidigen, als solches, das sich an den Patriotismus abberuft, übereinstimmend mit den Standards der gegenwärtigen Demokratie und gerichtet auf die Zielerlangung, die messbare Vorteile bringt. Das Projekt verdient seinen Platz im polnischen öffentlichen Raum nicht als einzig richtige Vision, die aufgedrängt werden muss, sondern als eine wichtige Stimme in der Debatte über die Form des modernen Staates sowie seiner Politik.

Bibliografie Cichocki M., Marek A., et. al. (2006), Polityka historyczna - za i przeciw. http://portalwiedzy.onet. pl/,1581,1352888,czasopisma.html [2007.06.14]. Cichocki M., Polityka historyczna – za i przeciw, www. portalwiedzy.onet.pl. Kraj I., Przewodnik po Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego [in:] Pamięć Powstania ’44, pod. red. Rosalak M.,

Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, pod red. Matusiak M., Warszawa 2006. Polityka historyczna. Historycy – politycy – prasa, Panewka A., Warszawa 2005. Roszkowski W., O potrzebie polskiej polityki historycznej [in:] Pamięć i odpowiedzialność, pod red. Kostro R., Merta T., Kraków – Wrocław 2005.

Stańczyk T., Warszawa 2005.

Stańczyk T., Warszawa 2005. go [in:] Pamięć Powstania ’44, pod. red. Rosalak M., Kraj I., Przewodnik po Muzeum Powstania Warszawskieportalwiedzy.onet.pl. Cichocki M., Polityka historyczna – za i przeciw, www. pl/,1581,1352888,czasopisma.html [2007.06.14]. ryczna - za i przeciw. http://portalwiedzy.onet. Cichocki M., Marek A., et. al. (2006), Polityka histo-

Merta T., Kraków – Wrocław 2005. [in:] Pamięć i odpowiedzialność, pod red. Kostro R., Roszkowski W., O potrzebie polskiej polityki historycznej newka A., Warszawa 2005. Polityka historyczna. Historycy – politycy – prasa, PaM., Warszawa 2006. Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, pod red. Matusiak

Bibliografie Kenntnis und die Bindung an die heimatliche Geschichte als unnötige Sache, oder geradezu schädliche, darstellt. Es wurde anerkannt, dass sich mit der Geschichte Wissenschaftler beschäftigen sollen, eingeschlossen in den Mauern der Hochschule, welche die Ergebnisse ihrer Unteruschungen der Allgemeinheit nicht darstellen. Leider ist die Wechselwirkungskraft dieser Ansicht so groß, dass in einem Land – dessen Beitrag nicht nur in die Besiegung des Dritten Reiches, sondern auch in das Demontieren des Kommunismus in der Welt vergessen worden ist, und in dem die überwältigende Mehrheit der Bürger die einfachsten historischen Daten nicht identifizieren kann – viele Personen sind der Meinung, dass über die polnische Geschichte unnötig und zu viel gesprochen wird. Die Konzeption des Staates, aufgestellt von den Warschauer Konservativen, die mit ihr

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

179

verbundene historische Politik, sowie auch die Arten ihrer Realisierung, die von den Schöpfern des Museums des Warschauer Aufstands, sowie des Teams vom Ministeriums für Kultur und das Nationalerbe in den Zeiten der Regierung von Recht und Gerechtigkeit vorgeschlagen werden, haben ihre Gegner, und sie werden sie wohl immer haben. Es ist aber ein Projekt, welches man verteidigen kann und welches es sich lohnt, zu verteidigen, als solches, das sich an den Patriotismus abberuft, übereinstimmend mit den Standards der gegenwärtigen Demokratie und gerichtet auf die Zielerlangung, die messbare Vorteile bringt. Das Projekt verdient seinen Platz im polnischen öffentlichen Raum nicht als einzig richtige Vision, die aufgedrängt werden muss, sondern als eine wichtige Stimme in der Debatte über die Form des modernen Staates sowie seiner Politik.


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Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Levan Khetaguri

ank den kulturellen Errungenschaften und dem intellektuellen Potential war Georgien in der Sowjetunion ein außergewöhnliches Gebiet. Die sowjetische Ideologie unterstützte einerseits die Entwicklung der sogenannten kulturellen Identität, sowie die Existenz der ethnischen Gruppen, andererseits dagegen, langsam und mit Absicht wurde das Nationalgedächtnis einzelner Länder, die in den sowjetischen Staat eingegliedert wurden, eliminiert. Angefangen mit der Geschichte bis zur nationalen Identität wurde alles aufgelöst, damit der Staat reibungslos durch die kommunistische Maschine geführt werden konnte, die zwanghaft für die Erschaffung des Homo Sovieticus wirkte. Heute ist klar, dass wir, wenn wir über die sowjetische oder kommunistische Politik sprechen, im Grunde über den neu-imperialistischen russischen Ehrgeiz sprechen sollten, der geschickt verdeckt in den sozialistischen und kommunistischen Ideen eingekleidet wurde. Bis heute bleibt der russische One-Imperialismus eine ernste Gefährdung für ein zivilisiertes und unabhängiges Europa und den Rest der Welt, was sehr gut durch das Beispiel des Krieges illustriert wird, zu welchem es im August 2008 gekommen ist.

D

D

er vorliegende Artikel ist ein kurz und bündiger Präsentationsversuch der Entwicklung in der Gestaltung der kulturellen Politik Georgiens innerhalb des letzten guten Jahrzehnts. Nach einer kurzen geschichtlichen Einführung werden die wichtigsten Aspekte der kulturellen Politik dargestellt, mit Berücksichtigung der Bildung, der Tätigkeit des dritten Sektors und der kulturellen Touristik.

180

Kurze Geschichte

Einleitende Bemerkungen

or allem ist in der Einleitung die Unterstreichung notwendig, dass der Termin Kaukasusregion die Länder des Südkaukasus betrifft: Georgien, Aserbaidschan und Armenien, während die Länder des Nordkaukasus als der russische Kaukasusteil bezeichnet werden. Vielleicht ist es kein passender Augenblick, dass die Erscheinung des Kaukasus als Region debattiert wird, jedoch scheint es wichtig, die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Bedeutung des Kaukasus als einer der ältesten Regionen, einer gewissen kulturellen Insel zwischen den Zivilisationen des Ostens und Westens, zwischen zwei Meeren, zu lenken. Die Rolle, welche die Kaukasusländer spielen, ist wesentlich nicht nur für die Geschichte der Gesellschaften, sondern auch für esoterische Schulen, Religionsgeschichte und unterschiedlicher okkultistischen Bewegungen des Ostens und Westens. Oft passiert es, dass wir in den aus esoterischen Gründen attraktiven Orten Probleme beobachten, die sich aus der fehlenden politischen Stabilität ergeben. Ein gutes Beispiel ist der Nahe Osten, der sich mit ähnlichen Herausforderungen abmüht, welche in der Kaukasusregion anwesend sind. Nach dem Fall der Sowjetunion im Jahre 1991, welcher als letzte Befreiung anerkannt werden kann, trat die Kaukasusregion in die Phase der Veränderungen ein. Die sogenannte Wandlungszeit, die damals angefangen hat, gestaltete sich in die Zeit der Turbulenzen um, charakterisiert durch

regionale und ethnische Konflikte, Bürgerkriege, Revolutionen, fehlende politische Stabilität und andere ernste Sorgen. In der ersten Dekade des 21. Jahrhunderts haben wir es mit einer Region zu tun, in der Konflikte eingefroren und Stabilisierung erreicht wurde, sowie kann das Engagement der Kaukasusländer in große internationale wirtschaftliche Projekte beobachtet werden. Nach diesen allgemeinen Bemerkungen versuche ich ein wenig ausführlicher die Erscheinungen zu besprechen, die zu der Situation geführt haben, wie sie gegenwärtig in Georgien herrscht.

V

V

Einleitende Bemerkungen

regionale und ethnische Konflikte, Bürgerkriege, Revolutionen, fehlende politische Stabilität und andere ernste Sorgen. In der ersten Dekade des 21. Jahrhunderts haben wir es mit einer Region zu tun, in der Konflikte eingefroren und Stabilisierung erreicht wurde, sowie kann das Engagement der Kaukasusländer in große internationale wirtschaftliche Projekte beobachtet werden. Nach diesen allgemeinen Bemerkungen versuche ich ein wenig ausführlicher die Erscheinungen zu besprechen, die zu der Situation geführt haben, wie sie gegenwärtig in Georgien herrscht.

Kurze Geschichte

er vorliegende Artikel ist ein kurz und bündiger Präsentationsversuch der Entwicklung in der Gestaltung der kulturellen Politik Georgiens innerhalb des letzten guten Jahrzehnts. Nach einer kurzen geschichtlichen Einführung werden die wichtigsten Aspekte der kulturellen Politik dargestellt, mit Berücksichtigung der Bildung, der Tätigkeit des dritten Sektors und der kulturellen Touristik.

D

D

ank den kulturellen Errungenschaften und dem intellektuellen Potential war Georgien in der Sowjetunion ein außergewöhnliches Gebiet. Die sowjetische Ideologie unterstützte einerseits die Entwicklung der sogenannten kulturellen Identität, sowie die Existenz der ethnischen Gruppen, andererseits dagegen, langsam und mit Absicht wurde das Nationalgedächtnis einzelner Länder, die in den sowjetischen Staat eingegliedert wurden, eliminiert. Angefangen mit der Geschichte bis zur nationalen Identität wurde alles aufgelöst, damit der Staat reibungslos durch die kommunistische Maschine geführt werden konnte, die zwanghaft für die Erschaffung des Homo Sovieticus wirkte. Heute ist klar, dass wir, wenn wir über die sowjetische oder kommunistische Politik sprechen, im Grunde über den neu-imperialistischen russischen Ehrgeiz sprechen sollten, der geschickt verdeckt in den sozialistischen und kommunistischen Ideen eingekleidet wurde. Bis heute bleibt der russische One-Imperialismus eine ernste Gefährdung für ein zivilisiertes und unabhängiges Europa und den Rest der Welt, was sehr gut durch das Beispiel des Krieges illustriert wird, zu welchem es im August 2008 gekommen ist.

Prof. Levan Khetaguri Der Vizepräsident der Schota-RusstaweliStaatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi; Koordinator und Moderator georgischer und internationaler Kulturprogramme, Festivals, Konferenzen, Seminare, Werkstätte und öffentlicher Vorträge, Produzent und Autor von TV-Programmen. Er veröffentlichte über 80 wissenschaftliche Arbeiten und Artikel in Verlagen und Fachzeitschriften (in der georgischen, russischen, englischen, aserbaidschanische, belarussischen, slowakischen und anderen Sprachen). Der Übersetzer einiger Bücher. Der Preisträger zahlreicher Auszeichnungen, darunter vom Verein für Schwedische Schriftsteller, 2000), von der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Sowjetunion (1985) und der Akademie der Wissenschaften Georgiens (1982). Er ist Mitglied zahlreicher namhaften Institutionen. In den Jahren 1996-1997 war er als Direktor Internationaler Kulturprogramme im georgischen Kultusministerium, und 2008 als Mitglied des Europäischen Kulturparlaments

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

or allem ist in der Einleitung die Unterstreichung notwendig, dass der Termin Kaukasusregion die Länder des Südkaukasus betrifft: Georgien, Aserbaidschan und Armenien, während die Länder des Nordkaukasus als der russische Kaukasusteil bezeichnet werden. Vielleicht ist es kein passender Augenblick, dass die Erscheinung des Kaukasus als Region debattiert wird, jedoch scheint es wichtig, die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Bedeutung des Kaukasus als einer der ältesten Regionen, einer gewissen kulturellen Insel zwischen den Zivilisationen des Ostens und Westens, zwischen zwei Meeren, zu lenken. Die Rolle, welche die Kaukasusländer spielen, ist wesentlich nicht nur für die Geschichte der Gesellschaften, sondern auch für esoterische Schulen, Religionsgeschichte und unterschiedlicher okkultistischen Bewegungen des Ostens und Westens. Oft passiert es, dass wir in den aus esoterischen Gründen attraktiven Orten Probleme beobachten, die sich aus der fehlenden politischen Stabilität ergeben. Ein gutes Beispiel ist der Nahe Osten, der sich mit ähnlichen Herausforderungen abmüht, welche in der Kaukasusregion anwesend sind. Nach dem Fall der Sowjetunion im Jahre 1991, welcher als letzte Befreiung anerkannt werden kann, trat die Kaukasusregion in die Phase der Veränderungen ein. Die sogenannte Wandlungszeit, die damals angefangen hat, gestaltete sich in die Zeit der Turbulenzen um, charakterisiert durch

Levan Khetaguri

Prof. Levan Khetaguri Der Vizepräsident der Schota-RusstaweliStaatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi; Koordinator und Moderator georgischer und internationaler Kulturprogramme, Festivals, Konferenzen, Seminare, Werkstätte und öffentlicher Vorträge, Produzent und Autor von TV-Programmen. Er veröffentlichte über 80 wissenschaftliche Arbeiten und Artikel in Verlagen und Fachzeitschriften (in der georgischen, russischen, englischen, aserbaidschanische, belarussischen, slowakischen und anderen Sprachen). Der Übersetzer einiger Bücher. Der Preisträger zahlreicher Auszeichnungen, darunter vom Verein für Schwedische Schriftsteller, 2000), von der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Sowjetunion (1985) und der Akademie der Wissenschaften Georgiens (1982). Er ist Mitglied zahlreicher namhaften Institutionen. In den Jahren 1996-1997 war er als Direktor Internationaler Kulturprogramme im georgischen Kultusministerium, und 2008 als Mitglied des Europäischen Kulturparlaments

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

erkennen, denn das lokale akademische Wissen im Bereich des Kulturmanagements war unzureichend und erfüllte die gegenwärtigen Standards nicht. Wir haben in der Praxis versucht, viele Ideen einzusetzen. In den Jahren 1990–91 initiierte ich selbst das erste theatralische Projekt, angelehnt an den Vertrag, der keinen kommerziellen Erfolg verzeichnete aufgrund vieler unvorhergesehenen Faktoren. Vor allem hatte hier die Bedeutung das Fehlen des spezifischen Wissens, wie auch der Praxis im Bereich des Kulturmanagements, denn meine Universitätsausbildung war damals – und ist nach wie vor – theaterwissenschaftlich. Eine weitere Handlung war die Inbetriebsetzung des ersten georgischen Produktionszentrums mit dem Namen “ARTEX”, welches viel erreichte, indem es seiner Zeit voraus war, jedoch blieb es nicht im Einklang mit dem lokalen rechtlichen System und dem “westlichen” Markt (Initiativen, die schon im Westen unmodern sind). Ich kann also mit voller Sicherheit sagen, dass mein Wissen über das Management sich aufgrund der Analyse meiner eigenen Fehler entwickelte. Meine Freunde und ich selbst gewannen die Kenntnisse des Managements in der Kultursphäre im Westen. Die erste professionelle Schulung im Bereich des Managements wurde in Georgien erst im Jahre 1998 organisiert, als Initiative, die sich ausschließlich aus meiner Zusammenarbeit mit den Partnern in Holland und Georgien ergab. Der Export der europäischen oder amerikanischen Erfahrungen in die post-sowjetischen Länder, besonders in der Kultursphäre, war für viele internationale Hilfsprogramme keine Priorität. Die Handlungen dieser Art wurden durch die Soros Foundation unterstützt, ein paar holländische Organisationen, sowie das österreichische Kultur Kontakt. In einem gewissen Moment schlossen sich auch British Council sowie Visiting Arts ein, aber es hat sich nicht in eine Systemunterstützung umgestaltet, welche eine institutionalisierte Form einnehmen würde, was in anderen Bereichen des wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Lebens der Fall war. Aus meiner Sicht soll die Schuld für diesen Zustand den Organisationen gegeben werden, die finanziell die Tätigkeit von einem solchen Typ unterstützen. Eine einfache Ablehnung der Kultur in einem Land, welches den Hauptteil seines nationalen Einkommens aus der kulturellen Touristik erlangt, bedeutet die Vergeudung des menschlichen Potentials in diesem Bereich. Im Prozess der finanziellen Unterstützung der Entwicklung der Demokratie, Reformen des Rechtssystems und anderer Bereiche, war die

Levan Khetaguri

erkennen, denn das lokale akademische Wissen im Bereich des Kulturmanagements war unzureichend und erfüllte die gegenwärtigen Standards nicht. Wir haben in der Praxis versucht, viele Ideen einzusetzen. In den Jahren 1990–91 initiierte ich selbst das erste theatralische Projekt, angelehnt an den Vertrag, der keinen kommerziellen Erfolg verzeichnete aufgrund vieler unvorhergesehenen Faktoren. Vor allem hatte hier die Bedeutung das Fehlen des spezifischen Wissens, wie auch der Praxis im Bereich des Kulturmanagements, denn meine Universitätsausbildung war damals – und ist nach wie vor – theaterwissenschaftlich. Eine weitere Handlung war die Inbetriebsetzung des ersten georgischen Produktionszentrums mit dem Namen “ARTEX”, welches viel erreichte, indem es seiner Zeit voraus war, jedoch blieb es nicht im Einklang mit dem lokalen rechtlichen System und dem “westlichen” Markt (Initiativen, die schon im Westen unmodern sind). Ich kann also mit voller Sicherheit sagen, dass mein Wissen über das Management sich aufgrund der Analyse meiner eigenen Fehler entwickelte. Meine Freunde und ich selbst gewannen die Kenntnisse des Managements in der Kultursphäre im Westen. Die erste professionelle Schulung im Bereich des Managements wurde in Georgien erst im Jahre 1998 organisiert, als Initiative, die sich ausschließlich aus meiner Zusammenarbeit mit den Partnern in Holland und Georgien ergab. Der Export der europäischen oder amerikanischen Erfahrungen in die post-sowjetischen Länder, besonders in der Kultursphäre, war für viele internationale Hilfsprogramme keine Priorität. Die Handlungen dieser Art wurden durch die Soros Foundation unterstützt, ein paar holländische Organisationen, sowie das österreichische Kultur Kontakt. In einem gewissen Moment schlossen sich auch British Council sowie Visiting Arts ein, aber es hat sich nicht in eine Systemunterstützung umgestaltet, welche eine institutionalisierte Form einnehmen würde, was in anderen Bereichen des wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Lebens der Fall war. Aus meiner Sicht soll die Schuld für diesen Zustand den Organisationen gegeben werden, die finanziell die Tätigkeit von einem solchen Typ unterstützen. Eine einfache Ablehnung der Kultur in einem Land, welches den Hauptteil seines nationalen Einkommens aus der kulturellen Touristik erlangt, bedeutet die Vergeudung des menschlichen Potentials in diesem Bereich. Im Prozess der finanziellen Unterstützung der Entwicklung der Demokratie, Reformen des Rechtssystems und anderer Bereiche, war die

Levan Khetaguri

Ist es möglich, die kulturelle Politik mit der Freiheit zu verbinden? Wie groß ist die Abhängigkeit des Rechts zur Kultur mit der Entwicklung der kulturellen Politik? Aus der heutigen Sicht sind Garantien der Rechte zur Kultur gleich den Garantien der allgemeinen Menschenrechte. Sind wir imstande, die kulturelle Politik im Einklang mit den europäischen demokratischen Werten zu schaffen, wenn die Notwendigkeit der Kulturrechte nicht anerkannt wird? Wir beobachten gleichzeitig gewisse beunruhigende Tendenzen, die in vielen postsowjetischen Staaten vor sich gehen. Es sind zum Beispiel zufällige Besuche der westlichen Amateur“Experten” (sowohl der europäischen, als auch der amerikanischen). In diesem Moment halte ich davon ab, konkrete Beispiele der Situationen anzugeben, wenn diese “Experten”, die sich mit kompletter Ignoranz der Rechtsinstrumente und der lokalen Eigentümlichkeit charakterisieren, Schulungen organisieren oder Empfehlungen darstellen, die absolut keinen Einsatz in den Ländern, welche sich in der Wandelzeit befinden, finden. Eine ausgezeichnete Illustration kann hier der unaufhörliche Druck sein auf die Einführung des Rechts, betreffend die Steuererleichterungen für die Subjekte, die Sponsoring im Bereich der Kultur auf sich nehmen. Es ist wirksam in den Vereinigten Staaten, aber die Entlehnung dieses Rechts und seine Einführung in Georgien wäre völliger Unsinn, da es völlig inadäquat zur Struktur, dem System und der bestehenden politischen und kulturellen Infrastruktur unseres Landes wäre. Die Geschichte des Unterrichtens des Kulturmanagements in den georgischen Hochschulen begann Mitte der 70er Jahre des 20. Jh. Dieses Unterrichten korrespondierte voll mit den sowjetischen Tendenzen der damaligen Zeiten und war ähnlich der russischen Einstellung, welche in der Fakultät für Theaterverwaltung in Sankt Petersburg eingesetzt wurde, also mehr präzise gesagt: “Ökonomie und Theaterverwaltung”. Diese Betrachtungsweise, in Verbindung mit dem gegenwärtigen Verständnis der Theaterverwaltung, führte zur Inbetriebnahme des Studienprogramms des Kulturmanagements, auch in unserer Universität in Tiflis. Während der letzten zwei Dekaden gestaltete sich dieses Programm um in ein modernes Programm des Kulturmanagements. In den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh., immer noch vor dem Hintergrund der sowjetischen Realitäten, gab sich deutlich das Bedürfnis des Importierens des westlichen Wissens und der Erfahrung zu

181

Kulturelle Politik und Georgien

Ist es möglich, die kulturelle Politik mit der Freiheit zu verbinden? Wie groß ist die Abhängigkeit des Rechts zur Kultur mit der Entwicklung der kulturellen Politik? Aus der heutigen Sicht sind Garantien der Rechte zur Kultur gleich den Garantien der allgemeinen Menschenrechte. Sind wir imstande, die kulturelle Politik im Einklang mit den europäischen demokratischen Werten zu schaffen, wenn die Notwendigkeit der Kulturrechte nicht anerkannt wird? Wir beobachten gleichzeitig gewisse beunruhigende Tendenzen, die in vielen postsowjetischen Staaten vor sich gehen. Es sind zum Beispiel zufällige Besuche der westlichen Amateur“Experten” (sowohl der europäischen, als auch der amerikanischen). In diesem Moment halte ich davon ab, konkrete Beispiele der Situationen anzugeben, wenn diese “Experten”, die sich mit kompletter Ignoranz der Rechtsinstrumente und der lokalen Eigentümlichkeit charakterisieren, Schulungen organisieren oder Empfehlungen darstellen, die absolut keinen Einsatz in den Ländern, welche sich in der Wandelzeit befinden, finden. Eine ausgezeichnete Illustration kann hier der unaufhörliche Druck sein auf die Einführung des Rechts, betreffend die Steuererleichterungen für die Subjekte, die Sponsoring im Bereich der Kultur auf sich nehmen. Es ist wirksam in den Vereinigten Staaten, aber die Entlehnung dieses Rechts und seine Einführung in Georgien wäre völliger Unsinn, da es völlig inadäquat zur Struktur, dem System und der bestehenden politischen und kulturellen Infrastruktur unseres Landes wäre. Die Geschichte des Unterrichtens des Kulturmanagements in den georgischen Hochschulen begann Mitte der 70er Jahre des 20. Jh. Dieses Unterrichten korrespondierte voll mit den sowjetischen Tendenzen der damaligen Zeiten und war ähnlich der russischen Einstellung, welche in der Fakultät für Theaterverwaltung in Sankt Petersburg eingesetzt wurde, also mehr präzise gesagt: “Ökonomie und Theaterverwaltung”. Diese Betrachtungsweise, in Verbindung mit dem gegenwärtigen Verständnis der Theaterverwaltung, führte zur Inbetriebnahme des Studienprogramms des Kulturmanagements, auch in unserer Universität in Tiflis. Während der letzten zwei Dekaden gestaltete sich dieses Programm um in ein modernes Programm des Kulturmanagements. In den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh., immer noch vor dem Hintergrund der sowjetischen Realitäten, gab sich deutlich das Bedürfnis des Importierens des westlichen Wissens und der Erfahrung zu

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

181

tätig. 2007 war er der Leiter von Master- und Doktorandenstudien in der Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi. Als Theaterwissenschaftler nahm er an internationalen Vorträgen und Symposien in Russland, Aserbaidschan, Spanien, der Slowakei, Belarus, Großbritannien teil. Er führte Universitätskurse im Bereich Theatergeschichte, Theorie des Dramas und der Kritik, Theater des 20. Jh., Geschichte der europäischen Zivilisation, Management von darstellender Kunst. Als Experte für Management, Sponsoring, internationale Kooperation im Gebiet Kunst und Kulturpolitik arbeitete er mit Instituten in Jerewan, Baku, Sofia, Bischkek, Vilnius, Görlitz, Göteborg, St. Petersburg seit 1999 zusammen.

tätig. 2007 war er der Leiter von Master- und Doktorandenstudien in der Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi. Als Theaterwissenschaftler nahm er an internationalen Vorträgen und Symposien in Russland, Aserbaidschan, Spanien, der Slowakei, Belarus, Großbritannien teil. Er führte Universitätskurse im Bereich Theatergeschichte, Theorie des Dramas und der Kritik, Theater des 20. Jh., Geschichte der europäischen Zivilisation, Management von darstellender Kunst. Als Experte für Management, Sponsoring, internationale Kooperation im Gebiet Kunst und Kulturpolitik arbeitete er mit Instituten in Jerewan, Baku, Sofia, Bischkek, Vilnius, Görlitz, Göteborg, St. Petersburg seit 1999 zusammen.


182

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Tätigkeit der Nichtregierungsorganisationen in Georgien

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

E

182

s soll die Bedeutung der Entwicklung des Sektors der Nichtregierungsorganisationen nicht nur für die Erschaffung einer Bürgergesellschaft unterstrichen werden, sondern auch für die kulturelle Politik selbst in den post-sowjetischen Ländern. Ich bin überzeugt, dass meine eigene Erfahrung als gutes Beispiel der Tätigkeit der Nichtregierungsorganisationen in Georgien dienen kann. Im Jahre 1997, gemeinsam mit den holländischen und georgischen Kollegen haben wir in Amsterdam die Stiftung Stichting Caucasus Foundation (SCF) gegründet, als internationale Organisation, die nach dem holländischen Recht wirkt, mit dem Sitz in Holland. In kurzer Zeit initiierte SCF ein paar sehr wichtige regionale Projekte: MM International Bureau for Caucasian Cultural Programs (IBCCP) – rechtliche Vertretung von SCF in der Kaukasusregion. MM Caucasian Spring University – internationales Schulungszentrum. MM Verlag. MM Caucasian Arts Managers Network (CAMN) – ein Netz der Kulturmanager in der Kaukasusregion. MM Culture Video Center (CVC) – gewaltiges Archivzentrum der Kultur. MM Consulting and Management Centre – Zentrum für Consulting und Management. International Culture Fair (ICF) – multidisziplinäre Kulturmesse1.

Mehr Informationen über jedes dieser Projekte können auf der Internetseite von SCF: http://www.caucasusfoundation.ge gefunden werden

1

MM

m Jahre 1999 trat Georgien dem Europa-Rat bei (Council of Europe – CoE). Die Tätigkeit des Europa-Rates in Georgien – und allgemein im gesamten Kaukasus – angefangen seit dem Jahr 2000, konzentrierte sich hauptsächlich auf die Entwicklung der kulturellen Politik in der Region. In den Jahren 2000–2001 wurde für den Kaukasus ein Programm des Europa-Rates mit dem Namen STAGE geschafft. Anfangs diente es den Schulungen des Ministeriumspersonals durch Nichtregierungsorganisationen, aber angesichts der Unzufriedenheit und des Widerwillens seitens

Kulturelle Politik in der Wandlungsperiode – Rolle des Europa-Rates

I

I

Kulturelle Politik in der Wandlungsperiode – Rolle des Europa-Rates

m Jahre 1999 trat Georgien dem Europa-Rat bei (Council of Europe – CoE). Die Tätigkeit des Europa-Rates in Georgien – und allgemein im gesamten Kaukasus – angefangen seit dem Jahr 2000, konzentrierte sich hauptsächlich auf die Entwicklung der kulturellen Politik in der Region. In den Jahren 2000–2001 wurde für den Kaukasus ein Programm des Europa-Rates mit dem Namen STAGE geschafft. Anfangs diente es den Schulungen des Ministeriumspersonals durch Nichtregierungsorganisationen, aber angesichts der Unzufriedenheit und des Widerwillens seitens

s soll die Bedeutung der Entwicklung des Sektors der Nichtregierungsorganisationen nicht nur für die Erschaffung einer Bürgergesellschaft unterstrichen werden, sondern auch für die kulturelle Politik selbst in den post-sowjetischen Ländern. Ich bin überzeugt, dass meine eigene Erfahrung als gutes Beispiel der Tätigkeit der Nichtregierungsorganisationen in Georgien dienen kann. Im Jahre 1997, gemeinsam mit den holländischen und georgischen Kollegen haben wir in Amsterdam die Stiftung Stichting Caucasus Foundation (SCF) gegründet, als internationale Organisation, die nach dem holländischen Recht wirkt, mit dem Sitz in Holland. In kurzer Zeit initiierte SCF ein paar sehr wichtige regionale Projekte: MM International Bureau for Caucasian Cultural Programs (IBCCP) – rechtliche Vertretung von SCF in der Kaukasusregion. MM Caucasian Spring University – internationales Schulungszentrum. MM Verlag. MM Caucasian Arts Managers Network (CAMN) – ein Netz der Kulturmanager in der Kaukasusregion. MM Culture Video Center (CVC) – gewaltiges Archivzentrum der Kultur. MM Consulting and Management Centre – Zentrum für Consulting und Management. MM International Culture Fair (ICF) – multidisziplinäre Kulturmesse1.

Kultur das einzige Gebiet, welches von dieser Unterstützung ausgeschlossen war. Mit dem Formen einer Generation von Politikern und Beamten der Staatsverwaltung hatte es die Folge, dass diese völlig unempfindlich gegenüber der Kultur sind (das schuf weitere Probleme). In den Ländern, die einst zur Sowjetunion gehörten, war allgemein die Definition der “Ideologie”, dank der mehr oder weniger das damalige Verständnis der kulturellen Politik ausgedrückt wurde. Aber diese “Ideologie” ermöglichte sowohl die Zensur, wie auch bildete sie ein Instrument des politischen Drucks, sowie die Wiederspiegelung der politischen Ziele des sowjetischen Establishments. Georgien war eine gewisse Ausnahme in der sowjetischen Politik, angefangen seit dem Ende der 60er Jahre des 20. Jh. Vor allem zeichnete sich sehr stark im Leben Georgiens die Anwesenheit der Religion ab, mit zahlreichen Kirchen, die als Kulturerbe betrachtet wurden, sowie den Institutionen des kulturellen und religiösen Lebens. Gleichzeitig bildete die georgische Kultur eine starke Motivation zur Kennzeichnung der eigenen Identität im Rahmen des russischen Imperiums, als eine der Republiken, deren Geschichte sich innerhalb von drei Tausend Jahren entwickelt hat, mit eigener Tradition der originalen Sprache und Kultur. Zusammenfassend können wir sagen, dass die Situation in Georgien sich auf folgende Weise entwickelt hat: das Land war national orientiert, mit dem Schwerpunkt auf die Erhaltung der Religion und der Sprache. Das starke Gefühl der Identität ist angelehnt an die Tausenden Jahre der nationalen Kultur. Nach dem Fall der Sowjetunion schritt das Land in eine lange Wandlungsperiode ein, gekennzeichnet durch Erschütterungen, die durch Revolutionen, ethnische Konflikte, usw. verursacht wurden. Die ersten Debatten zum Thema der kulturellen Politik wurden 1996 begonnen. Nach der Zeit der Gewinnung europäischer Erfahrungen (Studium in Amsterdam), bekleidete ich einen Schlüsselposten im Kultusministerium und es ist mir gelungen, die erste Konferenz, die der Problematik der kulturellen Politik in Georgien gewidmet war, zu organisieren. Wenn ich mich gut erinnere, war das die erste Konferenz von diesem Typ in der ganzen Kaukasusregion. Der Staat kam auf diese Probleme erst nach dem Jahr 2001 zurück.

E

Mehr Informationen über jedes dieser Projekte können auf der Internetseite von SCF: http://www.caucasusfoundation.ge gefunden werden

Tätigkeit der Nichtregierungsorganisationen in Georgien

1

Kultur das einzige Gebiet, welches von dieser Unterstützung ausgeschlossen war. Mit dem Formen einer Generation von Politikern und Beamten der Staatsverwaltung hatte es die Folge, dass diese völlig unempfindlich gegenüber der Kultur sind (das schuf weitere Probleme). In den Ländern, die einst zur Sowjetunion gehörten, war allgemein die Definition der “Ideologie”, dank der mehr oder weniger das damalige Verständnis der kulturellen Politik ausgedrückt wurde. Aber diese “Ideologie” ermöglichte sowohl die Zensur, wie auch bildete sie ein Instrument des politischen Drucks, sowie die Wiederspiegelung der politischen Ziele des sowjetischen Establishments. Georgien war eine gewisse Ausnahme in der sowjetischen Politik, angefangen seit dem Ende der 60er Jahre des 20. Jh. Vor allem zeichnete sich sehr stark im Leben Georgiens die Anwesenheit der Religion ab, mit zahlreichen Kirchen, die als Kulturerbe betrachtet wurden, sowie den Institutionen des kulturellen und religiösen Lebens. Gleichzeitig bildete die georgische Kultur eine starke Motivation zur Kennzeichnung der eigenen Identität im Rahmen des russischen Imperiums, als eine der Republiken, deren Geschichte sich innerhalb von drei Tausend Jahren entwickelt hat, mit eigener Tradition der originalen Sprache und Kultur. Zusammenfassend können wir sagen, dass die Situation in Georgien sich auf folgende Weise entwickelt hat: das Land war national orientiert, mit dem Schwerpunkt auf die Erhaltung der Religion und der Sprache. Das starke Gefühl der Identität ist angelehnt an die Tausenden Jahre der nationalen Kultur. Nach dem Fall der Sowjetunion schritt das Land in eine lange Wandlungsperiode ein, gekennzeichnet durch Erschütterungen, die durch Revolutionen, ethnische Konflikte, usw. verursacht wurden. Die ersten Debatten zum Thema der kulturellen Politik wurden 1996 begonnen. Nach der Zeit der Gewinnung europäischer Erfahrungen (Studium in Amsterdam), bekleidete ich einen Schlüsselposten im Kultusministerium und es ist mir gelungen, die erste Konferenz, die der Problematik der kulturellen Politik in Georgien gewidmet war, zu organisieren. Wenn ich mich gut erinnere, war das die erste Konferenz von diesem Typ in der ganzen Kaukasusregion. Der Staat kam auf diese Probleme erst nach dem Jahr 2001 zurück.


183

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

der kulturellen Administration, haben sich die Autoren des Programms zurückgezogen und die objektive Sicht verloren, indem sie der politischen Konjunktur dienten, und nicht den Werten oder sozialen Bedürfnissen. Das Kultusministerium konnte keinen Weg finden für die Entwicklung der regionalen Zusammenarbeit oder auch Dialog mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Die ersten Dokumente, betreffend die kulturelle Politik, geschrieben in den Jahren 2002–2003 sind im Jahre 2003 erschienen, als die nationale Debatte über die kulturelle Politik organisiert wurde. Dieses Ereignis, vorbereitet gemeinsam mit dem Europarat, war eine wichtige Initiative, aber sie erlebte keine Fortsetzung, denn Ende 2003 erfolgte die Regierungsänderung, und bald danach politische Krise. Wenn es um die Information zum Thema der kulturellen Politik in Georgien in dem durch den Europarat veröffentlichten Compendium (Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe) geht – wurde das Team, welches das georgische Profil vorbereitete, aus den Beamten der städtischen Verwaltung gebildet, ohne irgendwelche praktische Fertigkeiten im Kulturmanagement oder Forschungserfahrung im Bereich der kulturellen Politik, wie auch ohne Engagement der lokalen Experten. Das auf diese Weise geschaffene Dokument war angelehnt hauptsächlich auf die Übertragung der europäischen Muster, ohne irgendwelchen praktischen Nutzen für Georgien, umso mehr, ich bin nicht sicher, ob es von Experten außerhalb unseres Landes benutzt werden könnte. Dieses Dokument wurde in der Praxis ausgenutzt. Es scheint, dass der Hauptfehler des Europarates die Allianz mit den lokalen Behörden, sowie das Ignorieren der Bedürfnisse der Bürgergesellschaft, wie auch das Übergehen der örtlichen unabhängigen Experten war. Im Jahre 2003 wurde die Regierung – mit der der Europarat in freundlichen Verhältnissen verblieb – gestürzt durch die Rosenrevolution aufgrund der in ihr herrschenden Korruption. Nach diesen Ereignissen haben wir keine Tätigkeiten des Europarates in der Frage der kulturellen Politik in Georgien beobachtet.

Politik seit dem Jahr 2003

I

m Jahre 2004 schuf das Kultusministerium zum ersten Mal den Expertenrat. Der Änderung unterlag der Name des Ministeriums, der Sitz, es wurde etwa 65–70% Personal umgetauscht, neue Departments gebildet und die Entwicklungsstrategie vorbereitet. Gleichzeitig wurde das Ministerium mehr politisch als professionell, gemäß den juristischen Änderungen, die durch

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

die neue Regierung eingeführt wurden. Der Name des Ministeriums wurde geändert in: Ministerium für Kultur, Denkmalschutz und Sport (später wurde auch das Jugenddepartment dazugegeben). Im Jahre 2004 initiierte das Ministerium das Programm der Unterstützung der Kultur und die Nichtregierungsorganisationen konnten sich ab jetzt um Zufianzierung im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe bewerben, zu den sich mit gleichen Rechten samt den staatlichen Organisationen antraten. In der ersten Wettbewerbsrunde für die Realisierung der einzelnen Prioritätsprogrammen wurden folgende Beträge gewidmet: MM Kulturerbe – 200 000$. MM Theater – 150 000$. MM Musik – 150 000$. MM Literatur – 100 000$. MM Filmzentrum – 400 000$. Das sind angenäherte Beträge, die die Proportionen der staatlichen Finanzierung zeigen in Anlehnung an die Anträge der Institutionen außerhalb der festen Subventionen, welche die Organisationen im Jahre 2004 erhalten haben. In den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh. Begann in Georgien der Prozess der Dezentralisierung. Seit dieser Zeit wurden drei Stufen der Macht festgesetzt: MM zentrale – ministeriale oder Bundesebene MM regionale MM städtische Unter den etwa 60 (staatlichen und privaten) Theater in Georgien werden lediglich nicht viel mehr als 10% auf der Bundesebene finanziert. Die übrigen werden aus anderen Quellen finanziert.

Wie verlief der Dezentralisierungsprozess?

I

m in Georgien eingeleiteten Dezentralisierungsprozess können folgende Elemente beobachtet werden: MM Entwicklung verschiedener Städte MM Staatliches Finanzieren neuer Investitionen, die mit der Renovierung der Städte zusammenhängt MM Investitionen des Staates in den Verkehr, Bundesstraßen, Gebäudeschutz MM Das Department für Touristik wurde zu einem Teil des Ministeriums für Wirtschaft MM Touristische Attraktionen wurden zur Priorität für die Stadträte Die Änderungen, sowie der Zuwachs der Einnahmen aus der Touristik können nicht nur in der Hauptstadt, Tiflis, beobachtet werden, sondern auch in den anderen führenden Städten: Batum, Signagi, Zugdidi, Kutaisi.

183

m Jahre 2004 schuf das Kultusministerium zum ersten Mal den Expertenrat. Der Änderung unterlag der Name des Ministeriums, der Sitz, es wurde etwa 65–70% Personal umgetauscht, neue Departments gebildet und die Entwicklungsstrategie vorbereitet. Gleichzeitig wurde das Ministerium mehr politisch als professionell, gemäß den juristischen Änderungen, die durch

I

Politik seit dem Jahr 2003 der kulturellen Administration, haben sich die Autoren des Programms zurückgezogen und die objektive Sicht verloren, indem sie der politischen Konjunktur dienten, und nicht den Werten oder sozialen Bedürfnissen. Das Kultusministerium konnte keinen Weg finden für die Entwicklung der regionalen Zusammenarbeit oder auch Dialog mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen. Die ersten Dokumente, betreffend die kulturelle Politik, geschrieben in den Jahren 2002–2003 sind im Jahre 2003 erschienen, als die nationale Debatte über die kulturelle Politik organisiert wurde. Dieses Ereignis, vorbereitet gemeinsam mit dem Europarat, war eine wichtige Initiative, aber sie erlebte keine Fortsetzung, denn Ende 2003 erfolgte die Regierungsänderung, und bald danach politische Krise. Wenn es um die Information zum Thema der kulturellen Politik in Georgien in dem durch den Europarat veröffentlichten Compendium (Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe) geht – wurde das Team, welches das georgische Profil vorbereitete, aus den Beamten der städtischen Verwaltung gebildet, ohne irgendwelche praktische Fertigkeiten im Kulturmanagement oder Forschungserfahrung im Bereich der kulturellen Politik, wie auch ohne Engagement der lokalen Experten. Das auf diese Weise geschaffene Dokument war angelehnt hauptsächlich auf die Übertragung der europäischen Muster, ohne irgendwelchen praktischen Nutzen für Georgien, umso mehr, ich bin nicht sicher, ob es von Experten außerhalb unseres Landes benutzt werden könnte. Dieses Dokument wurde in der Praxis ausgenutzt. Es scheint, dass der Hauptfehler des Europarates die Allianz mit den lokalen Behörden, sowie das Ignorieren der Bedürfnisse der Bürgergesellschaft, wie auch das Übergehen der örtlichen unabhängigen Experten war. Im Jahre 2003 wurde die Regierung – mit der der Europarat in freundlichen Verhältnissen verblieb – gestürzt durch die Rosenrevolution aufgrund der in ihr herrschenden Korruption. Nach diesen Ereignissen haben wir keine Tätigkeiten des Europarates in der Frage der kulturellen Politik in Georgien beobachtet.

Die Änderungen, sowie der Zuwachs der Einnahmen aus der Touristik können nicht nur in der Hauptstadt, Tiflis, beobachtet werden, sondern auch in den anderen führenden Städten: Batum, Signagi, Zugdidi, Kutaisi. m in Georgien eingeleiteten Dezentralisierungsprozess können folgende Elemente beobachtet werden: MM Entwicklung verschiedener Städte MM Staatliches Finanzieren neuer Investitionen, die mit der Renovierung der Städte zusammenhängt MM Investitionen des Staates in den Verkehr, Bundesstraßen, Gebäudeschutz MM Das Department für Touristik wurde zu einem Teil des Ministeriums für Wirtschaft Touristische Attraktionen wurden zur Priorität für die Stadträte MM

I

Wie verlief der Dezentralisierungsprozess? die neue Regierung eingeführt wurden. Der Name des Ministeriums wurde geändert in: Ministerium für Kultur, Denkmalschutz und Sport (später wurde auch das Jugenddepartment dazugegeben). Im Jahre 2004 initiierte das Ministerium das Programm der Unterstützung der Kultur und die Nichtregierungsorganisationen konnten sich ab jetzt um Zufianzierung im Rahmen der Wettbewerbe bewerben, zu den sich mit gleichen Rechten samt den staatlichen Organisationen antraten. In der ersten Wettbewerbsrunde für die Realisierung der einzelnen Prioritätsprogrammen wurden folgende Beträge gewidmet: MM Kulturerbe – 200 000$. MM Theater – 150 000$. MM Musik – 150 000$. MM Literatur – 100 000$. MM Filmzentrum – 400 000$. Das sind angenäherte Beträge, die die Proportionen der staatlichen Finanzierung zeigen in Anlehnung an die Anträge der Institutionen außerhalb der festen Subventionen, welche die Organisationen im Jahre 2004 erhalten haben. In den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh. Begann in Georgien der Prozess der Dezentralisierung. Seit dieser Zeit wurden drei Stufen der Macht festgesetzt: MM zentrale – ministeriale oder Bundesebene MM regionale MM städtische Unter den etwa 60 (staatlichen und privaten) Theater in Georgien werden lediglich nicht viel mehr als 10% auf der Bundesebene finanziert. Die übrigen werden aus anderen Quellen finanziert.


184

Exotische Teile Georgiens, die verschiedene Bergdörfer in den Regionen von Svaneti, Khevsureti, oder Tusheti umfassen, wurden auch sehr attraktiv für die inländischen und internationalen Touristen. Es soll hier jedoch unterstrichen werden, dass, angefangen mit dem Jahr 2008 der Staat erneut die Dezentralisierung der Strukturen vornimmt, sowie neue monopolistische staatliche Institutionen in der Kultursphäre gründet.

S

Prioritäten seit dem Jahr 2006 Forschungen oder Diskussionen mit den Experten. Im Effekt monopolisierte dieses Zentrum die Festivaltätigkeiten in der Stadt, was eben ein Beispiel für die erwähnten schlechten Praktiken ist.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Rechtliche Instrumente

ie Erscheinung der Unterstützung der Kultur aus privaten Quellen trat in Erscheinung nach dem Fall der Sowjetunion, in den 90er Jahren. Die wohlhabenden Georgier aus verschiedenen Ländern haben die Renovierungen aller Theater in Tiflis zufinanziert, sowie der Hauptkulturzentren im ganzen Land, wie auch sakrale Denkmäler. Die Mehrheit von ihnen ist Eigentum der georgischen russisch-orthodoxen Kirche. Die Höhe der privaten Zuwendungen übersteigt 100 Mill. amerikanische Dollar. Private Unterstützung wird auch angeboten zwecks Deckung der Lohnkosten des Personals, welches in den auf Kosten der privaten Stifter

A

D

ngefangen mit den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh. hat das georgische Parlament folgende Gesetze angenommen: MM Gesetz über die Kultur MM Gesetz über die künstlerischen schöpferischen Verbände MM Gesetz über das Kulturerbe MM Gesetz über Theater (letztens novelliert in den Jahren 2006–07), welches zur Einführung der Funktionen der sogenannten “Intendanten” anspornt – Generaldirektoren oder Verwalter, auf dem Weg der offenen Wettbewerbe. Die ersten Verwalter, die auf diese Weise aufgestellt wurden, wurden seit 2007 angestellt. Wichtig scheint die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Tatsache zu lenken, dass trotz des Inkrafttretens der genannten Gesetze, wir nach wie vor mit Entscheidungen zu tun haben – wie der Verkauf der Immobilien, die den schöpferischen Verbänden gehören – die politischen Charakter haben.

184

Privater Sektor und kulturelle Politik

Politik der nationalen Institutionen

as Ministerium traf die Entscheidung über die Erschaffung der nationalen Institutionen in verschiedenen Bereichen der Kunst, als Priorität der staatlichen kulturellen Politik. Beispiele der Institutionen von diesem Typ sind: Nationales Filmzentrum, Nationales Museumszentrum, Nationales Musikzentrum, usw. Das Nationale Filmzentrum wirkend als Filmstiftung beschäftigt sich mit der Distribution der staatlichen Fonds durch die Entscheidungen des Expertenrats (ähnlich geschieht das zum Beispiel in Frankreich). Dagegen versuchen andere nationalen Zentren, die Fonds zu monopolisieren und sie widmen sie für den Aufbau der bürokratischen Strukturen, statt die Aufteilung der Mittel durch Zuschüsse und Expertenentscheidungen zu führen. Diese Institutionen zentralisieren die Tätigkeiten in ihren Bereichen, was eine sehr schlechte Praxis darstellt. Im Jahre 2009 bestimmte die Stadt Tiflis das Festivalzentrum, leider ohne frühere

eit dem Jahr 2006 wurden ein paar deutliche Prioritäten der kulturellen Politik formuliert. Sie betreffen vor allem drei Bereiche: Kulturerbe, Jugendkultur und die Bildung, sowie georgische Folklore. In der Sphäre des Kulturerbes wurde der Schwerpunkt auf das materielle Erbe gelegt, indem darin Kathedralen, andere Denkmalgebäude, sowie Handschriften eingeschlossen wurden. Bildung und kulturelle Animation bleiben im Zentrum der Tätigkeit der jugendlichen Sommerlager und der Schulen. Die traditionelle Kultur Georgiens, umfassend Tanz und polyphone Musik, wird unterstützt durch Zufinanzierung, welche zuerkannt wird zwecks Erwerb unentbehrlicher Instrumente und der Ausstattung der Tanz- und Musikensembles. Leider kann nicht gesagt werden, dass die erwähnten Prioritäten angesetzt wurden durch Debatten der Experten oder mit der Teilnahme der Bürgergesellschaft, geschweige denn die Teilnahme der Bürger auf dem lokalen Niveau. Es ist eher die Entscheidung der staatlichen Verwaltung, vielleicht unterstützt mit professionellem Wissen, aber welche die öffentliche Debatte nicht berücksichtigt oder auch, was früher erwähnt wurde, Teilnahme der unabhängigen Experten. Im Jahre 2006 hat der Präsident Georgiens den “Staatlichen Rat für Kultur und Kunst” sowie “Präsidenten-Kulturfonds” berufen. Es soll jedoch bereut werden, dass diese wichtigen Initiativen nicht voll eingeleitet wurden, und somit funktionieren sie nicht in der Praxis, indem sie lediglich auf dem Papier bleiben.

D

D

Politik der nationalen Institutionen

eit dem Jahr 2006 wurden ein paar deutliche Prioritäten der kulturellen Politik formuliert. Sie betreffen vor allem drei Bereiche: Kulturerbe, Jugendkultur und die Bildung, sowie georgische Folklore. In der Sphäre des Kulturerbes wurde der Schwerpunkt auf das materielle Erbe gelegt, indem darin Kathedralen, andere Denkmalgebäude, sowie Handschriften eingeschlossen wurden. Bildung und kulturelle Animation bleiben im Zentrum der Tätigkeit der jugendlichen Sommerlager und der Schulen. Die traditionelle Kultur Georgiens, umfassend Tanz und polyphone Musik, wird unterstützt durch Zufinanzierung, welche zuerkannt wird zwecks Erwerb unentbehrlicher Instrumente und der Ausstattung der Tanz- und Musikensembles. Leider kann nicht gesagt werden, dass die erwähnten Prioritäten angesetzt wurden durch Debatten der Experten oder mit der Teilnahme der Bürgergesellschaft, geschweige denn die Teilnahme der Bürger auf dem lokalen Niveau. Es ist eher die Entscheidung der staatlichen Verwaltung, vielleicht unterstützt mit professionellem Wissen, aber welche die öffentliche Debatte nicht berücksichtigt oder auch, was früher erwähnt wurde, Teilnahme der unabhängigen Experten. Im Jahre 2006 hat der Präsident Georgiens den “Staatlichen Rat für Kultur und Kunst” sowie “Präsidenten-Kulturfonds” berufen. Es soll jedoch bereut werden, dass diese wichtigen Initiativen nicht voll eingeleitet wurden, und somit funktionieren sie nicht in der Praxis, indem sie lediglich auf dem Papier bleiben.

Privater Sektor und kulturelle Politik

ngefangen mit den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh. hat das georgische Parlament folgende Gesetze angenommen: MM Gesetz über die Kultur MM Gesetz über die künstlerischen schöpferischen Verbände MM Gesetz über das Kulturerbe MM Gesetz über Theater (letztens novelliert in den Jahren 2006–07), welches zur Einführung der Funktionen der sogenannten “Intendanten” anspornt – Generaldirektoren oder Verwalter, auf dem Weg der offenen Wettbewerbe. Die ersten Verwalter, die auf diese Weise aufgestellt wurden, wurden seit 2007 angestellt. Wichtig scheint die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Tatsache zu lenken, dass trotz des Inkrafttretens der genannten Gesetze, wir nach wie vor mit Entscheidungen zu tun haben – wie der Verkauf der Immobilien, die den schöpferischen Verbänden gehören – die politischen Charakter haben.

S

D

A

Prioritäten seit dem Jahr 2006

ie Erscheinung der Unterstützung der Kultur aus privaten Quellen trat in Erscheinung nach dem Fall der Sowjetunion, in den 90er Jahren. Die wohlhabenden Georgier aus verschiedenen Ländern haben die Renovierungen aller Theater in Tiflis zufinanziert, sowie der Hauptkulturzentren im ganzen Land, wie auch sakrale Denkmäler. Die Mehrheit von ihnen ist Eigentum der georgischen russisch-orthodoxen Kirche. Die Höhe der privaten Zuwendungen übersteigt 100 Mill. amerikanische Dollar. Private Unterstützung wird auch angeboten zwecks Deckung der Lohnkosten des Personals, welches in den auf Kosten der privaten Stifter

Rechtliche Instrumente

Forschungen oder Diskussionen mit den Experten. Im Effekt monopolisierte dieses Zentrum die Festivaltätigkeiten in der Stadt, was eben ein Beispiel für die erwähnten schlechten Praktiken ist.

as Ministerium traf die Entscheidung über die Erschaffung der nationalen Institutionen in verschiedenen Bereichen der Kunst, als Priorität der staatlichen kulturellen Politik. Beispiele der Institutionen von diesem Typ sind: Nationales Filmzentrum, Nationales Museumszentrum, Nationales Musikzentrum, usw. Das Nationale Filmzentrum wirkend als Filmstiftung beschäftigt sich mit der Distribution der staatlichen Fonds durch die Entscheidungen des Expertenrats (ähnlich geschieht das zum Beispiel in Frankreich). Dagegen versuchen andere nationalen Zentren, die Fonds zu monopolisieren und sie widmen sie für den Aufbau der bürokratischen Strukturen, statt die Aufteilung der Mittel durch Zuschüsse und Expertenentscheidungen zu führen. Diese Institutionen zentralisieren die Tätigkeiten in ihren Bereichen, was eine sehr schlechte Praxis darstellt. Im Jahre 2009 bestimmte die Stadt Tiflis das Festivalzentrum, leider ohne frühere

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Exotische Teile Georgiens, die verschiedene Bergdörfer in den Regionen von Svaneti, Khevsureti, oder Tusheti umfassen, wurden auch sehr attraktiv für die inländischen und internationalen Touristen. Es soll hier jedoch unterstrichen werden, dass, angefangen mit dem Jahr 2008 der Staat erneut die Dezentralisierung der Strukturen vornimmt, sowie neue monopolistische staatliche Institutionen in der Kultursphäre gründet.


185

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

erneuerten Zentren arbeitet. Ein wichtiger Teil der privaten Zuwendungen wird gerichtet für die Zwecke der Renovierung der historischen Manuskripte, Ikonen, Kathedralen, archäologischen Expeditionen, usw.

Touristik als Priorität

T

ouristik verbleibt im Bereich der Verantwortung des Wirtschaftsministeriums, aber die statistischen Daten zeigen, dass die Mehrheit der touristischen Besuche in Georgien auf die kulturellen Tätigkeiten gerichtet ist. In der touristischen Industrie beobachten wir folgende Tendenzen: MM kulturelle Touristik MM Stadtpolitik, welche zu der Entwicklung der Städte als touristischen Attraktionen führt Die Investitionen auf der zentralen Ebene wurden nicht nur in der Hauptstadt vorgenommen, sondern auch in anderen Städten Georgiens, die früher schon erwähnt wurden (Signagi, Zugdidi, Batum, Kutaisi). In Tiflis ist ein neuer Verwaltungsstadtteil entstanden, welcher die “Altstadt” umfasst. Für dieses Stadtviertel ist ein genereller Renovierungsplan entstanden, sowie ein Plan der Einführung der touristischen Produkte, wie neue Formen der Stadtbesichtigung mit Fremdenführern, angeboten nicht nur den ausländischen Gästen, sondern auch inländischen Touristen. Die kulturelle Touristik passiert gegenwärtig die Periode des lebhaften Wachstums und die Statistiken zeigen, dass sich die Touristenzahl wesentlich in den letzten Jahren vergrößert hat. Das betrifft sowohl die ausländischen Touristen (Zuwachs um 85%), Touristen aus den Kaukasus-Ländern (Zuwachs um 35%), wie auch inländischen Touristen (Zuwachs um 40%). Selbstverständlich hatte die russische militärische Intervention im August 2008 sehr negative Folgen für die Entwicklung der Touristik, besonders im Falle der ausländischen Touristen. Außerdem werden spezielle Programme für Studenten und Schüler eingeführt, die sie zum Kennenlernen des eigenen Landes anspornen. Diese Programme werden realisiert durch StudentenNichtregierungsorganisationen und finanziert aus den Regierungs- oder Universitätsquellen.

Prioritäten der kulturellen Politik des Staates im Jahre 2007

N

eue Prioritäten in der kulturellen Politik des Staates sind Anfang 2007 erschienen. Durch die Initiative, unter dem Namen “Georgiensaison”,

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

wird versucht, Georgien und die georgische Kultur außerhalb der Staatsgrenzen zu fördern. Das nimmt gewöhnlich die Form der Kulturfestivals, Ausstellungen, Projekte der Zusammenarbeit, usw., an. Beispielsweise wurde die berühmte Ausstellung unter dem Titel “Kolkh’s Gold”, welche die Sammlungen der georgischen Museen zeigt in Deutschland, Frankreich, sowie anderen europäischen Ländern, als auch in den Vereinigten Staaten präsentiert. Georgien hat auch begonnen, seine Schöpfer auf verschiedenen internationalen Veranstaltungen zu präsentieren (z.B. Biennale in Venedig, Istanbul, internationale Konferenzen, usw.) Es entstehen viele neuen Veröffentlichungen – sowohl gedruckte, wie auch digitale – die distributiert werden zwecks Förderung der georgischen Kultur und des Landes selbst.

Bildung

S

amt den Änderungen, die im Lande vor sich gehen, sowie der Einleitung des Systems der Programme und der Finanzierung durch die Zuschüsse in der Kultursphäre, wurden auch gewisse Änderungen in den Studienprogrammen eingeführt. Alle Studenten der Schota Rustaweli-Universität für Theater und Film, welche die führende Hochschule im Bereich Theater, Film, Medien, traditionelle Kultur und Kulturmanagement ist, sind verpflichtet zum Realisieren des Kurses der Projektverwaltung, als Studienpflichtfach. Indem die Hochschule die Realisierung der Annahmen des Bologna-Prozesses auf sich nimmt, sieht sie das als ein wichtiges Element der Marktorientierung der Qualifikationen, welche der Absolvent erlangt, sowie Studienprogramme. Die Universität startete das Programm des Magisterstudiums (MA) in der Studienrichtung Kulturmanagement und kulturelle Politik, dagegen wurde seit Januar 2008 das Programm des Doktorenstudiums vorbereitet im Bereich der kulturellen Politik, welches endgültig im Herbst 2008 gestartet wurde. Auch der Verlag der Universität erschuf einen neuen Teilbereich, gewidmet dem Kulturmanagement und der kulturellen Politik, indem er die Arbeiten aus diesem Bereich veröffentlicht (auch übersetzte), und die jährliche interkulturelle Konferenz für die Studenten des Magisters- und Doktorstudiums ist ein wichtiger Aspekt der Entwicklung dieser Disziplin in unserem Land. Ein anderer Weg des Aufbaus des Wissens wurden die jährlichen interaktiven Schulungsprogramme im Bereich der kulturellen Politik

185

eue Prioritäten in der kulturellen Politik des Staates sind Anfang 2007 erschienen. Durch die Initiative, unter dem Namen “Georgiensaison”,

N

Prioritäten der kulturellen Politik des Staates im Jahre 2007 ouristik verbleibt im Bereich der Verantwortung des Wirtschaftsministeriums, aber die statistischen Daten zeigen, dass die Mehrheit der touristischen Besuche in Georgien auf die kulturellen Tätigkeiten gerichtet ist. In der touristischen Industrie beobachten wir folgende Tendenzen: MM kulturelle Touristik MM Stadtpolitik, welche zu der Entwicklung der Städte als touristischen Attraktionen führt Die Investitionen auf der zentralen Ebene wurden nicht nur in der Hauptstadt vorgenommen, sondern auch in anderen Städten Georgiens, die früher schon erwähnt wurden (Signagi, Zugdidi, Batum, Kutaisi). In Tiflis ist ein neuer Verwaltungsstadtteil entstanden, welcher die “Altstadt” umfasst. Für dieses Stadtviertel ist ein genereller Renovierungsplan entstanden, sowie ein Plan der Einführung der touristischen Produkte, wie neue Formen der Stadtbesichtigung mit Fremdenführern, angeboten nicht nur den ausländischen Gästen, sondern auch inländischen Touristen. Die kulturelle Touristik passiert gegenwärtig die Periode des lebhaften Wachstums und die Statistiken zeigen, dass sich die Touristenzahl wesentlich in den letzten Jahren vergrößert hat. Das betrifft sowohl die ausländischen Touristen (Zuwachs um 85%), Touristen aus den Kaukasus-Ländern (Zuwachs um 35%), wie auch inländischen Touristen (Zuwachs um 40%). Selbstverständlich hatte die russische militärische Intervention im August 2008 sehr negative Folgen für die Entwicklung der Touristik, besonders im Falle der ausländischen Touristen. Außerdem werden spezielle Programme für Studenten und Schüler eingeführt, die sie zum Kennenlernen des eigenen Landes anspornen. Diese Programme werden realisiert durch StudentenNichtregierungsorganisationen und finanziert aus den Regierungs- oder Universitätsquellen.

T

Touristik als Priorität erneuerten Zentren arbeitet. Ein wichtiger Teil der privaten Zuwendungen wird gerichtet für die Zwecke der Renovierung der historischen Manuskripte, Ikonen, Kathedralen, archäologischen Expeditionen, usw.

amt den Änderungen, die im Lande vor sich gehen, sowie der Einleitung des Systems der Programme und der Finanzierung durch die Zuschüsse in der Kultursphäre, wurden auch gewisse Änderungen in den Studienprogrammen eingeführt. Alle Studenten der Schota Rustaweli-Universität für Theater und Film, welche die führende Hochschule im Bereich Theater, Film, Medien, traditionelle Kultur und Kulturmanagement ist, sind verpflichtet zum Realisieren des Kurses der Projektverwaltung, als Studienpflichtfach. Indem die Hochschule die Realisierung der Annahmen des Bologna-Prozesses auf sich nimmt, sieht sie das als ein wichtiges Element der Marktorientierung der Qualifikationen, welche der Absolvent erlangt, sowie Studienprogramme. Die Universität startete das Programm des Magisterstudiums (MA) in der Studienrichtung Kulturmanagement und kulturelle Politik, dagegen wurde seit Januar 2008 das Programm des Doktorenstudiums vorbereitet im Bereich der kulturellen Politik, welches endgültig im Herbst 2008 gestartet wurde. Auch der Verlag der Universität erschuf einen neuen Teilbereich, gewidmet dem Kulturmanagement und der kulturellen Politik, indem er die Arbeiten aus diesem Bereich veröffentlicht (auch übersetzte), und die jährliche interkulturelle Konferenz für die Studenten des Magisters- und Doktorstudiums ist ein wichtiger Aspekt der Entwicklung dieser Disziplin in unserem Land. Ein anderer Weg des Aufbaus des Wissens wurden die jährlichen interaktiven Schulungsprogramme im Bereich der kulturellen Politik

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Bildung wird versucht, Georgien und die georgische Kultur außerhalb der Staatsgrenzen zu fördern. Das nimmt gewöhnlich die Form der Kulturfestivals, Ausstellungen, Projekte der Zusammenarbeit, usw., an. Beispielsweise wurde die berühmte Ausstellung unter dem Titel “Kolkh’s Gold”, welche die Sammlungen der georgischen Museen zeigt in Deutschland, Frankreich, sowie anderen europäischen Ländern, als auch in den Vereinigten Staaten präsentiert. Georgien hat auch begonnen, seine Schöpfer auf verschiedenen internationalen Veranstaltungen zu präsentieren (z.B. Biennale in Venedig, Istanbul, internationale Konferenzen, usw.) Es entstehen viele neuen Veröffentlichungen – sowohl gedruckte, wie auch digitale – die distributiert werden zwecks Förderung der georgischen Kultur und des Landes selbst.


und des Kulturmanagements, realisiert durch die Nichtregierungsorganisationen mit Teilnahme der lokalen und internationalen Experten. Besonders wichtig scheint die Tatsache zu sein, dass wir schon Beispiele des Wissenstransfers und des Know-how in die benachbarten Länder beobachten mit der Vermittlung der Tätigkeiten in den kulturellen Netzen und der Schulungsprogrammen. Mit einem Beispiel können hier interaktive Schulungsprogramme dienen, angeboten durch SCF in Armenien, Aserbaidschan und manchen Ländern des Mittelasiens.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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186

V

iele Intellektuelle im Lande sind der Meinung, dass Georgien nach wie vor keine deutliche kulturelle Politik besitzt, was bis zu einem gewissen Grad wahr ist. Unser Kultusministerium zeigt fehlendes Interesse an der gegenwärtigen Kunst, indem es sich lediglich auf die traditionellen Formen der künstlerischen und kulturellen Tätigkeiten konzentriert, was das Fehlen der kulturellen Vielfalt als Folge hat. Nach wie vor beobachten wir einen starken Einfluss der personellen Faktoren auf der politischen Ebene, was eine Begrenzung der Entwicklung der demokratischen Werte bedeutet. Der Sektor der Nichtregierungsorganisationen in der Kultursphäre ist nach wie vor sehr schwach, und somit ist die Teilnahme der Bürgergesellschaft in der Entwicklung, Erschaffung und Verbreitung der Kultur sehr begrenzt. Das Fehlen der öffentlichen Debatte zum Thema der kulturellen Politik ist eine sehr schlechte Praxis. Wichtig ist die Erschaffung eines öffentlichen Raumes für die sozialen Tätigkeiten, Diskussionen und Präsentationen, die der Popularisierung der europäischen Werte dienen. Es lohnt sich, auf die Situation aufmerksam zu werden, in der sich der Sektor der Nichtregierungsorganisationen im Laufe der letzten zehn Jahre befand. In den 90. Jahren des 20. Jh. war er in einem großen Grad ausgenutzt für die politischen Ziele der damaligen regierenden Equipe. Die vorigen Regierungen benutzten die Relationen mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen für die Befriedigung der inneren Ehrgeize und Intrigen. Nach den politischen Änderungen im Jahre 2003, wurde der Mehrheit der NGOAktivisten in der Kultursphäre die Arbeit im öffentlichen Sektor angeboten, was Probleme im Funktionieren der Bürgergesellschaft brachte, denn es bedeutete die Begrenzung des Monitoring der Staatswirkung. Meines Erachtens war eben das der Grund, warum so viele Personen an

den Antiregierungsmanifestationen im November 2007 in Tiflis teilnahmen. Auf diese Weise haben die Teilnehmer der Manifestation die Angelegenheiten der Verteidigung der Bürgerwerte in die eigenen Hände genommen, denn die früheren Aktivisten und Anführer der NGO haben zu dem damaligen Zeitpunkt die Regierung vertreten (ich weiß von meinen Kollegen, dass ein ähnlicher Prozess der Ersetzung der Beamten der staatlichen Verwaltung durch die Aktivisten der Nichtregierungsorganisationen, als Effekt der lokalen Friedensrevolution, ähnlich der in Georgien, auch in Serbien beobachtet werden kann). Seit dem Jahr 2008 haben wir es mit einem ernsten Schritt zurück zu tun – der Staat kommt zu der Idee der Zentralisierung zurück. Die Stadt- und Staatbehörden gründen monopolistische Institutionen, die das Organisieren der Ereignisse und kulturellen Festivals im ganzen Land zentralisieren, ohne irgendwelche Verhandlungen mit den Bürgergruppen oder Experten. Meiner Meinung nach ist das ein sehr schlechtes Zeichen der politischen und intellektuellen Krise der Regierung, die den Weg zurücklegt von der Demokratie zu der totalitären Verwaltung. In meiner Überzeugung wurde der Druck seitens der internationalen demokratischen Gesellschaft sehr wichtig. Ich meine, dass wenn irgendwelche Änderungen zustande kommen sollen, die zu einer neuen Strategie der kulturellen Politik führen, müssen sie auf die Dezentralisierung gestützt sein, Stimulation der Tätigkeiten der Persönlichkeiten der Kulturwelt, Engagement und Beteiligung der Bürger, auf die neue Generation, die die Fragen der Freiheit der Gesellschaft versteht und der Kultur mit gleichzeitigem Gefühl Achtung für andere. Das kann sich vollziehen durch Unterstützung und Stimulation des gegenseitigen Verständnisses, Multikulturalität und Zusammenarbeit. Ich meine, dass, um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, wir uns in diesem Prozess auf die neue Generation stützen müssen, deren Vertreter unsere Studenten sind. In den neuen Umständen ist die Erhaltung starker Kontakte mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen oder den Vertretern der Bürgergesellschaft notwendig, sowie mit den Universitäten oder den Schulungszentren als Treffpunkte von Studenten und anderer Vertreter der jungen Generation. Notwendig ist die Aufrechterhaltung des Kontakts und seine Entwicklung. Ich bin überzeugt, dass diese neue Generation, die die Möglichkeit der gemeinsamen Arbeit mit seinen Nachbarn hat, mehr vielfältige, friedensreiche und schöpferische Resultate in der Zusammenarbeit und in der interregionalen Partnerschaft erzielen wird.

V

iele Intellektuelle im Lande sind der Meinung, dass Georgien nach wie vor keine deutliche kulturelle Politik besitzt, was bis zu einem gewissen Grad wahr ist. Unser Kultusministerium zeigt fehlendes Interesse an der gegenwärtigen Kunst, indem es sich lediglich auf die traditionellen Formen der künstlerischen und kulturellen Tätigkeiten konzentriert, was das Fehlen der kulturellen Vielfalt als Folge hat. Nach wie vor beobachten wir einen starken Einfluss der personellen Faktoren auf der politischen Ebene, was eine Begrenzung der Entwicklung der demokratischen Werte bedeutet. Der Sektor der Nichtregierungsorganisationen in der Kultursphäre ist nach wie vor sehr schwach, und somit ist die Teilnahme der Bürgergesellschaft in der Entwicklung, Erschaffung und Verbreitung der Kultur sehr begrenzt. Das Fehlen der öffentlichen Debatte zum Thema der kulturellen Politik ist eine sehr schlechte Praxis. Wichtig ist die Erschaffung eines öffentlichen Raumes für die sozialen Tätigkeiten, Diskussionen und Präsentationen, die der Popularisierung der europäischen Werte dienen. Es lohnt sich, auf die Situation aufmerksam zu werden, in der sich der Sektor der Nichtregierungsorganisationen im Laufe der letzten zehn Jahre befand. In den 90. Jahren des 20. Jh. war er in einem großen Grad ausgenutzt für die politischen Ziele der damaligen regierenden Equipe. Die vorigen Regierungen benutzten die Relationen mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen für die Befriedigung der inneren Ehrgeize und Intrigen. Nach den politischen Änderungen im Jahre 2003, wurde der Mehrheit der NGOAktivisten in der Kultursphäre die Arbeit im öffentlichen Sektor angeboten, was Probleme im Funktionieren der Bürgergesellschaft brachte, denn es bedeutete die Begrenzung des Monitoring der Staatswirkung. Meines Erachtens war eben das der Grund, warum so viele Personen an

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Schwächen

den Antiregierungsmanifestationen im November 2007 in Tiflis teilnahmen. Auf diese Weise haben die Teilnehmer der Manifestation die Angelegenheiten der Verteidigung der Bürgerwerte in die eigenen Hände genommen, denn die früheren Aktivisten und Anführer der NGO haben zu dem damaligen Zeitpunkt die Regierung vertreten (ich weiß von meinen Kollegen, dass ein ähnlicher Prozess der Ersetzung der Beamten der staatlichen Verwaltung durch die Aktivisten der Nichtregierungsorganisationen, als Effekt der lokalen Friedensrevolution, ähnlich der in Georgien, auch in Serbien beobachtet werden kann). Seit dem Jahr 2008 haben wir es mit einem ernsten Schritt zurück zu tun – der Staat kommt zu der Idee der Zentralisierung zurück. Die Stadt- und Staatbehörden gründen monopolistische Institutionen, die das Organisieren der Ereignisse und kulturellen Festivals im ganzen Land zentralisieren, ohne irgendwelche Verhandlungen mit den Bürgergruppen oder Experten. Meiner Meinung nach ist das ein sehr schlechtes Zeichen der politischen und intellektuellen Krise der Regierung, die den Weg zurücklegt von der Demokratie zu der totalitären Verwaltung. In meiner Überzeugung wurde der Druck seitens der internationalen demokratischen Gesellschaft sehr wichtig. Ich meine, dass wenn irgendwelche Änderungen zustande kommen sollen, die zu einer neuen Strategie der kulturellen Politik führen, müssen sie auf die Dezentralisierung gestützt sein, Stimulation der Tätigkeiten der Persönlichkeiten der Kulturwelt, Engagement und Beteiligung der Bürger, auf die neue Generation, die die Fragen der Freiheit der Gesellschaft versteht und der Kultur mit gleichzeitigem Gefühl Achtung für andere. Das kann sich vollziehen durch Unterstützung und Stimulation des gegenseitigen Verständnisses, Multikulturalität und Zusammenarbeit. Ich meine, dass, um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, wir uns in diesem Prozess auf die neue Generation stützen müssen, deren Vertreter unsere Studenten sind. In den neuen Umständen ist die Erhaltung starker Kontakte mit den Nichtregierungsorganisationen oder den Vertretern der Bürgergesellschaft notwendig, sowie mit den Universitäten oder den Schulungszentren als Treffpunkte von Studenten und anderer Vertreter der jungen Generation. Notwendig ist die Aufrechterhaltung des Kontakts und seine Entwicklung. Ich bin überzeugt, dass diese neue Generation, die die Möglichkeit der gemeinsamen Arbeit mit seinen Nachbarn hat, mehr vielfältige, friedensreiche und schöpferische Resultate in der Zusammenarbeit und in der interregionalen Partnerschaft erzielen wird.

186

und des Kulturmanagements, realisiert durch die Nichtregierungsorganisationen mit Teilnahme der lokalen und internationalen Experten. Besonders wichtig scheint die Tatsache zu sein, dass wir schon Beispiele des Wissenstransfers und des Know-how in die benachbarten Länder beobachten mit der Vermittlung der Tätigkeiten in den kulturellen Netzen und der Schulungsprogrammen. Mit einem Beispiel können hier interaktive Schulungsprogramme dienen, angeboten durch SCF in Armenien, Aserbaidschan und manchen Ländern des Mittelasiens.


187

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh. Olga Łukowska

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n der Geschichte der Menschheit existierte seit jeher das Bedürfnis der ungehinderten Übertragung der Gedanken und des Schaffens. Deswegen begehrten die Wissenschaftler und die Künstler mit anderen Augen auf das Leben zu sehen sowie den eigenen Standpunkt darzustellen, nicht selten anders als der, der von den Behörden zugelassen war. Die Probleme der gegenseitigen Beziehungen zwischen der Kultur und der Politik sind uralt. Ein krasses Beispiel dessen ist die kulturell-politische Situation in der Ukraine, in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh. Das Ende der 50er Jahre des 20. Jh. brachte eine neue sozial-kulturelle Erscheinung, welche in den 60er Jahren die Renaissance der nationalen ukrainischen Idee war. Heute wird diese Erscheinung oft die zweite ukrainische nationale Renaissance genannt. Warum die zweite? Sie trat nach der “vereitelten” Renaissance aus den 20er und des Anfangs der 30er Jahre auf, als aus dem öffentlichen Leben viele Vertreter der ukrainischen Intelligenz beseitigt wurden. Es kann gesagt werden, dass die ganze ukrainische Geschichte aus solchen Wiedergeburtsperioden besteht, die durch das russische Imperium gedämpft waren, aber lebten in den kommenden Generationen wieder auf. Nach dem Tod Stalins, am 5. März 1953, ist der Totalitarismus der teilweisen Aufweichung unterlegen. Der “kommunistische Gott” durfte kritisiert werden, also durfte an ihm gezweifelt werden. War das eine Abschwächung des ideologischen Drucks? Auf dem sozial-kulturellen Weg des Aufbaus des Kommunismus in den Jahren 1956–64 wurde das bezeichnet als “Chruschtschows Tauwetter”, welches zu der Welle der nationalen Wiedergeburt geführt hat. In der Gesellschaft der Ukraine ist die Atmosphäre des inneren intellektuell-kulturellen Widerspruchs

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

gegenüber dem System erschienen. Die Hoffnung auf die Möglichkeit des Aufbaus des “Sozialismus mit dem menschlichen Gesicht”, sowie die Verteidigung der Gesellschaft vor der Willkürlichkeit der Behörden, hat stufenweise die Angst nivelliert, und die Menschen haben angefangen, mutiger zu denken und zu sprechen. Diese Periode wird als eine neue Erscheinung im Leben der ukrainischen Gesellschaft dargestellt. Es war eine kulturelle Bewegung, gerichtet auf die Aufbewahrung der nationalen Traditionen, der Sprache, der ideell-ästhetischen Erneuerung der Kultur. Begonnen wurde sie von den Literaten, u.a. solchen, wie: W. Symonenko, W. Stus, I. Kostenko, I. Switlycznyj, I. Dziuba, I. Dracz, I. Kalynec. Die Bewegung der Generation der 60er Jahre wurde bald universell und bestimmte bis zu einem gewissen Grad die weiteren Perspektiven der nicht nur literarischen, sondern auch künstlerischen Änderungen in der Ukraine. Am Anfang der 60er Jahre wurde ein gewaltiger, unheimlicher Aufschwung des nationalen künstlerischen Schaffens vollbracht. Wesentlich ist, dass das Hauptmotiv dieser Bewegung die Bewusstmachung von der Intelligenz der Rolle war, welche sie erfüllen soll, eben im Kontext der ukrainischen Kultur, und nicht der allgemeinsowjetischen Kultur. Und obwohl dieses Bewusstsein für viele Personen am Anfang der 70er Jahre tragisch endete, so war der Einfluss der Generation der 60er Jahre auf den weiteren Verlauf der Ereignisse sehr groß. Indem die Situation, betreffend das künstlerische Milieu analysiert wird, soll darauf aufmerksam gemacht werden, dass die allgemeinen Veränderungen in der Entwicklung der Kunst im der Sowjetunion (also auch in der Ukrainischen SSR) noch in der Mitte der 50er Jahre begonnen haben, als der berühmte Beschluss vom ZK der

187

Dr. Olga Łukowska Die Kunsthistorikerin, Dozentin an der Ukrainischen Akademie für Druck in Lvov, sowie Vizedirektorin im Lvover Kunstpalast, die für wissenschaftlichkünstlerische Sachen zuständig ist. Die Stipendiatin der folgenden Programme“ „Gaude Polonia” (Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe Polens) und Lane Kirkland Programm (Polnisch-Amerikanische Stiftung für Freiheit, Fulbright Kommission). Sie beschäftigt sich mit Kulturmanagement, zeitgenössischer Kunst, darunter mit künstlerischen Stoffen.

n der Geschichte der Menschheit existierte seit jeher das Bedürfnis der ungehinderten Übertragung der Gedanken und des Schaffens. Deswegen begehrten die Wissenschaftler und die Künstler mit anderen Augen auf das Leben zu sehen sowie den eigenen Standpunkt darzustellen, nicht selten anders als der, der von den Behörden zugelassen war. Die Probleme der gegenseitigen Beziehungen zwischen der Kultur und der Politik sind uralt. Ein krasses Beispiel dessen ist die kulturell-politische Situation in der Ukraine, in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh. Das Ende der 50er Jahre des 20. Jh. brachte eine neue sozial-kulturelle Erscheinung, welche in den 60er Jahren die Renaissance der nationalen ukrainischen Idee war. Heute wird diese Erscheinung oft die zweite ukrainische nationale Renaissance genannt. Warum die zweite? Sie trat nach der “vereitelten” Renaissance aus den 20er und des Anfangs der 30er Jahre auf, als aus dem öffentlichen Leben viele Vertreter der ukrainischen Intelligenz beseitigt wurden. Es kann gesagt werden, dass die ganze ukrainische Geschichte aus solchen Wiedergeburtsperioden besteht, die durch das russische Imperium gedämpft waren, aber lebten in den kommenden Generationen wieder auf. Nach dem Tod Stalins, am 5. März 1953, ist der Totalitarismus der teilweisen Aufweichung unterlegen. Der “kommunistische Gott” durfte kritisiert werden, also durfte an ihm gezweifelt werden. War das eine Abschwächung des ideologischen Drucks? Auf dem sozial-kulturellen Weg des Aufbaus des Kommunismus in den Jahren 1956–64 wurde das bezeichnet als “Chruschtschows Tauwetter”, welches zu der Welle der nationalen Wiedergeburt geführt hat. In der Gesellschaft der Ukraine ist die Atmosphäre des inneren intellektuell-kulturellen Widerspruchs

I

Olga Łukowska

gegenüber dem System erschienen. Die Hoffnung auf die Möglichkeit des Aufbaus des “Sozialismus mit dem menschlichen Gesicht”, sowie die Verteidigung der Gesellschaft vor der Willkürlichkeit der Behörden, hat stufenweise die Angst nivelliert, und die Menschen haben angefangen, mutiger zu denken und zu sprechen. Diese Periode wird als eine neue Erscheinung im Leben der ukrainischen Gesellschaft dargestellt. Es war eine kulturelle Bewegung, gerichtet auf die Aufbewahrung der nationalen Traditionen, der Sprache, der ideell-ästhetischen Erneuerung der Kultur. Begonnen wurde sie von den Literaten, u.a. solchen, wie: W. Symonenko, W. Stus, I. Kostenko, I. Switlycznyj, I. Dziuba, I. Dracz, I. Kalynec. Die Bewegung der Generation der 60er Jahre wurde bald universell und bestimmte bis zu einem gewissen Grad die weiteren Perspektiven der nicht nur literarischen, sondern auch künstlerischen Änderungen in der Ukraine. Am Anfang der 60er Jahre wurde ein gewaltiger, unheimlicher Aufschwung des nationalen künstlerischen Schaffens vollbracht. Wesentlich ist, dass das Hauptmotiv dieser Bewegung die Bewusstmachung von der Intelligenz der Rolle war, welche sie erfüllen soll, eben im Kontext der ukrainischen Kultur, und nicht der allgemeinsowjetischen Kultur. Und obwohl dieses Bewusstsein für viele Personen am Anfang der 70er Jahre tragisch endete, so war der Einfluss der Generation der 60er Jahre auf den weiteren Verlauf der Ereignisse sehr groß. Indem die Situation, betreffend das künstlerische Milieu analysiert wird, soll darauf aufmerksam gemacht werden, dass die allgemeinen Veränderungen in der Entwicklung der Kunst im der Sowjetunion (also auch in der Ukrainischen SSR) noch in der Mitte der 50er Jahre begonnen haben, als der berühmte Beschluss vom ZK der

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jh.

Dr. Olga Łukowska Die Kunsthistorikerin, Dozentin an der Ukrainischen Akademie für Druck in Lvov, sowie Vizedirektorin im Lvover Kunstpalast, die für wissenschaftlichkünstlerische Sachen zuständig ist. Die Stipendiatin der folgenden Programme“ „Gaude Polonia” (Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe Polens) und Lane Kirkland Programm (Polnisch-Amerikanische Stiftung für Freiheit, Fulbright Kommission). Sie beschäftigt sich mit Kulturmanagement, zeitgenössischer Kunst, darunter mit künstlerischen Stoffen.


bemerkt zur Schaffung der Arbeiten mit abstraktem Charakter. Es war die Zeit der schöpferischen Blüte der hervorragenden ukrainischen Schöpfer, wie: J. Beznisko, T. Bryz, O. Zalywacha, А. Horyska, W. Patyk und vieler anderen (A. Horyska bezeichnete die 60er Jahre als einzigartig, glühend, voller Idealismus, als sich alle wie eine Gemeinschaft fühlten und zusammen wirkten). Im Kontext der untersuchten Probleme lohnt es sich, auf die künstlerische Situation aufmerksam zu machen, betreffend die Gebiete der Westukraine, und im Besonderen Lembergs. Die Lemberger künstlerische Schule hat sich immer entschieden von der hauptstädtischen (Kiewer) unterschieden, vor allem durch die fundamentale Aneignung der ästhetischen Grundsätze der Kunst. Hier wurde gelehrt die Fertigkeit des individuellen Sehens und der Suche nach dem eigenen Weg. Es existierte auch sogar so ein Begriff, wie “Pariser-galizische Schule”, durch die hervorragende Künstler der älteren Generation durchgegangen sind, wie O. Nowakiwskyj, O. Kulczycka, J. Muzyka, R. Turyn, M. und R. Selski, K. Zwirynskyj und andere. Die Künstler der 60er Jahre haben ihre Ideen übernommen; vor dem Hintergrund des grauen Alltags sowie der primitiven ideologischen Dogmen versammelte sich die schöpferische Jugend (M. Andruszczenko, L. Medwid, B. Soroka, M. Krystopczuk, I. Marczuk, O. Mynko) um die Autoritäten und die bekannten Persönlichkeiten. Für die Generation der 1960–1970 Jahre war auch die geografische Lage von Lemberg wichtig. Hier befand sich die Quelle der intellektuellen Inspirationen, die Grundlage der Traditionen und Weltanschauungen, von denen die jungen Künstler schöpfen konnten und die formellen Ideen Westens adaptieren. Während des “Tauwetters” erschienen in den Bibliotheken Schriften mit künstlerischem Charakter, die aus den Ländern des sogenannten sozialistischen Lagers stammten (Polen, Tschechoslowakei, usw.). Diese Generation bildete sich u.a. auf solchen Zeitschriften, wie “Projekt”, “Sztuka”, “Arta” oder “Umění a řemesla”. Dank dem Zugang zu ihnen gewannen die Kunstmaler die Informationen über die populären in Europa künstlerischen Richtungen (u.a. über die Dynamik der Entwicklung des künstlerischen Stoffes in Polen und der Schöpfung von Magdalena Abakanowicz, über die Erscheinung neuartiger avantgardistischer Formen des künstlerischen Stoffes in Europa – Art Fabric, Fiber Art). Es erfolgte auch die Aktivierung der Beziehungen mit den baltischen Republiken (Litauen, Lettland und Estland), die ähnliche wie die Ukraine Bedingungen zur Wirkung hatten, eine ähnliche Geschichte, sowie analoge Ansichten über die Fragen der modernen Kunstprobleme

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

KPdSU (Zentralkomitee der Kommunistischen Partei der Sowjetunion) und des Ministerrates Über die Beseitigung übermäßiger Dekorativität im Projektieren und dem Bauwesen gefasst wurde. Formell betraf dieses Dokument Architektur und Bauwesen: sein Ziel war die Erschaffung der einzigartigen internationalistischen, und gleichzeitig der sozialistischen Architektur. Die Gebäude wurden aller dekorativer Fassaden beraubt, überlastet mit reichen Schmückelementen und Flachreliefen; es konnte der Abgang von den Details sowie Elementen bemerkt werden, die lediglich der Verzierung dienen, es erschien die Asymmetrie im Projektieren. Die Sparsamkeit und die Sorge um die geringste Menge der künstlerischen Mittel – war das Hauptmerkmal des “neuen” Stils in der gegenwärtigen Architektur, die die Epoche des Übermaßes der Dekorativität ersetzte [Арндт, 1962]. Die Ausrottung dieser übermäßigen Dekorativität in der Architektur beeinflusste direkt die gesamte sowjetische Kunst. Die Tendenz zur Schaffung der einfachen monumentalen Formen wurde auch in der schönen Kunst beobachtet. Obwohl die sozialistische Richtung nach wie vor als die einzige offiziell zugelassene angesehen war, kann in der Malerei dieser Zeit der Verzicht auf die eingehende naturalistische Schilderung, die für die vorigen Jahre charakteristisch war, bemerkt werden. Neue Merkmale festigten sich auch in der eingesetzten dekorativen Kunst, und die künstlerischen Werke, angefertigt in Holz, Glas, Metall sowie Stoffen füllten die Inneren der genossenschaftlichen Bauwerke. Der dreidimensionale illusorisch-naturalistische Raum wurde ersetzt durch die Flächen, die symbolisch betrachtet wurden, meistens zweidimensional, untergeordnet der Idee der Einhaltung der architektonischen Schlüssigkeit [Савицкая, 1995]. Die Tendenz der Entledigung der übermäßigen Dekorativität verbreitete sich schnell. In den künstlerischen Kompositionen dominierten die Natürlichkeit der Formen und die Einfachheit der Linien – die Künstler vermieden geometrische Formen, parallele Linien, symmetrische Kompositionen, indem sie die Überlegenheit den weichen, flüssigen Konturen und den Übergängen gaben, sowie den ovalen Konfigurationen [Голубець, 2001]. Selbstverständlich ist, dass in dieser Zeit die Künstler keine volle Freiheit des schöpferischen Gedankens und der Handlung hatten, aber sogar die Illusion dieser Freiheit hat sich ausreichend erwiesen, um das Schaffen zu aktivieren: die Künstler haben angefangen mehr kreativ zu denken; es wird in diesem Zeitraum die Tendenz

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

188

bemerkt zur Schaffung der Arbeiten mit abstraktem Charakter. Es war die Zeit der schöpferischen Blüte der hervorragenden ukrainischen Schöpfer, wie: J. Beznisko, T. Bryz, O. Zalywacha, А. Horyska, W. Patyk und vieler anderen (A. Horyska bezeichnete die 60er Jahre als einzigartig, glühend, voller Idealismus, als sich alle wie eine Gemeinschaft fühlten und zusammen wirkten). Im Kontext der untersuchten Probleme lohnt es sich, auf die künstlerische Situation aufmerksam zu machen, betreffend die Gebiete der Westukraine, und im Besonderen Lembergs. Die Lemberger künstlerische Schule hat sich immer entschieden von der hauptstädtischen (Kiewer) unterschieden, vor allem durch die fundamentale Aneignung der ästhetischen Grundsätze der Kunst. Hier wurde gelehrt die Fertigkeit des individuellen Sehens und der Suche nach dem eigenen Weg. Es existierte auch sogar so ein Begriff, wie “Pariser-galizische Schule”, durch die hervorragende Künstler der älteren Generation durchgegangen sind, wie O. Nowakiwskyj, O. Kulczycka, J. Muzyka, R. Turyn, M. und R. Selski, K. Zwirynskyj und andere. Die Künstler der 60er Jahre haben ihre Ideen übernommen; vor dem Hintergrund des grauen Alltags sowie der primitiven ideologischen Dogmen versammelte sich die schöpferische Jugend (M. Andruszczenko, L. Medwid, B. Soroka, M. Krystopczuk, I. Marczuk, O. Mynko) um die Autoritäten und die bekannten Persönlichkeiten. Für die Generation der 1960–1970 Jahre war auch die geografische Lage von Lemberg wichtig. Hier befand sich die Quelle der intellektuellen Inspirationen, die Grundlage der Traditionen und Weltanschauungen, von denen die jungen Künstler schöpfen konnten und die formellen Ideen Westens adaptieren. Während des “Tauwetters” erschienen in den Bibliotheken Schriften mit künstlerischem Charakter, die aus den Ländern des sogenannten sozialistischen Lagers stammten (Polen, Tschechoslowakei, usw.). Diese Generation bildete sich u.a. auf solchen Zeitschriften, wie “Projekt”, “Sztuka”, “Arta” oder “Umění a řemesla”. Dank dem Zugang zu ihnen gewannen die Kunstmaler die Informationen über die populären in Europa künstlerischen Richtungen (u.a. über die Dynamik der Entwicklung des künstlerischen Stoffes in Polen und der Schöpfung von Magdalena Abakanowicz, über die Erscheinung neuartiger avantgardistischer Formen des künstlerischen Stoffes in Europa – Art Fabric, Fiber Art). Es erfolgte auch die Aktivierung der Beziehungen mit den baltischen Republiken (Litauen, Lettland und Estland), die ähnliche wie die Ukraine Bedingungen zur Wirkung hatten, eine ähnliche Geschichte, sowie analoge Ansichten über die Fragen der modernen Kunstprobleme

188

KPdSU (Zentralkomitee der Kommunistischen Partei der Sowjetunion) und des Ministerrates Über die Beseitigung übermäßiger Dekorativität im Projektieren und dem Bauwesen gefasst wurde. Formell betraf dieses Dokument Architektur und Bauwesen: sein Ziel war die Erschaffung der einzigartigen internationalistischen, und gleichzeitig der sozialistischen Architektur. Die Gebäude wurden aller dekorativer Fassaden beraubt, überlastet mit reichen Schmückelementen und Flachreliefen; es konnte der Abgang von den Details sowie Elementen bemerkt werden, die lediglich der Verzierung dienen, es erschien die Asymmetrie im Projektieren. Die Sparsamkeit und die Sorge um die geringste Menge der künstlerischen Mittel – war das Hauptmerkmal des “neuen” Stils in der gegenwärtigen Architektur, die die Epoche des Übermaßes der Dekorativität ersetzte [Арндт, 1962]. Die Ausrottung dieser übermäßigen Dekorativität in der Architektur beeinflusste direkt die gesamte sowjetische Kunst. Die Tendenz zur Schaffung der einfachen monumentalen Formen wurde auch in der schönen Kunst beobachtet. Obwohl die sozialistische Richtung nach wie vor als die einzige offiziell zugelassene angesehen war, kann in der Malerei dieser Zeit der Verzicht auf die eingehende naturalistische Schilderung, die für die vorigen Jahre charakteristisch war, bemerkt werden. Neue Merkmale festigten sich auch in der eingesetzten dekorativen Kunst, und die künstlerischen Werke, angefertigt in Holz, Glas, Metall sowie Stoffen füllten die Inneren der genossenschaftlichen Bauwerke. Der dreidimensionale illusorisch-naturalistische Raum wurde ersetzt durch die Flächen, die symbolisch betrachtet wurden, meistens zweidimensional, untergeordnet der Idee der Einhaltung der architektonischen Schlüssigkeit [Савицкая, 1995]. Die Tendenz der Entledigung der übermäßigen Dekorativität verbreitete sich schnell. In den künstlerischen Kompositionen dominierten die Natürlichkeit der Formen und die Einfachheit der Linien – die Künstler vermieden geometrische Formen, parallele Linien, symmetrische Kompositionen, indem sie die Überlegenheit den weichen, flüssigen Konturen und den Übergängen gaben, sowie den ovalen Konfigurationen [Голубець, 2001]. Selbstverständlich ist, dass in dieser Zeit die Künstler keine volle Freiheit des schöpferischen Gedankens und der Handlung hatten, aber sogar die Illusion dieser Freiheit hat sich ausreichend erwiesen, um das Schaffen zu aktivieren: die Künstler haben angefangen mehr kreativ zu denken; es wird in diesem Zeitraum die Tendenz


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Selbstverständlich konnte die auf diesen Schienen verlaufende Entwicklung den damaligen kommunistischen Mächten nicht gefallen. Noch im Jahre 1960 führte Nikita Chruschtschow breit reklamierte Treffen mit den Aktivisten der Kultur und der Kunst durch, auf dem er die “Rückzüge vom sozialistischen Realismus ” und die “Erscheinungen des Formalismus und Abstraktzionismus” verdammte. Ungeachtet dessen, begann sich die Kunst entgegen dem totalitären Regime zu entwickeln. In Befürchtung, dass die “Freiheit” der Handlungen und der Gedanken nicht außer Kontrolle gerät, entschied sich der Kreml zum Angriff auf die in der ganzen Sowjetunion fortschreitende Wiedergeburtsbewegung. Nach den ersten politischen Verhaftungen der bekannten sozialen Aktivisten und Literaten wurde für alle verständlich, dass das Regime das Freidenkertum nicht tolerieren wird. Es begannen Massenverhaftungen der Oppositionsintelligenz, die vor die Wahl gestellt wurde zwischen der offenkundigen Widersetzung den Mächten und der Strategie der Anpassung. Den Künstlern wurde zum Verstehen gegeben, dass “eine bestimmte Modifizierung der Form der Kunstwerke auf keine Weise eine Abschwächung der Kontrolle ihrer ideell thematischen Richtung bedeutet. Die Methode des sozialistischen Realismus ist die in den schöpferischen Sphären einzige, offiziell anerkannte ”[Ebenda, S. 75]. Eine solche Kunst pflegte scheinbar die günstige Idee des Friedens und des Internationalismus, indem sie nicht merkte, dass das gepflegte Kind immer mehr aggressiv wurde. Die ideologische Funktion der Kultur wurde zur Absurdität. Unter der unaufhörlichen Parteipflege befanden sich sowohl junge Künstler, wie auch die Vertreter der älteren Generation, die eine Schulung in den künstlerischen Schulen von Paris, Prag, Kraków durchgemacht haben und ihren Schülern den Geist des Aussuchens neuer Formen des künstlerischen Ausdrucks übermittelt haben, die sich nicht zum Kanon des Sozirealismus gelegt haben. Wie M. Ilnyckyj betont, mochten nicht zufällig die Parteibeamten des regionalen und des republikalen Rangs in die Werkstätte der Künstler hineinsehen, um nachher aus den hohen Tribünen und in den Entscheidungen der Beratungen “väterlich” vor der Aufnahme der falschen Schritte zu warnen oder ihre harten Urteile fällen gegenüber den relativ unabhängigen Kunstmalern, deren “Jagd nach den modischen Erfindungen aus dem Weg der realistischen Kunst brachte”[Ільницький, 2002]. Der Dogmatismus des Sozirealismus mit seinen angeordneten Konventionen und Begrenzungen leitete die Kunst in die Richtung der ideell patriotischen Themen, die auf eine einzig richtige

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Art für alle ohne Ausnahme verständlich sein mussten. Es fand damals die Internationalisierung der Kunst der Völker der UdSSR statt, welche als Werkstoff der sowjetischen Kunst dienen sollte. Es wurden Monografien und Doktorarbeiten vorbereitet zum Thema der Probleme der “geistigen Gemeinschaft der brüderlichen Kulturen”, wobei es beim Herausfindenwollen der Ähnlichkeiten zwischen den Elementen verschiedener Kulturen um die Illustration der Grundkonzeption über die Vereinheitlichung der Völker im Geiste des Sozialismus ging [Яців, 1991]. Da der wachsende Druck der Bestellungen der Parteithematik Proteste erregte, und die künstlerische Berufung die Realisierung forderte, kam es zum Abwenden der Kunstmaler von der Malerei in die Richtung der dekorativ-angewandten Kunst, die damals als zweitrangig betrachtet wurde. Auf den Prestigeausstellungen wurde an erster Stelle die schöne Kunst gestellt, die eine ideologische Rolle spielte. Dafür im Bereich der dekorativ-angewandten Kunst konnte einfacher der eigene Stil verdeckt werden, indem die Anklage auf “Formalismus” vermieden wurde. Es war auch eine Form des Protestes gegen die Politisierung der Kunst. Die dekorativ-angewandte Kunst (Nutzkunst) stützte sich auf die nationale Tradition. In der Westukraine, zum Beispiel, war die Ablehnung der traditionellen geometrischen Ornamente oder der gegenstandslosen Elemente des abstrakten Charakters unmöglich. In der realistischen (figurativen) Darstellung gelang es nicht – nicht einmal künstlich – an die nationale Kunst anzuknüpfen. Von den Künstlern war es also schwer, eine realistische Wiedergabe der historisch-revolutionären Fabel zu verlangen oder der Aufzeigung der “Errungenschaften” der Industrialisierung. Als Beispiel können gewebte Teppiche mit Bildern der Regierenden, sowie der sowjetischen Wappen, umrahmt mit Blumenornamenten angeführt werden, oder die keramischen Dekorationen und Holzteller mit Porträts der Führer, in Umrahmungen in Huzulendekoration. Diese “Werke” der sozialistischen Kunst haben schon nicht nur künstlich ausgesehen, sondern auch tragikomisch. Die sowjetischen “Theoretiker” haben also endlich die unwirksamen Versuche der Einführung des Sozirealismus in die nationale und dekorative Kunst aufgegeben. Dieser schwache Punkt im ideologischen System ermöglichte den Kunstmalern die Entwicklung der schöpferischen Energie. Dieser Prozess kann deutlich bemerkt werden, indem das Schaffen der Künstler der Westukraine untersucht wird, besonders der aus Lemberg stammenden. Indem sie sich der Form der Dekorativität bedienten, versuchten die Kunst-

189

Selbstverständlich konnte die auf diesen Schienen verlaufende Entwicklung den damaligen kommunistischen Mächten nicht gefallen. Noch im Jahre 1960 führte Nikita Chruschtschow breit reklamierte Treffen mit den Aktivisten der Kultur und der Kunst durch, auf dem er die “Rückzüge vom sozialistischen Realismus ” und die “Erscheinungen des Formalismus und Abstraktzionismus” verdammte. Ungeachtet dessen, begann sich die Kunst entgegen dem totalitären Regime zu entwickeln. In Befürchtung, dass die “Freiheit” der Handlungen und der Gedanken nicht außer Kontrolle gerät, entschied sich der Kreml zum Angriff auf die in der ganzen Sowjetunion fortschreitende Wiedergeburtsbewegung. Nach den ersten politischen Verhaftungen der bekannten sozialen Aktivisten und Literaten wurde für alle verständlich, dass das Regime das Freidenkertum nicht tolerieren wird. Es begannen Massenverhaftungen der Oppositionsintelligenz, die vor die Wahl gestellt wurde zwischen der offenkundigen Widersetzung den Mächten und der Strategie der Anpassung. Den Künstlern wurde zum Verstehen gegeben, dass “eine bestimmte Modifizierung der Form der Kunstwerke auf keine Weise eine Abschwächung der Kontrolle ihrer ideell thematischen Richtung bedeutet. Die Methode des sozialistischen Realismus ist die in den schöpferischen Sphären einzige, offiziell anerkannte ”[Ebenda, S. 75]. Eine solche Kunst pflegte scheinbar die günstige Idee des Friedens und des Internationalismus, indem sie nicht merkte, dass das gepflegte Kind immer mehr aggressiv wurde. Die ideologische Funktion der Kultur wurde zur Absurdität. Unter der unaufhörlichen Parteipflege befanden sich sowohl junge Künstler, wie auch die Vertreter der älteren Generation, die eine Schulung in den künstlerischen Schulen von Paris, Prag, Kraków durchgemacht haben und ihren Schülern den Geist des Aussuchens neuer Formen des künstlerischen Ausdrucks übermittelt haben, die sich nicht zum Kanon des Sozirealismus gelegt haben. Wie M. Ilnyckyj betont, mochten nicht zufällig die Parteibeamten des regionalen und des republikalen Rangs in die Werkstätte der Künstler hineinsehen, um nachher aus den hohen Tribünen und in den Entscheidungen der Beratungen “väterlich” vor der Aufnahme der falschen Schritte zu warnen oder ihre harten Urteile fällen gegenüber den relativ unabhängigen Kunstmalern, deren “Jagd nach den modischen Erfindungen aus dem Weg der realistischen Kunst brachte”[Ільницький, 2002]. Der Dogmatismus des Sozirealismus mit seinen angeordneten Konventionen und Begrenzungen leitete die Kunst in die Richtung der ideell patriotischen Themen, die auf eine einzig richtige

189

Art für alle ohne Ausnahme verständlich sein mussten. Es fand damals die Internationalisierung der Kunst der Völker der UdSSR statt, welche als Werkstoff der sowjetischen Kunst dienen sollte. Es wurden Monografien und Doktorarbeiten vorbereitet zum Thema der Probleme der “geistigen Gemeinschaft der brüderlichen Kulturen”, wobei es beim Herausfindenwollen der Ähnlichkeiten zwischen den Elementen verschiedener Kulturen um die Illustration der Grundkonzeption über die Vereinheitlichung der Völker im Geiste des Sozialismus ging [Яців, 1991]. Da der wachsende Druck der Bestellungen der Parteithematik Proteste erregte, und die künstlerische Berufung die Realisierung forderte, kam es zum Abwenden der Kunstmaler von der Malerei in die Richtung der dekorativ-angewandten Kunst, die damals als zweitrangig betrachtet wurde. Auf den Prestigeausstellungen wurde an erster Stelle die schöne Kunst gestellt, die eine ideologische Rolle spielte. Dafür im Bereich der dekorativ-angewandten Kunst konnte einfacher der eigene Stil verdeckt werden, indem die Anklage auf “Formalismus” vermieden wurde. Es war auch eine Form des Protestes gegen die Politisierung der Kunst. Die dekorativ-angewandte Kunst (Nutzkunst) stützte sich auf die nationale Tradition. In der Westukraine, zum Beispiel, war die Ablehnung der traditionellen geometrischen Ornamente oder der gegenstandslosen Elemente des abstrakten Charakters unmöglich. In der realistischen (figurativen) Darstellung gelang es nicht – nicht einmal künstlich – an die nationale Kunst anzuknüpfen. Von den Künstlern war es also schwer, eine realistische Wiedergabe der historisch-revolutionären Fabel zu verlangen oder der Aufzeigung der “Errungenschaften” der Industrialisierung. Als Beispiel können gewebte Teppiche mit Bildern der Regierenden, sowie der sowjetischen Wappen, umrahmt mit Blumenornamenten angeführt werden, oder die keramischen Dekorationen und Holzteller mit Porträts der Führer, in Umrahmungen in Huzulendekoration. Diese “Werke” der sozialistischen Kunst haben schon nicht nur künstlich ausgesehen, sondern auch tragikomisch. Die sowjetischen “Theoretiker” haben also endlich die unwirksamen Versuche der Einführung des Sozirealismus in die nationale und dekorative Kunst aufgegeben. Dieser schwache Punkt im ideologischen System ermöglichte den Kunstmalern die Entwicklung der schöpferischen Energie. Dieser Prozess kann deutlich bemerkt werden, indem das Schaffen der Künstler der Westukraine untersucht wird, besonders der aus Lemberg stammenden. Indem sie sich der Form der Dekorativität bedienten, versuchten die Kunst-


von ihm verbreiteten Ansichten und die künstlerische Unabhängigkeit eingesperrt. Erst in der Mitte der 80er Jahre des 20. Jh. ermöglichte die Milderung der Repressionen der Regierungsmacht gegenüber dem Künstler ihm die weitere künstlerische Arbeit. Nach seinem Tod wurde er das letzte Genie des Kinos des 20. Jh. genannt. Sichtbar wurde dagegen der Schwund des Interesses an der nationalen Musik. Die Tradition versuchten der Weriowka-Chor, die Kapelle “Dumka” (aufgelöst im Jahre 1971) sowie das folkloristische Folksensemble “Gomin” zu bewahren. Als Beweis des Drucks, der auf die ukrainischen Musiker ausgeübt wurde, kann die Tatsache angeführt werden, dass im Jahre 1979 der hervorragende ukrainische Komponist W. Iwasiuk unter unbekannten Umständen umgekommen ist, Komponist der Lieder Rote Note und Wodograj. In den 80er Jahren des 20. Jh. entwickelte sich das kulturelle Leben in ziemlich spezifischen Bedingungen. Es war der Zeitraum der sog. Stagnation der Zeit Breschnews, als sogar ideologische Organe der Macht mit tiefer Apathie, Zynismus und Skepsis umfasst wurden. In dieser Atmosphäre – trotz des scheinbaren Einverständnisses auf die sowjetische Ideologie, die für die Wendung in die Richtung der “nationalen Richtung“ bestrafte – die mutiger denkenden Künstler vereinigten sich in den Bemühungen der Einführung der nationalen Idee in die eigenen Werke. Diese Idee im geistigen Leben der Gesellschaft nahm immer mehr Gewicht an. Und obwohl, leider, diese Künstler nicht immer die Möglichkeit der Präsentation ihrer Kunst hatten, so war die Tatsache selbst der Existenz einer neuen Qualität im schöpferischen Gedanken nicht zu überschätzen. In der Konsequenz, obwohl der Zeitraum der sogenannten “Stagnationszeit” monoton erscheint, so konnte eben damals das Streben der Künstler zur Selbstbestimmung der eigenen schöpferischen Haltung bemerkt werden. Wichtig wird die Möglichkeit der internationalen Kontakte und der Fahrten zu den ausländischen Ausstellungen, obwohl das nach wie vor unter dem wachsamen Auge Moskaus stattfand. Die Änderungen, die sich im Leben der ukrainischen Gesellschaft nach dem Jahr 1990 vollzogen haben, waren vor allem mit dem “Umbau” verbunden, und dann dem Verfall der UdSSR und – in der Konsequenz dessen – der Erlangung der Unabhängigkeit der Ukraine im Jahre 1991. Damals kam die nächste Welle der nationalen Wiedergeburt. Eine deutliche Belebung des kulturellen Lebens umfasste allmählich die ganze Ukraine. Die komplizierten politischen Prozesse, die sich im Lande vollzogen haben, berührten alle Sphären des sozialen Lebens. Die Kultur und Kunst haben sich stufenweise von den im vorigen

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

maler ihre Suche und Experimente zu maskieren im Bereich der Bildkomposition, die traditionellen und neuartigen Realisierungen abzugrenzen und zusammenzustellen [Голубець, 2001]. In dieser Zeit, als die Malerei, Skulptur, Grafik der übermäßigen Ideologisierung unterlagen, fanden die bildenden Künstler, die sich des Stoffes, Glases, Holzes, der Keramik bedienten, originelle und einzigartige Formen der Verkörperung der künstlerischen Ideen; ihre Visionen, Inspirationen, fanden ihren Ausdruck in den originellen Gestalten und Kompositionen der Bilder. Die zwanzig Jahre, die der Regierungszeit von Chruschtschow (1965–1985) folgten, vergingen in der Ukraine unter dem Zeichen der ununterbrochenen Vertiefung der Krise der sowjetischen Gesellschaft, die alle Lebenssphären betraf – Politik, Ökonomie, soziale Beziehungen (zweifellos hatte sie auch Einfluss auf die Kultur). Das Regime begehrte, die unfruchtbaren Ideen zu stärken der “entwickelten sozialistischen Gesellschaft und ihrer Anerkennung als einer höheren Form der Zivilisation”. Die Bestellungen, die von den Gipfeln der Regierungsmacht an die Künstler flossen, verführten mit hohen Honoraren, Titeln, Würden. Die Kontrolle wurde über alle Kulturgebiete geführt. Ein Zeugnis über die Zunahme des Drucks auf die Schriftsteller wurde die Annahme des Beschlusses Über die literarisch-künstlerische Tätigkeit auf der Sitzung des Zentralkomitees der Kommunistischen Partei der Sowjetunion im März 1973, in dem eine größere Aktivität bei der Realisierung der ideellen Belehrungen der Partei gefordert wurde. Auf den Bühnen der Theater wurde die Aufführung der Vorstellungen, die die Mängel des bestehenden Systems demaskieren streng verboten. Das führte dazu, dass das ukrainische Theater immer mehr seine nationale Identität verlor, z.B. war unter den Kindertheatern in der ukrainischen Republik nur das Lemberger Theater ukrainisch, die übrigen – russisch. In dieser Zeit ist das ukrainische poetische Kino entstanden. Seine Anfänge verbinden sich mit solchen Filmen, wie Steinerndes Kreuz in der Regie von L. Osyka, Brunnen für Durstige von J. Illenko nach dem Drehbuch von I. Dracz, Babylon XX von I. Mykolajczuk oder Schatten vergessener Vorfahren von S. Paradzanow. Das Dasein dieser Filmwerke war nicht einfach – oft wurden sie nicht für die Regie- oder Schauspielerkunst beurteilt, sondern man hat sich durch die Reaktion der Regierungsmacht leiten lassen. Aus gleichem Grund war das Schicksal mancher hervorragenden Regisseure tragisch, z.B. der Filmregisseur von Weltrang der armenischen Abstammung S. Paradzanow wurde für viele Jahre von der Regierungsmacht für die

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

190

von ihm verbreiteten Ansichten und die künstlerische Unabhängigkeit eingesperrt. Erst in der Mitte der 80er Jahre des 20. Jh. ermöglichte die Milderung der Repressionen der Regierungsmacht gegenüber dem Künstler ihm die weitere künstlerische Arbeit. Nach seinem Tod wurde er das letzte Genie des Kinos des 20. Jh. genannt. Sichtbar wurde dagegen der Schwund des Interesses an der nationalen Musik. Die Tradition versuchten der Weriowka-Chor, die Kapelle “Dumka” (aufgelöst im Jahre 1971) sowie das folkloristische Folksensemble “Gomin” zu bewahren. Als Beweis des Drucks, der auf die ukrainischen Musiker ausgeübt wurde, kann die Tatsache angeführt werden, dass im Jahre 1979 der hervorragende ukrainische Komponist W. Iwasiuk unter unbekannten Umständen umgekommen ist, Komponist der Lieder Rote Note und Wodograj. In den 80er Jahren des 20. Jh. entwickelte sich das kulturelle Leben in ziemlich spezifischen Bedingungen. Es war der Zeitraum der sog. Stagnation der Zeit Breschnews, als sogar ideologische Organe der Macht mit tiefer Apathie, Zynismus und Skepsis umfasst wurden. In dieser Atmosphäre – trotz des scheinbaren Einverständnisses auf die sowjetische Ideologie, die für die Wendung in die Richtung der “nationalen Richtung“ bestrafte – die mutiger denkenden Künstler vereinigten sich in den Bemühungen der Einführung der nationalen Idee in die eigenen Werke. Diese Idee im geistigen Leben der Gesellschaft nahm immer mehr Gewicht an. Und obwohl, leider, diese Künstler nicht immer die Möglichkeit der Präsentation ihrer Kunst hatten, so war die Tatsache selbst der Existenz einer neuen Qualität im schöpferischen Gedanken nicht zu überschätzen. In der Konsequenz, obwohl der Zeitraum der sogenannten “Stagnationszeit” monoton erscheint, so konnte eben damals das Streben der Künstler zur Selbstbestimmung der eigenen schöpferischen Haltung bemerkt werden. Wichtig wird die Möglichkeit der internationalen Kontakte und der Fahrten zu den ausländischen Ausstellungen, obwohl das nach wie vor unter dem wachsamen Auge Moskaus stattfand. Die Änderungen, die sich im Leben der ukrainischen Gesellschaft nach dem Jahr 1990 vollzogen haben, waren vor allem mit dem “Umbau” verbunden, und dann dem Verfall der UdSSR und – in der Konsequenz dessen – der Erlangung der Unabhängigkeit der Ukraine im Jahre 1991. Damals kam die nächste Welle der nationalen Wiedergeburt. Eine deutliche Belebung des kulturellen Lebens umfasste allmählich die ganze Ukraine. Die komplizierten politischen Prozesse, die sich im Lande vollzogen haben, berührten alle Sphären des sozialen Lebens. Die Kultur und Kunst haben sich stufenweise von den im vorigen

190

maler ihre Suche und Experimente zu maskieren im Bereich der Bildkomposition, die traditionellen und neuartigen Realisierungen abzugrenzen und zusammenzustellen [Голубець, 2001]. In dieser Zeit, als die Malerei, Skulptur, Grafik der übermäßigen Ideologisierung unterlagen, fanden die bildenden Künstler, die sich des Stoffes, Glases, Holzes, der Keramik bedienten, originelle und einzigartige Formen der Verkörperung der künstlerischen Ideen; ihre Visionen, Inspirationen, fanden ihren Ausdruck in den originellen Gestalten und Kompositionen der Bilder. Die zwanzig Jahre, die der Regierungszeit von Chruschtschow (1965–1985) folgten, vergingen in der Ukraine unter dem Zeichen der ununterbrochenen Vertiefung der Krise der sowjetischen Gesellschaft, die alle Lebenssphären betraf – Politik, Ökonomie, soziale Beziehungen (zweifellos hatte sie auch Einfluss auf die Kultur). Das Regime begehrte, die unfruchtbaren Ideen zu stärken der “entwickelten sozialistischen Gesellschaft und ihrer Anerkennung als einer höheren Form der Zivilisation”. Die Bestellungen, die von den Gipfeln der Regierungsmacht an die Künstler flossen, verführten mit hohen Honoraren, Titeln, Würden. Die Kontrolle wurde über alle Kulturgebiete geführt. Ein Zeugnis über die Zunahme des Drucks auf die Schriftsteller wurde die Annahme des Beschlusses Über die literarisch-künstlerische Tätigkeit auf der Sitzung des Zentralkomitees der Kommunistischen Partei der Sowjetunion im März 1973, in dem eine größere Aktivität bei der Realisierung der ideellen Belehrungen der Partei gefordert wurde. Auf den Bühnen der Theater wurde die Aufführung der Vorstellungen, die die Mängel des bestehenden Systems demaskieren streng verboten. Das führte dazu, dass das ukrainische Theater immer mehr seine nationale Identität verlor, z.B. war unter den Kindertheatern in der ukrainischen Republik nur das Lemberger Theater ukrainisch, die übrigen – russisch. In dieser Zeit ist das ukrainische poetische Kino entstanden. Seine Anfänge verbinden sich mit solchen Filmen, wie Steinerndes Kreuz in der Regie von L. Osyka, Brunnen für Durstige von J. Illenko nach dem Drehbuch von I. Dracz, Babylon XX von I. Mykolajczuk oder Schatten vergessener Vorfahren von S. Paradzanow. Das Dasein dieser Filmwerke war nicht einfach – oft wurden sie nicht für die Regie- oder Schauspielerkunst beurteilt, sondern man hat sich durch die Reaktion der Regierungsmacht leiten lassen. Aus gleichem Grund war das Schicksal mancher hervorragenden Regisseure tragisch, z.B. der Filmregisseur von Weltrang der armenischen Abstammung S. Paradzanow wurde für viele Jahre von der Regierungsmacht für die


191

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

System geltenden Dogmen unabhängig gemacht, indem sie aufhörten, lediglich ein Werkzeug der herrschenden Ideologie zu sein. Sichtbar wurde die aktive Integration der ukrainischen Kunst und ihre Anwesenheit im weltweiten kulturellen Raum. Wie R. Jaciw bemerkt, kommt die Kunst immer mehr in den “Metapher-Entwicklungsstreifen” [Яців, 1991]. Es erfolgt eine wesentliche Wandlung der ästhetischen Werte, was mit den großen Veränderungen im künstlerischen Bewusstsein verbunden ist, die sich auf der Basis des völlig neuen Verständnisses des Wesens der Kunst vollzieht [Чегусова, 2003]. Die sozial-politischen Veränderungen und die Reformen des Zeitraums der unabhängigen Ukraine beeinflussten bedeutend die Entwicklung des kulturellen Lebens. Es erfolgte die Verstärkung des psychologischen Elements in der Kunst, sowie die Zunahme der Rolle des objektiven Faktors. Die Menschen, jahrelang der aggressiven Ideologisierung ausgesetzt, verloren das Gefühl der eigenen Würde, wie auch die Fähigkeit zum freien Ausdruck der authentischen Gefühle. Jetzt kamen die offiziell abgelehnten Werte zurück (moralische, ästhetische, sozial-ökonomische), indem sie eine Wandlung des sozialen Bewusstseins

verursachten und die Erneuerung des geistigen Elements. In den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh. wurde die “Aufhängung” zwischen zwei Wirklichkeiten charakteristisch: der im sowjetischen totalitären System formierten, sowie der zweiten, gestaltet im Ergebnis der Suche einer Alternative zu ihr. Die ukrainische Kultur ist heute komplex, voller Widersprüche, Polemiken, und gleichzeitig sehr dynamisch. Nicht selten können die sich heute vollziehenden Veränderungen nicht eindeutig beurteilt werden. Die Wahrheit ist jedoch so, dass es ein normaler Prozess ist in solchen Bedingungen (historischen und heutigen), wie die in der Ukraine herrschenden. Sicherlich wird viel Zeit vergehen, bevor die Historiker, Kulturwissenschaftler die moderne Kunst und Kultur der Ukraine charakterisieren und beurteilen werden. Wie ihre Zukunft wird, hängt von unserer Gesellschaft, von uns selbst ab. Besonders treffend scheinen hier die Worte des Klassikers der ukrainischen Geschichte I. Krypjakiewicz: “In unserer Kultur hat sich noch kein Stil gebildet. Wir haben viele wertvolle Eigenschaften, jedoch braucht es noch viele Bemühungen, dass sie zu einem harmonischen Ganzen zusammengeschlossen werden”[Яців, 1991].

// Дзвін.- №10.- 2002. Ільницький М. Літературний Львів і шістдесятництво - 2001. Голубець М. Між свободою і тоталітаризмом. - Львів. - №1. – 1962. Арндт Ю. Новая арх-ра и ее требования// ДИ СССР.

студії. – №1. – 1991. Яців Р. Ідеали повертайтеся, або ЛКУМ // Мистецькі ст. // Наукова збірка “Міст”. – К.: ВХ Студіо, 2003. декоративному мистецтві України 80-90-х рр. ХХ Чегусова З. Трансформація образу в професійному 1995. Савицкая В. Превращения шпалеры. – М.: Галарт,

Bibliografie Bibliografie Арндт Ю. Новая арх-ра и ее требования// ДИ СССР. - №1. – 1962. Голубець М. Між свободою і тоталітаризмом. - Львів. - 2001. Ільницький М. Літературний Львів і шістдесятництво // Дзвін.- №10.- 2002.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Савицкая В. Превращения шпалеры. – М.: Галарт, 1995. Чегусова З. Трансформація образу в професійному декоративному мистецтві України 80-90-х рр. ХХ ст. // Наукова збірка “Міст”. – К.: ВХ Студіо, 2003. Яців Р. Ідеали повертайтеся, або ЛКУМ // Мистецькі студії. – №1. – 1991.

191

System geltenden Dogmen unabhängig gemacht, indem sie aufhörten, lediglich ein Werkzeug der herrschenden Ideologie zu sein. Sichtbar wurde die aktive Integration der ukrainischen Kunst und ihre Anwesenheit im weltweiten kulturellen Raum. Wie R. Jaciw bemerkt, kommt die Kunst immer mehr in den “Metapher-Entwicklungsstreifen” [Яців, 1991]. Es erfolgt eine wesentliche Wandlung der ästhetischen Werte, was mit den großen Veränderungen im künstlerischen Bewusstsein verbunden ist, die sich auf der Basis des völlig neuen Verständnisses des Wesens der Kunst vollzieht [Чегусова, 2003]. Die sozial-politischen Veränderungen und die Reformen des Zeitraums der unabhängigen Ukraine beeinflussten bedeutend die Entwicklung des kulturellen Lebens. Es erfolgte die Verstärkung des psychologischen Elements in der Kunst, sowie die Zunahme der Rolle des objektiven Faktors. Die Menschen, jahrelang der aggressiven Ideologisierung ausgesetzt, verloren das Gefühl der eigenen Würde, wie auch die Fähigkeit zum freien Ausdruck der authentischen Gefühle. Jetzt kamen die offiziell abgelehnten Werte zurück (moralische, ästhetische, sozial-ökonomische), indem sie eine Wandlung des sozialen Bewusstseins

verursachten und die Erneuerung des geistigen Elements. In den 90er Jahren des 20. Jh. wurde die “Aufhängung” zwischen zwei Wirklichkeiten charakteristisch: der im sowjetischen totalitären System formierten, sowie der zweiten, gestaltet im Ergebnis der Suche einer Alternative zu ihr. Die ukrainische Kultur ist heute komplex, voller Widersprüche, Polemiken, und gleichzeitig sehr dynamisch. Nicht selten können die sich heute vollziehenden Veränderungen nicht eindeutig beurteilt werden. Die Wahrheit ist jedoch so, dass es ein normaler Prozess ist in solchen Bedingungen (historischen und heutigen), wie die in der Ukraine herrschenden. Sicherlich wird viel Zeit vergehen, bevor die Historiker, Kulturwissenschaftler die moderne Kunst und Kultur der Ukraine charakterisieren und beurteilen werden. Wie ihre Zukunft wird, hängt von unserer Gesellschaft, von uns selbst ab. Besonders treffend scheinen hier die Worte des Klassikers der ukrainischen Geschichte I. Krypjakiewicz: “In unserer Kultur hat sich noch kein Stil gebildet. Wir haben viele wertvolle Eigenschaften, jedoch braucht es noch viele Bemühungen, dass sie zu einem harmonischen Ganzen zusammengeschlossen werden”[Яців, 1991].


192

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Marta Materska–Samek

as Ende des 19. Jh. von den Gebrüdern Lumičre geschaffene Kino gehört zu den Kulturindustrien [Braun, Parker, 1993, S. 155–191] und ist gleichzeitig ständiges Objekt des Interventionismus und Protektionismus [Barth, 1998, S. 43]. Diese Charakteristik des Marktes erklärt zum Teil, warum Hollywood imstande war, sich so weit zu entwickeln, um nicht nur den heimatlichen Markt zu dominieren, sondern auch ausländische Märkte. Das Phänomen der monopolistischen Position der “Fabrik der Träume” ergibt sich aus der senkrechten Konzentration des Marktes (vertical integration), die Erwin A. Blackstone und Gary W. Bowman in ihrem Modell [Blackstone, Bowman, 1999, S. 123–130]. genau analysieren. Sie deuten auch darauf hin, dass die Kapitalkonzentration der Produktion–Distribution–Kinonutzung eine Kostensenkung der Kinokarte für die Filme vom Typ blockbuster um fast 30% erlaubt und hat die Folgen in der Verdoppelung der Zuschauerzahl. Das ist sehr wichtig, indem die hohen Produktionskosten und gemittelt das sehr niedrige Einspielergebnis berücksichtigt werden. Im Vergleich zu den kohärenten und konzentrierten Strukturen des Kinomarktes in den USA, ist der europäische Markt sehr geteilt. Eben die Hollywood-Studien kontrollieren die Distributionskanäle und haben einen bedeutenden Anteil im globalen Markt. Gemäß dem Bridge Media Bericht aus dem Jahre 1994, ausgeführt für die Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT) zwecks Darstellung vor der Mergers and Monopolies Commission (MMC) bildet das eine wirksame Barriere des Markteingangs: the integration of the US majors, combined with their massive share of the exhibition and distribution markets, places

Charakteristik der Kinoindustrie

D

D

192

Charakteristik der Kinoindustrie

D

Marta Materska-Samek Die Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität, wo sie ihre Doktorarbeit über Management von lokalen Kinos vorbereitet. Die Stipendiatin des Polnischen Programmes „Doctus Malopolski“ und des Stipendien- und Schulungsfonds im Rahmen von der 3. Aktivität Individuelle Stipendien, wo sie ein Stipendium für Forschung der lokalen Kinos in Norwegen erhielt. Die Expertin im Bereich Kinomanagement und Implementierung von neuen kinotechnischen Technologien, Vizepräsidentin der Stiftung für die Kinoentwicklung und Koordinatorin des Pilotprojekts „Diginalkino-Netzwerk in der Malopolska Region”.

ie Anzahl der lokalen Kinos in Polen, also Kinos, die das Eigentum der Selbstverwaltungen sind und die gleichzeitig in den Ortschaften bis 100 Tausend Einwohner wirken, wird immer geringer [www.stat.gov.pl]. Eine interessante Illustration dieser Erscheinung ist das Projekt “Hier war ein Kino”[ http://www. tubylokino.pl/web/artykul/ksiazka ], welches von seinem Schöpfer selbst das “Projekt über das Ende der Welt kleiner Kinos” genannt wird. Die Forscher streiten sich bis heute um die Quellen dieser negativen Tendenz, obwohl sich wenige von ihnen mit dieser Frage beschäftigt haben. Roger Bennet behaupte [Bennet, 2005, S. 391–401], dass solche Organisationen unter Konkurrenz-Kurzsichtigkeit leiden (competitive myopia). Lokale Kinos gehören zu der Gruppe unrühmlicher Beispiele des diagnostizierten Problems und die Schuld für ihren Fall soll im Fehlen der Organisationsänderungen und der Versuche der Anpassung an die aus der Umgebungen strömenden Herausforderungen gesehen werden. Damit diese Herausforderungen verstanden werden können ist eine genaue Analyse der Umgebung notwendig. Der bestehende Wissensstand im Bereich der Spezifik des Kinomarktes stammt hauptsächlich aus den Bearbeitungen der sich mit den Netzkinos beschäftigenden Personen. In der Literatur aus dem Bereich der Verwaltung mit Kultureinheiten fehlt eine Position, die sich mit dieser Thematik beschäftigen würde. Gleichzeitig ist das sehr wichtig aufgrund seines Applikationswertes nicht nur aus dem Gesichtspunkt der lokalen Gemeinschaften, denen der Ausschluss aus dem Zugang zur Kultur droht, sondern auch lokalen Administrationen, die verpflichtet sind, einen solchen Zugang zu sichern.

as Ende des 19. Jh. von den Gebrüdern Lumičre geschaffene Kino gehört zu den Kulturindustrien [Braun, Parker, 1993, S. 155–191] und ist gleichzeitig ständiges Objekt des Interventionismus und Protektionismus [Barth, 1998, S. 43]. Diese Charakteristik des Marktes erklärt zum Teil, warum Hollywood imstande war, sich so weit zu entwickeln, um nicht nur den heimatlichen Markt zu dominieren, sondern auch ausländische Märkte. Das Phänomen der monopolistischen Position der “Fabrik der Träume” ergibt sich aus der senkrechten Konzentration des Marktes (vertical integration), die Erwin A. Blackstone und Gary W. Bowman in ihrem Modell [Blackstone, Bowman, 1999, S. 123–130]. genau analysieren. Sie deuten auch darauf hin, dass die Kapitalkonzentration der Produktion–Distribution–Kinonutzung eine Kostensenkung der Kinokarte für die Filme vom Typ blockbuster um fast 30% erlaubt und hat die Folgen in der Verdoppelung der Zuschauerzahl. Das ist sehr wichtig, indem die hohen Produktionskosten und gemittelt das sehr niedrige Einspielergebnis berücksichtigt werden. Im Vergleich zu den kohärenten und konzentrierten Strukturen des Kinomarktes in den USA, ist der europäische Markt sehr geteilt. Eben die Hollywood-Studien kontrollieren die Distributionskanäle und haben einen bedeutenden Anteil im globalen Markt. Gemäß dem Bridge Media Bericht aus dem Jahre 1994, ausgeführt für die Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT) zwecks Darstellung vor der Mergers and Monopolies Commission (MMC) bildet das eine wirksame Barriere des Markteingangs: the integration of the US majors, combined with their massive share of the exhibition and distribution markets, places

D

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

ie Anzahl der lokalen Kinos in Polen, also Kinos, die das Eigentum der Selbstverwaltungen sind und die gleichzeitig in den Ortschaften bis 100 Tausend Einwohner wirken, wird immer geringer [www.stat.gov.pl]. Eine interessante Illustration dieser Erscheinung ist das Projekt “Hier war ein Kino”[ http://www. tubylokino.pl/web/artykul/ksiazka ], welches von seinem Schöpfer selbst das “Projekt über das Ende der Welt kleiner Kinos” genannt wird. Die Forscher streiten sich bis heute um die Quellen dieser negativen Tendenz, obwohl sich wenige von ihnen mit dieser Frage beschäftigt haben. Roger Bennet behaupte [Bennet, 2005, S. 391–401], dass solche Organisationen unter Konkurrenz-Kurzsichtigkeit leiden (competitive myopia). Lokale Kinos gehören zu der Gruppe unrühmlicher Beispiele des diagnostizierten Problems und die Schuld für ihren Fall soll im Fehlen der Organisationsänderungen und der Versuche der Anpassung an die aus der Umgebungen strömenden Herausforderungen gesehen werden. Damit diese Herausforderungen verstanden werden können ist eine genaue Analyse der Umgebung notwendig. Der bestehende Wissensstand im Bereich der Spezifik des Kinomarktes stammt hauptsächlich aus den Bearbeitungen der sich mit den Netzkinos beschäftigenden Personen. In der Literatur aus dem Bereich der Verwaltung mit Kultureinheiten fehlt eine Position, die sich mit dieser Thematik beschäftigen würde. Gleichzeitig ist das sehr wichtig aufgrund seines Applikationswertes nicht nur aus dem Gesichtspunkt der lokalen Gemeinschaften, denen der Ausschluss aus dem Zugang zur Kultur droht, sondern auch lokalen Administrationen, die verpflichtet sind, einen solchen Zugang zu sichern.

Marta Materska–Samek

Marta Materska-Samek Die Doktorandin an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität, wo sie ihre Doktorarbeit über Management von lokalen Kinos vorbereitet. Die Stipendiatin des Polnischen Programmes „Doctus Malopolski“ und des Stipendien- und Schulungsfonds im Rahmen von der 3. Aktivität Individuelle Stipendien, wo sie ein Stipendium für Forschung der lokalen Kinos in Norwegen erhielt. Die Expertin im Bereich Kinomanagement und Implementierung von neuen kinotechnischen Technologien, Vizepräsidentin der Stiftung für die Kinoentwicklung und Koordinatorin des Pilotprojekts „Diginalkino-Netzwerk in der Malopolska Region”.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens


193

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Der polnische Kinomarkt

D

er polnische Kinomarkt widerspiegelt die Welttendenzen. Der Anteil der amerikanischen Produktionen schwankt abhängig vom Jahr in den Grenzen 75-83 % des Boxoffice, und die großen Multiplex-Netze, die oft mit den höheren Kettengliedern der Werte verbunden sind, kontrollieren den Markt. Laut dem Bericht, welcher im Auftrag von CF Helios durchgeführt wurde, dem drittgrößten Betreiber von Multisaalkinos in Polen, geht man in den westeuropäischen Ländern über zwei Mal häufiger ins Kino, obwohl die Karten fast doppelt so teuer sind. In Polen fallen auf eine Leinwand 40 Tausend Zuschauer, während der Durchschnittwert der EU 15 Tausend beträgt und ähnlich sieht die Situation bei unseren südlichen Nachbarn aus. Der statistische Pole geht 0,8 Mal im Jahr ins Kino, während diese Ziffer in Norwegen über drei Mal höher ist. Im Zusammenhang damit schlummert im polnischen Markt ein großes Entwicklungspotential, was auf der Grundlage der Daten aus den letzten Jahren ersichtlich ist. Seit dem Jahr 2000, stieg in Polen die Anzahl der Kinoleinwände infolge der Investition des Multiplex-Netzes um etwa 160 und gegenwärtig gibt es etwa 980. Das ist viel mehr als in Finnland,

Moderne Technologien, digitales Kino (d-cinema) genannt, umfassen den Einsatz von digitalen Projektoren, das moderne digitale Beschallungssystem, sowie setzen den Verzicht auf die 35 mm Filmkopie als Filmträger voraus, dafür die Ausnutzung der Filmkopie (DCP- Digital Cinema Package). Die auf dem DCP enthaltenen Daten (Bilder, Ton und Untertitel) sollen den Anforderungen entsprechen, die in der “Spezifikation des Systems des digitalen Kinos” enthalten sind, herausgegeben im Juli 2005 durch DCI. Digitales Kino (d-cinema) nutzt die digitalen Projektoren statt den analogen aus. Es ist imstande große Dateien zu speichern, zu übertragen und vorzuführen, so wie sie aufgenommen wurden. In diesem Fall gibt es keine Möglichkeit des Verbrauchs des Trägers. Die Kette des digitalen Kinos beginnt mit der Entstehung des Filmwerkes in digitaler Technik, seiner Postproduktion, Distribution und Vorführung mit dem Einsatz der Dateien statt des 35 mm Bandes.

1

2

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

1 Moderne Technologien, digitales Kino (d-cinema) genannt, umfassen den Einsatz von digitalen Projektoren, das moderne digitale Beschallungssystem, sowie setzen den Verzicht auf die 35 mm Filmkopie als Filmträger voraus, dafür die Ausnutzung der Filmkopie (DCP- Digital Cinema Package). Die auf dem DCP enthaltenen Daten (Bilder, Ton und Untertitel) sollen den Anforderungen entsprechen, die in der “Spezifikation des Systems des digitalen Kinos” enthalten sind, herausgegeben im Juli 2005 durch DCI. Digitales Kino (d-cinema) nutzt die digitalen Projektoren statt den analogen aus. Es ist imstande große Dateien zu speichern, zu übertragen und vorzuführen, so wie sie aufgenommen wurden. In diesem Fall gibt es keine Möglichkeit des Verbrauchs des Trägers. Die Kette des digitalen Kinos beginnt mit der Entstehung des Filmwerkes in digitaler Technik, seiner Postproduktion, Distribution und Vorführung mit dem Einsatz der Dateien statt des 35 mm Bandes.

Marta Materska–Samek

verliehen (cultural exception)2. In der Begründung wurde auf die Notwendigkeit des Schutzes der europäischen Sprachen, der Identität und der Kultur verwiesen, die mit Vermittlung von Film verbreitet wurden. Die Europäische Kommission, indem sie das Programm MEDIA ins Leben berufen hat, bestimmte das Ziel seiner Wirkung als das Hochheben der Qualität und der Konkurrenzfähigkeit der audiovisuellen Industrie, sowie die Vergrößerung der Distribution der europäischen Filme [Media Programme, 1992, S. 5].

Marta Materska–Samek

2

Der Begriff cultural exception besitzt französische Quellen und verbindet sich unzertrennlich mit der Filmindustrie. Frankreich, wo das Kino seine ersten Schritte machte, hatte seit jeher künstlerische Bestrebungen. In den 20er und 30er Jahren schufen die Schöpfer, wie: Jean Renoir, René Clair und Marcel Carné die Legende der französischen Kinematografie. In der gleichen Zeit hatte in den Vereinigten Staaten das Kino ausschließlich ökonomische Bedeutung. Aufgrund des Ausbruchs des 2. Weltkrieges existierte die Kinematografie fast ausschließlich in Amerika, wo sie sich dynamisch entwickelte und an Stärke wuchs, damit sie in den 40er und 50er Jahren jährlich sogar 400 Produktionen fertig stellte. Nach der Beendigung des Krieges hat Frankreich als erster europäischer Staat begonnen, mit der Vorherrschaft der Vereinigten Staaten zu kämpfen, indem es 1945 ein öffentliches System der Finanzierung der Kinematografie eingeführt hat und gleichzeitig l’exception culturelle beschlossen hat. S. Regourd L’Exception culturelle PUF, coll. « Que sais-je ? », Paris, 2002

Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens

insuperable obstacles in the way of new entrants to those markets [PACT/MMC, 1994, S. 49]. Jedoch wies dieser Bericht nicht auf, dass die Dominierung der “Majores” auf dem Markt die Rechte verletzt, betreffend den freien Wettbewerb. Die Dominanz von Hollywood ergibt sich nicht ausschließlich aus der vertikalen Konzentration. Sie verbindet sich auch mit der Kontrolle der ausgenutzten Technologie [Robinson, 1996]. Wie Robinson beschreibt, hat der Erfinder Edison, indem er seine Erfindungen patentierte und im Jahre 1909 eine strukturierte Industrie schuf, allgemein The Trust (the Motion Picture Patents Company) genannt, hat große Verdienste in der Entwicklung des zweiten weltweiten Clusters nach Silicon Valley. In der Opposition zu dem Trust von Edison schufen zehn unabhängige Organisationen eine schlüssige Opposition und platzierten ihre Produktionsstudios auf den Hügeln im Staat Kalifornien, da dieser Staat die Patentrechte von Edison nicht respektierte. Gegenwärtig dank dem Mehrheitsanteil am globalen Markt kontrolliert Hollywood das Format der Distribution und der Vorführung der Filme und gleichzeitig entscheidet es über die Einführung des Digitalkinosystemstandards (d-cinema)1 dessen hohe Einkaufskosten meistens die Kinos tragen. Bis 1947, also bis zur Entstehung von General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), ließ sich die Kinoindustrie von den Rechten des freien Marktes leiten. Dann wurden dem HollywoodKino spezielle Schutzrechte verliehen, indem sich auf die erlittenen Verluste während des 2. Weltkriegs berufen wurde und die Bedeutung des Kinos in der Gestaltung von Bürgereinstellungen [Litman, 1998]. In Beantwortung der amerikanischen Politik haben die Franzosen unter der Leitung von André Malraux und aus Inspiration von David Puttnam der europäischen audiovisuellen Industrie den Status der kulturellen Ausnahme

Der Begriff cultural exception besitzt französische Quellen und verbindet sich unzertrennlich mit der Filmindustrie. Frankreich, wo das Kino seine ersten Schritte machte, hatte seit jeher künstlerische Bestrebungen. In den 20er und 30er Jahren schufen die Schöpfer, wie: Jean Renoir, René Clair und Marcel Carné die Legende der französischen Kinematografie. In der gleichen Zeit hatte in den Vereinigten Staaten das Kino ausschließlich ökonomische Bedeutung. Aufgrund des Ausbruchs des 2. Weltkrieges existierte die Kinematografie fast ausschließlich in Amerika, wo sie sich dynamisch entwickelte und an Stärke wuchs, damit sie in den 40er und 50er Jahren jährlich sogar 400 Produktionen fertig stellte. Nach der Beendigung des Krieges hat Frankreich als erster europäischer Staat begonnen, mit der Vorherrschaft der Vereinigten Staaten zu kämpfen, indem es 1945 ein öffentliches System der Finanzierung der Kinematografie eingeführt hat und gleichzeitig l’exception culturelle beschlossen hat. S. Regourd L’Exception culturelle PUF, coll. « Que sais-je ? », Paris, 2002

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

193

insuperable obstacles in the way of new entrants to those markets [PACT/MMC, 1994, S. 49]. Jedoch wies dieser Bericht nicht auf, dass die Dominierung der “Majores” auf dem Markt die Rechte verletzt, betreffend den freien Wettbewerb. Die Dominanz von Hollywood ergibt sich nicht ausschließlich aus der vertikalen Konzentration. Sie verbindet sich auch mit der Kontrolle der ausgenutzten Technologie [Robinson, 1996]. Wie Robinson beschreibt, hat der Erfinder Edison, indem er seine Erfindungen patentierte und im Jahre 1909 eine strukturierte Industrie schuf, allgemein The Trust (the Motion Picture Patents Company) genannt, hat große Verdienste in der Entwicklung des zweiten weltweiten Clusters nach Silicon Valley. In der Opposition zu dem Trust von Edison schufen zehn unabhängige Organisationen eine schlüssige Opposition und platzierten ihre Produktionsstudios auf den Hügeln im Staat Kalifornien, da dieser Staat die Patentrechte von Edison nicht respektierte. Gegenwärtig dank dem Mehrheitsanteil am globalen Markt kontrolliert Hollywood das Format der Distribution und der Vorführung der Filme und gleichzeitig entscheidet es über die Einführung des Digitalkinosystemstandards (d-cinema)1 dessen hohe Einkaufskosten meistens die Kinos tragen. Bis 1947, also bis zur Entstehung von General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), ließ sich die Kinoindustrie von den Rechten des freien Marktes leiten. Dann wurden dem HollywoodKino spezielle Schutzrechte verliehen, indem sich auf die erlittenen Verluste während des 2. Weltkriegs berufen wurde und die Bedeutung des Kinos in der Gestaltung von Bürgereinstellungen [Litman, 1998]. In Beantwortung der amerikanischen Politik haben die Franzosen unter der Leitung von André Malraux und aus Inspiration von David Puttnam der europäischen audiovisuellen Industrie den Status der kulturellen Ausnahme

er polnische Kinomarkt widerspiegelt die Welttendenzen. Der Anteil der amerikanischen Produktionen schwankt abhängig vom Jahr in den Grenzen 75-83 % des Boxoffice, und die großen Multiplex-Netze, die oft mit den höheren Kettengliedern der Werte verbunden sind, kontrollieren den Markt. Laut dem Bericht, welcher im Auftrag von CF Helios durchgeführt wurde, dem drittgrößten Betreiber von Multisaalkinos in Polen, geht man in den westeuropäischen Ländern über zwei Mal häufiger ins Kino, obwohl die Karten fast doppelt so teuer sind. In Polen fallen auf eine Leinwand 40 Tausend Zuschauer, während der Durchschnittwert der EU 15 Tausend beträgt und ähnlich sieht die Situation bei unseren südlichen Nachbarn aus. Der statistische Pole geht 0,8 Mal im Jahr ins Kino, während diese Ziffer in Norwegen über drei Mal höher ist. Im Zusammenhang damit schlummert im polnischen Markt ein großes Entwicklungspotential, was auf der Grundlage der Daten aus den letzten Jahren ersichtlich ist. Seit dem Jahr 2000, stieg in Polen die Anzahl der Kinoleinwände infolge der Investition des Multiplex-Netzes um etwa 160 und gegenwärtig gibt es etwa 980. Das ist viel mehr als in Finnland,

D

Der polnische Kinomarkt verliehen (cultural exception)2. In der Begründung wurde auf die Notwendigkeit des Schutzes der europäischen Sprachen, der Identität und der Kultur verwiesen, die mit Vermittlung von Film verbreitet wurden. Die Europäische Kommission, indem sie das Programm MEDIA ins Leben berufen hat, bestimmte das Ziel seiner Wirkung als das Hochheben der Qualität und der Konkurrenzfähigkeit der audiovisuellen Industrie, sowie die Vergrößerung der Distribution der europäischen Filme [Media Programme, 1992, S. 5].


194

M

Digitalisierung des Kinos Bergen. Außer der demografischen Bedingtheit hatte einen das im Jahre 1913 eingeführte Recht, welches das Lizenzieren der Kinotätigkeiten durch die lokalen Selbstverwaltungen bestimmte, wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos. Ein paar Jahre später entschieden die lokalen Selbstverwaltungen über die Erschaffung des Kommunale Kinematografers Landsforbund also des nationalen Verbundes der lokalen Kinos, welcher sich nach vielen Jahren in Film&Kino umbenannte. Gegenwärtig versammelt F&K 149 Mitglieder, verwaltet den Norwegischen Fond für Kino und Film, in dessen Namen, gemäß dem norwegischen Recht, 2,5 Prozent der Einkünfte aus dem Verkauf der Kinokarten sowie 3,5 % vom Verkauf und der Ausleihe von Video/DVD erhoben werden. Im Hintergrund anderer europäischen Länder ist das norwegische System der lokalen Kinos in Form des horizontalen Netzes, welches von einer in diesem Bereich spezialisierte Organisation verwaltet wird, eine Sensation. Keins der Länder außer Norwegen entwickelte das Modell der Verwaltung mit lokalen Kinos, indem strategische Innovationen ausgenutzt werden, die durch kommerzielle Netze der Multiplexkinos verwendet werden, jedoch kommt ihnen die Identität der lokalen Kinos nicht abhanden. Auch keines von den nationalen Filminstituten bereitete ein Programm der Änderungen vor, die alle Kinos auf dem Markt an die Herausforderungen anpassen, die mit der technologischen Änderungen verbunden sind.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

aber vier Mal weniger als in Spanien [http://epp. eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/culture/data/cultural_participation ]. Alle kommerziellen Netze entwickeln sich in den Städten über 100 Tausend Einwohner, indem sie 4/5 der Fläche Polens außerhalb des Interesses lassen [Battek, Materska-Samek, 2008], was eine krasse Disproportion zwischen dem Zugang zum Kinoangebot unter den Metropolen, großen, einst Wojewodschaftsstädten und den kleineren Ortschaften zur Folge hat. Zusätzlich muss die Mehrheit der Polen, die außerhalb der Metropolen wohnt, um einen Premierenfilm anzusehen, eine Distanz von über 50 km bewältigen, welche eine wirksame Entfernungsbarriere bildet, die das Fehlen oder einen sehr kleinen Wert der Teilnahme an der Kultur beeinflusst. Das Fehlen des aktuellen Angebots der traditionellen Kinos ergibt sich aus der Tatsache ihres Wirkens in kleineren Ortschaften, was sich direkt auf ihre Einkünfte umsetzt. Die Distributoren der Filme, aufgrund der Kapitalzusammenhänge und dem Niveau der Einkommen aus den Karten in den lokalen Kinos entscheiden über die Übergabe einer 35 mm Filmkopie in die Kinos in kleineren Ortschaften erst im Moment, wenn der Film schon kein Publikum in den großen Städten versammelt, also sogar nach ein paar Monaten seit der Premiere. Daraus kann geschlossen werden, dass die Führung der Kinotätigkeit in kleineren Ortschaften nicht imstande ist, Gewinne zu garantieren, die eine Rückerstattung der Investitionskosten versichern würden. In dieser dramatischen Situation, die aus dem Zugang zur Kinokultur fast die Hälfte der Bürger eliminiert, unternehmen die lokalen Selbstverwaltungen die Aufgabe der Verbreitung der Filmkultur, indem sie im Rahmen der Gemeindekulturinstitutionen lokales Kino organisieren. Leider sind diese Tätigkeiten horizontal nicht koordiniert und zeichnen sich durch eine niedrige Stufe an Professionalismus aus.

194

oderne Technologien, welche Digitalkino (d-cinema) genannt werden, umfassen mit ihrem Umfang den Einsatz der digitalen Projektoren, des modernen digitalen Beschallungssystems, sowie setzen den Verzicht auf die Filmkopie 35 mm als Filmträger voraus, und dafür die Ausnutzung der Filmkopie in Form der Datei (DCP- Digital Cinema Package). Die Daten, enthalten auf DCP (Bilder, Ton und Aufschriften) sollen den Anforderungen entsprechen, die in der “Spezifikation des Systems des digitalen Kinos” [www.dcimovies.com] enthalten sind, herausgegeben im Juli 2005 durch Digital Cinema Iniciatives. DCI ist eine Organisation, welche im Jahre 2002 durch die sieben größte Filmhersteller aus Hollywood: Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal und Warner Bros gebildet wurde. Sie wurde berufen, um die gemeinsamen technischen, sowie qualitativen Lösungen zu erarbeiten, die erlauben werden, die Qualität

Norwegische lokale Kinos

orwegen hat 4,5 Millionen Einwohner und 234 Kinos (440 Leinwände), was es auf den dritten Platz in Europa bringt, die Einwohnerzahl umgerechnet pro Kino (11 454). Obwohl die Jahresfrequenz in den Kinos 12 Millionen beträgt, sind lediglich 15 Kinos von 234 imstande, sich alleine zu finanzieren [Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008]. Es ist auch ein Land mit dem weltweit höchsten Anteil der lokalen Kinos, denn es besitzt lediglich ein paar kommerzielle Kinos, die in den größten Ortschaften wirken - Oslo und

M

N

N

Digitalisierung des Kinos

oderne Technologien, welche Digitalkino (d-cinema) genannt werden, umfassen mit ihrem Umfang den Einsatz der digitalen Projektoren, des modernen digitalen Beschallungssystems, sowie setzen den Verzicht auf die Filmkopie 35 mm als Filmträger voraus, und dafür die Ausnutzung der Filmkopie in Form der Datei (DCP- Digital Cinema Package). Die Daten, enthalten auf DCP (Bilder, Ton und Aufschriften) sollen den Anforderungen entsprechen, die in der “Spezifikation des Systems des digitalen Kinos” [www.dcimovies.com] enthalten sind, herausgegeben im Juli 2005 durch Digital Cinema Iniciatives. DCI ist eine Organisation, welche im Jahre 2002 durch die sieben größte Filmhersteller aus Hollywood: Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal und Warner Bros gebildet wurde. Sie wurde berufen, um die gemeinsamen technischen, sowie qualitativen Lösungen zu erarbeiten, die erlauben werden, die Qualität

Norwegische lokale Kinos

Bergen. Außer der demografischen Bedingtheit hatte einen das im Jahre 1913 eingeführte Recht, welches das Lizenzieren der Kinotätigkeiten durch die lokalen Selbstverwaltungen bestimmte, wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos. Ein paar Jahre später entschieden die lokalen Selbstverwaltungen über die Erschaffung des Kommunale Kinematografers Landsforbund also des nationalen Verbundes der lokalen Kinos, welcher sich nach vielen Jahren in Film&Kino umbenannte. Gegenwärtig versammelt F&K 149 Mitglieder, verwaltet den Norwegischen Fond für Kino und Film, in dessen Namen, gemäß dem norwegischen Recht, 2,5 Prozent der Einkünfte aus dem Verkauf der Kinokarten sowie 3,5 % vom Verkauf und der Ausleihe von Video/DVD erhoben werden. Im Hintergrund anderer europäischen Länder ist das norwegische System der lokalen Kinos in Form des horizontalen Netzes, welches von einer in diesem Bereich spezialisierte Organisation verwaltet wird, eine Sensation. Keins der Länder außer Norwegen entwickelte das Modell der Verwaltung mit lokalen Kinos, indem strategische Innovationen ausgenutzt werden, die durch kommerzielle Netze der Multiplexkinos verwendet werden, jedoch kommt ihnen die Identität der lokalen Kinos nicht abhanden. Auch keines von den nationalen Filminstituten bereitete ein Programm der Änderungen vor, die alle Kinos auf dem Markt an die Herausforderungen anpassen, die mit der technologischen Änderungen verbunden sind.

orwegen hat 4,5 Millionen Einwohner und 234 Kinos (440 Leinwände), was es auf den dritten Platz in Europa bringt, die Einwohnerzahl umgerechnet pro Kino (11 454). Obwohl die Jahresfrequenz in den Kinos 12 Millionen beträgt, sind lediglich 15 Kinos von 234 imstande, sich alleine zu finanzieren [Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008]. Es ist auch ein Land mit dem weltweit höchsten Anteil der lokalen Kinos, denn es besitzt lediglich ein paar kommerzielle Kinos, die in den größten Ortschaften wirken - Oslo und

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

aber vier Mal weniger als in Spanien [http://epp. eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/culture/data/cultural_participation ]. Alle kommerziellen Netze entwickeln sich in den Städten über 100 Tausend Einwohner, indem sie 4/5 der Fläche Polens außerhalb des Interesses lassen [Battek, Materska-Samek, 2008], was eine krasse Disproportion zwischen dem Zugang zum Kinoangebot unter den Metropolen, großen, einst Wojewodschaftsstädten und den kleineren Ortschaften zur Folge hat. Zusätzlich muss die Mehrheit der Polen, die außerhalb der Metropolen wohnt, um einen Premierenfilm anzusehen, eine Distanz von über 50 km bewältigen, welche eine wirksame Entfernungsbarriere bildet, die das Fehlen oder einen sehr kleinen Wert der Teilnahme an der Kultur beeinflusst. Das Fehlen des aktuellen Angebots der traditionellen Kinos ergibt sich aus der Tatsache ihres Wirkens in kleineren Ortschaften, was sich direkt auf ihre Einkünfte umsetzt. Die Distributoren der Filme, aufgrund der Kapitalzusammenhänge und dem Niveau der Einkommen aus den Karten in den lokalen Kinos entscheiden über die Übergabe einer 35 mm Filmkopie in die Kinos in kleineren Ortschaften erst im Moment, wenn der Film schon kein Publikum in den großen Städten versammelt, also sogar nach ein paar Monaten seit der Premiere. Daraus kann geschlossen werden, dass die Führung der Kinotätigkeit in kleineren Ortschaften nicht imstande ist, Gewinne zu garantieren, die eine Rückerstattung der Investitionskosten versichern würden. In dieser dramatischen Situation, die aus dem Zugang zur Kinokultur fast die Hälfte der Bürger eliminiert, unternehmen die lokalen Selbstverwaltungen die Aufgabe der Verbreitung der Filmkultur, indem sie im Rahmen der Gemeindekulturinstitutionen lokales Kino organisieren. Leider sind diese Tätigkeiten horizontal nicht koordiniert und zeichnen sich durch eine niedrige Stufe an Professionalismus aus.


195

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

des in den Kinos gezeigten Films zu heben, die Distributionskosten senken, sowie die Möglichkeiten einer breiteren Verbreitung geben, indem die unbegrenzte Filmanzahl im ersten Umlauf versichert wird. Die “Spezifikation des Systems des Digitalen Kinos” präzisiert genaue Anforderungen betreffend Auflösung, Farbe, Kompression, Dateiformat und die Sicherheit. Lediglich die Kinos, die das digitale System gemäß der DCI-Spezifikation besitzen, dürfen die Hollywood-Produktionen vorführen. In der Technologie des digitalen Kinos (d-cinema) gibt es keine Möglichkeit, den Träger abzunutzen, denn er ist eine Datei und kein Filmband. Dank der Verringerung der Kosten der Anfertigung einer Filmkopie und des Transports kann das Kino auf die Filme im sog. “ersten Umlauf“ rechnen, ein interessanteres Repertoire haben, wichtige kulturelle, soziale und Sportereignisse senden und ein Multimedien-Kulturzentrum werden. Die Kette des digitalen Kinos beginnt mit der Entstehung des Filmwerkes in der digitalen Technik, seiner Postproduktion, Distribution und Vorführung unter Einsatz von Dateien statt dem 35 mm Film. Langfristig werden die Inhalte, die beim Distributor verarbeitet werden, auf dem Satellitenweg oder per Breitbandnetz an die Kinos geschickt. Derzeit wird der physische Transfer der Festplatten verwendet. Jede von diesen Tätigkeiten erfordert spezialisierte Geräte. Im Prozess der Postproduktion ist unentbehrlich die Versicherung der Möglichkeit der Lagerung der Dateien mit vielen Versionen des gleichen Films, verschiedenen Tonspuren und Aufschriften. Der Distributor dagegen muss Geräte besitzen, die die Kompression der Dateien ermöglichen, die eine der Filmversionen enthalten und ihr Abschicken mit Hilfe des Satellitenweges oder Festplatten an die Abnehmer-Kinos. Diese dagegen sind gezwungen, unabhängig von der Platzmenge im Saal, einen Server mit entsprechender Software und Lagerungsmöglichkeiten zu besitzen. Notwendig ist auch die Sicherung im Falle einer fehlenden Energieversorgung, damit ein geschicktes Funktionieren und die Filmvorführungen gewährleistet werden. Das digitale Kino, welches dreidimensionale Filme (3D) zeigen möchte, muss ein spezielles System installieren. Zu einem solchen System gehören z.B. der Infrarot-Sender, angeschlossen an den Projektor, spezielle Brille, sowie

3 4

– in Abhängigkeit von der Technologie – eine aktive Leinwand, Silberleinwand (silver screen) genannt. Zugängliche Systeme können in zwei Arten geteilt werden: diese, die den Umtausch der Leinwand in die Silberleinwand erfordern, sowie solche, wo die aktive Rolle die Brille – die das Signal vom Infrarotsender empfängt und die, die abwechselnd mal mit dem linken, mal mit dem rechten Auge steuert oder die Farben filtriert – erfüllt. Der Einsatz der Technologie des digitalen Kinos, sowie der Geräte, die den Anforderungen der “Spezifikation des Systems des Digitalen Kinos” entsprechen, unterliegt keiner Diskussion aufgrund der Vorführung der amerikanischen Filme, die über 75% des Kinorepertoires bestimmen. Soweit sich die Anpassung des lokalen Kinos zur Vorführung der Filme auf digitale Art mit den Auflagen von etwa 500 Tausend Zloty Brutto3 verbindet, so ist eine relativ kleine Auflage der Kauf des Systems für die dreidimensionalen Filmvorführungen4. Er erlaubt den Zuschauern die Produkte mit größerem Zugabewert anzubieten und sie höher zu beurteilen. Wie die Boxoffice zeigen, erfreuen sich diese Filme von drei bis vier Mal größerer Besucherzahl als ihre zweidimendionalen Entsprechungen [http://www.digitalcinemainfo. com/reald_06_29_09.php]. Wie die größten Studios ankündigen, die die Kinderfilme herstellen (Disney, Pixar und Dreamworks) werden bald alle ihre Filme ausschließlich in den 3D-Versionen auf den Markt kommen. Im Bereich der dreidimensionalen Vorführungen sind die Kinos nicht durch die Richtlinien der Spezifikation gebunden, und die Wahl des Systems hängt von seinem Preis und der Universalität in der Verbindung mit verschiedenen Modellen der Server und Projektoren ab. Es gibt ein paar 3D-Systeme, und zu den wichtigsten Lieferanten gehören: RealD, Expand (funktionierend früher unter dem Namen Nuvision) und Dolby. Die Tabelle unterhalb zeigt die Unterschiede dieser Systeme. Die Digitalisierung und die Möglichkeit der Ausstattung der Kinos in das System für die dreidimensionale Vorführung ist eine gewaltige Herausforderung, welche vor den lokalen Kinos steht – eine Chance für die bessere Realisierung der Mission der Kulturinstitution, im Rahmen dessen das Kino wirkt, sowie der Gefährdung der weiteren Tätigkeit in der gegenwärtigen Form.

Die Daten stammen aus dem Budget des Projekts “Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych” (Kleinpolennetz der digitalen Kinos)

Etwa 70 Tausend Zloty je nach Typ und Menge der Brillen

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

195

4

Etwa 70 Tausend Zloty je nach Typ und Menge der Brillen

3

Die Daten stammen aus dem Budget des Projekts “Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych” (Kleinpolennetz der digitalen Kinos)

des in den Kinos gezeigten Films zu heben, die Distributionskosten senken, sowie die Möglichkeiten einer breiteren Verbreitung geben, indem die unbegrenzte Filmanzahl im ersten Umlauf versichert wird. Die “Spezifikation des Systems des Digitalen Kinos” präzisiert genaue Anforderungen betreffend Auflösung, Farbe, Kompression, Dateiformat und die Sicherheit. Lediglich die Kinos, die das digitale System gemäß der DCI-Spezifikation besitzen, dürfen die Hollywood-Produktionen vorführen. In der Technologie des digitalen Kinos (d-cinema) gibt es keine Möglichkeit, den Träger abzunutzen, denn er ist eine Datei und kein Filmband. Dank der Verringerung der Kosten der Anfertigung einer Filmkopie und des Transports kann das Kino auf die Filme im sog. “ersten Umlauf“ rechnen, ein interessanteres Repertoire haben, wichtige kulturelle, soziale und Sportereignisse senden und ein Multimedien-Kulturzentrum werden. Die Kette des digitalen Kinos beginnt mit der Entstehung des Filmwerkes in der digitalen Technik, seiner Postproduktion, Distribution und Vorführung unter Einsatz von Dateien statt dem 35 mm Film. Langfristig werden die Inhalte, die beim Distributor verarbeitet werden, auf dem Satellitenweg oder per Breitbandnetz an die Kinos geschickt. Derzeit wird der physische Transfer der Festplatten verwendet. Jede von diesen Tätigkeiten erfordert spezialisierte Geräte. Im Prozess der Postproduktion ist unentbehrlich die Versicherung der Möglichkeit der Lagerung der Dateien mit vielen Versionen des gleichen Films, verschiedenen Tonspuren und Aufschriften. Der Distributor dagegen muss Geräte besitzen, die die Kompression der Dateien ermöglichen, die eine der Filmversionen enthalten und ihr Abschicken mit Hilfe des Satellitenweges oder Festplatten an die Abnehmer-Kinos. Diese dagegen sind gezwungen, unabhängig von der Platzmenge im Saal, einen Server mit entsprechender Software und Lagerungsmöglichkeiten zu besitzen. Notwendig ist auch die Sicherung im Falle einer fehlenden Energieversorgung, damit ein geschicktes Funktionieren und die Filmvorführungen gewährleistet werden. Das digitale Kino, welches dreidimensionale Filme (3D) zeigen möchte, muss ein spezielles System installieren. Zu einem solchen System gehören z.B. der Infrarot-Sender, angeschlossen an den Projektor, spezielle Brille, sowie

– in Abhängigkeit von der Technologie – eine aktive Leinwand, Silberleinwand (silver screen) genannt. Zugängliche Systeme können in zwei Arten geteilt werden: diese, die den Umtausch der Leinwand in die Silberleinwand erfordern, sowie solche, wo die aktive Rolle die Brille – die das Signal vom Infrarotsender empfängt und die, die abwechselnd mal mit dem linken, mal mit dem rechten Auge steuert oder die Farben filtriert – erfüllt. Der Einsatz der Technologie des digitalen Kinos, sowie der Geräte, die den Anforderungen der “Spezifikation des Systems des Digitalen Kinos” entsprechen, unterliegt keiner Diskussion aufgrund der Vorführung der amerikanischen Filme, die über 75% des Kinorepertoires bestimmen. Soweit sich die Anpassung des lokalen Kinos zur Vorführung der Filme auf digitale Art mit den Auflagen von etwa 500 Tausend Zloty Brutto3 verbindet, so ist eine relativ kleine Auflage der Kauf des Systems für die dreidimensionalen Filmvorführungen4. Er erlaubt den Zuschauern die Produkte mit größerem Zugabewert anzubieten und sie höher zu beurteilen. Wie die Boxoffice zeigen, erfreuen sich diese Filme von drei bis vier Mal größerer Besucherzahl als ihre zweidimendionalen Entsprechungen [http://www.digitalcinemainfo. com/reald_06_29_09.php]. Wie die größten Studios ankündigen, die die Kinderfilme herstellen (Disney, Pixar und Dreamworks) werden bald alle ihre Filme ausschließlich in den 3D-Versionen auf den Markt kommen. Im Bereich der dreidimensionalen Vorführungen sind die Kinos nicht durch die Richtlinien der Spezifikation gebunden, und die Wahl des Systems hängt von seinem Preis und der Universalität in der Verbindung mit verschiedenen Modellen der Server und Projektoren ab. Es gibt ein paar 3D-Systeme, und zu den wichtigsten Lieferanten gehören: RealD, Expand (funktionierend früher unter dem Namen Nuvision) und Dolby. Die Tabelle unterhalb zeigt die Unterschiede dieser Systeme. Die Digitalisierung und die Möglichkeit der Ausstattung der Kinos in das System für die dreidimensionale Vorführung ist eine gewaltige Herausforderung, welche vor den lokalen Kinos steht – eine Chance für die bessere Realisierung der Mission der Kulturinstitution, im Rahmen dessen das Kino wirkt, sowie der Gefährdung der weiteren Tätigkeit in der gegenwärtigen Form.


196

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Tabelle 1. Vergleich der 3D-Systeme

Z-screen ist ein Adapter auf dem Projektorobjektiv, der die Polarisierung für das linke und rechte Auge synchronisiert.

5

196

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Tabelle 1. Vergleich der 3D-Systeme

Dolby Z-screen ist ein Adapter auf dem Projektorobjektiv, der die Polarisierung für das linke und rechte Auge synchronisiert.

5

REAL D

ie lokalen Kinos sind im wesentlichen Teil unrentable Objekte, die mitfinanziert werden aus dem Subjektzuschuss vom Organisator. Das ergibt sich hauptsächlich aus ihrem Standort in den Ortschaften bis 100 Tausend Einwohner, die eine Rentabilitätsschwelle für diese Tätigkeit nicht garantiert. Die finanziellen Schwierigkeiten ergeben sich auch aus den Problemen, die mit der Gewinnung der Filmkopien von den Distributoren zusammenhängen, was oft in ein wenig attraktives, nicht aktuelles Angebot übersetzt wird, das Fehlen ausreichender finanziellen Mittel, die die Investitionen in die neuen Technologien erlauben, die fehlenden Mittel für die Werbung und die Promotion, niedriger Standard der Gebäude und der Ausstattung. Zu den wichtigsten Barrieren der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos soll also die finanzielle Barriere gerechnet werden. Der weitere Faktor ist das Fehlen der entsprechenden technischen Geräte, die erlauben würden, das Kino für die alternativen Tätigkeiten auszunutzen. Das System des digitalen Kinos ermöglicht die Organisierung der interaktiven Werkstätten, Konferenzen, Sessionen, der sog. question & answers mit bekannten Personen, 3D-Vorführungen, Übertragung der Weltkulturereignisse. Eine andere Barriere ist die Kinoarchitektur, angelehnt an einen großen Saal. Kommerzielle Kinos führten in den 90er Jahren ein, wie das genau Le Roy [Le Roy, 2005, S. 97–116] analysiert, eine Innovation, die auf den speziell projektierten Mehr-Saal-Kinoobjekten beruht, die den Raumverlust minimalisiert durch größere Überhöhungen in den Sälen, spezielle Architektur der Zuschauerbewegungen, die die

Nuvison

D

Zuschauer an den Kinobars vorbeiführt und der Verbindung der Vorführkabinen, so, dass ein Kinobetreiber viele Filmvorstellungen bedienen kann. Im Gegensatz zu den Netzkinos verfügen die lokalen Kinos meistens über einen großen Schauspielsaal, was im Falle des Kinos, welches an das 35 mm Format angelehnt ist wesentlich die Erlangung und die Differenzierung des Repertoires erschwert. Die Distributoren, indem sie möglichst die größten Einnahmen aus einer Filmkopie in der gegebenen Zeit erlangen wollen, zwingen den Kinos die Unterzeichnung des sog. “Ausschließlichkeitsvertrags” auf. Er verpflichtet die Kinos zur Vorführung eines Titels in allen Filmvorstellungen im Laufe von zwei Wochen. Diese Barriere kann in einen Triumph verwandelt werden infolge der Digitalisierung der Kinos. Ein großer Schauspielsaal ist ein idealer Ort zum Organisieren spezieller Ereignisse wie die Übertragungen von Opern, Ballett oder Konzerten, die ein breites Publikum versammeln und eine spezielle Fassung erfordern. Die Repertoirebarriere ergibt sich aus den ökonomischen Faktoren – der Vorbereitungskosten einer 35mm Filmkopie. Sie soll verschwinden, denn die Einleitung der digitalen Technologie verursacht drastische Senkung der Endkosten der Herstellung einer Filmkopie. Jedoch aufgrund des gegenwärtig bestehenden Oligopols der Distributoren und eine sehr restriktive Einstellung zu den Kinos wird das ein lang andauernder Prozess sein. Die größte Barriere der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos in Polen scheint jedoch das Fehlen eines Systems und der Zusammenarbeit unter den Kinos. Das Polnische Institut für die Filmkunst besitzt in seinen operativen Programmen ein Hilfeschema für die Kinos, jedoch die Größe der Allokation erlaubt die Hilfe lediglich den Auserwählten. Das

Brille

Barrieren der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos

Der Kinobetreiber muss jedes Mal die Brillen sammeln, putzen und an die Zuschauern verteilen

Quelle: A.Battek, M.Materska-Samek, Studium Die Ausführbarkeit für das Investitionsprojekt Kleinpolennetz der Digitalen Kinos, Stiftung für die Kinoentwicklung 2008, S. 33

Einwegbrille, sie kann zurückgegeben oder als Andenken mitgenommen werden

Erfordert keinen Leinwandaustausch

Der Kinobetreiber muss jedes Mal die Brillen sammeln, putzen und an die Zuschauern verteilen

Erfordert Leinwand -austausch in die sog. silver screen

Erfordert einen Server der Firma Dolby

Erfordert keinen Leinwandaustausch

Erfordert einen Z screen Modulator5 angeschlossen an den Projektor

Leinwand

Erfordert die Synchronisierung des Infrarotsenders (Installation der Software)

Erfordert einen Server der Firma Dolby

Kinosystem

Erfordert einen Z screen Modulator5 angeschlossen an den Projektor

Erfordert keinen Leinwandaustausch

Erfordert die Synchronisierung des Infrarotsenders (Installation der Software)

Erfordert Leinwand -austausch in die sog. silver screen

Kinosystem

Erfordert keinen Leinwandaustausch

Der Kinobetreiber muss jedes Mal die Brillen sammeln, putzen und an die Zuschauern verteilen

Leinwand

Einwegbrille, sie kann zurückgegeben oder als Andenken mitgenommen werden

Quelle: A.Battek, M.Materska-Samek, Studium Die Ausführbarkeit für das Investitionsprojekt Kleinpolennetz der Digitalen Kinos, Stiftung für die Kinoentwicklung 2008, S. 33

Der Kinobetreiber muss jedes Mal die Brillen sammeln, putzen und an die Zuschauern verteilen

Barrieren der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos

Brille

D

Dolby

Zuschauer an den Kinobars vorbeiführt und der Verbindung der Vorführkabinen, so, dass ein Kinobetreiber viele Filmvorstellungen bedienen kann. Im Gegensatz zu den Netzkinos verfügen die lokalen Kinos meistens über einen großen Schauspielsaal, was im Falle des Kinos, welches an das 35 mm Format angelehnt ist wesentlich die Erlangung und die Differenzierung des Repertoires erschwert. Die Distributoren, indem sie möglichst die größten Einnahmen aus einer Filmkopie in der gegebenen Zeit erlangen wollen, zwingen den Kinos die Unterzeichnung des sog. “Ausschließlichkeitsvertrags” auf. Er verpflichtet die Kinos zur Vorführung eines Titels in allen Filmvorstellungen im Laufe von zwei Wochen. Diese Barriere kann in einen Triumph verwandelt werden infolge der Digitalisierung der Kinos. Ein großer Schauspielsaal ist ein idealer Ort zum Organisieren spezieller Ereignisse wie die Übertragungen von Opern, Ballett oder Konzerten, die ein breites Publikum versammeln und eine spezielle Fassung erfordern. Die Repertoirebarriere ergibt sich aus den ökonomischen Faktoren – der Vorbereitungskosten einer 35mm Filmkopie. Sie soll verschwinden, denn die Einleitung der digitalen Technologie verursacht drastische Senkung der Endkosten der Herstellung einer Filmkopie. Jedoch aufgrund des gegenwärtig bestehenden Oligopols der Distributoren und eine sehr restriktive Einstellung zu den Kinos wird das ein lang andauernder Prozess sein. Die größte Barriere der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos in Polen scheint jedoch das Fehlen eines Systems und der Zusammenarbeit unter den Kinos. Das Polnische Institut für die Filmkunst besitzt in seinen operativen Programmen ein Hilfeschema für die Kinos, jedoch die Größe der Allokation erlaubt die Hilfe lediglich den Auserwählten. Das

REAL D

ie lokalen Kinos sind im wesentlichen Teil unrentable Objekte, die mitfinanziert werden aus dem Subjektzuschuss vom Organisator. Das ergibt sich hauptsächlich aus ihrem Standort in den Ortschaften bis 100 Tausend Einwohner, die eine Rentabilitätsschwelle für diese Tätigkeit nicht garantiert. Die finanziellen Schwierigkeiten ergeben sich auch aus den Problemen, die mit der Gewinnung der Filmkopien von den Distributoren zusammenhängen, was oft in ein wenig attraktives, nicht aktuelles Angebot übersetzt wird, das Fehlen ausreichender finanziellen Mittel, die die Investitionen in die neuen Technologien erlauben, die fehlenden Mittel für die Werbung und die Promotion, niedriger Standard der Gebäude und der Ausstattung. Zu den wichtigsten Barrieren der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos soll also die finanzielle Barriere gerechnet werden. Der weitere Faktor ist das Fehlen der entsprechenden technischen Geräte, die erlauben würden, das Kino für die alternativen Tätigkeiten auszunutzen. Das System des digitalen Kinos ermöglicht die Organisierung der interaktiven Werkstätten, Konferenzen, Sessionen, der sog. question & answers mit bekannten Personen, 3D-Vorführungen, Übertragung der Weltkulturereignisse. Eine andere Barriere ist die Kinoarchitektur, angelehnt an einen großen Saal. Kommerzielle Kinos führten in den 90er Jahren ein, wie das genau Le Roy [Le Roy, 2005, S. 97–116] analysiert, eine Innovation, die auf den speziell projektierten Mehr-Saal-Kinoobjekten beruht, die den Raumverlust minimalisiert durch größere Überhöhungen in den Sälen, spezielle Architektur der Zuschauerbewegungen, die die

Nuvison


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

geplante Nationalprogramm der Digitalisierung setzt in seiner Arbeitsversion eine teilweise Finanzierung der technologischen Änderung in 50 oder 70 Kinos voraus. Die bestehenden Organisationen, d.h. der Verein “Polnische Kinos” oder das Netz der Studio- und lokalen Kinos sind auch nicht imstande, eine horizontale Zusammenarbeit zu gewährleisten. Von Jahr zu Jahr sinkt die Anzahl der Kinos in den Kleinstädten, und die kommerziellen Kinos kaufen die digitalen Projektoren, die langsam den Distributoren auf den Verzicht auf das 35 mm Band erlaubt. Die Digitalisierung wird also den lokalen Kulturzentren ermöglichen, nicht nur zu wahren “Kunstzentren” (art houses) zu werden und den lokalen Gemeinschaften ein bisher unbekanntes Angebot zu liefern (Live-Übertragungen von Opern, Operetten, Ballett, Konzerten, usw.), aber vor allem wird sie die Möglichkeit einer weiteren Führung der Kinotätigkeit garantieren. Um die stabile und beständige Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos zu versichern, sollen sie nicht nur digitalisiert werden, sondern sie sollen auch zu einem Netz zusammengeschlossen werden, das erlauben wird, die Kosten des gesamten Prozesses zu senken und den Erfahrungsaustausch, sowie die weitere Mittelgewinnung erleichtern.

Norwegisches Programm für die Kinos

F

ilm&Kino koordiniert die Gesamtheit der Tätigkeiten, verbunden mit der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos in Norwegen. Zu seinen größten Projekten soll der sog. roll-out gezählt werden, also das Digitalisierungsprogramm aller Kinos im Lande. Sehr gründliche Vorbereitungen zum Unternehmen umfassten die Bearbeitung des Berichts über die ökonomischen und kulturellen Aspekten der Kinoentwicklung - Řkonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift [Grefsrud, Vaagland, 2006]. Er bestätigt, dass die aktiven Kinos die Gewinne generieren für die gesamte Freizeitindustrie in der gegebenen Ortschaft. Er lieferte auch viele bedeutende Argumente in der Diskussion über das Programm. Ein anderes Beispiel, welches für die positive Entscheidung des Parlaments in dieser Angelegenheit der Annahme des Programms spricht, war die Durchführung von zwei Film&Kino Pilotprojekten der

6

Digitalisierung, die nicht nur technische Aspekte getestet haben, sondern auch den Einfluss der Technologie auf die Änderungen im Repertoire und den finanziellen Ergebnissen des Kinos. Es wurden lokale Know-How-Zentren geschaffen, die in der Zukunft das Nationalprogramm unterstützen werden. Es beginnt mit diesem Herbst und dank den Mitteln, die aus den Beiträgen der Kinos Film&Kino (60%) stammen, sowie dank den Einnahmen, die aus VPF – virtual print fee6 (40%) fließen, werden innerhalb von ein paar Jahren alle norwegischen Kinos Chancen haben, um mit den neuesten kinotechnischen Geräten ausgestattet zu werden. Die Gesamtheit des Budgets wird auf 60 -70 Millionen USD geschätzt. Natürlich ist das Nationalprojekt der Digitalisierung eine einzigartige Errungenschaft in der Welt und nicht zu überschätzen. Jedoch lohnt es sich zu bemerken, dass es nicht möglich wäre, gäbe es nicht die systematische und langfristige Zusammenarbeit im Einverständnis mit den Kinos. Bemerkenswert ist besonders das Portal Filmweb.no, welches schon 1997 entstanden ist, und es ist gegenwärtig das größte kulturelle Portal in Norwegen. Es besitzt drei für den Zuschauer versteckte Server: MM media.filmweb.no für die Medien, mit Materialien von allen Distributoren und den Kinos, d.h. Fotos, Plakate, Pressemappen, Voranzeigen, usw., MM rapport.filmweb.no für Kinos und Manager, umfassend die statistischen Daten aus allen Kinos, d.h. Boxoffice, Besucherzahl, Kartenmenge für den Film, für das Kino, usw. Das Programm wurde am 1. Januar 2009 in Betrieb genommen, es ist integriert um die funktionierenden Systeme des Kartenverkaufs, umfasst 99% der Kinos, verfügt über Daten schon einen Tag nach dem Ereignis. MM ”Kinosonen” – eine Zone für die Kinos in Form von einem fortgeschrittenen CRM-System, welches die SMS-Kommunikation und Mailings an die gewählten Empfängergruppen ermöglicht. MM Das Koordinieren der Entwicklung des ganzen Kinomarktes ist sehr schwierig, was die Niederlagen anderer Organisationen in dieser Hinsicht bestätigen. Das dokumentiert auch die ständig sinkende Zahl der lokalen Kinos.

Es ist keine klassische VPF (virtual print fee) also frei übersetzt Kopiengebühr. VPF beruht vereinfacht auf der Finanzierung der Geräte vom Filmdistributor. Indem er die digitale Kopie liefert, entrichtet er eine Gebühr, die sich aus dem Unterschied in den Kopiekosten von 35 mm und der digitalen Kopie für die Vorführung des digitalen Films im gegebenen Kino ergibt. Diese Gebühren erlauben die Bezahlung der Raten der finanzierenden Institution und in diesem Fall des Kredits, aufgenommen durch F&K. Eben diese Organisation verhandelt den Vertrag mit den Distributoren (in der Praxis direkt mit den Studios in Hollywood) und bestimmt mit ihnen die Prinzipien der Gebührenerhebung , in diesem Fall wesentlich verringert, aufgrund der 60% Eigenbeitrag.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

197

6

197

Es ist keine klassische VPF (virtual print fee) also frei übersetzt Kopiengebühr. VPF beruht vereinfacht auf der Finanzierung der Geräte vom Filmdistributor. Indem er die digitale Kopie liefert, entrichtet er eine Gebühr, die sich aus dem Unterschied in den Kopiekosten von 35 mm und der digitalen Kopie für die Vorführung des digitalen Films im gegebenen Kino ergibt. Diese Gebühren erlauben die Bezahlung der Raten der finanzierenden Institution und in diesem Fall des Kredits, aufgenommen durch F&K. Eben diese Organisation verhandelt den Vertrag mit den Distributoren (in der Praxis direkt mit den Studios in Hollywood) und bestimmt mit ihnen die Prinzipien der Gebührenerhebung , in diesem Fall wesentlich verringert, aufgrund der 60% Eigenbeitrag.

ilm&Kino koordiniert die Gesamtheit der Tätigkeiten, verbunden mit der Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos in Norwegen. Zu seinen größten Projekten soll der sog. roll-out gezählt werden, also das Digitalisierungsprogramm aller Kinos im Lande. Sehr gründliche Vorbereitungen zum Unternehmen umfassten die Bearbeitung des Berichts über die ökonomischen und kulturellen Aspekten der Kinoentwicklung - Řkonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift [Grefsrud, Vaagland, 2006]. Er bestätigt, dass die aktiven Kinos die Gewinne generieren für die gesamte Freizeitindustrie in der gegebenen Ortschaft. Er lieferte auch viele bedeutende Argumente in der Diskussion über das Programm. Ein anderes Beispiel, welches für die positive Entscheidung des Parlaments in dieser Angelegenheit der Annahme des Programms spricht, war die Durchführung von zwei Film&Kino Pilotprojekten der

F

Norwegisches Programm für die Kinos geplante Nationalprogramm der Digitalisierung setzt in seiner Arbeitsversion eine teilweise Finanzierung der technologischen Änderung in 50 oder 70 Kinos voraus. Die bestehenden Organisationen, d.h. der Verein “Polnische Kinos” oder das Netz der Studio- und lokalen Kinos sind auch nicht imstande, eine horizontale Zusammenarbeit zu gewährleisten. Von Jahr zu Jahr sinkt die Anzahl der Kinos in den Kleinstädten, und die kommerziellen Kinos kaufen die digitalen Projektoren, die langsam den Distributoren auf den Verzicht auf das 35 mm Band erlaubt. Die Digitalisierung wird also den lokalen Kulturzentren ermöglichen, nicht nur zu wahren “Kunstzentren” (art houses) zu werden und den lokalen Gemeinschaften ein bisher unbekanntes Angebot zu liefern (Live-Übertragungen von Opern, Operetten, Ballett, Konzerten, usw.), aber vor allem wird sie die Möglichkeit einer weiteren Führung der Kinotätigkeit garantieren. Um die stabile und beständige Entwicklung der lokalen Kinos zu versichern, sollen sie nicht nur digitalisiert werden, sondern sie sollen auch zu einem Netz zusammengeschlossen werden, das erlauben wird, die Kosten des gesamten Prozesses zu senken und den Erfahrungsaustausch, sowie die weitere Mittelgewinnung erleichtern.

Digitalisierung, die nicht nur technische Aspekte getestet haben, sondern auch den Einfluss der Technologie auf die Änderungen im Repertoire und den finanziellen Ergebnissen des Kinos. Es wurden lokale Know-How-Zentren geschaffen, die in der Zukunft das Nationalprogramm unterstützen werden. Es beginnt mit diesem Herbst und dank den Mitteln, die aus den Beiträgen der Kinos Film&Kino (60%) stammen, sowie dank den Einnahmen, die aus VPF – virtual print fee6 (40%) fließen, werden innerhalb von ein paar Jahren alle norwegischen Kinos Chancen haben, um mit den neuesten kinotechnischen Geräten ausgestattet zu werden. Die Gesamtheit des Budgets wird auf 60 -70 Millionen USD geschätzt. Natürlich ist das Nationalprojekt der Digitalisierung eine einzigartige Errungenschaft in der Welt und nicht zu überschätzen. Jedoch lohnt es sich zu bemerken, dass es nicht möglich wäre, gäbe es nicht die systematische und langfristige Zusammenarbeit im Einverständnis mit den Kinos. Bemerkenswert ist besonders das Portal Filmweb.no, welches schon 1997 entstanden ist, und es ist gegenwärtig das größte kulturelle Portal in Norwegen. Es besitzt drei für den Zuschauer versteckte Server: MM media.filmweb.no für die Medien, mit Materialien von allen Distributoren und den Kinos, d.h. Fotos, Plakate, Pressemappen, Voranzeigen, usw., MM rapport.filmweb.no für Kinos und Manager, umfassend die statistischen Daten aus allen Kinos, d.h. Boxoffice, Besucherzahl, Kartenmenge für den Film, für das Kino, usw. Das Programm wurde am 1. Januar 2009 in Betrieb genommen, es ist integriert um die funktionierenden Systeme des Kartenverkaufs, umfasst 99% der Kinos, verfügt über Daten schon einen Tag nach dem Ereignis. MM ”Kinosonen” – eine Zone für die Kinos in Form von einem fortgeschrittenen CRM-System, welches die SMS-Kommunikation und Mailings an die gewählten Empfängergruppen ermöglicht. MM Das Koordinieren der Entwicklung des ganzen Kinomarktes ist sehr schwierig, was die Niederlagen anderer Organisationen in dieser Hinsicht bestätigen. Das dokumentiert auch die ständig sinkende Zahl der lokalen Kinos.


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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Jedoch die Hilfsmittel, welche fast 100 Jahre ausgebaut wurden (z.B. in Form der Werkzeuge vom Typ filmweb.no), hoher Grad der Professionalisierung der Kader, innovative Pilotenprojekte, sowie die Unterstützung aus den lokalen Selbstverwaltungen – Organisationsmitgliedern sind die Schlüsselfaktoren des Erfolgs von Film&Kino. Sie bestimmen auch eine der Entwicklungsbedingungen von lokalen Kinos, deswegen entstehen in manchen

Ländern ähnliche Netzinitiativen. Jedoch die Netze, die die Kinos zu Digital Cinema Buyers Group [http://www.digitalcinemainfo.com], Digital funding group [http://www.cinemauk. org.uk] oder zu anderen Unternehmen verbinden, haben meistens regionales Maß und sind gewöhnlich nicht imstande, eine einheitliche Zugänglichkeit des Films zu versichern und den Ausschluss ganzer Gemeinschaften aus dem Zugang zur Kultur zu vermeiden.

Bibliografie

April 2005, S. 391–401. tion [in:] The service Industries Journal, Vol.25, No.3, the Performing Arts Sector: An Empirical InvestigaBennet R., Factors encouraging Competitive Myopia in Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008. dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Battek A., Materska-Samek M., Studium Wykonalności 1998, S. 43. Barth S., „Cultural Protectionism,” World Trade, March

Paris, 2002

Brussels, S. 5.

1993, S. 155–191.

Blackstone E.A., Bowman G W., Vertical integration in

Soul?” Denver Journal of International Law, Fall

UK Market’, Bridge Media, London, S. 49. S. Regourd, L’Exception culturelle, coll. «Que sais-je?»,

Supply and Exhibition of Independent Films in the

Product or Cherished Articulation of a Nation’s

Supply and Exhibition of Independent Films in the

PACT/MMC (1994) ‘Factors Influencing the Production,

1999, Vol. 49, Issue 1, S.123-130. Braun M., Parker L., “Trade in Culture: Consumable

Brussels, S. 5. PACT/MMC (1994) ‘Factors Influencing the Production,

motion pictures. Journal of Communication; Januar

motion pictures. Journal of Communication; Januar

UK Market’, Bridge Media, London, S. 49.

Blackstone E.A., Bowman G W., Vertical integration in

and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 1998. MEDIA Programme (1992) European Commission,

1999, Vol. 49, Issue 1, S.123-130.

April 2005, S. 391–401.

Litman, B. R. ‘The Motion Picture Mega-Industry’, Allyn

Product or Cherished Articulation of a Nation’s

tion [in:] The service Industries Journal, Vol.25, No.3,

2005/2, n° 155, S. 97–116

Braun M., Parker L., “Trade in Culture: Consumable

the Performing Arts Sector: An Empirical Investiga-

leaders de marche. Revue francaise de gestion, no:

Paris, 2002

Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008. Bennet R., Factors encouraging Competitive Myopia in

pekter ved kinodrift, ØF-rapport nr. 10/2006 Le Roy P., Vertus de l’innovation strategique pour les

S. Regourd, L’Exception culturelle, coll. «Que sais-je?»,

dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin

Grefsrud R., Vaagland J., Økonomiske og kulturelle as-

Soul?” Denver Journal of International Law, Fall

1998, S. 43. Battek A., Materska-Samek M., Studium Wykonalności

Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008

1993, S. 155–191.

Barth S., „Cultural Protectionism,” World Trade, March

MEDIA Programme (1992) European Commission, and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 1998. Litman, B. R. ‘The Motion Picture Mega-Industry’, Allyn 2005/2, n° 155, S. 97–116 leaders de marche. Revue francaise de gestion, no: Le Roy P., Vertus de l’innovation strategique pour les pekter ved kinodrift, ØF-rapport nr. 10/2006 Grefsrud R., Vaagland J., Økonomiske og kulturelle asFull Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008

Bibliografie Ländern ähnliche Netzinitiativen. Jedoch die Netze, die die Kinos zu Digital Cinema Buyers Group [http://www.digitalcinemainfo.com], Digital funding group [http://www.cinemauk. org.uk] oder zu anderen Unternehmen verbinden, haben meistens regionales Maß und sind gewöhnlich nicht imstande, eine einheitliche Zugänglichkeit des Films zu versichern und den Ausschluss ganzer Gemeinschaften aus dem Zugang zur Kultur zu vermeiden. Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Jedoch die Hilfsmittel, welche fast 100 Jahre ausgebaut wurden (z.B. in Form der Werkzeuge vom Typ filmweb.no), hoher Grad der Professionalisierung der Kader, innovative Pilotenprojekte, sowie die Unterstützung aus den lokalen Selbstverwaltungen – Organisationsmitgliedern sind die Schlüsselfaktoren des Erfolgs von Film&Kino. Sie bestimmen auch eine der Entwicklungsbedingungen von lokalen Kinos, deswegen entstehen in manchen

198


199

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Hauptrichtungen und Charakter der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes Olga Łukowska

E

ine wichtige Aufgabe der modernen Generation der Ukrainer ist die Vergegenwärtigung der eigenen nationalen Identität und der Zusammenhänge mit der Kultur. Das Bedürfnis der ununterbrochenen Vervollkommnung von sich selbst und der eigenen Umgebung ist ein Zeugnis der kulturellen Entwicklung des Menschen. Sich kümmernd und sich Sorgen machend um die eigene Kultur gewinnen wir Anerkennung und Achtung in der ganzen Welt. Eine große Bedeutung in der Promotion der heimatlichen Kultur haben unterschiedliche Stellen und Zentren, deren Tätigkeit das nationale Bewusstsein aktivisiert und gestaltet. Eins der gewaltigen kulturellen Zentren ist der Lemberger Kunstpalast, der schon seit 12 Jahren eine wichtige Rolle im kulturellen Leben nicht nur von Lemberg, sondern auch der ganzen Westukraine spielt. Der kulturell-künstlerische Komplex des Lemberger Kunstpalastes ist aus der Initiative und mit der Unterstützung des Künstlervereins der Ukraine entstanden. Er ist eine städtische Kulturinstitution mit gemeinnützigem Charakter und wirkt auf der Grundlage des Beschlusses des Ministerrates der USSR vom 30. November 1983 (Nr. 517) Über das Organisieren und Führen der kulturellen Tätigkeit, Entscheidung der staatlichen Kreisverwaltung, sowie der Satzung des Palastes. Die Tätigkeit des Kunstpalastes wurde am 24. August 1996 begonnen. Das Grundziel der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes ist die Schaffung der Bedingungen für: MM Entwicklung und Promotion aller Kunstbereiche, der ukrainischen Kultur, sowie der nationalen Traditionen, MM Realisierung des schöpferischen Potentials der Künstler, sowie Promotion ihrer Werke, MM Entwicklung der gesamtukrainischen und internationalen kulturellen Beziehungen.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Die Einkommensquelle der Organisation sind die Zuwendungen aus dem Budget, Mittel, die aus der Realisierung der zahlbaren Dienstleistungen erhalten wurden, Mittel, die von den Sponsoren und Mäzenen übergeben wurden, freiwillige Spenden u.a. Die Institution leitet der Direktor, der volle Verantwortung für die Resultate der Arbeit der Organisation trägt. Der Direktor wird bestimmt durch den Vorstand der Kultur des Lemberger Kreises durch den Abschluss des Arbeitsvertrages. Der Direktor kann von seinem Posten vor dem Ablauf des Vertragstermins entlassen werden, auf den Grundlagen, die durch die Vorschriften vorgesehen werden. Realisierungszweck der Tätigkeitshauptrichtungen des Lemberger Kunstpalastes: Der Direktor MM ist verantwortlich für die Erschaffung der inneren Strukturen der Einheit, der Prinzipien ihres Funktionierens und ihrer Änderung im Fall der Notwendigkeit, MM beschließt die Aufstellung der Stellen, beschäftigt und entlässt die Angestellten gemäß der Gesetzgebung, billigt die dienstlichen Pflichten des Personals, bestimmt die Höhe des Gehalts, MM erlässt die inneren Ordnungen, Anweisungen, Anordnungen, bearbeitet und unterschreibt Verträge, Verständigungen usw. MM verwaltet die Mittel und das Vermögen des Kunstpalastes zwecks Absicherung der Realisierung der Aufgaben, die in der Satzung bestimmt wurden [Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв]. Die Bandbreite der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes ist sehr groß. Die Grundrichtungen und der Tätigkeitscharakter der Einrichtung ist die Bearbeitung des schöpferischen Plans, gestützt auf die Prinzipien der ans Ziel führenden Program-

199

Dr. Olga Łukowska Die Kunsthistorikerin, Dozentin an der Ukrainischen Akademie für Druck in Lvov, sowie Vizedirektorin im Lvover Kunstpalast, die für wissenschaftlichkünstlerische Sachen zuständig ist. Die Stipendiatin der folgenden Programme“ „Gaude Polonia” (Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe Polens) und Lane Kirkland Programm (Polnisch-Amerikanische Stiftung für Freiheit, Fulbright Kommission). Sie beschäftigt sich mit Kulturmanagement, zeitgenössischer Kunst, darunter mit künstlerischen Stoffen.

ine wichtige Aufgabe der modernen Generation der Ukrainer ist die Vergegenwärtigung der eigenen nationalen Identität und der Zusammenhänge mit der Kultur. Das Bedürfnis der ununterbrochenen Vervollkommnung von sich selbst und der eigenen Umgebung ist ein Zeugnis der kulturellen Entwicklung des Menschen. Sich kümmernd und sich Sorgen machend um die eigene Kultur gewinnen wir Anerkennung und Achtung in der ganzen Welt. Eine große Bedeutung in der Promotion der heimatlichen Kultur haben unterschiedliche Stellen und Zentren, deren Tätigkeit das nationale Bewusstsein aktivisiert und gestaltet. Eins der gewaltigen kulturellen Zentren ist der Lemberger Kunstpalast, der schon seit 12 Jahren eine wichtige Rolle im kulturellen Leben nicht nur von Lemberg, sondern auch der ganzen Westukraine spielt. Der kulturell-künstlerische Komplex des Lemberger Kunstpalastes ist aus der Initiative und mit der Unterstützung des Künstlervereins der Ukraine entstanden. Er ist eine städtische Kulturinstitution mit gemeinnützigem Charakter und wirkt auf der Grundlage des Beschlusses des Ministerrates der USSR vom 30. November 1983 (Nr. 517) Über das Organisieren und Führen der kulturellen Tätigkeit, Entscheidung der staatlichen Kreisverwaltung, sowie der Satzung des Palastes. Die Tätigkeit des Kunstpalastes wurde am 24. August 1996 begonnen. Das Grundziel der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes ist die Schaffung der Bedingungen für: MM Entwicklung und Promotion aller Kunstbereiche, der ukrainischen Kultur, sowie der nationalen Traditionen, MM Realisierung des schöpferischen Potentials der Künstler, sowie Promotion ihrer Werke, MM Entwicklung der gesamtukrainischen und internationalen kulturellen Beziehungen.

E

Olga Łukowska

Die Einkommensquelle der Organisation sind die Zuwendungen aus dem Budget, Mittel, die aus der Realisierung der zahlbaren Dienstleistungen erhalten wurden, Mittel, die von den Sponsoren und Mäzenen übergeben wurden, freiwillige Spenden u.a. Die Institution leitet der Direktor, der volle Verantwortung für die Resultate der Arbeit der Organisation trägt. Der Direktor wird bestimmt durch den Vorstand der Kultur des Lemberger Kreises durch den Abschluss des Arbeitsvertrages. Der Direktor kann von seinem Posten vor dem Ablauf des Vertragstermins entlassen werden, auf den Grundlagen, die durch die Vorschriften vorgesehen werden. Realisierungszweck der Tätigkeitshauptrichtungen des Lemberger Kunstpalastes: Der Direktor MM ist verantwortlich für die Erschaffung der inneren Strukturen der Einheit, der Prinzipien ihres Funktionierens und ihrer Änderung im Fall der Notwendigkeit, MM beschließt die Aufstellung der Stellen, beschäftigt und entlässt die Angestellten gemäß der Gesetzgebung, billigt die dienstlichen Pflichten des Personals, bestimmt die Höhe des Gehalts, MM erlässt die inneren Ordnungen, Anweisungen, Anordnungen, bearbeitet und unterschreibt Verträge, Verständigungen usw. MM verwaltet die Mittel und das Vermögen des Kunstpalastes zwecks Absicherung der Realisierung der Aufgaben, die in der Satzung bestimmt wurden [Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв]. Die Bandbreite der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes ist sehr groß. Die Grundrichtungen und der Tätigkeitscharakter der Einrichtung ist die Bearbeitung des schöpferischen Plans, gestützt auf die Prinzipien der ans Ziel führenden Program-

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Hauptrichtungen und Charakter der Tätigkeit des Lemberger Kunstpalastes

Dr. Olga Łukowska Die Kunsthistorikerin, Dozentin an der Ukrainischen Akademie für Druck in Lvov, sowie Vizedirektorin im Lvover Kunstpalast, die für wissenschaftlichkünstlerische Sachen zuständig ist. Die Stipendiatin der folgenden Programme“ „Gaude Polonia” (Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe Polens) und Lane Kirkland Programm (Polnisch-Amerikanische Stiftung für Freiheit, Fulbright Kommission). Sie beschäftigt sich mit Kulturmanagement, zeitgenössischer Kunst, darunter mit künstlerischen Stoffen.


Noch eine Richtung der Tätigkeit, auf die heutzutage besonders aufmerksam gemacht wird, ist die Integration mit dem europäischen künstlerischen Raum. Die Verwaltung des Kunstpalastes versucht fortwährend die Beziehungen mit den ausländischen Galerien, Botschaften, Höheren künstlerischen Schulen und den Vertretungen anderer Länder zu knüpfen und aufrechtzuerhalten. Leider, aufgrund von vielen Ursachen, ist die internationale Zusammenarbeit mit den ausländischen Partnern in der künstlerisch-kulturellen Sphäre sehr begrenzt. Und obwohl im Palast internationale Ausstellungen stattgefunden haben, sowie internationale Projekte realisiert wurden (besonders ukrainisch-polnische), hat diese Zusammenarbeit keinen systematischen Charakter. Im Zeitraum der zwölfjährigen Tätigkeit des Kunstpalastes haben sich thematische Ereignisse und Ausstellungen hervorgehoben, die schon zu regulären Zyklen wurden, bekannt in der ganzen Ukraine, die viele Liebhaber der schönen Künste anziehen. Im Besonderen sind das: jährliche Ausstellung der Malerei der Mitglieder des Vereins der Lemberger Kunstmaler “Frühling”, internationale künstlerische Wettbewerbe für Kinder, jährliche Ausstellungen und Open Airs, gewidmet T. Szewczenko, Lemberger Herbstsalon “Hohes Schloss” sowie künstlerisch-kulturelle Aktionen, die das Kultivieren der ukrainischen nationalen Traditionen zum Ziel haben (“Apfel-Tannenbaum auf Jordan”, “Osterei”). Eine seltsame Visitenkarte des Kunstpalastes ist der jährliche internationale Ausstellungswettbewerb Lemberger Herbstsalon “Hohes Schloss”, welcher mit jedem Jahr immer größere Ausmaße annimmt. Im gegenwärtigen kulturellkünstlerischem Leben von Lemberg wurde der Herbstsalon schon zur Tradition. Das Hauptziel der Veranstaltung ist: MM Promotion der modernen ukrainischen Kunst, sowie Aktivierung des künstlerischen Milieus von Lemberg und der Region, MM Präsentation des jährlichen Schaffens der Künstler verschiedener Generationen, Stilen, Richtungen, die die gegenwärtige künstlerische Wirklichkeit demonstrieren, MM Unterstützung des Interesses für die Kunst sowohl seitens des Staates, als auch des Geschäfts, Anziehen der Mäzene und Sponsoren, MM Aktivierung und Entwicklung der gesamtukrainischen und internationalen künstlerischen Vereine. Am Lemberger Herbstsalon nehmen jährlich bekannte Künstler teil, sowie auch die künstlerisch begabte Jugend aus der Ukraine, Polen, Litauen, Lettland, Deutschland, Spanien, Italien und aus anderen Ländern. Unter den ausländi-

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

me, Projekte und Bestellungen. Dieser Plan wird vom Vorstand der Kultur der Staatsverwaltung des Lemberger Kreises beschlossen. Die Bestellungen der örtlichen und staatlichen Regierungsorgane, der sozialen Organisationen, der Hochschulen, sowie anderer Einrichtungen werden auf der Grundlage der Verträge realisiert. Auch auf derartigen Grundlagen arbeitet der Kunstpalast mit privaten Personen zusammen. Eine wichtige Richtung der Tätigkeit des Kunstpalastes ist die Führung internationaler, regionaler, thematischer, Gruppen- und individueller Ausstellungen aller Art Gattungen der schönen und dekorativen Kunst (Malerei, Installation, Skulptur, Keramik, künstlerische Stoffe, usw.). Es werden auch Ausstellungen/Messen, Schauen, Vorlesungen, Symposien, Festivals, Wettbewerbe, literarische und musische Abende, sowie andere kulturellkünstlerische Veranstaltungen organisiert. Auf den zahlreichen Treffen, Versammlungen, Präsentationen und Konferenzen, die im Kunstpalast stattfinden, treffen sich verschiedene Schichten der neuen ukrainischen Gesellschaft – Aktivisten der Kultur und der Wissenschaft, Künstler, Geschäftsleute, Politiker [Луковська, 2007]. Im Rahmen der künstlerischen Tätigkeit ist die Knüpfung des kulturellen Austausches wichtig, und zwar der Zusammenarbeit mit den Künstlern, schöpferischen Verbänden, Vereinen, Organisationen. Auf den Ausstellungen und verschiedenen Veranstaltungen, die im Kunstpalast innerhalb der 12 Jahren realisiert wurden, hatten die Kunstliebhaber die Gelegenheit, die Panoramen der künstlerischen Erscheinungen und Ideen zu sehen, sich mit den größten Errungenschaften der Schöpfer der ukrainischen Kultur bekannt zu machen, unter denen es viele hervorragende und bekannte Künstler gibt. Es lohnt sich, sei es auch nur an die Jubiläumsvernissagen der bekannten Lemberger Maler Z. Kecał, K. Kaczanow, W. Patyk zu erinnern, oder die Ausstellungen der Meisterwerke der außerordentlichen ukrainischen Kunstgrafiker G. Jakutowycz, S. Jakutowycz, N. Hasewycz, I. Ostafijczuk und vieler anderen. Seit 2004 wirkt im Palast ein Gemeinschaftsraum-Museum im Namen von Taras Szewczenko – ein ukrainischer Maler und Dichter. Die Grundlage der Sammlungen des Museums bilden die Meisterwerke, die während der Wanderungen auf den Lebenswegen des ukrainischen Genies (Ukraine, Russland, Kasachstan, Lettland) geschaffen wurden. Die Einrichtung kann sich auch mit einigen Dutzend Arbeiten bekannter Lemberger Maler rühmen. Im Gemeinschaftsraum wurde eine Bibliothek geschaffen, wo sich zahlreiche Materialien befinden betreffend die dichterische sowie künstlerische Tätigkeit von T. Szewczenko.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

200

Noch eine Richtung der Tätigkeit, auf die heutzutage besonders aufmerksam gemacht wird, ist die Integration mit dem europäischen künstlerischen Raum. Die Verwaltung des Kunstpalastes versucht fortwährend die Beziehungen mit den ausländischen Galerien, Botschaften, Höheren künstlerischen Schulen und den Vertretungen anderer Länder zu knüpfen und aufrechtzuerhalten. Leider, aufgrund von vielen Ursachen, ist die internationale Zusammenarbeit mit den ausländischen Partnern in der künstlerisch-kulturellen Sphäre sehr begrenzt. Und obwohl im Palast internationale Ausstellungen stattgefunden haben, sowie internationale Projekte realisiert wurden (besonders ukrainisch-polnische), hat diese Zusammenarbeit keinen systematischen Charakter. Im Zeitraum der zwölfjährigen Tätigkeit des Kunstpalastes haben sich thematische Ereignisse und Ausstellungen hervorgehoben, die schon zu regulären Zyklen wurden, bekannt in der ganzen Ukraine, die viele Liebhaber der schönen Künste anziehen. Im Besonderen sind das: jährliche Ausstellung der Malerei der Mitglieder des Vereins der Lemberger Kunstmaler “Frühling”, internationale künstlerische Wettbewerbe für Kinder, jährliche Ausstellungen und Open Airs, gewidmet T. Szewczenko, Lemberger Herbstsalon “Hohes Schloss” sowie künstlerisch-kulturelle Aktionen, die das Kultivieren der ukrainischen nationalen Traditionen zum Ziel haben (“Apfel-Tannenbaum auf Jordan”, “Osterei”). Eine seltsame Visitenkarte des Kunstpalastes ist der jährliche internationale Ausstellungswettbewerb Lemberger Herbstsalon “Hohes Schloss”, welcher mit jedem Jahr immer größere Ausmaße annimmt. Im gegenwärtigen kulturellkünstlerischem Leben von Lemberg wurde der Herbstsalon schon zur Tradition. Das Hauptziel der Veranstaltung ist: MM Promotion der modernen ukrainischen Kunst, sowie Aktivierung des künstlerischen Milieus von Lemberg und der Region, MM Präsentation des jährlichen Schaffens der Künstler verschiedener Generationen, Stilen, Richtungen, die die gegenwärtige künstlerische Wirklichkeit demonstrieren, MM Unterstützung des Interesses für die Kunst sowohl seitens des Staates, als auch des Geschäfts, Anziehen der Mäzene und Sponsoren, MM Aktivierung und Entwicklung der gesamtukrainischen und internationalen künstlerischen Vereine. Am Lemberger Herbstsalon nehmen jährlich bekannte Künstler teil, sowie auch die künstlerisch begabte Jugend aus der Ukraine, Polen, Litauen, Lettland, Deutschland, Spanien, Italien und aus anderen Ländern. Unter den ausländi-

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me, Projekte und Bestellungen. Dieser Plan wird vom Vorstand der Kultur der Staatsverwaltung des Lemberger Kreises beschlossen. Die Bestellungen der örtlichen und staatlichen Regierungsorgane, der sozialen Organisationen, der Hochschulen, sowie anderer Einrichtungen werden auf der Grundlage der Verträge realisiert. Auch auf derartigen Grundlagen arbeitet der Kunstpalast mit privaten Personen zusammen. Eine wichtige Richtung der Tätigkeit des Kunstpalastes ist die Führung internationaler, regionaler, thematischer, Gruppen- und individueller Ausstellungen aller Art Gattungen der schönen und dekorativen Kunst (Malerei, Installation, Skulptur, Keramik, künstlerische Stoffe, usw.). Es werden auch Ausstellungen/Messen, Schauen, Vorlesungen, Symposien, Festivals, Wettbewerbe, literarische und musische Abende, sowie andere kulturellkünstlerische Veranstaltungen organisiert. Auf den zahlreichen Treffen, Versammlungen, Präsentationen und Konferenzen, die im Kunstpalast stattfinden, treffen sich verschiedene Schichten der neuen ukrainischen Gesellschaft – Aktivisten der Kultur und der Wissenschaft, Künstler, Geschäftsleute, Politiker [Луковська, 2007]. Im Rahmen der künstlerischen Tätigkeit ist die Knüpfung des kulturellen Austausches wichtig, und zwar der Zusammenarbeit mit den Künstlern, schöpferischen Verbänden, Vereinen, Organisationen. Auf den Ausstellungen und verschiedenen Veranstaltungen, die im Kunstpalast innerhalb der 12 Jahren realisiert wurden, hatten die Kunstliebhaber die Gelegenheit, die Panoramen der künstlerischen Erscheinungen und Ideen zu sehen, sich mit den größten Errungenschaften der Schöpfer der ukrainischen Kultur bekannt zu machen, unter denen es viele hervorragende und bekannte Künstler gibt. Es lohnt sich, sei es auch nur an die Jubiläumsvernissagen der bekannten Lemberger Maler Z. Kecał, K. Kaczanow, W. Patyk zu erinnern, oder die Ausstellungen der Meisterwerke der außerordentlichen ukrainischen Kunstgrafiker G. Jakutowycz, S. Jakutowycz, N. Hasewycz, I. Ostafijczuk und vieler anderen. Seit 2004 wirkt im Palast ein Gemeinschaftsraum-Museum im Namen von Taras Szewczenko – ein ukrainischer Maler und Dichter. Die Grundlage der Sammlungen des Museums bilden die Meisterwerke, die während der Wanderungen auf den Lebenswegen des ukrainischen Genies (Ukraine, Russland, Kasachstan, Lettland) geschaffen wurden. Die Einrichtung kann sich auch mit einigen Dutzend Arbeiten bekannter Lemberger Maler rühmen. Im Gemeinschaftsraum wurde eine Bibliothek geschaffen, wo sich zahlreiche Materialien befinden betreffend die dichterische sowie künstlerische Tätigkeit von T. Szewczenko.


201

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

schen Teilnehmern der Vernissage gibt es Künstler, die ständig ihre Arbeiten während dieser Veranstaltung präsentieren. Das gibt die Möglichkeit zum näheren Kennenlernen der schöpferischen Konzeptionen der europäischen zeitgenössischen Kunst [Луковська, 2006; Луковська 2005]. Auf den alljährlichen Sammelausstellungen, die der Konzeption des Salons ähnlich sind, werden verschiedene Kunstgebiete vorgestellt, die die Bandbreite der schöpferischen Suche illustrieren. Solche Veranstaltungen geben den Kunstinteressierten die Möglichkeit der Bewunderung der jährlichen Resultate ihrer Entwicklung. Für die Kunsthistoriker ist das eine Gelegenheit, um die Ideen und die Richtungen der schöpferischen Tätigkeit der Künstler zu untersuchen, also es ist auch eine Möglichkeit des Analysierens, der kritischen Analyse, der Debatte über die positiven, wie auch die negativen künstlerischen Tendenzen der Modernität. Manche Veranstaltungen und Ausstellungen, die im Kunstpalast stattfinden, haben für den heutigen Tag keine Alternative in der Westukraine und sind desto wichtiger. Jedoch gibt es viele Probleme, betreffend ihre Organisation.

Das Fehlen einer entsprechenden Finanzierung ist der Hauptgrund, welcher die volle Entwicklung der Einrichtung erschwert. Aufgrund der fehlenden Mittel ist das Formen der Sammlung der zeitgenössischen Kunst, die Erschaffung einer universalen Informations-Computerdatenbank über die neuen Erscheinungen in der ukrainischen Kunst und über theoretischen Debatten im Bereich der Kunst unmöglich. Die finanziellen Mittel fehlen auch für die Vervollständigung der künstlerischen Bibliothek, für den Druck von Reklame, Vorbereitung der Kataloge, Fremdenführer und ihre Präsentation. Ein ständiges Problem ist das Fehlen der Räume und der Ausstattung für die entsprechende Ausstellung und Aufbewahrung der Kunstwerke. Fühlbar ist auch das Fehlen der Fachkenntnisse der Prinzipien des Kulturmanagements. Der Austausch der Spezialisten und die Praktiken der ukrainischen Angestellten im Ausland sind unentbehrlich für die Knüpfung der Kontakte und den Erwerb der Erfahrungen, denn die Garantie des Erfolgs ist das Finanzieren, verbunden mit Erfahrung und hohen Qualifikationen.

Bibliografie

Луковська О. Львівський Осінній Салон “Високий

– № 2 (11). ськими організаціями) // Голос Українки. – 2007. турному просторі Львова (співпраця з громадЛуковська O. Львівський Палац мистецтв у куль-

Bibliografie

Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв. Каталог виставки. – 2005. Луковська О. Осінній Салон “Високий Замок - 2007”. – 2006. Замок - 2006”. 10 років. Каталог виставки. Луковська О. Львівський Осінній Салон “Високий

Луковська O. Львівський Палац мистецтв у культурному просторі Львова (співпраця з громадськими організаціями) // Голос Українки. – 2007. – № 2 (11).

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Замок - 2006”. 10 років. Каталог виставки. – 2006. Луковська О. Осінній Салон “Високий Замок - 2007”. Каталог виставки. – 2005. Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв.

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schen Teilnehmern der Vernissage gibt es Künstler, die ständig ihre Arbeiten während dieser Veranstaltung präsentieren. Das gibt die Möglichkeit zum näheren Kennenlernen der schöpferischen Konzeptionen der europäischen zeitgenössischen Kunst [Луковська, 2006; Луковська 2005]. Auf den alljährlichen Sammelausstellungen, die der Konzeption des Salons ähnlich sind, werden verschiedene Kunstgebiete vorgestellt, die die Bandbreite der schöpferischen Suche illustrieren. Solche Veranstaltungen geben den Kunstinteressierten die Möglichkeit der Bewunderung der jährlichen Resultate ihrer Entwicklung. Für die Kunsthistoriker ist das eine Gelegenheit, um die Ideen und die Richtungen der schöpferischen Tätigkeit der Künstler zu untersuchen, also es ist auch eine Möglichkeit des Analysierens, der kritischen Analyse, der Debatte über die positiven, wie auch die negativen künstlerischen Tendenzen der Modernität. Manche Veranstaltungen und Ausstellungen, die im Kunstpalast stattfinden, haben für den heutigen Tag keine Alternative in der Westukraine und sind desto wichtiger. Jedoch gibt es viele Probleme, betreffend ihre Organisation.

Das Fehlen einer entsprechenden Finanzierung ist der Hauptgrund, welcher die volle Entwicklung der Einrichtung erschwert. Aufgrund der fehlenden Mittel ist das Formen der Sammlung der zeitgenössischen Kunst, die Erschaffung einer universalen Informations-Computerdatenbank über die neuen Erscheinungen in der ukrainischen Kunst und über theoretischen Debatten im Bereich der Kunst unmöglich. Die finanziellen Mittel fehlen auch für die Vervollständigung der künstlerischen Bibliothek, für den Druck von Reklame, Vorbereitung der Kataloge, Fremdenführer und ihre Präsentation. Ein ständiges Problem ist das Fehlen der Räume und der Ausstattung für die entsprechende Ausstellung und Aufbewahrung der Kunstwerke. Fühlbar ist auch das Fehlen der Fachkenntnisse der Prinzipien des Kulturmanagements. Der Austausch der Spezialisten und die Praktiken der ukrainischen Angestellten im Ausland sind unentbehrlich für die Knüpfung der Kontakte und den Erwerb der Erfahrungen, denn die Garantie des Erfolgs ist das Finanzieren, verbunden mit Erfahrung und hohen Qualifikationen.


Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑ lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Michał Zawadzki

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Vorstellung des Managements auf der Ebene dieses Dualismus einen kapitalen Wert, denn sie stellt die allgemeine Überzeugung in Frage über die Notwendigkeit der Situierung dieser Wissenschaft auf dem vorökonomischen, wissenschaftliches Paradigma. Welches übrigens für Forscher bequem ist. Wie der Autor bemerkt, “steckt das neopositivistische Bild des Managements, obwohl es der strengen Kritik unterstellt wurde, nach wie vor tief in den Geistern der Forscher und Managementspezialisten. Oft bleibt es eine Art nicht ganz bewusste, ‘vernünftige Vision der getriebenen Disziplin, welche nicht das Stellen der schwierigen Fragen nach den kognitiven Grundlagen erfordert ” (S. 60). Dieser pathologische Zustand der Trägheit auf dem Grund der Reflexion über die grundsätzlichen Richtlinien der Managementlehre, entspringt gewöhnlich der bequemen Überzeugung, dass eben das Wissen, produziert auf dem Grund dieser Wissenschaft den Charakter der rationell universalisierten Objektiven Wahrheit hat und sowohl sie, wie auch der kognitive Prozess, der zu ihrer Erlangung führt, frei von Bewertung sind. Somit, was die Bekenner dieser Ideologie tief glauben (und es gibt sie wirklich viele), muss das von ihnen erlangte Wissen nicht der ununterbrochenen, schöpferischen Kritik unterstellt werden zwecks permanenter Untersuchung seiner Redlichkeit oder Adäquatheit.

D

ie Lehre über das Management müht sich mit ernsten, fundamentalen Problemen epistemologischer Natur ab. Das Fehlen der Kriterien, die die Unterscheidung des wissenschaftlichen Wissens von dem vernünftigen erlauben ist nur eine der vielen, allerdings die ernsteste Pathologie. Epistemologische Leere der Verwaltungswissenschaften wird jedoch selten bemerkt und der gründlichen Reflexion unterstellt. Der Professor Łukasz Sułkowski ist hier eine ruhmvolle Ausnahme, indem er überzeugend in seinem Buch zeigt die dringende Notwendigkeit der Konstituierung des permanenten Prozesses der Selbstreflexion und der Selbstkritik zeigt auf der Ebene der Verwaltungswissenschaft. Das erfordert nicht nur die Sorge um das Management als wissenschaftliche Praxis, sondern auch als kulturelle Praxis, die die Qualität und die Art des Funktionierens der sozial-kulturellen Wirklichkeit determiniert, in der wir leben. Die Überlegungen in dem besprochenen Buch wurden im Rahmen des epistemologischen Dilemmas aufgefasst: soll sich die Managementlehre im paradigmatischen Raum platzieren, welcher für exakte Wissenschaften charakteristisch ist (Neopositivismus, Ökonomismus) oder vielleicht der humanistischen Wissenschaften (interpretative, hermeneutische Strömung). Grundsätzlich bildet schon die

Vorstellung des Managements auf der Ebene dieses Dualismus einen kapitalen Wert, denn sie stellt die allgemeine Überzeugung in Frage über die Notwendigkeit der Situierung dieser Wissenschaft auf dem vorökonomischen, wissenschaftliches Paradigma. Welches übrigens für Forscher bequem ist. Wie der Autor bemerkt, “steckt das neopositivistische Bild des Managements, obwohl es der strengen Kritik unterstellt wurde, nach wie vor tief in den Geistern der Forscher und Managementspezialisten. Oft bleibt es eine Art nicht ganz bewusste, ‘vernünftige Vision der getriebenen Disziplin, welche nicht das Stellen der schwierigen Fragen nach den kognitiven Grundlagen erfordert ” (S. 60). Dieser pathologische Zustand der Trägheit auf dem Grund der Reflexion über die grundsätzlichen Richtlinien der Managementlehre, entspringt gewöhnlich der bequemen Überzeugung, dass eben das Wissen, produziert auf dem Grund dieser Wissenschaft den Charakter der rationell universalisierten Objektiven Wahrheit hat und sowohl sie, wie auch der kognitive Prozess, der zu ihrer Erlangung führt, frei von Bewertung sind. Somit, was die Bekenner dieser Ideologie tief glauben (und es gibt sie wirklich viele), muss das von ihnen erlangte Wissen nicht der ununterbrochenen, schöpferischen Kritik unterstellt werden zwecks permanenter Untersuchung seiner Redlichkeit oder Adäquatheit.

D

ie Lehre über das Management müht sich mit ernsten, fundamentalen Problemen epistemologischer Natur ab. Das Fehlen der Kriterien, die die Unterscheidung des wissenschaftlichen Wissens von dem vernünftigen erlauben ist nur eine der vielen, allerdings die ernsteste Pathologie. Epistemologische Leere der Verwaltungswissenschaften wird jedoch selten bemerkt und der gründlichen Reflexion unterstellt. Der Professor Łukasz Sułkowski ist hier eine ruhmvolle Ausnahme, indem er überzeugend in seinem Buch zeigt die dringende Notwendigkeit der Konstituierung des permanenten Prozesses der Selbstreflexion und der Selbstkritik zeigt auf der Ebene der Verwaltungswissenschaft. Das erfordert nicht nur die Sorge um das Management als wissenschaftliche Praxis, sondern auch als kulturelle Praxis, die die Qualität und die Art des Funktionierens der sozial-kulturellen Wirklichkeit determiniert, in der wir leben. Die Überlegungen in dem besprochenen Buch wurden im Rahmen des epistemologischen Dilemmas aufgefasst: soll sich die Managementlehre im paradigmatischen Raum platzieren, welcher für exakte Wissenschaften charakteristisch ist (Neopositivismus, Ökonomismus) oder vielleicht der humanistischen Wissenschaften (interpretative, hermeneutische Strömung). Grundsätzlich bildet schon die

Michał Zawadzki Der Absolvent der Soziologie und Philosophie an der Mikołaj Kopernik Universität in Torun (Studium im Rahmen von den Fakultätsübergreifenden Interdisziplinären Geisteswissenschaftlichen Studien MISH), Doktorand an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Er beschäftigt sich mit den Strategien von Selbstmanagement und Kulturmanagement im Kontext von den Gefahren seitens des instrumentalen Rationalismus und des zynischen Geistes. In der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit basiert er auch auf den forscherischen Assoziationen zu den literarischen Werken. Er ist von der Prosa von Hermann Hesse Fasziniert. Schlagzeuger.

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

Michał Zawadzki Der Absolvent der Soziologie und Philosophie an der Mikołaj Kopernik Universität in Torun (Studium im Rahmen von den Fakultätsübergreifenden Interdisziplinären Geisteswissenschaftlichen Studien MISH), Doktorand an der Fakultät für Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Er beschäftigt sich mit den Strategien von Selbstmanagement und Kulturmanagement im Kontext von den Gefahren seitens des instrumentalen Rationalismus und des zynischen Geistes. In der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit basiert er auch auf den forscherischen Assoziationen zu den literarischen Werken. Er ist von der Prosa von Hermann Hesse Fasziniert. Schlagzeuger.

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Michał Zawadzki

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Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑ lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł 1

Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑ lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)

Profesor Sułkowski, indem er die kritische Strömung ausnutzt, welcher auf der Ebene der Philosophie der Wissenschaft anwesend ist, dekonstruiert ausgezeichnet diesen naiven Aberglauben, indem er zeigt, dass der Prozess der Wissenserlangung, wie auch das Wissen selbst, unvermeidlich immer in den sozial-kulturellen Kontext verwickelt sind. Das Wissen entsteht nie im axiologischen Vakuum, es bringt immer ein eigentümliches normatives Gepäck mit sich, welches die Möglichkeit seiner Betrachtung als eine universelle, rationale Wahrheit ausschließt. Mit anderen Worten, der sozial-kulturelle Kontext, der den Prozess der Wissenserlangung determiniert verursacht, dass wir im Forschungsprozess keinen Zugang zu der Wirklichkeit als solche haben, denn indem wir diese Wirklichkeit untersuchen, gestalten wir sie gleichzeitig aktiv mit und verändern sie. Somit “beschäftigt sich die Managementlehre nicht ausschließlich mit der Beschreibung der Wirklichkeit, sie gestalten sie aktiv mit. Sie ist also im gleichen Grad kognitiv, wie auch kreativ, sie ist gleichzeitig eine Wissenschaft und eine Kunst” (S. 7). Der Autor zeigt überzeugend welche Konsequenzen sich – für das Denken an die Managementwissenschaften und ihre Entwicklung – aus dieser doppelten Hermeneutik dieser Wissenschaften ergeben. Vor allem fluktuiert der Autor, indem er einzelne Strömungen charakterisiert, die für die Managementlehre charakteristisch ist, von der neopositivistischen Perspektive, durch die interpretative Strömung, bis zu der postmodernistischen Perspektive indem er beweist, dass diese Wissenschaften von der Natur aus den multiparadigmatischen Charakter haben. Es lohnt sich, in diesem Kontext die kapitale, in der Mehrheit vom Autor selbst vorbereitete tabellarische Aufstellungen zu unterstreichen, die in verschiedenen Kontexten die Unterschiede zwischen den besprochenen Strömungen verbildlichen. Aufgrund der Multiparadigmahaftigkeit ist Hermetisierung der Managementwissenschaften im steifen Korsett der einen epistemologischen Betrachtungsweise nicht berechtigt, die leider unter der Gestalt der neopositivistischen Ökonomismus gegenwärtig die Entwicklung dieser Disziplin hemmt. Das verbindet sich unter anderem mit dem nicht berechtigten, obwohl die ganze Zeit im Bewusstsein der Vertreter der Managementwissenschaften

Übersetzung: Marta Schwarz-Gaczoł

präsenten künstlichen Aufteilung in das “harte”, “wissenschaftliche” Management, welches die Postulate realisiert, die sich aus den ökonomischen und neopositivistischen Annahmen ergeben, sowie “weiches” Management, gestützt auf das humanistische Paradigma, welchem der Status der Wissenschaftlichkeit weggenommen wird. Wie der Autor bemerkt, “wichtiger von der restriktiven Aussteckung der Grenzen der Managementwissenschaften scheint die Unterstellung der kritischen Beurteilung des gebildeten Schaffens mit Ausnutzung der kognitiven Perspektiven verschiedener Wissenschaften” (S. 38). Deswegen eben ist dem Management, mehr als die enge Demarkation von anderen Wissenschaften, geradezu eine transdisziplinäre Offenheit auf das Schaffen anderer Bereiche notwendig, besonders der humanistischen, damit es zum Austausch der Konzeptionen und Meinungen kommen könnte, die den Diskurs der Managementwissenschaften sättigen1. Gleichzeitig würde sich eine solche Offenheit mit der Inbetriebsetzung des schöpferischen Prozesses verbinden, dem kritischen Aufeinanderstoßen der Ideen, die für verschiedene epistemologischen Ebenen charakteristisch sind, was für das Management einen Nutzen bringen würde in Form der permanenten Selbstreflexion und Selbstkritik. Die Beseitigung des bequemen Paravents des Neopositivismus und der mit ihm verbundenen Freiheit von der Bewertung für die Anerkennung der doppelten Hermeneutik der Managementwissenschaften, die die Notwendigkeit der transdisziplinären Offenheit determiniert, würde nicht nur das Management unter der notwendigen Schneide der Selbstkritik stellen, aber – was damit verbunden ist – auch unter ethischen und sozialen Druck. Wie sehr notwendig die Maßnahme im Kontext der weiteren Entwicklung dieser Wissenschaft ist überzeugt der Professor Sułkowski. Es ist schwer, mit der Feststellung des Professors nicht einverstanden zu sein, dass “die selbstkritische Erschütterung im Management notwendig ist, denn sie kann zur Erarbeitung der Kriterien des wertvollen Wissens dienen, die erlauben werden, die Erkenntnis von der ‘kognitiven Gauklerei’ zu trennen. Die sich vermehrenden Pseudotheorien, ‘goldene Rezepte’ und ‘universelle Wahrheiten’ der Ratgeber aus dem Bereich des Managements bauen ein Bild einer scheinbaren Wissenschaft,

Michał Zawadzki

Es ist wert, zuzugeben, dass in Polen der Initiator der Idee der Überschreitung der disziplinären Grenzen auf dem Grund der Managementwissenschaften Professor Emil Orzechowski ist, der seit vielen Jahren die “Entökonomisierung” des Managements für die humanistische Perspektive fordert, verbunden mit der Offenheit auf das Schaffen anderer Wissenschaften (siehe z.B. dieses Autors Arte et Ratione [in:] Monika Jaworska-Witkowska (Red.), Jaka kultura? Jaki dyskurs? Sfera publiczna a spory o edukację, pedagogikę i zarządzanie, Szczecin: “Pedagogium”, Wyd. OR TWP, 2008, S. 117-132).

präsenten künstlichen Aufteilung in das “harte”, “wissenschaftliche” Management, welches die Postulate realisiert, die sich aus den ökonomischen und neopositivistischen Annahmen ergeben, sowie “weiches” Management, gestützt auf das humanistische Paradigma, welchem der Status der Wissenschaftlichkeit weggenommen wird. Wie der Autor bemerkt, “wichtiger von der restriktiven Aussteckung der Grenzen der Managementwissenschaften scheint die Unterstellung der kritischen Beurteilung des gebildeten Schaffens mit Ausnutzung der kognitiven Perspektiven verschiedener Wissenschaften” (S. 38). Deswegen eben ist dem Management, mehr als die enge Demarkation von anderen Wissenschaften, geradezu eine transdisziplinäre Offenheit auf das Schaffen anderer Bereiche notwendig, besonders der humanistischen, damit es zum Austausch der Konzeptionen und Meinungen kommen könnte, die den Diskurs der Managementwissenschaften sättigen1. Gleichzeitig würde sich eine solche Offenheit mit der Inbetriebsetzung des schöpferischen Prozesses verbinden, dem kritischen Aufeinanderstoßen der Ideen, die für verschiedene epistemologischen Ebenen charakteristisch sind, was für das Management einen Nutzen bringen würde in Form der permanenten Selbstreflexion und Selbstkritik. Die Beseitigung des bequemen Paravents des Neopositivismus und der mit ihm verbundenen Freiheit von der Bewertung für die Anerkennung der doppelten Hermeneutik der Managementwissenschaften, die die Notwendigkeit der transdisziplinären Offenheit determiniert, würde nicht nur das Management unter der notwendigen Schneide der Selbstkritik stellen, aber – was damit verbunden ist – auch unter ethischen und sozialen Druck. Wie sehr notwendig die Maßnahme im Kontext der weiteren Entwicklung dieser Wissenschaft ist überzeugt der Professor Sułkowski. Es ist schwer, mit der Feststellung des Professors nicht einverstanden zu sein, dass “die selbstkritische Erschütterung im Management notwendig ist, denn sie kann zur Erarbeitung der Kriterien des wertvollen Wissens dienen, die erlauben werden, die Erkenntnis von der ‘kognitiven Gauklerei’ zu trennen. Die sich vermehrenden Pseudotheorien, ‘goldene Rezepte’ und ‘universelle Wahrheiten’ der Ratgeber aus dem Bereich des Managements bauen ein Bild einer scheinbaren Wissenschaft,

Michał Zawadzki

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Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Management­‑ lehre (Rezension: Łukasz Sułkowski – “Epistemologie in der Managementlehre” Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)

Profesor Sułkowski, indem er die kritische Strömung ausnutzt, welcher auf der Ebene der Philosophie der Wissenschaft anwesend ist, dekonstruiert ausgezeichnet diesen naiven Aberglauben, indem er zeigt, dass der Prozess der Wissenserlangung, wie auch das Wissen selbst, unvermeidlich immer in den sozial-kulturellen Kontext verwickelt sind. Das Wissen entsteht nie im axiologischen Vakuum, es bringt immer ein eigentümliches normatives Gepäck mit sich, welches die Möglichkeit seiner Betrachtung als eine universelle, rationale Wahrheit ausschließt. Mit anderen Worten, der sozial-kulturelle Kontext, der den Prozess der Wissenserlangung determiniert verursacht, dass wir im Forschungsprozess keinen Zugang zu der Wirklichkeit als solche haben, denn indem wir diese Wirklichkeit untersuchen, gestalten wir sie gleichzeitig aktiv mit und verändern sie. Somit “beschäftigt sich die Managementlehre nicht ausschließlich mit der Beschreibung der Wirklichkeit, sie gestalten sie aktiv mit. Sie ist also im gleichen Grad kognitiv, wie auch kreativ, sie ist gleichzeitig eine Wissenschaft und eine Kunst” (S. 7). Der Autor zeigt überzeugend welche Konsequenzen sich – für das Denken an die Managementwissenschaften und ihre Entwicklung – aus dieser doppelten Hermeneutik dieser Wissenschaften ergeben. Vor allem fluktuiert der Autor, indem er einzelne Strömungen charakterisiert, die für die Managementlehre charakteristisch ist, von der neopositivistischen Perspektive, durch die interpretative Strömung, bis zu der postmodernistischen Perspektive indem er beweist, dass diese Wissenschaften von der Natur aus den multiparadigmatischen Charakter haben. Es lohnt sich, in diesem Kontext die kapitale, in der Mehrheit vom Autor selbst vorbereitete tabellarische Aufstellungen zu unterstreichen, die in verschiedenen Kontexten die Unterschiede zwischen den besprochenen Strömungen verbildlichen. Aufgrund der Multiparadigmahaftigkeit ist Hermetisierung der Managementwissenschaften im steifen Korsett der einen epistemologischen Betrachtungsweise nicht berechtigt, die leider unter der Gestalt der neopositivistischen Ökonomismus gegenwärtig die Entwicklung dieser Disziplin hemmt. Das verbindet sich unter anderem mit dem nicht berechtigten, obwohl die ganze Zeit im Bewusstsein der Vertreter der Managementwissenschaften

Es ist wert, zuzugeben, dass in Polen der Initiator der Idee der Überschreitung der disziplinären Grenzen auf dem Grund der Managementwissenschaften Professor Emil Orzechowski ist, der seit vielen Jahren die “Entökonomisierung” des Managements für die humanistische Perspektive fordert, verbunden mit der Offenheit auf das Schaffen anderer Wissenschaften (siehe z.B. dieses Autors Arte et Ratione [in:] Monika Jaworska-Witkowska (Red.), Jaka kultura? Jaki dyskurs? Sfera publiczna a spory o edukację, pedagogikę i zarządzanie, Szczecin: “Pedagogium”, Wyd. OR TWP, 2008, S. 117-132).

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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es die soziale Prestige des Wissens, welches als wissenschaftlich anerkannt wird, ausnutzt, “selbst den Bedarf für das eigene Wissen kreiert, und in der Konsequenz die eigene soziale Bedeutung und die Macht. Spannend könnte auch die Analyse sein, wie die Diskurse, die sich im Bereich des Managements entwickeln, versuchen, die möglichst größte Menge an Problematik aufzusaugen, indem sie somit die eigene Bedeutung beweisen” (S. 96). Ein anderes, verbunden mit dem obigen, zur Entmystifizierung und Lösung wichtiges Problem ist der Rauchvorhang des Jargons des Managements, denn oft unter dem Mäntelchen der komplizierten wissenschaftlichen Terminologie werden wertlose Konzeptionen produziert, die lediglich der Realisierung der partikularen Interessen ihrer Autoren dienen. Außerdem – was besonders die polnische Wirklichkeit betrifft – sind die Managementwissenschaften im hohen Grad der Vetternwirtschaft ausgesetzt. Die Erfüllung der Rolle gleichzeitig des Wissenschaftlers, der die Theorien produziert und des Experten in einer Organisation oder eines Geschäftsmannes schafft die Gefahr der Bildung von Seilschaften und der Einflussnetze, die der Möglichkeit der Realisierung der persönlichen Interessen dienen sollen, was mit Schaden für die Redlichkeit des Wissens stattfindet. Endgültig also, was in seinem Buch Professor Sułkowski unterstreicht, soll gedenkt werden, dass das Management, indem es die Möglichkeit des Einflusses auf die Richtungen der Änderungen der Organisationen gibt, ein gewaltiges ideologisches Werkzeug bildet, welches erlaubt, die Gesellschaft zu manipulieren – deswegen besorgt um die Existenz jeden Mitglieds dieser Gesellschaft ist die Redlichkeit und der Wert des produzierten Wissens, sowie die Kompetenzen seiner Autoren nicht ohne Bedeutung. Ein wirksames Werkzeug der Entmystifizierung der Interessen, die sich hinter dem Tun der Theoretiker und Praktiker des Managements verbergen, kann sein – worauf der Autor zeigt – der theoretische Apparat, ausgearbeitet durch das sogenannte starke Programm der Soziologie des Wissens. Betrachtet als Methode der kritischen Analyse, würde eine wirksame Dekonstruktion der Managementwissenschaften erlauben in Sorge um ihre Befreiung von verschiedenen, für sie wie auch für die Gesellschaft destruktiven, Einflusszonen. Es geht hier also nicht – was deutlich Professor Sułkowski unterstreicht – um die Devaluation oder Destruktion der Managementwissenschaften, sondern um Einsetzung einer permanenten, kritischen Selbstanalyse, die dem Management erlauben würde, volle, nicht gestörte Selbstreflexion der Gesellschaft zu werden.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

in der die kognitiven Aspekte in den Hintergrund geraten, gedämpft durch kommerzielle Zonen ” (S. 16). Die Kriterien des wertvollen Wissens würden also in der ersten Reihenfolge für die Eliminierung (mindestens in einem gewissen Grad) der sogenannten Managementschamanen und -gurus erlauben, welche, indem sie die Verwicklung der Wissenschaft in den Massenmarkt der intellektuellen Güter ausnutzen, wertlose, aber schön verpackte Theorien (oft unter dem Etikett der Wissenschaftlichkeit und des Objektivismus) schmuggeln. Es geht hier darum, dass man nicht nur auf die Hände der Autoren der modischen Ratgeber sieht, die die “Wunderdiät” des Managements beschreiben, sondern, dass die Konzeptionen der Kritik unterstellt werden sogar (und vielleicht vor allem) dieser, die schon für unantastbare Autoritäten anerkannt wurden (der Autor schon zurecht sogar Peter Drucker nicht, indem er schreibt, dass die diskursive Analyse seiner Texte zum Beispiel naive, tief verwurzelte, unterbewusste Überzeugung “über die Mission und Legitimierung der Managermacht, die zu einer besseren Welt führen soll” entdeckt (S. 47). Mit anderen Worten, aufgrund dessen, dass die Konzeption von irgendjemand populär ist und allgemein bekannt, auch wenn ihr Autor einen hohen akademischen oder Managerposten bekleidet, ergibt sich noch nicht, dass diese Konzeption nicht “den modischen Unsinn, auf wessen Leim andere blauäugig gehen“ schmuggelt. Notwendig ist also Entmystifizierung der symbolischen Macht, die zur Realisierung der Interessen der einflussreichen sozialen Gruppen oder Institutionen ausgenutzt wird. Ein eigenartiges Paradoxum ist zum Beispiel die vom Autor beschriebene Tätigkeit der Konsultingfirmen, die, indem sie Massenmittel und -elemente der Soziotechnik ausnutzen, nutzlose Managementkonzeptionen darstellen (ausgearbeitet durch akademische Zentren) als wertvolle und sich in der Praxis behauptende. Die reklamierten Konzeptionen werden der öffentlichen Meinung gewöhnlich als ein Garant des Erfolgs der Organisation dargestellt, wenn auch die wertvollen und redlichen Managementtheorien lediglich seine Wahrscheinlichkeit vergrößern können – selbstverständlich bei der Annahme, dass sie nicht unkritisch angenommen und von ihren Befürwortern eingeleitet werden. Nicht ohne Bedeutung scheint auch in diesem Kontext die kritische Analyse der akademischen Institutionen zu sein, die symbolische Macht bekleiden durch die Schaffung der Lehrprogramme, Untersuchungsprogramme oder der Normen der Wissenschaftlichkeit. Notwendig ist hier u.a. die Reflexion, wie das akademische Milieu, indem

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

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es die soziale Prestige des Wissens, welches als wissenschaftlich anerkannt wird, ausnutzt, “selbst den Bedarf für das eigene Wissen kreiert, und in der Konsequenz die eigene soziale Bedeutung und die Macht. Spannend könnte auch die Analyse sein, wie die Diskurse, die sich im Bereich des Managements entwickeln, versuchen, die möglichst größte Menge an Problematik aufzusaugen, indem sie somit die eigene Bedeutung beweisen” (S. 96). Ein anderes, verbunden mit dem obigen, zur Entmystifizierung und Lösung wichtiges Problem ist der Rauchvorhang des Jargons des Managements, denn oft unter dem Mäntelchen der komplizierten wissenschaftlichen Terminologie werden wertlose Konzeptionen produziert, die lediglich der Realisierung der partikularen Interessen ihrer Autoren dienen. Außerdem – was besonders die polnische Wirklichkeit betrifft – sind die Managementwissenschaften im hohen Grad der Vetternwirtschaft ausgesetzt. Die Erfüllung der Rolle gleichzeitig des Wissenschaftlers, der die Theorien produziert und des Experten in einer Organisation oder eines Geschäftsmannes schafft die Gefahr der Bildung von Seilschaften und der Einflussnetze, die der Möglichkeit der Realisierung der persönlichen Interessen dienen sollen, was mit Schaden für die Redlichkeit des Wissens stattfindet. Endgültig also, was in seinem Buch Professor Sułkowski unterstreicht, soll gedenkt werden, dass das Management, indem es die Möglichkeit des Einflusses auf die Richtungen der Änderungen der Organisationen gibt, ein gewaltiges ideologisches Werkzeug bildet, welches erlaubt, die Gesellschaft zu manipulieren – deswegen besorgt um die Existenz jeden Mitglieds dieser Gesellschaft ist die Redlichkeit und der Wert des produzierten Wissens, sowie die Kompetenzen seiner Autoren nicht ohne Bedeutung. Ein wirksames Werkzeug der Entmystifizierung der Interessen, die sich hinter dem Tun der Theoretiker und Praktiker des Managements verbergen, kann sein – worauf der Autor zeigt – der theoretische Apparat, ausgearbeitet durch das sogenannte starke Programm der Soziologie des Wissens. Betrachtet als Methode der kritischen Analyse, würde eine wirksame Dekonstruktion der Managementwissenschaften erlauben in Sorge um ihre Befreiung von verschiedenen, für sie wie auch für die Gesellschaft destruktiven, Einflusszonen. Es geht hier also nicht – was deutlich Professor Sułkowski unterstreicht – um die Devaluation oder Destruktion der Managementwissenschaften, sondern um Einsetzung einer permanenten, kritischen Selbstanalyse, die dem Management erlauben würde, volle, nicht gestörte Selbstreflexion der Gesellschaft zu werden.

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in der die kognitiven Aspekte in den Hintergrund geraten, gedämpft durch kommerzielle Zonen ” (S. 16). Die Kriterien des wertvollen Wissens würden also in der ersten Reihenfolge für die Eliminierung (mindestens in einem gewissen Grad) der sogenannten Managementschamanen und -gurus erlauben, welche, indem sie die Verwicklung der Wissenschaft in den Massenmarkt der intellektuellen Güter ausnutzen, wertlose, aber schön verpackte Theorien (oft unter dem Etikett der Wissenschaftlichkeit und des Objektivismus) schmuggeln. Es geht hier darum, dass man nicht nur auf die Hände der Autoren der modischen Ratgeber sieht, die die “Wunderdiät” des Managements beschreiben, sondern, dass die Konzeptionen der Kritik unterstellt werden sogar (und vielleicht vor allem) dieser, die schon für unantastbare Autoritäten anerkannt wurden (der Autor schon zurecht sogar Peter Drucker nicht, indem er schreibt, dass die diskursive Analyse seiner Texte zum Beispiel naive, tief verwurzelte, unterbewusste Überzeugung “über die Mission und Legitimierung der Managermacht, die zu einer besseren Welt führen soll” entdeckt (S. 47). Mit anderen Worten, aufgrund dessen, dass die Konzeption von irgendjemand populär ist und allgemein bekannt, auch wenn ihr Autor einen hohen akademischen oder Managerposten bekleidet, ergibt sich noch nicht, dass diese Konzeption nicht “den modischen Unsinn, auf wessen Leim andere blauäugig gehen“ schmuggelt. Notwendig ist also Entmystifizierung der symbolischen Macht, die zur Realisierung der Interessen der einflussreichen sozialen Gruppen oder Institutionen ausgenutzt wird. Ein eigenartiges Paradoxum ist zum Beispiel die vom Autor beschriebene Tätigkeit der Konsultingfirmen, die, indem sie Massenmittel und -elemente der Soziotechnik ausnutzen, nutzlose Managementkonzeptionen darstellen (ausgearbeitet durch akademische Zentren) als wertvolle und sich in der Praxis behauptende. Die reklamierten Konzeptionen werden der öffentlichen Meinung gewöhnlich als ein Garant des Erfolgs der Organisation dargestellt, wenn auch die wertvollen und redlichen Managementtheorien lediglich seine Wahrscheinlichkeit vergrößern können – selbstverständlich bei der Annahme, dass sie nicht unkritisch angenommen und von ihren Befürwortern eingeleitet werden. Nicht ohne Bedeutung scheint auch in diesem Kontext die kritische Analyse der akademischen Institutionen zu sein, die symbolische Macht bekleiden durch die Schaffung der Lehrprogramme, Untersuchungsprogramme oder der Normen der Wissenschaftlichkeit. Notwendig ist hier u.a. die Reflexion, wie das akademische Milieu, indem


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Die Liste der zur Einführung notwendigen Änderungen, verbunden mit der unvermeidlichen Verwicklung des Wissens, welches durch die Managementwissenschaften generiert wird, in den sozial-kulturellen Kontext ist wirklich lang. Der Autor zeigt unter anderem auf die Notwendigkeit der Befreiung der Methodologie von den neopositivistischen und szientistischen Tendenzen. Naiver Glaube der Vertreter der Managementwissenschaften in Polen in den unerschütterlichen Forschungswert und die wunderliche Prädikationskraft der Mengenmethoden, die unter anderem mit der Umfrage-Manie die Folgen hat, führt zu wertlosen, nichts Neues entdeckenden Forschungsergebnissen. Die Vervielfältigung der gängigen, bequemen Schemas ohne Versuche der Einsicht in die verborgenen, geheimen Aspekte der Bereiche, die den Gegenstand der Untersuchungen bestimmen, ist mehr das Hemmen der Entwicklung der Wissenschaft als ihre wirkliche Entwicklung. Deswegen zeigt der Autor auf die Notwendigkeit der Öffnung der Vertreter der Managementwissenschaften auf die Qualitätsmethoden, darunter wenn auch nur auf die im Forschungsprozess ungenutzten Textanalysen oder den Einsatz der Metapher, die “nicht nur rhetorische Verzierung bilden, sondern in der Erfahrung stecken, den Rahmen unseres Entschlüsselns der Welt bilden, sowie die grundsätzliche kognitiven Kategorien bauen ” (S. 122). Vielleicht wäre eine gute, vom Autor angedeutete, methodologische Lösung die Annahme der offenen Haltung des methodologischen Eklektizismus, verbunden mit der schöpferischen Verbindung verschiedener, komplementärer Methoden, die für verschiedene Bereiche charakteristisch sind. Das Buch des Professor Sułkowski ist eine Sensation auf der Ebene der Veröffentlichungen, betreffend das Management. Es ist schwer, sei

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

es auch in der Kurzfassung alle in dieser Veröffentlichung aufgenommenen Forschungsspuren zu besprechen. Ich konzentrierte mich auf die Analyse der Spuren, die sich zur kritischen Perspektive zusammenlegt, die ein eigenartiges Novum bildet auf dem Grund der Reflexion über die Managementwissenschaften. Auf das besprochene Buch kann natürlich aus einer anderen Perspektive geblickt werden. Sie kann, und sogar sollte ein wertvolles Lehrbuch sowohl für die Studenten, als auch für erfahrenes Management-, oder akademisches Personal darstellen, denn sie enthält eine systematisierte Aufstellung und kapitale Besprechung der grundsätzlichen epistemologischen Strömungen der Managementwissenschaften. Professor Sułkowski nahm eine unheimlich schwierige Problematik auf, die nicht nur kognitiven Mut erfordert, sondern wohl auch bürgerlichen – weil die von ihm vorgestellten Thesen sicher nicht für das Milieu der Theoretiker und Praktiker des Managements bequem sind, zu dem er selbst gehört. Fakt ist jedoch, dass lediglich solche – kritische und mutige Veröffentlichungen eine neue Qualität in die Reflexion über die Kondition der Managementwissenschaften einführen können. Neben dem schwierigen zur Überschätzung inhaltlichen Kontext des Buches, lohnt es sich, noch einen ungewöhnlich wertvollen bibliographischen Aspekt zu bemerken: der Autor stütze seine Reflexionen auf die gigantische polnische, wie auch ausländische Bibliographie, indem er wesentlich die weitere, selbständige Exploration der aufgenommenen Problematik erleichtert. Und es lohnt sich eine solche vom Autor vorgeschlagene Problematik aufzunehmen, wenn wir die Managementwissenschaften von einem Zustand, der mit der Schamanenmedizin oder dem ShowBusiness verglichen wird, befreien wollen.

205

Die Liste der zur Einführung notwendigen Änderungen, verbunden mit der unvermeidlichen Verwicklung des Wissens, welches durch die Managementwissenschaften generiert wird, in den sozial-kulturellen Kontext ist wirklich lang. Der Autor zeigt unter anderem auf die Notwendigkeit der Befreiung der Methodologie von den neopositivistischen und szientistischen Tendenzen. Naiver Glaube der Vertreter der Managementwissenschaften in Polen in den unerschütterlichen Forschungswert und die wunderliche Prädikationskraft der Mengenmethoden, die unter anderem mit der Umfrage-Manie die Folgen hat, führt zu wertlosen, nichts Neues entdeckenden Forschungsergebnissen. Die Vervielfältigung der gängigen, bequemen Schemas ohne Versuche der Einsicht in die verborgenen, geheimen Aspekte der Bereiche, die den Gegenstand der Untersuchungen bestimmen, ist mehr das Hemmen der Entwicklung der Wissenschaft als ihre wirkliche Entwicklung. Deswegen zeigt der Autor auf die Notwendigkeit der Öffnung der Vertreter der Managementwissenschaften auf die Qualitätsmethoden, darunter wenn auch nur auf die im Forschungsprozess ungenutzten Textanalysen oder den Einsatz der Metapher, die “nicht nur rhetorische Verzierung bilden, sondern in der Erfahrung stecken, den Rahmen unseres Entschlüsselns der Welt bilden, sowie die grundsätzliche kognitiven Kategorien bauen ” (S. 122). Vielleicht wäre eine gute, vom Autor angedeutete, methodologische Lösung die Annahme der offenen Haltung des methodologischen Eklektizismus, verbunden mit der schöpferischen Verbindung verschiedener, komplementärer Methoden, die für verschiedene Bereiche charakteristisch sind. Das Buch des Professor Sułkowski ist eine Sensation auf der Ebene der Veröffentlichungen, betreffend das Management. Es ist schwer, sei

205

es auch in der Kurzfassung alle in dieser Veröffentlichung aufgenommenen Forschungsspuren zu besprechen. Ich konzentrierte mich auf die Analyse der Spuren, die sich zur kritischen Perspektive zusammenlegt, die ein eigenartiges Novum bildet auf dem Grund der Reflexion über die Managementwissenschaften. Auf das besprochene Buch kann natürlich aus einer anderen Perspektive geblickt werden. Sie kann, und sogar sollte ein wertvolles Lehrbuch sowohl für die Studenten, als auch für erfahrenes Management-, oder akademisches Personal darstellen, denn sie enthält eine systematisierte Aufstellung und kapitale Besprechung der grundsätzlichen epistemologischen Strömungen der Managementwissenschaften. Professor Sułkowski nahm eine unheimlich schwierige Problematik auf, die nicht nur kognitiven Mut erfordert, sondern wohl auch bürgerlichen – weil die von ihm vorgestellten Thesen sicher nicht für das Milieu der Theoretiker und Praktiker des Managements bequem sind, zu dem er selbst gehört. Fakt ist jedoch, dass lediglich solche – kritische und mutige Veröffentlichungen eine neue Qualität in die Reflexion über die Kondition der Managementwissenschaften einführen können. Neben dem schwierigen zur Überschätzung inhaltlichen Kontext des Buches, lohnt es sich, noch einen ungewöhnlich wertvollen bibliographischen Aspekt zu bemerken: der Autor stütze seine Reflexionen auf die gigantische polnische, wie auch ausländische Bibliographie, indem er wesentlich die weitere, selbständige Exploration der aufgenommenen Problematik erleichtert. Und es lohnt sich eine solche vom Autor vorgeschlagene Problematik aufzunehmen, wenn wir die Managementwissenschaften von einem Zustand, der mit der Schamanenmedizin oder dem ShowBusiness verglichen wird, befreien wollen.



Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Vorstellung der Partnerinstitutionen Wie wir es schon im ersten Heft angekündigt haben, präsentieren wir an dieser Stelle die Partnerinstitutionen, die an der Fachzeitschrift mitgearbeitet haben. Statt der näheren Informationen zum Angebot der Universität in Istanbul wird hier aufgrund des neuen Aktivitätsfeldes von Professor Peter Bendixen das Porträt des Wiener Studienzentrums Hohe Warte skizziert. Wir hoffen, diese Initiative würde für uns eine Möglichkeit für eine engere Zusammenarbeit im Redigieren dieser Fachzeitschrift bedeuten. Am Ende dieses Teils befindet sich zusätzlich die Information über den Lehrstuhl für Kulturmanagement der Jagiellonen Universität aus Gründen der organisatorischen Änderungen im Jahre 2009.

BELGRAD Lehrstuhl für Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur Fakultät für die dramatischen Künste, Universität der Künste, Belgrad www.fdubg.com/en/cms/about_fdu

D

as Studium im Bereich Organisation, Produktion und Management von Medien, Kultur und Kunst wird durch die Fakultät für die dramatischen Künste seit 1961 geführt (ein erster derartiger Studiengang in Europa). In den Jahren 2004-2005 ist der Lehrstuhl für Produktion zum Lehrstuhl für Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur umbenannt worden. Der neue Name widerspiegelt bedeutende Änderungen des Studentenprofils als auch der Lehrpraxis im Rahmen von der Studienplanstruktur und der Struktur von individuellen Lehrgängen. Über 600 Studenten, die diese Studienrichtung absolviert haben, arbeiteten oder werden als Führungskräfte in Theatern, TV-Sender, im Radio und in vielen Kultureinrichtungen arbeiten. Die Fakultät bietet die folgenden Studiengänge: MM Bachelorstudiengang (Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur), MM Masterstudiengang (Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur), MM Masterstudiengang (Kulturpolitik und Management – interkulturelle Mediation in den Balkanstaaten), MM Promotionsstudiengang (Kunst- und Medienmanagement).

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Ziele des Studienprogramms Das Hauptziel des Studienprogramms besteht darin, Studierende auf professionelle und charakteristische Bedürfnissen von Medien- und Kultureinrichtungen vorzubereiten. Das Ziel des Doktorandenprogramms ist es, den akademischen und forscherischen Bereich im Rahmen von Kunstund Medienmanagement, sowie Kulturpolitik zu entwickeln. Der Lehrstuhl strebt nach der Verbesserung der Bildungsqualität, indem er verschiedene aktive Lehrmethoden verbindet: interaktive Vorlesungen, projektbasierte Lehrveranstaltungen, forschungsbasierte Lehrveranstaltungen, Workshops, individuelle Aufgaben, Gruppenaufgaben, Praktika in professionellen Einrichtungen. Der Lehrstuhl veranstaltet thematische Workshops und Seminare, die Studierenden die Gelegenheit geben, bekannte Kultur- und Medienforscher, wie auch Praktiker zu treffen. Sie können dann über die aktuellsten berufsbezogenen Fragen diskutieren. Der Lehrstuhl nimmt auch aktiv an künstlerischen und wissenschaftlichen Projekten, sowie an zahlreichen von der Fakultät und Universität unternommenen Aktivitäten teil. Die Studenteninitiativen bringen zahlreiche Erfolge, z.B. Studentenfilmfestival (FSF) und Internationales Studententheaterfestival (FIST). Für internationale Hochschulen und Studierenden wurden die Festivals zu wichtigen Kulturveranstaltungen, weil sie die Gelegenheit geben, eigene Arbeit öffentlich zu präsentieren, wie auch sich auseinanderzusetzen, eigene Ideen und Erfahrungen zu teilen. Der Lehrstuhl ermöglicht den aktivsten Studenten die Beteiligung an Forschungsprojekten.

207

as Studium im Bereich Organisation, Produktion und Management von Medien, Kultur und Kunst wird durch die Fakultät für die dramatischen Künste seit 1961 geführt (ein erster derartiger Studiengang in Europa). In den Jahren 2004-2005 ist der Lehrstuhl für Produktion zum Lehrstuhl für Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur umbenannt worden. Der neue Name widerspiegelt bedeutende Änderungen des Studentenprofils als auch der Lehrpraxis im Rahmen von der Studienplanstruktur und der Struktur von individuellen Lehrgängen. Über 600 Studenten, die diese Studienrichtung absolviert haben, arbeiteten oder werden als Führungskräfte in Theatern, TV-Sender, im Radio und in vielen Kultureinrichtungen arbeiten. Die Fakultät bietet die folgenden Studiengänge: MM Bachelorstudiengang (Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur), MM Masterstudiengang (Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur), MM Masterstudiengang (Kulturpolitik und Management – interkulturelle Mediation in den Balkanstaaten), Promotionsstudiengang (Kunst- und Medienmanagement). MM

D

Lehrstuhl für Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur Fakultät für die dramatischen Künste, Universität der Künste, Belgrad www.fdubg.com/en/cms/about_fdu

BELGRAD

207

Ziele des Studienprogramms Das Hauptziel des Studienprogramms besteht darin, Studierende auf professionelle und charakteristische Bedürfnissen von Medien- und Kultureinrichtungen vorzubereiten. Das Ziel des Doktorandenprogramms ist es, den akademischen und forscherischen Bereich im Rahmen von Kunstund Medienmanagement, sowie Kulturpolitik zu entwickeln. Der Lehrstuhl strebt nach der Verbesserung der Bildungsqualität, indem er verschiedene aktive Lehrmethoden verbindet: interaktive Vorlesungen, projektbasierte Lehrveranstaltungen, forschungsbasierte Lehrveranstaltungen, Workshops, individuelle Aufgaben, Gruppenaufgaben, Praktika in professionellen Einrichtungen. Der Lehrstuhl veranstaltet thematische Workshops und Seminare, die Studierenden die Gelegenheit geben, bekannte Kultur- und Medienforscher, wie auch Praktiker zu treffen. Sie können dann über die aktuellsten berufsbezogenen Fragen diskutieren. Der Lehrstuhl nimmt auch aktiv an künstlerischen und wissenschaftlichen Projekten, sowie an zahlreichen von der Fakultät und Universität unternommenen Aktivitäten teil. Die Studenteninitiativen bringen zahlreiche Erfolge, z.B. Studentenfilmfestival (FSF) und Internationales Studententheaterfestival (FIST). Für internationale Hochschulen und Studierenden wurden die Festivals zu wichtigen Kulturveranstaltungen, weil sie die Gelegenheit geben, eigene Arbeit öffentlich zu präsentieren, wie auch sich auseinanderzusetzen, eigene Ideen und Erfahrungen zu teilen. Der Lehrstuhl ermöglicht den aktivsten Studenten die Beteiligung an Forschungsprojekten.

Wie wir es schon im ersten Heft angekündigt haben, präsentieren wir an dieser Stelle die Partnerinstitutionen, die an der Fachzeitschrift mitgearbeitet haben. Statt der näheren Informationen zum Angebot der Universität in Istanbul wird hier aufgrund des neuen Aktivitätsfeldes von Professor Peter Bendixen das Porträt des Wiener Studienzentrums Hohe Warte skizziert. Wir hoffen, diese Initiative würde für uns eine Möglichkeit für eine engere Zusammenarbeit im Redigieren dieser Fachzeitschrift bedeuten. Am Ende dieses Teils befindet sich zusätzlich die Information über den Lehrstuhl für Kulturmanagement der Jagiellonen Universität aus Gründen der organisatorischen Änderungen im Jahre 2009.

Vorstellung der Partnerinstitutionen


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Management KUNST

WYDZIAŁ

FAKULTÄT DER DRAMATISCHEN KÜNSTE UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD

Studienprogramm Der Bachelorstudiengang dauert vier Jahre. Die Studierenden beschäftigen sich während ihres Studiums mit drei Hauptthemen: Theaterproduktion, Radioproduktion, Kulturmanagement und Kulturpolitik. Das Studium wird zusätzlich von den folgenden praktischen und theoretischen Studienfächern ergänzt: Bühnenarchitektur und -technologie, Marketing, Autorenrechte, Theaterund Radioregie, Theater- und Dramageschichte, Geschichte des südslawischen Theaters und Dramas, Psychologie, Kunstgeschichte, Kunstsoziologie, Kulturgeschichte u.a. Während ihres Studiums haben die Studierenden die Möglichkeit, in der Vorbereitungsphase

sowie in der Durchführung von professionellen Veranstaltungen wie Produktion neuer Kunst oder Organisation internationaler Festivals (FEST, BITEF i BELEF) aktiv teilzunehmen. MM Hauptfächer: Theatermanagement, Radiomanagement, Kulturmanagement, Kulturpolitik, Theater- und Dramageschichte, Geschichte des südslawischen Theaters und Dramas, Bühnentechnik, Einführung in die Theaterregie, Filmmanagement, Ästhetik, Kunstgeschichte, Musik, Psychologie, Marketing, Fremdsprache. MM Zusätzliche Fächer: Fremdsprache (2), BusinessKommunikation, Massenmedien und Kommunikation, Management von Business-Einheit, Journalismus.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Bildungsbereich

208

1.

1. Masterstudiengang

2. Studienbereich

12. Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten

Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur

Bachelordiplom im Bereich Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur; Manager-Produzent im Theater, Radio, und in Kultur.

3. Studienprogramm

11. Qualifikationen

4. Ziele des Studienprogramms

Nach dem erfolgsreichen Abschluss der ersten Stufe d.h. Manager-Produzent im Theater, Radio und in Kultur besitzen die Absolventen fundierte Kenntnisse in Grundproblematik in allen Bereichen sowie Fähigkeiten zur Bearbeitung von Organisations- und Produktionsaufgaben im Rahmen von: – Management und Produktion von Theaterstücken, Schauspielen, Radioprogrammen und verschiedenen Kulturprojekten (Ausstellung, Performance, Konzert usw.), – Organisation und Management von Segmenten/Sektoren im Rahmen von Kultureinrichtungen (Planung, Kontrolle, Monitoring, Programm- und Einrichtungsentwicklung, internationale Kulturzusammenarbeit, Fundraising), – Mittelbeschaffung für Produktion, Organisation und Management von Marketingkampagnen usw.

Das Ziel des vierjährigen Studienprogramms ist die Vermittlung von Kenntnissen und berufsqualifizierenden Kompetenzen im Bereich Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur. Im Rahmen von Vorlesungen, Projekten, praxisnahen Aufgaben und Forschungsarbeit erwerben die Studierenden Fähigkeiten, künstlerische Projekte zu organisieren und sie zu managen. Diese Methode ermöglicht Studierenden: – Techniken der Organisation von Produktion zu verstehen, die mit der Berufsarbeit in allen Bereichen verbindet ist, – an Projekten allein zu arbeiten, wie auch in Non-Profit-Einrichtungen und Vereinen beschäftigt zu sein, – sich am institutionellen Kultur- und Mediensystem aktiv beteiligen, – Grundkenntnisse zu erwerben, die für die Entwicklung und die Einführung von Kulturpolitikinstrumenten unentbehrlich sind. Das von theoretischen Leitlinien bestimmte Studienprogramm wird infolge von aktuellen, lokalen und internationalen Trends im Bereich verschiedener Aspekte der Produktion in Theater, Radio und Kultur sowie infolge von ihren Verbindungen im breiteren Milieu empirisch entwickelt.

10. Bildungsergebnisse

Bachelor

Reifezeugnis einer allgemeinbildenden Schule und eine genügende Anzahl der Punkte im Kompetenztest, der der Satzung einer Hochschule entspricht. Die Eignungsprüfung besteht aus: – Allgemeinwissentest, – Test, der analytisches Denkvermögen prüft, – Test, der Leitungskompetenzen prüft. Das Endergebnis von Bewerbern basiert auf der Summe der Punkte für gute Schulleistungen und für Ergebnisse der Eignungsprüfung.

5. Studientyp

Nicht mehr als 20 Studenten

4 Jahre (8 Semester)

8. Studentenanzahl 9. Voraussetzungen

240

240

ECTS Punkte

ECTS Punkte

7.

6. Dauer

Bachelor 4 Jahre (8 Semester)

7.

5. Studientyp 6. Dauer

Nicht mehr als 20 Studenten

Das Ziel des vierjährigen Studienprogramms ist die Vermittlung von Kenntnissen und berufsqualifizierenden Kompetenzen im Bereich Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur. Im Rahmen von Vorlesungen, Projekten, praxisnahen Aufgaben und Forschungsarbeit erwerben die Studierenden Fähigkeiten, künstlerische Projekte zu organisieren und sie zu managen. Diese Methode ermöglicht Studierenden: – Techniken der Organisation von Produktion zu verstehen, die mit der Berufsarbeit in allen Bereichen verbindet ist, – an Projekten allein zu arbeiten, wie auch in Non-Profit-Einrichtungen und Vereinen beschäftigt zu sein, – sich am institutionellen Kultur- und Mediensystem aktiv beteiligen, – Grundkenntnisse zu erwerben, die für die Entwicklung und die Einführung von Kulturpolitikinstrumenten unentbehrlich sind. Das von theoretischen Leitlinien bestimmte Studienprogramm wird infolge von aktuellen, lokalen und internationalen Trends im Bereich verschiedener Aspekte der Produktion in Theater, Radio und Kultur sowie infolge von ihren Verbindungen im breiteren Milieu empirisch entwickelt.

8. Studentenanzahl

Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur

9. Voraussetzungen

3. Studienprogramm 4. Ziele des Studienprogramms

Reifezeugnis einer allgemeinbildenden Schule und eine genügende Anzahl der Punkte im Kompetenztest, der der Satzung einer Hochschule entspricht. Die Eignungsprüfung besteht aus: – Allgemeinwissentest, – Test, der analytisches Denkvermögen prüft, – Test, der Leitungskompetenzen prüft. Das Endergebnis von Bewerbern basiert auf der Summe der Punkte für gute Schulleistungen und für Ergebnisse der Eignungsprüfung.

Management

10. Bildungsergebnisse

2. Studienbereich

Nach dem erfolgsreichen Abschluss der ersten Stufe d.h. Manager-Produzent im Theater, Radio und in Kultur besitzen die Absolventen fundierte Kenntnisse in Grundproblematik in allen Bereichen sowie Fähigkeiten zur Bearbeitung von Organisations- und Produktionsaufgaben im Rahmen von: – Management und Produktion von Theaterstücken, Schauspielen, Radioprogrammen und verschiedenen Kulturprojekten (Ausstellung, Performance, Konzert usw.), – Organisation und Management von Segmenten/Sektoren im Rahmen von Kultureinrichtungen (Planung, Kontrolle, Monitoring, Programm- und Einrichtungsentwicklung, internationale Kulturzusammenarbeit, Fundraising), – Mittelbeschaffung für Produktion, Organisation und Management von Marketingkampagnen usw.

KUNST

Bildungsbereich

Bachelordiplom im Bereich Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur; Manager-Produzent im Theater, Radio, und in Kultur.

1.

11. Qualifikationen

FAKULTÄT DER DRAMATISCHEN KÜNSTE

1. Masterstudiengang

UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD WYDZIAŁ

12. Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten

sowie in der Durchführung von professionellen Veranstaltungen wie Produktion neuer Kunst oder Organisation internationaler Festivals (FEST, BITEF i BELEF) aktiv teilzunehmen. MM Hauptfächer: Theatermanagement, Radiomanagement, Kulturmanagement, Kulturpolitik, Theater- und Dramageschichte, Geschichte des südslawischen Theaters und Dramas, Bühnentechnik, Einführung in die Theaterregie, Filmmanagement, Ästhetik, Kunstgeschichte, Musik, Psychologie, Marketing, Fremdsprache. MM Zusätzliche Fächer: Fremdsprache (2), BusinessKommunikation, Massenmedien und Kommunikation, Management von Business-Einheit, Journalismus.

208

Studienprogramm Der Bachelorstudiengang dauert vier Jahre. Die Studierenden beschäftigen sich während ihres Studiums mit drei Hauptthemen: Theaterproduktion, Radioproduktion, Kulturmanagement und Kulturpolitik. Das Studium wird zusätzlich von den folgenden praktischen und theoretischen Studienfächern ergänzt: Bühnenarchitektur und -technologie, Marketing, Autorenrechte, Theaterund Radioregie, Theater- und Dramageschichte, Geschichte des südslawischen Theaters und Dramas, Psychologie, Kunstgeschichte, Kunstsoziologie, Kulturgeschichte u.a. Während ihres Studiums haben die Studierenden die Möglichkeit, in der Vorbereitungsphase


209

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD FAKULTÄT

FAKULTÄT DER DRAMATISCHEN KÜNSTE

1.

KUNST

Bildungsbereich

2. Studienbereich

Management

3. Studienprogramm

Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur

4. Ziele des Studienprogramms

Erwerben vom theoretischen Wissen Erwerben von Führungsfähigkeiten, die im Projektmanagement und im Management von Theater-, Radio- und Kultureinrichtungen (Museen, Festivals, Kulturzentren etc.) unentbehrlich sind.

5. Studientyp

Masterstudiengang

6. Dauer

1 Jahr (2 Semester)

7.

60

ECTS Punkte

8. Studentenanzahl

Nicht mehr als 20 Studenten

9. Voraussetzungen

Erwerb des Bachelor-Abschlusses (240 ECTS Punkte) und andere Voraussetzungen gemäß der Satzung der Universität der Künste in Belgrad und der Fakultät der dramatischen Künste.

10. Bildungsergebnisse

Erwerb des Masterabschlusses qualifiziert die Absolventen für: – Forschen im Bereich Theater, Radio und Kultur – Organisationspositionierung, – Anwenden von strategischen Methoden und Instrumenten strategischer Planung und Entwicklung in Kultur- und Medieneinrichtungen, – Entwerfen und Gründen von einer Organisation und Einrichtung (Theater, Medien- und Kultureinrichtungen), – Anwenden von kreativer Vorgehensweise bei der Lösung von Leitungs- und Produktionsproblemen – Risiko und Managementwandel.

11. Qualifikationen

Masterdiplom im Bereich Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und in Kultur

12. Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten

1. Aufbaustudium 2. Doktorandenstudien im Bereich Kunst- und Medienmanagement 3. Humanistische Doktorandenstudien 4. Doktorandenstudien im Bereich dramatischer Künste, Medien und Kultur

12. 11.

Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten Qualifikationen

1) Aufbaustudium 2) Doktorandenstudien im Bereich Kunst- und Medienmanagement 3) Humanistische Postdoktorandenstudien 4) Doktorandenstudien im Bereich dramatischer Künste, Medien und Kultur Masterdiplom im Bereich Kulturpolitik und Management Erwerb des Masterabschlusses qualifiziert die Absolventen für: – Forschen im Bereich Kulturpolitik, Kulturmanagement, Multikulturalität, – Anwenden von strategischen Methoden und Instrumenten strategischer Planung und Entwicklung in Kultur- und Medieneinrichtungen, – Entwerfen und Gründen von einer Organisation und Einrichtung (Theater, Medien- und Kultureinrichtungen), – Anwenden von kreativer Vorgehensweise bei der Lösung von Leitungs- und Produktionsproblemen – Risiko und Managementwandel. – Entwickeln von kultureller Zusammenarbeit und kulturellem Programmnetzwerk.

10. Bildungsergebnisse

Erwerb des Bachelor-Abschlusses (240 ECTS Punkte) und andere Voraussetzungen gemäß der Satzung der Universität der Künste in Belgrad und der Fakultät der dramatischen Künste.

9.

Voraussetzungen Studentenanzahl

8.

ECTS Punkte

7.

Dauer

6.

Studientyp

5.

Ziele des Studienprogramms

4.

Studienprogramm – Name

3.

Studien- und Forschungsbereich

2.

Bildungsbereich

1.

Nicht mehr als 30 Studenten 60 1 Jahr (2 Semester) oder 2 Jahre (4 Semester) für Professionalisten Masterstudiengang Erwerben vom theoretischen Wissen Verbesserung von Führungsfähigkeiten in Kulturmanagement und interkulturellen Managementprojekten UNESCO-Leitung in Kulturpolitik und Management (interkulturelle Mediation in den Balkanstaaten) Management Humanistische Wissenschaften Kulturpolitik Und Management

Lehrveranstaltungen finden in der englischen und französischen Sprache statt

UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD (In der Zusammenarbeit mit der Lyon II Universität, Lyon, Frankreich)

UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD (In der Zusammenarbeit mit der Lyon II Universität, Lyon, Frankreich)

1. Aufbaustudium 2. Doktorandenstudien im Bereich Kunst- und Medienmanagement 3. Humanistische Doktorandenstudien 4. Doktorandenstudien im Bereich dramatischer Künste, Medien und Kultur

12. Weiterbildungsmöglichkeiten

Masterdiplom im Bereich Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und in Kultur

11. Qualifikationen

Kulturpolitik Und Management

Lehrveranstaltungen finden in der englischen und französischen Sprache statt

1.

Bildungsbereich

Humanistische Wissenschaften

2.

Studien- und Forschungsbereich

Management

3.

Studienprogramm – Name

UNESCO-Leitung in Kulturpolitik und Management (interkulturelle Mediation in den Balkanstaaten)

4.

Ziele des Studienprogramms

Erwerben vom theoretischen Wissen Verbesserung von Führungsfähigkeiten in Kulturmanagement und interkulturellen Managementprojekten

5.

Studientyp

Masterstudiengang

6.

Dauer

1 Jahr (2 Semester) oder 2 Jahre (4 Semester) für Professionalisten

7.

ECTS Punkte

60

8.

Studentenanzahl

Nicht mehr als 30 Studenten

9.

Voraussetzungen

Erwerb des Bachelor-Abschlusses (240 ECTS Punkte) und andere Voraussetzungen gemäß der Satzung der Universität der Künste in Belgrad und der Fakultät der dramatischen Künste.

10. Bildungsergebnisse

Erwerb des Masterabschlusses qualifiziert die Absolventen für: – Forschen im Bereich Kulturpolitik, Kulturmanagement, Multikulturalität, – Anwenden von strategischen Methoden und Instrumenten strategischer Planung und Entwicklung in Kultur- und Medieneinrichtungen, – Entwerfen und Gründen von einer Organisation und Einrichtung (Theater, Medien- und Kultureinrichtungen), – Anwenden von kreativer Vorgehensweise bei der Lösung von Leitungs- und Produktionsproblemen – Risiko und Managementwandel. – Entwickeln von kultureller Zusammenarbeit und kulturellem Programmnetzwerk.

11.

Masterdiplom im Bereich Kulturpolitik und Management

Qualifikationen

Weiterbildungsmöglich12. keiten

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

1) Aufbaustudium 2) Doktorandenstudien im Bereich Kunst- und Medienmanagement 3) Humanistische Postdoktorandenstudien 4) Doktorandenstudien im Bereich dramatischer Künste, Medien und Kultur

209

10. Bildungsergebnisse

Erwerb des Masterabschlusses qualifiziert die Absolventen für: – Forschen im Bereich Theater, Radio und Kultur – Organisationspositionierung, – Anwenden von strategischen Methoden und Instrumenten strategischer Planung und Entwicklung in Kultur- und Medieneinrichtungen, – Entwerfen und Gründen von einer Organisation und Einrichtung (Theater, Medien- und Kultureinrichtungen), – Anwenden von kreativer Vorgehensweise bei der Lösung von Leitungs- und Produktionsproblemen – Risiko und Managementwandel. Erwerb des Bachelor-Abschlusses (240 ECTS Punkte) und andere Voraussetzungen gemäß der Satzung der Universität der Künste in Belgrad und der Fakultät der dramatischen Künste.

9. Voraussetzungen

Nicht mehr als 20 Studenten

8. Studentenanzahl

60

7.

ECTS Punkte

1 Jahr (2 Semester)

6. Dauer

Masterstudiengang

5. Studientyp

Erwerben vom theoretischen Wissen Erwerben von Führungsfähigkeiten, die im Projektmanagement und im Management von Theater-, Radio- und Kultureinrichtungen (Museen, Festivals, Kulturzentren etc.) unentbehrlich sind.

4. Ziele des Studienprogramms

Produktion und Management von Theater, Radio und Kultur

3. Studienprogramm

Management

2. Studienbereich

KUNST

1.

Bildungsbereich

FAKULTÄT

FAKULTÄT DER DRAMATISCHEN KÜNSTE UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD


210

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Humanistische Wissenschaften

Dziedzina edukacji

Studienprogramm Kunst- und Medienmanagement FAKULTÄT DER DRAMATISCHEN KÜNSTE UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD

Lehrveranstaltungen finden in der serbokroatischen und englischen Sprache statt.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

1.

210

Management

as Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen entstand 1994. Der Sächsische Staatsminister für Wissenschaft und Kunst, Prof. Dr. Hans Joachim Meyer bezeichnete als seinen Gründungsimpuls „die Notwendigkeit, für Kunst und Wissenschaft neue, der freiheitlichen Gesellschaft entsprechende institutionelle und Förderungsformen zu finden, um inmitten gravierender Transformationsprozesse auch für ihr geistiges Leben geeignete Foren zu erhalten und weiterzuentwickeln.“ Zu den vom Institut entwickelten Foren gehören das Europäische Netzwerk „Kultur und Management“ (seit 1997), das trinationale Wis-

2. Dziedzina studiów i badań

D

Kunst- und Medienbereich

Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen www.kultur.org

senschaftskolleg Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (seit 2002), die Internationalen Sommerschule der Künste (seit 2003). Seinen spezifischen Ansatz der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft hat das Institut in zahlreichen interdisziplinären Forschungsarbeiten, Studiengangsanregungen, Kunst- und Beratungsprojekten entwickelt und ausdifferenziert, zuletzt unter anderem für die Enquete-Kommission des deutschen Bundestages und für die Stiftung für das sorbische Volk. Der Begriff „kulturelle Infrastruktur“ stammt aus Sachsen. Er hat sich in den 80er Jahren des letzten Jahrhunderts im Umfeld der Universität Leipzig etabliert (Hardy Geyer). Bundesrepublik und Deutsche Demokratische Republik griffen den Terminus in Art. 35 Abs. 7 des Einigungsvertrages auf. Auf dieser Grundlage legte der Bund 19911994 neben dem Substanzerhaltungsprogramm

3. Program studiów - nazwa

GÖRLITZ

4. Cele programu studiów

1. Postdoktorandenstudien im Bereich Kulturmanagement 2. Humanistische Postdoktorandenstudien

Entwicklung von Forschung und Theorie in Kulturmanagement, Erarbeitung der entsprechenden Methodologie von Kultur- und Medienmanagement, Erarbeitung einer interdisziplinaren Vorgehensweise beim Forschen der Fragen, die analytischer und kritischer Fähigkeiten bedürfen, Entwicklung des Wissens in diesem Bereich, Bildung von zuständigen Forschern und Universitätslehrern in diesem Bereich.

Promotion im Bereich Kunst- und Medienmanagement

12. Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

Doktorandenstudium

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

5. Poziom i typ studiów

Erwerb des Masterabschlusses qualifiziert die Absolventen für: – selbstständiges Entwerfen von einem Forschungsprojekt im Bereich Kulturpolitik, Kulturmanagement und Multikulturalität, – Betreuen von international vergleichenden Forschungen, – Publizieren von Fachaufsätzen – Entwerfen und Entfalten von Programm im Bereich Forschung, – Anwenden von einer interdisziplinaren Forschungsmethodologie und kreativen Vorgehensweise bei den Versuchen, Kultur und ihre Probleme zu begreifen – Entwickeln von kultureller Zusammenarbeit und kulturellem Programmnetzwerk, das Forschern (Wissenschaftlern), Politikern und Praktikern verbindet.

3-jähriges Programm

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

6. Czas trwania

Erwerb des Master-Abschlusses (mit Auszeichnung) (300 ECTS Punkte); Erfahrung und Veröffentlichungen eines Bewerbers sind von Vorteil.

180

9. Zasady rekrutacji

Punkty ECTS

Nicht mehr als 10 Studenten

7.

8. Liczba studentów

Nicht mehr als 10 Studenten

180

Punkty ECTS

8. Liczba studentów

7.

Erwerb des Master-Abschlusses (mit Auszeichnung) (300 ECTS Punkte); Erfahrung und Veröffentlichungen eines Bewerbers sind von Vorteil.

3-jähriges Programm

9. Zasady rekrutacji

Doktorandenstudium

6. Czas trwania

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

5. Poziom i typ studiów

Erwerb des Masterabschlusses qualifiziert die Absolventen für: – selbstständiges Entwerfen von einem Forschungsprojekt im Bereich Kulturpolitik, Kulturmanagement und Multikulturalität, – Betreuen von international vergleichenden Forschungen, – Publizieren von Fachaufsätzen – Entwerfen und Entfalten von Programm im Bereich Forschung, – Anwenden von einer interdisziplinaren Forschungsmethodologie und kreativen Vorgehensweise bei den Versuchen, Kultur und ihre Probleme zu begreifen – Entwickeln von kultureller Zusammenarbeit und kulturellem Programmnetzwerk, das Forschern (Wissenschaftlern), Politikern und Praktikern verbindet.

Entwicklung von Forschung und Theorie in Kulturmanagement, Erarbeitung der entsprechenden Methodologie von Kultur- und Medienmanagement, Erarbeitung einer interdisziplinaren Vorgehensweise beim Forschen der Fragen, die analytischer und kritischer Fähigkeiten bedürfen, Entwicklung des Wissens in diesem Bereich, Bildung von zuständigen Forschern und Universitätslehrern in diesem Bereich.

Promotion im Bereich Kunst- und Medienmanagement

4. Cele programu studiów

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

Kunst- und Medienbereich

1. Postdoktorandenstudien im Bereich Kulturmanagement 2. Humanistische Postdoktorandenstudien

Management

3. Program studiów - nazwa

12. Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

2. Dziedzina studiów i badań

GÖRLITZ

Humanistische Wissenschaften

Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen www.kultur.org

Dziedzina edukacji

D

1.

Lehrveranstaltungen finden in der serbokroatischen und englischen Sprache statt.

senschaftskolleg Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (seit 2002), die Internationalen Sommerschule der Künste (seit 2003). Seinen spezifischen Ansatz der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft hat das Institut in zahlreichen interdisziplinären Forschungsarbeiten, Studiengangsanregungen, Kunst- und Beratungsprojekten entwickelt und ausdifferenziert, zuletzt unter anderem für die Enquete-Kommission des deutschen Bundestages und für die Stiftung für das sorbische Volk. Der Begriff „kulturelle Infrastruktur“ stammt aus Sachsen. Er hat sich in den 80er Jahren des letzten Jahrhunderts im Umfeld der Universität Leipzig etabliert (Hardy Geyer). Bundesrepublik und Deutsche Demokratische Republik griffen den Terminus in Art. 35 Abs. 7 des Einigungsvertrages auf. Auf dieser Grundlage legte der Bund 19911994 neben dem Substanzerhaltungsprogramm

Studienprogramm Kunst- und Medienmanagement

as Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen entstand 1994. Der Sächsische Staatsminister für Wissenschaft und Kunst, Prof. Dr. Hans Joachim Meyer bezeichnete als seinen Gründungsimpuls „die Notwendigkeit, für Kunst und Wissenschaft neue, der freiheitlichen Gesellschaft entsprechende institutionelle und Förderungsformen zu finden, um inmitten gravierender Transformationsprozesse auch für ihr geistiges Leben geeignete Foren zu erhalten und weiterzuentwickeln.“ Zu den vom Institut entwickelten Foren gehören das Europäische Netzwerk „Kultur und Management“ (seit 1997), das trinationale Wis-

UNIVERSITÄT DER KÜNSTE IN BELGRAD FAKULTÄT DER DRAMATISCHEN KÜNSTE


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

ein Infrastrukturprogramm zur Förderung der Kultur in den neuen Ländern auf. 2007 empfahl die Enquete-Kommission Kultur in Deutschland des Deutschen Bundestages die „kulturelle Infrastruktur“ als den zentralen Gegenstand von Kulturpolitik zu begreifen. Der wissenschaftliche Beirat des Instituts wird geleitet von Prof. Dr. Dieter Bingen, Direktor des Polen-Instituts, Darmstadt. Stellvertretende Vorsitzende sind der Philosoph Prof. Dr. Jan Sokol, Karls-Universität Prag, und der Kulturökonom Prof. Dr. Peter Bendixen, Istanbul. Dem Beirat gehören an Prof. Dr. Alfred Grossen, Paris, Prof. Dr. Hubert Orłowski, Posen, und weitere Experten zu Fragen der europäischen Verständigung und Kultur. Das Kuratorium des Instituts wird geleitet von Ulf Großmann, Vorsitzender im Kulturausschuß des Deutschen Städtetages. Dem Kuratorium gehören an Władysław Bartoszewski, Warschau, Außenminister a.D. der Republik Polen, Jiří Gruša, Wien London, Direktor der Diplomatischen Akademie Wien und Präsident des Internationalen PEN-Club; Wolfgang Huber, Berlin, Landesbischof der Evangelischen Kirche Berlin-BrandenburgSchlesische Oberlausitz und Ratsvorsitzender der Evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands, und weitere Vertreter von Gesellschaft und Politik. Ehrenvorsitzende sind Freya von Moltke und Krzysztof Penderecki. Gründungsdirektor des Instituts ist Prof. Dr. phil. Dr. habil. Matthias Theodor Vogt. Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec. Es wurde 2001 zur Förderung des Diskurses über die kulturelle, geistige und soziale Bestimmung Europas und der Europäischen Union gegründet. Es ist ein Wissenschaftskolleg und zugleich ein Netzwerk von Universitäten und Hochschulen. Professoren und Doktoranden treffen sich jeden Sommer seit 2002 zu einer intensiven Forschungsphase in Görlitz und bereiten in einer anschließenden Manuskriptphase ihre Ergebnisse zur Publikation vor. Durch das Miteinander der Generationen, der Nationen und der Wissenschaftsdisziplinen am Collegium Pontes verkörpert es in sich jene Idee von Europa, der seine Forschungen gelten. Das Format des Collegium Pontes ist ungewöhnlich. Die hier tätigen scientists in residence sind einerseits erfahrene Wissenschaftler (Senior Fellows), die in der sommerlichen Gelehrtengemeinschaft auf Zeit des Collegium Pontes Brücken zwischen ihren Disziplinen bauen, andererseits sind es Nachwuchswissenschaftler, Doktoranden und Post-Docs, die sich aktiv an diesem Dialog beteiligen ( Junior Fellows). Gastvorträge und Gastseminare (der Visiting Fellows) bereichern die Diskussionen.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Nach innen eröffnet das Collegium seinen Teilnehmern durch die gemeinsame Arbeit in multinationalen und interdisziplinären Teams die Möglichkeit, die Europäisierung des Alltags gleichzeitig theoretisch zu thematisieren und als Lebenspraxis zu erfahren. Die mit sieben Wochen ungewöhnlich intensive Sommerakademie ist zwar ergebnisorientiert, nichtsdestoweniger ist die Form selbst ein wichtiges Lernziel. Die Teilnehmer erfahren jene Solidarität und Gemeinschaft, die auf der politischen Ebene von der Europäischen Union angestrebt wird. Die wissenschaftliche und wissenschaftspolitische Bedeutung des Collegiums auf internationaler Ebene wird durch die Schirmherren gewürdigt: Seit 2003 steht das Collegium Pontes als die einzige akademische Einrichtung der drei Länder unter der gemeinsamen Schirmherrschaft der Außenminister der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, der Republik Polen und der Tschechischen Republik. Nach außen wirkt das Collegium Pontes als öffentliches Forum und Impulsgeber. Es publiziert in Form von öffentlichen Vorträgen und Präsentationen in einer Schriftenreihe kontinuierlich Ergebnisse seiner Arbeit. 2009 erschienen im Verlag Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, herausgegeben von Matthias Theodor Vogt, Jan Sokol, Beata Ociepka, Beata Mikołajczyk vier Bände der Schriftenreihe Collegium Pontes: MM Band 1: Bedingungen europäischer Solidarität (ISBN 978-3-631-58030-1) MM Band 2: Peripherie in der Mitte Europas (ISBN 978-3-631-58031-8) MM Band 3: Die Stärke der Schwäche (ISBN 9783-631-58032-5) MM Band 4: Europäisierung im Alltag (ISBN 978-3631-58033-2) 2008 erschien in der Edition kulturelle Infrastruktur das Band „Serbski ludowy ansambl / Sorbisches National-Ensemble. Eine kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse“; unter Mitarbeit von Philipp Bormann, Andreas Bracher, Vladimir Kreck, Katarina Markovic-Stokes; im Auftrag der Stiftung für das sorbische Volk erarbeitet am Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen (ISBN 978-3-631-58353-1). Internationale Sommerschule der Künste Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec. Sie ist ein gemeinsames Forschungskolleg des Fachbereiches Wirtschaftswissenschaften der Hochschule Zittau/ Görlitz und des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen. Inhaltliches Ziel der ISK ist der Brückenschlag zwischen Kunstproduktion und wissenschaftlicher

211

Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec. Es wurde 2001 zur Förderung des Diskurses über die kulturelle, geistige und soziale Bestimmung Europas und der Europäischen Union gegründet. Es ist ein Wissenschaftskolleg und zugleich ein Netzwerk von Universitäten und Hochschulen. Professoren und Doktoranden treffen sich jeden Sommer seit 2002 zu einer intensiven Forschungsphase in Görlitz und bereiten in einer anschließenden Manuskriptphase ihre Ergebnisse zur Publikation vor. Durch das Miteinander der Generationen, der Nationen und der Wissenschaftsdisziplinen am Collegium Pontes verkörpert es in sich jene Idee von Europa, der seine Forschungen gelten. Das Format des Collegium Pontes ist ungewöhnlich. Die hier tätigen scientists in residence sind einerseits erfahrene Wissenschaftler (Senior Fellows), die in der sommerlichen Gelehrtengemeinschaft auf Zeit des Collegium Pontes Brücken zwischen ihren Disziplinen bauen, andererseits sind es Nachwuchswissenschaftler, Doktoranden und Post-Docs, die sich aktiv an diesem Dialog beteiligen ( Junior Fellows). Gastvorträge und Gastseminare (der Visiting Fellows) bereichern die Diskussionen. ein Infrastrukturprogramm zur Förderung der Kultur in den neuen Ländern auf. 2007 empfahl die Enquete-Kommission Kultur in Deutschland des Deutschen Bundestages die „kulturelle Infrastruktur“ als den zentralen Gegenstand von Kulturpolitik zu begreifen. Der wissenschaftliche Beirat des Instituts wird geleitet von Prof. Dr. Dieter Bingen, Direktor des Polen-Instituts, Darmstadt. Stellvertretende Vorsitzende sind der Philosoph Prof. Dr. Jan Sokol, Karls-Universität Prag, und der Kulturökonom Prof. Dr. Peter Bendixen, Istanbul. Dem Beirat gehören an Prof. Dr. Alfred Grossen, Paris, Prof. Dr. Hubert Orłowski, Posen, und weitere Experten zu Fragen der europäischen Verständigung und Kultur. Das Kuratorium des Instituts wird geleitet von Ulf Großmann, Vorsitzender im Kulturausschuß des Deutschen Städtetages. Dem Kuratorium gehören an Władysław Bartoszewski, Warschau, Außenminister a.D. der Republik Polen, Jiří Gruša, Wien London, Direktor der Diplomatischen Akademie Wien und Präsident des Internationalen PEN-Club; Wolfgang Huber, Berlin, Landesbischof der Evangelischen Kirche Berlin-BrandenburgSchlesische Oberlausitz und Ratsvorsitzender der Evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands, und weitere Vertreter von Gesellschaft und Politik. Ehrenvorsitzende sind Freya von Moltke und Krzysztof Penderecki. Gründungsdirektor des Instituts ist Prof. Dr. phil. Dr. habil. Matthias Theodor Vogt.

211

Internationale Sommerschule der Künste Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec. Sie ist ein gemeinsames Forschungskolleg des Fachbereiches Wirtschaftswissenschaften der Hochschule Zittau/ Görlitz und des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen. Inhaltliches Ziel der ISK ist der Brückenschlag zwischen Kunstproduktion und wissenschaftlicher Nach innen eröffnet das Collegium seinen Teilnehmern durch die gemeinsame Arbeit in multinationalen und interdisziplinären Teams die Möglichkeit, die Europäisierung des Alltags gleichzeitig theoretisch zu thematisieren und als Lebenspraxis zu erfahren. Die mit sieben Wochen ungewöhnlich intensive Sommerakademie ist zwar ergebnisorientiert, nichtsdestoweniger ist die Form selbst ein wichtiges Lernziel. Die Teilnehmer erfahren jene Solidarität und Gemeinschaft, die auf der politischen Ebene von der Europäischen Union angestrebt wird. Die wissenschaftliche und wissenschaftspolitische Bedeutung des Collegiums auf internationaler Ebene wird durch die Schirmherren gewürdigt: Seit 2003 steht das Collegium Pontes als die einzige akademische Einrichtung der drei Länder unter der gemeinsamen Schirmherrschaft der Außenminister der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, der Republik Polen und der Tschechischen Republik. Nach außen wirkt das Collegium Pontes als öffentliches Forum und Impulsgeber. Es publiziert in Form von öffentlichen Vorträgen und Präsentationen in einer Schriftenreihe kontinuierlich Ergebnisse seiner Arbeit. 2009 erschienen im Verlag Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, herausgegeben von Matthias Theodor Vogt, Jan Sokol, Beata Ociepka, Beata Mikołajczyk vier Bände der Schriftenreihe Collegium Pontes: MM Band 1: Bedingungen europäischer Solidarität (ISBN 978-3-631-58030-1) MM Band 2: Peripherie in der Mitte Europas (ISBN 978-3-631-58031-8) MM Band 3: Die Stärke der Schwäche (ISBN 9783-631-58032-5) MM Band 4: Europäisierung im Alltag (ISBN 978-3631-58033-2) 2008 erschien in der Edition kulturelle Infrastruktur das Band „Serbski ludowy ansambl / Sorbisches National-Ensemble. Eine kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse“; unter Mitarbeit von Philipp Bormann, Andreas Bracher, Vladimir Kreck, Katarina Markovic-Stokes; im Auftrag der Stiftung für das sorbische Volk erarbeitet am Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen (ISBN 978-3-631-58353-1).


212

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Europäisches Netzwerk „Kultur und Management“. Es wird vom Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur koordiniert wird. Ihm gehören an: MM Hochschule Zittau-Görlitz, Deutschland (Bachelor-Studiengang, Master-Studiengang, Doppeldiplom-Studiengänge mit Pécs und Nantes) MM Universität Krakau (Kraków), Polen MM Universität Pécs (Fünfkirchen), Ungarn MM Universität Nantes, Frankreich MM Universität Friedrich II. Neapel, Italien MM Universität Babeş-Bolyai Klausenburg (ClujNapoca), Rumänien MM Karls-Universität Prag, Tschechische Republik MM Kulturakademie Riga, Lettland Universität Salamanca, Spanien Kunstakademie Vilnius, Litauen sowie ästhetischer Reflexion, zwischen der Arbeit im Workshop und den öffentlichen Veranstaltungen, zwischen den eigenen Ansprüchen und den Belangen der Bevölkerung. Jedes Jahr steht ein zeitgenössischer Komponist mit seinem Leben und Werk im Mittelpunkt.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

MM

212

MM

Lassen Sie mich mit einer etwas flapsigen These beginnen: Was immer der Mensch tut, es ist Kultur. Wie er mit der natürlichen Umwelt umgeht, welche Beziehungen er zu seinen Mitmenschen eingeht, was er über sich, über seine Zeit, über die Welt denkt – alles dies und noch einiges mehr ist Kultur. In dieser Omnipräsenz von Kultur, wann immer der Mensch im Spiel ist, liegt ihre überragende Bedeutung. Aus dem Sack von Erinnerungen, der sich bei mir, wie bei jedem, im Lauf

Haus Klingewalde. Sitz des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen ist Haus Klingewalde in Görlitz, ein Gutshaus des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts mit neogotischen Überformungen des 19. Jahrhunderts. Akustik und Optik der Seminarräume machen Haus Klingewalde ideal für Tagungen und Seminare zur Kultur und zu Mitteleuropa.

Brücken über Grenzen Festrede zum 15jährigen Bestehen des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur und zur Eröffnung des Collegium PONTES 2009 (Görlitz, 25. August 2009).

www.kultur.org. Die Homepage des Instituts wird monatlich ca. 70.000 mal aufgerufen. Sie versammelt unter „Schriften“ zahlreiche Texte zu Kulturpolitik, Kulturökonomie und Kulturmanagement.

Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Hans Joachim Meyer Sächsischer Staatsminister a.D.

Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Hans Joachim Meyer Sächsischer Staatsminister a.D.

www.kultur.org. Die Homepage des Instituts wird monatlich ca. 70.000 mal aufgerufen. Sie versammelt unter „Schriften“ zahlreiche Texte zu Kulturpolitik, Kulturökonomie und Kulturmanagement.

Brücken über Grenzen Festrede zum 15jährigen Bestehen des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur und zur Eröffnung des Collegium PONTES 2009 (Görlitz, 25. August 2009).

Haus Klingewalde. Sitz des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen ist Haus Klingewalde in Görlitz, ein Gutshaus des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts mit neogotischen Überformungen des 19. Jahrhunderts. Akustik und Optik der Seminarräume machen Haus Klingewalde ideal für Tagungen und Seminare zur Kultur und zu Mitteleuropa.

des Lebens mit allem Möglichen angefüllt hat, taucht aus den unteren Schichten, aber gleichwohl unvermeidlich, wann immer ich mich über Kultur zu äußern habe, der Satz des Arbeiterschriftstellers Hans Marchwitza auf, welcher lautet: „Kultur ist jeder zweite Herzschlag unseres Lebens.“ Im Foyer des alten Rathauses von Potsdam ist dieser Spruch immer noch zu lesen (hoffe ich jedenfalls). Ich bin gar nicht so ganz sicher, ob es ein rundum gelungenes Bild ist. Denn Marchwitza hätte ja mit nicht weniger Berechtigung sagen können: „Kultur ist jeder Herzschlag unseres Lebens.“ Aber ich will nicht beckmessern. Eindringlich ist sein Wort allemal. Und es gibt Situationen im Leben des Einzelnen wie in der Geschichte eines Volkes, wo das Selbstverständliche eindringlich und auffällig werden muss. Denn in der Selbstverständlichkeit liegt ja die große Gefahr für alles, was allgegenwärtig sein muss, weil es für uns bedeutungsvoll und notwendig ist. Wir achten seiner nicht mehr und glauben, uns um seinen Erhalt nicht sorgen zu müssen. Und wenn sich Inhalt und Umstände unseres Lebens radikal ändern, dann stellt sich die Frage, ob wir rasch genug erkennen, dass Handeln Not tut, und rechtzeitig wissen, was jetzt zu tun ist. In eine solche Situation gerieten wir bald nach 1990 in bezug auf Kultur als Inhalt und Ausdruck unseres Lebens. Wir mussten uns neu verständigen über unsere Auffassung von Kultur und über ihre institutionellen Voraussetzungen im öffentlichen Leben. Unsere Erfahrungen aus der DDR waren ja ambivalent. Einerseits hatte sich die politische und ideologische Diktatur des gesamten öffentlichen Kulturgeschehens bemächtigt so wie sie die Gesellschaft in all ihren Äußerungsformen zu verstaatlichen suchte. Andererseits liegt es im Wesen literarischen und künstlerischen Schaffens, kreativ und darum auch eigenständig zu sein und sich jeder äußeren Beanspruchung zu entziehen oder zu widersetzen. So entstand in der DDR aus literarischen und künstlerischen Werken und aus den Äußerungen von Schriftstellern und Künstlern so etwas wie eine Gegenöffentlichkeit. Neben der Eigenwelt der Kirchen und ihrer inneren Freiräume war es das Widerständige und Eigenwillige im kulturellen Leben, aus dem die geistige Vorbereitung des revolutionären Herbstes von 89 erwuchs. Darum mag mir auch der kühne historische Vergleich erlaubt sein, dass man damals im DDR-Alltag genau so erregt über einen Roman, ein Musikstück, ein Bild oder eine Theateraufführung geredet hat, wie aus der Geschichte der alten Kirche berichtet wird, dass bei Ökumenischen Konzilien der Streit um Dogmen auch zum Thema von Marktgesprächen wurde. In der DDR konnten Bücher so zur Bückdichware werden wie andere

Europäisches Netzwerk „Kultur und Management“. Es wird vom Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur koordiniert wird. Ihm gehören an: MM Hochschule Zittau-Görlitz, Deutschland (Bachelor-Studiengang, Master-Studiengang, Doppeldiplom-Studiengänge mit Pécs und Nantes) MM Universität Krakau (Kraków), Polen MM Universität Pécs (Fünfkirchen), Ungarn MM Universität Nantes, Frankreich MM Universität Friedrich II. Neapel, Italien MM Universität Babeş-Bolyai Klausenburg (ClujNapoca), Rumänien MM Karls-Universität Prag, Tschechische Republik MM Kulturakademie Riga, Lettland MM Universität Salamanca, Spanien MM Kunstakademie Vilnius, Litauen

des Lebens mit allem Möglichen angefüllt hat, taucht aus den unteren Schichten, aber gleichwohl unvermeidlich, wann immer ich mich über Kultur zu äußern habe, der Satz des Arbeiterschriftstellers Hans Marchwitza auf, welcher lautet: „Kultur ist jeder zweite Herzschlag unseres Lebens.“ Im Foyer des alten Rathauses von Potsdam ist dieser Spruch immer noch zu lesen (hoffe ich jedenfalls). Ich bin gar nicht so ganz sicher, ob es ein rundum gelungenes Bild ist. Denn Marchwitza hätte ja mit nicht weniger Berechtigung sagen können: „Kultur ist jeder Herzschlag unseres Lebens.“ Aber ich will nicht beckmessern. Eindringlich ist sein Wort allemal. Und es gibt Situationen im Leben des Einzelnen wie in der Geschichte eines Volkes, wo das Selbstverständliche eindringlich und auffällig werden muss. Denn in der Selbstverständlichkeit liegt ja die große Gefahr für alles, was allgegenwärtig sein muss, weil es für uns bedeutungsvoll und notwendig ist. Wir achten seiner nicht mehr und glauben, uns um seinen Erhalt nicht sorgen zu müssen. Und wenn sich Inhalt und Umstände unseres Lebens radikal ändern, dann stellt sich die Frage, ob wir rasch genug erkennen, dass Handeln Not tut, und rechtzeitig wissen, was jetzt zu tun ist. In eine solche Situation gerieten wir bald nach 1990 in bezug auf Kultur als Inhalt und Ausdruck unseres Lebens. Wir mussten uns neu verständigen über unsere Auffassung von Kultur und über ihre institutionellen Voraussetzungen im öffentlichen Leben. Unsere Erfahrungen aus der DDR waren ja ambivalent. Einerseits hatte sich die politische und ideologische Diktatur des gesamten öffentlichen Kulturgeschehens bemächtigt so wie sie die Gesellschaft in all ihren Äußerungsformen zu verstaatlichen suchte. Andererseits liegt es im Wesen literarischen und künstlerischen Schaffens, kreativ und darum auch eigenständig zu sein und sich jeder äußeren Beanspruchung zu entziehen oder zu widersetzen. So entstand in der DDR aus literarischen und künstlerischen Werken und aus den Äußerungen von Schriftstellern und Künstlern so etwas wie eine Gegenöffentlichkeit. Neben der Eigenwelt der Kirchen und ihrer inneren Freiräume war es das Widerständige und Eigenwillige im kulturellen Leben, aus dem die geistige Vorbereitung des revolutionären Herbstes von 89 erwuchs. Darum mag mir auch der kühne historische Vergleich erlaubt sein, dass man damals im DDR-Alltag genau so erregt über einen Roman, ein Musikstück, ein Bild oder eine Theateraufführung geredet hat, wie aus der Geschichte der alten Kirche berichtet wird, dass bei Ökumenischen Konzilien der Streit um Dogmen auch zum Thema von Marktgesprächen wurde. In der DDR konnten Bücher so zur Bückdichware werden wie andere

Lassen Sie mich mit einer etwas flapsigen These beginnen: Was immer der Mensch tut, es ist Kultur. Wie er mit der natürlichen Umwelt umgeht, welche Beziehungen er zu seinen Mitmenschen eingeht, was er über sich, über seine Zeit, über die Welt denkt – alles dies und noch einiges mehr ist Kultur. In dieser Omnipräsenz von Kultur, wann immer der Mensch im Spiel ist, liegt ihre überragende Bedeutung. Aus dem Sack von Erinnerungen, der sich bei mir, wie bei jedem, im Lauf

sowie ästhetischer Reflexion, zwischen der Arbeit im Workshop und den öffentlichen Veranstaltungen, zwischen den eigenen Ansprüchen und den Belangen der Bevölkerung. Jedes Jahr steht ein zeitgenössischer Komponist mit seinem Leben und Werk im Mittelpunkt.


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Dinge des täglichen Bedarfs. Leider gibt es im vereinigten Deutschland nicht wenige Menschen, die, weil sie selbst solche Erfahrungen nicht zu machen brauchten, die Widersprüchlichkeit des kulturellen Lebens in der DDR weder begriffen haben noch begreifen wollen. Für uns warf nach 1990 das Thema Kultur zwei wichtige Fragen auf. Zum einen galt es, jetzt eine inhaltliche Auseinandersetzung darüber zu führen, welchen Stellenwert und welches Gesicht Kultur künftig für uns haben sollte. Dieser Streit war unumgänglich, hatte aber doch einen weiten Horizont. Im Grund ist diese Frage auch heute noch unser Thema. Was jedoch auf den Nägeln brannte und keinen Aufschub zuließ, das war die Frage, wie das Überleben von Strukturen und Institutionen der Kultur zu sichern sei, was freilich auch die Entscheidung einschloss, was davon überleben sollte und überleben konnte. Die DDR hatte zwar die geschichtlich gewachsene Trägerschaft kultureller Institutionen ganz überwiegend unangetastet gelassen, aber deren politische und finanzielle Konsequenzen zentralisiert. So war das Leipziger Gewandhausorchester formal weiterhin ein städtisches Orchester, aber über sein Wohl und Wehe wurde letztlich in Berlin entschieden. Jetzt wurde über Nacht die Kompetenzordnung der Bundesrepublik eingeführt, und die bedeutet, dass die Kulturhoheit bei den Ländern liegt, dass jedoch die meisten kulturellen Institutionen und Angebote in kommunaler Verantwortung stehen. Für Sachsen mit seiner geschichtlich bedingten Vielgestaltigkeit der Trägerschaft hätte das bedeuten können, dass die kulturellen Einrichtungen des Landes, die sich überwiegend in Dresden befinden, überlebt, die kommunalen Kulturinstitutionen jedoch gestorben wären oder vor sich hingekümmert hätten. Uns war klar, dass dies nicht zu verantworten war und dass, wenn man die Dinge treiben ließ, ein politisches Erdbeben die Folge sein könnte. Allerdings hatte der Einigungsvertrag insofern neues deutsches Verfassungsrecht geschaffen, als er ausdrücklich eine Verantwortung des Bundes für den Erhalt der Kultur in den ostdeutschen Ländern feststellte. Das konnte freilich viel und wenig heißen. Daher ist es bis heute eine erinnerungswürdige geschichtliche Leistung, dass Bundeskanzler Helmut Kohl beschloss, für eine bestimmte zeitliche Frist die kulturellen Aufgaben der ostdeutschen Länder und Kommunen mit der stattlichen Summe von 900 Millionen DM jährlich zu unterstützen. Und es bleibt auch ein Verdienst ostdeutscher Künstler, darunter aus Sachsen, ihn davon überzeugt zu haben. Trotzdem war dies eine Entscheidung, die eine große Souveränität des Handelns erforderte, denn sie lief allem

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

zuwider, was bisher auf diesem Gebiet in der Bundesrepublik selbstverständlich war. Sieghardt von Köckritz, damals Leiter der Kulturabteilung im Bundesinnenministerium und hochverdient um die ostdeutsche Kultur, hat mir einmal ironisch erzählt, zu Beginn der schwierigen Gespräche über die Umsetzung der Kanzlerentscheidung im Bundesfinanzministerium hätten sie jedes Mal versichern müssen, nicht sie seien es gewesen, welche die deutsche Einheit herbeigeführt hätten, weder schuldhaft noch fahrlässig, aber da sie nun einmal da sei, brauchten sie nun dringend Geld für die Rettung der Kultur in den neuen Ländern. Über eines konnte allerdings kein Zweifel sein: Die Hilfe des Bundes war zeitlich befristet, und die Uhr tickte. In dieser Situation wurde im Sächsischen Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst die Idee geboren, eine Art Kulturstrukturkommission zu bilden, um landesweite Lösungskonzepte zu entwickeln. Als Vorbild diente die Sächsische Hochschulstrukturkommission, mit der wir bereits gute Erfahrungen gemacht hatten. Darum war die Kulturkommission auch in ihrem ersten Ansatz institutionenorientiert, d. h. sie sollte sich zunächst nur auf die Theater und Orchester konzentrieren. Nun ist ein politischer Auftrag eine Sache. Und ob er einen politischen Prozess auslöst und was in diesem politischen Prozess entsteht, eine andere Sache. Daher war von weitreichender Bedeutung, dass mit Matthias Theodor Vogt als Sprecher der Kommission jemand gefunden worden war, der konzeptionelle Originalität mit Sinn für politische Kommunikation verband. Davon zeugte schon seine Idee, diese Kommission unter das Namenspatronat des Komponisten und Kapellmeisters Johann Gottlieb Naumann zu stellen, der sich nach dem Hubertusburger Frieden von 1763 im ausgeplünderten Sachsen um das Musikleben reformerisch verdient gemacht hatte. Dass damals in Dresden auch die Oper geschlossen wurde, verschwieg er klugerweise. Entscheidend war, dass die maßgeblich von Vogt entwickelte Idee der Kulturräume einerseits flexibel genug war, um auf jede Art von kultureller Aktivität angewendet zu werden, und dass sie andererseits an vorhandene regionale Interessen und Traditionen anknüpfte. Als daher Landtagsabgeordnete und Landräte die grundsätzliche Einbeziehung aller kulturellen Institutionen und Aufgaben von nicht nur lokaler Bedeutung in die Förderung durch den jeweiligen Kulturraum forderten, war es möglich, einen politischen Konsens im Rahmen des Kulturraumkonzepts zu finden. Dass zu diesem Zeitpunkt auch der Finanzminister zu einer substantiellen finanziellen Zusage bereit war, ebnete dann endgültig den Weg zum großen politischen Konsens. Dabei

213

Dinge des täglichen Bedarfs. Leider gibt es im vereinigten Deutschland nicht wenige Menschen, die, weil sie selbst solche Erfahrungen nicht zu machen brauchten, die Widersprüchlichkeit des kulturellen Lebens in der DDR weder begriffen haben noch begreifen wollen. Für uns warf nach 1990 das Thema Kultur zwei wichtige Fragen auf. Zum einen galt es, jetzt eine inhaltliche Auseinandersetzung darüber zu führen, welchen Stellenwert und welches Gesicht Kultur künftig für uns haben sollte. Dieser Streit war unumgänglich, hatte aber doch einen weiten Horizont. Im Grund ist diese Frage auch heute noch unser Thema. Was jedoch auf den Nägeln brannte und keinen Aufschub zuließ, das war die Frage, wie das Überleben von Strukturen und Institutionen der Kultur zu sichern sei, was freilich auch die Entscheidung einschloss, was davon überleben sollte und überleben konnte. Die DDR hatte zwar die geschichtlich gewachsene Trägerschaft kultureller Institutionen ganz überwiegend unangetastet gelassen, aber deren politische und finanzielle Konsequenzen zentralisiert. So war das Leipziger Gewandhausorchester formal weiterhin ein städtisches Orchester, aber über sein Wohl und Wehe wurde letztlich in Berlin entschieden. Jetzt wurde über Nacht die Kompetenzordnung der Bundesrepublik eingeführt, und die bedeutet, dass die Kulturhoheit bei den Ländern liegt, dass jedoch die meisten kulturellen Institutionen und Angebote in kommunaler Verantwortung stehen. Für Sachsen mit seiner geschichtlich bedingten Vielgestaltigkeit der Trägerschaft hätte das bedeuten können, dass die kulturellen Einrichtungen des Landes, die sich überwiegend in Dresden befinden, überlebt, die kommunalen Kulturinstitutionen jedoch gestorben wären oder vor sich hingekümmert hätten. Uns war klar, dass dies nicht zu verantworten war und dass, wenn man die Dinge treiben ließ, ein politisches Erdbeben die Folge sein könnte. Allerdings hatte der Einigungsvertrag insofern neues deutsches Verfassungsrecht geschaffen, als er ausdrücklich eine Verantwortung des Bundes für den Erhalt der Kultur in den ostdeutschen Ländern feststellte. Das konnte freilich viel und wenig heißen. Daher ist es bis heute eine erinnerungswürdige geschichtliche Leistung, dass Bundeskanzler Helmut Kohl beschloss, für eine bestimmte zeitliche Frist die kulturellen Aufgaben der ostdeutschen Länder und Kommunen mit der stattlichen Summe von 900 Millionen DM jährlich zu unterstützen. Und es bleibt auch ein Verdienst ostdeutscher Künstler, darunter aus Sachsen, ihn davon überzeugt zu haben. Trotzdem war dies eine Entscheidung, die eine große Souveränität des Handelns erforderte, denn sie lief allem

213

zuwider, was bisher auf diesem Gebiet in der Bundesrepublik selbstverständlich war. Sieghardt von Köckritz, damals Leiter der Kulturabteilung im Bundesinnenministerium und hochverdient um die ostdeutsche Kultur, hat mir einmal ironisch erzählt, zu Beginn der schwierigen Gespräche über die Umsetzung der Kanzlerentscheidung im Bundesfinanzministerium hätten sie jedes Mal versichern müssen, nicht sie seien es gewesen, welche die deutsche Einheit herbeigeführt hätten, weder schuldhaft noch fahrlässig, aber da sie nun einmal da sei, brauchten sie nun dringend Geld für die Rettung der Kultur in den neuen Ländern. Über eines konnte allerdings kein Zweifel sein: Die Hilfe des Bundes war zeitlich befristet, und die Uhr tickte. In dieser Situation wurde im Sächsischen Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst die Idee geboren, eine Art Kulturstrukturkommission zu bilden, um landesweite Lösungskonzepte zu entwickeln. Als Vorbild diente die Sächsische Hochschulstrukturkommission, mit der wir bereits gute Erfahrungen gemacht hatten. Darum war die Kulturkommission auch in ihrem ersten Ansatz institutionenorientiert, d. h. sie sollte sich zunächst nur auf die Theater und Orchester konzentrieren. Nun ist ein politischer Auftrag eine Sache. Und ob er einen politischen Prozess auslöst und was in diesem politischen Prozess entsteht, eine andere Sache. Daher war von weitreichender Bedeutung, dass mit Matthias Theodor Vogt als Sprecher der Kommission jemand gefunden worden war, der konzeptionelle Originalität mit Sinn für politische Kommunikation verband. Davon zeugte schon seine Idee, diese Kommission unter das Namenspatronat des Komponisten und Kapellmeisters Johann Gottlieb Naumann zu stellen, der sich nach dem Hubertusburger Frieden von 1763 im ausgeplünderten Sachsen um das Musikleben reformerisch verdient gemacht hatte. Dass damals in Dresden auch die Oper geschlossen wurde, verschwieg er klugerweise. Entscheidend war, dass die maßgeblich von Vogt entwickelte Idee der Kulturräume einerseits flexibel genug war, um auf jede Art von kultureller Aktivität angewendet zu werden, und dass sie andererseits an vorhandene regionale Interessen und Traditionen anknüpfte. Als daher Landtagsabgeordnete und Landräte die grundsätzliche Einbeziehung aller kulturellen Institutionen und Aufgaben von nicht nur lokaler Bedeutung in die Förderung durch den jeweiligen Kulturraum forderten, war es möglich, einen politischen Konsens im Rahmen des Kulturraumkonzepts zu finden. Dass zu diesem Zeitpunkt auch der Finanzminister zu einer substantiellen finanziellen Zusage bereit war, ebnete dann endgültig den Weg zum großen politischen Konsens. Dabei


Partner zu agieren. Dafür empfahl sich die feste Zuordnung zu einer Hochschule, aber doch mit einem so eigenständigen Status, dass es öffentlich sichtbar werden konnte. Für alle diese Zwecke, die hier in neuartiger Weise zusammen kamen, galt es, einen geeigneten Namen zu finden. Die Bezeichnung „Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur“ bot sich dafür an, denn dieser Begriff war durch Art. 35 Abs. 7 des Einigungsvertrages bereits etabliert. Nicht zuletzt hatte dessen praktische Umsetzung demonstriert, dass es um die Förderung von günstigen Bedingungen für Kultur, nicht aber um die inhaltliche Einflussnahme auf Kultur ging. Kulturelle Infrastruktur meint die notwendige Voraussetzung von Kultur. Dass jemand, der sich wissenschaftlich mit kultureller Infrastruktur beschäftigt, darum nicht zum kulturellen Eunuchentum verpflichtet werden kann, liegt in der Natur der Sache und ergibt sich nicht zuletzt aus der Freiheit der Wissenschaft. Jedenfalls sollte das neue Institut kein Sächsisches Staatsinstitut für Kulturpolitik sein. Etwas anderes ist es, wenn Matthias Theodor Vogt den Charakter seiner Arbeit als Kulturpolitikwissenschaft versteht. Das trifft, trotz begrifflicher Überlänge, den Kern dessen, was mit dem wissenschaftlichen Gebiet „Kulturelle Infrastruktur“ gemeint ist. Wer sich die Leistungen des Instituts seit seinem faktischen Arbeitsbeginn im November 1995 betrachtet, muss beeindruckt sein von dem, was aus diesem innovativen, aber damit zugleich auch ungewissen und erst noch in die Realität umzusetzenden Programm geworden ist. Diese Leistung verdient um so mehr Respekt, als, wie ich nicht vergessen will, zu sagen, die Gründungs- und Entstehungsphase des Instituts in eine ganz unvermutet über uns hereinbrechende Einsparpolitik zu Beginn der zweiten Legislaturperiode hineinfiel. Ich will den Streit von damals hier nicht wieder lebendig werden lassen, sondern nur an die alte menschliche Erfahrung erinnern, dass, wenn das Geld knapp und die Zahl der Stellen geringer wird, sich jeder bald selbst der Nächste ist und seine Taschen zunäht. In diesem Kontext sind die Leistungen um so imponierender. Und wenn jetzt wohl auch keiner von mir erwartet, dass ich hier eine Art Bericht über 15 Jahre Tätigkeit vortrage, (schließlich ist das alles gedruckt und kann nachgelesen werden) so will ich doch einiges hervorheben. Schon 1997 gelang es, die europaweit erste grundständige akademische Ausbildung zum Kulturökonomen zu schaffen, und zwar mit einer internationalen Studentenschaft. 2001 folgte die Mitwirkung des Instituts an einem zweijährigen weiterführenden Magisterstudiengang der TU Dresden und bald darauf der Beginn der Arbeit an

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

scheint Georg Milbradt als ehemaligen Münsteraner Stadtkämmerer auch zur Zustimmung bewogen zu haben, dass er Parallelen zwischen den sächsischen Kulturräumen und den nordrheinwestfälischen Landschaftsverbänden sah. Zugleich versprach er sich wohl für die Zukunft einen erheblichen Fusions- und Einsparungseffekt. Aber noch lebte Sachsen nach den grundlegenden Reformen der ersten Legislaturperiode im Hochgefühl des für die nächste Zeit erhofften großen Aufschwungs. Zu dieser Atmosphäre trug das mit großer Zustimmung aus allen Fraktionen am 17. Dezember 1993 beschlossene Kulturraumgesetz in nicht geringem Maße bei. Es galt und gilt in Deutschland als kulturpolitisches Meisterstück aus Sachsen. Und mit Recht wurde Matthias Theodor Vogt als Architekt des ihm zugrundeliegenden Konzepts gefeiert. Gleichwohl war allen Beteiligten klar, dass sich das Gesetz im Minenfeld zwischen landespolitischer und kommunalpolitischer Verantwortung bewegte und daher zu Konflikten führen konnte. Nachdem die Naumann-Kommission ihre Arbeit abgeschlossen hatte, war Matthias Theodor Vogt als Koordinator für die ja erst noch zu schaffenden Kulturräume tätig gewesen. Bald gab es aber die Kulturräume als Strukturen der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung, und die Mitwirkung des Landes konnte, wie stets in solchen Fällen gemeinsamen Handelns, nur über den Einsatz der dafür vom Landtag beschlossenen Finanzmittel erfolgen. Dafür musste jedoch das Ministerium politisch gerade stehen. Andererseits war unbestreitbar, dass sich das Gesetz in der Praxis erst zu bewähren hatte. Es war zu erwarten, dass sich für den dabei notwendigen Dialog, um nicht zu sagen: Streit der politischen Kompetenzträger, also des Landes und der Kulturräume, die Mitwirkung eines fachlichen Kompetenzträgers als hilfreich und wertvoll erweisen würde. Das waren die Überlegungen, die zur Gründung des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur führten, dessen 15jähriges Jubiläum wir heute feiern. Das Institut war gedacht als ein Ort des Forschens und Analysierens sowie als Ansprechpartner für Ratsuchende und als Auftragnehmer für Untersuchungen und Empfehlungen. Weiterhin war es seine Aufgabe, in Verbindung mit einer Hochschule, aber auch in Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Hochschulen seine Expertise in die akademische Lehre einbringen. Für die zu erwartenden kulturpolitischen Debatten sollte es so die angemessene argumentative Qualität ermöglichen und solche Debatten zugleich anregen und befördern. Anders gesagt: Der Sinn dieses Instituts war es, im kulturpolitischem Dialog Sachsens als ein wissenschaftlicher und also unabhängiger

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

214

Partner zu agieren. Dafür empfahl sich die feste Zuordnung zu einer Hochschule, aber doch mit einem so eigenständigen Status, dass es öffentlich sichtbar werden konnte. Für alle diese Zwecke, die hier in neuartiger Weise zusammen kamen, galt es, einen geeigneten Namen zu finden. Die Bezeichnung „Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur“ bot sich dafür an, denn dieser Begriff war durch Art. 35 Abs. 7 des Einigungsvertrages bereits etabliert. Nicht zuletzt hatte dessen praktische Umsetzung demonstriert, dass es um die Förderung von günstigen Bedingungen für Kultur, nicht aber um die inhaltliche Einflussnahme auf Kultur ging. Kulturelle Infrastruktur meint die notwendige Voraussetzung von Kultur. Dass jemand, der sich wissenschaftlich mit kultureller Infrastruktur beschäftigt, darum nicht zum kulturellen Eunuchentum verpflichtet werden kann, liegt in der Natur der Sache und ergibt sich nicht zuletzt aus der Freiheit der Wissenschaft. Jedenfalls sollte das neue Institut kein Sächsisches Staatsinstitut für Kulturpolitik sein. Etwas anderes ist es, wenn Matthias Theodor Vogt den Charakter seiner Arbeit als Kulturpolitikwissenschaft versteht. Das trifft, trotz begrifflicher Überlänge, den Kern dessen, was mit dem wissenschaftlichen Gebiet „Kulturelle Infrastruktur“ gemeint ist. Wer sich die Leistungen des Instituts seit seinem faktischen Arbeitsbeginn im November 1995 betrachtet, muss beeindruckt sein von dem, was aus diesem innovativen, aber damit zugleich auch ungewissen und erst noch in die Realität umzusetzenden Programm geworden ist. Diese Leistung verdient um so mehr Respekt, als, wie ich nicht vergessen will, zu sagen, die Gründungs- und Entstehungsphase des Instituts in eine ganz unvermutet über uns hereinbrechende Einsparpolitik zu Beginn der zweiten Legislaturperiode hineinfiel. Ich will den Streit von damals hier nicht wieder lebendig werden lassen, sondern nur an die alte menschliche Erfahrung erinnern, dass, wenn das Geld knapp und die Zahl der Stellen geringer wird, sich jeder bald selbst der Nächste ist und seine Taschen zunäht. In diesem Kontext sind die Leistungen um so imponierender. Und wenn jetzt wohl auch keiner von mir erwartet, dass ich hier eine Art Bericht über 15 Jahre Tätigkeit vortrage, (schließlich ist das alles gedruckt und kann nachgelesen werden) so will ich doch einiges hervorheben. Schon 1997 gelang es, die europaweit erste grundständige akademische Ausbildung zum Kulturökonomen zu schaffen, und zwar mit einer internationalen Studentenschaft. 2001 folgte die Mitwirkung des Instituts an einem zweijährigen weiterführenden Magisterstudiengang der TU Dresden und bald darauf der Beginn der Arbeit an

214

scheint Georg Milbradt als ehemaligen Münsteraner Stadtkämmerer auch zur Zustimmung bewogen zu haben, dass er Parallelen zwischen den sächsischen Kulturräumen und den nordrheinwestfälischen Landschaftsverbänden sah. Zugleich versprach er sich wohl für die Zukunft einen erheblichen Fusions- und Einsparungseffekt. Aber noch lebte Sachsen nach den grundlegenden Reformen der ersten Legislaturperiode im Hochgefühl des für die nächste Zeit erhofften großen Aufschwungs. Zu dieser Atmosphäre trug das mit großer Zustimmung aus allen Fraktionen am 17. Dezember 1993 beschlossene Kulturraumgesetz in nicht geringem Maße bei. Es galt und gilt in Deutschland als kulturpolitisches Meisterstück aus Sachsen. Und mit Recht wurde Matthias Theodor Vogt als Architekt des ihm zugrundeliegenden Konzepts gefeiert. Gleichwohl war allen Beteiligten klar, dass sich das Gesetz im Minenfeld zwischen landespolitischer und kommunalpolitischer Verantwortung bewegte und daher zu Konflikten führen konnte. Nachdem die Naumann-Kommission ihre Arbeit abgeschlossen hatte, war Matthias Theodor Vogt als Koordinator für die ja erst noch zu schaffenden Kulturräume tätig gewesen. Bald gab es aber die Kulturräume als Strukturen der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung, und die Mitwirkung des Landes konnte, wie stets in solchen Fällen gemeinsamen Handelns, nur über den Einsatz der dafür vom Landtag beschlossenen Finanzmittel erfolgen. Dafür musste jedoch das Ministerium politisch gerade stehen. Andererseits war unbestreitbar, dass sich das Gesetz in der Praxis erst zu bewähren hatte. Es war zu erwarten, dass sich für den dabei notwendigen Dialog, um nicht zu sagen: Streit der politischen Kompetenzträger, also des Landes und der Kulturräume, die Mitwirkung eines fachlichen Kompetenzträgers als hilfreich und wertvoll erweisen würde. Das waren die Überlegungen, die zur Gründung des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur führten, dessen 15jähriges Jubiläum wir heute feiern. Das Institut war gedacht als ein Ort des Forschens und Analysierens sowie als Ansprechpartner für Ratsuchende und als Auftragnehmer für Untersuchungen und Empfehlungen. Weiterhin war es seine Aufgabe, in Verbindung mit einer Hochschule, aber auch in Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Hochschulen seine Expertise in die akademische Lehre einbringen. Für die zu erwartenden kulturpolitischen Debatten sollte es so die angemessene argumentative Qualität ermöglichen und solche Debatten zugleich anregen und befördern. Anders gesagt: Der Sinn dieses Instituts war es, im kulturpolitischem Dialog Sachsens als ein wissenschaftlicher und also unabhängiger


Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

einem europäischen Netzwerk unterschiedlicher Studiengänge auf diesem Gebiet. Von Bedeutung für die grenzüberschreitende Ausstrahlung des Instituts sind die seit 2003 durchgeführten Internationalen Sommerschulen. Vorbereitet und begleitet wurde der Einsatz in der Lehre von Forschungsaktivitäten, von denen ich für die ersten Jahre das Projekt „Die Transformationsprozesse im Kulturbereich mittel- und ostmitteleuropäischer Städte im Hinblick auf das Dritte System“ und das Projekt „Kultur und Wirtschaft im ländlichen Raum. Das Beispiel Mittelsachsen“ erwähnen will. Dazu kam eine Fülle von Tagungen, die vom Institut ausgerichtet wurden oder an denen es beteiligt war. Sie zeugen von den rasch wachsenden internationalen Kontakten und Kooperationen des Instituts. Das steigende Ansehen des Instituts in Deutschland zeigte im Jahre 2005 das Forschungsprojekt „Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland“, denn dieses entstand ja im Zusammenhang mit der Arbeit der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages zur Lage der Kultur und mit deren bahnbrechenden und, wie ich hoffen will, nachhaltigen Bericht. Was sich an der Entwicklung des Instituts geradezu exemplarisch zeigen lässt, das ist die fördernde und herausfordernde Wirkung, die vom Charakter eines Standortes ausgehen kann. Ich will hierfür die Weisheit der ministeriellen Entscheidung, dass Institut in Görlitz an der Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft anzusiedeln, nur sehr begrenzt in Anspruch nehmen. Primär war die Standortentscheidung nämlich negativ motiviert, konkret gesagt: es sollte keine der drei großen sächsischen Städte und schon gar nicht die Landeshauptstadt sein, weil dies ohnehin schon vorhandene antizentralistische Vorurteile in den Kulturräumen nur verstärken konnte. Zwar sahen wir auch, dass die Stadt Görlitz, die ja, halb biblisch gesprochen, nicht die geringste unter den Fürstenstädten Sachsens ist, für das Institut kulturell ein guter Ort wäre. Aber was Matthias Theodor Vogt für das Institut aus dem genius loci gewonnen hat, ist eindrucksvoll. Schon in den ersten Jahren des Bestehens kam es zu bemerkenswerten Kunstprojekten mit europäischen und internationalen Partnern, zu denen auch die Performance „Kunstbrücke Görlitz / Zgorzelec“ zählte. Damit klang schon früh ein Gedanke an, der dann, im Zusammenhang mit der systematischen Arbeit an einem hochkarätigem Netzwerk und über das Experiment mit dem Bridges College Görlitz /Zgorzelec zu einer bemerkenswerten Gründung führte, dessen Eröffnung für das Jahr 2009 wir heute ebenfalls feiern, nämlich des Collegium PONTES.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Zunächst einmal begrüße ich, wiewohl Anglist, ganz ausdrücklich den Übergang vom globalesischen Englisch zum alteuropäischen Latein, obwohl die Art, wie die beiden Substantive „collegium“ und „pontes“ verbunden wurden, für diese Sprache etwas ungewöhnlich ist. Ob nun aber „Brücke“, „bridges“ oder „pontes“, in jedem Falle wurde hier eine Metapher kreiert, die etwas Wesentliches über Kultur aussagt: Dass nämlich Kultur eine Brücke über Grenzen ist, über die Grenzen zwischen gestern und heute, zwischen heute und morgen, zwischen unserem Leben vor 89/90 und unserem Leben danach, zwischen den durch viele bittere Erfahrungen immer noch getrennten Völkern Europas, zwischen den beiden Städten Görlitz und Zgorzelec, die zu neuer und jetzt europäischer Gemeinsamkeit zusammenfinden. Das Bild von der Brücke erinnert nicht zuletzt an die mannigfaltigen Verbindungen zwischen dem Institut und vielen in Europa, die sich für Kultur engagieren, die über Kultur wissenschaftlich arbeiten, die Kultur durch ihr Schaffen lebendig werden lassen. Für diesen Brückenbau hat Matthias Theodor Vogt bekannte und eindrucksvolle Namen gewonnen – prominente Politiker, ausgewiesene Wissenschaftler, originelle Köpfe. Nicht zuletzt gelang eine breite Vielfalt von Veranstaltungen und Themen – vielleicht ein wenig zu breit, denn zu einer Brücke gehören ja auch feste Fundamente. Freilich: wenn der Brückenschlag über Grenzen nur punktuell erfolgt, ist er auch gefährdet. Jedenfalls ist Vogt der Gefahr provinzieller Verengung nicht erlegen, was allerdings auch nicht zu befürchten war. Denn man muss wohl – wie er – ein Grenzgänger zwischen Kunst, Politik und Wissenschaft, zwischen Transdisziplinarität und cross-over sein, mit einer unverkennbaren Lust zum Abenteuer, um mit einer institutionell wie finanziell so schmalen Basis einen solchen Wirbelwind von Wirkung zu erzeugen. Matthias Theodor Vogt – oder MTV, wie er sich gern schon nennen ließ, bevor ein gewisser Sender auf der Mattscheibe erschien – ist ein wagemutiger Netzwerker und ein unerschrockener Seiteneinsteiger bei sehr unterschiedlichen Diskursgemeinschaften, stets irgendwohin unterwegs. Was ihn vor allem auszeichnet, ist die seltene Kombination unterschiedlicher Gaben. „Der versteht nicht nur etwas von Kultur, sondern der kann auch rechnen,“ sagte anerkennend schon früh Georg Milbradt in einem der eher seltenen Momente guten Einvernehmens zwischen dem Finanzminister und dem Kunstund Wissenschaftsminister. Wobei ich mit dieser Reminiszenz nicht missverstanden werden möchte: Wenn es nicht gerade um die Interessen unserer Häuser ging, sondern um den Blick auf die Welt

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einem europäischen Netzwerk unterschiedlicher Studiengänge auf diesem Gebiet. Von Bedeutung für die grenzüberschreitende Ausstrahlung des Instituts sind die seit 2003 durchgeführten Internationalen Sommerschulen. Vorbereitet und begleitet wurde der Einsatz in der Lehre von Forschungsaktivitäten, von denen ich für die ersten Jahre das Projekt „Die Transformationsprozesse im Kulturbereich mittel- und ostmitteleuropäischer Städte im Hinblick auf das Dritte System“ und das Projekt „Kultur und Wirtschaft im ländlichen Raum. Das Beispiel Mittelsachsen“ erwähnen will. Dazu kam eine Fülle von Tagungen, die vom Institut ausgerichtet wurden oder an denen es beteiligt war. Sie zeugen von den rasch wachsenden internationalen Kontakten und Kooperationen des Instituts. Das steigende Ansehen des Instituts in Deutschland zeigte im Jahre 2005 das Forschungsprojekt „Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland“, denn dieses entstand ja im Zusammenhang mit der Arbeit der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages zur Lage der Kultur und mit deren bahnbrechenden und, wie ich hoffen will, nachhaltigen Bericht. Was sich an der Entwicklung des Instituts geradezu exemplarisch zeigen lässt, das ist die fördernde und herausfordernde Wirkung, die vom Charakter eines Standortes ausgehen kann. Ich will hierfür die Weisheit der ministeriellen Entscheidung, dass Institut in Görlitz an der Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft anzusiedeln, nur sehr begrenzt in Anspruch nehmen. Primär war die Standortentscheidung nämlich negativ motiviert, konkret gesagt: es sollte keine der drei großen sächsischen Städte und schon gar nicht die Landeshauptstadt sein, weil dies ohnehin schon vorhandene antizentralistische Vorurteile in den Kulturräumen nur verstärken konnte. Zwar sahen wir auch, dass die Stadt Görlitz, die ja, halb biblisch gesprochen, nicht die geringste unter den Fürstenstädten Sachsens ist, für das Institut kulturell ein guter Ort wäre. Aber was Matthias Theodor Vogt für das Institut aus dem genius loci gewonnen hat, ist eindrucksvoll. Schon in den ersten Jahren des Bestehens kam es zu bemerkenswerten Kunstprojekten mit europäischen und internationalen Partnern, zu denen auch die Performance „Kunstbrücke Görlitz / Zgorzelec“ zählte. Damit klang schon früh ein Gedanke an, der dann, im Zusammenhang mit der systematischen Arbeit an einem hochkarätigem Netzwerk und über das Experiment mit dem Bridges College Görlitz /Zgorzelec zu einer bemerkenswerten Gründung führte, dessen Eröffnung für das Jahr 2009 wir heute ebenfalls feiern, nämlich des Collegium PONTES.

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Zunächst einmal begrüße ich, wiewohl Anglist, ganz ausdrücklich den Übergang vom globalesischen Englisch zum alteuropäischen Latein, obwohl die Art, wie die beiden Substantive „collegium“ und „pontes“ verbunden wurden, für diese Sprache etwas ungewöhnlich ist. Ob nun aber „Brücke“, „bridges“ oder „pontes“, in jedem Falle wurde hier eine Metapher kreiert, die etwas Wesentliches über Kultur aussagt: Dass nämlich Kultur eine Brücke über Grenzen ist, über die Grenzen zwischen gestern und heute, zwischen heute und morgen, zwischen unserem Leben vor 89/90 und unserem Leben danach, zwischen den durch viele bittere Erfahrungen immer noch getrennten Völkern Europas, zwischen den beiden Städten Görlitz und Zgorzelec, die zu neuer und jetzt europäischer Gemeinsamkeit zusammenfinden. Das Bild von der Brücke erinnert nicht zuletzt an die mannigfaltigen Verbindungen zwischen dem Institut und vielen in Europa, die sich für Kultur engagieren, die über Kultur wissenschaftlich arbeiten, die Kultur durch ihr Schaffen lebendig werden lassen. Für diesen Brückenbau hat Matthias Theodor Vogt bekannte und eindrucksvolle Namen gewonnen – prominente Politiker, ausgewiesene Wissenschaftler, originelle Köpfe. Nicht zuletzt gelang eine breite Vielfalt von Veranstaltungen und Themen – vielleicht ein wenig zu breit, denn zu einer Brücke gehören ja auch feste Fundamente. Freilich: wenn der Brückenschlag über Grenzen nur punktuell erfolgt, ist er auch gefährdet. Jedenfalls ist Vogt der Gefahr provinzieller Verengung nicht erlegen, was allerdings auch nicht zu befürchten war. Denn man muss wohl – wie er – ein Grenzgänger zwischen Kunst, Politik und Wissenschaft, zwischen Transdisziplinarität und cross-over sein, mit einer unverkennbaren Lust zum Abenteuer, um mit einer institutionell wie finanziell so schmalen Basis einen solchen Wirbelwind von Wirkung zu erzeugen. Matthias Theodor Vogt – oder MTV, wie er sich gern schon nennen ließ, bevor ein gewisser Sender auf der Mattscheibe erschien – ist ein wagemutiger Netzwerker und ein unerschrockener Seiteneinsteiger bei sehr unterschiedlichen Diskursgemeinschaften, stets irgendwohin unterwegs. Was ihn vor allem auszeichnet, ist die seltene Kombination unterschiedlicher Gaben. „Der versteht nicht nur etwas von Kultur, sondern der kann auch rechnen,“ sagte anerkennend schon früh Georg Milbradt in einem der eher seltenen Momente guten Einvernehmens zwischen dem Finanzminister und dem Kunstund Wissenschaftsminister. Wobei ich mit dieser Reminiszenz nicht missverstanden werden möchte: Wenn es nicht gerade um die Interessen unserer Häuser ging, sondern um den Blick auf die Welt


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Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi, Georgien www.tafu.edu.ge

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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

ie Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film ist eine multidisziplinare Institution der höchsten Ebene der künstlerischen Bildung in Tbilisi und gehört zu einer der führenden Universitäten für Kunst im Kaukasus-Region. Die Universität befindet sich in einem historischen Stadtteil, in zwei Gebäuden jenseits der beiden Flussufer des Mtkvari. Die Universität wurde 1923 gegründet und dient der georgischen und internationalen Kultur seit 85 Jahren. Die Institution ist auf die Bildung von Professionalisten im Bereich Theater, Film, TVMedien, traditioneller Folklore, darstellender und angewandter Kunst, Kulturmanagement und Kulturtourismus konzentriert. Eine ihrer Hauptaufgaben ist es, interdisziplinare Curricula und Forschungen zu verbessern, die die Erweiterung des Arbeitsmarktes im Bereich Kunst beeinflussen werden sowie den Studierenden ermöglichen, auf dem globalen Arbeitsmarkt flexibel zu sein. Die Universität präsentiert Nationalwerte der Kunst und Kultur Georgiens. Sie ist ein Wissenschafts-, Forschungs- und Bildungsinstitut, das im Bereich Kulturerbe vom Theater und Kino, Medienkunst, künstlerischer Wissenschaftsstudien, Kulturmanagement, Kulturpolitik. Die Universität bietet Bachelor-, Master- und Doktorandenstudiengänge an. Die Fakultät für Kino wurde vor 36 Jahren an der Universität gegründet. Die Universität ist ein unterstützendes Mitglied von ELIA und CILECT. Die Universität besteht aus drei Fakultäten: Fakultät für Drama MM Schauspielkunst im Theater und Film MM Theaterregie MM Mimik MM Puppenspiel MM Schauspielkunst im Musiktheater MM Choreographie und georgischer Tanz MM Polyfonische und religiöse Musik Georgiens Popmusiker Szenographie

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Fakultät für Film und TV-Medien Filmregie (Spielfilm, Dokumentarischer Film, Animationsfilm) Kameramann TV-Medienmanagement Tonoperateur

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ie Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film ist eine multidisziplinare Institution der höchsten Ebene der künstlerischen Bildung in Tbilisi und gehört zu einer der führenden Universitäten für Kunst im Kaukasus-Region. Die Universität befindet sich in einem historischen Stadtteil, in zwei Gebäuden jenseits der beiden Flussufer des Mtkvari. Die Universität wurde 1923 gegründet und dient der georgischen und internationalen Kultur seit 85 Jahren. Die Institution ist auf die Bildung von Professionalisten im Bereich Theater, Film, TVMedien, traditioneller Folklore, darstellender und angewandter Kunst, Kulturmanagement und Kulturtourismus konzentriert. Eine ihrer Hauptaufgaben ist es, interdisziplinare Curricula und Forschungen zu verbessern, die die Erweiterung des Arbeitsmarktes im Bereich Kunst beeinflussen werden sowie den Studierenden ermöglichen, auf dem globalen Arbeitsmarkt flexibel zu sein. Die Universität präsentiert Nationalwerte der Kunst und Kultur Georgiens. Sie ist ein Wissenschafts-, Forschungs- und Bildungsinstitut, das im Bereich Kulturerbe vom Theater und Kino, Medienkunst, künstlerischer Wissenschaftsstudien, Kulturmanagement, Kulturpolitik. Die Universität bietet Bachelor-, Master- und Doktorandenstudiengänge an. Die Fakultät für Kino wurde vor 36 Jahren an der Universität gegründet. Die Universität ist ein unterstützendes Mitglied von ELIA und CILECT. Die Universität besteht aus drei Fakultäten: Fakultät für Drama MM Schauspielkunst im Theater und Film MM Theaterregie MM Mimik MM Puppenspiel MM Schauspielkunst im Musiktheater MM Choreographie und georgischer Tanz MM Polyfonische und religiöse Musik Georgiens MM Popmusiker MM Szenographie

Fakultät für Film und TV-Medien Filmregie (Spielfilm, Dokumentarischer Film, Animationsfilm) Kameramann TV-Medienmanagement Tonoperateur

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Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi, Georgien www.tafu.edu.ge

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und die Menschen, waren Milbradt und ich oft einer Meinung. Ein gutes Beispiel dafür, wie recht Milbradt mit seinem Diktum hat, ist Vogts kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse des Sorbischen National-Ensembles, welche ein weites Spektrum entfaltet ausgehend von einem höchst aufschlussreichen kulturgeschichtlichen Rückblick über kenntnisreiche Aussagen zur Ästhetik der Volkskunst unter staatssozialistischen Bedingungen bis hin zu soliden Struktur – und Haushaltsüberlegungen. Ob der Auftraggeber das alles wissen wollte und dann nicht nur selektiv verstanden hat, frage ich mich zwar im Blick auf meine Erfahrungen mit dem Leseverstehen von Politikern und Beamten. Aber ich habe diese Publikation mit wirklicher Anteilnahme und unbestreitbarem Gewinn gelesen. Vogts berufliches Interesse galt von Anfang an der Wissenschaft. Und er hat die Chance des Instituts genutzt, um sich durch Veröffentlichungen, auf Tagungen und nicht zuletzt als akademischer Lehrer in der Wissenschaft auszuweisen. Gleichwohl steckt immer noch etwas von dem Regisseur in ihm, als der er einmal angetreten ist. Ein Regisseur ist, jedenfalls nach meinem Verständnis, jemand, der zwischen dem Stück, das er inszenieren will, und der Wirklichkeit eine bemerkenswerte Beziehung entdeckt. Und der dann, auf der Bühne, durch Bilder und Handlungen eine Wirklichkeit herstellt, durch die das Publikum diese Beziehung erkennen und anerkennen soll. Das ist natürlich immer ein Wagnis. Zur Wirkung auf ein Publikum führen viele Wege – die seelische Erschütterung, die Provokation, die didaktisch gemeinte Verfremdung, nicht zuletzt die ironische Verführung. Matthias Theodor Vogts Selbstdarstellung offenbart gelegentlich eine innere Neigung, sich dafür letzterer zu bedienen: Der weiße Schal bei der Präsentation der Ergebnisse der NaumannKommission im Freiberger Theater, die muntere und flexibel agierende Gliederfigur als Logo auf den Publikationen seines Instituts, das Motto „Ars Saxoniae Vigilans“, das jeden in Sachsen Geborenen oder mit diesem Land Vertrauten an die sächsische Selbstcharakteristik als „vigilant“ erinnert – das alles zeugt von einem Mut zur Farbe, der in den deutschen Geistes- und Kulturwissenschaften nicht eben häufig ist. Einen Hingucker produziert dies allemal. Und die Aufmerksamkeit des Publikums zu wecken, ist, wie im englischen Sprachraum auch die akademische Rhetorik weiß, nicht nur legitim, sondern notwendig. Ich wünsche Prof. Matthias Theodor Vogt, dem Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur und seiner Brücke nach Europa, dem Collegium PONTES, noch viele erfolgreiche Jahre und noch viele zu feiernde Jubiläen.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

und die Menschen, waren Milbradt und ich oft einer Meinung. Ein gutes Beispiel dafür, wie recht Milbradt mit seinem Diktum hat, ist Vogts kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse des Sorbischen National-Ensembles, welche ein weites Spektrum entfaltet ausgehend von einem höchst aufschlussreichen kulturgeschichtlichen Rückblick über kenntnisreiche Aussagen zur Ästhetik der Volkskunst unter staatssozialistischen Bedingungen bis hin zu soliden Struktur – und Haushaltsüberlegungen. Ob der Auftraggeber das alles wissen wollte und dann nicht nur selektiv verstanden hat, frage ich mich zwar im Blick auf meine Erfahrungen mit dem Leseverstehen von Politikern und Beamten. Aber ich habe diese Publikation mit wirklicher Anteilnahme und unbestreitbarem Gewinn gelesen. Vogts berufliches Interesse galt von Anfang an der Wissenschaft. Und er hat die Chance des Instituts genutzt, um sich durch Veröffentlichungen, auf Tagungen und nicht zuletzt als akademischer Lehrer in der Wissenschaft auszuweisen. Gleichwohl steckt immer noch etwas von dem Regisseur in ihm, als der er einmal angetreten ist. Ein Regisseur ist, jedenfalls nach meinem Verständnis, jemand, der zwischen dem Stück, das er inszenieren will, und der Wirklichkeit eine bemerkenswerte Beziehung entdeckt. Und der dann, auf der Bühne, durch Bilder und Handlungen eine Wirklichkeit herstellt, durch die das Publikum diese Beziehung erkennen und anerkennen soll. Das ist natürlich immer ein Wagnis. Zur Wirkung auf ein Publikum führen viele Wege – die seelische Erschütterung, die Provokation, die didaktisch gemeinte Verfremdung, nicht zuletzt die ironische Verführung. Matthias Theodor Vogts Selbstdarstellung offenbart gelegentlich eine innere Neigung, sich dafür letzterer zu bedienen: Der weiße Schal bei der Präsentation der Ergebnisse der NaumannKommission im Freiberger Theater, die muntere und flexibel agierende Gliederfigur als Logo auf den Publikationen seines Instituts, das Motto „Ars Saxoniae Vigilans“, das jeden in Sachsen Geborenen oder mit diesem Land Vertrauten an die sächsische Selbstcharakteristik als „vigilant“ erinnert – das alles zeugt von einem Mut zur Farbe, der in den deutschen Geistes- und Kulturwissenschaften nicht eben häufig ist. Einen Hingucker produziert dies allemal. Und die Aufmerksamkeit des Publikums zu wecken, ist, wie im englischen Sprachraum auch die akademische Rhetorik weiß, nicht nur legitim, sondern notwendig. Ich wünsche Prof. Matthias Theodor Vogt, dem Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur und seiner Brücke nach Europa, dem Collegium PONTES, noch viele erfolgreiche Jahre und noch viele zu feiernde Jubiläen.


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Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Fakultät für künstlerische und soziale Wissenschaften Theaterwissenschaften Filmwissenschaften Kunst Radio- und TV-Journalismus Kulturmanagement Tourismusmanagement Magister-Studiengänge: Theater des Westens Amerikanischer Film Traditionaler georgischer Tanz Regie im Bereich gegenwärtiger TV-Medien Kreative Pädagogik Methodologie-Lehren im Rahmen von Gesangsstudien Modernes Kulturmanagement Kulturmanagement Anthropologie des georgischen Tanzes Medienwissenschaften Theorie und Praktik von Medienkommunikation Doktorandenstudiengänge: Theater des Westens im 20. Jh. Kreative Pädagogik Praktik in TV-Medien Kulturmanagement, Kulturpolitik Gegenwärtige Szenographie und Kunststudien Internationale Zusammenarbeit Die Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi arbeitet mit den folgenden Institutionen zusammen, mit denen sie Partnerverträge geschlossen hat: KarpenkoKary-Universität für Theater Film und TV Kiew (Ukraine), Institut für Theater und Film in Yerevan (Armenien), Universität für Kunst in Baku (Aserbaidschan), Musik- und Filmakademie in Vilnius (Litauen), Bilgi-Universität in Istanbul (Türkei), Kunstakademie in Alma-Ata (Kasachstan). Die Universität organisiert internationale Schulungsprogramme, thematisch fokussierte Lehrveranstaltungen, wissenschaftliche Konferenzen, Seminare und Podiumsdiskussionen. Seit 1978 veranstaltet die Universität das Internationale StudentenFilmFestival Amirani, wie auch das ständige Internationale StudentenTheaterFestival. Das Amirani-Festival wurde anfänglich jedes zweite Jahr organisiert. Das Ziel Festivals war es, eine der meist unabhängigen regelmäßig stattfindenden Veranstaltungen im Bereich Kinematographie der Sowjetunion ins Leben zu berufen. In den 90er, nach dem Zerfall der Sowjetunion, wurde das Festival nicht orga-

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

nisiert. Erst im Jahre 2007 wurde es als jährliche Veranstaltung reaktiviert. Es ist eine Fortsetzung des alten FilmFestivals vom 1978, dessen Jury aus so bekannten Filmkünstlern bestand wie: Otar Ioseliani, Merab Kokochashvili, Rezo Esadze, Leonid Gaidai, Maschenko i Izraeliani. An dieser Unternehmung nimmt jedes Jahr über 20 Länder aus ganzer Welt teil. Die Universität garantiert sämtlichen Studierenden Internetzugang, Zugang zur umfangreichen Wissenschaftlichen Bibliothek (über 200 000 Bücher), zum VideoKulturZentrum (über 5000 Materials), zu einigen Szenen, Studios, usw. Im Rahmen von der Universität funktioniert das Forschungsinstitut sowie der Kentavri Universitätsverlag. Jährlich werden 4 Bände von Cultural Science Studies und über 14 andere Publikationen veröffentlicht; monatlich werden auch 2 Ausgaben von Fachzeitschriften „Duruji” und „Kultura” publiziert. Jedes Jahr lädt die Universität zahlreiche Professoren und Experten ein und beteiligt sich zusammen mit Partnerhochschulen und Einrichtungen an vielen internationalem Projekten. Universitätsleitung Präsident – Prof. Giorgi Margvelashvili Vizepräsident für internationale Zusammenarbeit und Forschung – Prof. Dr. Levan Khetaguri Public Relations Direktor – Jaba Sikharulidze

RIGA Kulturakademie Lettlands www.kulturmedien-riga.de

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ie Kulturakademie Lettlands wurde mit der Entscheidung vom Ministerkabinett Lettlands am 29. Dezember 1990 gegründet. Die erste Gruppe von 63 Studierenden begann BachelorStudiengänge im Jahre 1991. Der Oberste Rat bestätigte die Verfassung der Kulturakademie Lettlands am 18. Mai 1992. Es gibt ca. 700 Studierende auf der Akademie (Bachelor-Studierende: 520; Master-Studierende: 154, Doktoranden: 13), 73 Dozenten (22 Professoren, 14 Assistenten, 37 wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter). Die Absolventen der Kulturakademie werden in Führungsstellen in den diplomatischen Vertretungen im In- und Ausland beschäftigt. Sie pflegen kulturelle Beziehungen zwischen Lettland und den europäischen Ländern zu entwickeln, befassen sich mit Problemen der internationalen Zusammenarbeit in Lettland und in ausländischen Unternehmen, veranstalten Kulturprojekte, arbeiten am internationalen Image von lettischen

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Internationale Zusammenarbeit Die Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi arbeitet mit den folgenden Institutionen zusammen, mit denen sie Partnerverträge geschlossen hat: KarpenkoKary-Universität für Theater Film und TV Kiew (Ukraine), Institut für Theater und Film in Yerevan (Armenien), Universität für Kunst in Baku (Aserbaidschan), Musik- und Filmakademie in Vilnius (Litauen), Bilgi-Universität in Istanbul (Türkei), Kunstakademie in Alma-Ata (Kasachstan). Die Universität organisiert internationale Schulungsprogramme, thematisch fokussierte Lehrveranstaltungen, wissenschaftliche Konferenzen, Seminare und Podiumsdiskussionen. Seit 1978 veranstaltet die Universität das Internationale StudentenFilmFestival Amirani, wie auch das ständige Internationale StudentenTheaterFestival. Das Amirani-Festival wurde anfänglich jedes zweite Jahr organisiert. Das Ziel Festivals war es, eine der meist unabhängigen regelmäßig stattfindenden Veranstaltungen im Bereich Kinematographie der Sowjetunion ins Leben zu berufen. In den 90er, nach dem Zerfall der Sowjetunion, wurde das Festival nicht orgaDoktorandenstudiengänge: Theater des Westens im 20. Jh. Kreative Pädagogik Praktik in TV-Medien Kulturmanagement, Kulturpolitik Gegenwärtige Szenographie und Kunststudien Magister-Studiengänge: Theater des Westens Amerikanischer Film Traditionaler georgischer Tanz Regie im Bereich gegenwärtiger TV-Medien Kreative Pädagogik Methodologie-Lehren im Rahmen von Gesangsstudien Modernes Kulturmanagement Kulturmanagement Anthropologie des georgischen Tanzes Medienwissenschaften Theorie und Praktik von Medienkommunikation Fakultät für künstlerische und soziale Wissenschaften Theaterwissenschaften Filmwissenschaften Kunst Radio- und TV-Journalismus Kulturmanagement Tourismusmanagement

ie Kulturakademie Lettlands wurde mit der Entscheidung vom Ministerkabinett Lettlands am 29. Dezember 1990 gegründet. Die erste Gruppe von 63 Studierenden begann BachelorStudiengänge im Jahre 1991. Der Oberste Rat bestätigte die Verfassung der Kulturakademie Lettlands am 18. Mai 1992. Es gibt ca. 700 Studierende auf der Akademie (Bachelor-Studierende: 520; Master-Studierende: 154, Doktoranden: 13), 73 Dozenten (22 Professoren, 14 Assistenten, 37 wissenschaftliche Mitarbeiter). Die Absolventen der Kulturakademie werden in Führungsstellen in den diplomatischen Vertretungen im In- und Ausland beschäftigt. Sie pflegen kulturelle Beziehungen zwischen Lettland und den europäischen Ländern zu entwickeln, befassen sich mit Problemen der internationalen Zusammenarbeit in Lettland und in ausländischen Unternehmen, veranstalten Kulturprojekte, arbeiten am internationalen Image von lettischen

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Kulturakademie Lettlands www.kulturmedien-riga.de

RIGA Universitätsleitung Präsident – Prof. Giorgi Margvelashvili Vizepräsident für internationale Zusammenarbeit und Forschung – Prof. Dr. Levan Khetaguri Public Relations Direktor – Jaba Sikharulidze nisiert. Erst im Jahre 2007 wurde es als jährliche Veranstaltung reaktiviert. Es ist eine Fortsetzung des alten FilmFestivals vom 1978, dessen Jury aus so bekannten Filmkünstlern bestand wie: Otar Ioseliani, Merab Kokochashvili, Rezo Esadze, Leonid Gaidai, Maschenko i Izraeliani. An dieser Unternehmung nimmt jedes Jahr über 20 Länder aus ganzer Welt teil. Die Universität garantiert sämtlichen Studierenden Internetzugang, Zugang zur umfangreichen Wissenschaftlichen Bibliothek (über 200 000 Bücher), zum VideoKulturZentrum (über 5000 Materials), zu einigen Szenen, Studios, usw. Im Rahmen von der Universität funktioniert das Forschungsinstitut sowie der Kentavri Universitätsverlag. Jährlich werden 4 Bände von Cultural Science Studies und über 14 andere Publikationen veröffentlicht; monatlich werden auch 2 Ausgaben von Fachzeitschriften „Duruji” und „Kultura” publiziert. Jedes Jahr lädt die Universität zahlreiche Professoren und Experten ein und beteiligt sich zusammen mit Partnerhochschulen und Einrichtungen an vielen internationalem Projekten.


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Aufgrund der Vereinbarungen zwischen der habsburskim [UWAGA: Na pewno nie habsburski, tu chodzi o Hamburg! Proszę o sprawdzenie tej kwestii w pozostałych wersjach językowych] Universität für Musik und Theater in Hamburg und der Kulturakademie Lettlands wurde der deutschsprachige Master-Studiengang im Bereich Kultur- und Medienmanagement 2000 eröffnet (Prof. Dr. Ivars Berzins ist sein Leiter). Das Ziel dieses Studienprogrammes ist es, Experten auszubilden, die als Vermittler zwischen Lettland und dem deutschsprachigen Raum arbeiten können. Seine Absolventen werden lettische Kultur in Einrichtungen Deutschlands, Österreichs und der Schweiz vertreten und internationales Publikum zu bedeutsamen Kulturevents in Lettland einladen.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

WIEN

as „Studienzentrum Hohe Warte“ ist ein Institut mit dem Hauptsitz in Wien, das wissenschaftliche Studiengänge im Bereich der Wirtschaftswissenschaften und der Medienwissenschaft sowie der Rechtwissenschaften anbietet. Das Institut arbeitet mit verschiedenen Universitäten zusammen, hauptsächlich mit der staatlich akkreditierten Rechtshochschule in Bratislava. Die Universitätslehrgänge des Studienzentrums Hohe Warte strecken sich auf die drei Abschlussebenen Bachelor, Master und PhD. Das Studienzentrum ist eng verbunden mit der Sales-Manager Akademie (SMA), eine Institution, die aus einer Weiterbildungseinrichtung der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien hervorgegangen ist und seither in privater Regie mit verschiedenen betriebswirtschaftlichen Seminaren erfolgreich arbeitet. Seit 2002 wird in eigener Regie ein akkreditiertes MBA-Studium angeboten und regelmäßig durchgeführt. Das besondere Kennzeichen der universitären Studiengänge ist – neben einem selbstverständlichen wissenschaftlichen Anspruchsniveau – die Organisation des gesamten Seminarbetriebes in Kompaktform. Das bedeutet, dass die jeweils mit ECTS-Punkten abschließenden Seminare in drei bis vier ganztägigen Veranstaltungen organisiert sind, die ein komplettes Themengebiet abdecken und durch intensive Mitwirkung der Studierenden ihr didaktisches Profil erhalten. Die Mitwirkung der Studierenden geschieht durch vorbereitende Aufgaben (Erarbeitung von Statements, Fachlektüre mit Kommentierung, Vorbereitung von Fallstudien) und durch zahlenmäßig eng begrenzte Stu-

„Studienzentrum Hohe Warte“ www.hohe-warte.at

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„Studienzentrum Hohe Warte“ www.hohe-warte.at

Institutionen, sind zuständige Lehrer im Bereich humanistischer Wissenschaften in den lettischen Schulen. Die Absolventen der Studienrichtung Schauspielkunst und Regie werden zu populären und international bekannten Künstlern der neuen Generation, spielen bedeutende Rollen in Theatern Lettlands und nehmen an internationalen Filmprojekten teil. Die Kameraleute der Kunstakademie beteiligen sich an beachtenswerten TV- und Filmprojekten in Lettland sowie als JuryMitglieder internationaler Filmfestivals. Internationale Dozenten, die theoretische Seminare, wie auch Schauspiel-, und Choreographiewerkstätte durchführen, besuchen die Kulturakademie auf der regelmäßigen Basis. Die Studienprogramme im Bereich TV-Regie, Kamera, audiovisueller Kultur betonen Eigenständigkeit und Zusammenarbeit mit anderen akademischen und wissenschaftlichen Zentren. Ein klassischer, akademischer Prozess des Studierens an der Kulturakademie Lettlands ist mit Forschung und künstlerischem Schaffen von Dozenten und Studenten verbunden. Zum Hauptgebiet der Forschung gehört die Theorie und Geschichte von Kultur, Drama, Kultursoziologie und Kunstphilosophie. Künstlerische und schöpferische Aktivität ist auch ein Teil des Studienprofils. Sie wird sowohl von Studierenden als auch Dozenten der Kulturakademie unternommen. Schauspiellehrer realisieren ihre künstlerischen Projekte in der Mehrheit der dramatischen Staatstheater, wo oft auch Studierende der Kulturakademie mitspielen.

218

WIEN

as „Studienzentrum Hohe Warte“ ist ein Institut mit dem Hauptsitz in Wien, das wissenschaftliche Studiengänge im Bereich der Wirtschaftswissenschaften und der Medienwissenschaft sowie der Rechtwissenschaften anbietet. Das Institut arbeitet mit verschiedenen Universitäten zusammen, hauptsächlich mit der staatlich akkreditierten Rechtshochschule in Bratislava. Die Universitätslehrgänge des Studienzentrums Hohe Warte strecken sich auf die drei Abschlussebenen Bachelor, Master und PhD. Das Studienzentrum ist eng verbunden mit der Sales-Manager Akademie (SMA), eine Institution, die aus einer Weiterbildungseinrichtung der Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien hervorgegangen ist und seither in privater Regie mit verschiedenen betriebswirtschaftlichen Seminaren erfolgreich arbeitet. Seit 2002 wird in eigener Regie ein akkreditiertes MBA-Studium angeboten und regelmäßig durchgeführt. Das besondere Kennzeichen der universitären Studiengänge ist – neben einem selbstverständlichen wissenschaftlichen Anspruchsniveau – die Organisation des gesamten Seminarbetriebes in Kompaktform. Das bedeutet, dass die jeweils mit ECTS-Punkten abschließenden Seminare in drei bis vier ganztägigen Veranstaltungen organisiert sind, die ein komplettes Themengebiet abdecken und durch intensive Mitwirkung der Studierenden ihr didaktisches Profil erhalten. Die Mitwirkung der Studierenden geschieht durch vorbereitende Aufgaben (Erarbeitung von Statements, Fachlektüre mit Kommentierung, Vorbereitung von Fallstudien) und durch zahlenmäßig eng begrenzte Stu-

Fakultät für Soziologie und Kulturmanagement Die Fakultät bietet die Studiengänge im Bereich Kultursoziologie, Kultur- und Managementsoziologie an. Die Studienprogramme berücksichtigen Elemente der Kunst sowie Sozialwissenschaften. Der Studiengang „Kulturmanagement” bereitet Studierende auf die Arbeit in verschiedenen Kultureinrichtungen Lettlands vor: Kultusministerium, Redaktionen von Kunstzeitschriften, Marketingunternehmen, Museen, Galerien, und Bildungsinstitutionen. Der Master-Studiengang „Kulturmanagement” wurde 1998 eröffnet. Er ist an zwei Hauptkategorien der Studierenden orientiert: an Absolventen des Bachelor-Studienganges an der Kulturakademie oder anderen Hochschulen, sowie an Arbeiter im Bereich Kultur, die ihre Kenntnisse und Erfahrungen um neue Kompetenzen ergänzen möchten. Wie in anderen Studiengängen wird auch hier ein starker Akzent auf die Verknüpfung der Theorie und Praxis gesetzt.

Aufgrund der Vereinbarungen zwischen der habsburskim [UWAGA: Na pewno nie habsburski, tu chodzi o Hamburg! Proszę o sprawdzenie tej kwestii w pozostałych wersjach językowych] Universität für Musik und Theater in Hamburg und der Kulturakademie Lettlands wurde der deutschsprachige Master-Studiengang im Bereich Kultur- und Medienmanagement 2000 eröffnet (Prof. Dr. Ivars Berzins ist sein Leiter). Das Ziel dieses Studienprogrammes ist es, Experten auszubilden, die als Vermittler zwischen Lettland und dem deutschsprachigen Raum arbeiten können. Seine Absolventen werden lettische Kultur in Einrichtungen Deutschlands, Österreichs und der Schweiz vertreten und internationales Publikum zu bedeutsamen Kulturevents in Lettland einladen.

Fakultät für Soziologie und Kulturmanagement Die Fakultät bietet die Studiengänge im Bereich Kultursoziologie, Kultur- und Managementsoziologie an. Die Studienprogramme berücksichtigen Elemente der Kunst sowie Sozialwissenschaften. Der Studiengang „Kulturmanagement” bereitet Studierende auf die Arbeit in verschiedenen Kultureinrichtungen Lettlands vor: Kultusministerium, Redaktionen von Kunstzeitschriften, Marketingunternehmen, Museen, Galerien, und Bildungsinstitutionen. Der Master-Studiengang „Kulturmanagement” wurde 1998 eröffnet. Er ist an zwei Hauptkategorien der Studierenden orientiert: an Absolventen des Bachelor-Studienganges an der Kulturakademie oder anderen Hochschulen, sowie an Arbeiter im Bereich Kultur, die ihre Kenntnisse und Erfahrungen um neue Kompetenzen ergänzen möchten. Wie in anderen Studiengängen wird auch hier ein starker Akzent auf die Verknüpfung der Theorie und Praxis gesetzt.

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

Institutionen, sind zuständige Lehrer im Bereich humanistischer Wissenschaften in den lettischen Schulen. Die Absolventen der Studienrichtung Schauspielkunst und Regie werden zu populären und international bekannten Künstlern der neuen Generation, spielen bedeutende Rollen in Theatern Lettlands und nehmen an internationalen Filmprojekten teil. Die Kameraleute der Kunstakademie beteiligen sich an beachtenswerten TV- und Filmprojekten in Lettland sowie als JuryMitglieder internationaler Filmfestivals. Internationale Dozenten, die theoretische Seminare, wie auch Schauspiel-, und Choreographiewerkstätte durchführen, besuchen die Kulturakademie auf der regelmäßigen Basis. Die Studienprogramme im Bereich TV-Regie, Kamera, audiovisueller Kultur betonen Eigenständigkeit und Zusammenarbeit mit anderen akademischen und wissenschaftlichen Zentren. Ein klassischer, akademischer Prozess des Studierens an der Kulturakademie Lettlands ist mit Forschung und künstlerischem Schaffen von Dozenten und Studenten verbunden. Zum Hauptgebiet der Forschung gehört die Theorie und Geschichte von Kultur, Drama, Kultursoziologie und Kunstphilosophie. Künstlerische und schöpferische Aktivität ist auch ein Teil des Studienprofils. Sie wird sowohl von Studierenden als auch Dozenten der Kulturakademie unternommen. Schauspiellehrer realisieren ihre künstlerischen Projekte in der Mehrheit der dramatischen Staatstheater, wo oft auch Studierende der Kulturakademie mitspielen.


219

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

diengruppen (maximal 12 Teilnehmer). Sämtliche Seminare werden, falls die Zahl der Bewerber dies erfordert, mehrfach pro Jahr angeboten, so dass das Studium zu fast jeder Zeit des Jahres begonnen werden kann. Das Doktoratsstudium zum PhD umfasst inhaltlich das weite Thema des Internationalen Management mit seinen vielfachen Facetten und Verflechtungen mit soziologischen und kulturellen Dimensionen. Es ist aufgebaut auf individueller Betreuung durch erfahrene Wissenschaftler, auf insgesamt 5 Pflichtseminaren (darunter: Philosophie und Methodologie) sowie der Verpflichtung, mindestens 2 Fachaufsätze in anerkannten wissenschaftlichen Journalen zu publizieren. Auch dieses Studium ist berufsbegleitend, und die Pflichtseminare sind entsprechend kompakt organisiert. Seit kurzem hat das Studienzentrum eine eigene Schriftenreihe aufgelegt, in die besonders herausragende Doktorarbeiten, die für die Fachöffentlichkeit von Interesse sind, publiziert werden können. Ebenfalls neu ist eine Fachzeitschrift für allgemeine Fragen der Ökonomie, der Kultur und angrenzender Gebiete. Im Jahre 2009 hat die „Studienzentrum Hohe Warte Ausbildungsgesellschaft“ einen Antrag auf Akkreditierung als Privatuniversität eingereicht. Die geplante „Privatuniversität Hohe Warte” wird zwei eigenständige Fakultäten erhalten: Die Kulturwissenschaftliche Fakultät (KW)” und die „Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät (WW)”. Die KW Fakultät an drei Studiengänge jeweils mit Abschlussmöglichkeiten eines Bachelors und eines Masters: „Angewandte Ethik”, „Publizistik und Neue Medien” sowie „Kulturmanagement”. Im ersten Stadium wird für das Kulturmanagement zunächst nur ein Bachelorstudium eingerichtet werden. Für das Masterstudium in Kulturmanagement ist eine Konzeption in Vorbereitung, die im Verlaufe des Jahres 2010 zur Akkreditierung gestellt werden soll. Dieses Masterstudium „Kulturmanagement” wird im Vergleich zu den bisher international üblichen eine vorrangige Betonung der Dimensionen von Kunst und Kultur sowie erweiterte pragmatische Kompetenzen in ästhetischer und kommunikativer Praxis erhalten. Für die Lehrveranstaltungen konnten namhafte Personen des österreichischen Kulturlebens und der Wissenschaften gewonnen werden. Die Grundlagen der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementinstrumente werden bis auf wenige Ausnahmen im Masterstudium als bekannt (nachgewiesen durch ein Bachelorstudium) vorausgesetzt werden. Weiters wird eine mehrjährige Praxis im Kunstbereich oder in kulturnahen Bereichen der Wirtschaft (z. B. Creative Industries, Verlagswesen oder kommunale Kulturverwaltung) vorausgesetzt

Kulturmanagement 2009, Heft 2 (2)

KRAKOW Der Lehrstuhl für Kultur und Management Das Kulturinstitut an der Fakultät für Management und Gesellschaftskommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität www.kultura.uj.edu.pl

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m Jahre 2001 wurde der Lehrstuhl (ursprünglich als die Schule für Kulturmanagement, die seit 1994 tätig war) eröffnet, der bis zum Jahre 2008 ein Teil des Institutes für Öffentlichkeitsarbeit der Jagiellonen Universität war und in seinen Rahmen Studiengänge im Bereich Kulturmanagement (in der Studienrichtung Management und Marketing) angeboten hat. Gegenwärtig gehört der Lehrstuhl zu dem 2009 neu eingerichteten Kulturinstitut an der Fakultät für Management und Gesellschaftskommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Seine Universitätslehrgänge strecken sich auf alle Abschlussebenen: Bachelor, Master, Aufbaustudium, wie auch (im Rahmen der Fakultät – Doktorandenstudium). Dieselbe Spezialisierung, d.h. Kulturmanagement, aber mit einer prinzipiellen Änderung der Studienrichtung: von Management zu den Kulturwissenschaften. Das resultiert aus den neuen Studiennormen, die annehmen, dass Management den wirtschaftlich orientierten Wissenschaften und Kulturwissenschaften den humanistischen Wissenschaften angehören. Der Lehrstuhl beschäftigt 8 Mitarbeiter, die mindestens über einen Doktortitel verfügen. Der Lehrstuhl veröffentlicht ein Jahrbuch „Kulturmanagement” (bisher 10 Hefte), die Schriftenreihen „Die Bibliothek von Kulturmanagement“ (5 Bücher wurden seit 2008 herausgegeben) und Übersetzungen von führenden internationalen Fachpublikationen (3 Bücher: P. Bendixen, G. Hagoort, M. J. Schuster). Im Jahre 2008 initiierte der Lehrstuhl die internationale dreisprachige Fachzeitschrift „Culture Management / Kulturmanagement / Zarządzanie Kulturą” herauszugeben. Dank dem Lehrstuhl wurden auch ca. 40 Hefte veröffentlicht, die die Vorträge von Botschaftern zum Thema Kulturpolitik meines Landes enthielten. Der Lehrstuhl für Kultur und Manangement ist auch der Mitglied des europäischen Netzwerkes ENCATC, arbeitet mit vielen lokalen, inländischen und internationalen und Einrichtungen zusammen. Im Rahmen vom Lehrstuhl ist auch das Zentrum für Dokumentation des Leben und künstlerische Arbeit von Helena Modrzejewska seit 2009 tätig (InternetArchiv wird bearbeitet). In der Vorbereitungsphase befindet sich auch die Entstehung des Observatoriums für Kulturleben. Der Lehrstuhl wird von Prof. Dr. hab. Emil Orzechowski geleitet, der auch die Schule von Kulturmanagement und die Fakultät für Management und Gesellschaftskommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität ins Leben berufen hat. 219

diengruppen (maximal 12 Teilnehmer). Sämtliche Seminare werden, falls die Zahl der Bewerber dies erfordert, mehrfach pro Jahr angeboten, so dass das Studium zu fast jeder Zeit des Jahres begonnen werden kann. Das Doktoratsstudium zum PhD umfasst inhaltlich das weite Thema des Internationalen Management mit seinen vielfachen Facetten und Verflechtungen mit soziologischen und kulturellen Dimensionen. Es ist aufgebaut auf individueller Betreuung durch erfahrene Wissenschaftler, auf insgesamt 5 Pflichtseminaren (darunter: Philosophie und Methodologie) sowie der Verpflichtung, mindestens 2 Fachaufsätze in anerkannten wissenschaftlichen Journalen zu publizieren. Auch dieses Studium ist berufsbegleitend, und die Pflichtseminare sind entsprechend kompakt organisiert. Seit kurzem hat das Studienzentrum eine eigene Schriftenreihe aufgelegt, in die besonders herausragende Doktorarbeiten, die für die Fachöffentlichkeit von Interesse sind, publiziert werden können. Ebenfalls neu ist eine Fachzeitschrift für allgemeine Fragen der Ökonomie, der Kultur und angrenzender Gebiete. Im Jahre 2009 hat die „Studienzentrum Hohe Warte Ausbildungsgesellschaft“ einen Antrag auf Akkreditierung als Privatuniversität eingereicht. Die geplante „Privatuniversität Hohe Warte” wird zwei eigenständige Fakultäten erhalten: Die Kulturwissenschaftliche Fakultät (KW)” und die „Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät (WW)”. Die KW Fakultät an drei Studiengänge jeweils mit Abschlussmöglichkeiten eines Bachelors und eines Masters: „Angewandte Ethik”, „Publizistik und Neue Medien” sowie „Kulturmanagement”. Im ersten Stadium wird für das Kulturmanagement zunächst nur ein Bachelorstudium eingerichtet werden. Für das Masterstudium in Kulturmanagement ist eine Konzeption in Vorbereitung, die im Verlaufe des Jahres 2010 zur Akkreditierung gestellt werden soll. Dieses Masterstudium „Kulturmanagement” wird im Vergleich zu den bisher international üblichen eine vorrangige Betonung der Dimensionen von Kunst und Kultur sowie erweiterte pragmatische Kompetenzen in ästhetischer und kommunikativer Praxis erhalten. Für die Lehrveranstaltungen konnten namhafte Personen des österreichischen Kulturlebens und der Wissenschaften gewonnen werden. Die Grundlagen der betriebswirtschaftlichen Managementinstrumente werden bis auf wenige Ausnahmen im Masterstudium als bekannt (nachgewiesen durch ein Bachelorstudium) vorausgesetzt werden. Weiters wird eine mehrjährige Praxis im Kunstbereich oder in kulturnahen Bereichen der Wirtschaft (z. B. Creative Industries, Verlagswesen oder kommunale Kulturverwaltung) vorausgesetzt

m Jahre 2001 wurde der Lehrstuhl (ursprünglich als die Schule für Kulturmanagement, die seit 1994 tätig war) eröffnet, der bis zum Jahre 2008 ein Teil des Institutes für Öffentlichkeitsarbeit der Jagiellonen Universität war und in seinen Rahmen Studiengänge im Bereich Kulturmanagement (in der Studienrichtung Management und Marketing) angeboten hat. Gegenwärtig gehört der Lehrstuhl zu dem 2009 neu eingerichteten Kulturinstitut an der Fakultät für Management und Gesellschaftskommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Seine Universitätslehrgänge strecken sich auf alle Abschlussebenen: Bachelor, Master, Aufbaustudium, wie auch (im Rahmen der Fakultät – Doktorandenstudium). Dieselbe Spezialisierung, d.h. Kulturmanagement, aber mit einer prinzipiellen Änderung der Studienrichtung: von Management zu den Kulturwissenschaften. Das resultiert aus den neuen Studiennormen, die annehmen, dass Management den wirtschaftlich orientierten Wissenschaften und Kulturwissenschaften den humanistischen Wissenschaften angehören. Der Lehrstuhl beschäftigt 8 Mitarbeiter, die mindestens über einen Doktortitel verfügen. Der Lehrstuhl veröffentlicht ein Jahrbuch „Kulturmanagement” (bisher 10 Hefte), die Schriftenreihen „Die Bibliothek von Kulturmanagement“ (5 Bücher wurden seit 2008 herausgegeben) und Übersetzungen von führenden internationalen Fachpublikationen (3 Bücher: P. Bendixen, G. Hagoort, M. J. Schuster). Im Jahre 2008 initiierte der Lehrstuhl die internationale dreisprachige Fachzeitschrift „Culture Management / Kulturmanagement / Zarządzanie Kulturą” herauszugeben. Dank dem Lehrstuhl wurden auch ca. 40 Hefte veröffentlicht, die die Vorträge von Botschaftern zum Thema Kulturpolitik meines Landes enthielten. Der Lehrstuhl für Kultur und Manangement ist auch der Mitglied des europäischen Netzwerkes ENCATC, arbeitet mit vielen lokalen, inländischen und internationalen und Einrichtungen zusammen. Im Rahmen vom Lehrstuhl ist auch das Zentrum für Dokumentation des Leben und künstlerische Arbeit von Helena Modrzejewska seit 2009 tätig (InternetArchiv wird bearbeitet). In der Vorbereitungsphase befindet sich auch die Entstehung des Observatoriums für Kulturleben. Der Lehrstuhl wird von Prof. Dr. hab. Emil Orzechowski geleitet, der auch die Schule von Kulturmanagement und die Fakultät für Management und Gesellschaftskommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität ins Leben berufen hat.

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Der Lehrstuhl für Kultur und Management Das Kulturinstitut an der Fakultät für Management und Gesellschaftskommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität www.kultura.uj.edu.pl

KRAKOW



ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ



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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

WSTĘP Emil Orzechowski

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ddajemy w ręce Czytelników numer drugi naszego czasopisma. Półroczny rytm wydawniczy jest dalej intencją redakcji, choć czysto biurokratyczne procedury powodują, że – przynajmniej w początkowym okresie – nastąpić musiały opóźnienia, czego dowodem numer niniejszy, ukazujący się prawie rok po pierwszym. To zresztą temat wart krótkiego skwitowania opisem trudności, na jakie podobny projekt napotyka w realiach niby wspólnotowych, niby bolońskich, niby lizbońskich. Wszystko „niby”, bo ciągle jeszcze, przynajmniej w praktyce akademickiej naszej specjalności, zarządzania kulturą, jesteśmy ubogim krewnym paneuropejskich rolników, a w skali środowiska naukowego, pariasem wśród bio-, astro-, info-, etc. Nic to. Swoje należy robić, zwłaszcza, gdy jest się o potrzebie tego przekonanym. Zaś – sooner or later – faktycznego znaczenia nabierze stwierdzenie Culture matters.

N

umer drugi różni się nieco kompozycją od poprzedniego. O ile tamten był wachlarzem – i problemów, i składu autorów – to niniejszy skupia się na sygnalizowaniu wątków na ten moment, jak się wydaje, bardzo istotnych i wymagających pilnej refleksji, zwłaszcza w skali terytorialnej, jaką chcemy preferować w naszych czasopiśmie. Stąd, poza niewymagającym komentarza dla wszystkich zarządzających kulturą, istotnym tekstem P. Bendixena, wywołujemy takie tematy, jak dylematy polityki kulturalnej na przykładzie Gruzji czy kwestię tzw. polityki historycznej na przykładzie Polski. Gruzja i Polska to tylko egzemplifikacja postawionych problemów, które są niezwykle istotne wszędzie, a już w naszej części świata, zwłaszcza.

D

wa kolejne teksty to ważne i chyba pozytywne przykłady istotnych zjawisk: społecznego udziału w odnowie zabytków (na przykładzie Krakowa) oraz tendencji do festiwalowej orga-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

nizacji wydarzeń kulturalnych; tak, czy inaczej, kwestie te, metody działania, efekty, na pewno są warte dyskusji.

Z

agadnienia ekonomiki kultury oraz zarządzania wiedzą (tu na przykładzie organizacji non-profit) zawsze są warte przywołania; może wywołają kolejne, np. przykłady godnych poznania case studies.

O

sobno chcemy zwrócić uwagę na warunki, w jakich muszą działać nasi Koledzy na wschód od Unii; stąd dwa teksty oparte na realiach ukraińskich.

D

obra informacja to fakt, że prawie po równo teksty tego numeru są autorstwa uznanych akademików, jak i osób przygotowujących prace doktorskie; to obiecywaliśmy i chcemy kontynuować.

I

na koniec krótka informacja o przyszłości. Nieustająco zachęcamy do nadsyłania tekstów, które są oczywiście, poddawane redakcyjnej ocenie. Z wielką satysfakcją możemy podać, że część tekstów do numeru trzeciego została już zgromadzona; na pewno w tym numerze znajdzie się omówienie Kongresu Kultury Polskiej – wydarzenia, jak uważamy – ważnego oczywiście głównie dla Polaków, ale od strony organizacyjnej ustanawiającego nowy model społecznego dialogu, co ważne już w skali szerszej.

K

olejny, czwarty numer, chcielibyśmy poświęcić omówieniu rozwiązań prawnych, finansowych i innych uwarunkowań, które powodują, że już i w naszej części Europy zaistniały w obszarze kultury znakomite przykłady partnerstwa publiczno-prywatnego; prosimy także o teksty ilustrujące to zjawisko, ukazujące pozytywy, ale i trudności.

223

wa kolejne teksty to ważne i chyba pozytywne przykłady istotnych zjawisk: społecznego udziału w odnowie zabytków (na przykładzie Krakowa) oraz tendencji do festiwalowej orga-

D

umer drugi różni się nieco kompozycją od poprzedniego. O ile tamten był wachlarzem – i problemów, i składu autorów – to niniejszy skupia się na sygnalizowaniu wątków na ten moment, jak się wydaje, bardzo istotnych i wymagających pilnej refleksji, zwłaszcza w skali terytorialnej, jaką chcemy preferować w naszych czasopiśmie. Stąd, poza niewymagającym komentarza dla wszystkich zarządzających kulturą, istotnym tekstem P. Bendixena, wywołujemy takie tematy, jak dylematy polityki kulturalnej na przykładzie Gruzji czy kwestię tzw. polityki historycznej na przykładzie Polski. Gruzja i Polska to tylko egzemplifikacja postawionych problemów, które są niezwykle istotne wszędzie, a już w naszej części świata, zwłaszcza.

N

ddajemy w ręce Czytelników numer drugi naszego czasopisma. Półroczny rytm wydawniczy jest dalej intencją redakcji, choć czysto biurokratyczne procedury powodują, że – przynajmniej w początkowym okresie – nastąpić musiały opóźnienia, czego dowodem numer niniejszy, ukazujący się prawie rok po pierwszym. To zresztą temat wart krótkiego skwitowania opisem trudności, na jakie podobny projekt napotyka w realiach niby wspólnotowych, niby bolońskich, niby lizbońskich. Wszystko „niby”, bo ciągle jeszcze, przynajmniej w praktyce akademickiej naszej specjalności, zarządzania kulturą, jesteśmy ubogim krewnym paneuropejskich rolników, a w skali środowiska naukowego, pariasem wśród bio-, astro-, info-, etc. Nic to. Swoje należy robić, zwłaszcza, gdy jest się o potrzebie tego przekonanym. Zaś – sooner or later – faktycznego znaczenia nabierze stwierdzenie Culture matters.

O

Emil Orzechowski

WSTĘP

olejny, czwarty numer, chcielibyśmy poświęcić omówieniu rozwiązań prawnych, finansowych i innych uwarunkowań, które powodują, że już i w naszej części Europy zaistniały w obszarze kultury znakomite przykłady partnerstwa publiczno-prywatnego; prosimy także o teksty ilustrujące to zjawisko, ukazujące pozytywy, ale i trudności.

K

na koniec krótka informacja o przyszłości. Nieustająco zachęcamy do nadsyłania tekstów, które są oczywiście, poddawane redakcyjnej ocenie. Z wielką satysfakcją możemy podać, że część tekstów do numeru trzeciego została już zgromadzona; na pewno w tym numerze znajdzie się omówienie Kongresu Kultury Polskiej – wydarzenia, jak uważamy – ważnego oczywiście głównie dla Polaków, ale od strony organizacyjnej ustanawiającego nowy model społecznego dialogu, co ważne już w skali szerszej.

I

obra informacja to fakt, że prawie po równo teksty tego numeru są autorstwa uznanych akademików, jak i osób przygotowujących prace doktorskie; to obiecywaliśmy i chcemy kontynuować.

D

sobno chcemy zwrócić uwagę na warunki, w jakich muszą działać nasi Koledzy na wschód od Unii; stąd dwa teksty oparte na realiach ukraińskich.

O

agadnienia ekonomiki kultury oraz zarządzania wiedzą (tu na przykładzie organizacji non-profit) zawsze są warte przywołania; może wywołają kolejne, np. przykłady godnych poznania case studies.

Z

nizacji wydarzeń kulturalnych; tak, czy inaczej, kwestie te, metody działania, efekty, na pewno są warte dyskusji.


224

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

M

amy nadzieję, że nasze czasopismo będzie naszą wspólną sprawą: redaktorów i Czytelników, a może – co niewykluczone – także i polityków odpowiedzialnych za sprawy kultury i budowy społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w nowej Europie.

amy nadzieję, że nasze czasopismo będzie naszą wspólną sprawą: redaktorów i Czytelników, a może – co niewykluczone – także i polityków odpowiedzialnych za sprawy kultury i budowy społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w nowej Europie.

M

224

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

M

imo planów na kolejne numery pisma, nie wycofujemy się z deklaracji, że chętnie oddamy do przygotowania całe edycje partnerskim ośrodkom współtworzącym pismo (one też określą tematy przewodnie tych specjalnych numerów).

imo planów na kolejne numery pisma, nie wycofujemy się z deklaracji, że chętnie oddamy do przygotowania całe edycje partnerskim ośrodkom współtworzącym pismo (one też określą tematy przewodnie tych specjalnych numerów).

M


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Wytyczne w zakresie kształtowania profesjonalnych programów studiów Peter Bendixen

1. Kultura i Zarządzanie

W

iększość popularnych i propagowanych na całym świecie koncepcji oraz założeń zarządzania kulturą poddanych jest dyktatowi nauk ekonomicznych. Struktury właściwe ekonomii przenoszone są do sfery kultury, wskutek tego jest ona postrzegana przez pryzmat ekonomii – jest więc podporządkowywana wymogom rentowności, dążeniu do racjonalnego uporządkowania struktur i procesów, a tym samym – w opinii wielu – jej funkcjonowanie bazować ma na zdroworozsądkowych regułach. Powyższe rozumowanie obarczone jest jednak mankamentem polegającym na nierozróżnianiu dwóch terminów – rozsądku i rozumu1. Instrumentom mikroekonomicznym bezrefleksyjnie przypisuje się działanie zgodnie z zasadami rozsądku, który jednak w sztuce lub – w szerszym rozumieniu – w kulturze zazwyczaj nie jest zasadniczą siłą sprawczą. W swej istocie oraz w praktyce instrumenty mikroekonomiczne opierają się na panowaniu pieniądza; jest to zjawisko naturalne w sferze ekonomii, ale ma również miejsce w dziedzinie kultury i sztuki [por. Brodbeck, 2009; Bendixen, Die Unsichtbare..., 2009]. Treści kultury i sztuki nie znalazły się w centrum uwagi, co dowodzi, iż ze strony ekonomii istnieje roszczenie do objęcia swoimi narzędziami każdego obszaru społecznego zawierającego elementy poddające się uporządkowaniu i ustrukturyzowaniu. Uzurpatorskie

Tłumaczenie: Katarzyna Kopeć

zdominowanie danej dziedziny przez instrumenty ekonomiczne jest skazą możliwą do usunięcia pod warunkiem, że do analizy tej zależności zastosujemy prawa dialektyki. Nie chodzi tu jedynie o kwestie merytoryczne, lecz również o sztucznie stworzony termin zarządzanie kulturą (Kulturmanagement), który (w języku niemieckim) jest rzeczownikiem złożonym, gdzie pierwsza część słowa (kultura) stanowi przedmiot, a druga (zarządzanie) jest podmiotem. Z językowego punktu widzenia termin zarządzanie kulturą znajduje się na tym samym poziomie semantycznym co termin zarządzanie sportem czy zarządzanie środowiskiem naturalnym. Problemem jest tu jednak fakt, że sztuką czy też kulturą można zarządzać w ograniczonym zakresie, podobnie jak sportem czy środowiskiem. Sztukę tworzą artyści, sport uprawiany jest przez sportowców, a natura sama oddziałuje na środowisko wedle swej woli, i bez wątpienia nie poddaje się dyktatowi człowieka. Kultura jako indywidualny i społeczny świat ukształtowany przez wartości i wzorce wraz ze swoimi lokalnymi, regionalnymi i narodowymi cechami charakterystycznymi jest trwającym z pokolenia na pokolenie organicznym tworem historii. Taką strukturą nie da się zarządzać. Fałszywość tego toku myślenia zasadniczo zawiera się już w pojęciu zarządzanie i związanym z nim wyobrażeniem, że takie spontaniczne, społeczne obszary, jak sztuka i inne działania

Por. Safranski, 2006, s. 7: >Rozum< odkrywamy również w świecie zwierząt. Szympans, który uczy się przez doświadczenie sięgać po banany przy pomocy kija, dowodzi rozumnego zachowania. Rozum działa tam, gdzie wytwarzane są narzędzia… Rozsądek, w przeciwieństwie do rozumu, sam sobie ustala cele. To zakłada samoświadomość, która pozwala nam mieć do siebie dystans. Instrumenty mikroekonomiczne są środkami. O celach przedsiębiorstwa z reguły się nie dyskutuje, lecz przyjmuje się za oczywiste, iż celem przedsiębiorstwa jest przynoszenie zysków.

1

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

225

prof. Peter Bendixen Wykładowca kilku uczelni, m.in. w Lüneburgu, Salzburgu, Wiedniu, Warwick, Istambule. Inicjator studiów z zakresu zarządzania w kulturze na Uniwersytecie Ekonomii i Polityki w Hamburgu. Współzałożyciel Instytutu Sztuki, Muzyki i Ekonomii Kulturalnej im. Rudolfa Arnheima w tym mieście. Od 2003 roku dyrektor do spraw badań i programów doktoranckich w wiedeńskim Ośrodku Badań Hohe Warte. Autor m.in. Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik (2009), Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (2009), Die Unsichtbare Hand, Die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (2009).

225

1 Por. Safranski, 2006, s. 7: >Rozum< odkrywamy również w świecie zwierząt. Szympans, który uczy się przez doświadczenie sięgać po banany przy pomocy kija, dowodzi rozumnego zachowania. Rozum działa tam, gdzie wytwarzane są narzędzia… Rozsądek, w przeciwieństwie do rozumu, sam sobie ustala cele. To zakłada samoświadomość, która pozwala nam mieć do siebie dystans. Instrumenty mikroekonomiczne są środkami. O celach przedsiębiorstwa z reguły się nie dyskutuje, lecz przyjmuje się za oczywiste, iż celem przedsiębiorstwa jest przynoszenie zysków.

iększość popularnych i propagowanych na całym świecie koncepcji oraz założeń zarządzania kulturą poddanych jest dyktatowi nauk ekonomicznych. Struktury właściwe ekonomii przenoszone są do sfery kultury, wskutek tego jest ona postrzegana przez pryzmat ekonomii – jest więc podporządkowywana wymogom rentowności, dążeniu do racjonalnego uporządkowania struktur i procesów, a tym samym – w opinii wielu – jej funkcjonowanie bazować ma na zdroworozsądkowych regułach. Powyższe rozumowanie obarczone jest jednak mankamentem polegającym na nierozróżnianiu dwóch terminów – rozsądku i rozumu1. Instrumentom mikroekonomicznym bezrefleksyjnie przypisuje się działanie zgodnie z zasadami rozsądku, który jednak w sztuce lub – w szerszym rozumieniu – w kulturze zazwyczaj nie jest zasadniczą siłą sprawczą. W swej istocie oraz w praktyce instrumenty mikroekonomiczne opierają się na panowaniu pieniądza; jest to zjawisko naturalne w sferze ekonomii, ale ma również miejsce w dziedzinie kultury i sztuki [por. Brodbeck, 2009; Bendixen, Die Unsichtbare..., 2009]. Treści kultury i sztuki nie znalazły się w centrum uwagi, co dowodzi, iż ze strony ekonomii istnieje roszczenie do objęcia swoimi narzędziami każdego obszaru społecznego zawierającego elementy poddające się uporządkowaniu i ustrukturyzowaniu. Uzurpatorskie

W

1. Kultura i Zarządzanie

Peter Bendixen

zdominowanie danej dziedziny przez instrumenty ekonomiczne jest skazą możliwą do usunięcia pod warunkiem, że do analizy tej zależności zastosujemy prawa dialektyki. Nie chodzi tu jedynie o kwestie merytoryczne, lecz również o sztucznie stworzony termin zarządzanie kulturą (Kulturmanagement), który (w języku niemieckim) jest rzeczownikiem złożonym, gdzie pierwsza część słowa (kultura) stanowi przedmiot, a druga (zarządzanie) jest podmiotem. Z językowego punktu widzenia termin zarządzanie kulturą znajduje się na tym samym poziomie semantycznym co termin zarządzanie sportem czy zarządzanie środowiskiem naturalnym. Problemem jest tu jednak fakt, że sztuką czy też kulturą można zarządzać w ograniczonym zakresie, podobnie jak sportem czy środowiskiem. Sztukę tworzą artyści, sport uprawiany jest przez sportowców, a natura sama oddziałuje na środowisko wedle swej woli, i bez wątpienia nie poddaje się dyktatowi człowieka. Kultura jako indywidualny i społeczny świat ukształtowany przez wartości i wzorce wraz ze swoimi lokalnymi, regionalnymi i narodowymi cechami charakterystycznymi jest trwającym z pokolenia na pokolenie organicznym tworem historii. Taką strukturą nie da się zarządzać. Fałszywość tego toku myślenia zasadniczo zawiera się już w pojęciu zarządzanie i związanym z nim wyobrażeniem, że takie spontaniczne, społeczne obszary, jak sztuka i inne działania

Tłumaczenie: Katarzyna Kopeć

Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Wytyczne w zakresie kształtowania profesjonalnych programów studiów

prof. Peter Bendixen Wykładowca kilku uczelni, m.in. w Lüneburgu, Salzburgu, Wiedniu, Warwick, Istambule. Inicjator studiów z zakresu zarządzania w kulturze na Uniwersytecie Ekonomii i Polityki w Hamburgu. Współzałożyciel Instytutu Sztuki, Muzyki i Ekonomii Kulturalnej im. Rudolfa Arnheima w tym mieście. Od 2003 roku dyrektor do spraw badań i programów doktoranckich w wiedeńskim Ośrodku Badań Hohe Warte. Autor m.in. Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden Wirtschaftsethik (2009), Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (2009), Die Unsichtbare Hand, Die Freiheit und der Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens (2009).


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

kulturalne, do których również przynależy sport, można opanować w sposób racjonalny, zaplanować i zorganizować, podporządkować określonej strategii i wreszcie poprowadzić ku jasno sformułowanym celom, np. maksymalnej rentowności czy nawet zyskowi. Sztuka, sport oraz inne środki wyrazu człowieka istnieją dzięki kreatywności i radości tworzenia. Lecz kreatywność nie rodzi się z rozumu. To nieporozumienie staje się dostrzegalne, jeśli tylko zaakceptujemy tezę, że rozum wprawdzie potrafi porządkować myśli ludzkie, ale jednak to, co twórcze, wywodzi się z fantazji, a więc potęgi wyobraźni cechującej myślenie. Podstawą kreatywności jest bez wątpienia zdolność człowieka do występowania w roli gracza, zarówno w „grach” o poważnym, jak i rozrywkowym charakterze [Schiller, 2000]. „Gra” jest nią tylko wówczas, gdy jej immanentną częścią jest przypadek i brak przewidywalności, co pociąga za sobą konieczność abstrakcyjnego lub rzeczywistego doświadczenia sytuacji względnego nieładu i chaotycznego niepokoju. Powstająca w ten sposób kreatywność rysuje się tu jako aspekt wynalazczości, która spontanicznie próbuje uchwycić jej liczne projekcje podsuwane w myślach przez intuicję i albo odrzuca je jako bezwartościowe, albo też przyjmuje z przeczuciem, iż okażą się owocne i, dopiero wtedy, wyjaśnia za pomocą rozumu2. Odejdźmy na chwilę od praw mikroekonomii. Nawet w odniesieniu do zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, będącego swoistym sednem nauk ekonomicznych, stanowią one jedynie częściowe wsparcie o charakterze instrumentalnym. Kto rozumie ekonomię, wie z doświadczenia, że ani przeciętny człowiek, ani też doświadczony przedsiębiorca czy menedżer w swoich decyzjach nie jest determinowany wyłącznie, czy też w dużej mierze, świadomą racjonalnością i analizą sytuacji biorącą pod uwagę wszelkie dostępne możliwości. Wydaje się, że sfera gospodarki opiera swoje funkcjonowanie na całościowym postrzeganiu i ocenie sytuacji, uzupełnianych przez praktyczne doświadczenie i obszerny katalog zweryfikowanych, intuicyjnych zasad. Na co dzień, również w życiu zawodowym, często wierzymy, że doskonale rozumiemy daną sytuację i że logicznie myśląc, podejmujemy słuszną decyzję. Jednakże ta wiara jest zbyt często zwodnicza.

Typowa dla sfery gospodarki właściwość, mianowicie ciążące nad wieloma sytuacjami i prognozami na przyszłość piętno przypadkowości, w obszarze sztuk oraz jej zinstytucjonalizowanych form, jak muzea, wystawy, biblioteki, agencje, wydawnictwa, producenci instrumentów, scenografowie lub handlarze sztuki staje się szczególnie wyraźna i uzupełniona o pewne charakterystyczne elementy, ponieważ element kreatywności odgrywa tu szczególną rolę. Życie samo często pisze za nas scenariusze, determinując nasze zachowanie. W wielu sytuacjach brakuje czasu na przeprowadzenie szczegółowej analizy danej sytuacji bez emocji, by na tej podstawie dokonać rzekomo racjonalnej decyzji3. Takie opanowanie właściwe jest jedynie urzędom, a bazą ich decyzji nie jest kreatywność, lecz deterministyczne dążenie do porządku. Być może tak właśnie być musi. Nie jest więc możliwe zarządzanie ani samą sztuką, ani też instytucjami kultury, jeśli ekonomię potraktujemy jako centralny paradygmat. Ekonomia może jedynie pełnić rolę wspierającą. Pamiętając jednak o założeniu bardzo ograniczonej racjonalności wspieranych sfer, nie powinna ona uzyskać dominującego wpływu na kształt praktycznych decyzji, podobnie jak nie należy preferować motywacji komercyjnych, w przypadku których pieniądz znajduje się w centrum uwagi. Pieniądz nie jest kreatywny; pole do działania znajduje jedynie wówczas, gdy może komercyjnie wykorzystać wytwór ludzkiej kreatywności. Panowanie pieniądza nie jest darem bogów, lecz wynalazkiem człowieka, który także kulturze przyniósł daleko idące konsekwencje. Może trochę przesadnie, jednak oddając prawdziwą istotę rzeczy, możemy powiedzieć: kto inwestuje swoje pieniądze w loterię pieniężną, zapewne na tym zyska. Jedynym kreatywnym elementem jest tu fakt powierzenia swojego losu przypadkowi. Nie jest to nic szczególnie pomysłowego. Jednakże osiągnięcie zysku nie zawsze lub jedynie rzadko jest efektem chłodnej kalkulacji, lecz wynika – oczywiście nie tylko w przypadku loterii pieniężnej – z pomysłów i podświadomych sygnałów. Tam, gdzie czynnik kreatywności nie odgrywa istotnej roli, miejsce zarządzania powinna zająć administracja ukierunkowana na podtrzymywanie istniejącego porządku. Innymi słowy chodzi o to, by sztukę zarządzania pozbawić mikroeko-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Praktyczne zasady i pomocne rozważania z zakresu teorii gier można znaleźć w pracy Pierre Basieux [Basieux, 2008].

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2

Praktyczne zasady i pomocne rozważania z zakresu teorii gier można znaleźć w pracy Pierre Basieux [Basieux, 2008].

Wrażenie racjonalności jest sztuczne, czego dowodzą mikroekonomiczne modele optymalizacyjne. Modele są udoskonalane tak długo, aż pozbawione zostają elementu irracjonalności. Wówczas oczywiste jest, iż wynik może zostać nazwany racjonalnym. Irracjonalność zostaje zawężona jako pojęcie i idea właściwa dla niewymiernych, uniwersalnie obowiązujących kwestii. Takie postępowanie mogłoby być w najlepszym razie heurystycznym „intermezzo” w procesie decyzyjnym.

3

3 Wrażenie racjonalności jest sztuczne, czego dowodzą mikroekonomiczne modele optymalizacyjne. Modele są udoskonalane tak długo, aż pozbawione zostają elementu irracjonalności. Wówczas oczywiste jest, iż wynik może zostać nazwany racjonalnym. Irracjonalność zostaje zawężona jako pojęcie i idea właściwa dla niewymiernych, uniwersalnie obowiązujących kwestii. Takie postępowanie mogłoby być w najlepszym razie heurystycznym „intermezzo” w procesie decyzyjnym.

2

Typowa dla sfery gospodarki właściwość, mianowicie ciążące nad wieloma sytuacjami i prognozami na przyszłość piętno przypadkowości, w obszarze sztuk oraz jej zinstytucjonalizowanych form, jak muzea, wystawy, biblioteki, agencje, wydawnictwa, producenci instrumentów, scenografowie lub handlarze sztuki staje się szczególnie wyraźna i uzupełniona o pewne charakterystyczne elementy, ponieważ element kreatywności odgrywa tu szczególną rolę. Życie samo często pisze za nas scenariusze, determinując nasze zachowanie. W wielu sytuacjach brakuje czasu na przeprowadzenie szczegółowej analizy danej sytuacji bez emocji, by na tej podstawie dokonać rzekomo racjonalnej decyzji3. Takie opanowanie właściwe jest jedynie urzędom, a bazą ich decyzji nie jest kreatywność, lecz deterministyczne dążenie do porządku. Być może tak właśnie być musi. Nie jest więc możliwe zarządzanie ani samą sztuką, ani też instytucjami kultury, jeśli ekonomię potraktujemy jako centralny paradygmat. Ekonomia może jedynie pełnić rolę wspierającą. Pamiętając jednak o założeniu bardzo ograniczonej racjonalności wspieranych sfer, nie powinna ona uzyskać dominującego wpływu na kształt praktycznych decyzji, podobnie jak nie należy preferować motywacji komercyjnych, w przypadku których pieniądz znajduje się w centrum uwagi. Pieniądz nie jest kreatywny; pole do działania znajduje jedynie wówczas, gdy może komercyjnie wykorzystać wytwór ludzkiej kreatywności. Panowanie pieniądza nie jest darem bogów, lecz wynalazkiem człowieka, który także kulturze przyniósł daleko idące konsekwencje. Może trochę przesadnie, jednak oddając prawdziwą istotę rzeczy, możemy powiedzieć: kto inwestuje swoje pieniądze w loterię pieniężną, zapewne na tym zyska. Jedynym kreatywnym elementem jest tu fakt powierzenia swojego losu przypadkowi. Nie jest to nic szczególnie pomysłowego. Jednakże osiągnięcie zysku nie zawsze lub jedynie rzadko jest efektem chłodnej kalkulacji, lecz wynika – oczywiście nie tylko w przypadku loterii pieniężnej – z pomysłów i podświadomych sygnałów. Tam, gdzie czynnik kreatywności nie odgrywa istotnej roli, miejsce zarządzania powinna zająć administracja ukierunkowana na podtrzymywanie istniejącego porządku. Innymi słowy chodzi o to, by sztukę zarządzania pozbawić mikroeko-

226

kulturalne, do których również przynależy sport, można opanować w sposób racjonalny, zaplanować i zorganizować, podporządkować określonej strategii i wreszcie poprowadzić ku jasno sformułowanym celom, np. maksymalnej rentowności czy nawet zyskowi. Sztuka, sport oraz inne środki wyrazu człowieka istnieją dzięki kreatywności i radości tworzenia. Lecz kreatywność nie rodzi się z rozumu. To nieporozumienie staje się dostrzegalne, jeśli tylko zaakceptujemy tezę, że rozum wprawdzie potrafi porządkować myśli ludzkie, ale jednak to, co twórcze, wywodzi się z fantazji, a więc potęgi wyobraźni cechującej myślenie. Podstawą kreatywności jest bez wątpienia zdolność człowieka do występowania w roli gracza, zarówno w „grach” o poważnym, jak i rozrywkowym charakterze [Schiller, 2000]. „Gra” jest nią tylko wówczas, gdy jej immanentną częścią jest przypadek i brak przewidywalności, co pociąga za sobą konieczność abstrakcyjnego lub rzeczywistego doświadczenia sytuacji względnego nieładu i chaotycznego niepokoju. Powstająca w ten sposób kreatywność rysuje się tu jako aspekt wynalazczości, która spontanicznie próbuje uchwycić jej liczne projekcje podsuwane w myślach przez intuicję i albo odrzuca je jako bezwartościowe, albo też przyjmuje z przeczuciem, iż okażą się owocne i, dopiero wtedy, wyjaśnia za pomocą rozumu2. Odejdźmy na chwilę od praw mikroekonomii. Nawet w odniesieniu do zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, będącego swoistym sednem nauk ekonomicznych, stanowią one jedynie częściowe wsparcie o charakterze instrumentalnym. Kto rozumie ekonomię, wie z doświadczenia, że ani przeciętny człowiek, ani też doświadczony przedsiębiorca czy menedżer w swoich decyzjach nie jest determinowany wyłącznie, czy też w dużej mierze, świadomą racjonalnością i analizą sytuacji biorącą pod uwagę wszelkie dostępne możliwości. Wydaje się, że sfera gospodarki opiera swoje funkcjonowanie na całościowym postrzeganiu i ocenie sytuacji, uzupełnianych przez praktyczne doświadczenie i obszerny katalog zweryfikowanych, intuicyjnych zasad. Na co dzień, również w życiu zawodowym, często wierzymy, że doskonale rozumiemy daną sytuację i że logicznie myśląc, podejmujemy słuszną decyzję. Jednakże ta wiara jest zbyt często zwodnicza.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

nomicznego sztafażu i dać jej właściwe miejsce w szerokim spektrum pomiędzy elementarnym, inspirującym nieporządkiem a poszukiwaniem i odkrywaniem możliwych do urzeczywistnienia i zawierających przekaz form (nie tylko w sztuce!). Istota sztuki zarządzania polega na profesjonalnym gospodarowaniu, mając na uwadze nieprzekraczalne czynniki, tzn. warunki natury z jednej strony (chociażby ograniczona dostępność zasobów naturalnych) i wola społeczna (choćby w dążeniu do pokojowego współżycia i sprawiedliwego podziału zorientowanych na zaspokojenie potrzeby szczęścia dóbr, czyli kultury) z drugiej. Menedżerowie są „strażnikami wieży“, a nie dyktatorami. Większość decyzji, które podejmujemy, podpowiada nam intuicja lub tzw. dobre przeczucie [por. Gigerenzer, 2008]. Intuicja nie jest subiektywną samowolą ani przypadkową irracjonalnością, lecz jest wynikiem naturalnej ewolucji mózgu człowieka, która odbywa się od milionów lat. Mózg człowieka nie reaguje dopiero wówczas, gdy dana sytuacja została wszechstronnie przeanalizowana, lecz o wiele wcześniej i szybciej. Wyrazem tego jest podświadoma ocena i wyjaśnianie niezrozumiałej sytuacji – wtedy mózg przygotowuje decyzję, jak we właściwy sposób zareagować, zanim względnie powolny rozum pojmie to, co się wydarzyło4. Kierowcy nigdy nie uniknęliby wypadku, gdyby zawsze chcieli podchodzić do danej sytuacji w sposób analityczny i dokładnie ją wyjaśniać. Zdolnością przewidywania przyszłej sytuacji, dzięki czemu mózg na czas może zareagować, odznaczają się w różnym stopniu wszystkie wyższe gatunki zwierząt, czy są to drapieżniki czy próbujące przed nimi umknąć ofiary. Człowiek jest jednym i drugim, i jego mózg charakteryzuje – w co oczywiście wszyscy chętnie wierzymy – niezmiernie rozległy wewnętrzny horyzont, czyli dalekowzroczność w sensie wyobraźni. Oczywiście są sytuacje, w których zebranie dodatkowych informacji o warunkach i możliwościach skutecznego działania przed podjęciem być może ryzykownej decyzji wydaje się być rzeczą stosowną. Dotyczy to często niezbadanych obszarów, gdzie mózg lub repozytorium dostępne dla społeczności (np. biblioteka specjalistyczna lub elektroniczny nośnik pamięci) nie zebrało wcześniejszych doświadczeń, na podstawie których intuicja generowałaby decyzje. Osoba pracująca

4

nad całkowicie nowym lekiem musi z wiadomych przyczyn (oraz zgodnie z obowiązującym prawem) przeprowadzić serię testów przed dopuszczeniem danego środka do obrotu rynkowego. Za szerokim horyzontem procesu rozumowania postępują czyny generujące podobnie szeroki wachlarz skutków, których często nie sposób przewidzieć intuicyjnie. W tym miejscu zaczyna się odpowiedzialność, zwłaszcza w ekonomii [por. Bendixen, Unternehmerische…, 2009]. Rozum ma możliwość późniejszego zbadania i wyjaśnienia zaistniałych już zdarzeń, tłumacząc ich przyczyny w kontekście danych uwarunkowań. To podejście koncentrujące się na poszukiwaniu przyczyn jest nieodłącznym atrybutem poważnych badań naukowych, nie tylko w naukach przyrodniczych, lecz również w naukach humanistycznych. Stąd w większości nauk teoria zostaje gruntownie potwierdzona dopiero wtedy, gdy zostanie zweryfikowana empirycznie. Metoda empiryczna jest jednak zawsze formą gromadzenia faktów, a więc tego, co już się wydarzyło. Z punktu widzenia nauki przyszłość nie może posiadać mocy dowodowej. Jednak praktyka zarządzania, jak i każde działanie człowieka polegające na antycypowaniu przyszłości nigdy nie koncentruje się na przeszłości. Wektor czasu pokazuje zawsze jeden kierunek: naprzód5. Dlatego nie ma sensu budować nauki o zarządzaniu osadzonej jedynie na faktach empirycznych i roszczącej sobie prawo do uniwersalności swoich praw, która w oparciu o empirię, a więc prostą analizę faktów, mogłaby planować przyszłość. Czas upływa nieodwołalnie. Przeszłość nigdy do nas nie powróci. Żaden człowiek nie stanie się nigdy młodszy, a raz popełniony czyn nie może zostać uznany za niebyły. Fakty nie wskazują jednoznacznie na przyszłość. W badaniach empirycznych zmierzających do wyjaśniania sytuacji i próby prognozowania przyszłości jedyną sensowną strategią jest przyswajanie i praktyczne stosowanie wniosków płynących z zaistniałych już wydarzeń. Przy podejmowaniu konkretnej decyzji mogą one okazać się podstawą intuicji, ponieważ dostarczają materiału do abstrakcyjnego rozważenia różnych wariantów rozwoju sytuacji, co umożliwia weryfikację testową. Jednak w ostateczności intuicja okazuje się być nieodzowną. Intuicja sprawia, iż przyszłość staje się teraźniejszością, gdy dzięki niej podejmujemy

O najnowszych badaniach nad mózgiem czytaj w książkach Benjamina Libeta, [Libet, 2007], Ernsta Pöppela [Pöppel, 1997 oraz Pöppel, 2008].

Powszechne przekonanie dotyczące codziennego odczuwania nieodwracalności czasu od zawsze zajmowało filozofów i przyrodników. Dopiero w naszych czasach rozgorzała na nowo dyskusja, po tym jak fizyka Newtona także w tym zakresie musiała zostać gruntownie zrewidowana [por. Coveney, Highfield, 1990].

5

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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5 Powszechne przekonanie dotyczące codziennego odczuwania nieodwracalności czasu od zawsze zajmowało filozofów i przyrodników. Dopiero w naszych czasach rozgorzała na nowo dyskusja, po tym jak fizyka Newtona także w tym zakresie musiała zostać gruntownie zrewidowana [por. Coveney, Highfield, 1990]. 4

O najnowszych badaniach nad mózgiem czytaj w książkach Benjamina Libeta, [Libet, 2007], Ernsta Pöppela [Pöppel, 1997 oraz Pöppel, 2008].

nomicznego sztafażu i dać jej właściwe miejsce w szerokim spektrum pomiędzy elementarnym, inspirującym nieporządkiem a poszukiwaniem i odkrywaniem możliwych do urzeczywistnienia i zawierających przekaz form (nie tylko w sztuce!). Istota sztuki zarządzania polega na profesjonalnym gospodarowaniu, mając na uwadze nieprzekraczalne czynniki, tzn. warunki natury z jednej strony (chociażby ograniczona dostępność zasobów naturalnych) i wola społeczna (choćby w dążeniu do pokojowego współżycia i sprawiedliwego podziału zorientowanych na zaspokojenie potrzeby szczęścia dóbr, czyli kultury) z drugiej. Menedżerowie są „strażnikami wieży“, a nie dyktatorami. Większość decyzji, które podejmujemy, podpowiada nam intuicja lub tzw. dobre przeczucie [por. Gigerenzer, 2008]. Intuicja nie jest subiektywną samowolą ani przypadkową irracjonalnością, lecz jest wynikiem naturalnej ewolucji mózgu człowieka, która odbywa się od milionów lat. Mózg człowieka nie reaguje dopiero wówczas, gdy dana sytuacja została wszechstronnie przeanalizowana, lecz o wiele wcześniej i szybciej. Wyrazem tego jest podświadoma ocena i wyjaśnianie niezrozumiałej sytuacji – wtedy mózg przygotowuje decyzję, jak we właściwy sposób zareagować, zanim względnie powolny rozum pojmie to, co się wydarzyło4. Kierowcy nigdy nie uniknęliby wypadku, gdyby zawsze chcieli podchodzić do danej sytuacji w sposób analityczny i dokładnie ją wyjaśniać. Zdolnością przewidywania przyszłej sytuacji, dzięki czemu mózg na czas może zareagować, odznaczają się w różnym stopniu wszystkie wyższe gatunki zwierząt, czy są to drapieżniki czy próbujące przed nimi umknąć ofiary. Człowiek jest jednym i drugim, i jego mózg charakteryzuje – w co oczywiście wszyscy chętnie wierzymy – niezmiernie rozległy wewnętrzny horyzont, czyli dalekowzroczność w sensie wyobraźni. Oczywiście są sytuacje, w których zebranie dodatkowych informacji o warunkach i możliwościach skutecznego działania przed podjęciem być może ryzykownej decyzji wydaje się być rzeczą stosowną. Dotyczy to często niezbadanych obszarów, gdzie mózg lub repozytorium dostępne dla społeczności (np. biblioteka specjalistyczna lub elektroniczny nośnik pamięci) nie zebrało wcześniejszych doświadczeń, na podstawie których intuicja generowałaby decyzje. Osoba pracująca

nad całkowicie nowym lekiem musi z wiadomych przyczyn (oraz zgodnie z obowiązującym prawem) przeprowadzić serię testów przed dopuszczeniem danego środka do obrotu rynkowego. Za szerokim horyzontem procesu rozumowania postępują czyny generujące podobnie szeroki wachlarz skutków, których często nie sposób przewidzieć intuicyjnie. W tym miejscu zaczyna się odpowiedzialność, zwłaszcza w ekonomii [por. Bendixen, Unternehmerische…, 2009]. Rozum ma możliwość późniejszego zbadania i wyjaśnienia zaistniałych już zdarzeń, tłumacząc ich przyczyny w kontekście danych uwarunkowań. To podejście koncentrujące się na poszukiwaniu przyczyn jest nieodłącznym atrybutem poważnych badań naukowych, nie tylko w naukach przyrodniczych, lecz również w naukach humanistycznych. Stąd w większości nauk teoria zostaje gruntownie potwierdzona dopiero wtedy, gdy zostanie zweryfikowana empirycznie. Metoda empiryczna jest jednak zawsze formą gromadzenia faktów, a więc tego, co już się wydarzyło. Z punktu widzenia nauki przyszłość nie może posiadać mocy dowodowej. Jednak praktyka zarządzania, jak i każde działanie człowieka polegające na antycypowaniu przyszłości nigdy nie koncentruje się na przeszłości. Wektor czasu pokazuje zawsze jeden kierunek: naprzód5. Dlatego nie ma sensu budować nauki o zarządzaniu osadzonej jedynie na faktach empirycznych i roszczącej sobie prawo do uniwersalności swoich praw, która w oparciu o empirię, a więc prostą analizę faktów, mogłaby planować przyszłość. Czas upływa nieodwołalnie. Przeszłość nigdy do nas nie powróci. Żaden człowiek nie stanie się nigdy młodszy, a raz popełniony czyn nie może zostać uznany za niebyły. Fakty nie wskazują jednoznacznie na przyszłość. W badaniach empirycznych zmierzających do wyjaśniania sytuacji i próby prognozowania przyszłości jedyną sensowną strategią jest przyswajanie i praktyczne stosowanie wniosków płynących z zaistniałych już wydarzeń. Przy podejmowaniu konkretnej decyzji mogą one okazać się podstawą intuicji, ponieważ dostarczają materiału do abstrakcyjnego rozważenia różnych wariantów rozwoju sytuacji, co umożliwia weryfikację testową. Jednak w ostateczności intuicja okazuje się być nieodzowną. Intuicja sprawia, iż przyszłość staje się teraźniejszością, gdy dzięki niej podejmujemy


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

2. Dar sztuki

228

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O terminologicznym rozróżnieniu sztuki i kultury pisałem bardziej szczegółowo w Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (drukiem w wydawnictwie LIT-Verlag, Münster, przypuszczalnie we wrześniu 2009). Moje rozumienie zarządzania sztuką koncentruje się tam na jego funkcji służebnej.

6

konkretne działania. Zawierają one jednak, jak u „wielkiego mistrza Przypadku”, nieuniknioną dozę ryzyka niepowodzenia. W nauce o zarządzaniu, podobnie jak w przypadku tradycyjnej teorii ekonomicznej, rozum i roszczenie racjonalności zyskały przewagę, z kolei prymat intuicji i umiejętności właściwego zachowania w sytuacjach wymagających nieszablonowego działania, które bazują na całościowym doświadczeniu, został zakwestionowany. Nadmierne akcentowanie podejścia rozumowego nie jest znakiem rozsądku, lecz zawężeniem kreatywności człowieka do sformalizowanych działań. Jest to jednak charakterystyczny rys rozwoju historyczno-kulturowego zachodnich społeczeństw, skoncentrowanych na wyjaśnianiu zjawisk i ukierunkowanych na sukces materialny, za czym nie zawsze idą działania. Albert Einstein sformułował to kiedyś w następujących słowach: Umysł intuicyjny jest świętym darem, a racjonalny umysł wiernym sługą. Stworzyliśmy społeczeństwo, które czci sługę, a zapomniało o darze [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Ekonomia jest dyskusyjna jeszcze z innego powodu. Stworzyła bowiem instrumenty cechujące się wysokim stopniem racjonalności i znaczeniem formalno-logicznym wykorzystywane do radzenia sobie z danym problemem czy sytuacją, które jednak oderwały się od substancjalnej istoty wyjaśnianej sytuacji. Ekonomia oferuje katalog uogólnionych sposobów postępowania i metod radzenia sobie z sytuacjami, które zostały zweryfikowane w przeszłości. Ze skłonnością do uogólniania metodologia ta wznosi się ponad opisy poszczególnych przypadków i udowadnia swoją wagę jako abstrakcyjne narzędzie formalne. Bywa ona adaptowana, czego dowodzi wiele praktycznych koncepcji zarządzania, w różnych obszarach społecznych: sztuce i kulturze, sporcie lub środowisku naturalnym, a także do rozwiązywania problemów gospodarczych. Metodologia ta jest nie tylko iluzją czy urojeniem w odniesieniu do hegemonii racjonalności, lecz również iluzją w odniesieniu do natury przyszłości, która czyni daremnymi próby, by przy pomocy deterministycznych modeli planowania wyeliminować przypadek. Pisarze bywają ironiczni, ale często dotykają sedna sprawy. I tak w Operze za trzy grosze Bertolda Brechta czytamy:

ztuka bierze swój początek z istoty intuicji i jest, zdaniem Einsteina, darem. Techniki zarządzania mogą sztuce służyć, nie mogą nią jednak rządzić. Jakie warunki spełnić musi zarządzanie służące sztuce, aby wnieść do niej swój wkład i aby instytucjonalne ramy stosowane w zarządzaniu ustanowić podłożem funkcjonowania i wsparciem dla sztuki? Sztuka ze swoim duchowym wymiarem i pochodzeniem ze świata wyobraźni inspirowanym odczuciami, intuicjami i holistycznym spojrzeniem zawsze zawiera jakieś przesłanie, które pragnie zostać przedstawione mniej lub bardziej zainteresowanej i dociekliwej publiczności w sposób możliwie najbardziej dziewiczy i niezafałszowany. To przesłanie, a nie tylko zewnętrzna forma estetyczna znamionuje sztukę i odróżnia ją od zwykłych powierzchownych czarów, tak często odprawianych przy pomocy reklamy i marketingu. Przedstawienie jej znaczenia społecznego – które jest o wiele większe, niż większość profanów przyjmuje do wiadomości – nie jest celem tego artykułu i nie będzie tu szczegółowo rozważane [por. Luhmann, 2007]. Wedle mojej wiedzy nie istnieje (jeszcze) nauka, której istota konsekwentnie koncentrowałaby się na służebnej roli zarządzania. Zbyt często zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem, zwane poza niemieckim obszarem językowym Business Administration (w tym przypadku Cultural Administration; stosowana jest także nazwa Arts Management) było podstawą rozwoju koncepcji pragmatycznych. Od tego podejścia trzeba się będzie uwolnić, jeśli zarządzanie rzeczywiście pełnić ma funkcję służebną w instytucjach sztuki lub kultury6. Alternatywą może być rozwijanie praktyki zarządzania, która niesie ze sobą ducha służebnego wsparcia o charakterze profesjonalnym. Taka praktyka musi być postrzegana jako dar dla sztuki. Do kluczowych elementów – które mogą zostać potraktowane jako prowizoryczny, niepełny i w niewystarczającym stopniu skonceptualizowany szkic, mogący być postawą szerokiego dyskursu wśród ekspertów – takiej koncepcji zaliczają się: 1. Kompetencje empatyczne. 2. Podejście całościowe. 3. Praktyczne umiejętności. 4. Orientacja na przyszłość. Te cztery komponenty zakładają wykorzystanie strukturyzujących ram będących dla nich rodzajem stabilnej podstawy. Ramy te mogą

ztuka bierze swój początek z istoty intuicji i jest, zdaniem Einsteina, darem. Techniki zarządzania mogą sztuce służyć, nie mogą nią jednak rządzić. Jakie warunki spełnić musi zarządzanie służące sztuce, aby wnieść do niej swój wkład i aby instytucjonalne ramy stosowane w zarządzaniu ustanowić podłożem funkcjonowania i wsparciem dla sztuki? Sztuka ze swoim duchowym wymiarem i pochodzeniem ze świata wyobraźni inspirowanym odczuciami, intuicjami i holistycznym spojrzeniem zawsze zawiera jakieś przesłanie, które pragnie zostać przedstawione mniej lub bardziej zainteresowanej i dociekliwej publiczności w sposób możliwie najbardziej dziewiczy i niezafałszowany. To przesłanie, a nie tylko zewnętrzna forma estetyczna znamionuje sztukę i odróżnia ją od zwykłych powierzchownych czarów, tak często odprawianych przy pomocy reklamy i marketingu. Przedstawienie jej znaczenia społecznego – które jest o wiele większe, niż większość profanów przyjmuje do wiadomości – nie jest celem tego artykułu i nie będzie tu szczegółowo rozważane [por. Luhmann, 2007]. Wedle mojej wiedzy nie istnieje (jeszcze) nauka, której istota konsekwentnie koncentrowałaby się na służebnej roli zarządzania. Zbyt często zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem, zwane poza niemieckim obszarem językowym Business Administration (w tym przypadku Cultural Administration; stosowana jest także nazwa Arts Management) było podstawą rozwoju koncepcji pragmatycznych. Od tego podejścia trzeba się będzie uwolnić, jeśli zarządzanie rzeczywiście pełnić ma funkcję służebną w instytucjach sztuki lub kultury6. Alternatywą może być rozwijanie praktyki zarządzania, która niesie ze sobą ducha służebnego wsparcia o charakterze profesjonalnym. Taka praktyka musi być postrzegana jako dar dla sztuki. Do kluczowych elementów – które mogą zostać potraktowane jako prowizoryczny, niepełny i w niewystarczającym stopniu skonceptualizowany szkic, mogący być postawą szerokiego dyskursu wśród ekspertów – takiej koncepcji zaliczają się: 1. Kompetencje empatyczne. 2. Podejście całościowe. 3. Praktyczne umiejętności. 4. Orientacja na przyszłość. Te cztery komponenty zakładają wykorzystanie strukturyzujących ram będących dla nich rodzajem stabilnej podstawy. Ramy te mogą

S

Tak, wykonaj tylko plan Bądź tylko wielkim światłem I wykonaj potem jeszcze drugi plan Działać nie będą oba.

Tak, wykonaj tylko plan Bądź tylko wielkim światłem I wykonaj potem jeszcze drugi plan Działać nie będą oba.

2. Dar sztuki

6 O terminologicznym rozróżnieniu sztuki i kultury pisałem bardziej szczegółowo w Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (drukiem w wydawnictwie LIT-Verlag, Münster, przypuszczalnie we wrześniu 2009). Moje rozumienie zarządzania sztuką koncentruje się tam na jego funkcji służebnej.

konkretne działania. Zawierają one jednak, jak u „wielkiego mistrza Przypadku”, nieuniknioną dozę ryzyka niepowodzenia. W nauce o zarządzaniu, podobnie jak w przypadku tradycyjnej teorii ekonomicznej, rozum i roszczenie racjonalności zyskały przewagę, z kolei prymat intuicji i umiejętności właściwego zachowania w sytuacjach wymagających nieszablonowego działania, które bazują na całościowym doświadczeniu, został zakwestionowany. Nadmierne akcentowanie podejścia rozumowego nie jest znakiem rozsądku, lecz zawężeniem kreatywności człowieka do sformalizowanych działań. Jest to jednak charakterystyczny rys rozwoju historyczno-kulturowego zachodnich społeczeństw, skoncentrowanych na wyjaśnianiu zjawisk i ukierunkowanych na sukces materialny, za czym nie zawsze idą działania. Albert Einstein sformułował to kiedyś w następujących słowach: Umysł intuicyjny jest świętym darem, a racjonalny umysł wiernym sługą. Stworzyliśmy społeczeństwo, które czci sługę, a zapomniało o darze [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Ekonomia jest dyskusyjna jeszcze z innego powodu. Stworzyła bowiem instrumenty cechujące się wysokim stopniem racjonalności i znaczeniem formalno-logicznym wykorzystywane do radzenia sobie z danym problemem czy sytuacją, które jednak oderwały się od substancjalnej istoty wyjaśnianej sytuacji. Ekonomia oferuje katalog uogólnionych sposobów postępowania i metod radzenia sobie z sytuacjami, które zostały zweryfikowane w przeszłości. Ze skłonnością do uogólniania metodologia ta wznosi się ponad opisy poszczególnych przypadków i udowadnia swoją wagę jako abstrakcyjne narzędzie formalne. Bywa ona adaptowana, czego dowodzi wiele praktycznych koncepcji zarządzania, w różnych obszarach społecznych: sztuce i kulturze, sporcie lub środowisku naturalnym, a także do rozwiązywania problemów gospodarczych. Metodologia ta jest nie tylko iluzją czy urojeniem w odniesieniu do hegemonii racjonalności, lecz również iluzją w odniesieniu do natury przyszłości, która czyni daremnymi próby, by przy pomocy deterministycznych modeli planowania wyeliminować przypadek. Pisarze bywają ironiczni, ale często dotykają sedna sprawy. I tak w Operze za trzy grosze Bertolda Brechta czytamy:


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

zostać wykorzystane do tworzenia koncepcji pragmatycznych, nie tylko w zakresie zarządzania kulturą. Ich stworzenie wymaga skoncentrowania się na praktyce zarządzania kulturą i na wynikających z niej postulatach w stosunku do kształtu programów nauczania.

2.1. Kompetencje empatyczne Empatia, czyli umiejętność postawienia się na miejscu innego człowieka lub wyobrażenia siebie w nieznanych nam sytuacjach, należy do duchowo-emocjonalnego komponentu relacji społecznych, będąc budulcem i warunkiem rozwoju społeczeństw [por. Breithaupt, 2009]. Odczucia empatyczne są czymś więcej niż tylko procesem myślowej reakcji na spotkania z innymi ludźmi i sytuacjami, w których funkcjonują i działają. Empatia nie ma nic wspólnego z sentymentalizmem, nie zawęża się jedynie do zdolności do dzielenia emocji i współodczuwania7. Z drugiej strony: racjonalny rozum nie wystarcza w szerszej perspektywie do zrozumienia zjawisk zewnętrznych. Chodzi o takie ujęcie sytuacji, które opiera się na zrozumieniu, co wymaga wysokiego stopnia wrażliwości (nie uczuciowości) i wyobraźni. Zdolność do odczuć empatycznych na bazie mocnej samoświadomości jest siłą psychiczną wyższego stopnia, która zmierza do współodczuwania, jednakże bez konieczności wyrażania akceptacji. Nie chodzi więc o identyfikację, a więc o – możliwie bezrefleksyjną – aprobatę całości zjawiska. Nie można się w tym sensie nawet identyfikować z kulturą własnego kraju, ale można ją rozumieć i w części zinternalizować. W empatii chodzi o wizjonerskie spojrzenie odrzucające skrajny egoizm, dążący za wszelką cenę do samolubnej maksymalizacji korzyści, który znamy jako element ekonomii neoklasycznej. Człowiek odczuwający empatię wciąż pozostaje sobą, choćby dlatego, że jego odczucia w odniesieniu do sytuacji innych mogą być nieprawdziwe lub błędne. Człowiekowi wydaje się, że rozumie drugiego, a tymczasem może się zupełnie w tym względzie mylić. Nie da się całkowicie wniknąć w drugiego człowieka lub w sytuację, której nigdy nie doświadczyliśmy, jednak w dużym stopniu możemy określić, jakie destrukcyjne czy też inspirujące konsekwencje dla innego człowieka lub w danej sytuacji może mieć określone postępowanie. Z tej perspektywy empatia jest jednocześnie kategorią moralną.

7

Empatię można postrzegać jako niezbędny, wstępny etap do porozumienia, a więc jako próbę zbliżenia się do drugiego człowieka za pomocą narzędzi komunikacji. Obserwowanie okoliczności, w których znaleźli się inni może wywołać odczucia w przypadku, gdy dana osoba doświadczyła podobnej sytuacji i potrafi powiązać te przeżycia z określonymi wzorcami doświadczeń i uczuć. Często trudno jest ubrać własne odczucia w zrozumiałą dla innych formę językową, a jeszcze trudniej przekazać je innym tak, by potrafili utożsamić się z położeniem danej osoby w sposób empatyczny. Niezbędnym warunkiem jest wspólny język. Kompetencja empatyczna, jeśli ma być społecznie skuteczna, musi więc przejść w kompetencję językową, która obejmuje nie tylko język mówiony i pisany, lecz również język obrazów, gesty, mimikę, mowę ciała i modulację głosu. Nawet wytworzony nastrój jest swego rodzaju informacją, a więc niezwykle złożonym medium językowym. Każdy reżyser teatralny bądź filmowy tworząc swe dzieło, opanowuje ten język (inaczej publiczność go nie zrozumie). Sprawa staje się bardziej skomplikowana, gdy empatia dotyczy nie tylko relacji międzyludzkich, lecz dotyka tak złożonych obszarów życia społecznego jak sztuka, zarówno gdy mówimy o sztuce jako całości, jak też i o jej konkretnych dziedzinach. Bez własnego doświadczenia w zakresie sztuki ani w zakresie jednej z jej dziedzin posiadających głębokie zakotwiczenie w społeczeństwie, np. w muzyce klasycznej (takie doświadczenie można pod pewnymi warunkami przenieść na inne dziedziny sztuki), nie można w pełni zrozumieć sytuacji życiowej artystów (w tym przykładzie muzyków) i uwarunkowań powstania danego przedstawienia czy nawet kompozycji. Doświadczenie tylko w wybranej dziedzinie sztuki jest jednak niewystarczające, gdyż kluczowe znaczenie ma tu zazwyczaj całościowe funkcjonowanie sfery sztuki w kontekście społecznym. Powyższe wymaganie dotyczy w pierwszym rzędzie twórców. Czy ma ono również zastosowane w zakresie zarządzania kulturą? Adekwatną odpowiedzią na to pytanie jest podstawowa przesłanka działalności profesjonalnego menedżera kultury. Jego funkcja jest sztandarowym przykładem niezbędności kompetencji empatycznej, w przypadku której nie chodzi o utożsamianie się z drugą osobą (menedżer kultury sam nie jest artystą, nawet nie jest jego patronem), ani o zupełne zatracenie w problemach

W podobny sposób ujęte współodczuwanie jest pojęciem kluczowym w Theory of Moral Sentiments Adama Smitha, Londyn 1759, Przekład na język niemiecki: W. Eckstein. Nowe wydanie z 1925 r., Hamburg 2004.

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229

7

229

W podobny sposób ujęte współodczuwanie jest pojęciem kluczowym w Theory of Moral Sentiments Adama Smitha, Londyn 1759, Przekład na język niemiecki: W. Eckstein. Nowe wydanie z 1925 r., Hamburg 2004.

Empatia, czyli umiejętność postawienia się na miejscu innego człowieka lub wyobrażenia siebie w nieznanych nam sytuacjach, należy do duchowo-emocjonalnego komponentu relacji społecznych, będąc budulcem i warunkiem rozwoju społeczeństw [por. Breithaupt, 2009]. Odczucia empatyczne są czymś więcej niż tylko procesem myślowej reakcji na spotkania z innymi ludźmi i sytuacjami, w których funkcjonują i działają. Empatia nie ma nic wspólnego z sentymentalizmem, nie zawęża się jedynie do zdolności do dzielenia emocji i współodczuwania7. Z drugiej strony: racjonalny rozum nie wystarcza w szerszej perspektywie do zrozumienia zjawisk zewnętrznych. Chodzi o takie ujęcie sytuacji, które opiera się na zrozumieniu, co wymaga wysokiego stopnia wrażliwości (nie uczuciowości) i wyobraźni. Zdolność do odczuć empatycznych na bazie mocnej samoświadomości jest siłą psychiczną wyższego stopnia, która zmierza do współodczuwania, jednakże bez konieczności wyrażania akceptacji. Nie chodzi więc o identyfikację, a więc o – możliwie bezrefleksyjną – aprobatę całości zjawiska. Nie można się w tym sensie nawet identyfikować z kulturą własnego kraju, ale można ją rozumieć i w części zinternalizować. W empatii chodzi o wizjonerskie spojrzenie odrzucające skrajny egoizm, dążący za wszelką cenę do samolubnej maksymalizacji korzyści, który znamy jako element ekonomii neoklasycznej. Człowiek odczuwający empatię wciąż pozostaje sobą, choćby dlatego, że jego odczucia w odniesieniu do sytuacji innych mogą być nieprawdziwe lub błędne. Człowiekowi wydaje się, że rozumie drugiego, a tymczasem może się zupełnie w tym względzie mylić. Nie da się całkowicie wniknąć w drugiego człowieka lub w sytuację, której nigdy nie doświadczyliśmy, jednak w dużym stopniu możemy określić, jakie destrukcyjne czy też inspirujące konsekwencje dla innego człowieka lub w danej sytuacji może mieć określone postępowanie. Z tej perspektywy empatia jest jednocześnie kategorią moralną.

2.1. Kompetencje empatyczne zostać wykorzystane do tworzenia koncepcji pragmatycznych, nie tylko w zakresie zarządzania kulturą. Ich stworzenie wymaga skoncentrowania się na praktyce zarządzania kulturą i na wynikających z niej postulatach w stosunku do kształtu programów nauczania.

Empatię można postrzegać jako niezbędny, wstępny etap do porozumienia, a więc jako próbę zbliżenia się do drugiego człowieka za pomocą narzędzi komunikacji. Obserwowanie okoliczności, w których znaleźli się inni może wywołać odczucia w przypadku, gdy dana osoba doświadczyła podobnej sytuacji i potrafi powiązać te przeżycia z określonymi wzorcami doświadczeń i uczuć. Często trudno jest ubrać własne odczucia w zrozumiałą dla innych formę językową, a jeszcze trudniej przekazać je innym tak, by potrafili utożsamić się z położeniem danej osoby w sposób empatyczny. Niezbędnym warunkiem jest wspólny język. Kompetencja empatyczna, jeśli ma być społecznie skuteczna, musi więc przejść w kompetencję językową, która obejmuje nie tylko język mówiony i pisany, lecz również język obrazów, gesty, mimikę, mowę ciała i modulację głosu. Nawet wytworzony nastrój jest swego rodzaju informacją, a więc niezwykle złożonym medium językowym. Każdy reżyser teatralny bądź filmowy tworząc swe dzieło, opanowuje ten język (inaczej publiczność go nie zrozumie). Sprawa staje się bardziej skomplikowana, gdy empatia dotyczy nie tylko relacji międzyludzkich, lecz dotyka tak złożonych obszarów życia społecznego jak sztuka, zarówno gdy mówimy o sztuce jako całości, jak też i o jej konkretnych dziedzinach. Bez własnego doświadczenia w zakresie sztuki ani w zakresie jednej z jej dziedzin posiadających głębokie zakotwiczenie w społeczeństwie, np. w muzyce klasycznej (takie doświadczenie można pod pewnymi warunkami przenieść na inne dziedziny sztuki), nie można w pełni zrozumieć sytuacji życiowej artystów (w tym przykładzie muzyków) i uwarunkowań powstania danego przedstawienia czy nawet kompozycji. Doświadczenie tylko w wybranej dziedzinie sztuki jest jednak niewystarczające, gdyż kluczowe znaczenie ma tu zazwyczaj całościowe funkcjonowanie sfery sztuki w kontekście społecznym. Powyższe wymaganie dotyczy w pierwszym rzędzie twórców. Czy ma ono również zastosowane w zakresie zarządzania kulturą? Adekwatną odpowiedzią na to pytanie jest podstawowa przesłanka działalności profesjonalnego menedżera kultury. Jego funkcja jest sztandarowym przykładem niezbędności kompetencji empatycznej, w przypadku której nie chodzi o utożsamianie się z drugą osobą (menedżer kultury sam nie jest artystą, nawet nie jest jego patronem), ani o zupełne zatracenie w problemach


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

drugiej strony (co przykładowo powinien potrafić aktor, chcąc zagrać swoją rolę). Chodzi raczej o rozumienie szczególnych uwarunkowań tworzenia w ramach konkretnej dziedziny sztuki, jej specyfiki i słabych stron, czasem apodyktycznych postaw i ukrytych mądrości oraz o wzięcie pod uwagę tych aspektów w działaniach menedżera kultury. Menedżer kultury jest przyjaźnie i wspierająco nastawionym gospodarzem sprawującym pieczę nad materialnych aspektami uprawiania sztuki. W ramach takiego, służebnego względem sztuki pojmowania roli zarządzania kulturą, zasadna wydaje się być postawa, która widzi w nim klucz do zrozumienia sztuki w przeciwieństwie do podejścia zakładającego zamknięcie sztuki (i innych działań kulturalnych) w ramach instytucjonalnych. Postawa ta zakłada poszukiwanie metod zapewnienia procesowi twórczemu materialnej bazy, nie próbując jednak uczynić z niej nieprzekraczalnej granicy. Zdolności empatyczne można w pewnym stopniu wykształcić. Istota zarządzania kulturą tkwi w umiejętności rozegrania dialektycznego przeciwieństwa w oparciu o instrumentalną wiedzę o zarządzaniu, unikając jednak narzucającego konkretne rozwiązania dyktatu. Sztuka jest darem, a nie marionetką służącą zaspokajaniu komercyjnych ambicji8.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

2.2. Podejście całościowe

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Idąc bez latarki, rozpoznaje jednak kontury otoczenia lepiej, ponieważ oczy stają się bardziej czułe nawet na słabe światło. Nasz umysł został tak wyposażony, by z tych słabych bodźców, które docierają do niego za pomocą zmysłów wzroku i słuchu, utworzyć użyteczny obraz całości, aby móc orientować się w otoczeniu. Umysł nie potrzebuje dogłębnej analizy i najczęściej nie ma na nią czasu. To samo zjawisko towarzyszy nam podczas jazdy samochodem. Chcąc precyzyjnie, w każdej chwili analizować chwilową sytuację, nie bylibyśmy zdolni do prowadzenia samochodu. W pewnych sytuacjach życiowych oba spojrzenia są dla nas niezbędne: analiza detali i całościowa ocena sytuacji. Często jednak jedynie ujęcie całościowe posuwa nas do przodu [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Po pierwsze, często brakuje czasu na dogłębną analizę. Po drugie, co bardziej istotne, miliony lat ewolucji wyposażyły ludzki umysł w zdolność szybkiego konstruowania pełnego obrazu na podstawie ledwo dostrzegalnych zarysów. Obecnie powszechnie uważa się, iż mimo podatności na błędy, postrzeganie zmysłowoemocjonalne i całościowa interpretacja jawi się jako konieczny element życiowej zaradności, np. w sytuacji zagrożenia lub analizując twórczość artystyczną. Podejście to częstokroć góruje nad stosunkowo powolnym umysłem analitycznym. Pierre Basieux opisuje relatywizację pracy umysłu i konsekwencje zawierzenia rozumowi: „Chcąc dokonać właściwego wyboru, nie wolno nam [zdaniem apologetów rozumu – P. B.] poddawać się żadnym emocjom. Odrzucając mglistą zasłonę uczuć, będziemy w stanie analizować rzeczywistość w sposób jasny i klarowny. Przykłady zdają się to potwierdzać, gdyż czasem intuicja sprowadza nas na manowce. Przez stulecia łudziła nas, że Słońce kręci się wokół Ziemi; potrzebny był rozum, by pojąć, jak jest naprawdę. Często jednak, jak uczy nas doświadczenie, intuicja góruje nad umysłem analitycznym – np. gdy daną dziedzinę znamy z autopsji lub gdy posiadamy zbyt mało danych, by dokonać rzeczowej analizy sytuacji [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Nawet gdy nasze doznania opierają się na fałszywych przesłankach, mogą jednak być pomocne w życiu codziennym. Wiedza, że Ziemia kręci się wokół Słońca, a nie odwrotnie, nie ma dla nas większego znaczenia. W tym przypadku fałszywe wyobrażenie wryło się kulturowo bardzo głęboko w ludzkie myślenie. Wciąż jeszcze mówimy, że Słońce rano wschodzi, a wieczorem zachodzi.

Należy wyjaśnić częste nieporozumienie: fakt, że artyści oczekują godziwego honorarium lub wynagrodzenia za efekty swej pracy, nie ma nic wspólnego z ambicjami komercyjnymi (mimo że ta granica wydawać się może nieostra). Interesy komercyjne pojawiają wówczas, gdy zysk narzuca sztuce treści, a nie odwrotnie. Kto myśli o zysku, nie tworzy zagadkowych dzieł sztuki lub dzieł trudnych w odbiorze.

8

Duchowe i emocjonalne rozumienie naszego bezpośredniego otoczenia, jak i odległego świata, może – mówiąc w uproszczeniu – odbywać się na dwa sposoby: analityczny lub holistyczny. Analityczne badanie natury świata jest godne uznania i pożyteczne. Jednakże nie wystarcza to do osiągnięcia faustowskiej mądrości poznania świata i stawienia czoła jego diabelskiej stronie. Sens zdania możemy zrozumieć tylko analizując jego całościowy wydźwięk, a nie poprzez badanie poszczególnych słów aż do liter, które wchodzą w jego skład. Kto błądząc w ciemnościach, próbuje odnaleźć drogę przy pomocy latarki, widzi co prawda szczegóły ścieżki bezpośrednio przed sobą, nie potknie się i może domyślać się nawet, jak będzie ukształtowana dalsza cześć drogi będąca jeszcze poza zasięgiem snopu światła. Jednak w tym czasie może zupełnie zabłądzić, gdyż dalsze otoczenie nadal spowite jest w ciemnościach. Wędrowiec nie ma szerszej orientacji w terenie.

Duchowe i emocjonalne rozumienie naszego bezpośredniego otoczenia, jak i odległego świata, może – mówiąc w uproszczeniu – odbywać się na dwa sposoby: analityczny lub holistyczny. Analityczne badanie natury świata jest godne uznania i pożyteczne. Jednakże nie wystarcza to do osiągnięcia faustowskiej mądrości poznania świata i stawienia czoła jego diabelskiej stronie. Sens zdania możemy zrozumieć tylko analizując jego całościowy wydźwięk, a nie poprzez badanie poszczególnych słów aż do liter, które wchodzą w jego skład. Kto błądząc w ciemnościach, próbuje odnaleźć drogę przy pomocy latarki, widzi co prawda szczegóły ścieżki bezpośrednio przed sobą, nie potknie się i może domyślać się nawet, jak będzie ukształtowana dalsza cześć drogi będąca jeszcze poza zasięgiem snopu światła. Jednak w tym czasie może zupełnie zabłądzić, gdyż dalsze otoczenie nadal spowite jest w ciemnościach. Wędrowiec nie ma szerszej orientacji w terenie.

8 Należy wyjaśnić częste nieporozumienie: fakt, że artyści oczekują godziwego honorarium lub wynagrodzenia za efekty swej pracy, nie ma nic wspólnego z ambicjami komercyjnymi (mimo że ta granica wydawać się może nieostra). Interesy komercyjne pojawiają wówczas, gdy zysk narzuca sztuce treści, a nie odwrotnie. Kto myśli o zysku, nie tworzy zagadkowych dzieł sztuki lub dzieł trudnych w odbiorze.

2.2. Podejście całościowe

Idąc bez latarki, rozpoznaje jednak kontury otoczenia lepiej, ponieważ oczy stają się bardziej czułe nawet na słabe światło. Nasz umysł został tak wyposażony, by z tych słabych bodźców, które docierają do niego za pomocą zmysłów wzroku i słuchu, utworzyć użyteczny obraz całości, aby móc orientować się w otoczeniu. Umysł nie potrzebuje dogłębnej analizy i najczęściej nie ma na nią czasu. To samo zjawisko towarzyszy nam podczas jazdy samochodem. Chcąc precyzyjnie, w każdej chwili analizować chwilową sytuację, nie bylibyśmy zdolni do prowadzenia samochodu. W pewnych sytuacjach życiowych oba spojrzenia są dla nas niezbędne: analiza detali i całościowa ocena sytuacji. Często jednak jedynie ujęcie całościowe posuwa nas do przodu [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Po pierwsze, często brakuje czasu na dogłębną analizę. Po drugie, co bardziej istotne, miliony lat ewolucji wyposażyły ludzki umysł w zdolność szybkiego konstruowania pełnego obrazu na podstawie ledwo dostrzegalnych zarysów. Obecnie powszechnie uważa się, iż mimo podatności na błędy, postrzeganie zmysłowoemocjonalne i całościowa interpretacja jawi się jako konieczny element życiowej zaradności, np. w sytuacji zagrożenia lub analizując twórczość artystyczną. Podejście to częstokroć góruje nad stosunkowo powolnym umysłem analitycznym. Pierre Basieux opisuje relatywizację pracy umysłu i konsekwencje zawierzenia rozumowi: „Chcąc dokonać właściwego wyboru, nie wolno nam [zdaniem apologetów rozumu – P. B.] poddawać się żadnym emocjom. Odrzucając mglistą zasłonę uczuć, będziemy w stanie analizować rzeczywistość w sposób jasny i klarowny. Przykłady zdają się to potwierdzać, gdyż czasem intuicja sprowadza nas na manowce. Przez stulecia łudziła nas, że Słońce kręci się wokół Ziemi; potrzebny był rozum, by pojąć, jak jest naprawdę. Często jednak, jak uczy nas doświadczenie, intuicja góruje nad umysłem analitycznym – np. gdy daną dziedzinę znamy z autopsji lub gdy posiadamy zbyt mało danych, by dokonać rzeczowej analizy sytuacji [Basieux, 2008, s. 157]. Nawet gdy nasze doznania opierają się na fałszywych przesłankach, mogą jednak być pomocne w życiu codziennym. Wiedza, że Ziemia kręci się wokół Słońca, a nie odwrotnie, nie ma dla nas większego znaczenia. W tym przypadku fałszywe wyobrażenie wryło się kulturowo bardzo głęboko w ludzkie myślenie. Wciąż jeszcze mówimy, że Słońce rano wschodzi, a wieczorem zachodzi.

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drugiej strony (co przykładowo powinien potrafić aktor, chcąc zagrać swoją rolę). Chodzi raczej o rozumienie szczególnych uwarunkowań tworzenia w ramach konkretnej dziedziny sztuki, jej specyfiki i słabych stron, czasem apodyktycznych postaw i ukrytych mądrości oraz o wzięcie pod uwagę tych aspektów w działaniach menedżera kultury. Menedżer kultury jest przyjaźnie i wspierająco nastawionym gospodarzem sprawującym pieczę nad materialnych aspektami uprawiania sztuki. W ramach takiego, służebnego względem sztuki pojmowania roli zarządzania kulturą, zasadna wydaje się być postawa, która widzi w nim klucz do zrozumienia sztuki w przeciwieństwie do podejścia zakładającego zamknięcie sztuki (i innych działań kulturalnych) w ramach instytucjonalnych. Postawa ta zakłada poszukiwanie metod zapewnienia procesowi twórczemu materialnej bazy, nie próbując jednak uczynić z niej nieprzekraczalnej granicy. Zdolności empatyczne można w pewnym stopniu wykształcić. Istota zarządzania kulturą tkwi w umiejętności rozegrania dialektycznego przeciwieństwa w oparciu o instrumentalną wiedzę o zarządzaniu, unikając jednak narzucającego konkretne rozwiązania dyktatu. Sztuka jest darem, a nie marionetką służącą zaspokajaniu komercyjnych ambicji8.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

To błąd językowy, gdyż tak się nie dzieje. To Ziemia kręci się wokół własnej osi. Jednak nasza wiedza pozostaje konstrukcją duchową, często mającą o wiele większe znaczenie dla rozwoju ludzkiej cywilizacji niż poprawne merytorycznie wyjaśnianie. Nie zapomnijmy więc, że cała ekonomia, wszystkie teorie i modele, metody i instrumenty są konstrukcjami umysłu i że nie pomogą nam odkryć prawdziwej istoty rzeczy, lecz li tylko mogą służyć wyjaśnianiu konstrukcji kulturowych. Rozważania ekonomiczne nie wychodzą poza ramy poznania wnikającego w ludzkie działania i przemyślenia na tematy gospodarcze obecnie i w przeszłości. Ekonomia jest formą osiągania przez człowieka samoświadomości (jeśli jest poprawna pod względem metodologicznym). Znana zasada mówiąca, iż całość jest czymś więcej niż sumą części składowych, wskazuje na niemożność uchwycenia sensu przedmiotu poprzez analizę i syntezę jego części. Całość tworzy się poprzez porządkującą rękę człowieka i poprzez to wyobrażenie porządku – podobnie jak ład wyłaniający się z pozornie osobnych elementów składających się na powierzchnię namalowanego obrazu – tworzący człowiek urzeczywistnia swoje pomysły. Dzieje się tak, co oczywiste, w przypadku dzieł sztuki, ale również budynków czy wytworów przemysłu. Estetyka formy i materialność takich obiektów ma zawsze wymiar kulturowy, nawet gdy wydaje się być prymitywna lub banalna. Banalność jest bardzo często kulturowym przesłaniem masowo produkowanych towarów przemysłowych. Konsekwencje dla praktycznej koncepcji i praktyki zarządzania kulturą są wielorakie. Należy pamiętać, że zrozumienie istoty przedmiotów, np. dzieł sztuki, a tym samym ich całościowe postrzeganie i interpretacja musi znaleźć się na pierwszym miejscu przed podejściem analitycznym. W sztuce i kulturze zawsze chodzi o zrozumienie istoty, tzn. wewnętrznego przesłania dzieła i jego relacji z otoczeniem, zwłaszcza z publicznością. Podkreślmy raz jeszcze: zarządzanie kulturą nie podąża przy tym drogą artystów, lecz zajmuje się wzajemną relacją twórczości i materialnych uwarunkowań, które również dla artystów nie są bez znaczenia. Pierwszy krok w kierunku całościowego podejścia w zarządzaniu kulturą polega na zaakceptowaniu faktu, iż typowe narzędzia mikroekonomiczne stworzone zostały bez wyjątku w sposób analityczny i w wielu praktycznych sytuacjach ich stosowanie nie jest korzystne. Ich użyteczność ogranicza się do sytuacji, kiedy cele zostały wcześniej sformułowane i uzasadnione.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Czyż można stosować podejście analityczne, gdy przedmiot analizy nie został jeszcze określony? Również symulacja na etapie planowania przedsięwzięcia (np. ogólny zarys przygotowywanej wystawy sztuki) powinna prowadzić do ustalenia konkretnych działań. Bez tego nie sposób nic oszacować. Należy zatem poszerzyć warsztat zarządzania kulturą o aspekt całościowego podejścia i przewidywania działań przed rozpoczęciem realizacji przedsięwzięcia. Dla zarządzania kulturą to niezbędny warunek. Jeśli np. dyrekcja teatru podjęła decyzję o wystawieniu drugiej części „Fausta” Goethego, to już na tym etapie można skutecznie wdrożyć cały wachlarz technik zarządzania, aby zabezpieczyć to przedsięwzięcie od strony materialnej w najlepszy możliwy sposób, jednakże dopiero po zaprezentowaniu przez aktorów ogólnej wizji spektaklu. Narzędzia zarządzania kroczą zawsze za twórczością, a nigdy w jej awangardzie. Klasyczne instrumenty ekonomiczne (kalkulacja, techniki planowania, kontrolowanie, organizacja itd.) nie mogą zdominować treści artystycznych, które tworzą fundament decyzji programowych. Co najwyżej mogą one służyć, dzięki całościowej symulacji przewidywanych efektów, ogólnej prognozie w zakresie kosztów przedsięwzięcia. Podejście całościowe w zarządzaniu kulturą oznacza umiejętność przyjęcia empatycznej postawy względem twórczości artystycznej, unikającej jednak dyktatu zgodnie z kryteriami ekonomicznej efektywności. W przypadku sztuki tylko wymiar artystyczny, a więc samych twórców, proces kreacji, poszukiwanie idei i ich wdrażanie, możemy traktować jako jądro zarządzania, nawet jeśli opiera się on na tym, co formalnie (ekonomicznie) wykonalne. Zarówno tu, jak i w innych sferach, obowiązuje zasada, iż treść determinuje formę. W przykładzie „Fausta“ Goethego oznaczałoby to, że przesłanie dramatu adresowane do publiczności określa całokształt artystyczny (inscenizacja, scenografia, oświetlenie, kostiumy itd.), co nie wchodzi w zakres kompetencji zarządzania kulturą. Dopiero na tym poziomie realizacji muszą zostać uwzględnione warunki materialne (budżet i dostępne zasoby). Idea określa formę, a ta warunkuje odniesienie do warunków materialnych. Warunki materialne mogą mieć charakter techniczny (niektórych koncepcji reżyserskich nie da się technicznie zrealizować) lub wynikają z ograniczoności zasobów (pewnych pomysłów nie jesteśmy w stanie sfinansować). Kolejność jednakże pozostaje: idea, forma i możliwości realizacji. Zarządzanie kulturą zajmuje się tym ostatnim elementem.

231

To błąd językowy, gdyż tak się nie dzieje. To Ziemia kręci się wokół własnej osi. Jednak nasza wiedza pozostaje konstrukcją duchową, często mającą o wiele większe znaczenie dla rozwoju ludzkiej cywilizacji niż poprawne merytorycznie wyjaśnianie. Nie zapomnijmy więc, że cała ekonomia, wszystkie teorie i modele, metody i instrumenty są konstrukcjami umysłu i że nie pomogą nam odkryć prawdziwej istoty rzeczy, lecz li tylko mogą służyć wyjaśnianiu konstrukcji kulturowych. Rozważania ekonomiczne nie wychodzą poza ramy poznania wnikającego w ludzkie działania i przemyślenia na tematy gospodarcze obecnie i w przeszłości. Ekonomia jest formą osiągania przez człowieka samoświadomości (jeśli jest poprawna pod względem metodologicznym). Znana zasada mówiąca, iż całość jest czymś więcej niż sumą części składowych, wskazuje na niemożność uchwycenia sensu przedmiotu poprzez analizę i syntezę jego części. Całość tworzy się poprzez porządkującą rękę człowieka i poprzez to wyobrażenie porządku – podobnie jak ład wyłaniający się z pozornie osobnych elementów składających się na powierzchnię namalowanego obrazu – tworzący człowiek urzeczywistnia swoje pomysły. Dzieje się tak, co oczywiste, w przypadku dzieł sztuki, ale również budynków czy wytworów przemysłu. Estetyka formy i materialność takich obiektów ma zawsze wymiar kulturowy, nawet gdy wydaje się być prymitywna lub banalna. Banalność jest bardzo często kulturowym przesłaniem masowo produkowanych towarów przemysłowych. Konsekwencje dla praktycznej koncepcji i praktyki zarządzania kulturą są wielorakie. Należy pamiętać, że zrozumienie istoty przedmiotów, np. dzieł sztuki, a tym samym ich całościowe postrzeganie i interpretacja musi znaleźć się na pierwszym miejscu przed podejściem analitycznym. W sztuce i kulturze zawsze chodzi o zrozumienie istoty, tzn. wewnętrznego przesłania dzieła i jego relacji z otoczeniem, zwłaszcza z publicznością. Podkreślmy raz jeszcze: zarządzanie kulturą nie podąża przy tym drogą artystów, lecz zajmuje się wzajemną relacją twórczości i materialnych uwarunkowań, które również dla artystów nie są bez znaczenia. Pierwszy krok w kierunku całościowego podejścia w zarządzaniu kulturą polega na zaakceptowaniu faktu, iż typowe narzędzia mikroekonomiczne stworzone zostały bez wyjątku w sposób analityczny i w wielu praktycznych sytuacjach ich stosowanie nie jest korzystne. Ich użyteczność ogranicza się do sytuacji, kiedy cele zostały wcześniej sformułowane i uzasadnione.

231

Czyż można stosować podejście analityczne, gdy przedmiot analizy nie został jeszcze określony? Również symulacja na etapie planowania przedsięwzięcia (np. ogólny zarys przygotowywanej wystawy sztuki) powinna prowadzić do ustalenia konkretnych działań. Bez tego nie sposób nic oszacować. Należy zatem poszerzyć warsztat zarządzania kulturą o aspekt całościowego podejścia i przewidywania działań przed rozpoczęciem realizacji przedsięwzięcia. Dla zarządzania kulturą to niezbędny warunek. Jeśli np. dyrekcja teatru podjęła decyzję o wystawieniu drugiej części „Fausta” Goethego, to już na tym etapie można skutecznie wdrożyć cały wachlarz technik zarządzania, aby zabezpieczyć to przedsięwzięcie od strony materialnej w najlepszy możliwy sposób, jednakże dopiero po zaprezentowaniu przez aktorów ogólnej wizji spektaklu. Narzędzia zarządzania kroczą zawsze za twórczością, a nigdy w jej awangardzie. Klasyczne instrumenty ekonomiczne (kalkulacja, techniki planowania, kontrolowanie, organizacja itd.) nie mogą zdominować treści artystycznych, które tworzą fundament decyzji programowych. Co najwyżej mogą one służyć, dzięki całościowej symulacji przewidywanych efektów, ogólnej prognozie w zakresie kosztów przedsięwzięcia. Podejście całościowe w zarządzaniu kulturą oznacza umiejętność przyjęcia empatycznej postawy względem twórczości artystycznej, unikającej jednak dyktatu zgodnie z kryteriami ekonomicznej efektywności. W przypadku sztuki tylko wymiar artystyczny, a więc samych twórców, proces kreacji, poszukiwanie idei i ich wdrażanie, możemy traktować jako jądro zarządzania, nawet jeśli opiera się on na tym, co formalnie (ekonomicznie) wykonalne. Zarówno tu, jak i w innych sferach, obowiązuje zasada, iż treść determinuje formę. W przykładzie „Fausta“ Goethego oznaczałoby to, że przesłanie dramatu adresowane do publiczności określa całokształt artystyczny (inscenizacja, scenografia, oświetlenie, kostiumy itd.), co nie wchodzi w zakres kompetencji zarządzania kulturą. Dopiero na tym poziomie realizacji muszą zostać uwzględnione warunki materialne (budżet i dostępne zasoby). Idea określa formę, a ta warunkuje odniesienie do warunków materialnych. Warunki materialne mogą mieć charakter techniczny (niektórych koncepcji reżyserskich nie da się technicznie zrealizować) lub wynikają z ograniczoności zasobów (pewnych pomysłów nie jesteśmy w stanie sfinansować). Kolejność jednakże pozostaje: idea, forma i możliwości realizacji. Zarządzanie kulturą zajmuje się tym ostatnim elementem.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Zarządzanie kulturą jest samodzielną profesją wymagającą fachowego podejścia, ale w niewielu przypadkach – np. marszand, impresariat, wydawca książek lub muzyki – będącą niezależną działalnością. Regułą jest integracja zarządzania kulturą jako funkcji w ramach organizacji czy projektu artystycznego lub kulturalnego. Ze względu na bardzo szerokie rozumienie terminu kultura, nieograniczające się jedynie do sztuki9, spektrum działania menedżerów kultury pozostaje względnie szerokie. Jeśli zarządzanie kulturą powiązane jest z odpowiednim zadaniem merytorycznym, można go adaptować w innych obszarach, np. produkcji instrumentów, techniki scenicznej i architektury. W tym przypadku można mówić również o przedsięwzięciu kulturalnym. Kwalifikacje menedżerów kultury mogą okazać się niezastąpione nawet w realizacji zadań w sektorze przemysłowym lub administracji publicznej np. miejskich wydziałach kultury. W obu przypadkach – czy jako zintegrowana funkcja w pewnej całości czy jako samodzielne przedsięwzięcie – praca merytoryczna nad materialnymi warunkami przedsięwzięcia artystycznego lub kulturalnego jest pragmatycznym komponentem zarządzania kulturą. Zarządzanie również ma swój przedmiot, a jego szerokie postrzeganie jest podstawą działania, także w zakresie zarządzania kulturą. Kto zajmuje się zarządzaniem, musi oczywiście wiedzieć, co dokładnie jest przedmiotem zarządzania i jakie wyzwania z tego wynikają. Dotyczy to zarówno sektora przemysłu, jak i kultury. Przy tym nie chodzi tu jednak (w każdym razie nie tylko) o teoretyczną wiedzę wdrażaną w oderwaniu od wymiaru artystycznego, lecz o zanurzenie się w procesie twórczym, a tym samym o towarzyszenie mu, z wykorzystaniem wiedzy o materialnych warunkach ramowych10. To kompleksowe zadanie określić można również jako rodzaj nawigacji, porównywalnej z zadaniem żeglarza, który za pomocą map morskich i radiolatarni określa aktualną pozycję statku, nie będąc jednak kapitanem. Zarządzanie kulturą jest sztuką sterowania po wzburzonym morzu zewnętrznych okoliczności, mając ciągle na

2.3. Praktyczne umiejętności

uwadze aspekty artystyczne; jednak zarządzanie nie określa kursu. Kursem może być np. wystawa11. Zarządzanie kulturą jest nawigacją poprzez rafy biurokracji, nieprzychylność grantodawców i sponsorów i mielizny kaprysów publiczności. Tak pojmowane zarządzanie kulturą jest zintegrowaną częścią procesu twórczego (np. wystawy), a nie opartym na podziale pracy, odseparowanym, funkcjonującym w oderwaniu obszarem działalności, jak np. księgowość lub dział kadr teatru. Księgowość i dział kadr nie mają nic wspólnego z zarządzaniem kulturą. Z myślą o profesjonalizacji zarządzania kulturą należy sformułować szereg wniosków w odniesieniu do podstawowych kwalifikacji. Można je zawrzeć w pojęciu umiejętności praktycznych. Ich cechą charakterystyczną jest cykl działań podczas pracy, kiedy „głowa” i „ręka” wspólnie wykonują zadanie. „Głowa” zajmuje się twórczym myśleniem i kieruje „ręką” wykonującą fizyczne działania. Proces powstawania jest nieustannie śledzony przez „głowę” (obserwuje ona i obmyśla następne czynności, mając na uwadze końcowy efekt: gotowy kształt), która koryguje kolejne etapy pracy. Jest to schematyczny opis pracy twórczej artysty. Charakterystyczne dla niej jest często całkowite zanurzenie się tworzącego artysty w powstające dzieło, absolutne skoncentrowanie się na nim przy równoczesnym odizolowaniu się od zewnętrznych elementów życia codziennego. Tak postrzegana praca artysty jest pod tym względem podobna do dalekowschodniej kultury zen. W fazach koncentracji na procesie twórczym nie dochodzą do głosu również takie czynniki zewnętrzne, które później, na etapie realizacji, mogą okazać się ograniczające. W tym właśnie miejscu zarządzanie kulturą wkracza w proces twórczy. Atrybutem dobrego zarządzania kulturą jest kongenialność. Praca artysty nad dziełem nie powinna być poddawana obostrzeniom będącym ograniczeniem dla jego wyobraźni, musi jednakże zostać sprowadzona do poziomu realnych uwarunkowań najpóźniej w fazie realizacji. Znaczącą rolę odgrywają tu dyplomatyczne zdolności menedżera kultury. To wyjaśnia, dlaczego narzędzia mikroekonomii należy stosować z najwyższą rozwagą. Są

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Wyjaśnienie terminu i jego definicja nie zostanie tu zaprezentowana [por. Bendixen, 2006 i Bendixen, Managing Art..., 2009].

232

9

W pewnym sensie wystawy mają charakter artystycznych instalacji niosących przekaz skierowany do publiczności, nawet gdy wystawiane przedmioty nie są dziełami sztuki (np. wykopaliska archeologiczne).

11

10 Wielką tragedią kultury naszych czasów jest powszechność praktyki zarządzania, znajdującej potężne oparcie w jednowymiarowym obrazie świata stworzonym przez ekonomistów, która wierzy, że w oderwaniu od treści i przedmiotów, którymi się zajmuje, potrafi sprawować efektywny nadzór (oparty na rozdziale środków finansowych) na podstawie teorii, modeli i abstrakcyjnych procedur. Jak menedżer może poskromić własną pychę, gdy namacalna więź z przedmiotem zarządzania została przerwana?

Wielką tragedią kultury naszych czasów jest powszechność praktyki zarządzania, znajdującej potężne oparcie w jednowymiarowym obrazie świata stworzonym przez ekonomistów, która wierzy, że w oderwaniu od treści i przedmiotów, którymi się zajmuje, potrafi sprawować efektywny nadzór (oparty na rozdziale środków finansowych) na podstawie teorii, modeli i abstrakcyjnych procedur. Jak menedżer może poskromić własną pychę, gdy namacalna więź z przedmiotem zarządzania została przerwana?

10

W pewnym sensie wystawy mają charakter artystycznych instalacji niosących przekaz skierowany do publiczności, nawet gdy wystawiane przedmioty nie są dziełami sztuki (np. wykopaliska archeologiczne).

Wyjaśnienie terminu i jego definicja nie zostanie tu zaprezentowana [por. Bendixen, 2006 i Bendixen, Managing Art..., 2009].

9

11

Zarządzanie kulturą jest samodzielną profesją wymagającą fachowego podejścia, ale w niewielu przypadkach – np. marszand, impresariat, wydawca książek lub muzyki – będącą niezależną działalnością. Regułą jest integracja zarządzania kulturą jako funkcji w ramach organizacji czy projektu artystycznego lub kulturalnego. Ze względu na bardzo szerokie rozumienie terminu kultura, nieograniczające się jedynie do sztuki9, spektrum działania menedżerów kultury pozostaje względnie szerokie. Jeśli zarządzanie kulturą powiązane jest z odpowiednim zadaniem merytorycznym, można go adaptować w innych obszarach, np. produkcji instrumentów, techniki scenicznej i architektury. W tym przypadku można mówić również o przedsięwzięciu kulturalnym. Kwalifikacje menedżerów kultury mogą okazać się niezastąpione nawet w realizacji zadań w sektorze przemysłowym lub administracji publicznej np. miejskich wydziałach kultury. W obu przypadkach – czy jako zintegrowana funkcja w pewnej całości czy jako samodzielne przedsięwzięcie – praca merytoryczna nad materialnymi warunkami przedsięwzięcia artystycznego lub kulturalnego jest pragmatycznym komponentem zarządzania kulturą. Zarządzanie również ma swój przedmiot, a jego szerokie postrzeganie jest podstawą działania, także w zakresie zarządzania kulturą. Kto zajmuje się zarządzaniem, musi oczywiście wiedzieć, co dokładnie jest przedmiotem zarządzania i jakie wyzwania z tego wynikają. Dotyczy to zarówno sektora przemysłu, jak i kultury. Przy tym nie chodzi tu jednak (w każdym razie nie tylko) o teoretyczną wiedzę wdrażaną w oderwaniu od wymiaru artystycznego, lecz o zanurzenie się w procesie twórczym, a tym samym o towarzyszenie mu, z wykorzystaniem wiedzy o materialnych warunkach ramowych10. To kompleksowe zadanie określić można również jako rodzaj nawigacji, porównywalnej z zadaniem żeglarza, który za pomocą map morskich i radiolatarni określa aktualną pozycję statku, nie będąc jednak kapitanem. Zarządzanie kulturą jest sztuką sterowania po wzburzonym morzu zewnętrznych okoliczności, mając ciągle na

uwadze aspekty artystyczne; jednak zarządzanie nie określa kursu. Kursem może być np. wystawa11. Zarządzanie kulturą jest nawigacją poprzez rafy biurokracji, nieprzychylność grantodawców i sponsorów i mielizny kaprysów publiczności. Tak pojmowane zarządzanie kulturą jest zintegrowaną częścią procesu twórczego (np. wystawy), a nie opartym na podziale pracy, odseparowanym, funkcjonującym w oderwaniu obszarem działalności, jak np. księgowość lub dział kadr teatru. Księgowość i dział kadr nie mają nic wspólnego z zarządzaniem kulturą. Z myślą o profesjonalizacji zarządzania kulturą należy sformułować szereg wniosków w odniesieniu do podstawowych kwalifikacji. Można je zawrzeć w pojęciu umiejętności praktycznych. Ich cechą charakterystyczną jest cykl działań podczas pracy, kiedy „głowa” i „ręka” wspólnie wykonują zadanie. „Głowa” zajmuje się twórczym myśleniem i kieruje „ręką” wykonującą fizyczne działania. Proces powstawania jest nieustannie śledzony przez „głowę” (obserwuje ona i obmyśla następne czynności, mając na uwadze końcowy efekt: gotowy kształt), która koryguje kolejne etapy pracy. Jest to schematyczny opis pracy twórczej artysty. Charakterystyczne dla niej jest często całkowite zanurzenie się tworzącego artysty w powstające dzieło, absolutne skoncentrowanie się na nim przy równoczesnym odizolowaniu się od zewnętrznych elementów życia codziennego. Tak postrzegana praca artysty jest pod tym względem podobna do dalekowschodniej kultury zen. W fazach koncentracji na procesie twórczym nie dochodzą do głosu również takie czynniki zewnętrzne, które później, na etapie realizacji, mogą okazać się ograniczające. W tym właśnie miejscu zarządzanie kulturą wkracza w proces twórczy. Atrybutem dobrego zarządzania kulturą jest kongenialność. Praca artysty nad dziełem nie powinna być poddawana obostrzeniom będącym ograniczeniem dla jego wyobraźni, musi jednakże zostać sprowadzona do poziomu realnych uwarunkowań najpóźniej w fazie realizacji. Znaczącą rolę odgrywają tu dyplomatyczne zdolności menedżera kultury. To wyjaśnia, dlaczego narzędzia mikroekonomii należy stosować z najwyższą rozwagą. Są

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

one wprawdzie użyteczne w wielu aspektach zarządzania kulturą, lecz raczej jako rodzaj szablonu, który trzeba dopasować do konkretnych okoliczności. Menedżer kultury musi być suwerenny w kwestii opanowania i celowego stosowania instrumentarium ekonomicznego, musi je jednak sam twórczo zaadaptować na potrzeby realizowanych zadań. Sceptycyzm w stosunku do konwencjonalnej wiedzy o zarządzaniu i instrumentach ekonomicznych ma swoje źródło w ich rodowodzie, który wywodzi się z opisu stosunków pracy wielkich korporacji. Naukowy rozwój tego instrumentarium ma długą historię w ramach klasycznej ekonomii, której rdzeń zawsze zbudowany był na bazie obserwacji uwarunkowań zakładów przemysłowych. Znakiem szczególnym takiego tradycyjnego ekonomicznego podejścia jest społeczno-mechanistyczny obraz systemu, który wykształcony ekonomista widzi podobnie jak inżynier postrzega maszynę12. Podział na „pracę głowy” oraz „pracę rąk” (lub maszyny) jest w tym ujęciu bardzo jaskrawy. Zmysłowe i kognitywne sprzężenie zwrotne podczas wykonywania konkretnej pracy, które możemy zaobserwować na przykładzie rzeźbiarza lub malarza, ale także w pracy wielu rzemieślników czy w laboratoriach badawczych, nie odbywa się już w warunkach zakładów przemysłowych. W fabryce praca umysłowa, zarówno w zakresie zarządzania, jak i konstruowania przeznaczonych do produkcji i sprzedaży wyrobów jest odseparowana od pracy wykonawczej (w administracji, względnie w warsztacie lub przy taśmie produkcyjnej). „Głowa” w procesie badań i konstruowania opracowuje produkt w postaci funkcjonalnego i estetycznego wzorca, który (najczęściej po testach próbnych) w rzeczywistej postaci służy tylko jako dokładny szablon. Bezpośrednie sprzężenie zwrotne w przemysłowym procesie tworzenia produktu nie ma już miejsca. Zauważalne niebezpośrednie sprzężenie zwrotne pojawia się dopiero wtedy, gdy przedsiębiorstwo styka się z rynkowymi barierami, np. gdy liczba reklamacji wzrasta lub występują nowe zewnętrzne okoliczności (np. przepisy prawne zmuszające do spełnienia nowych wymogów). Nie należy jednak zapominać, że atutem takiej

organizacji pracy jest precyzyjne, szybkie i nielimitowane powtarzanie tych samych etapów procesu produkcji. Bądź co bądź stanowiło to podstawę wzrostu dobrobytu na przestrzeni ostatnich dwustu lat. Teraz wyobraźmy sobie teatr, który z żelazną konsekwencją przeobraża daną sztukę z wykorzystaniem gotowej matrycy w szablonowe przedsięwzięcie. Oznacza to śmierć sztuki. Nie ma ona mocy głębszego oddziaływania na widzów ze względu na odpychającą surowość intelektualnego i emocjonalnego uczestnictwa lub czyni przedstawienie tylko miałkim spektaklem estetycznym, podobnym do potoku reklamy zalewającym nas w centrum handlowym. Tego typu „inscenizacje” mają miejsce, przykładem mogą być niektóre produkcje musicalowe. Tradycyjnie pojmowane wytwarzanie z bezpośrednim sprzężeniem „pracy głowy” i „pracy rąk” jako metodą produkcji wprawdzie już zaniknęło, ale kreatywne połączenie tych dwóch wymiarów jako takich funkcjonuje również obecnie w wielu branżach. Okazuje się to często bardziej zasadne i efektywne niż ekstremalne formy rozdziału myślenia i wytwarzania. Zazwyczaj ma to miejsce tam, gdzie efekt pracy nie jest jedynie jedną z wielu identycznych kopii, ale proces tworzenia prowadzi do powstania jednostkowego wyrobu będącego rezultatem wyjątkowości twórczych kanonów i towarzyszącego im przesłania kulturowego13. Takie podejście dotyczy „wytwórczo” zorientowanego zarządzania kulturą [por. Bendixen, Kulturmanagement..., 2009 i Sennett, 2008] w dwóch aspektach. Po pierwsze, dokonując koncepcyjnego i instrumentalnego uformowania zadań i roli zarządzania kulturą należy „dostroić je” do uwarunkowań danego przedsięwzięcia. Po drugie, zarządzanie kulturą zintegrowane z procesem twórczym powinno dyskretnie kroczyć w jego cieniu, a nie rościć sobie prawa do pozostawiania w centrum przedsięwzięcia artystycznego. By przyjąć taką postawę potrzebne jest całościowe zrozumienie intencji artystycznych, co wymaga dużej dozy empatii. Empatia jest w tym przypadku sztuką wczucia się w uwarunkowania procesu twórczego, jednak bez ingerencji w jego przebieg, z wyjątkiem sytuacji, gdy przewidywane materialne rezultaty procesu twórczego powodują

Metodologiczna krytyka tego podejścia nie zostanie tu podjęta, chociaż jest to kwestia fundamentalna. Godne polecenia są pozycje Karla Heinza Brodbecka [Brodbeck, 2007 i Brodbeck, 2009]. Osobliwość tej konstrukcji polega na tym, że w praktyce „głowa” (zarządzanie) funkcjonuje w oderwaniu od „rąk” (robotników), została ona jednak zaadaptowana do celów mikroekonomii. Kierujący się jej zasadami menedżer nie jest już wolny, lecz zniewolony przez nieznoszące sprzeciwu imperatywy pragmatycznie ukierunkowanej nauki.

12

Wszystkie dzieła człowieka przekazują poprzez swoją świadomie uformowaną postać przesłanie kulturowe. Dotyczy to również produktów przemysłowych. Są one obiektami kultury, jeśli nie obiektami sztuki. Wyroby rękodzieła są pojedynczymi egzemplarzami, które biorą swój początek z ograniczonego do jednej osoby twórczego sprzężenia pomiędzy pracą „głowy” i „rąk”.

13

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233

13 Wszystkie dzieła człowieka przekazują poprzez swoją świadomie uformowaną postać przesłanie kulturowe. Dotyczy to również produktów przemysłowych. Są one obiektami kultury, jeśli nie obiektami sztuki. Wyroby rękodzieła są pojedynczymi egzemplarzami, które biorą swój początek z ograniczonego do jednej osoby twórczego sprzężenia pomiędzy pracą „głowy” i „rąk”. 12 Metodologiczna krytyka tego podejścia nie zostanie tu podjęta, chociaż jest to kwestia fundamentalna. Godne polecenia są pozycje Karla Heinza Brodbecka [Brodbeck, 2007 i Brodbeck, 2009]. Osobliwość tej konstrukcji polega na tym, że w praktyce „głowa” (zarządzanie) funkcjonuje w oderwaniu od „rąk” (robotników), została ona jednak zaadaptowana do celów mikroekonomii. Kierujący się jej zasadami menedżer nie jest już wolny, lecz zniewolony przez nieznoszące sprzeciwu imperatywy pragmatycznie ukierunkowanej nauki.

one wprawdzie użyteczne w wielu aspektach zarządzania kulturą, lecz raczej jako rodzaj szablonu, który trzeba dopasować do konkretnych okoliczności. Menedżer kultury musi być suwerenny w kwestii opanowania i celowego stosowania instrumentarium ekonomicznego, musi je jednak sam twórczo zaadaptować na potrzeby realizowanych zadań. Sceptycyzm w stosunku do konwencjonalnej wiedzy o zarządzaniu i instrumentach ekonomicznych ma swoje źródło w ich rodowodzie, który wywodzi się z opisu stosunków pracy wielkich korporacji. Naukowy rozwój tego instrumentarium ma długą historię w ramach klasycznej ekonomii, której rdzeń zawsze zbudowany był na bazie obserwacji uwarunkowań zakładów przemysłowych. Znakiem szczególnym takiego tradycyjnego ekonomicznego podejścia jest społeczno-mechanistyczny obraz systemu, który wykształcony ekonomista widzi podobnie jak inżynier postrzega maszynę12. Podział na „pracę głowy” oraz „pracę rąk” (lub maszyny) jest w tym ujęciu bardzo jaskrawy. Zmysłowe i kognitywne sprzężenie zwrotne podczas wykonywania konkretnej pracy, które możemy zaobserwować na przykładzie rzeźbiarza lub malarza, ale także w pracy wielu rzemieślników czy w laboratoriach badawczych, nie odbywa się już w warunkach zakładów przemysłowych. W fabryce praca umysłowa, zarówno w zakresie zarządzania, jak i konstruowania przeznaczonych do produkcji i sprzedaży wyrobów jest odseparowana od pracy wykonawczej (w administracji, względnie w warsztacie lub przy taśmie produkcyjnej). „Głowa” w procesie badań i konstruowania opracowuje produkt w postaci funkcjonalnego i estetycznego wzorca, który (najczęściej po testach próbnych) w rzeczywistej postaci służy tylko jako dokładny szablon. Bezpośrednie sprzężenie zwrotne w przemysłowym procesie tworzenia produktu nie ma już miejsca. Zauważalne niebezpośrednie sprzężenie zwrotne pojawia się dopiero wtedy, gdy przedsiębiorstwo styka się z rynkowymi barierami, np. gdy liczba reklamacji wzrasta lub występują nowe zewnętrzne okoliczności (np. przepisy prawne zmuszające do spełnienia nowych wymogów). Nie należy jednak zapominać, że atutem takiej

organizacji pracy jest precyzyjne, szybkie i nielimitowane powtarzanie tych samych etapów procesu produkcji. Bądź co bądź stanowiło to podstawę wzrostu dobrobytu na przestrzeni ostatnich dwustu lat. Teraz wyobraźmy sobie teatr, który z żelazną konsekwencją przeobraża daną sztukę z wykorzystaniem gotowej matrycy w szablonowe przedsięwzięcie. Oznacza to śmierć sztuki. Nie ma ona mocy głębszego oddziaływania na widzów ze względu na odpychającą surowość intelektualnego i emocjonalnego uczestnictwa lub czyni przedstawienie tylko miałkim spektaklem estetycznym, podobnym do potoku reklamy zalewającym nas w centrum handlowym. Tego typu „inscenizacje” mają miejsce, przykładem mogą być niektóre produkcje musicalowe. Tradycyjnie pojmowane wytwarzanie z bezpośrednim sprzężeniem „pracy głowy” i „pracy rąk” jako metodą produkcji wprawdzie już zaniknęło, ale kreatywne połączenie tych dwóch wymiarów jako takich funkcjonuje również obecnie w wielu branżach. Okazuje się to często bardziej zasadne i efektywne niż ekstremalne formy rozdziału myślenia i wytwarzania. Zazwyczaj ma to miejsce tam, gdzie efekt pracy nie jest jedynie jedną z wielu identycznych kopii, ale proces tworzenia prowadzi do powstania jednostkowego wyrobu będącego rezultatem wyjątkowości twórczych kanonów i towarzyszącego im przesłania kulturowego13. Takie podejście dotyczy „wytwórczo” zorientowanego zarządzania kulturą [por. Bendixen, Kulturmanagement..., 2009 i Sennett, 2008] w dwóch aspektach. Po pierwsze, dokonując koncepcyjnego i instrumentalnego uformowania zadań i roli zarządzania kulturą należy „dostroić je” do uwarunkowań danego przedsięwzięcia. Po drugie, zarządzanie kulturą zintegrowane z procesem twórczym powinno dyskretnie kroczyć w jego cieniu, a nie rościć sobie prawa do pozostawiania w centrum przedsięwzięcia artystycznego. By przyjąć taką postawę potrzebne jest całościowe zrozumienie intencji artystycznych, co wymaga dużej dozy empatii. Empatia jest w tym przypadku sztuką wczucia się w uwarunkowania procesu twórczego, jednak bez ingerencji w jego przebieg, z wyjątkiem sytuacji, gdy przewidywane materialne rezultaty procesu twórczego powodują


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

wyświetlenie się „sygnałów ostrzegawczych” (jak w przypadku przekroczenia ograniczonego budżetu).

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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jest, zdaniem historyków, konstrukcją duchową mniej lub bardziej pewnie osadzoną na faktach i dokumentach. Pod względem niepewności tkwiącej w takiej konstrukcji przeszłość podobna jest do przyszłości. Niezależnie od tego, co człowiek uczynił w przeszłości i co zamierza uczynić obecnie, punktem wyjścia jest zawsze i nieodwołalnie proces myślowy – wyjąwszy działania nieświadome, kierowane instynktem i przypadkowe. Stąd przyszłość kształtuje się w umyśle człowieka, gdzie ma do dyspozycji szeroką perspektywę myślową, wynikającą z mniej lub bardziej nieskrępowanej wyobraźni. W procesie myślenia czas nie jest ukierunkowanym wektorem. To, co w danej chwili pomyśleliśmy, możemy w tym samym momencie odwołać. Dopiero, gdy za myślami pójdą czyny, działać zaczyna nieodwracalność czasu i muszą być przestrzegane prawa natury materialnego świata. Dopiero w chwili realizacji udajemy się do królestwa związków przyczynowo-skutkowych i konieczności. W myśleniu jesteśmy wolni. Otwartość tworzenia wyraża się w myśleniu, ponieważ praca umysłu przebiega pod dyktando praw natury, ale jako intelektualny ferment nosi wyraźne znamiona chaotycznej przypadkowości, która po części nieświadomie, a częściowo świadomie jest strukturyzowana przez doświadczenia zapisane w głębokiej pamięci. Do tych wcześniejszych niż świadomość struktur w pamięci przynależy również ukształtowany w ciągu życia indywidualny światopogląd i niektóre podstawowe zachowania w sferze emocjonalnej. Ten niewielki (czasem też większy) chaos neuronowej czynności mózgu – niemożliwy do opanowania przez rozum i niekierujący się logiką – jest punktem wyjścia kreatywności. Kreatywność można rozumieć jako osiągnięcie ludzkiej świadomości, która z ciągłego zamętu niekontrolowanych strzępów myśli wyławia te, które często przypadkowo przybierają wyraźniejsze zarysy, wydają się obiecujące i warto je zweryfikować pod kątem możliwości realizacji. Orientacja na przyszłość jako kreatywny obszar, gdzie rozpoczyna się proces twórczy, jest koniecznym, ale nieukierunkowanym wymiarem czasu w myśleniu człowieka14. Jedynie myślenie gwarantuje wolność tworzenia. Wynika z tego, że pragmatyczne zarządzanie kulturą musi być działaniem świadomie zorientowanym na przyszłość. Przez zarządzanie kulturą formuje się wyobrażenie dotyczące możliwych skutków realizacji, jak

Dotyczy to także sytuacji, gdy zgłębiamy przeszłość i uprawiamy historię. Przeszłość można studiować tylko wtedy, jeśli zostawia ślady. Możemy ją odtworzyć z tych śladów, jeśli jest ich wystarczająco dużo. Jesteśmy w stanie rozważać przeszłość, lecz jej nie przeżyjemy. Przeszłość jako konstrukcja intelektualna ściśle odnosi się do przyszłości.

14

Świadomość przemijalności wszelkich dzieł człowieka jest oczywista. Równie jasno zdajemy sobie sprawę, iż nie mamy żadnej wiedzy o przyszłości poza wynikającymi z doświadczenia obserwacjami mówiącymi, że ani natura, ani historia ludzkości nie postępuje w sposób niespodziewany i skokowy, lecz powoli ewoluuje, bazując na przeszłości i teraźniejszości. Teraźniejszość jest, z punktu widzenia fizyki, tylko punktem na wektorze czasu. W tym punkcie przeszłość jest już dokonana, a przyszłość rozpoczyna swój bieg. To, co potocznie określamy jako teraźniejszość obejmuje odcinek czasu, który sięga w przeszłość (gdzie szuka doświadczenia) i spogląda w przyszłość. Niepewność przyszłości powiązana ze świadomością możliwości jej kreowania jest siłą napędową do działania w teraźniejszości. Przyszłość jest tworzona w teraźniejszości, jest ona więc dzieckiem teraźniejszości dzięki twórczości człowieka, który tworzy coś, co przenika do przyszłości i bezpowrotnie ją zmienia [por. Coveney, Highfield, 1992]. To, co się zdarzyło, jest nieodwracalne, gdyż wektor czasu biegnie tylko w jednym kierunku: niepewnej przyszłości. Ale trzeba też pamiętać, że każdy krok, który pozostawia ślad, wpływa na przyszłość. Ludzka praca twórcza, czy to artysty, czy inżyniera, polityka czy budowniczego jest zawsze formą ograniczenia przyszłych możliwości poprzez decyzje, których skutki są często niemożliwe do odwrócenia. Fakty stworzone przez człowieka znamy pod pojęciem empirii. To, co rzeczywiste, uważane jest za twardy materiał dowodowy dla zweryfikowania danego twierdzenia. Jest to jednak zawsze tylko twierdzenie o rzeczach minionych, a ponieważ mamy do czynienia z dziełem człowieka, wymaga ono interpretacji. Należy wyjaśnić, jakie intencje przyświecały naszym przodkom bądź poprzednikom. Fakt, że Hamburg leży niedaleko ujścia Łaby jest twierdzeniem jednoznacznym. Nie można jednak empirycznie udowodnić, jakie myśli towarzyszyły mieszkańcom Hamburga przez setki lat kształtowania miasta aż do dzisiejszej postaci. Możemy jedynie podjąć próbę wyjaśnienia tego przy pomocy interpretacji. Dlatego przeszłość

Świadomość przemijalności wszelkich dzieł człowieka jest oczywista. Równie jasno zdajemy sobie sprawę, iż nie mamy żadnej wiedzy o przyszłości poza wynikającymi z doświadczenia obserwacjami mówiącymi, że ani natura, ani historia ludzkości nie postępuje w sposób niespodziewany i skokowy, lecz powoli ewoluuje, bazując na przeszłości i teraźniejszości. Teraźniejszość jest, z punktu widzenia fizyki, tylko punktem na wektorze czasu. W tym punkcie przeszłość jest już dokonana, a przyszłość rozpoczyna swój bieg. To, co potocznie określamy jako teraźniejszość obejmuje odcinek czasu, który sięga w przeszłość (gdzie szuka doświadczenia) i spogląda w przyszłość. Niepewność przyszłości powiązana ze świadomością możliwości jej kreowania jest siłą napędową do działania w teraźniejszości. Przyszłość jest tworzona w teraźniejszości, jest ona więc dzieckiem teraźniejszości dzięki twórczości człowieka, który tworzy coś, co przenika do przyszłości i bezpowrotnie ją zmienia [por. Coveney, Highfield, 1992]. To, co się zdarzyło, jest nieodwracalne, gdyż wektor czasu biegnie tylko w jednym kierunku: niepewnej przyszłości. Ale trzeba też pamiętać, że każdy krok, który pozostawia ślad, wpływa na przyszłość. Ludzka praca twórcza, czy to artysty, czy inżyniera, polityka czy budowniczego jest zawsze formą ograniczenia przyszłych możliwości poprzez decyzje, których skutki są często niemożliwe do odwrócenia. Fakty stworzone przez człowieka znamy pod pojęciem empirii. To, co rzeczywiste, uważane jest za twardy materiał dowodowy dla zweryfikowania danego twierdzenia. Jest to jednak zawsze tylko twierdzenie o rzeczach minionych, a ponieważ mamy do czynienia z dziełem człowieka, wymaga ono interpretacji. Należy wyjaśnić, jakie intencje przyświecały naszym przodkom bądź poprzednikom. Fakt, że Hamburg leży niedaleko ujścia Łaby jest twierdzeniem jednoznacznym. Nie można jednak empirycznie udowodnić, jakie myśli towarzyszyły mieszkańcom Hamburga przez setki lat kształtowania miasta aż do dzisiejszej postaci. Możemy jedynie podjąć próbę wyjaśnienia tego przy pomocy interpretacji. Dlatego przeszłość

14 Dotyczy to także sytuacji, gdy zgłębiamy przeszłość i uprawiamy historię. Przeszłość można studiować tylko wtedy, jeśli zostawia ślady. Możemy ją odtworzyć z tych śladów, jeśli jest ich wystarczająco dużo. Jesteśmy w stanie rozważać przeszłość, lecz jej nie przeżyjemy. Przeszłość jako konstrukcja intelektualna ściśle odnosi się do przyszłości.

2.4. Orientacja na przyszłość

jest, zdaniem historyków, konstrukcją duchową mniej lub bardziej pewnie osadzoną na faktach i dokumentach. Pod względem niepewności tkwiącej w takiej konstrukcji przeszłość podobna jest do przyszłości. Niezależnie od tego, co człowiek uczynił w przeszłości i co zamierza uczynić obecnie, punktem wyjścia jest zawsze i nieodwołalnie proces myślowy – wyjąwszy działania nieświadome, kierowane instynktem i przypadkowe. Stąd przyszłość kształtuje się w umyśle człowieka, gdzie ma do dyspozycji szeroką perspektywę myślową, wynikającą z mniej lub bardziej nieskrępowanej wyobraźni. W procesie myślenia czas nie jest ukierunkowanym wektorem. To, co w danej chwili pomyśleliśmy, możemy w tym samym momencie odwołać. Dopiero, gdy za myślami pójdą czyny, działać zaczyna nieodwracalność czasu i muszą być przestrzegane prawa natury materialnego świata. Dopiero w chwili realizacji udajemy się do królestwa związków przyczynowo-skutkowych i konieczności. W myśleniu jesteśmy wolni. Otwartość tworzenia wyraża się w myśleniu, ponieważ praca umysłu przebiega pod dyktando praw natury, ale jako intelektualny ferment nosi wyraźne znamiona chaotycznej przypadkowości, która po części nieświadomie, a częściowo świadomie jest strukturyzowana przez doświadczenia zapisane w głębokiej pamięci. Do tych wcześniejszych niż świadomość struktur w pamięci przynależy również ukształtowany w ciągu życia indywidualny światopogląd i niektóre podstawowe zachowania w sferze emocjonalnej. Ten niewielki (czasem też większy) chaos neuronowej czynności mózgu – niemożliwy do opanowania przez rozum i niekierujący się logiką – jest punktem wyjścia kreatywności. Kreatywność można rozumieć jako osiągnięcie ludzkiej świadomości, która z ciągłego zamętu niekontrolowanych strzępów myśli wyławia te, które często przypadkowo przybierają wyraźniejsze zarysy, wydają się obiecujące i warto je zweryfikować pod kątem możliwości realizacji. Orientacja na przyszłość jako kreatywny obszar, gdzie rozpoczyna się proces twórczy, jest koniecznym, ale nieukierunkowanym wymiarem czasu w myśleniu człowieka14. Jedynie myślenie gwarantuje wolność tworzenia. Wynika z tego, że pragmatyczne zarządzanie kulturą musi być działaniem świadomie zorientowanym na przyszłość. Przez zarządzanie kulturą formuje się wyobrażenie dotyczące możliwych skutków realizacji, jak

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wyświetlenie się „sygnałów ostrzegawczych” (jak w przypadku przekroczenia ograniczonego budżetu).


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

również niezrealizowania koncepcji artystycznej bądź kulturalnej. Musimy przy tym nieustannie pamiętać o służebnej roli zarządzania kulturą w ramach procesu twórczego. Orientacja na przyszłość ani ogólnie, ani też w sferze zarządzania kulturą nie polega na bezrefleksyjnym stosowaniu gotowych szablonów i modeli wypracowanych przez ekonomię. Kto tak postępuje, marnuje szansę kreatywnego włączenia swoich działań w proces twórczy, co mogłoby się odbyć poprzez wniesienie ważnego wkładu w określenie szans realizacji projektu w panujących warunkach społecznych. Profesjonalizm zarządzania kulturą wyróżnia opanowanie metod i instrumentów zamiast ich bezrefleksyjnego stosowania oraz wizjonerska umiejętność pozwalająca wyobrazić sobie realizację konkretnego działania w przyszłości, która – z uwzględnieniem ekonomicznych, prawnych, kulturowych i naturalnych ograniczeń – pomaga horyzontom twórczym pozostać nieograniczenie szerokimi.

3. Wytyczne w zakresie programów studiów Omawiając powyższe elementy pragmatycznej koncepcji zarządzania kulturą, należy zadać oczywiste pytanie, w jaki sposób mogą one – poprzez odpowiednio ukierunkowane kształcenie na poziomie akademickim – zostać włączone w regularny program studiów i stopniowo zintegrowane w ramach ugruntowanej, pełnej kompetencji do wykonywania zawodu. Poniższe sugestie nie mają na celu narzucania konkretnych rozwiązań, pragną jedynie pokazać, jakie kroki należy rozważyć, by idea pragmatycznego zarządzania kulturą rzeczywiście mogła się zakorzenić i to nie tyle w świecie nauki, ale przede wszystkim w sferze profesjonalnej, wśród instytucji kultury. Fakt, iż takie rozważania muszą mieć charakter naukowy, jest głęboko umotywowany, co nie wymaga w tym miejscu uzasadnienia. Właściwie rozumiana naukowość nie jest bynajmniej patetyczna, nawet jeśli incydentalnie posługuje się narzędziami filozoficznymi, lecz stanowi raczej głęboko przemyślą analizę rzeczywistości kulturowej i jej interpretację, opierającą się na mocnych i pewnych filarach doświadczenia i więzach z ważnymi dyscyplinami naukowymi. Analizując istniejące programy nauczania w dyscyplinie zarządzania kulturą na wyższych

uczelniach trudno nie dostrzec, że większość z nich za punkt wyjścia przyjmuje przyswojenie postaw mikroekonomii ze szczególnym akcentem na zarządzanie. Taka forma inauguracji procesu kształcenia sprowadza się do wtłoczenia w umysły studentów nieuświadamianej ekonomicznej przed-świadomości, która zakłada, że poziom finansowania (dostępne środki) i zarządzanie przepływem (rozdziałem) środków finansowych wraz z pochodnymi aspektami, jak planowanie, zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem, organizacja, rachunkowość, budżetowanie itd. rządzi również światem sztuki oraz innej działalności kulturalnej, a tam, gdzie jeszcze to się nie dzieje, taki dyktat powinien być wprowadzony. Nie wolno lekceważyć zawężenia horyzontów, które jest skutkiem takiej indoktrynacji, gdyż w obecnym świecie niewątpliwie króluje myślenie w kategoriach pieniądza15, i człowiekowi nietrudno odwoływać się do tej kategorii, która wydaje się oczywista, a tym samym oszczędzić sobie trudu bardziej dogłębnej refleksji. Tu leży podstawowy problem etyczny naszych czasów, który dotknął także dziedzinę zarządzania kulturą. Zasadniczą różnicę stanowi, czy kształtowanie tej sfery zawodowej rozpoczyna się od bezkrytycznej indoktrynacji pod dyktando względów komercyjnych, czy też aspekty te są traktowane jako materia niższego rzędu, przyswajana z konieczności, ale dopiero po tym, jak studenci odnajdą intelektualną wolność i niezależność w profesjonalnym zmaganiu się z materialnymi uwarunkowaniami kulturalnych, a szczególnie artystycznych przedsięwzięć. Studia mogłyby się więc rozpoczynać od wstępu do problematyki, którą nazwać możemy Zarządzanie kulturą jako profesja, uzupełnionej wiedzą z takich obszarów naukowych, jak filozofia kultury, polityka kulturalna, historia i antropologia kultury. Zasadne byłoby również wprowadzenie przedmiotu Wstęp do rozważań ekonomicznych, koncentrującego się na historycznym charakterze i kulturowych uwarunkowaniach powstania modeli gospodarczych, w tym gospodarki rynkowej. Wprowadzenie aspektów kreatywności, kompetencji empatycznej i całościowego podejścia jest odpowiedzią na rozpoczynającą się już w szkole i ugruntowaną pod wpływem własnych przeżyć tendencję – wzmacnianą dodatkowo przez praktykę nauczania w przeszłości – do uznawania priorytetu intelektualnego podejścia do zdobywania wiedzy o świecie nad podejściem kładącym

Z powodu znaczenia tego problemu zwracam raz jeszcze uwagę na książkę Karla H. Brodbecka Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik [Brodbeck, 2009].

15

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Z powodu znaczenia tego problemu zwracam raz jeszcze uwagę na książkę Karla H. Brodbecka Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik [Brodbeck, 2009].

15

Omawiając powyższe elementy pragmatycznej koncepcji zarządzania kulturą, należy zadać oczywiste pytanie, w jaki sposób mogą one – poprzez odpowiednio ukierunkowane kształcenie na poziomie akademickim – zostać włączone w regularny program studiów i stopniowo zintegrowane w ramach ugruntowanej, pełnej kompetencji do wykonywania zawodu. Poniższe sugestie nie mają na celu narzucania konkretnych rozwiązań, pragną jedynie pokazać, jakie kroki należy rozważyć, by idea pragmatycznego zarządzania kulturą rzeczywiście mogła się zakorzenić i to nie tyle w świecie nauki, ale przede wszystkim w sferze profesjonalnej, wśród instytucji kultury. Fakt, iż takie rozważania muszą mieć charakter naukowy, jest głęboko umotywowany, co nie wymaga w tym miejscu uzasadnienia. Właściwie rozumiana naukowość nie jest bynajmniej patetyczna, nawet jeśli incydentalnie posługuje się narzędziami filozoficznymi, lecz stanowi raczej głęboko przemyślą analizę rzeczywistości kulturowej i jej interpretację, opierającą się na mocnych i pewnych filarach doświadczenia i więzach z ważnymi dyscyplinami naukowymi. Analizując istniejące programy nauczania w dyscyplinie zarządzania kulturą na wyższych

3. Wytyczne w zakresie programów studiów również niezrealizowania koncepcji artystycznej bądź kulturalnej. Musimy przy tym nieustannie pamiętać o służebnej roli zarządzania kulturą w ramach procesu twórczego. Orientacja na przyszłość ani ogólnie, ani też w sferze zarządzania kulturą nie polega na bezrefleksyjnym stosowaniu gotowych szablonów i modeli wypracowanych przez ekonomię. Kto tak postępuje, marnuje szansę kreatywnego włączenia swoich działań w proces twórczy, co mogłoby się odbyć poprzez wniesienie ważnego wkładu w określenie szans realizacji projektu w panujących warunkach społecznych. Profesjonalizm zarządzania kulturą wyróżnia opanowanie metod i instrumentów zamiast ich bezrefleksyjnego stosowania oraz wizjonerska umiejętność pozwalająca wyobrazić sobie realizację konkretnego działania w przyszłości, która – z uwzględnieniem ekonomicznych, prawnych, kulturowych i naturalnych ograniczeń – pomaga horyzontom twórczym pozostać nieograniczenie szerokimi.

uczelniach trudno nie dostrzec, że większość z nich za punkt wyjścia przyjmuje przyswojenie postaw mikroekonomii ze szczególnym akcentem na zarządzanie. Taka forma inauguracji procesu kształcenia sprowadza się do wtłoczenia w umysły studentów nieuświadamianej ekonomicznej przed-świadomości, która zakłada, że poziom finansowania (dostępne środki) i zarządzanie przepływem (rozdziałem) środków finansowych wraz z pochodnymi aspektami, jak planowanie, zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem, organizacja, rachunkowość, budżetowanie itd. rządzi również światem sztuki oraz innej działalności kulturalnej, a tam, gdzie jeszcze to się nie dzieje, taki dyktat powinien być wprowadzony. Nie wolno lekceważyć zawężenia horyzontów, które jest skutkiem takiej indoktrynacji, gdyż w obecnym świecie niewątpliwie króluje myślenie w kategoriach pieniądza15, i człowiekowi nietrudno odwoływać się do tej kategorii, która wydaje się oczywista, a tym samym oszczędzić sobie trudu bardziej dogłębnej refleksji. Tu leży podstawowy problem etyczny naszych czasów, który dotknął także dziedzinę zarządzania kulturą. Zasadniczą różnicę stanowi, czy kształtowanie tej sfery zawodowej rozpoczyna się od bezkrytycznej indoktrynacji pod dyktando względów komercyjnych, czy też aspekty te są traktowane jako materia niższego rzędu, przyswajana z konieczności, ale dopiero po tym, jak studenci odnajdą intelektualną wolność i niezależność w profesjonalnym zmaganiu się z materialnymi uwarunkowaniami kulturalnych, a szczególnie artystycznych przedsięwzięć. Studia mogłyby się więc rozpoczynać od wstępu do problematyki, którą nazwać możemy Zarządzanie kulturą jako profesja, uzupełnionej wiedzą z takich obszarów naukowych, jak filozofia kultury, polityka kulturalna, historia i antropologia kultury. Zasadne byłoby również wprowadzenie przedmiotu Wstęp do rozważań ekonomicznych, koncentrującego się na historycznym charakterze i kulturowych uwarunkowaniach powstania modeli gospodarczych, w tym gospodarki rynkowej. Wprowadzenie aspektów kreatywności, kompetencji empatycznej i całościowego podejścia jest odpowiedzią na rozpoczynającą się już w szkole i ugruntowaną pod wpływem własnych przeżyć tendencję – wzmacnianą dodatkowo przez praktykę nauczania w przeszłości – do uznawania priorytetu intelektualnego podejścia do zdobywania wiedzy o świecie nad podejściem kładącym


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Nie chodzi tu bynajmniej o ogólne zasady tworzenia budżetu, ale o kształtowanie umiejętności zaplanowania budżetu z uwzględnieniem konkretnych okoliczności zewnętrznych. Kształt studiów pragmatycznych powinien być zdominowany przez zajęcia w formie bloków, które winny całkowicie wyprzeć przestarzałą formę kształcenia w ramach osobnych przedmiotów rozdzielanych na semestry i odbywających się w postaci jedno- lub dwugodzinnych zajęć. Dzięki temu styl nauczania i uczenia się ewoluował będzie w kierunku aktywnego wysiłku intelektualnego obu stron podczas zajęć, gdyż niemożliwe będzie nieprzerwane prowadzenie wykładu przez cały dzień, a jeszcze mniej realna byłaby możliwość przyswojenia przez studentów przekazywanego im w ten sposób ogromu materiału. Nieustanne sprzężenie zwrotne pomiędzy nauczającymi a uczącymi się już dawno potwierdziło swoje zalety. Do dydaktyki zarządzania kulturą należy – abstrahując od niewielkiej ilości materiału przekazywanego podczas jednostki lekcyjnej – zasada prowadzenia zajęć w formie warsztatów. Artykuł ten musi się ograniczyć do tych zwięzłych, z czego zdaję sobie sprawę, sugestii. Bez wątpienia konieczne są dalsze, własne rozważania, nowe doświadczenia i ich analiza, a być może również prezentacja ich wyników środowiskom branżowym z myślą o wywołaniu debaty. Tak pojmowana koncepcja pragmatycznego zarządzania kulturą musi wykuwać się w ogniu prób i błędów, aby z czasem zarówno w praktyce, jak i na poziomie akademickim, ugruntować swoją pozycję.

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nacisk na wyobraźnię i doznania zmysłowe jako źródła poznania. Przeświadczenie, że to właśnie ludzki umysł rządzi światem jest tymczasem przestarzałe, odkąd wiemy, że kreatywność właśnie nie jest osiągnięciem rozumu, lecz zawdzięcza swój potencjał otwarciu się na nieograniczony, wewnętrzny świat wyobraźni. Umysł jest czynnikiem ograniczającym, i w przypadku początkujących studentów to zawężenie świadomości, posunięte aż do swoistego poczucia wstydu względem własnej sfery emocjonalnej jest głęboko zakorzenione. Istnieje jednak wiele metod treningu, które na bazie objaśniających ćwiczeń i omawiania przykładowych sytuacji pozwalają na poszerzenie intelektualnych horyzontów. Tego typu programy treningowe, połączone z praktycznym doświadczeniem własnej, nawet jeśli z reguły amatorskiej, działalności artystycznej, można włączyć w program początkowej fazy studiów i kontynuować na następnych etapach z narastającą intensywnością. Udział podstawowej wiedzy z zakresu mikroekonomii jest jednak niezbędny. Kluczową kwestią jest, by wiedza ta poszerzana była dopiero w momencie, gdy studenci posiądą zdolność do samodzielnego osądu. Wiedza ta służyć ma tworzeniu strategii działania z uwzględnieniem uwarunkowań konkretnego przypadku. Te kompetencje, których podstawą musi być jednak intelektualna niezależność, można stymulować podczas zajęć mających formę ćwiczeń. Przykładem takich ćwiczeń może być zadanie stworzenia budżetu dla planowanej wystawy przy dokładnie zdefiniowanych rzeczywistych uwarunkowaniach.

Dotyczy to także sytuacji, gdy zgłębiamy przeszłość i uprawiamy historię. Przeszłość można studiować tylko wtedy, jeśli zostawia ślady. Możemy ją odtworzyć z tych śladów, jeśli jest ich wystarczająco dużo. Jesteśmy w stanie rozważać przeszłość, lecz jej nie przeżyjemy. Przeszłość jako konstrukcja intelektualna ściśle odnosi się do przyszłości.

22

22 Dotyczy to także sytuacji, gdy zgłębiamy przeszłość i uprawiamy historię. Przeszłość można studiować tylko wtedy, jeśli zostawia ślady. Możemy ją odtworzyć z tych śladów, jeśli jest ich wystarczająco dużo. Jesteśmy w stanie rozważać przeszłość, lecz jej nie przeżyjemy. Przeszłość jako konstrukcja intelektualna ściśle odnosi się do przyszłości.

Nie chodzi tu bynajmniej o ogólne zasady tworzenia budżetu, ale o kształtowanie umiejętności zaplanowania budżetu z uwzględnieniem konkretnych okoliczności zewnętrznych. Kształt studiów pragmatycznych powinien być zdominowany przez zajęcia w formie bloków, które winny całkowicie wyprzeć przestarzałą formę kształcenia w ramach osobnych przedmiotów rozdzielanych na semestry i odbywających się w postaci jedno- lub dwugodzinnych zajęć. Dzięki temu styl nauczania i uczenia się ewoluował będzie w kierunku aktywnego wysiłku intelektualnego obu stron podczas zajęć, gdyż niemożliwe będzie nieprzerwane prowadzenie wykładu przez cały dzień, a jeszcze mniej realna byłaby możliwość przyswojenia przez studentów przekazywanego im w ten sposób ogromu materiału. Nieustanne sprzężenie zwrotne pomiędzy nauczającymi a uczącymi się już dawno potwierdziło swoje zalety. Do dydaktyki zarządzania kulturą należy – abstrahując od niewielkiej ilości materiału przekazywanego podczas jednostki lekcyjnej – zasada prowadzenia zajęć w formie warsztatów. Artykuł ten musi się ograniczyć do tych zwięzłych, z czego zdaję sobie sprawę, sugestii. Bez wątpienia konieczne są dalsze, własne rozważania, nowe doświadczenia i ich analiza, a być może również prezentacja ich wyników środowiskom branżowym z myślą o wywołaniu debaty. Tak pojmowana koncepcja pragmatycznego zarządzania kulturą musi wykuwać się w ogniu prób i błędów, aby z czasem zarówno w praktyce, jak i na poziomie akademickim, ugruntować swoją pozycję.

236

nacisk na wyobraźnię i doznania zmysłowe jako źródła poznania. Przeświadczenie, że to właśnie ludzki umysł rządzi światem jest tymczasem przestarzałe, odkąd wiemy, że kreatywność właśnie nie jest osiągnięciem rozumu, lecz zawdzięcza swój potencjał otwarciu się na nieograniczony, wewnętrzny świat wyobraźni. Umysł jest czynnikiem ograniczającym, i w przypadku początkujących studentów to zawężenie świadomości, posunięte aż do swoistego poczucia wstydu względem własnej sfery emocjonalnej jest głęboko zakorzenione. Istnieje jednak wiele metod treningu, które na bazie objaśniających ćwiczeń i omawiania przykładowych sytuacji pozwalają na poszerzenie intelektualnych horyzontów. Tego typu programy treningowe, połączone z praktycznym doświadczeniem własnej, nawet jeśli z reguły amatorskiej, działalności artystycznej, można włączyć w program początkowej fazy studiów i kontynuować na następnych etapach z narastającą intensywnością. Udział podstawowej wiedzy z zakresu mikroekonomii jest jednak niezbędny. Kluczową kwestią jest, by wiedza ta poszerzana była dopiero w momencie, gdy studenci posiądą zdolność do samodzielnego osądu. Wiedza ta służyć ma tworzeniu strategii działania z uwzględnieniem uwarunkowań konkretnego przypadku. Te kompetencje, których podstawą musi być jednak intelektualna niezależność, można stymulować podczas zajęć mających formę ćwiczeń. Przykładem takich ćwiczeń może być zadanie stworzenia budżetu dla planowanej wystawy przy dokładnie zdefiniowanych rzeczywistych uwarunkowaniach.


237

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Literatura Basi eux P., Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesells-

Coveney P., Highfield R., The Arrow of Time: A Voyage

chaft, Wirtschaft und Natur, Reinbek k. Hamburga

Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries,

(Rowohlt) 2008.

London 1990 (w języku niemieckim Anti-Chaos – Der

Bendixen P., Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der

Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens,

Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens

Przedmowa: Ilya Prigogine, Reinbek k. Hamburga

(w druku w wydawnictwie LIT-Verlag, ukaże się przypuszczalnie jesienią 2009). Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement, Wiesbaden 2006. Bendixen P., Kulturmanagement als Handwerk [w:]. Jahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Bendixen P., Managing Art – Introduction into Principles and Conceptions (drukiem w wydawnictwie LIT-Verlag, Münster, przypuszczalnie we wrześniu 2009.

1992). Gigerenzer G., Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition, Monachium (Goldmann) 2008. Kleimann B., Schmücker R., Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach ihrer Funktion, Darmstadt 2001. Libet B., Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein produziert, Frankfurt nad Menem 2007. Luhmann N., Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt nad Menem (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft) 2007.

Bendixen P., Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die

Pöppel E., Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir

historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden

zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt

Wirtschaftsethik, Münster et al. 2009. Breithaupt F., Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frankfurt nad Menem (Suhrkamp) 2009. Brodbeck K. H., Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökonomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Darmstadt 2007. Brodbeck K. H., Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte und Systematik, Darmstadt 2009. Coveney P., Highfield R., Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit

nad Menem 1997. Pöppel E., Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für Manager, Monachium 2008. Safranski R., Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch, Frankfurt nad Menem 2006. Schillera F., Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den Augustenburger Briefen, wydane przez K. L. Berghahna, Ditzingen 2000.

in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Reinbek k.

Sennett R., HandWerk, Berlin 2008.

Hamburga 1992.

Smith A., Theory of Moral Sentiments, Londyn 1759.

Smith A., Theory of Moral Sentiments, Londyn 1759.

Hamburga 1992.

Sennett R., HandWerk, Berlin 2008.

in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens, Reinbek k. Coveney P., Highfield R., Anti-Chaos – Der Pfeil der Zeit und Systematik, Darmstadt 2009. Brodbeck K. H., Die Herrschaft des Geldes – Geschichte Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Darmstadt 2007. nomie – Eine philosophische Kritik der modernen Brodbeck K. H., Die fragwürdigen Grundlagen der Ökofurt nad Menem (Suhrkamp) 2009. Breithaupt F., Kulturen der Empathie Breithaupt, Frank-

Ditzingen 2000. stenburger Briefen, wydane przez K. L. Berghahna, schen in einer Reihe von Briefen: Mit den AuguSchillera F., Über die ästhetische Erziehung des MenFrankfurt nad Menem 2006. Safranski R., Wieviel Globalisierung verträgt der Mensch, Manager, Monachium 2008. Pöppel E., Zum Entscheiden geboren: Hirnforschung für nad Menem 1997.

Wirtschaftsethik, Münster et al. 2009.

zur Zeit, und wie entsteht Wirklichkeit? Frankfurt

historische Dimension einer zukunftweisenden

Pöppel E., Grenzen des Bewußtseins. Wie kommen wir

Bendixen P., Unternehmerische Verantwortung – Die 2009. LIT-Verlag, Münster, przypuszczalnie we wrześniu ples and Conceptions (drukiem w wydawnictwie Bendixen P., Managing Art – Introduction into PrinciJahrbuch Kulturmanagement 2009. Bendixen P., Kulturmanagement als Handwerk [w:]. gement, Wiesbaden 2006. Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanaprzypuszczalnie jesienią 2009). (w druku w wydawnictwie LIT-Verlag, ukaże się

Menem (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft) 2007. Luhmann N., Die Kunst der Gesellschaft, Frankfurt nad duziert, Frankfurt nad Menem 2007. Libet B., Mind Time: Wie das Gehirn Bewusstsein proihrer Funktion, Darmstadt 2001. Kleimann B., Schmücker R., Wozu Kunst? Die Frage nach nachium (Goldmann) 2008. des Unbewussten und die Macht der Intuition, MoGigerenzer G., Bauchentscheidungen – Die Intelligenz 1992). Przedmowa: Ilya Prigogine, Reinbek k. Hamburga

Markt – Das weite Feld des ökonomischen Denkens

Pfeil der Zeit in der Selbstorganisation des Lebens,

Bendixen P., Die Unsichtbare Hand, die Freiheit und der

London 1990 (w języku niemieckim Anti-Chaos – Der

(Rowohlt) 2008.

Through Science to Solve Time’s Greatest Mysteries,

chaft, Wirtschaft und Natur, Reinbek k. Hamburga

Coveney P., Highfield R., The Arrow of Time: A Voyage

Basi eux P., Die Welt als Spiel – Spieltheorie in Gesells-

Literatura Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

237


238

Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Bogusław Nierenberg

238

Wstęp

edług Philipa Kotlera rynek „składa się ze wszystkich potencjalnych klientów, mających określoną potrzebę lub pragnienie, którzy w celu ich zaspokojenia są gotowi i są w stanie dokonać wymiany” [Kotler, 1999, s. 9]. Z kolei Krystyna Mazurek-Łopacińska określa rynek jako kategorię ekonomiczną produkcji towarowej i jako taką odnosi do dzieł sztuki. Jej zdaniem: „dzieła artystyczne stają się towarami na rynku sztuki, jeśli są przeznaczone na sprzedaż” [Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, 1997, s. 14]. Jeżeli

W

W

okół relacji pomiędzy kulturą a mechanizmami rynkowymi narosło wiele mitów. Najogólniej rzecz ujmując można wyróżnić dwa przeciwstawne ujęcia problemu: rynkowe i antyrynkowe. Zwolennicy pierwszej opcji są przekonani, że rynek jest najskuteczniejszym remedium na wszelkie problemy, równowaga pomiędzy podażą i popytem jest mechanizmem najskuteczniej regulującym społeczne relacje, kulturowe także. Z kolei przeciwnicy takiego stanowiska są przekonani, że mechanizmy rynkowe są największym przekleństwem kultury, a zwłaszcza sztuki. Nie mogą prawa rynku decydować o tym, czy ktoś ma talent czy nie, czy dzieła artystyczne będą powstawać, czy też nie – powiadają przeciwnicy komercji. Opisany wyżej konflikt nie jest jedynie wydumanym, abstrakcyjnym dylematem. Ma on swoje realne odzwierciedlenie w codziennej pracy menedżerów zarządzających instytucjami kultury. Nie jest aspiracją autora niniejszego artykułu rozstrzyganie, kto w tym sporze ma rację, a jedynie opisanie zależności, które mogą wpływać bądź mają wpływ na zarządzanie instytucjami kultury.

Rynek a kultura

Rynek a kultura

dr hab. Bogusław Nierenberg, prof. Uniwersytetu Opolskiego Pracownik naukowy, dziennikarz, ekonomista. Dyrektor Instytutu Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz profesor w Zakładzie Dziennikarstwa i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Kieruje pracami jedynego w Polsce Zakładu Zarządzania i Ekonomiki Mediów na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Specjalizuje się w ekonomice mediów i kultury, zarządzaniu mediami, komunikacji rynkowej oraz reklamie. Autor 7 monografii oraz kilkudziesięciu artykułów naukowych dotyczących mediów, reklamy, zarządzania i komunikacji rynkowej, ale także dziennikarstwa oraz gatunków dziennikarskich. Jest autorem tomiku wierszy „Dychotomia uczuć”.

okół relacji pomiędzy kulturą a mechanizmami rynkowymi narosło wiele mitów. Najogólniej rzecz ujmując można wyróżnić dwa przeciwstawne ujęcia problemu: rynkowe i antyrynkowe. Zwolennicy pierwszej opcji są przekonani, że rynek jest najskuteczniejszym remedium na wszelkie problemy, równowaga pomiędzy podażą i popytem jest mechanizmem najskuteczniej regulującym społeczne relacje, kulturowe także. Z kolei przeciwnicy takiego stanowiska są przekonani, że mechanizmy rynkowe są największym przekleństwem kultury, a zwłaszcza sztuki. Nie mogą prawa rynku decydować o tym, czy ktoś ma talent czy nie, czy dzieła artystyczne będą powstawać, czy też nie – powiadają przeciwnicy komercji. Opisany wyżej konflikt nie jest jedynie wydumanym, abstrakcyjnym dylematem. Ma on swoje realne odzwierciedlenie w codziennej pracy menedżerów zarządzających instytucjami kultury. Nie jest aspiracją autora niniejszego artykułu rozstrzyganie, kto w tym sporze ma rację, a jedynie opisanie zależności, które mogą wpływać bądź mają wpływ na zarządzanie instytucjami kultury.

W

W

przyjmiemy, że obie definicje są obiektywnym opisem rzeczywistości, to od razu napotykamy na pierwszą sprzeczność. Jeżeli produkty kultury, w tym także dzieła sztuki, są istotnym motorem społecznego rozwoju, to przesłanką nabycia tychże produktów winna być ich wartość artystyczna, cokolwiek byśmy rozumieli pod tym pojęciem. Tymczasem wiadomo, że dla wielu ludzi dzieła sztuki są jedynie doskonałą lokatą kapitału. Znacznie lepszą niż inne instrumenty rynkowe, np. bankowe lokaty, wkłady terminowe, obligacje czy akcje. Oczywiście te dwie motywacje nie muszą być sprzeczne. Łatwo możemy sobie wyobrazić kolekcjonera dzieł sztuki, który pomnażając wartość swojego majątku, delektuje się pięknem zgromadzonej kolekcji. Wielu publicystów, ale także uczonych ma „pretensje” do rynku, że wpływa destrukcyjnie na kulturę, że obniża wartość dzieł sztuki, że sprzyja chałturze, kiczowi, miernocie. I trudno się z tym nie zgodzić. Jednak należy pamiętać, że rynek jest jedynie odzwierciedleniem ludzkich potrzeb. Jeżeli chcemy, by ludzie mieli inne, bardziej wyrafinowane potrzeby, to potrzebna jest edukacja. Postulat uczenia wrażliwości na piękno, sztukę nie jest jedynie postulatem rozmaitych pięknoduchów. Ma on jak najbardziej ekonomiczne uzasadnienie. Zdaniem K. Mazurek-Łopacińskiej istota zagadnienia sprowadza się do tego, by wysokiej klasy dzieło artystyczne znajdowało na rynku odpowiedni popyt [tamże, s. 18]. W tym przypadku mówimy o popycie efektywnym, czyli takim, w którym „chcenie” ma odzwierciedlenie w kieszeniach „chcących”. Możemy zatem z pewnym uproszczeniem stwierdzić, że ekonomika kultury rozpięta jest między dwoma punktami odniesienia (miarami): MM miarą wartości (odniesienie do rynku), MM hierarchią wartości (odniesienie do sztuki). Między tymi miarami powstaje obszar, na który może wkroczyć państwo i uruchomić takie instrumenty oddziaływania, które sprawią, że

przyjmiemy, że obie definicje są obiektywnym opisem rzeczywistości, to od razu napotykamy na pierwszą sprzeczność. Jeżeli produkty kultury, w tym także dzieła sztuki, są istotnym motorem społecznego rozwoju, to przesłanką nabycia tychże produktów winna być ich wartość artystyczna, cokolwiek byśmy rozumieli pod tym pojęciem. Tymczasem wiadomo, że dla wielu ludzi dzieła sztuki są jedynie doskonałą lokatą kapitału. Znacznie lepszą niż inne instrumenty rynkowe, np. bankowe lokaty, wkłady terminowe, obligacje czy akcje. Oczywiście te dwie motywacje nie muszą być sprzeczne. Łatwo możemy sobie wyobrazić kolekcjonera dzieł sztuki, który pomnażając wartość swojego majątku, delektuje się pięknem zgromadzonej kolekcji. Wielu publicystów, ale także uczonych ma „pretensje” do rynku, że wpływa destrukcyjnie na kulturę, że obniża wartość dzieł sztuki, że sprzyja chałturze, kiczowi, miernocie. I trudno się z tym nie zgodzić. Jednak należy pamiętać, że rynek jest jedynie odzwierciedleniem ludzkich potrzeb. Jeżeli chcemy, by ludzie mieli inne, bardziej wyrafinowane potrzeby, to potrzebna jest edukacja. Postulat uczenia wrażliwości na piękno, sztukę nie jest jedynie postulatem rozmaitych pięknoduchów. Ma on jak najbardziej ekonomiczne uzasadnienie. Zdaniem K. Mazurek-Łopacińskiej istota zagadnienia sprowadza się do tego, by wysokiej klasy dzieło artystyczne znajdowało na rynku odpowiedni popyt [tamże, s. 18]. W tym przypadku mówimy o popycie efektywnym, czyli takim, w którym „chcenie” ma odzwierciedlenie w kieszeniach „chcących”. Możemy zatem z pewnym uproszczeniem stwierdzić, że ekonomika kultury rozpięta jest między dwoma punktami odniesienia (miarami): MM miarą wartości (odniesienie do rynku), MM hierarchią wartości (odniesienie do sztuki). Między tymi miarami powstaje obszar, na który może wkroczyć państwo i uruchomić takie instrumenty oddziaływania, które sprawią, że

Wstęp

edług Philipa Kotlera rynek „składa się ze wszystkich potencjalnych klientów, mających określoną potrzebę lub pragnienie, którzy w celu ich zaspokojenia są gotowi i są w stanie dokonać wymiany” [Kotler, 1999, s. 9]. Z kolei Krystyna Mazurek-Łopacińska określa rynek jako kategorię ekonomiczną produkcji towarowej i jako taką odnosi do dzieł sztuki. Jej zdaniem: „dzieła artystyczne stają się towarami na rynku sztuki, jeśli są przeznaczone na sprzedaż” [Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, 1997, s. 14]. Jeżeli

Bogusław Nierenberg

dr hab. Bogusław Nierenberg, prof. Uniwersytetu Opolskiego Pracownik naukowy, dziennikarz, ekonomista. Dyrektor Instytutu Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz profesor w Zakładzie Dziennikarstwa i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Kieruje pracami jedynego w Polsce Zakładu Zarządzania i Ekonomiki Mediów na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Specjalizuje się w ekonomice mediów i kultury, zarządzaniu mediami, komunikacji rynkowej oraz reklamie. Autor 7 monografii oraz kilkudziesięciu artykułów naukowych dotyczących mediów, reklamy, zarządzania i komunikacji rynkowej, ale także dziennikarstwa oraz gatunków dziennikarskich. Jest autorem tomiku wierszy „Dychotomia uczuć”.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą


239

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Rys. 1 Piramida potrzeb

samourzeczywistnienie potrzeby szacunku potrzeby przynależności i miłości

Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą

potrzeby fizjologiczne

potrzeby bezpieczeństwa

potrzeby przynależności i miłości potrzeby szacunku

Bogusław Nierenberg

Z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia ów szczególny rodzaj ludzkiej aktywności zwany działalnością kulturalną dzieli się na [Grzelońska, 2008]: 1. sztukę, 2. przemysły kultury. W obrębie sztuki powstają produkty sztuki albo dzieła sztuki, które mogą: 1. być tworzone osobiście przez twórców – artystów, 2. być produkowane jednostkowo, 3. zawierać, oprócz fizycznej postaci, warstwę znaczeniową, symboliczną, być nośnikami wartości, symboli, itp. Do sztuki zaliczamy następujące branże: 1. twórczość artystyczną (malarstwo, rzeźba itd.), 2. sztukę wykonawczą (wykonywanie na żywo muzyki, oper, przedstawień dramatycznych, komediowych itd.), 3. ochronę i udostępnianie obiektów dziedzictwa materialnego i duchowego (muzea, biblioteki, archiwa itd.)[tamże]. Instytucje zaliczane do przemysłów kultury wytwarzają dobra będące nośnikami warstwy znaczeniowej, symbolicznej, ale z definicji nie są ani obiektami tworzonymi osobiście przez artystów, ani nie są produkowane jednostkowo. Na ogół są kopiowanymi (replikowanymi, powielanymi) dziełami sztuki (np. książki, płyty). Według U. Grzelońskiej produkty przemysłów kultury zalicza się do dóbr kultury, ale nie są one dobrami kultury w pełnym tego słowa znaczeniu. Jej zdaniem jedynie produkty sztuki są dobrami kultury w najpełniejszym znaczeniu [tamże]. Do sfery działalności kulturalnej zalicza się także dwie inne dziedziny, które: 1. umożliwiają odbiór dzieł sztuki (np. przemysł fonograficzny), 2. korzystają z dzieł sztuki (np. projekty architektoniczne). Według U. Grzelońskiej zaliczenie jakieś dziedziny do sektora kultury jest bardziej kwestią konwencji

Bogusław Nierenberg

Źródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: A. H. Maslow, Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa 1990, s. 72–102.

Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą

pewne dziedziny kultury rozwijać się będą lepiej, a inne gorzej bądź wcale. Nazywamy to polityką kulturalną państwa. Urszula Grzelońska, sama będąc ekonomistką, przestrzega jednak przed zbytnią ufnością w metody rynkowe w odniesieniu do kultury. Jej zdaniem trudno wyodrębnić sferę kultury posługując się jedynie metodami przyjętymi w ekonomii [Grzelońska, 2008]. Bierze się to z dwóch podstawowych różnic występujących między sferą gospodarczą a kulturalną: 1. zaspokajaniem potrzeb, 2. charakterem wytwarzanych i uzyskiwanych produktów. Abraham Harold Maslow wyróżnił pięć podstawowych potrzeb i pragnień (por. rys. 1, piramida potrzeb), które są motorem napędowym działania każdego człowieka. Bazę stanowią potrzeby podstawowe. Do potrzeb podstawowych Maslow zaliczył także potrzeby estetyczne: „Ostre wydzielenie potrzeb estetycznych nie jest możliwe ze względu na to, że pokrywają się one z potrzebami wolicjonalnymi i poznawczymi” [Maslow, 1990, s. 72–102]. Z badań Maslowa wynika także, że kolejne etapy piramidy wcale nie muszą następować po sobie. Badając biografie wielu artystów łatwo znajdziemy przykłady, że podstawowe potrzeby, np. zaspokojenia głodu, wcale nie muszą być zaspokojone, by potrzeba samorealizacji silnie się uwidoczniła i była realizowana. Kotler zwraca uwagę, że „potrzeba ludzka to stan odczuwania braku zaspokojenia”, natomiast „pragnienia są wyrazem szczególnego sposobu zaspokojenia potrzeb pierwotnych” [Kotler, 1999, s. 6] Dla zaspokojenia potrzeb i pragnień człowiek musi podjąć odpowiednie działania.

potrzeby bezpieczeństwa potrzeby fizjologiczne

Źródło: opracowanie własne na podstawie: A. H. Maslow, Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa 1990, s. 72–102.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

239

samourzeczywistnienie Rys. 1 Piramida potrzeb

pewne dziedziny kultury rozwijać się będą lepiej, a inne gorzej bądź wcale. Nazywamy to polityką kulturalną państwa. Urszula Grzelońska, sama będąc ekonomistką, przestrzega jednak przed zbytnią ufnością w metody rynkowe w odniesieniu do kultury. Jej zdaniem trudno wyodrębnić sferę kultury posługując się jedynie metodami przyjętymi w ekonomii [Grzelońska, 2008]. Bierze się to z dwóch podstawowych różnic występujących między sferą gospodarczą a kulturalną: 1. zaspokajaniem potrzeb, 2. charakterem wytwarzanych i uzyskiwanych produktów. Abraham Harold Maslow wyróżnił pięć podstawowych potrzeb i pragnień (por. rys. 1, piramida potrzeb), które są motorem napędowym działania każdego człowieka. Bazę stanowią potrzeby podstawowe. Do potrzeb podstawowych Maslow zaliczył także potrzeby estetyczne: „Ostre wydzielenie potrzeb estetycznych nie jest możliwe ze względu na to, że pokrywają się one z potrzebami wolicjonalnymi i poznawczymi” [Maslow, 1990, s. 72–102]. Z badań Maslowa wynika także, że kolejne etapy piramidy wcale nie muszą następować po sobie. Badając biografie wielu artystów łatwo znajdziemy przykłady, że podstawowe potrzeby, np. zaspokojenia głodu, wcale nie muszą być zaspokojone, by potrzeba samorealizacji silnie się uwidoczniła i była realizowana. Kotler zwraca uwagę, że „potrzeba ludzka to stan odczuwania braku zaspokojenia”, natomiast „pragnienia są wyrazem szczególnego sposobu zaspokojenia potrzeb pierwotnych” [Kotler, 1999, s. 6] Dla zaspokojenia potrzeb i pragnień człowiek musi podjąć odpowiednie działania.

Z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia ów szczególny rodzaj ludzkiej aktywności zwany działalnością kulturalną dzieli się na [Grzelońska, 2008]: 1. sztukę, 2. przemysły kultury. W obrębie sztuki powstają produkty sztuki albo dzieła sztuki, które mogą: 1. być tworzone osobiście przez twórców – artystów, 2. być produkowane jednostkowo, 3. zawierać, oprócz fizycznej postaci, warstwę znaczeniową, symboliczną, być nośnikami wartości, symboli, itp. Do sztuki zaliczamy następujące branże: 1. twórczość artystyczną (malarstwo, rzeźba itd.), 2. sztukę wykonawczą (wykonywanie na żywo muzyki, oper, przedstawień dramatycznych, komediowych itd.), 3. ochronę i udostępnianie obiektów dziedzictwa materialnego i duchowego (muzea, biblioteki, archiwa itd.)[tamże]. Instytucje zaliczane do przemysłów kultury wytwarzają dobra będące nośnikami warstwy znaczeniowej, symbolicznej, ale z definicji nie są ani obiektami tworzonymi osobiście przez artystów, ani nie są produkowane jednostkowo. Na ogół są kopiowanymi (replikowanymi, powielanymi) dziełami sztuki (np. książki, płyty). Według U. Grzelońskiej produkty przemysłów kultury zalicza się do dóbr kultury, ale nie są one dobrami kultury w pełnym tego słowa znaczeniu. Jej zdaniem jedynie produkty sztuki są dobrami kultury w najpełniejszym znaczeniu [tamże]. Do sfery działalności kulturalnej zalicza się także dwie inne dziedziny, które: 1. umożliwiają odbiór dzieł sztuki (np. przemysł fonograficzny), 2. korzystają z dzieł sztuki (np. projekty architektoniczne). Według U. Grzelońskiej zaliczenie jakieś dziedziny do sektora kultury jest bardziej kwestią konwencji


niż logicznego podziału [tamże]. Powszechnie uważa się wydawnictwa za firmy działające w sferze kultury, a firmy budowlane już nie. Tymczasem zarówno jedne jak i drugie zajmują się powielaniem dzieł twórców. W pierwszym przypadku pisarzy czy kompozytorów, w drugim architektów.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Dlaczego do sztuki trzeba dopłacać?

240

P

roblem deficytowości sztuki jest tak stary, jak stara jest nasza cywilizacja. Sztuka zawsze była sponsorowana i tylko w ciągu wieków zmieniała się waga czynników przesądzających o deficytowości oraz struktura sponsorów. Dzieło sztuki staje się towarem, jeśli posiada wartość użytkową, czyli zdolność do zaspokajania określonych potrzeb oraz wartość wymienną (rynkową). Jednakże doświadczenie w tym zakresie poucza nas, że co najmniej niektóre z dóbr kultury nie uzyskują w procesie wymiany takiej ceny, która uzasadniałaby poświęcanie dla ich wytworzenia i dostarczenia do konsumentów takiej ilości zasobów, jaką faktycznie pochłaniają. A zatem do ich produkcji trzeba dopłacać. Ale czy na pewno trzeba dopłacać? Odpowiedź na to pytanie wcale nie jest tak prosta ani jednoznaczna jakby się mogło wydawać. Badaniem ekonomicznych aspektów kultury, w tym sztuki, uczeni zajęli się dopiero w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach. Wyniki ich prac były często zaskakujące, ale jednocześnie przyniosły wyjaśnienie natury niektórych procesów. Najbardziej spektakularnym przykładem są wyniki badań Williama Baumola, o czym będzie mowa w dalszej części tego rozdziału. W Polsce najbardziej znane badania prowadzi prof. Urszula Grzelońska. Kiedy w kwietniu 2007 r. przedstawiła wyniki swoich prac podczas konwersatorium „Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii” wywołała burzliwą reakcję słuchaczy, zwłaszcza twórców. Przewodnicząca obradom prof. Elżbieta Mączyńska stwierdziła wręcz: „Zaproponowała pani rzeczywiście bardzo dla wielu z nas szokujący język mówienia o twórczości…” [Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii, 2007]. W istocie, zastosowanie miar ekonomicznych w odniesieniu do sztuki może być dla wielu, zwłaszcza artystów szokujące. Najogólniej rzecz ujmując badacze szukali odpowiedzi na dwa pytania: 1. Dlaczego działalność kulturalna wymaga mecenatu? (dlaczego wymaga dopłacania?). 2. W jaki sposób winien być zorganizowany najbardziej skuteczny i oszczędny mecenat oraz produkcja dóbr kultury? Szukając odpowiedzi na te pytania należy najpierw odpowiedzieć na pytanie: dlaczego kultura

nie może utrzymać się sama? Wspomniano już, że z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia oznacza to, że dobra wytwarzane w sferze kultury nie mogą uzyskać na rynku takiej ceny, która pokryłaby wszystkie koszty ich wyprodukowania. W sferze kultury są oczywiście tacy artyści, których dzieła osiągają taką cenę, że ich działalność nie wymaga dotowania, ale stanowią oni zdecydowaną mniejszość. W przypadku kultury (tak samo jak każdej innej działalności człowieka) koszty są dwojakiego rodzaju: 1. osobowe (w tym przypadku wynagrodzenie artystów), 2. koszty materiałowe (wartość zużytych w procesie tworzenia narzędzi i materiałów). Jeżeli koszty przewyższają przychody mamy do czynienia z deficytem. W takiej sytuacji możliwe są dwa rozwiązania: albo należy zaprzestać takiej deficytowej działalności, albo znaleźć źródło sfinansowania deficytu. Na ogół wymienia się cztery przyczyny deficytowości w kulturze [tamże]: 1. zjawisko Baumol’s cost disease (choroba kosztowa Baumola), 2. mega-gwiazdorstwo, 3. działalność oportunistów i rentierów, 4. nadmierna podaż na rynku sztuki. William Baumol, amerykański ekonomista zauważył, że twórczość artystyczna nie poddaje się postępowi technicznemu w takim stopniu jak inne sektory gospodarki. W następstwie postępu technicznego obniżają się koszty, a rośnie wydajność, a co za tym idzie podwyżka płac może być sfinansowana z powiększających się dochodów. Tymczasem w sektorze sztuki wydajność pracy pozostaje właściwie niezmienna. Baumol opisał to zjawisko w latach 60. XX w. Dla jego zobrazowania posłużył się przykładem kwintetu smyczkowego g-mol Wolfganga Amadeusza Mozarta. Kiedy kompozytor napisał w 1787 r. ten utwór, do jego wykonania potrzeba było pięciu muzyków: dwóch skrzypków, dwóch altowiolistów i jednego wiolonczelisty. Zagranie tego kwintetu wymaga tyle samo czasu i takiej samej liczby muzyków dziś, jak i dwieście lat temu. Zatem z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia, w ciągu dwóch wieków wydajność artystów wykonujących ten utwór nie wzrosła [Surowiecki, 2003]. Dla porównania James Surowiecki opisując to zjawisko przywołuje postęp, jaki dokonał się w przemyśle motoryzacyjnym. W 1979 r. robotnicy General Motors potrzebowali 41 godzin na zmontowanie samochodu. Dwie dekady później montaż jednego auta zajmował im zaledwie 24 godziny. Zatem wzrost płac w koncernie General Motors został sfinansowany wzrostem wydajności pracy. W przypadku artystów wydajność nie rośnie, ale jeżeli wszystkim dookoła lepiej się powodzi, to rośnie presja na to, by lepiej powodziło się także osobom trudniącym

P

roblem deficytowości sztuki jest tak stary, jak stara jest nasza cywilizacja. Sztuka zawsze była sponsorowana i tylko w ciągu wieków zmieniała się waga czynników przesądzających o deficytowości oraz struktura sponsorów. Dzieło sztuki staje się towarem, jeśli posiada wartość użytkową, czyli zdolność do zaspokajania określonych potrzeb oraz wartość wymienną (rynkową). Jednakże doświadczenie w tym zakresie poucza nas, że co najmniej niektóre z dóbr kultury nie uzyskują w procesie wymiany takiej ceny, która uzasadniałaby poświęcanie dla ich wytworzenia i dostarczenia do konsumentów takiej ilości zasobów, jaką faktycznie pochłaniają. A zatem do ich produkcji trzeba dopłacać. Ale czy na pewno trzeba dopłacać? Odpowiedź na to pytanie wcale nie jest tak prosta ani jednoznaczna jakby się mogło wydawać. Badaniem ekonomicznych aspektów kultury, w tym sztuki, uczeni zajęli się dopiero w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach. Wyniki ich prac były często zaskakujące, ale jednocześnie przyniosły wyjaśnienie natury niektórych procesów. Najbardziej spektakularnym przykładem są wyniki badań Williama Baumola, o czym będzie mowa w dalszej części tego rozdziału. W Polsce najbardziej znane badania prowadzi prof. Urszula Grzelońska. Kiedy w kwietniu 2007 r. przedstawiła wyniki swoich prac podczas konwersatorium „Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii” wywołała burzliwą reakcję słuchaczy, zwłaszcza twórców. Przewodnicząca obradom prof. Elżbieta Mączyńska stwierdziła wręcz: „Zaproponowała pani rzeczywiście bardzo dla wielu z nas szokujący język mówienia o twórczości…” [Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii, 2007]. W istocie, zastosowanie miar ekonomicznych w odniesieniu do sztuki może być dla wielu, zwłaszcza artystów szokujące. Najogólniej rzecz ujmując badacze szukali odpowiedzi na dwa pytania: 1. Dlaczego działalność kulturalna wymaga mecenatu? (dlaczego wymaga dopłacania?). 2. W jaki sposób winien być zorganizowany najbardziej skuteczny i oszczędny mecenat oraz produkcja dóbr kultury? Szukając odpowiedzi na te pytania należy najpierw odpowiedzieć na pytanie: dlaczego kultura

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Dlaczego do sztuki trzeba dopłacać?

nie może utrzymać się sama? Wspomniano już, że z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia oznacza to, że dobra wytwarzane w sferze kultury nie mogą uzyskać na rynku takiej ceny, która pokryłaby wszystkie koszty ich wyprodukowania. W sferze kultury są oczywiście tacy artyści, których dzieła osiągają taką cenę, że ich działalność nie wymaga dotowania, ale stanowią oni zdecydowaną mniejszość. W przypadku kultury (tak samo jak każdej innej działalności człowieka) koszty są dwojakiego rodzaju: 1. osobowe (w tym przypadku wynagrodzenie artystów), 2. koszty materiałowe (wartość zużytych w procesie tworzenia narzędzi i materiałów). Jeżeli koszty przewyższają przychody mamy do czynienia z deficytem. W takiej sytuacji możliwe są dwa rozwiązania: albo należy zaprzestać takiej deficytowej działalności, albo znaleźć źródło sfinansowania deficytu. Na ogół wymienia się cztery przyczyny deficytowości w kulturze [tamże]: 1. zjawisko Baumol’s cost disease (choroba kosztowa Baumola), 2. mega-gwiazdorstwo, 3. działalność oportunistów i rentierów, 4. nadmierna podaż na rynku sztuki. William Baumol, amerykański ekonomista zauważył, że twórczość artystyczna nie poddaje się postępowi technicznemu w takim stopniu jak inne sektory gospodarki. W następstwie postępu technicznego obniżają się koszty, a rośnie wydajność, a co za tym idzie podwyżka płac może być sfinansowana z powiększających się dochodów. Tymczasem w sektorze sztuki wydajność pracy pozostaje właściwie niezmienna. Baumol opisał to zjawisko w latach 60. XX w. Dla jego zobrazowania posłużył się przykładem kwintetu smyczkowego g-mol Wolfganga Amadeusza Mozarta. Kiedy kompozytor napisał w 1787 r. ten utwór, do jego wykonania potrzeba było pięciu muzyków: dwóch skrzypków, dwóch altowiolistów i jednego wiolonczelisty. Zagranie tego kwintetu wymaga tyle samo czasu i takiej samej liczby muzyków dziś, jak i dwieście lat temu. Zatem z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia, w ciągu dwóch wieków wydajność artystów wykonujących ten utwór nie wzrosła [Surowiecki, 2003]. Dla porównania James Surowiecki opisując to zjawisko przywołuje postęp, jaki dokonał się w przemyśle motoryzacyjnym. W 1979 r. robotnicy General Motors potrzebowali 41 godzin na zmontowanie samochodu. Dwie dekady później montaż jednego auta zajmował im zaledwie 24 godziny. Zatem wzrost płac w koncernie General Motors został sfinansowany wzrostem wydajności pracy. W przypadku artystów wydajność nie rośnie, ale jeżeli wszystkim dookoła lepiej się powodzi, to rośnie presja na to, by lepiej powodziło się także osobom trudniącym

240

niż logicznego podziału [tamże]. Powszechnie uważa się wydawnictwa za firmy działające w sferze kultury, a firmy budowlane już nie. Tymczasem zarówno jedne jak i drugie zajmują się powielaniem dzieł twórców. W pierwszym przypadku pisarzy czy kompozytorów, w drugim architektów.


241

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

się działalnością artystyczną. Zatem rosną także dochody twórców, a w ostatecznym rachunku rosną koszty wytwarzania dóbr kultury. Zjawisko opisane przez Baumola nie dotyczy tylko artystów. Wykład profesora uniwersytetu dwa wieki temu trwał tyle samo, ile dziś. Kelner na podanie posiłku potrzebuje dziś tyle samo czasu, ile przed laty. Należy przy tym zauważyć, że zjawisko opisanie przez Baumola, zwane chorobą kosztową Baumola lub efektem Baumola, nasila się. Przy braku wzrostu wydajności pracy w obrębie sztuki i przy rosnącej presji na wyższe wynagrodzenia, luka pomiędzy przychodami a kosztami się powiększa. Rozważając zjawisko opisane przez Baumola należy zauważyć, że o ile ze społecznego punktu widzenia sensownym jest dopłacanie do sztuki, o tyle pozbawione takiego sensu jest dopłacanie do przemysłów kultury. Nikt przy zdrowych zmysłach nie postuluje, by dotować firmy budowlane, a jednak są tacy, którym wydaje się zasadny postulat dotowania wydawnictw. Tymczasem i jedne i drugie powielają jedynie dzieła twórców. Kolejna przyczyna konieczności dotowania kultury, określana jako mega-gwiazdorstwo wiąże się z globalizmem procesów komunikacyjnych. A globalny świat przynosi zapotrzebowanie na globalne gwiazdy. Zwłaszcza w świecie sportu i muzyki rozrywkowej. Gdyby nie wsparcie sponsorów, niewielu byłoby stać na spotkanie „live” z takimi gwiazdami. Paradoksalnie, z podobnym problemem mamy do czynienia przy ochronie dziedzictwa kulturowego (historycznego) społeczeństw. Żadna placówka muzealna nie byłaby w stanie kupić (ani nawet ubezpieczyć) obrazu wielkiego mistrza jedynie z opłat od zwiedzających. W tym przypadku rolę mega-gwiazd pełnią wielcy malarze czy rzeźbiarze. Zjawisko opisane przez Baumola dotyczy nie tylko pojedynczych twórców, ale także instytucji działających w obrębie sztuki, takich jak teatry, opery, galerie, muzea. Podmiot kultury, który decyzją administracyjną jest subsydiowany (właśnie ze względu na lukę pomiędzy kosztem wytworzenia produktów a popytem na nie) traci zainteresowanie ograniczeniem rozmiarów tej luki (brak bodźców dla efektywnych alokacji środków). To rodzi swoisty oportunizm po stronie podażowej. Większość instytucji artystycznych działa w oparciu o mechanizm, który powoduje, że podmiot obniżający koszty swojego działania automatycznie otrzymuje mniejsze dotacje. Jest to postawa charakterystyczna dla wielu menedżerów

działających w sferze kultury. Na ten oportunizm nakłada się działalność tzw. poszukiwaczy renty1 funkcjonujących w obszarze kultury (rent seeking activity). Przykładem są działania rozmaitych (często niepotrzebnych) organizacji czy komisji eksperckich. Ich działalność wydatnie powiększa lukę podażową. Jako czwartą przyczynę konieczności dotowania kultury wskazuje się nadmierną podaż na rynku kultury. Jest to teza kontrowersyjna mająca zarówno zwolenników, jak i przeciwników. Jako przyczynę nadmiernej podaży wymienia się na ogół dwie zjawiska: 1. pracę za płace niższe od kosztów alternatywnych, 2. nadmiar artystów. Dla wielu twórców ich praca to nie tylko źródło utrzymania, ale także źródło satysfakcji. Stąd skłonność do pracy za płacę niższą od kosztów alternatywnych. Tę satysfakcję artyści traktują jako rekompensatę za utracone zarobki, które mogliby uzyskać, gdyby zatrudniali się w innych działach gospodarki. Zatem można uznać, że dla wielu artystów wysokość uzyskiwanego przez nich dochodu nie stanowi instrumentu wyznaczającego granicę angażowania się produkcyjnego w sektorze sztuki. W innych sektorach gospodarki płaca jest naturalną barierą ekonomiczną dla podaży. W odniesieniu do sztuki jest to teza tak samo kontrowersyjna, jak twierdzenie, że nadmierna podaż dóbr kultury jest efektem nadmiernej liczby kształconych na koszt społeczeństwa artystów (muzyków, aktorów, malarzy, grafików itp.). Taki sposób rozumowania, związany z „dopłacaniem do niepotrzebnych artystów”, mógłby doprowadzić nas do granicy, poza którą kończy się wolność. Współczesny świat uznaje za jedną z podstawowych norm cywilizacyjnych wybór dowolnego zawodu, który chce wykonywać człowiek. Można oczywiście zachęcać, by poszczególne jednostki wybierały zawody pożądane ze społecznego punktu widzenia, ale nie można nikogo do tego zmusić. To fundament każdego ustroju demokratycznego. Państwo demokratyczne poprzez rozmaite zachęty, ułatwienia, preferencje może oddziaływać na rozmaite dziedziny życia, w tym kulturalnego. Taki rodzaj oddziaływanie stanowi istotę polityki kulturalnej danego kraju. Na przykład za pomocą instrumentów politycznych Szwajcarzy starają się ugruntować swoją wielokulturowość [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, s. 87–88] a Francuzi wręcz odwrotnie [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2006, s. 137–142].

W Polsce to zjawisko nie jest aż tak rozpowszechnione jak na Zachodzie Europy.

1

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

241

W Polsce to zjawisko nie jest aż tak rozpowszechnione jak na Zachodzie Europy.

1

się działalnością artystyczną. Zatem rosną także dochody twórców, a w ostatecznym rachunku rosną koszty wytwarzania dóbr kultury. Zjawisko opisane przez Baumola nie dotyczy tylko artystów. Wykład profesora uniwersytetu dwa wieki temu trwał tyle samo, ile dziś. Kelner na podanie posiłku potrzebuje dziś tyle samo czasu, ile przed laty. Należy przy tym zauważyć, że zjawisko opisanie przez Baumola, zwane chorobą kosztową Baumola lub efektem Baumola, nasila się. Przy braku wzrostu wydajności pracy w obrębie sztuki i przy rosnącej presji na wyższe wynagrodzenia, luka pomiędzy przychodami a kosztami się powiększa. Rozważając zjawisko opisane przez Baumola należy zauważyć, że o ile ze społecznego punktu widzenia sensownym jest dopłacanie do sztuki, o tyle pozbawione takiego sensu jest dopłacanie do przemysłów kultury. Nikt przy zdrowych zmysłach nie postuluje, by dotować firmy budowlane, a jednak są tacy, którym wydaje się zasadny postulat dotowania wydawnictw. Tymczasem i jedne i drugie powielają jedynie dzieła twórców. Kolejna przyczyna konieczności dotowania kultury, określana jako mega-gwiazdorstwo wiąże się z globalizmem procesów komunikacyjnych. A globalny świat przynosi zapotrzebowanie na globalne gwiazdy. Zwłaszcza w świecie sportu i muzyki rozrywkowej. Gdyby nie wsparcie sponsorów, niewielu byłoby stać na spotkanie „live” z takimi gwiazdami. Paradoksalnie, z podobnym problemem mamy do czynienia przy ochronie dziedzictwa kulturowego (historycznego) społeczeństw. Żadna placówka muzealna nie byłaby w stanie kupić (ani nawet ubezpieczyć) obrazu wielkiego mistrza jedynie z opłat od zwiedzających. W tym przypadku rolę mega-gwiazd pełnią wielcy malarze czy rzeźbiarze. Zjawisko opisane przez Baumola dotyczy nie tylko pojedynczych twórców, ale także instytucji działających w obrębie sztuki, takich jak teatry, opery, galerie, muzea. Podmiot kultury, który decyzją administracyjną jest subsydiowany (właśnie ze względu na lukę pomiędzy kosztem wytworzenia produktów a popytem na nie) traci zainteresowanie ograniczeniem rozmiarów tej luki (brak bodźców dla efektywnych alokacji środków). To rodzi swoisty oportunizm po stronie podażowej. Większość instytucji artystycznych działa w oparciu o mechanizm, który powoduje, że podmiot obniżający koszty swojego działania automatycznie otrzymuje mniejsze dotacje. Jest to postawa charakterystyczna dla wielu menedżerów

działających w sferze kultury. Na ten oportunizm nakłada się działalność tzw. poszukiwaczy renty1 funkcjonujących w obszarze kultury (rent seeking activity). Przykładem są działania rozmaitych (często niepotrzebnych) organizacji czy komisji eksperckich. Ich działalność wydatnie powiększa lukę podażową. Jako czwartą przyczynę konieczności dotowania kultury wskazuje się nadmierną podaż na rynku kultury. Jest to teza kontrowersyjna mająca zarówno zwolenników, jak i przeciwników. Jako przyczynę nadmiernej podaży wymienia się na ogół dwie zjawiska: 1. pracę za płace niższe od kosztów alternatywnych, 2. nadmiar artystów. Dla wielu twórców ich praca to nie tylko źródło utrzymania, ale także źródło satysfakcji. Stąd skłonność do pracy za płacę niższą od kosztów alternatywnych. Tę satysfakcję artyści traktują jako rekompensatę za utracone zarobki, które mogliby uzyskać, gdyby zatrudniali się w innych działach gospodarki. Zatem można uznać, że dla wielu artystów wysokość uzyskiwanego przez nich dochodu nie stanowi instrumentu wyznaczającego granicę angażowania się produkcyjnego w sektorze sztuki. W innych sektorach gospodarki płaca jest naturalną barierą ekonomiczną dla podaży. W odniesieniu do sztuki jest to teza tak samo kontrowersyjna, jak twierdzenie, że nadmierna podaż dóbr kultury jest efektem nadmiernej liczby kształconych na koszt społeczeństwa artystów (muzyków, aktorów, malarzy, grafików itp.). Taki sposób rozumowania, związany z „dopłacaniem do niepotrzebnych artystów”, mógłby doprowadzić nas do granicy, poza którą kończy się wolność. Współczesny świat uznaje za jedną z podstawowych norm cywilizacyjnych wybór dowolnego zawodu, który chce wykonywać człowiek. Można oczywiście zachęcać, by poszczególne jednostki wybierały zawody pożądane ze społecznego punktu widzenia, ale nie można nikogo do tego zmusić. To fundament każdego ustroju demokratycznego. Państwo demokratyczne poprzez rozmaite zachęty, ułatwienia, preferencje może oddziaływać na rozmaite dziedziny życia, w tym kulturalnego. Taki rodzaj oddziaływanie stanowi istotę polityki kulturalnej danego kraju. Na przykład za pomocą instrumentów politycznych Szwajcarzy starają się ugruntować swoją wielokulturowość [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, s. 87–88] a Francuzi wręcz odwrotnie [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2006, s. 137–142].


242

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w warszawskim Domu Ekonomisty 19 kwietnia Biznesowych Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich Towarzystwo Ekonomiczne oraz Klub Dziennikarzy

www.inepan.waw.pl/seminarium38.html; data

u ekonomistów” zorganizowanego przez Polskie

Grzelońska U., Ekonomiczny zarys sfery kultury; http:// i sztuki, Kraków 2001.

1990. Maslow A. H., Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa ska K., Wrocław 1997. Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, red. Mazurek-Łopaciń-

Literatura

abyś dawał”). Ów ekwiwalent wcale nie musi mieć wymiaru materialnego. Peter F. Drucker, najbardziej znany na świecie badacz procesów zarządzania, stwierdził dobitnie: „Pogląd, że zarządzanie jest przede wszystkim zarządzaniem w biznesie jest nadal żywy. Niemniej jednak należy z całą pewnością stwierdzić, że teza ta jest błędna…” [Drucker, 2000, s. 7]. Współczesny świat zaczyna zdawać sobie sprawę z tego, że kapitał nie odnosi się jedynie do pieniądza. Coraz częściej posługujemy się terminami: kapitał społeczny, kapitał kulturowy. Kultura, podobnie jak służba zdrowia, opieka społeczna, ochrona środowiska – to dziedziny, w których aspekty ekonomiczne odgrywają istotną rolę. Jednakże tam, gdzie mamy do czynienia z misją czy służbą społeczną trudno kierować się jedynie rachunkiem zysków i strat. Wydaje się, że znacznie lepszym miernikiem procesów zarządczych w obrębie kultury winna być efektywność i jakość podejmowanych działań.

daniem Petera Bendixena „wzajemne oddziaływanie pomiędzy kulturą i gospodarką stanowi dziedzinę zarządzania kulturą” [Bendixen, 2001, s. 12]. Jednak mierzenie wszystkich zjawisk, zwłaszcza artystycznych za pomocą instrumentów ekonomicznych byłoby błędem. Mało tego, mogłoby szkodzić rozwojowi społecznemu. Wydatki na kulturę to nie tylko koszty, to także wymierne zyski. Francuzi uznali kulturę za czynnik wzrostu gospodarczego [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, s. 93]. Szeroko rozumiana kultura ma fundamentalne znaczenie dla gospodarki nie tylko w sensie materialnym, ale przede wszystkim intelektualnym. Wspomniano wcześniej, że podstawą współczesnej gospodarki jest proces wymiany. Św. Tomasz uważał, że wymiana sprawiedliwa opiera się na wymianie ekwiwalentów, równości tego, co się daje, z tym, co się otrzymuje (do ut des – „daję

Biznesowych Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich w warszawskim Domu Ekonomisty 19 kwietnia 2007 r.; http://www.pte.pl/pliki/1/92/8_czwartek_%2019_04_2007.doc.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Podsumowanie

Towarzystwo Ekonomiczne oraz Klub Dziennikarzy

dostępu: 14.07.2008.

Z

www.inepan.waw.pl/seminarium38.html; data

242

Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury

– zapis stenograficzny konwersatorium „Czwartki u ekonomistów” zorganizowanego przez Polskie

i kontrola, Warszawa 1999, s. 9.

2003; http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2003/07/

„Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii”

Grzelońska U., Ekonomiczny zarys sfery kultury; http://

Kotler Ph., Marketing. Analiza, planowanie, wdrażanie

Surowiecki J., What ails us, “The New Yorker” 07 lipca

Bieroń B., Kraków 2006, t. II.

07/030707ta_talk_surowiecki

Drucker P., Zarządzanie w XXI w., Warszawa 2000.

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, red. Gierat-

2003; http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2003/07/

07/030707ta_talk_surowiecki

Bieroń B., Kowalski K., Kraków 2005, t. I.

Bieroń B., Kowalski K., Kraków 2005, t. I.

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, red. Gierat-

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, red. Gierat-

– zapis stenograficzny konwersatorium „Czwartki „Ekonomia w kulturze – twórczość w ekonomii” Drucker P., Zarządzanie w XXI w., Warszawa 2000.

1990. Surowiecki J., What ails us, “The New Yorker” 07 lipca

Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, red. Gierat-

i sztuki, Kraków 2001.

ska K., Wrocław 1997.

Bieroń B., Kraków 2006, t. II.

Maslow A. H., Motywacja i osobowość, Warszawa

dostępu: 14.07.2008.

Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury

2007 r.; http://www.pte.pl/pliki/1/92/8_czwar-

Kultura w gospodarce rynkowej, red. Mazurek-Łopaciń-

Kotler Ph., Marketing. Analiza, planowanie, wdrażanie

Literatura

Z

tek_%2019_04_2007.doc.

daniem Petera Bendixena „wzajemne oddziaływanie pomiędzy kulturą i gospodarką stanowi dziedzinę zarządzania kulturą” [Bendixen, 2001, s. 12]. Jednak mierzenie wszystkich zjawisk, zwłaszcza artystycznych za pomocą instrumentów ekonomicznych byłoby błędem. Mało tego, mogłoby szkodzić rozwojowi społecznemu. Wydatki na kulturę to nie tylko koszty, to także wymierne zyski. Francuzi uznali kulturę za czynnik wzrostu gospodarczego [Europejskie modele polityki kulturalnej, 2005, s. 93]. Szeroko rozumiana kultura ma fundamentalne znaczenie dla gospodarki nie tylko w sensie materialnym, ale przede wszystkim intelektualnym. Wspomniano wcześniej, że podstawą współczesnej gospodarki jest proces wymiany. Św. Tomasz uważał, że wymiana sprawiedliwa opiera się na wymianie ekwiwalentów, równości tego, co się daje, z tym, co się otrzymuje (do ut des – „daję

abyś dawał”). Ów ekwiwalent wcale nie musi mieć wymiaru materialnego. Peter F. Drucker, najbardziej znany na świecie badacz procesów zarządzania, stwierdził dobitnie: „Pogląd, że zarządzanie jest przede wszystkim zarządzaniem w biznesie jest nadal żywy. Niemniej jednak należy z całą pewnością stwierdzić, że teza ta jest błędna…” [Drucker, 2000, s. 7]. Współczesny świat zaczyna zdawać sobie sprawę z tego, że kapitał nie odnosi się jedynie do pieniądza. Coraz częściej posługujemy się terminami: kapitał społeczny, kapitał kulturowy. Kultura, podobnie jak służba zdrowia, opieka społeczna, ochrona środowiska – to dziedziny, w których aspekty ekonomiczne odgrywają istotną rolę. Jednakże tam, gdzie mamy do czynienia z misją czy służbą społeczną trudno kierować się jedynie rachunkiem zysków i strat. Wydaje się, że znacznie lepszym miernikiem procesów zarządczych w obrębie kultury winna być efektywność i jakość podejmowanych działań.

i kontrola, Warszawa 1999, s. 9.

Podsumowanie


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – studium przypadku Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

1. Wstęp

W

ybitni eksperci w zakresie zarządzania (P. Drucker, A. Toffler) oraz instytucje międzynarodowe (OECD, Bank Światowy) podkreślają znaczenie zarządzania wiedzą w sytuacji przechodzenia od gospodarki przemysłowej do gospodarki opartej na wiedzy. Konsekwencją tego procesu jest coraz większa rola, jaką wiedza, twórczość i zasoby niematerialne odgrywają w gospodarce i biznesie. Szczególny wpływ na tę sytuację mają dynamiczne procesy globalizacji w gospodarce światowej oraz znaczenie innowacji technologicznych w tzw. erze wiedzy. Jeden z głównych twórców ekonomii neoklasycznej, A. Marshall, zauważył, że „na kapitał w dużej mierze składają się wiedza i organizacja. […] wiedza jest naszym najsilniejszym motorem produkcji […] Organizacja wspomaga wiedzę” [Nonaka, Takeuchi, 2004, s. 12]. P. Drucker wprowadzając określenia „praca z wiedzą”, „pracownik wiedzy”, „społeczeństwo wiedzy” [Drucker, 2004, s. 13], podkreślał, że kluczowym czynnikiem kreatywności we wszystkich dziedzinach życia jest wiedza, a na znaczeniu tracą tzw. tradycyjne zasoby, jak kapitał, ziemia czy praca. Badania poświęcone rozumieniu „zarządzania wiedzą”, przeprowadzone w 1997 r. w Cranfield School of Management w Wielkiej Brytanii, wskazały na najbardziej popularną definicję tego pojęcia w literaturze przedmiotu mówiącą, iż „zarządzanie wiedzą to ogół procesów umożliwiających tworzenie, upowszechnianie i wykorzystywanie wiedzy do realizacji celów organizacji” [Kisielnicki, 2008, s. 11]. Wśród wielu ujęć pojęcia zarządzanie wiedzą należy podkreślić podejście japońskie, którego

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

inicjatorami byli I. Nonaka i H. Takeuchi. Badacze uważają, że wiedza sformalizowana ( jawna), wyrażona w słowach i liczbach, stanowi zaledwie wierzchołek góry lodowej. Postrzegają oni wiedzę przede wszystkim jako „wiedzę ukrytą” (cichą), czyli coś, co nie jest wprost dostrzegalne i wyrażalne. Wiedza wpływająca na wartość organizacji charakteryzuje się wysokim stopniem indywidualności i też jest trudna do sformalizowania, przez co trudno ją przekazać lub podzielić się z innymi. Do tej kategorii wiedzy zalicza się m.in. intuicję, modele myślowe, kulturę organizacji, umiejętności i predyspozycje pracowników – stanowi ona kluczowy kapitał intelektualny. Na tej podstawie japońscy naukowcy stworzyli koncepcję tzw. „spirali wiedzy” dotyczącą konwersji wiedzy w organizacji. Charakterystyczne cechy odróżniające wiedzę od tradycyjnych zasobów podkreśla A. Toffler: dominację (priorytet wiedzy nad innymi zasobami), niewyczerpalność (wartość zasobów wiedzy nie zmniejsza się w momencie jej przekazywania, a dodatkowo jest rozwijana o nowe elementy zdobyte w trakcie procesu nauczania), symultaniczność (jednoczesność wykorzystywania wiedzy przez wiele osób), nieliniowość (brak wyraźnej współzależności między wielkością zasobów wiedzy a zyskiem wynikającym z wykorzystania jej). Wiedza i informacja, ich jakość i aktualność stają się więc dla przedsiębiorstwa istotnymi czynnikami konkurencyjności. Sukces bowiem w gospodarce ery informacji nie jest mierzony jedynie wielkością posiadanych aktywów, ale również sukcesami w zarządzaniu wiedzą i umiejętnością wykorzystania kapitału intelektualnego firmy. W budowaniu gospodarki opartej na wiedzy

243

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć Absolwentka zarządzania kulturą Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego i Wyższej Szkoły Zittau/Görlitz w Niemczech (studia pod patronatem UNESCO i Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej) oraz studiów dla tłumaczy języka niemieckiego w Katedrze UNESCO UJ. Stypendystka rządowego programu Departamentu Stanu USA Voluntary Visitor Program (2007). Tłumaczka i redaktorka wielu publikacji, menedżer kultury związana z krakowskim Stowarzyszeniem Willa Decjusza, gdzie odpowiada za zarządzanie projektami międzynarodowymi. Obecnie doktorantka Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ.

ybitni eksperci w zakresie zarządzania (P. Drucker, A. Toffler) oraz instytucje międzynarodowe (OECD, Bank Światowy) podkreślają znaczenie zarządzania wiedzą w sytuacji przechodzenia od gospodarki przemysłowej do gospodarki opartej na wiedzy. Konsekwencją tego procesu jest coraz większa rola, jaką wiedza, twórczość i zasoby niematerialne odgrywają w gospodarce i biznesie. Szczególny wpływ na tę sytuację mają dynamiczne procesy globalizacji w gospodarce światowej oraz znaczenie innowacji technologicznych w tzw. erze wiedzy. Jeden z głównych twórców ekonomii neoklasycznej, A. Marshall, zauważył, że „na kapitał w dużej mierze składają się wiedza i organizacja. […] wiedza jest naszym najsilniejszym motorem produkcji […] Organizacja wspomaga wiedzę” [Nonaka, Takeuchi, 2004, s. 12]. P. Drucker wprowadzając określenia „praca z wiedzą”, „pracownik wiedzy”, „społeczeństwo wiedzy” [Drucker, 2004, s. 13], podkreślał, że kluczowym czynnikiem kreatywności we wszystkich dziedzinach życia jest wiedza, a na znaczeniu tracą tzw. tradycyjne zasoby, jak kapitał, ziemia czy praca. Badania poświęcone rozumieniu „zarządzania wiedzą”, przeprowadzone w 1997 r. w Cranfield School of Management w Wielkiej Brytanii, wskazały na najbardziej popularną definicję tego pojęcia w literaturze przedmiotu mówiącą, iż „zarządzanie wiedzą to ogół procesów umożliwiających tworzenie, upowszechnianie i wykorzystywanie wiedzy do realizacji celów organizacji” [Kisielnicki, 2008, s. 11]. Wśród wielu ujęć pojęcia zarządzanie wiedzą należy podkreślić podejście japońskie, którego

W

1. Wstęp

243

inicjatorami byli I. Nonaka i H. Takeuchi. Badacze uważają, że wiedza sformalizowana ( jawna), wyrażona w słowach i liczbach, stanowi zaledwie wierzchołek góry lodowej. Postrzegają oni wiedzę przede wszystkim jako „wiedzę ukrytą” (cichą), czyli coś, co nie jest wprost dostrzegalne i wyrażalne. Wiedza wpływająca na wartość organizacji charakteryzuje się wysokim stopniem indywidualności i też jest trudna do sformalizowania, przez co trudno ją przekazać lub podzielić się z innymi. Do tej kategorii wiedzy zalicza się m.in. intuicję, modele myślowe, kulturę organizacji, umiejętności i predyspozycje pracowników – stanowi ona kluczowy kapitał intelektualny. Na tej podstawie japońscy naukowcy stworzyli koncepcję tzw. „spirali wiedzy” dotyczącą konwersji wiedzy w organizacji. Charakterystyczne cechy odróżniające wiedzę od tradycyjnych zasobów podkreśla A. Toffler: dominację (priorytet wiedzy nad innymi zasobami), niewyczerpalność (wartość zasobów wiedzy nie zmniejsza się w momencie jej przekazywania, a dodatkowo jest rozwijana o nowe elementy zdobyte w trakcie procesu nauczania), symultaniczność (jednoczesność wykorzystywania wiedzy przez wiele osób), nieliniowość (brak wyraźnej współzależności między wielkością zasobów wiedzy a zyskiem wynikającym z wykorzystania jej). Wiedza i informacja, ich jakość i aktualność stają się więc dla przedsiębiorstwa istotnymi czynnikami konkurencyjności. Sukces bowiem w gospodarce ery informacji nie jest mierzony jedynie wielkością posiadanych aktywów, ale również sukcesami w zarządzaniu wiedzą i umiejętnością wykorzystania kapitału intelektualnego firmy. W budowaniu gospodarki opartej na wiedzy

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć

Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – studium przypadku

Katarzyna Dorota Kopeć Absolwentka zarządzania kulturą Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego i Wyższej Szkoły Zittau/Görlitz w Niemczech (studia pod patronatem UNESCO i Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej) oraz studiów dla tłumaczy języka niemieckiego w Katedrze UNESCO UJ. Stypendystka rządowego programu Departamentu Stanu USA Voluntary Visitor Program (2007). Tłumaczka i redaktorka wielu publikacji, menedżer kultury związana z krakowskim Stowarzyszeniem Willa Decjusza, gdzie odpowiada za zarządzanie projektami międzynarodowymi. Obecnie doktorantka Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ.


244

2. Zarządzanie wiedzą w wymiarze operacyjnym – casus Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza jestrowanych w Polsce. Posłużyło temu zidentyfikowanie inicjatyw zmierzających do lepszego zarządzania wiedzą oraz poprawy efektywności, a także porównanie poziomu zaawansowania we wprowadzaniu rozwiązań opartych na wiedzy. Badania te pokazały, że 100% analizowanych organizacji nie posiada ani sformalizowanej, ani niesformalizowanej strategii zarządzania wiedzą. Mimo braku wykorzystania systemów opartych na wiedzy ponad 52% ankietowanych uznało, że zarządzanie wiedzą jest bardzo ważne dla reprezentowanej przez nich organizacji, zaś kolejne 36% respondentów było zdania, że zarządzanie wiedzą jest ważne, choć nie priorytetowe. Zdaniem Z. Łapniewskiej wynik ten jednoznacznie wskazuje na otwartość umysłów i gotowość na zmiany organizacyjne w środowisku organizacji non-profit [Łapniewska, Szczerbiński, 2005].

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

istotną rolę przypisuje się również organizacjom niekomercyjnym, coraz wyraźniej dostrzega się działalność organizacji pozarządowych realizujących zadania społeczne, również dlatego, iż demokracja jest elementem sprzyjającym rozwojowi społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Istotną cechą współczesnych organizacji jest coraz bardziej powszechna tendencja do traktowania pracowników jako zasobu strategicznego, w który należy inwestować. Organizacje wiedzy to organizacje, których zasadniczym zasobem są zasoby niematerialne oparte na wiedzy (rzeczowe, finansowe, informacyjne, ludzkie kompetencje i relacje). Zasoby takich organizacji stanowią konfigurację wspólnie wykorzystywanych zasobów [Mikuła, 2006, s. 27]. K. Zimniewicz rozumie organizacje oparte na wiedzy jako koncepcję zarządzania, opierającą się na pewnej sumie wiedzy, którą dysponują poszczególni pracownicy – wiedzy, która jest ciągle wzbogacana i „udostępniana” przedsiębiorstwu [Zimniewicz, 2003, s. 108–109].

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2.1 Profil organizacji

arządzanie wiedzą jest sztuką budowania organizacji „opartej na wiedzy i otwartej na wiedzę”, integrującą wokół efektywnego wykorzystania wiedzy strategię firmy, pracowników, kulturę organizacyjną i technologię. Istnieje niewiele artykułów naukowych dotyczących zarządzania wiedzą czy poświęconych praktycznemu zastosowaniu systemów opartych na wiedzy w organizacjach pozarządowych. Warto tu przytoczyć opublikowany w styczniu 2005 r. przez T. A. Hurley i C. W. Green artykuł Knowledge Management and the Nonprofit Industry: A Within and Between Approach [Hurley, Green, 2005], który sugeruje, że organizacje pozarządowe powinny zarządzać wiedzą analogicznie jak organizacje generujące zyski. Autorki zwracają uwagę na dwa podejścia do zarządzania wiedzą: „wewnętrzne” (potrzeba zmian kultury organizacyjnej) i „pomiędzy” (koordynacja kultury zarządzania wiedzą między organizacjami w celu efektywnego pozyskiwania funduszy oraz nowych zasobów wiedzy) [Łapniewska, 2008]. W Polsce brak jest rzetelnych danych dotyczących stanu zarządzania wiedzą w organizacjach pozarządowych. Celem jednego z badań, przeprowadzonych w 2005 r. przez Z. Łapniewską, było ukazanie aktualnego stanu znajomości i użytkowania systemów opartych na wiedzy w różnych organizacjach pozarządowych zare-

towarzyszenie Willa Decjusza prowadzi swą działalność od 1995 r. na podstawie przepisów ustawy z 7 kwietnia 1989 r. Prawo o stowarzyszeniach. Realizuje projekty o charakterze interdyscyplinarnym, umożliwiającym wieloaspektowe spojrzenie na rolę szeroko rozumianej kultury we współczesnym świecie i zagadnienia międzynarodowej współpracy kulturalnej w obszarze praw człowieka. Stowarzyszenie pozyskuje środki publiczne (dofinansowanie projektów celowych, granty – w konkursach organizowanych przez administrację publiczną na szczeblu lokalnym i centralnym oraz Unię Europejską) i prywatne (fundacje, sponsorzy, donatorzy komercyjni). Prowadzi ponadto działalność gospodarczą w zakresie wynajmu pomieszczeń oraz pokoi gościnnych. Podejście do kwestii zarządzania wiedzą w wymiarze operacyjnym opiera się na tworzeniu wiedzy formalnej – możliwej do wyartykułowania (np. w postaci dokumentów) i wiedzy cichej – trudnej lub niemożliwej do wyartykułowania (np. doświadczenia), następnie jej przetwarzaniu i gromadzeniu, ochronie oraz praktycznym wykorzystaniu dla osiągnięcia zakładanych celów organizacji [Błaszczuk, 2004, s. 23]. W ramach tego wymiaru w Stowarzyszeniu uwzględnić można proces pozyskiwania pracowników/współpracowników, system motywacyjny, pozyskiwanie informacji i praktyczne ich wykorzystanie, podejmowanie decyzji w trakcie realizacji

S

Z

S

1.1 Zastosowanie systemów opartych na wiedzy w organizacjach pozarządowych

2.1 Profil organizacji

Z

1.1 Zastosowanie systemów opartych na wiedzy w organizacjach pozarządowych

2. Zarządzanie wiedzą w wymiarze operacyjnym – casus Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza

towarzyszenie Willa Decjusza prowadzi swą działalność od 1995 r. na podstawie przepisów ustawy z 7 kwietnia 1989 r. Prawo o stowarzyszeniach. Realizuje projekty o charakterze interdyscyplinarnym, umożliwiającym wieloaspektowe spojrzenie na rolę szeroko rozumianej kultury we współczesnym świecie i zagadnienia międzynarodowej współpracy kulturalnej w obszarze praw człowieka. Stowarzyszenie pozyskuje środki publiczne (dofinansowanie projektów celowych, granty – w konkursach organizowanych przez administrację publiczną na szczeblu lokalnym i centralnym oraz Unię Europejską) i prywatne (fundacje, sponsorzy, donatorzy komercyjni). Prowadzi ponadto działalność gospodarczą w zakresie wynajmu pomieszczeń oraz pokoi gościnnych. Podejście do kwestii zarządzania wiedzą w wymiarze operacyjnym opiera się na tworzeniu wiedzy formalnej – możliwej do wyartykułowania (np. w postaci dokumentów) i wiedzy cichej – trudnej lub niemożliwej do wyartykułowania (np. doświadczenia), następnie jej przetwarzaniu i gromadzeniu, ochronie oraz praktycznym wykorzystaniu dla osiągnięcia zakładanych celów organizacji [Błaszczuk, 2004, s. 23]. W ramach tego wymiaru w Stowarzyszeniu uwzględnić można proces pozyskiwania pracowników/współpracowników, system motywacyjny, pozyskiwanie informacji i praktyczne ich wykorzystanie, podejmowanie decyzji w trakcie realizacji

jestrowanych w Polsce. Posłużyło temu zidentyfikowanie inicjatyw zmierzających do lepszego zarządzania wiedzą oraz poprawy efektywności, a także porównanie poziomu zaawansowania we wprowadzaniu rozwiązań opartych na wiedzy. Badania te pokazały, że 100% analizowanych organizacji nie posiada ani sformalizowanej, ani niesformalizowanej strategii zarządzania wiedzą. Mimo braku wykorzystania systemów opartych na wiedzy ponad 52% ankietowanych uznało, że zarządzanie wiedzą jest bardzo ważne dla reprezentowanej przez nich organizacji, zaś kolejne 36% respondentów było zdania, że zarządzanie wiedzą jest ważne, choć nie priorytetowe. Zdaniem Z. Łapniewskiej wynik ten jednoznacznie wskazuje na otwartość umysłów i gotowość na zmiany organizacyjne w środowisku organizacji non-profit [Łapniewska, Szczerbiński, 2005].

arządzanie wiedzą jest sztuką budowania organizacji „opartej na wiedzy i otwartej na wiedzę”, integrującą wokół efektywnego wykorzystania wiedzy strategię firmy, pracowników, kulturę organizacyjną i technologię. Istnieje niewiele artykułów naukowych dotyczących zarządzania wiedzą czy poświęconych praktycznemu zastosowaniu systemów opartych na wiedzy w organizacjach pozarządowych. Warto tu przytoczyć opublikowany w styczniu 2005 r. przez T. A. Hurley i C. W. Green artykuł Knowledge Management and the Nonprofit Industry: A Within and Between Approach [Hurley, Green, 2005], który sugeruje, że organizacje pozarządowe powinny zarządzać wiedzą analogicznie jak organizacje generujące zyski. Autorki zwracają uwagę na dwa podejścia do zarządzania wiedzą: „wewnętrzne” (potrzeba zmian kultury organizacyjnej) i „pomiędzy” (koordynacja kultury zarządzania wiedzą między organizacjami w celu efektywnego pozyskiwania funduszy oraz nowych zasobów wiedzy) [Łapniewska, 2008]. W Polsce brak jest rzetelnych danych dotyczących stanu zarządzania wiedzą w organizacjach pozarządowych. Celem jednego z badań, przeprowadzonych w 2005 r. przez Z. Łapniewską, było ukazanie aktualnego stanu znajomości i użytkowania systemów opartych na wiedzy w różnych organizacjach pozarządowych zare-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

istotną rolę przypisuje się również organizacjom niekomercyjnym, coraz wyraźniej dostrzega się działalność organizacji pozarządowych realizujących zadania społeczne, również dlatego, iż demokracja jest elementem sprzyjającym rozwojowi społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Istotną cechą współczesnych organizacji jest coraz bardziej powszechna tendencja do traktowania pracowników jako zasobu strategicznego, w który należy inwestować. Organizacje wiedzy to organizacje, których zasadniczym zasobem są zasoby niematerialne oparte na wiedzy (rzeczowe, finansowe, informacyjne, ludzkie kompetencje i relacje). Zasoby takich organizacji stanowią konfigurację wspólnie wykorzystywanych zasobów [Mikuła, 2006, s. 27]. K. Zimniewicz rozumie organizacje oparte na wiedzy jako koncepcję zarządzania, opierającą się na pewnej sumie wiedzy, którą dysponują poszczególni pracownicy – wiedzy, która jest ciągle wzbogacana i „udostępniana” przedsiębiorstwu [Zimniewicz, 2003, s. 108–109].


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

projektów, pozyskiwanie środków rzeczowych i finansowych, koordynowanie działań. Zdaniem T. A. Hurley i C. W. Green zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacji powinno się skupiać na czteroczłonowym modelu, który wedle H. Leavitta składa się z następujących elementów: ludzi, celów (zadań) wyznaczanych przez ludzi, techniki oraz struktury. Bez odpowiedniego balansu między tymi powiązanymi ze sobą systemami i koordynacji ich wzajemnych relacji nie powstanie kultura efektywnego zarządzania wiedzą [Łapniewska, 2008].

2.2 Zadania

A

ktywa intelektualne Stowarzyszenia, które są gromadzone w formie dokumentów oraz jako umiejętności pracowników przekształcane są w efekty ekonomiczne (zwiększona produktywność, zwiększenie konkurencyjności, podnoszenie kompetencji, zwiększenie szybkości działania, wydajności i rentowności w realizacji zadań statutowych). Zarządzanie projektami uczy pracowników Stowarzyszenia, jak optymalizować umiejętności w ramach pracy indywidualnej oraz zespołowej i jak przekształcać wiedzę w podstawowy kapitał organizacji. Istotne znaczenie mają zadania, które są stawiane przed pracownikami Stowarzyszenia. Z uwagi na charakter działalności organizacji projekty realizowane przez koordynatorów są motywujące, innowacyjne, interesujące, często autorskie – pracownicy mają świadomość stojącej przed nimi odpowiedzialności, mogą również sami wykreować swój projekt, co wyzwala u pracowników zapał i entuzjazm, niezbędny do realizacji projektów. Pracownicy mają ponadto wsparcie ze strony dyrektora, mają świadomość, iż ich wiedza i umiejętności stanowią żywy zasób organizacji. Indywidualne podejście do danego projektu sprzyja dzieleniu się wiedzą i tworzeniu nieformalnych grup konsultacyjnych wewnątrz lub na zewnątrz Stowarzyszenia z innymi kompetentnymi osobami, które zdobyły już doświadczenie w danej dziedzinie.

2.3 Kapitał ludzki

N

ajważniejszym składnikiem kapitału ludzkiego w Stowarzyszeniu są kompetencje wynikające z wiedzy, umiejętności, „know-how” i talentu osób zatrudnionych (15 pracowników

1

i 5 stałych współpracowników). W ankietach, które dotyczyły rozwoju strategii Stowarzyszenia, przeprowadzonych w styczniu 2008 r. zarówno w środowisku wewnętrznym, jak i zewnętrznym, kompetencje pracowników oceniono jako dobre1. W szerokim sensie kwalifikacje obejmują wiedzę zawodową, praktyczne umiejętności, uzdolnienia, szczególnie cechy osobowościowe predysponujące do wykonywania pracy w Stowarzyszeniu. Wiedza pracowników zarówno teoretyczna, jak i wynikająca z doświadczenia, uznawana jest za atut organizacji. Pracownicy i współpracownicy merytoryczni są absolwentami studiów wyższych w kraju lub za granicą w dziedzinie nauk humanistycznych, w stopniu komunikatywnym posługują się przynajmniej jednym językiem obcym oraz posiadają dodatkowe specjalizacje, ukończone kursy specjalistyczne lub studia podyplomowe. 26% personelu kontynuuje edukację w ramach studiów drugiego lub trzeciego stopnia. Pracownicy Stowarzyszenia często rekrutują się z grupy współpracowników lub wolontariuszy czy stażystów, co pozytywnie wpływa na dobór pracowników tworzących dobrze funkcjonujące nieformalne sieci powiązań międzyludzkich, którzy darzą się zaufaniem. Koordynatorzy konstruując projekty, specjalizują się zgodnie ze swoimi zainteresowaniami w wybranych obszarach działania (prawa człowieka, stosunki międzynarodowe, literatura). W celu pozyskiwania informacji potrzebnych do wykonywania codziennych obowiązków na stanowisku pracy, pracownicy merytoryczni mają możliwość uczestnictwa w zewnętrznych szkoleniach w kraju oraz za granicą. Ponadto pracownicy Stowarzyszenia przechodzą szkolenia obejmujące historyczne aspekty związane z kompleksem pałacowo-parkowym Willa Decjusza, wykorzystując tę wiedzę np. w trakcie oprowadzania grup wycieczkowych z kraju i zagranicy. Większość osób zatrudnionych w Stowarzyszeniu w sposób świadomy lub nieświadomy buduje swoje własne bazy wiedzy. Z jednej strony pracownicy wzbogacają aktywa wiedzy w organizacji, z drugiej strony podnoszą własne umiejętności i kompetencje.

2.4 Technologia

Z

arządzanie wiedzą w każdej organizacji wymaga dobrego systemu gromadzącego wiedzę, który lokalizuje ją w firmie („kto co wie”) oraz ułatwia jej przepływ. System taki składa się z prostych aplikacji, dostępu do baz danych, eks-

Badanie zostało przeprowadzone w styczniu 2008 r. przez W. Odzimka i A. Kowalską na potrzeby opracowania planu strategii Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza na lata 2008-2012.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

245

1

Badanie zostało przeprowadzone w styczniu 2008 r. przez W. Odzimka i A. Kowalską na potrzeby opracowania planu strategii Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza na lata 2008-2012.

ajważniejszym składnikiem kapitału ludzkiego w Stowarzyszeniu są kompetencje wynikające z wiedzy, umiejętności, „know-how” i talentu osób zatrudnionych (15 pracowników

N

2.3 Kapitał ludzki ktywa intelektualne Stowarzyszenia, które są gromadzone w formie dokumentów oraz jako umiejętności pracowników przekształcane są w efekty ekonomiczne (zwiększona produktywność, zwiększenie konkurencyjności, podnoszenie kompetencji, zwiększenie szybkości działania, wydajności i rentowności w realizacji zadań statutowych). Zarządzanie projektami uczy pracowników Stowarzyszenia, jak optymalizować umiejętności w ramach pracy indywidualnej oraz zespołowej i jak przekształcać wiedzę w podstawowy kapitał organizacji. Istotne znaczenie mają zadania, które są stawiane przed pracownikami Stowarzyszenia. Z uwagi na charakter działalności organizacji projekty realizowane przez koordynatorów są motywujące, innowacyjne, interesujące, często autorskie – pracownicy mają świadomość stojącej przed nimi odpowiedzialności, mogą również sami wykreować swój projekt, co wyzwala u pracowników zapał i entuzjazm, niezbędny do realizacji projektów. Pracownicy mają ponadto wsparcie ze strony dyrektora, mają świadomość, iż ich wiedza i umiejętności stanowią żywy zasób organizacji. Indywidualne podejście do danego projektu sprzyja dzieleniu się wiedzą i tworzeniu nieformalnych grup konsultacyjnych wewnątrz lub na zewnątrz Stowarzyszenia z innymi kompetentnymi osobami, które zdobyły już doświadczenie w danej dziedzinie.

A

2.2 Zadania projektów, pozyskiwanie środków rzeczowych i finansowych, koordynowanie działań. Zdaniem T. A. Hurley i C. W. Green zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacji powinno się skupiać na czteroczłonowym modelu, który wedle H. Leavitta składa się z następujących elementów: ludzi, celów (zadań) wyznaczanych przez ludzi, techniki oraz struktury. Bez odpowiedniego balansu między tymi powiązanymi ze sobą systemami i koordynacji ich wzajemnych relacji nie powstanie kultura efektywnego zarządzania wiedzą [Łapniewska, 2008].

arządzanie wiedzą w każdej organizacji wymaga dobrego systemu gromadzącego wiedzę, który lokalizuje ją w firmie („kto co wie”) oraz ułatwia jej przepływ. System taki składa się z prostych aplikacji, dostępu do baz danych, eks-

Z

2.4 Technologia i 5 stałych współpracowników). W ankietach, które dotyczyły rozwoju strategii Stowarzyszenia, przeprowadzonych w styczniu 2008 r. zarówno w środowisku wewnętrznym, jak i zewnętrznym, kompetencje pracowników oceniono jako dobre1. W szerokim sensie kwalifikacje obejmują wiedzę zawodową, praktyczne umiejętności, uzdolnienia, szczególnie cechy osobowościowe predysponujące do wykonywania pracy w Stowarzyszeniu. Wiedza pracowników zarówno teoretyczna, jak i wynikająca z doświadczenia, uznawana jest za atut organizacji. Pracownicy i współpracownicy merytoryczni są absolwentami studiów wyższych w kraju lub za granicą w dziedzinie nauk humanistycznych, w stopniu komunikatywnym posługują się przynajmniej jednym językiem obcym oraz posiadają dodatkowe specjalizacje, ukończone kursy specjalistyczne lub studia podyplomowe. 26% personelu kontynuuje edukację w ramach studiów drugiego lub trzeciego stopnia. Pracownicy Stowarzyszenia często rekrutują się z grupy współpracowników lub wolontariuszy czy stażystów, co pozytywnie wpływa na dobór pracowników tworzących dobrze funkcjonujące nieformalne sieci powiązań międzyludzkich, którzy darzą się zaufaniem. Koordynatorzy konstruując projekty, specjalizują się zgodnie ze swoimi zainteresowaniami w wybranych obszarach działania (prawa człowieka, stosunki międzynarodowe, literatura). W celu pozyskiwania informacji potrzebnych do wykonywania codziennych obowiązków na stanowisku pracy, pracownicy merytoryczni mają możliwość uczestnictwa w zewnętrznych szkoleniach w kraju oraz za granicą. Ponadto pracownicy Stowarzyszenia przechodzą szkolenia obejmujące historyczne aspekty związane z kompleksem pałacowo-parkowym Willa Decjusza, wykorzystując tę wiedzę np. w trakcie oprowadzania grup wycieczkowych z kraju i zagranicy. Większość osób zatrudnionych w Stowarzyszeniu w sposób świadomy lub nieświadomy buduje swoje własne bazy wiedzy. Z jednej strony pracownicy wzbogacają aktywa wiedzy w organizacji, z drugiej strony podnoszą własne umiejętności i kompetencje.


246

pertyz, aktów prawnych, dokumentacji projektów, procedur postępowania. Technologia ułatwia dzielenie się wiedzą przez pracowników. Stowarzyszenie rozwija swoje zaplecze techniczne, ma również możliwość zestawiania punktów bezprzewodowego dostępu do Internetu. Pracownicy mają również możliwość dostępu w ramach sieci komputerowej Intranet do usług takich, jak strony www i poczta elektroniczna. Intranet wychodzi poza organizację (można się zalogować do zasobów Stowarzyszenia z Internetu np. poprzez login i hasło), co jest niezwykle pomocne w trakcie realizacji projektów i w nagłych sytuacjach. W 2008 r. Stowarzyszenie rozpoczęło testowanie prenumeraty pism w formie elektronicznej, kierując się względami ekonomicznymi (finanse), logistycznymi (miejsce niezbędne do archiwizacji prasy) oraz ekologicznymi (wydruk jedynie najważniejszych artykułów czy ogłoszeń prasowych). Atutami cyfrowych gazet są przede wszystkim łatwość przeszukiwania informacji, a także możliwość wzbogacenia o elementy interaktywne (np. o aktywne odsyłacze do innych artykułów czy opisywanych stron www) oraz multimedialne (np. reklamy wideo czy animacje wyjaśniające zasadę działania urządzeń).

I

4.2 Brak czasu mów kierownictwa Stowarzyszenia jest skłonienie pracowników, aby regularnie dzielili się posiadaną wiedzą i współpracowali w tym zakresie z innymi pracownikami. Bardzo istotnym czynnikiem jest tu wypracowanie efektywnego systemu motywacyjnego obejmującego elementy płacowe oraz pozapłacowe. Pracownika należy przekonać, że warto się dzielić wiedzą, że nie pomniejszy to jego wartości w oczach kadry zarządzającej.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

3. Problemy i przeszkody

iestety potencjał technologiczny Stowarzyszenia pozostaje niewykorzystany. Większość pracowników nie ma dostatecznej wiedzy na temat dostępnych narzędzi i systemów zarządzania wiedzą (Stowarzyszenie nie korzysta z systemów wspomagania decyzji, nowoczesnego systemu zarządzania relacjami z klientami, systemów wspomagających pracę grupową, ekstranetu, systemów lokalizacji wiedzy eksperckiej), często przyzwyczajenia do starych rozwiązań i strach przed nowoczesną technologią hamują rozwój pracowników. Wykorzystanie posiadanych zasobów i wdrożenie kompleksowych rozwiązań dotyczących wykorzystania systemów opartych na wiedzy pozostaje wyzwaniem na przyszłość.

3.1 Czynniki psychologiczne

N

stotną barierę dla pełnego wdrożenia zasad dzielenia się wiedzą w ramach Stowarzyszenia stanowi brak czasu. Koordynatorzy projektów Stowarzyszenia (4 pracowników oraz 2 współpracowników) realizują projekty (rocznie ok. 60 wydarzeń łącznie) o różnym charakterze, składających się często z wielu działań, w tym projekty cykliczne, długoterminowe (np. wizyty studyjne, szkoły letnie, kursy wokalne, programy stypendialne), zajmując się wszystkimi fazami zarządzania projektami (w tym planowaniem i opracowaniem programu oraz budżetu danego wydarzenia, pozyskaniem finansowania, przygotowaniem i przeprowadzeniem oraz rozliczeniem i ewaluacją projektu). Wiedza zatem jest przekazywana głównie przy okazji nieformalnych spotkań i dyskusji. D. Owens, wiceprezydent zarządzania wiedzą w korporacji Unisys sugeruje, że jedynie 2% informacji zostaje zapisanych – reszta pozostaje w ludzkich umysłach, dlatego nieformalne spotkania i rozmowy są tak istotne [Łapniewska, 15.01.2008].

246

4.3 Brak zaufania do technologii

B

adania przeprowadzone przez Katedrę Teorii Zarządzania Szkoły Głównej Handlowej dowodzą, że 80% ankietowanych polskich dyrektorów uważa, że rywalizacja między pracownikami niszczy kulturę dzielenia się wiedzą [Kisielicki, 2008, s. 17]. W obliczu tej tendencji dużym wyzwaniem staje się pokonanie obaw pracowników przed dzieleniem się wiedzą oraz wykształcenie ich chęci do dzielenia się wiedzą z innymi pracownikami. Pracownicy Stowarzyszenia nie zawsze wiedzą, jak posiadana przez nich wiedza zostanie wykorzystana, kto będzie czerpał z tego faktu korzyści, czy zostaną dostatecznie wyróżnieni, jeśli ich wiedza przyczyni się do osiągnięcia sukcesu, np. podczas realizacji projektu. Również rodzaj współzawodnictwa wewnątrz organizacji (np. pracowników i współpracowników) blokuje pełne korzystanie z posiadanych zasobów wiedzy. Często długoletni pracownicy są przywiązani do standardowych rozwiązań, co może działać hamująco na proces pozyskiwania wiedzy przez pracowników. Jednym z trudniejszym proble-

stotną barierę dla pełnego wdrożenia zasad dzielenia się wiedzą w ramach Stowarzyszenia stanowi brak czasu. Koordynatorzy projektów Stowarzyszenia (4 pracowników oraz 2 współpracowników) realizują projekty (rocznie ok. 60 wydarzeń łącznie) o różnym charakterze, składających się często z wielu działań, w tym projekty cykliczne, długoterminowe (np. wizyty studyjne, szkoły letnie, kursy wokalne, programy stypendialne), zajmując się wszystkimi fazami zarządzania projektami (w tym planowaniem i opracowaniem programu oraz budżetu danego wydarzenia, pozyskaniem finansowania, przygotowaniem i przeprowadzeniem oraz rozliczeniem i ewaluacją projektu). Wiedza zatem jest przekazywana głównie przy okazji nieformalnych spotkań i dyskusji. D. Owens, wiceprezydent zarządzania wiedzą w korporacji Unisys sugeruje, że jedynie 2% informacji zostaje zapisanych – reszta pozostaje w ludzkich umysłach, dlatego nieformalne spotkania i rozmowy są tak istotne [Łapniewska, 15.01.2008].

4.3 Brak zaufania do technologii

B

I

N

3.1 Czynniki psychologiczne

4.2 Brak czasu

iestety potencjał technologiczny Stowarzyszenia pozostaje niewykorzystany. Większość pracowników nie ma dostatecznej wiedzy na temat dostępnych narzędzi i systemów zarządzania wiedzą (Stowarzyszenie nie korzysta z systemów wspomagania decyzji, nowoczesnego systemu zarządzania relacjami z klientami, systemów wspomagających pracę grupową, ekstranetu, systemów lokalizacji wiedzy eksperckiej), często przyzwyczajenia do starych rozwiązań i strach przed nowoczesną technologią hamują rozwój pracowników. Wykorzystanie posiadanych zasobów i wdrożenie kompleksowych rozwiązań dotyczących wykorzystania systemów opartych na wiedzy pozostaje wyzwaniem na przyszłość.

3. Problemy i przeszkody

mów kierownictwa Stowarzyszenia jest skłonienie pracowników, aby regularnie dzielili się posiadaną wiedzą i współpracowali w tym zakresie z innymi pracownikami. Bardzo istotnym czynnikiem jest tu wypracowanie efektywnego systemu motywacyjnego obejmującego elementy płacowe oraz pozapłacowe. Pracownika należy przekonać, że warto się dzielić wiedzą, że nie pomniejszy to jego wartości w oczach kadry zarządzającej.

adania przeprowadzone przez Katedrę Teorii Zarządzania Szkoły Głównej Handlowej dowodzą, że 80% ankietowanych polskich dyrektorów uważa, że rywalizacja między pracownikami niszczy kulturę dzielenia się wiedzą [Kisielicki, 2008, s. 17]. W obliczu tej tendencji dużym wyzwaniem staje się pokonanie obaw pracowników przed dzieleniem się wiedzą oraz wykształcenie ich chęci do dzielenia się wiedzą z innymi pracownikami. Pracownicy Stowarzyszenia nie zawsze wiedzą, jak posiadana przez nich wiedza zostanie wykorzystana, kto będzie czerpał z tego faktu korzyści, czy zostaną dostatecznie wyróżnieni, jeśli ich wiedza przyczyni się do osiągnięcia sukcesu, np. podczas realizacji projektu. Również rodzaj współzawodnictwa wewnątrz organizacji (np. pracowników i współpracowników) blokuje pełne korzystanie z posiadanych zasobów wiedzy. Często długoletni pracownicy są przywiązani do standardowych rozwiązań, co może działać hamująco na proces pozyskiwania wiedzy przez pracowników. Jednym z trudniejszym proble-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

pertyz, aktów prawnych, dokumentacji projektów, procedur postępowania. Technologia ułatwia dzielenie się wiedzą przez pracowników. Stowarzyszenie rozwija swoje zaplecze techniczne, ma również możliwość zestawiania punktów bezprzewodowego dostępu do Internetu. Pracownicy mają również możliwość dostępu w ramach sieci komputerowej Intranet do usług takich, jak strony www i poczta elektroniczna. Intranet wychodzi poza organizację (można się zalogować do zasobów Stowarzyszenia z Internetu np. poprzez login i hasło), co jest niezwykle pomocne w trakcie realizacji projektów i w nagłych sytuacjach. W 2008 r. Stowarzyszenie rozpoczęło testowanie prenumeraty pism w formie elektronicznej, kierując się względami ekonomicznymi (finanse), logistycznymi (miejsce niezbędne do archiwizacji prasy) oraz ekologicznymi (wydruk jedynie najważniejszych artykułów czy ogłoszeń prasowych). Atutami cyfrowych gazet są przede wszystkim łatwość przeszukiwania informacji, a także możliwość wzbogacenia o elementy interaktywne (np. o aktywne odsyłacze do innych artykułów czy opisywanych stron www) oraz multimedialne (np. reklamy wideo czy animacje wyjaśniające zasadę działania urządzeń).


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

247

4.4 Bariery techniczne

S

towarzyszenie nie wypracowało systemu archiwizacji danych (dokumentacji projektów, dokumentacji foto- i fonograficznej), również informacje nie są należycie zabezpieczone przed ich utratą w wyniku awarii technicznej, wirusów komputerowych, czy też odchodzenia pracowników czy współpracowników ze Stowarzyszenia. To kilkakrotnie doprowadziło do nieodwracalnej utraty cennych danych i informacji, które są nie do odtworzenia w pierwotnej wersji. Ponadto pracownicy Stowarzyszenia nie mają możliwości wyznaczenia zastępstwa na czas szkolenia zewnętrznego, delegacji zagranicznej czy urlopu, co związane jest z nadmiarem obowiązków nałożonych na każdego pracownika i brakiem możliwości zatrudnienia dodatkowej osoby na czas określony. Historyczna substancja pałacu Willa Decjusza nie sprzyja wdrażaniu innowacji architektonicznych, mających na celu optymalne wykorzystanie pomieszczeń biurowych i przystosowanie ich do wymagań pracowników i standardów BHP.

5. Zakończenie

K

ażda organizacja ma swoją specyfikę, która powoduje, że rozwiązania zastosowane z sukcesem w jednym miejscu, mogą przynieść niepowodzenie w innym. Kadra zarządzająca zainteresowana wdrożeniem zarządzania wiedzą musi wykazać się nie tylko znajomością samej koncepcji i własnej organizacji, ale także rozumieć istotę przeobrażeń, jakie dokonują się w biznesie i codziennym życiu pod wpływem rosnącej roli wiedzy. Adaptując modele i praktyki wypracowane w świecie biznesu do świata organizacji nonprofit, należy szczególnie podkreślać rolę potencjału intelektualnego pracowników, stanowiących istotny fundament takich organizacji. Zasadnym wydaje się promowanie zarządzania wiedzą, które ma na celu „zagwarantowanie organizacjom efektywnego wykorzystania wiedzy i kapitału intelektualnego, a w rezultacie poprawę innowacyjności prowadzącą do przewagi konkurencyjnej” [Strojny, 2000, s. 22]. Aby stworzyć system zarządzania wiedzą niezbędne jest zakorzenienie tego zapisu w misji organizacji oraz wykorzystanie odpowiednich systemów zarządzania i metod pomiaru efektywności wykorzystania wiedzy i tzw. kapitału intelektualnego (np. zbilansowana karta

wyników, monitoring aktywów niematerialnych czy Skandia Navigator). Dla Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza ważne jest uzyskanie większej efektywności w zaspokajaniu potrzeb grup docelowych, do których kierowane są programy. Aspekty te związane są z realizacją celów statutowych organizacji oraz ogólnie pojętym sensem jej istnienia. Pracownicy Stowarzyszenia są otwarci i chętnie się uczą, co stanowi ogromny potencjał rozwoju organizacji w stronę generowania lepszych pomysłów dotyczących realizacji programów. Cenne dla rozwoju pracowników stałyby się szkolenia specjalistyczne przekładające się na większą efektywność w zdobywaniu grantów i dotacji oraz dzielenie się dobrymi praktykami w zakresie zarządzania projektami. Na podstawie badania działalności programowej Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza można wysnuć wniosek, że nawet mimo braku strategii zarządzania wiedzą Stowarzyszenie przypadkowo realizuje inicjatywy oparte na wiedzy i jest zainteresowane wzrostem świadomości w zakresie zarządzania wiedzą oraz budowaniem wizerunku organizacji opartej na wiedzy. Przyjęcie w organizacji pozarządowej regularnych praktyk twórczego myślenia grupowego nad rozwiązaniem danego problemu wydaje się mieć duże znaczenie dla procesu wdrażania rozwiązań opartych na wiedzy, ponieważ możliwe jest wtedy uzyskanie efektu synergicznego, co może decydować o osiągnięciu sukcesu w realizacji danego zadania. Zarządzanie wiedzą zaczęło być postrzegane jako przydatne narzędzie nie tylko dla firm, ale również dla organizacji pozarządowych. Jeśli profity wynikające z wykorzystania wiedzy staną się bardziej powszechne, wtedy zaistnieje możliwość wdrożenia systemów opartych na wiedzy na szerszą skalę, również w organizacjach pozarządowych. Organizacje non-profit także starają się o dobry wizerunek w obszarze swoich działań, konkurują bowiem nie tylko o odbiorcę, ale również o grantodawcę czy sponsora dla podejmowanych przez siebie działań. To implikuje fakt, iż muszą być zorientowane na nowe rozwiązania oraz wprowadzanie nowych idei usprawniających ich działania, by w sposób bardziej efektywny docierać do grup docelowych. Dlatego organizacje non-profit nie powinny zaniedbywać inwestycji w tym obszarze, niezbędnych dla uruchomienia procesu absorpcji odpowiedniej wiedzy i efektywnego jej wykorzystania.

ażda organizacja ma swoją specyfikę, która powoduje, że rozwiązania zastosowane z sukcesem w jednym miejscu, mogą przynieść niepowodzenie w innym. Kadra zarządzająca zainteresowana wdrożeniem zarządzania wiedzą musi wykazać się nie tylko znajomością samej koncepcji i własnej organizacji, ale także rozumieć istotę przeobrażeń, jakie dokonują się w biznesie i codziennym życiu pod wpływem rosnącej roli wiedzy. Adaptując modele i praktyki wypracowane w świecie biznesu do świata organizacji nonprofit, należy szczególnie podkreślać rolę potencjału intelektualnego pracowników, stanowiących istotny fundament takich organizacji. Zasadnym wydaje się promowanie zarządzania wiedzą, które ma na celu „zagwarantowanie organizacjom efektywnego wykorzystania wiedzy i kapitału intelektualnego, a w rezultacie poprawę innowacyjności prowadzącą do przewagi konkurencyjnej” [Strojny, 2000, s. 22]. Aby stworzyć system zarządzania wiedzą niezbędne jest zakorzenienie tego zapisu w misji organizacji oraz wykorzystanie odpowiednich systemów zarządzania i metod pomiaru efektywności wykorzystania wiedzy i tzw. kapitału intelektualnego (np. zbilansowana karta

K

5. Zakończenie towarzyszenie nie wypracowało systemu archiwizacji danych (dokumentacji projektów, dokumentacji foto- i fonograficznej), również informacje nie są należycie zabezpieczone przed ich utratą w wyniku awarii technicznej, wirusów komputerowych, czy też odchodzenia pracowników czy współpracowników ze Stowarzyszenia. To kilkakrotnie doprowadziło do nieodwracalnej utraty cennych danych i informacji, które są nie do odtworzenia w pierwotnej wersji. Ponadto pracownicy Stowarzyszenia nie mają możliwości wyznaczenia zastępstwa na czas szkolenia zewnętrznego, delegacji zagranicznej czy urlopu, co związane jest z nadmiarem obowiązków nałożonych na każdego pracownika i brakiem możliwości zatrudnienia dodatkowej osoby na czas określony. Historyczna substancja pałacu Willa Decjusza nie sprzyja wdrażaniu innowacji architektonicznych, mających na celu optymalne wykorzystanie pomieszczeń biurowych i przystosowanie ich do wymagań pracowników i standardów BHP.

S

4.4 Bariery techniczne Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

247

wyników, monitoring aktywów niematerialnych czy Skandia Navigator). Dla Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza ważne jest uzyskanie większej efektywności w zaspokajaniu potrzeb grup docelowych, do których kierowane są programy. Aspekty te związane są z realizacją celów statutowych organizacji oraz ogólnie pojętym sensem jej istnienia. Pracownicy Stowarzyszenia są otwarci i chętnie się uczą, co stanowi ogromny potencjał rozwoju organizacji w stronę generowania lepszych pomysłów dotyczących realizacji programów. Cenne dla rozwoju pracowników stałyby się szkolenia specjalistyczne przekładające się na większą efektywność w zdobywaniu grantów i dotacji oraz dzielenie się dobrymi praktykami w zakresie zarządzania projektami. Na podstawie badania działalności programowej Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza można wysnuć wniosek, że nawet mimo braku strategii zarządzania wiedzą Stowarzyszenie przypadkowo realizuje inicjatywy oparte na wiedzy i jest zainteresowane wzrostem świadomości w zakresie zarządzania wiedzą oraz budowaniem wizerunku organizacji opartej na wiedzy. Przyjęcie w organizacji pozarządowej regularnych praktyk twórczego myślenia grupowego nad rozwiązaniem danego problemu wydaje się mieć duże znaczenie dla procesu wdrażania rozwiązań opartych na wiedzy, ponieważ możliwe jest wtedy uzyskanie efektu synergicznego, co może decydować o osiągnięciu sukcesu w realizacji danego zadania. Zarządzanie wiedzą zaczęło być postrzegane jako przydatne narzędzie nie tylko dla firm, ale również dla organizacji pozarządowych. Jeśli profity wynikające z wykorzystania wiedzy staną się bardziej powszechne, wtedy zaistnieje możliwość wdrożenia systemów opartych na wiedzy na szerszą skalę, również w organizacjach pozarządowych. Organizacje non-profit także starają się o dobry wizerunek w obszarze swoich działań, konkurują bowiem nie tylko o odbiorcę, ale również o grantodawcę czy sponsora dla podejmowanych przez siebie działań. To implikuje fakt, iż muszą być zorientowane na nowe rozwiązania oraz wprowadzanie nowych idei usprawniających ich działania, by w sposób bardziej efektywny docierać do grup docelowych. Dlatego organizacje non-profit nie powinny zaniedbywać inwestycji w tym obszarze, niezbędnych dla uruchomienia procesu absorpcji odpowiedniej wiedzy i efektywnego jej wykorzystania.


248

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku Franciszek Ziejka

1.

Z

awieruchy wojenne, jakie raz po raz przetaczały się przez ziemie polskie, nie oszczędzały Krakowa. Szczególnie w XVII i XVIII w. W 1655 roku miasto nasze zostało złupione przez Szwedów. Spalono wiele dzielnic, a nade wszystko nałożono kontrybucje na mieszkańców miasta także w pierwszych latach XVIII w. Niemniej groźnymi najeźdźcami byli Austriacy czy Rosjanie, którzy w epoce schyłku Rzeczpospolitej raz po raz wkraczali do Krakowa, niszcząc jego zabudowę, ściągając z ludności ogromne kontrybucje. Obok obcych armii Kraków miał także innych wrogów. Były nimi epidemie, powodzie a przede wszystkim pożary. Historycy twierdzą, że od XII wieku aż do połowy XIX wieku żywioł ten niszczył miasto ponad czterdzieści razy! Po przejściu każdego kolejnego takiego kataklizmu miasto jednak podnosiło się z popiołów. Odbudowywano domy, przywracano świetność świątyniom, budowano nowe. Miasto nie poddało się także klęskom, jakie spadły na nie w II połowie XVIII wieku. Walerian Kalinka pisał, że w ciągu siedmiu sierpniowych dni 1767 roku (od 6 do 12 sierpnia) wielki pożar strawił do szczętu Zwierzyniec, Kleparz, Lubicz, Wesołą, Nowy Świat, Wielopole, Garbarze, Krupniki i młyny królewskie. Piasek, Biskupie, zabudowania nad Wizytkami, ogrody królewskie, Smoleńsk, a w ostatnim dniu ulicę Długą i Szlak, niegdyś własność włoskiej rodziny Montelupich. W ciągu następnych lat zajmowały Kraków na przemian wojska rosyjskie i polskie [Kalinka, 1850, s. 9; por. Łepkowski, 1846]. Miasto zaczęło się wyludniać. Po powstaniu kościuszkowskim Mieszkańcy opuszczali miasto jakby przekazane

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

na zniszczenie, na Bożej łasce zostawiali domy, które się waliły jeden po drugim tak, że nie było ani jednej ulicy i placu gdzie byś nie ujrzał domów albo już zwalonych albo drągami podpartych [Kalinka, 1850, s 11]. Stanisław Krzyżanowski przypomniał w 1902 roku, że według spisu z 1795 roku w Krakowie (i w sąsiednich jurydykach, tzn. podmiejskich osadach, tj.: Rybaki, Pędzichów, Biskupie, Smoleńsko, Szlak, Groble, Garbary) mieszkało nieco ponad 11 tysięcy mieszkańców, z czego w samym tylko żydowskim Kazimierzu blisko 2 tysiące [Krzyżanowski, 1901, s. 50-54]. Na inną stronę upadku Krakowa z przełomu XVIII-XIX w. zwracali uwagę Marian Sokołowski i Władysław Łuszczkiewicz we wspomnieniu o pierwszym rządowym konserwatorze Galicji Zachodniej, Pawle Popielu. Czytamy w ich tekście, że Na początku tego stulecia [tzn. XIX] Kraków zapomniał zupełnie, jakie skarby artystyczne w sobie posiada. Od przejeżdżających cudzoziemców niekiedy dowiadywał się mimochodem, że ma arcydzieła godne pierwszorzędnych stolic. Jeżdżono wprawdzie do Włoch, kolekcjonowano nawet dzieła obcego artyzmu dla mody, ale własnych zabytków nie umiano ocenić, z góry powziąwszy przekonanie, że w Polsce nie może być znakomitego w tym względzie [Sokołowski, Łuszczkiewicz, 1893, s. 8]. W niemałym stopniu na losach ówczesnego Krakowa zaważyły decyzje władz zaborczych. Już w pierwszych latach XIX w. władze austriackie, powołując się na względy sanitarne, wydały nakaz burzenia murów obronnych i obwałowań. Prace rozbiórkowe przy murach prowadzono przez wiele lat, sprzedając pozyskane z nich cegłę i kamień na licytacji. Zmieniały się jedynie przesłanki

249

Prof. dr hab. |Franciszek Ziejka Historyk literatury polskiej, w latach 1999–2005 rektor UJ. W 1996 roku wybrany na członka-korespondenta Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności, zaś w 2002 roku na członka czynnego. Jest członkiem Rady Naukowej Biblioteki Polskiej w Paryżu. Przewodniczy Radzie Muzeum Narodowego w Krakowie. Od 2005 roku jest przewodniczącym Społecznego Komitetu Odnowy Zabytków Krakowa. Odznaczony m.in. przez prezydenta Portugalii Orderem Wielkim Zasługi (Grande Oficial da Ordem do Merito); uhonorowany kilkoma ważnymi odznaczeniami francuskimi: Palmes Academiques (1994; 2001), Order National du merite (2002) a wreszcie – Legion d’Honneur (2006). W 2002 roku Kanclerz Republiki Austrii przyznał mu Wielki Krzyż za Zasługi na Rzecz Republiki Austrii,

awieruchy wojenne, jakie raz po raz przetaczały się przez ziemie polskie, nie oszczędzały Krakowa. Szczególnie w XVII i XVIII w. W 1655 roku miasto nasze zostało złupione przez Szwedów. Spalono wiele dzielnic, a nade wszystko nałożono kontrybucje na mieszkańców miasta także w pierwszych latach XVIII w. Niemniej groźnymi najeźdźcami byli Austriacy czy Rosjanie, którzy w epoce schyłku Rzeczpospolitej raz po raz wkraczali do Krakowa, niszcząc jego zabudowę, ściągając z ludności ogromne kontrybucje. Obok obcych armii Kraków miał także innych wrogów. Były nimi epidemie, powodzie a przede wszystkim pożary. Historycy twierdzą, że od XII wieku aż do połowy XIX wieku żywioł ten niszczył miasto ponad czterdzieści razy! Po przejściu każdego kolejnego takiego kataklizmu miasto jednak podnosiło się z popiołów. Odbudowywano domy, przywracano świetność świątyniom, budowano nowe. Miasto nie poddało się także klęskom, jakie spadły na nie w II połowie XVIII wieku. Walerian Kalinka pisał, że w ciągu siedmiu sierpniowych dni 1767 roku (od 6 do 12 sierpnia) wielki pożar strawił do szczętu Zwierzyniec, Kleparz, Lubicz, Wesołą, Nowy Świat, Wielopole, Garbarze, Krupniki i młyny królewskie. Piasek, Biskupie, zabudowania nad Wizytkami, ogrody królewskie, Smoleńsk, a w ostatnim dniu ulicę Długą i Szlak, niegdyś własność włoskiej rodziny Montelupich. W ciągu następnych lat zajmowały Kraków na przemian wojska rosyjskie i polskie [Kalinka, 1850, s. 9; por. Łepkowski, 1846]. Miasto zaczęło się wyludniać. Po powstaniu kościuszkowskim Mieszkańcy opuszczali miasto jakby przekazane

Z 1.

249

na zniszczenie, na Bożej łasce zostawiali domy, które się waliły jeden po drugim tak, że nie było ani jednej ulicy i placu gdzie byś nie ujrzał domów albo już zwalonych albo drągami podpartych [Kalinka, 1850, s 11]. Stanisław Krzyżanowski przypomniał w 1902 roku, że według spisu z 1795 roku w Krakowie (i w sąsiednich jurydykach, tzn. podmiejskich osadach, tj.: Rybaki, Pędzichów, Biskupie, Smoleńsko, Szlak, Groble, Garbary) mieszkało nieco ponad 11 tysięcy mieszkańców, z czego w samym tylko żydowskim Kazimierzu blisko 2 tysiące [Krzyżanowski, 1901, s. 50-54]. Na inną stronę upadku Krakowa z przełomu XVIII-XIX w. zwracali uwagę Marian Sokołowski i Władysław Łuszczkiewicz we wspomnieniu o pierwszym rządowym konserwatorze Galicji Zachodniej, Pawle Popielu. Czytamy w ich tekście, że Na początku tego stulecia [tzn. XIX] Kraków zapomniał zupełnie, jakie skarby artystyczne w sobie posiada. Od przejeżdżających cudzoziemców niekiedy dowiadywał się mimochodem, że ma arcydzieła godne pierwszorzędnych stolic. Jeżdżono wprawdzie do Włoch, kolekcjonowano nawet dzieła obcego artyzmu dla mody, ale własnych zabytków nie umiano ocenić, z góry powziąwszy przekonanie, że w Polsce nie może być znakomitego w tym względzie [Sokołowski, Łuszczkiewicz, 1893, s. 8]. W niemałym stopniu na losach ówczesnego Krakowa zaważyły decyzje władz zaborczych. Już w pierwszych latach XIX w. władze austriackie, powołując się na względy sanitarne, wydały nakaz burzenia murów obronnych i obwałowań. Prace rozbiórkowe przy murach prowadzono przez wiele lat, sprzedając pozyskane z nich cegłę i kamień na licytacji. Zmieniały się jedynie przesłanki

Prof. dr hab. |Franciszek Ziejka Historyk literatury polskiej, w latach 1999–2005 rektor UJ. W 1996 roku wybrany na członka-korespondenta Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności, zaś w 2002 roku na członka czynnego. Jest członkiem Rady Naukowej Biblioteki Polskiej w Paryżu. Przewodniczy Radzie Muzeum Narodowego w Krakowie. Od 2005 roku jest przewodniczącym Społecznego Komitetu Odnowy Zabytków Krakowa. Odznaczony m.in. przez prezydenta Portugalii Orderem Wielkim Zasługi (Grande Oficial da Ordem do Merito); uhonorowany kilkoma ważnymi odznaczeniami francuskimi: Palmes Academiques (1994; 2001), Order National du merite (2002) a wreszcie – Legion d’Honneur (2006). W 2002 roku Kanclerz Republiki Austrii przyznał mu Wielki Krzyż za Zasługi na Rzecz Republiki Austrii,

Franciszek Ziejka

Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku


owych prac. Jeśli początkowo mówiło się przede wszystkim o względach sanitarnych1, to wkrótce pojawił się nowy termin, który stał się słowemwytrychem: upięknienia miasta. Szermując tym hasłem wyburzano nie tylko mury obronne miasta (ostatecznie ofiarą „burzymurków” padła zdecydowana większość murów, w tym 44 bramy i baszty!), ale szereg innych zabytkowych budowli. Tak na przykład w 1819 roku, po dwuletnich dyskusjach w Senacie m. Krakowa, zdecydowano o wyburzeniu Ratusza miejskiego (Wieża Ratuszowa ocalała tylko dlatego, że uznano ją za dobry punkt obserwacyjny dla strażaków). Przez kilkadziesiąt lat, od lat osiemdziesiątych XVIII wieku,

trwała w Krakowie wielka akcja burzenia starych, gotyckich i barokowych, kościołów. Znamienne, że tylko w latach 1796 – 1809 wyburzono tu 15 kościołów! W następnym trzydziestoleciu wyburzono jeszcze kolejnych dziesięć. Kilka innych zdesakralizowano2. Na szczęście powoli ale systematycznie idea ratowania zabytków przeszłości zaczęła jednak torować sobie drogę do świadomości krakowian. Wśród przyczyn, które zapoczątkowały te zmiany, paradoksalnie wymienić należy utratę niepodległości przez Polskę pod koniec XVIII wieku. Wprawdzie fakt wymazania Polski z mapy Europy wywołał wśród Polaków różnorodne reakcje, nie

1 Wiele w tym musiało być prawdy, co potwierdzają świadkowie tamtych lat. K. Bąkowski cytuje w swojej Historii Krakowa opinię austriackiego konserwatora, J. A. Schultesa, który w 1806 roku tak opisywał mury krakowskie: Wieże stare, mury i dzwonnice są siedliskiem kawek. Za dnia aż ciemno od nich, ptactwo to znajduje żer w dawnych fosach miejskich, służących za kloaki [Bąkowski, 1898, s. 165]. Niezwykle obrazowo a zarazem bez upiększania ukazał stan murów obronnych Krakowa u progu XIX wieku Ambroży Grabowski. Warto może choć we fragmentach przywołać tu jego uwagi, posiadają bowiem wartość dokumentarną. Pisał zatem Grabowski, że Kraków był otoczony podwójnym murem i obstawiony dokoła basztami. Przestrzeń zewnętrzna około murów, która oddzielała miasto od przedmieść, była to okolica niedostępna, zasypana górami śmieci, błota i rumowiska, wywożonymi z miasta i sypanymi bez ładu, zarosła lasem ostów, pokrzyw, szaleju, psiego mlecza, przerznięta w różnym kierunku bagnistymi i śmierdzącymi ściekami nieczystości, spływającymi z miasta, skąd rozchodził się nieznośny smród, osobliwie w czasie upałów letnich [...] Pr ze str ze ń od bra my pob ocznej do bramy Wi ślne j. Tylko wąską drożyną można było przejść i przejechać od bramy pobocznej pod samym Wawelem do bramy Wiślnej. Cała ta przestrzeń koło murów zasypana była śmieciami i rumowiskiem [...] W dołach zaś pomiędzy tymi zalegała smrodliwa gnojówka, a na brzegach rosły zielska, badyle i chwasty [...] O d bramy Wiślnej do fur tki Szewski ej. Przy samej bramie Wiślnej, prawie dotykając do niej, był dosyć szeroki rów napełniony plugastwem w stanie gęstej cieczy, który wyziewem swym zatruwał całą powierzchnię, a z tego smrodliwego strumienia wydobywał się bańkami gaz błotny odrażającego fetoru, które okrywały całą jego powierzchnię. Za tym rowem pod kościołem św. Norberta był kawałek ornego gruntu, który zasiewano prosem itp. [...] Dalej ku furtce Szewskiej były jeszcze ślady dawnych fos, lecz te już były śmieciami i gruzem murowanym prawie zasypane. [...] Od fur tki Szewskiej do bra my Sławkowskie j. Tu już wyraźniej widać było dawne fosy, w których miejscami rosła trawa i pasło się bydło. W zimie zaś, gdy wody z jesiennych ulew zamarzły, bywały tam wyborne ślizgawki [...] Tu za kościołem oo. Reformatów było nasypisko ziemne, czyli ów niedokończony Rondel, który Moskale w czasie Konfederacji Barskiej, zajmując Kraków, zaczęli sypać dla lepszej obrony miasta, a to przymuszając krakowian do roboty [...] Tę część miasta, jak inne, opasywał mur podwójny, pomiędzy którym, jak wszędzie, były ogrody długie a wąskie, w których jeszcze za mojej pamięci były kręgielnie i szynkowano piwo. [...] Od Sławkow skie j do F lor ia ński ej. Przestrzeń ta niewielka od bramy jednej do drugiej. Tu była głęboka fosa murowana kamieniem i ta była najlepiej zakonserwowana. Szła ta fosa około samego arsenału miejskiego dotąd stojącego. [...] Od bramy F lor ia ńskiej do fu r tki Mikoła jski ej. W przestrzeni tej były najlepiej dochowane dawne fortyfikacje miasta, fosa, dwa mury i baszty. Sama brama Floriańska otoczona była głęboką fosą, z ciosowego kamienia murowaną, a to z zewnątrz od Kleparza. Przez tę fosę był w XV i XVII wieku most zwodzony, jako i we wszystkich bramach. [...] Od samej bramy Floriańskiej ku Mikołajskie furtce pomiędzy murami były ogródki; w jednym z nich, do którego wchodziło się z bramy Floriańskiej, były kramy prochowe do murów przytknięte, może w liczbie dziesięciu. [...] Wewnątrz furtki Mikołajskiej był wchód do ogrodu między murami, gdzie była urządzona strzelnica (zwano ja Celestat), w której przed rozbiorem Polski krakowianie strzelali do kurka. [...] O d Mikoła jskiej fur tki do Nowej bramy. Tu był także wał otaczający fosę, a w tej kałuże i błoto smrodliwe. Wał był niski lecz szeroki, bo go codziennie rozszerzano błotem wywożonym z ulic krakowskich. [...] O d N owe j d o Grodzkiej bramy. Tu za kościołem św. Trójcy mur i baszty. Dalej około kościoła św. Józefa i za kościołem śś. Piotra i Pawła już tylko był mur bez baszt, które tu dawniej stojąc podupadały. Okolica tu była pusta, błotna, w nieładzie, a rowy napełnione gnijącymi nieczystościami. Miejsce to było mało uczęszczane i tylko wiodła tędy wąska drożyna około łąki św. Sebastiana, którą jeżdżono od bramy Grodzkiej ku Wesołej i ku Kleparzowi. [...] Jeszcze przybyło do tego niemiłego widoku, kiedy za czasów austriackich i Ks[ięstwa] Warszawskiego zaczęto rozwalać mury i baszty, a porujnowawszy je, nigdzie porządnie miejsca nie zarównano. [Grabowski,1909, s. 182 – 188]. 2 Akcję burzenia kościołów krakowskich rozpoczął na początku lat osiemdziesiątych XVIII w. ówczesny prymas Polski – ks. arcybiskup Michał Poniatowski, zarządzający diecezją krakowska w imieniu chorego psychicznie bpa Kajetana Sołtyka. Zapoczątkowana w latach osiemdziesiątych XVIII wieku akcja wyburzania starych kościołów trwała przeszło pół wieku. W tym czasie zburzono: kościół pod wezwaniem Zwiastowania NMP i św. Scholastyki (SS. Benedyktynek) – na rogu ul. Św. Krzyża i św. Marka (w 1782 r); kościół św. Jakuba Apostoła przy ul. Skawińskiej (1787); kościół św. Piotra – na rogu ul. Grodzkiej i Poselskiej (1791); kościół św. Michała i św. Józefa – na ul. Poselskiej (1797); kościół św. św. Filipa i Jakuba – na Kleparzu (1801); kościół św. Piotra – na ul. Łobzowskiej (1801); kościół św. Szczepana – na Pl. Szczepańskim (1802); kościół św. Jerzego – na Wzgórzu Wawelskim (1803-04); kościół św. Michała – na Wzgórzu Wawelskim (1803-04); zdesakralizowany już w 1797 roku kościół św. św. Macieja i Mateusza – na Pl. Szczepańskim (1809); kościół św. Gertrudy – przy ul. Św. Gertrudy (1810); kościół św. Marii Magdaleny – przy pl. Magdaleny (1811); kościół św. Krzyża – przy ul. Słowiańskiej (1818); kościół św. Walentego – na Pędzichowie (1818); kościół św. Sebastiana – przy ul. Sebastiana (1821); kościół Wszystkich Świętych – na pl. Wszystkich Świętych (1835 – 38). Nadto kilka kościołów zdesa-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

a w 2005 został odznaczony Wielkim Orderem Zasługi przez prezydenta Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. W 2002 roku Międzynarodowy Komitet Mauthausen przyznał prof. Ziejce Medal „Pro meritis”. Doktor honoris causa Papieskiego Wydziału Teologicznego we Wrocławiu, Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego w Krakowie, Uniwersytetu Humanistyczno-Przyrodniczego w Kielcach, Uniwersytetu Papieskiego Jana Pawła II w Krakowie i Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. Laureat wielu prestiżowych nagród; 1 października 2009, z rąk rektora UJ prof. Karola Musioła odebrał przyznany mu przez Senat UJ Medal Merentibus Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego za szczególne zasługi dla UJ. Autor licznych publikacji książkowych i sztuk dla Teatru Telewizji, twórca wielu słuchowisk radiowych, wieloletni redaktor naczelny „Ruchu Literackiego”.

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Akcję burzenia kościołów krakowskich rozpoczął na początku lat osiemdziesiątych XVIII w. ówczesny prymas Polski – ks. arcybiskup Michał Poniatowski, zarządzający diecezją krakowska w imieniu chorego psychicznie bpa Kajetana Sołtyka. Zapoczątkowana w latach osiemdziesiątych XVIII wieku akcja wyburzania starych kościołów trwała przeszło pół wieku. W tym czasie zburzono: kościół pod wezwaniem Zwiastowania NMP i św. Scholastyki (SS. Benedyktynek) – na rogu ul. Św. Krzyża i św. Marka (w 1782 r); kościół św. Jakuba Apostoła przy ul. Skawińskiej (1787); kościół św. Piotra – na rogu ul. Grodzkiej i Poselskiej (1791); kościół św. Michała i św. Józefa – na ul. Poselskiej (1797); kościół św. św. Filipa i Jakuba – na Kleparzu (1801); kościół św. Piotra – na ul. Łobzowskiej (1801); kościół św. Szczepana – na Pl. Szczepańskim (1802); kościół św. Jerzego – na Wzgórzu Wawelskim (1803-04); kościół św. Michała – na Wzgórzu Wawelskim (1803-04); zdesakralizowany już w 1797 roku kościół św. św. Macieja i Mateusza – na Pl. Szczepańskim (1809); kościół św. Gertrudy – przy ul. Św. Gertrudy (1810); kościół św. Marii Magdaleny – przy pl. Magdaleny (1811); kościół św. Krzyża – przy ul. Słowiańskiej (1818); kościół św. Walentego – na Pędzichowie (1818); kościół św. Sebastiana – przy ul. Sebastiana (1821); kościół Wszystkich Świętych – na pl. Wszystkich Świętych (1835 – 38). Nadto kilka kościołów zdesa-

2

trwała w Krakowie wielka akcja burzenia starych, gotyckich i barokowych, kościołów. Znamienne, że tylko w latach 1796 – 1809 wyburzono tu 15 kościołów! W następnym trzydziestoleciu wyburzono jeszcze kolejnych dziesięć. Kilka innych zdesakralizowano2. Na szczęście powoli ale systematycznie idea ratowania zabytków przeszłości zaczęła jednak torować sobie drogę do świadomości krakowian. Wśród przyczyn, które zapoczątkowały te zmiany, paradoksalnie wymienić należy utratę niepodległości przez Polskę pod koniec XVIII wieku. Wprawdzie fakt wymazania Polski z mapy Europy wywołał wśród Polaków różnorodne reakcje, nie

250

a w 2005 został odznaczony Wielkim Orderem Zasługi przez prezydenta Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. W 2002 roku Międzynarodowy Komitet Mauthausen przyznał prof. Ziejce Medal „Pro meritis”. Doktor honoris causa Papieskiego Wydziału Teologicznego we Wrocławiu, Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego w Krakowie, Uniwersytetu Humanistyczno-Przyrodniczego w Kielcach, Uniwersytetu Papieskiego Jana Pawła II w Krakowie i Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. Laureat wielu prestiżowych nagród; 1 października 2009, z rąk rektora UJ prof. Karola Musioła odebrał przyznany mu przez Senat UJ Medal Merentibus Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego za szczególne zasługi dla UJ. Autor licznych publikacji książkowych i sztuk dla Teatru Telewizji, twórca wielu słuchowisk radiowych, wieloletni redaktor naczelny „Ruchu Literackiego”.

Wiele w tym musiało być prawdy, co potwierdzają świadkowie tamtych lat. K. Bąkowski cytuje w swojej Historii Krakowa opinię austriackiego konserwatora, J. A. Schultesa, który w 1806 roku tak opisywał mury krakowskie: Wieże stare, mury i dzwonnice są siedliskiem kawek. Za dnia aż ciemno od nich, ptactwo to znajduje żer w dawnych fosach miejskich, służących za kloaki [Bąkowski, 1898, s. 165]. Niezwykle obrazowo a zarazem bez upiększania ukazał stan murów obronnych Krakowa u progu XIX wieku Ambroży Grabowski. Warto może choć we fragmentach przywołać tu jego uwagi, posiadają bowiem wartość dokumentarną. Pisał zatem Grabowski, że Kraków był otoczony podwójnym murem i obstawiony dokoła basztami. Przestrzeń zewnętrzna około murów, która oddzielała miasto od przedmieść, była to okolica niedostępna, zasypana górami śmieci, błota i rumowiska, wywożonymi z miasta i sypanymi bez ładu, zarosła lasem ostów, pokrzyw, szaleju, psiego mlecza, przerznięta w różnym kierunku bagnistymi i śmierdzącymi ściekami nieczystości, spływającymi z miasta, skąd rozchodził się nieznośny smród, osobliwie w czasie upałów letnich [...] P r zestr zeń od bramy pobocznej do bramy Wiślnej. Tylko wąską drożyną można było przejść i przejechać od bramy pobocznej pod samym Wawelem do bramy Wiślnej. Cała ta przestrzeń koło murów zasypana była śmieciami i rumowiskiem [...] W dołach zaś pomiędzy tymi zalegała smrodliwa gnojówka, a na brzegach rosły zielska, badyle i chwasty [...] Od bramy Wiślnej do fur tki Szewskiej. Przy samej bramie Wiślnej, prawie dotykając do niej, był dosyć szeroki rów napełniony plugastwem w stanie gęstej cieczy, który wyziewem swym zatruwał całą powierzchnię, a z tego smrodliwego strumienia wydobywał się bańkami gaz błotny odrażającego fetoru, które okrywały całą jego powierzchnię. Za tym rowem pod kościołem św. Norberta był kawałek ornego gruntu, który zasiewano prosem itp. [...] Dalej ku furtce Szewskiej były jeszcze ślady dawnych fos, lecz te już były śmieciami i gruzem murowanym prawie zasypane. [...] Od fur tki Szewskiej do bramy Sławkowskiej. Tu już wyraźniej widać było dawne fosy, w których miejscami rosła trawa i pasło się bydło. W zimie zaś, gdy wody z jesiennych ulew zamarzły, bywały tam wyborne ślizgawki [...] Tu za kościołem oo. Reformatów było nasypisko ziemne, czyli ów niedokończony Rondel, który Moskale w czasie Konfederacji Barskiej, zajmując Kraków, zaczęli sypać dla lepszej obrony miasta, a to przymuszając krakowian do roboty [...] Tę część miasta, jak inne, opasywał mur podwójny, pomiędzy którym, jak wszędzie, były ogrody długie a wąskie, w których jeszcze za mojej pamięci były kręgielnie i szynkowano piwo. [...] Od Sławkowskiej do F lo r i ańskiej. Przestrzeń ta niewielka od bramy jednej do drugiej. Tu była głęboka fosa murowana kamieniem i ta była najlepiej zakonserwowana. Szła ta fosa około samego arsenału miejskiego dotąd stojącego. [...] Od bramy F loriańskiej do fur tki Mikoła jskiej. W przestrzeni tej były najlepiej dochowane dawne fortyfikacje miasta, fosa, dwa mury i baszty. Sama brama Floriańska otoczona była głęboką fosą, z ciosowego kamienia murowaną, a to z zewnątrz od Kleparza. Przez tę fosę był w XV i XVII wieku most zwodzony, jako i we wszystkich bramach. [...] Od samej bramy Floriańskiej ku Mikołajskie furtce pomiędzy murami były ogródki; w jednym z nich, do którego wchodziło się z bramy Floriańskiej, były kramy prochowe do murów przytknięte, może w liczbie dziesięciu. [...] Wewnątrz furtki Mikołajskiej był wchód do ogrodu między murami, gdzie była urządzona strzelnica (zwano ja Celestat), w której przed rozbiorem Polski krakowianie strzelali do kurka. [...] Od Mikoła jskiej fur tki do Nowej bramy. Tu był także wał otaczający fosę, a w tej kałuże i błoto smrodliwe. Wał był niski lecz szeroki, bo go codziennie rozszerzano błotem wywożonym z ulic krakowskich. [...] Od Nowej do Grodzkiej bramy. Tu za kościołem św. Trójcy mur i baszty. Dalej około kościoła św. Józefa i za kościołem śś. Piotra i Pawła już tylko był mur bez baszt, które tu dawniej stojąc podupadały. Okolica tu była pusta, błotna, w nieładzie, a rowy napełnione gnijącymi nieczystościami. Miejsce to było mało uczęszczane i tylko wiodła tędy wąska drożyna około łąki św. Sebastiana, którą jeżdżono od bramy Grodzkiej ku Wesołej i ku Kleparzowi. [...] Jeszcze przybyło do tego niemiłego widoku, kiedy za czasów austriackich i Ks[ięstwa] Warszawskiego zaczęto rozwalać mury i baszty, a porujnowawszy je, nigdzie porządnie miejsca nie zarównano. [Grabowski,1909, s. 182 – 188].

1

owych prac. Jeśli początkowo mówiło się przede wszystkim o względach sanitarnych1, to wkrótce pojawił się nowy termin, który stał się słowemwytrychem: upięknienia miasta. Szermując tym hasłem wyburzano nie tylko mury obronne miasta (ostatecznie ofiarą „burzymurków” padła zdecydowana większość murów, w tym 44 bramy i baszty!), ale szereg innych zabytkowych budowli. Tak na przykład w 1819 roku, po dwuletnich dyskusjach w Senacie m. Krakowa, zdecydowano o wyburzeniu Ratusza miejskiego (Wieża Ratuszowa ocalała tylko dlatego, że uznano ją za dobry punkt obserwacyjny dla strażaków). Przez kilkadziesiąt lat, od lat osiemdziesiątych XVIII wieku,

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

zawsze chwalebne3, to przecież z upływem lat świadomość rozmiarów tej tragedii, jaką była utrata niepodległości, zaczęła docierać do coraz większej liczby Polaków. Coraz więcej osób zaczęło też zdawać sobie sprawę z tego, że z czasów dawnej świetności pozostały przede wszystkim zabytki. Potwierdzał to po latach jeden z najbardziej zasłużonych dla sprawy ratowania naszego dziedzictwa kulturalnego ludzi – prof. Józef Łepkowski. W 1851 roku pisał on: Od chwili zupełnej utraty bytu politycznego zaczęto głębiej w przeszłość zaglądać i mimo braku ogólnych o archeologii jako nauce pojęć gorliwe o zachowanie pamiątek krajowych staranie widzimy [Łepkowski, 1851, s. 229]. Świadomość wagi zabytkowych budowli, dzieł artystycznych z dawnych wieków, pojawiła się w pierwszej kolejności wśród mieszkańców Krakowa. Niektórzy z nich już w pierwszych latach XIX wieku podjęli działania mające na celu ratowanie dziedzictwa kulturalnego dawnych wieków. Pierwszeństwo w tym zaszczytnym szeregu „ratowników” dziedzictwa narodowego polskiego przypada profesorowi architektury krakowskiego uniwersytetu, Feliksowi Radwańskiemu (1756 – 1826). Ten znakomicie wykształcony architekt, budowniczy wielu wspaniałych budowli (był m.in.

projektantem i budowniczym Collegium Kołłątajowskiego przy ul. Św. Anny, Obserwatorium Astronomicznego w Ogrodzie Botanicznym), dożywotni senator m. Krakowa, zapisał się w kronikach Krakowa przede wszystkim jako obrońca murów otaczających miasto a także założyciel Plant. Akcję swoją rozpoczął w 1817 roku, gdy władze krakowskie zgodziły się na zburzenie barbakanu stojącego przed bramą Sławkowską i pojawiła się realna groźba zburzenia także barbakanu stojącego przed Bramą Floriańską wraz z ową brama i sąsiednimi basztami: Pasamoników, Stolarskiej i Ciesielskiej. I rzeczywiście, w styczniu 1817 roku zgłoszono na posiedzeniu Senatu Wolnego Miasta Krakowa formalny wniosek o zburzenie wzmiankowanych budowli, a to celem dostarczenia materiału do budowy mostu na Starej Wiśle pomiędzy Stradomiem a Kazimierzem i na Rudawie na Zwierzyńcu [Chmiel, 1939-947, s. 173]. Wówczas Radwański zgłosił na posiedzeniu Senatu votum separatum wobec projektowanej uchwały i w ramach uzasadnienia przedstawił dokument, w którym uzasadniał potrzebę zachowania i zreperowania Bramy Floriańskiej oraz Barbakanu. Argumentacja jego była na tyle przekonująca, że senatorzy odstąpili od zamiaru burzenia tych zabytków4.

kralizowano, przeznaczając budowle na inne cele: kościół św. Ducha – na pl. Św. Ducha (zdesakralizowany w 1783 przeznaczono na mieszkania dla księży – emerytów, których w 1879 roku przeniesiono do szpitala św. Łazarza; zburzony został w 1892 roku); kościół św. Agnieszki – przy Al. Dietla (zdesakralizowany w 1788; sprzedany na magazyny; wykupiony ze składek publicznych w 1926 roku i przeznaczony na kościół garnizonowy); kościół św. Katarzyny – przy ul. Augustiańskiej (zdesakralizowany w 1796 roku i przeznaczony na magazyny dla armii austriackiej; zwrócony został Augustianom w 1814, w 1827 roku przeznaczony do wyburzenia, na początku lat trzydziestych częściowo zreperowany. Dopiero w 1852 roku podjęto w nim prace restauracyjne, które doprowadziły do jego uratowania i przywrócenia do kultu); kościół św. Jadwigi – na Stradomiu (zdesakralizowany ok. 1799 roku; budynek włączony został do sąsiednich kamienic); kościół oo. Bernardynów (Żłóbek) – na rogu ul. Św. Jana i św. Tomasza (zdesakralizowany w 1802 roku; sprzedany kupcowi węgierskiemu Maciejowi Knoztzowi, który zamienił go na oberżę „Pod Królem Węgierskim”, następnie – pod Hotel Saski); kościół św. Urszuli – na rogu ul. Św. Jana i św. Marka (zdesakralizowany w 1812, zakupiony przez Macieja Knotza; od 1830 roku – mieścił się w nim teatr). [por.: Grabowski, s. 209 passim; Lepiarczyk, 1954, s. 23 passim; Ślesiński, 1963, s. 315; Piekarczyk, 1984, s. 18 – 21; Rożek, 1983, s. 95 – 120]. Jak podają świadkowie epoki, przedstawiciele rodów arystokratycznych z wielką ochotą spieszyli w 1796 roku do Warszawy czy do Krakowa, aby w tamtejszych katedrach złożyć homagium reprezentantom zaborczej władzy. Jak pisał Józef Ignacy Kraszewski z tej okazji bardzo często urządzali wielkie bale i rauty. Przed tym upokarzającym aktem złożenia przysięgi na wierność obcym władcom nie uchylała się także szlachta czy przedstawiciele miast polskich. Przecież ludzie należący do intelektualnej elity narodu zdawali sobie sprawę z tragedii, jakiej byli świadkami. Nie przypadkowo przypomina się więc fakty dramatycznej reakcji niektórych z osób należących do tej sfery ludzi. Wiadomo na przykład, że na wieść o podpisaniu w Petersburgu III rozbioru Polski Jan Śniadecki, jeden z największych uczonych tamtych czasów, w ciągu jednej nocy osiwiał. Wiadomo także, że czołowy poeta tamtych czasów, Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin dostał z tego samego powodu pomieszania zmysłów. Ta okoliczność sprawiła, że twórczość literacką porzucili tak znani twórcy, jak Franciszek Karpiński czy Franciszek Zabłocki.

3

4

Do krakowskiej legendy przeszła argumentacja senatora Radwańskiego w sprawie obrony tych zabytków. W pierwszej kolejności przedstawił on argumenty historyczne przemawiające za uratowaniem Bramy. Pisał więc, że oprócz charakteru obronnego miała także charakter ceremonialny, przeznaczona była bowiem na przyjmowanie uroczyste królów z chwalebnych ich wypraw powracających. Z zewnętrznych ganków witała ich z daleka krzykliwymi trąbami, z bliska głośnymi ludu okrzykami, wewnątrz płeć piękna, osiadłszy makatami i dywanami bogatymi ozdobione ganki: żony, matki i siostry poklaskiwały mężnym małżonkom, synom i braciom, że wierni królowi, ojczyźnie, przybywają ozdobieni wawrzynami zwycięstwa. Urzędnicy zaś koronni, wierny magistrat, składali hołd winny królom, otoczonym walecznymi hetmanami, wodzami, bojownikami. Ponieważ Senator nie był przekonany, czy ta argumentacja przemówi do prezesa Wodzickiego i jedenastu jego kolegów-senatorów, odwołał się do argumentacji meteorologicznej. Pisał więc: Wiatry północny i północno-zachodni niosą nam zwyczajnie śniegi zadymne, takowe miotałyby je gwałtownie ze samego Kleparza w środek Rynku i gdyby te panowały, ciężko by się komu przyszło na nogach utrzymać, tym bardziej, że plac targowy kleparski potężny, poziomymi po wielkiej części otoczony domami, od ulicy Warszawskiej niczym nie zasłoniony, przesyłałby wichry prostą ulicą w środek miasta. Przez wzgląd na zdrowie, pieszczenie [sic] wychowane kobiety i dzieci byłyby wystawione na częste fluksje, reumatyzmy, a może i paraliże [tamże, s. 174-175]. Chmiel przypomina, że jeszcze

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

251

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4 Do krakowskiej legendy przeszła argumentacja senatora Radwańskiego w sprawie obrony tych zabytków. W pierwszej kolejności przedstawił on argumenty historyczne przemawiające za uratowaniem Bramy. Pisał więc, że oprócz charakteru obronnego miała także charakter ceremonialny, przeznaczona była bowiem na przyjmowanie uroczyste królów z chwalebnych ich wypraw powracających. Z zewnętrznych ganków witała ich z daleka krzykliwymi trąbami, z bliska głośnymi ludu okrzykami, wewnątrz płeć piękna, osiadłszy makatami i dywanami bogatymi ozdobione ganki: żony, matki i siostry poklaskiwały mężnym małżonkom, synom i braciom, że wierni królowi, ojczyźnie, przybywają ozdobieni wawrzynami zwycięstwa. Urzędnicy zaś koronni, wierny magistrat, składali hołd winny królom, otoczonym walecznymi hetmanami, wodzami, bojownikami. Ponieważ Senator nie był przekonany, czy ta argumentacja przemówi do prezesa Wodzickiego i jedenastu jego kolegów-senatorów, odwołał się do argumentacji meteorologicznej. Pisał więc: Wiatry północny i północno-zachodni niosą nam zwyczajnie śniegi zadymne, takowe miotałyby je gwałtownie ze samego Kleparza w środek Rynku i gdyby te panowały, ciężko by się komu przyszło na nogach utrzymać, tym bardziej, że plac targowy kleparski potężny, poziomymi po wielkiej części otoczony domami, od ulicy Warszawskiej niczym nie zasłoniony, przesyłałby wichry prostą ulicą w środek miasta. Przez wzgląd na zdrowie, pieszczenie [sic] wychowane kobiety i dzieci byłyby wystawione na częste fluksje, reumatyzmy, a może i paraliże [tamże, s. 174-175]. Chmiel przypomina, że jeszcze 3 Jak podają świadkowie epoki, przedstawiciele rodów arystokratycznych z wielką ochotą spieszyli w 1796 roku do Warszawy czy do Krakowa, aby w tamtejszych katedrach złożyć homagium reprezentantom zaborczej władzy. Jak pisał Józef Ignacy Kraszewski z tej okazji bardzo często urządzali wielkie bale i rauty. Przed tym upokarzającym aktem złożenia przysięgi na wierność obcym władcom nie uchylała się także szlachta czy przedstawiciele miast polskich. Przecież ludzie należący do intelektualnej elity narodu zdawali sobie sprawę z tragedii, jakiej byli świadkami. Nie przypadkowo przypomina się więc fakty dramatycznej reakcji niektórych z osób należących do tej sfery ludzi. Wiadomo na przykład, że na wieść o podpisaniu w Petersburgu III rozbioru Polski Jan Śniadecki, jeden z największych uczonych tamtych czasów, w ciągu jednej nocy osiwiał. Wiadomo także, że czołowy poeta tamtych czasów, Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin dostał z tego samego powodu pomieszania zmysłów. Ta okoliczność sprawiła, że twórczość literacką porzucili tak znani twórcy, jak Franciszek Karpiński czy Franciszek Zabłocki.

kralizowano, przeznaczając budowle na inne cele: kościół św. Ducha – na pl. Św. Ducha (zdesakralizowany w 1783 przeznaczono na mieszkania dla księży – emerytów, których w 1879 roku przeniesiono do szpitala św. Łazarza; zburzony został w 1892 roku); kościół św. Agnieszki – przy Al. Dietla (zdesakralizowany w 1788; sprzedany na magazyny; wykupiony ze składek publicznych w 1926 roku i przeznaczony na kościół garnizonowy); kościół św. Katarzyny – przy ul. Augustiańskiej (zdesakralizowany w 1796 roku i przeznaczony na magazyny dla armii austriackiej; zwrócony został Augustianom w 1814, w 1827 roku przeznaczony do wyburzenia, na początku lat trzydziestych częściowo zreperowany. Dopiero w 1852 roku podjęto w nim prace restauracyjne, które doprowadziły do jego uratowania i przywrócenia do kultu); kościół św. Jadwigi – na Stradomiu (zdesakralizowany ok. 1799 roku; budynek włączony został do sąsiednich kamienic); kościół oo. Bernardynów (Żłóbek) – na rogu ul. Św. Jana i św. Tomasza (zdesakralizowany w 1802 roku; sprzedany kupcowi węgierskiemu Maciejowi Knoztzowi, który zamienił go na oberżę „Pod Królem Węgierskim”, następnie – pod Hotel Saski); kościół św. Urszuli – na rogu ul. Św. Jana i św. Marka (zdesakralizowany w 1812, zakupiony przez Macieja Knotza; od 1830 roku – mieścił się w nim teatr). [por.: Grabowski, s. 209 passim; Lepiarczyk, 1954, s. 23 passim; Ślesiński, 1963, s. 315; Piekarczyk, 1984, s. 18 – 21; Rożek, 1983, s. 95 – 120].

zawsze chwalebne3, to przecież z upływem lat świadomość rozmiarów tej tragedii, jaką była utrata niepodległości, zaczęła docierać do coraz większej liczby Polaków. Coraz więcej osób zaczęło też zdawać sobie sprawę z tego, że z czasów dawnej świetności pozostały przede wszystkim zabytki. Potwierdzał to po latach jeden z najbardziej zasłużonych dla sprawy ratowania naszego dziedzictwa kulturalnego ludzi – prof. Józef Łepkowski. W 1851 roku pisał on: Od chwili zupełnej utraty bytu politycznego zaczęto głębiej w przeszłość zaglądać i mimo braku ogólnych o archeologii jako nauce pojęć gorliwe o zachowanie pamiątek krajowych staranie widzimy [Łepkowski, 1851, s. 229]. Świadomość wagi zabytkowych budowli, dzieł artystycznych z dawnych wieków, pojawiła się w pierwszej kolejności wśród mieszkańców Krakowa. Niektórzy z nich już w pierwszych latach XIX wieku podjęli działania mające na celu ratowanie dziedzictwa kulturalnego dawnych wieków. Pierwszeństwo w tym zaszczytnym szeregu „ratowników” dziedzictwa narodowego polskiego przypada profesorowi architektury krakowskiego uniwersytetu, Feliksowi Radwańskiemu (1756 – 1826). Ten znakomicie wykształcony architekt, budowniczy wielu wspaniałych budowli (był m.in.

projektantem i budowniczym Collegium Kołłątajowskiego przy ul. Św. Anny, Obserwatorium Astronomicznego w Ogrodzie Botanicznym), dożywotni senator m. Krakowa, zapisał się w kronikach Krakowa przede wszystkim jako obrońca murów otaczających miasto a także założyciel Plant. Akcję swoją rozpoczął w 1817 roku, gdy władze krakowskie zgodziły się na zburzenie barbakanu stojącego przed bramą Sławkowską i pojawiła się realna groźba zburzenia także barbakanu stojącego przed Bramą Floriańską wraz z ową brama i sąsiednimi basztami: Pasamoników, Stolarskiej i Ciesielskiej. I rzeczywiście, w styczniu 1817 roku zgłoszono na posiedzeniu Senatu Wolnego Miasta Krakowa formalny wniosek o zburzenie wzmiankowanych budowli, a to celem dostarczenia materiału do budowy mostu na Starej Wiśle pomiędzy Stradomiem a Kazimierzem i na Rudawie na Zwierzyńcu [Chmiel, 1939-947, s. 173]. Wówczas Radwański zgłosił na posiedzeniu Senatu votum separatum wobec projektowanej uchwały i w ramach uzasadnienia przedstawił dokument, w którym uzasadniał potrzebę zachowania i zreperowania Bramy Floriańskiej oraz Barbakanu. Argumentacja jego była na tyle przekonująca, że senatorzy odstąpili od zamiaru burzenia tych zabytków4.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

kościoła Mariackiego (w 1841 roku odnowił wyższą wieżę świątyni), gmachu Starego Teatru (w latach 1841-43) a także spalonego w 1850 roku kościoła oo. Franciszkanów. Józef Kremer, znakomity filozof i historyk sztuki, profesor a także rektor Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, wieloletni wykładowca estetyki w Szkole Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie, również domagał się ochrony zabytków krakowskich. To jego zabiegi sprawiły, iż w 1874 roku na nowo nie podjęto w Krakowie akcji wyburzania resztek murów obronnych miasta! Wspólnie z tymi pionierami ochrony zabytków krakowskich działali inni. Byli to historycy, archeolodzy, konserwatorzy, architekci a nade wszystko – historycy sztuki. Nie brakło także znakomitych amatorów, całkowicie oddanych sprawie ochrony zabytków. Lista ich jest długa, ale bo też sprawa ratowania zabytków krakowskich w XIX wieku coraz bardziej stawała się atrakcyjną. W historii ratowania zabytków krakowskich trwale zapisało się wielu światłych przedstawicieli elity intelektualnej i artystycznej Krakowa. Każdy z nich z innego tytułu, nie miejsce też, aby szczegółowo o wszystkich tu pisać. Dość wspomnieć ich nazwiska: bp Jan Paweł Woronicz (1757 – 1829), Ambroży Grabowski (1782 – 1868), Józef Muczkowski (1795 – 1858), Franciszek M. Lanci (1799 – 1875), Wincenty Pol (1807 – 1872), Teofil Żebrawski (1800 – 1887), Paweł Popiel (1807 - 1892), Józef Łepkowski (1826 – 1897), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (1828 – 1900), Sławomir Odrzywolski (1846 – 1933), Tomasz Pryliński (1847 – 1895), Włodzimierz Demetrykiewicz (1858 – 1937), Zygmunt Hendel (1862 – 1929), Klemens Bąkowski ((1860 – 1938) czy wreszcie Stanisław Tomkowicz (1850 – 1933). Ludzie ci wnieśli, każdy na swój sposób, znaczący wkład bądź to w zakresie gromadzenia pamiątek narodowych, bądź w propagowaniu idei ratowania zabytków, w dziele ratowania i odnawiania konkretnych budowli, ale także – poprzez przygotowywanie opracowań historycznych poświęconych określonym zabytkom lub zabytkowym zespołom. Wprowadzenie w życie idei ratowania i odnowy zabytków nie było łatwe. Świadczy o tym choćby przykład ks. Sebastiana Sierakowskiego (1743 – 1824). Ten profesor architektury w Szkole

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Jeszcze za życia senator Radwański znalazł sojusznika w osobie Artura Potockiego (1787 – 1832), który po zakupieniu w 1822 roku pałacu „Pod Baranami” włączył się aktywnie w życie miasta. Jako członek Izby Reprezentantów Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej już w pierwszym roku swojej obecności w niej, w ostatnich dniach grudnia 1825 roku, zwrócił się do władz miasta z apelem o ratowanie zabytkowych budowli w słowach: Otoczeni pomnikami czasów świetnych jesteśmy odpowiedzialni za ich utrzymanie, a nawet ozdobę. Na tej klasycznej ziemi naszych pamiątek kamienie mają głos, aby przeszłość opowiadać przyszłości. Obawiajmy się, by kiedy nie powstały na nas i nie rzekły: wiele uczynili ku wygodzie i użytku, nic dla obowiązku. Wnoszę, aby uprosić Senat o podanie na przyszłej reprezentacji projektu prawa względem utrzymania i przyozdobienia naszych starożytnych gmachów [„Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826; por. Palarczykowa, 1995]. Do rangi symbolu urasta także fakt powołania właśnie Artura Potockiego w 1830 roku na prezesa powołanego przez Senat m. Krakowa Komitetu Reparacji Zamku Krakowskiego (był też on wśród pierwszych ofiarodawców na ten cel – przeznaczył też na restaurację zamku 10 tys. złp)5. Walka takich ludzi, jak Radwański czy Potocki, o uratowanie budowli zabytkowych w Krakowie zaczęła zyskiwać coraz więcej zwolenników. Szczęśliwie znalazł się wśród nich Florian Straszewski (1766 – 1847) – senator m. Krakowa, jeden z inicjatorów usypania Kopca Kościuszki. W 1822 roku stanął on na czele Komitetu Ekonomicznego, który zbierał pieniądze na przekształcenie terenów wokół starego miasta w Planty (w 1830 roku z własnych funduszy utworzył fundację na ich utrzymanie). Część zysków z dzierżawionej przez siebie od miasta loterii liczbowej przeznaczał systematycznie na „upiększanie” Krakowa. Dzieło Straszewskiego kontynuowali bracia Kremerowie: Karol (1812 – 1860) i Józef (1806 – 1875). Pierwszy z nich był architektem i konserwatorem. W 1838 roku został mianowany dyrektorem Budownictwa Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej. Członek Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego, zasłużył się jako restaurator Collegium Maius (w latach 1840 – 1848),

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raz, w 1827 roku, zawisła groźba zburzenia Bramy Floriańskiej i Barbakanu. Tym razem w obronie tych zbytków wystąpił sędzia pokoju Jan Librowski, który odwołał się w swoim wystąpieniu do tych samych przesłanek, do których odwoływał się Radwański. Potwierdza to lektura broszurki Leona Cyfrowicza z 1884 roku pt. Obraz Matki Boskiej i skarbonka ubogich w Bramie Floriańskiej w Krakowie, w której autor przywołuje argumenty sędziego Librowskiego przemawiające z uratowaniem Bramy Floriańskiej wygłoszone na posiedzeniu senatu Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej w dniu 17 stycznia 1827 roku. Okazuje się, że Librowski po prostu powtórzył wszystkie argumenty Radwańskiego. Także i tym razem bojaźń rajców krakowskich przed gwałtownymi wiatrami, które mogły wyrządzić szkodę (nie tylko zdrowotną, także moralną!) ich żonom i córkom zwyciężyła, dzięki czemu do dziś radujemy oczy widokiem Bramy Floriańskiej i Barbakanu.

Wybuch powstania listopadowego sprawił, że Komitet ostatecznie nie podjął prac restauracyjnych przy Zamku. Gwoli prawdy należy dodać, że składkę na „reparację” Zamku złożył w tym czasie także car Rosji, Mikołaj I.

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Wybuch powstania listopadowego sprawił, że Komitet ostatecznie nie podjął prac restauracyjnych przy Zamku. Gwoli prawdy należy dodać, że składkę na „reparację” Zamku złożył w tym czasie także car Rosji, Mikołaj I.

raz, w 1827 roku, zawisła groźba zburzenia Bramy Floriańskiej i Barbakanu. Tym razem w obronie tych zbytków wystąpił sędzia pokoju Jan Librowski, który odwołał się w swoim wystąpieniu do tych samych przesłanek, do których odwoływał się Radwański. Potwierdza to lektura broszurki Leona Cyfrowicza z 1884 roku pt. Obraz Matki Boskiej i skarbonka ubogich w Bramie Floriańskiej w Krakowie, w której autor przywołuje argumenty sędziego Librowskiego przemawiające z uratowaniem Bramy Floriańskiej wygłoszone na posiedzeniu senatu Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej w dniu 17 stycznia 1827 roku. Okazuje się, że Librowski po prostu powtórzył wszystkie argumenty Radwańskiego. Także i tym razem bojaźń rajców krakowskich przed gwałtownymi wiatrami, które mogły wyrządzić szkodę (nie tylko zdrowotną, także moralną!) ich żonom i córkom zwyciężyła, dzięki czemu do dziś radujemy oczy widokiem Bramy Floriańskiej i Barbakanu.

5

kościoła Mariackiego (w 1841 roku odnowił wyższą wieżę świątyni), gmachu Starego Teatru (w latach 1841-43) a także spalonego w 1850 roku kościoła oo. Franciszkanów. Józef Kremer, znakomity filozof i historyk sztuki, profesor a także rektor Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, wieloletni wykładowca estetyki w Szkole Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie, również domagał się ochrony zabytków krakowskich. To jego zabiegi sprawiły, iż w 1874 roku na nowo nie podjęto w Krakowie akcji wyburzania resztek murów obronnych miasta! Wspólnie z tymi pionierami ochrony zabytków krakowskich działali inni. Byli to historycy, archeolodzy, konserwatorzy, architekci a nade wszystko – historycy sztuki. Nie brakło także znakomitych amatorów, całkowicie oddanych sprawie ochrony zabytków. Lista ich jest długa, ale bo też sprawa ratowania zabytków krakowskich w XIX wieku coraz bardziej stawała się atrakcyjną. W historii ratowania zabytków krakowskich trwale zapisało się wielu światłych przedstawicieli elity intelektualnej i artystycznej Krakowa. Każdy z nich z innego tytułu, nie miejsce też, aby szczegółowo o wszystkich tu pisać. Dość wspomnieć ich nazwiska: bp Jan Paweł Woronicz (1757 – 1829), Ambroży Grabowski (1782 – 1868), Józef Muczkowski (1795 – 1858), Franciszek M. Lanci (1799 – 1875), Wincenty Pol (1807 – 1872), Teofil Żebrawski (1800 – 1887), Paweł Popiel (1807 - 1892), Józef Łepkowski (1826 – 1897), Władysław Łuszczkiewicz (1828 – 1900), Sławomir Odrzywolski (1846 – 1933), Tomasz Pryliński (1847 – 1895), Włodzimierz Demetrykiewicz (1858 – 1937), Zygmunt Hendel (1862 – 1929), Klemens Bąkowski ((1860 – 1938) czy wreszcie Stanisław Tomkowicz (1850 – 1933). Ludzie ci wnieśli, każdy na swój sposób, znaczący wkład bądź to w zakresie gromadzenia pamiątek narodowych, bądź w propagowaniu idei ratowania zabytków, w dziele ratowania i odnawiania konkretnych budowli, ale także – poprzez przygotowywanie opracowań historycznych poświęconych określonym zabytkom lub zabytkowym zespołom. Wprowadzenie w życie idei ratowania i odnowy zabytków nie było łatwe. Świadczy o tym choćby przykład ks. Sebastiana Sierakowskiego (1743 – 1824). Ten profesor architektury w Szkole

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Jeszcze za życia senator Radwański znalazł sojusznika w osobie Artura Potockiego (1787 – 1832), który po zakupieniu w 1822 roku pałacu „Pod Baranami” włączył się aktywnie w życie miasta. Jako członek Izby Reprezentantów Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej już w pierwszym roku swojej obecności w niej, w ostatnich dniach grudnia 1825 roku, zwrócił się do władz miasta z apelem o ratowanie zabytkowych budowli w słowach: Otoczeni pomnikami czasów świetnych jesteśmy odpowiedzialni za ich utrzymanie, a nawet ozdobę. Na tej klasycznej ziemi naszych pamiątek kamienie mają głos, aby przeszłość opowiadać przyszłości. Obawiajmy się, by kiedy nie powstały na nas i nie rzekły: wiele uczynili ku wygodzie i użytku, nic dla obowiązku. Wnoszę, aby uprosić Senat o podanie na przyszłej reprezentacji projektu prawa względem utrzymania i przyozdobienia naszych starożytnych gmachów [„Gazeta Krakowska” 29.01.1826; por. Palarczykowa, 1995]. Do rangi symbolu urasta także fakt powołania właśnie Artura Potockiego w 1830 roku na prezesa powołanego przez Senat m. Krakowa Komitetu Reparacji Zamku Krakowskiego (był też on wśród pierwszych ofiarodawców na ten cel – przeznaczył też na restaurację zamku 10 tys. złp)5. Walka takich ludzi, jak Radwański czy Potocki, o uratowanie budowli zabytkowych w Krakowie zaczęła zyskiwać coraz więcej zwolenników. Szczęśliwie znalazł się wśród nich Florian Straszewski (1766 – 1847) – senator m. Krakowa, jeden z inicjatorów usypania Kopca Kościuszki. W 1822 roku stanął on na czele Komitetu Ekonomicznego, który zbierał pieniądze na przekształcenie terenów wokół starego miasta w Planty (w 1830 roku z własnych funduszy utworzył fundację na ich utrzymanie). Część zysków z dzierżawionej przez siebie od miasta loterii liczbowej przeznaczał systematycznie na „upiększanie” Krakowa. Dzieło Straszewskiego kontynuowali bracia Kremerowie: Karol (1812 – 1860) i Józef (1806 – 1875). Pierwszy z nich był architektem i konserwatorem. W 1838 roku został mianowany dyrektorem Budownictwa Rzeczpospolitej Krakowskiej. Członek Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego, zasłużył się jako restaurator Collegium Maius (w latach 1840 – 1848),


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Głównej Krakowskiej, kilkakrotnie wybierany na urząd rektora tej uczelni, zasłużony restaurator katedry wawelskiej, Collegium Maius (w latach 1816 – 1821 własnym sumptem odnowił Salę Jagiellońską czyli Aulę), Kaplicy Zygmuntowskiej i wielu innych budynków, budowniczy kościołów, nie posiadał jeszcze świadomości wartości poszczególnych zabytków, toteż nie tylko nie protestował przeciw działalności „burzymurków”, ale sam wskazywał kolejne budynki ze starego śródmieścia, często z epoki wieków średnich, do wyburzenia. W swojej działalności architekta głęboko ingerował w substancję zabytkowych budowli, projektując na przykład przebudowanie fasady katedry wawelskiej w stylu klasycystycznym, czy też przebudowę w tym stylu Sukiennic oraz Wieży Ratuszowej [por. Lepiarczyk, 1968]. Nie czas i miejsce, aby przywoływać tu zasługi każdego z dziewiętnastowiecznych obrońców krakowskich zabytków. Jest faktem, że to dzięki nim, a także – dzięki ich następcom, uratowano w Krakowie w XIX w. i na początku XX w. setki zabytkowych budowli, a wielu z nich – przywrócono niegdysiejsze piękno. W Krakowie z upływem czasu znaleźli oni spore grono zwolenników, którzy wspierali ich prace finansowo a także moralnie. Ci właśnie wielbiciele „starego” Krakowa zaczęli skupiać się w stowarzyszeniach i kołach mających na celu wsparcie idei zachowania dla potomnych krakowskich zabytków. Jak wspomniano, już w 1830 roku powołano do życia Komitet Reparacji Zamku Krakowskiego. W tym samym powstał w Krakowie Komitet do Upięknienia Miasta ( jednym z jego czynnych członków był Florian Straszewski), który jednak nie zapisał chwalebnej karty w dziejach miasta, zgadzając się na prowadzenie akcji wyburzeń zabytkowych obiektów. Ruch ochrony zabytków przybrał na sile dopiero po tragicznym w skutkach pożarze Krakowa z 1850 roku, kiedy pastwą płomieni padło ponad 160 budynków (w tym cztery kościoły i cztery klasztory oraz kilka wspaniałych pałaców z pałacem biskupów oraz pałacem Wielopolskich na czele). W obliczu tej katastrofy do akcji przystąpili przede wszystkim członkowie działającego w podwawelskim grodzie od 1815 roku Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego. Z inicjatywy członków Oddziału Archeologii i Sztuk Pięknych tegoż Towarzystwa, w odpowiedzi na apel Komitetu Pogorzeli Miasta Krakowa (z dnia 16 listopada 1850 r.), powstała Komisja Restauracji Pomników. Jej pracami pokierował prof. Józef Łepkowski, wieloletni rektor UJ. Komisja przystąpiła natychmiast do prac inwentaryzacyjnych oraz wstępnego zabezpieczenia pomników w dwóch kościołach: franciszkanów i dominikanów. W ciągu dziesięciu lat staraniem

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Komisji, dzięki pozyskanym z różnych stron funduszom, odnowiono w tych dwóch starożytnych świątyniach grobowce, pomniki, portrety a także wiele zabytków ruchomych. Członkowie Komisji Restauracji Pomników nadzorowali także prace konserwatorskie prowadzone w latach pięćdziesiątych-sześćdziesiątych w Katedrze Wawelskiej (w kaplicach: Lipskich i Zygmuntowskiej). Komisja zajęła się nadto nadzorem nad pracami przy głośnej restauracji grobowca Kazimierza Wielkiego (1869), ołtarza Wita Stwosza (od 1863 r), kościoła św. Katarzyny i in. W 1886 roku powstało w Krakowie Towarzystwo dla Upiększania Miasta Krakowa i Okolicy. Wprawdzie w Statucie tego stowarzyszenia wśród celów działalności nie ma informacji nt. bezpośredniej ochrony zabytków (można jednak było przeczytać w nim, że zamierzało ono zająć się zakładaniem muzeów z różnych dziedzin nauki, przemysłu i sztuki, lub też [w]zbogacaniem już istniejących), z różnorodnych przedsięwzięć, jakie podejmowało, godzi się tu zwrócić uwagę na jego włączenie się w pierwszych latach XX wieku w obronę domków przy kościele św. Idziego a także pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”, którym to zabytkom groziło wyburzenie, o czym przyjdzie jeszcze szerzej mówić. Bezpośrednio związane z ideą ochrony zabytków było stowarzyszenie pod nazwą: Grono Konserwatorów Galicji Zachodniej. Powstało ono w 1888 roku, jako społeczne „ramię” działającej od 1853 roku w Wiedniu Centralnej Komisji dla Badania i Konserwacji Zabytków Sztuki i Pomników Historycznych. Komisja działała w całej monarchii za pośrednictwem mianowanych przez władze austriackie konserwatorów. W Galicji Zachodniej tę urzędową funkcję powierzono prof. Pawłowi Popielowi, który też pełnił ją aż do śmierci w 1892 roku z wielką sumiennością i pożytkiem dla polskiej kultury. Grono Konserwatorów skupiało historyków sztuki, architektów, konserwatorów i historyków. Jego celem statutowym było prowadzenie inwentaryzacji zabytków, zdobywanie funduszy na ratowanie zabytków zrujnowanych, a także – upowszechnianie idei ochrony zabytków w społeczeństwie. Z ważniejszych przedsięwzięć tego stowarzyszenia godzi się tu odnotować zorganizowanie w Krakowie w 1911 roku Pierwszego Zjazdu Miłośników Zabytków i Historii, na który przybyło kilkaset osób ze wszystkich ziem polskich [Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu…, 1912]. Dowodem owocnej działalności Grona Konserwatorów jest m.in. sześć tomów wydawnictwa pt. Teka Grona Konserwatorów Galicji Zachodniej (wyd. w latach 1900 – 1916). Grono zakończyło swoją działalność w 1923 roku. Jego pierwszym prezesem był Józef Łepkowski (1889-94), po którym rządy w Gronie

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Głównej Krakowskiej, kilkakrotnie wybierany na urząd rektora tej uczelni, zasłużony restaurator katedry wawelskiej, Collegium Maius (w latach 1816 – 1821 własnym sumptem odnowił Salę Jagiellońską czyli Aulę), Kaplicy Zygmuntowskiej i wielu innych budynków, budowniczy kościołów, nie posiadał jeszcze świadomości wartości poszczególnych zabytków, toteż nie tylko nie protestował przeciw działalności „burzymurków”, ale sam wskazywał kolejne budynki ze starego śródmieścia, często z epoki wieków średnich, do wyburzenia. W swojej działalności architekta głęboko ingerował w substancję zabytkowych budowli, projektując na przykład przebudowanie fasady katedry wawelskiej w stylu klasycystycznym, czy też przebudowę w tym stylu Sukiennic oraz Wieży Ratuszowej [por. Lepiarczyk, 1968]. Nie czas i miejsce, aby przywoływać tu zasługi każdego z dziewiętnastowiecznych obrońców krakowskich zabytków. Jest faktem, że to dzięki nim, a także – dzięki ich następcom, uratowano w Krakowie w XIX w. i na początku XX w. setki zabytkowych budowli, a wielu z nich – przywrócono niegdysiejsze piękno. W Krakowie z upływem czasu znaleźli oni spore grono zwolenników, którzy wspierali ich prace finansowo a także moralnie. Ci właśnie wielbiciele „starego” Krakowa zaczęli skupiać się w stowarzyszeniach i kołach mających na celu wsparcie idei zachowania dla potomnych krakowskich zabytków. Jak wspomniano, już w 1830 roku powołano do życia Komitet Reparacji Zamku Krakowskiego. W tym samym powstał w Krakowie Komitet do Upięknienia Miasta ( jednym z jego czynnych członków był Florian Straszewski), który jednak nie zapisał chwalebnej karty w dziejach miasta, zgadzając się na prowadzenie akcji wyburzeń zabytkowych obiektów. Ruch ochrony zabytków przybrał na sile dopiero po tragicznym w skutkach pożarze Krakowa z 1850 roku, kiedy pastwą płomieni padło ponad 160 budynków (w tym cztery kościoły i cztery klasztory oraz kilka wspaniałych pałaców z pałacem biskupów oraz pałacem Wielopolskich na czele). W obliczu tej katastrofy do akcji przystąpili przede wszystkim członkowie działającego w podwawelskim grodzie od 1815 roku Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego. Z inicjatywy członków Oddziału Archeologii i Sztuk Pięknych tegoż Towarzystwa, w odpowiedzi na apel Komitetu Pogorzeli Miasta Krakowa (z dnia 16 listopada 1850 r.), powstała Komisja Restauracji Pomników. Jej pracami pokierował prof. Józef Łepkowski, wieloletni rektor UJ. Komisja przystąpiła natychmiast do prac inwentaryzacyjnych oraz wstępnego zabezpieczenia pomników w dwóch kościołach: franciszkanów i dominikanów. W ciągu dziesięciu lat staraniem

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Komisji, dzięki pozyskanym z różnych stron funduszom, odnowiono w tych dwóch starożytnych świątyniach grobowce, pomniki, portrety a także wiele zabytków ruchomych. Członkowie Komisji Restauracji Pomników nadzorowali także prace konserwatorskie prowadzone w latach pięćdziesiątych-sześćdziesiątych w Katedrze Wawelskiej (w kaplicach: Lipskich i Zygmuntowskiej). Komisja zajęła się nadto nadzorem nad pracami przy głośnej restauracji grobowca Kazimierza Wielkiego (1869), ołtarza Wita Stwosza (od 1863 r), kościoła św. Katarzyny i in. W 1886 roku powstało w Krakowie Towarzystwo dla Upiększania Miasta Krakowa i Okolicy. Wprawdzie w Statucie tego stowarzyszenia wśród celów działalności nie ma informacji nt. bezpośredniej ochrony zabytków (można jednak było przeczytać w nim, że zamierzało ono zająć się zakładaniem muzeów z różnych dziedzin nauki, przemysłu i sztuki, lub też [w]zbogacaniem już istniejących), z różnorodnych przedsięwzięć, jakie podejmowało, godzi się tu zwrócić uwagę na jego włączenie się w pierwszych latach XX wieku w obronę domków przy kościele św. Idziego a także pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”, którym to zabytkom groziło wyburzenie, o czym przyjdzie jeszcze szerzej mówić. Bezpośrednio związane z ideą ochrony zabytków było stowarzyszenie pod nazwą: Grono Konserwatorów Galicji Zachodniej. Powstało ono w 1888 roku, jako społeczne „ramię” działającej od 1853 roku w Wiedniu Centralnej Komisji dla Badania i Konserwacji Zabytków Sztuki i Pomników Historycznych. Komisja działała w całej monarchii za pośrednictwem mianowanych przez władze austriackie konserwatorów. W Galicji Zachodniej tę urzędową funkcję powierzono prof. Pawłowi Popielowi, który też pełnił ją aż do śmierci w 1892 roku z wielką sumiennością i pożytkiem dla polskiej kultury. Grono Konserwatorów skupiało historyków sztuki, architektów, konserwatorów i historyków. Jego celem statutowym było prowadzenie inwentaryzacji zabytków, zdobywanie funduszy na ratowanie zabytków zrujnowanych, a także – upowszechnianie idei ochrony zabytków w społeczeństwie. Z ważniejszych przedsięwzięć tego stowarzyszenia godzi się tu odnotować zorganizowanie w Krakowie w 1911 roku Pierwszego Zjazdu Miłośników Zabytków i Historii, na który przybyło kilkaset osób ze wszystkich ziem polskich [Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu…, 1912]. Dowodem owocnej działalności Grona Konserwatorów jest m.in. sześć tomów wydawnictwa pt. Teka Grona Konserwatorów Galicji Zachodniej (wyd. w latach 1900 – 1916). Grono zakończyło swoją działalność w 1923 roku. Jego pierwszym prezesem był Józef Łepkowski (1889-94), po którym rządy w Gronie


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

na koniec 1902 roku liczyło ono 180 członków, w 1903 – 225, a w 1907 – 262. Wkrótce członkowie Towarzystwa przygotowali Regulamin dla badania i inwentaryzowania dzieł sztuki i przemysłu artystycznego, który rozesłano do delegatów w Królestwie Polskim i w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim. Pierwszym wielkim przedsięwzięciem sygnowanym przez Towarzystwo była otwarta w dniu 17 czerwca 1902 roku w Sukiennicach wystawa obrazów dawnych malarzy włoskich, francuskich, flamandzkich i niemieckich (łącznie 48 obrazów, które przy tej okazji odnowiono w Berlinie). Powodzenie tej wystawy sprawiło, że Towarzystwo corocznie odtąd organizowało kolejne wystawy (do 1914 roku odbyło się osiemnaście takich wystaw!). Towarzystwo podejmowało szereg innych przedsięwzięć. M.in. jego staraniem w 1907 roku odnowiono mury zamku w Odrzykoniu, doprowadziło ono do konserwacji portretów Anny i Stanisława Oświęcimów z kaplicy franciszkanów w Krośnie, zajęło się losem zamków w Lipowcu i w Trokach, restauracją portretów biskupów krakowskich z kościoła franciszkanów w Krakowie, a także odnowieniem obrazów cechowych z kościoła św. Katarzyny [Żmudziński, 1997, s. 187203]. Niestety, nie udało się Towarzystwu i innym przedstawicielom świata artystyczno-kulturalnego Krakowa uratować średniowiecznych resztek szpitala i kościoła św. Ducha. Sukcesem jednak zakończyła się ich walka o uratowanie przed wyburzeniem domków przy kościele św. Idziego oraz pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”. Ponieważ sprawy te wzbudziły w epoce przełomu wieków XIX-XX wielkie zainteresowanie, godzi się poświęcić im nieco więcej uwagi. Trwająca od początku XIX wieku wielka batalia „burzymurków” o upięknienie Krakowa na przełomie lat osiemdziesiątych i dziewięćdziesiątych tego wieku przybrała na sile. Począwszy od 1872 roku prowadzono w Krakowie dyskusje na temat wzniesienia w mieście nowego gmachu teatru miejskiego. Wśród gorących orędowników takiego teatru znaleźli się m.in. Władysław Ludwik Anczyc oraz Walery Rzewuski, właściciel znanego zakładu fotograficznego. To właśnie Rzewuski już w 1877 roku zaproponował zbudowanie teatru na pl. Św. Ducha, na miejscu zrujnowanych częściowo zabudowań szpitala i kościoła św. Ducha. Tę lokalizację poparł architekt Karol Zaremba, który otrzymał od prezydenta miasta Krakowa, Feliksa Szlachtowskiego, zlecenie wyboru miejsca pod przyszły teatr. Jesienią 1886 roku Rada Miasta zaakceptowała

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sprawowali: Marian Sokołowski (1894–1900) oraz Stanisław Tomkowicz (1900–1923). Wielkie zasługi dla ochrony zabytków nie tylko w Krakowie, ale do I wojny światowej na ziemiach wszystkich trzech zaborów oddało założone w Krakowie w 1902 roku przy Muzeum Narodowym Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. Jak wynika z zachowanych w zbiorach Archiwum Państwowego w Krakowie dokumentów, z inicjatywą powołania do życia tego stowarzyszenia wystąpili w marcu 1901 roku studenci UJ i ASP. Zwrócili się oni do ludzi krakowskiej nauki i sztuki z prośbą o pomoc. Ci z wielkim entuzjazmem poparli inicjatywę. Na czele Komitetu Tymczasowego stanął prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki z Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. W dniu 6 czerwca 1901 roku zwołał on nadzwyczajne posiedzenie Towarzystwa w sprawie uchwalenia statutu, który opracował Michał Dzieduszycki. W gronie inicjatorów powołania tego Towarzystwa do życia znaleźli się m.in.: Jerzy Mycielski, Marian Sokołowski, Leon Wyczółkowski, Feliks Kopera, Leonard Lepszy, Konstanty Marian Górski. Pod koniec 1901 roku Namiestnictwo zatwierdziło tekst Statutu, dzięki czemu w dniu 23 lutego zwołano Walne Zgromadzenie Towarzystwa skupiającego 108 członków. Pierwszym prezesem został wybrany Jerzy Mycielski, wielce zasłużony dla historii sztuki profesor UJ. Wiceprezesem został wzmiankowany prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki, a w zarządzie znaleźli się znani przedstawiciele elity intelektualnej i artystycznej Krakowa, m.in.: Marian Zdziechowski, Feliks Kopera, Jan Stanisławski, Konstanty M. Górski6. Towarzystwo postawiło przed sobą trzy szczytne zadania: 1) Wyszukiwanie i inwentaryzowanie zabytków sztuki i kultury, mających związek z przeszłością Polski, gdziekolwiek one się znajdują; 2) Opieka nad tymi zabytkami przez chronienie ich od zniszczenia, tudzież nabywanie i gromadzenie ruchomych zabytków; 3) Rozbudzanie w społeczeństwie polskim znajomości i zamiłowania do zabytków polskiej sztuki i kultury [Statut Towarzystwa…, 1901, s. 3]. Te szczytne cele członkowie Towarzystwa zamierzali realizować przez urządzanie odczytów i pogadanek na temat zabytków, wydawanie własnego czasopisma, utworzenie specjalistycznej biblioteki a także ustanowienie we wszystkich trzech zaborach delegatów Towarzystwa, którzy by podjęli wielką akcję inwentaryzacji i ochrony zabytków na terenie wszystkich ziem polskich. Tym tłumaczyć należy znaczący wzrost liczby członków Towarzystwa:

Znamienne, że w głosowaniu do Wydziału (Zarządu) przepadli przede wszystkim artyści-malarze (Teodor Axentowicz, Walery Eliasz, Józef Mehoffer, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Wyspiański. Odpali także Stanisław Kutrzeba, Karol Potkański, Feliks Jasieński i Rudolf Starzewski.

6

6 Znamienne, że w głosowaniu do Wydziału (Zarządu) przepadli przede wszystkim artyści-malarze (Teodor Axentowicz, Walery Eliasz, Józef Mehoffer, Włodzimierz Tetmajer, Leon Wyczółkowski, Stanisław Wyspiański. Odpali także Stanisław Kutrzeba, Karol Potkański, Feliks Jasieński i Rudolf Starzewski.

na koniec 1902 roku liczyło ono 180 członków, w 1903 – 225, a w 1907 – 262. Wkrótce członkowie Towarzystwa przygotowali Regulamin dla badania i inwentaryzowania dzieł sztuki i przemysłu artystycznego, który rozesłano do delegatów w Królestwie Polskim i w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim. Pierwszym wielkim przedsięwzięciem sygnowanym przez Towarzystwo była otwarta w dniu 17 czerwca 1902 roku w Sukiennicach wystawa obrazów dawnych malarzy włoskich, francuskich, flamandzkich i niemieckich (łącznie 48 obrazów, które przy tej okazji odnowiono w Berlinie). Powodzenie tej wystawy sprawiło, że Towarzystwo corocznie odtąd organizowało kolejne wystawy (do 1914 roku odbyło się osiemnaście takich wystaw!). Towarzystwo podejmowało szereg innych przedsięwzięć. M.in. jego staraniem w 1907 roku odnowiono mury zamku w Odrzykoniu, doprowadziło ono do konserwacji portretów Anny i Stanisława Oświęcimów z kaplicy franciszkanów w Krośnie, zajęło się losem zamków w Lipowcu i w Trokach, restauracją portretów biskupów krakowskich z kościoła franciszkanów w Krakowie, a także odnowieniem obrazów cechowych z kościoła św. Katarzyny [Żmudziński, 1997, s. 187203]. Niestety, nie udało się Towarzystwu i innym przedstawicielom świata artystyczno-kulturalnego Krakowa uratować średniowiecznych resztek szpitala i kościoła św. Ducha. Sukcesem jednak zakończyła się ich walka o uratowanie przed wyburzeniem domków przy kościele św. Idziego oraz pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”. Ponieważ sprawy te wzbudziły w epoce przełomu wieków XIX-XX wielkie zainteresowanie, godzi się poświęcić im nieco więcej uwagi. Trwająca od początku XIX wieku wielka batalia „burzymurków” o upięknienie Krakowa na przełomie lat osiemdziesiątych i dziewięćdziesiątych tego wieku przybrała na sile. Począwszy od 1872 roku prowadzono w Krakowie dyskusje na temat wzniesienia w mieście nowego gmachu teatru miejskiego. Wśród gorących orędowników takiego teatru znaleźli się m.in. Władysław Ludwik Anczyc oraz Walery Rzewuski, właściciel znanego zakładu fotograficznego. To właśnie Rzewuski już w 1877 roku zaproponował zbudowanie teatru na pl. Św. Ducha, na miejscu zrujnowanych częściowo zabudowań szpitala i kościoła św. Ducha. Tę lokalizację poparł architekt Karol Zaremba, który otrzymał od prezydenta miasta Krakowa, Feliksa Szlachtowskiego, zlecenie wyboru miejsca pod przyszły teatr. Jesienią 1886 roku Rada Miasta zaakceptowała

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sprawowali: Marian Sokołowski (1894–1900) oraz Stanisław Tomkowicz (1900–1923). Wielkie zasługi dla ochrony zabytków nie tylko w Krakowie, ale do I wojny światowej na ziemiach wszystkich trzech zaborów oddało założone w Krakowie w 1902 roku przy Muzeum Narodowym Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. Jak wynika z zachowanych w zbiorach Archiwum Państwowego w Krakowie dokumentów, z inicjatywą powołania do życia tego stowarzyszenia wystąpili w marcu 1901 roku studenci UJ i ASP. Zwrócili się oni do ludzi krakowskiej nauki i sztuki z prośbą o pomoc. Ci z wielkim entuzjazmem poparli inicjatywę. Na czele Komitetu Tymczasowego stanął prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki z Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. W dniu 6 czerwca 1901 roku zwołał on nadzwyczajne posiedzenie Towarzystwa w sprawie uchwalenia statutu, który opracował Michał Dzieduszycki. W gronie inicjatorów powołania tego Towarzystwa do życia znaleźli się m.in.: Jerzy Mycielski, Marian Sokołowski, Leon Wyczółkowski, Feliks Kopera, Leonard Lepszy, Konstanty Marian Górski. Pod koniec 1901 roku Namiestnictwo zatwierdziło tekst Statutu, dzięki czemu w dniu 23 lutego zwołano Walne Zgromadzenie Towarzystwa skupiającego 108 członków. Pierwszym prezesem został wybrany Jerzy Mycielski, wielce zasłużony dla historii sztuki profesor UJ. Wiceprezesem został wzmiankowany prof. Kazimierz Kostanecki, a w zarządzie znaleźli się znani przedstawiciele elity intelektualnej i artystycznej Krakowa, m.in.: Marian Zdziechowski, Feliks Kopera, Jan Stanisławski, Konstanty M. Górski6. Towarzystwo postawiło przed sobą trzy szczytne zadania: 1) Wyszukiwanie i inwentaryzowanie zabytków sztuki i kultury, mających związek z przeszłością Polski, gdziekolwiek one się znajdują; 2) Opieka nad tymi zabytkami przez chronienie ich od zniszczenia, tudzież nabywanie i gromadzenie ruchomych zabytków; 3) Rozbudzanie w społeczeństwie polskim znajomości i zamiłowania do zabytków polskiej sztuki i kultury [Statut Towarzystwa…, 1901, s. 3]. Te szczytne cele członkowie Towarzystwa zamierzali realizować przez urządzanie odczytów i pogadanek na temat zabytków, wydawanie własnego czasopisma, utworzenie specjalistycznej biblioteki a także ustanowienie we wszystkich trzech zaborach delegatów Towarzystwa, którzy by podjęli wielką akcję inwentaryzacji i ochrony zabytków na terenie wszystkich ziem polskich. Tym tłumaczyć należy znaczący wzrost liczby członków Towarzystwa:


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

ten wybór (spośród kilkunastu innych lokalizacji). Przeciwko tej decyzji ruszyła wielka akcja ze strony przedstawicieli elity intelektualnej i artystycznej Krakowa. Wśród protestujących znaleźli się: Józef Łepkowski, Marian Sokolowski, Paweł Popiel, Stanisław Tomkowicz a nade wszystko Jan Matejko. Obrońcy zabytkowych budowli przy pl. Św. Ducha znaleźli wsparcie wśród członków wiedeńskiej Centralnej Komisji Ochrony Zabytków. Niestety, na nic zdały się protesty. Na nic zdał się także wymowny gest Matejki, który zaoferował władzom miasta odrestaurowanie na własny koszt kościoła św. Ducha i przeznaczenie go na pracownię malarską. Rada Miasta nie ustąpiła. Ostatecznie zburzono zabytkowe zabudowania szpitala i kościoła św. Ducha, co m.in. sprowokowało Matejkę do zwrócenia władzom miasta honorowego obywatelstwa oraz wydanie zakazu wystawiania jego dzieł w Krakowie7. Więcej szczęścia mieli artyści i intelektualiści krakowscy na początku XX wieku, kiedy wystąpili w obronie dwóch domków znajdujących się przy kościele św. Idziego. Sprawa zaczęła się w 1905 roku. W dniu 13 listopada tr. Rada Miasta Krakowa, w odpowiedzi na petycję oo. Dominikanów, którzy zarządzali kościółkiem św. Idziego, podjęła uchwałę o wyburzeniu dwóch zabytkowych, mocno zniszczonych domków. W obronie obu budowli wystąpiło teraz całe środowisko artystyczno-kulturalne Krakowa. W pierwszej kolejności do walki o uratowanie domków wystąpiło Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. W dniu 24 listopada 1905 roku na łamach „Czasu” ukazał się w tej sprawie list podpisany przez prezesa Towarzystwa – Jerzego hr. Mycielskiego oraz sekretarza – Mariana Gumowskiego, w którym autorzy, podkreślając wartość historyczną obu domków, zaproponowali w imieniu Towarzystwa zabezpieczenie domków, ich odrestaurowanie a następnie – zwrócenie Gminie m. Krakowa z przeznaczeniem na Muzeum Adama Mickiewicza (pamiątki związane z osobą poety, w tym – przekazane przez jego syna, Władysława, eksponowane były wówczas w jednej niewielkiej sali Muzeum Narodowego). Mycielski zgłaszał nadto gotowość opracowania przez członków Towarzystwa planu zagospodarowania otoczenia Wawelskiego Wzgórza. W tym samym czasie do obrony domków przy kościele św. Idziego przy-

7

stąpiły inne stowarzyszenia. W dniu 25 listopada tr. „Czas” ogłosił w tej sprawie oświadczenie Towarzystwa „Polska Sztuka Stosowana” podpisane przez prezesa Karola Potkańskiego i kilkudziesięciu członków (m.in. przez Jana Stanisławskiego, Henryka Uziembłę, Feliksa Koperę, Karola Frycza, Stanisława Wyspiańskiego, Leona Wyczółkowskiego, Stanisława Kamockiego, Wojciecha Weissa, Juliana Fałata, Teodora Axentowicza, Kazimierza Sichulskiego i Konstantego Laszczkę), w którym zwrócono uwagę na względy estetyczne potrzeby zachowania wzmiankowanych domków. Autorzy tego oświadczenia pisali: Kościółek św. Idziego i złączone z nim zabudowania tworzą malowniczą grupę u podnóża Wawelu, i od strony Kurzej Stopki są niejako bezpośrednią podstawą piętrzących się w perspektywie murów i gmachów zamkowych, które niebawem w dawnej zajaśnieć mają świetności. Malowniczość i piękno ogólnej sylwety Wawelu płyną nie tylko z przedziwnej harmonii, w jaką wieki zestroiły kolejne piętna epok i stylów, lecz także z resztek godnej niegdyś oprawy, na którą składały się z jednej strony wody Wisły, z drugiej – wyloty wąskich, pełnych malarskiego piękna ulic zdążających z grodu do stóp Zamku. Swoje oświadczenie członkowie Towarzystwa „Polska Sztuka Stosowana” zwieńczyli słowami: Ponieważ skazane na zagładę domostwo jest już samo przez się prawdziwym a zanikającym typem zabytku podmiejskiego rodzimego budownictwa, o nadzwyczajnym wdzięku malowniczej sylwety, a zburzenie go byłoby błędem nie do darowania zarówno z punktu widzenia logiki historycznej, jak i malarskiego ukształtowania otoczenia Wawelu, zakładamy najgorętszy protest przeciwko uchwale Rady Miejskiej, wyrażając przy tym nadzieję, że Rada uchwałę swą zniesie, a wymieniony zabytek zostanie zachowany i należycie odrestaurowany [„Czas”, 25.11.1905]. W obronie domków przy kościele św. Idziego opowiedziało się także Towarzystwo Upiększania Miasta Krakowa i Okolicy. Członkowie tego Towarzystwa zwrócili jednak uwagę na inny aspekt sprawy. Czytamy w jego oświadczeniu (z 20 listopada tr.), iż ogołocenie wielkich budowli z niskiego otoczenia (jak to się stało w Kolonii czy Paryżu) fatalnie wpływa na malowniczość i estetyczne wrażenie. Wprawdzie oba domki pochodzą z XVIII wieku, ale wyraźnie nawiązują swym kształtem do tradycji wieków

Powszechnie wiadomo o protestach grupy uczonych i artystów z Janem Matejką na czele w sprawie wyburzenia kościoła św. Ducha. Warto tu dodać, że w tej sprawie wypowiadał się także inny profesor Szkoły Sztuk Pięknych, Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. W 1889 roku na łamach krakowskiego tygodnika „Świat” ogłosił on artykuł pt. Starożytne budowle u św. Ducha w Krakowie, w którym przekonywał rajców miejskich – niestety, nieskutecznie – do zmiany decyzji o wyburzeniu tych budowli. Przedstawił także interesującą propozycję wykorzystania ich na cele społeczne. Pisał: Jakkolwiek nie godzi się przesadzać wartości szczegółów architektonicznych zachowanych w gmachach Ś-go Ducha, trzeba przyznać, że odtworzenie gmachów w szacie gotycyzmu XV wieku nie byłoby trudnym.

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7 Powszechnie wiadomo o protestach grupy uczonych i artystów z Janem Matejką na czele w sprawie wyburzenia kościoła św. Ducha. Warto tu dodać, że w tej sprawie wypowiadał się także inny profesor Szkoły Sztuk Pięknych, Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. W 1889 roku na łamach krakowskiego tygodnika „Świat” ogłosił on artykuł pt. Starożytne budowle u św. Ducha w Krakowie, w którym przekonywał rajców miejskich – niestety, nieskutecznie – do zmiany decyzji o wyburzeniu tych budowli. Przedstawił także interesującą propozycję wykorzystania ich na cele społeczne. Pisał: Jakkolwiek nie godzi się przesadzać wartości szczegółów architektonicznych zachowanych w gmachach Ś-go Ducha, trzeba przyznać, że odtworzenie gmachów w szacie gotycyzmu XV wieku nie byłoby trudnym.

ten wybór (spośród kilkunastu innych lokalizacji). Przeciwko tej decyzji ruszyła wielka akcja ze strony przedstawicieli elity intelektualnej i artystycznej Krakowa. Wśród protestujących znaleźli się: Józef Łepkowski, Marian Sokolowski, Paweł Popiel, Stanisław Tomkowicz a nade wszystko Jan Matejko. Obrońcy zabytkowych budowli przy pl. Św. Ducha znaleźli wsparcie wśród członków wiedeńskiej Centralnej Komisji Ochrony Zabytków. Niestety, na nic zdały się protesty. Na nic zdał się także wymowny gest Matejki, który zaoferował władzom miasta odrestaurowanie na własny koszt kościoła św. Ducha i przeznaczenie go na pracownię malarską. Rada Miasta nie ustąpiła. Ostatecznie zburzono zabytkowe zabudowania szpitala i kościoła św. Ducha, co m.in. sprowokowało Matejkę do zwrócenia władzom miasta honorowego obywatelstwa oraz wydanie zakazu wystawiania jego dzieł w Krakowie7. Więcej szczęścia mieli artyści i intelektualiści krakowscy na początku XX wieku, kiedy wystąpili w obronie dwóch domków znajdujących się przy kościele św. Idziego. Sprawa zaczęła się w 1905 roku. W dniu 13 listopada tr. Rada Miasta Krakowa, w odpowiedzi na petycję oo. Dominikanów, którzy zarządzali kościółkiem św. Idziego, podjęła uchwałę o wyburzeniu dwóch zabytkowych, mocno zniszczonych domków. W obronie obu budowli wystąpiło teraz całe środowisko artystyczno-kulturalne Krakowa. W pierwszej kolejności do walki o uratowanie domków wystąpiło Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. W dniu 24 listopada 1905 roku na łamach „Czasu” ukazał się w tej sprawie list podpisany przez prezesa Towarzystwa – Jerzego hr. Mycielskiego oraz sekretarza – Mariana Gumowskiego, w którym autorzy, podkreślając wartość historyczną obu domków, zaproponowali w imieniu Towarzystwa zabezpieczenie domków, ich odrestaurowanie a następnie – zwrócenie Gminie m. Krakowa z przeznaczeniem na Muzeum Adama Mickiewicza (pamiątki związane z osobą poety, w tym – przekazane przez jego syna, Władysława, eksponowane były wówczas w jednej niewielkiej sali Muzeum Narodowego). Mycielski zgłaszał nadto gotowość opracowania przez członków Towarzystwa planu zagospodarowania otoczenia Wawelskiego Wzgórza. W tym samym czasie do obrony domków przy kościele św. Idziego przy-

stąpiły inne stowarzyszenia. W dniu 25 listopada tr. „Czas” ogłosił w tej sprawie oświadczenie Towarzystwa „Polska Sztuka Stosowana” podpisane przez prezesa Karola Potkańskiego i kilkudziesięciu członków (m.in. przez Jana Stanisławskiego, Henryka Uziembłę, Feliksa Koperę, Karola Frycza, Stanisława Wyspiańskiego, Leona Wyczółkowskiego, Stanisława Kamockiego, Wojciecha Weissa, Juliana Fałata, Teodora Axentowicza, Kazimierza Sichulskiego i Konstantego Laszczkę), w którym zwrócono uwagę na względy estetyczne potrzeby zachowania wzmiankowanych domków. Autorzy tego oświadczenia pisali: Kościółek św. Idziego i złączone z nim zabudowania tworzą malowniczą grupę u podnóża Wawelu, i od strony Kurzej Stopki są niejako bezpośrednią podstawą piętrzących się w perspektywie murów i gmachów zamkowych, które niebawem w dawnej zajaśnieć mają świetności. Malowniczość i piękno ogólnej sylwety Wawelu płyną nie tylko z przedziwnej harmonii, w jaką wieki zestroiły kolejne piętna epok i stylów, lecz także z resztek godnej niegdyś oprawy, na którą składały się z jednej strony wody Wisły, z drugiej – wyloty wąskich, pełnych malarskiego piękna ulic zdążających z grodu do stóp Zamku. Swoje oświadczenie członkowie Towarzystwa „Polska Sztuka Stosowana” zwieńczyli słowami: Ponieważ skazane na zagładę domostwo jest już samo przez się prawdziwym a zanikającym typem zabytku podmiejskiego rodzimego budownictwa, o nadzwyczajnym wdzięku malowniczej sylwety, a zburzenie go byłoby błędem nie do darowania zarówno z punktu widzenia logiki historycznej, jak i malarskiego ukształtowania otoczenia Wawelu, zakładamy najgorętszy protest przeciwko uchwale Rady Miejskiej, wyrażając przy tym nadzieję, że Rada uchwałę swą zniesie, a wymieniony zabytek zostanie zachowany i należycie odrestaurowany [„Czas”, 25.11.1905]. W obronie domków przy kościele św. Idziego opowiedziało się także Towarzystwo Upiększania Miasta Krakowa i Okolicy. Członkowie tego Towarzystwa zwrócili jednak uwagę na inny aspekt sprawy. Czytamy w jego oświadczeniu (z 20 listopada tr.), iż ogołocenie wielkich budowli z niskiego otoczenia (jak to się stało w Kolonii czy Paryżu) fatalnie wpływa na malowniczość i estetyczne wrażenie. Wprawdzie oba domki pochodzą z XVIII wieku, ale wyraźnie nawiązują swym kształtem do tradycji wieków


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Juliusz Leo, przedstawił Radzie Miejskiej wszystkie nadesłane pisma. Po tygodniu Rada anulowała poprzednią uchwałę. Ostatecznie zwyciężył rozsądek i pozostawiono jeden najokazalszy domek. Dziś nadal cieszy on oczy turystów. Szkoda tylko, że zamiast oddania go na cele muzealne (np. na Muzeum Adama Mickiewicza – jak chciał Jerzy Mycielski) podobnie jak za czasów PRL mieści się w nim żłobek8. Równie piękną batalię – i również zwycięską – stoczyło Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury wraz z innymi podobnymi Towarzystwami i Kołami na początku drugiego dziesiątka lat XX wieku o uratowanie przed wyburzeniem Pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”. Ten wspaniały gmach, największy bodaj po Zamku Wawelskim w ówczesnym Krakowie, zbudowany został w I połowie XVII w. przez marszałka nadwornego, Adama Kazanowskiego, jednego z najbliższych przyjaciół króla Władysława IV. W ciągu blisko czterystu lat istnienia pałac przechodził w coraz to nowe ręce. W II połowie XVII w. kupił go Wawrzyniec Jan Wodzicki, podczaszy warszawski i żupnik wielicki oraz bocheński. W nim zatrzymał się w 1668 roku jadący do Francji król Jan Kazimierz. W trzy lata później zamieszkał w nim na krótko król Michał Wiśniowiecki. Jak przypomniał w 1914 roku Franciszek Klein [Klein, 1914], odtąd pałac ten uważany był powszechnie za drugą – po Wawelu – siedzibę godną monarchów. To dlatego pod koniec XVII w. ówczesny właściciel pałacu, Krzysztof Wodzicki, zaprosił znakomitego artystę włoskiego, Baltazara Fontanę, przybyłego do Krakowa aby zbudować kościół św. Anny do przyozdobienia stiukami dwóch sal pałacu (zachowały się do dziś!). W rękach rodu Wodzickich pozostawał pałac aż do 1774 roku, kiedy to Franciszek Wodzicki sprzedał je biskupowi Kajetanowi Sołtykowi. Ten nieszczęśliwy hierarcha kościelny mieszkał w pałacu osiem lat, aż do 1782 roku (w tym czasie bodaj jeden tylko raz – w 1781 roku – opuścił pałac, aby udać się w wielkim orszaku duchowieństwa do katedry wawelskiej w celu odprawienia tam nabożeństwa). W 1782 roku w pałacu zatrzymał się podróżujący incognito po Europie carewicz Paweł. W rodzinie Sołtyków pozostał pałac aż do schyłku XVIII w. W 1796 roku urządzono w nim siedzibę wojskowego gubernatora – namiestnika austriackiego, Margelika. W XIX wieku przez pewien czas pałac był własnością znanego dyrektora teatru krakowskiego Jacka Kluszewskiego, a następnie barona Edwarda Rastawieckiego. W 1843 roku zakupił go kupiec krakowski, Jan Walter. W rękach

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

średnich. Ich wyburzenie sprawiłoby, że wiele na urodzie straciłaby i tak monotonna ulica Grodzka. Znamienne. że autorzy oświadczenia nie tyle protestują, co proszą Radę Miasta o zmianę decyzji. Piszą więc: Kochając nasz piękny Kraków, z wielkim żalem powzięliśmy wiadomość o uchwale świetnej Rady, która gdyby była wykonana umniejszyłaby znów o jedną cząstkę starożytną spuściznę świetnej przeszłości. Kraków wobec świata zagranicznego reprezentuje skarbnicę zabytków, w nich zagranica rozczytuje się o słynnej przeszłości, o naszych zasługach kulturalnych w dziejach powszechnych, więc apelujemy do serc patriotycznych i światłych umysłów świetnej Rady Miejskiej, by nam nie uszczuplała naszej najdroższej spuścizny i uchwałę swą reasumować raczyła [„Czas” 27.11.1905]. Obrońcy domków przy kościele św. Idziego uznali, że należy uruchomić wszelkie sprężyny, które mogłyby ocalić budynki. W akcji swej otrzymali też wsparcie ze strony Centralnej Komisji dla Badania i Konserwacji Zabytków Sztuki i Pomników Historycznych w Wiedniu. Jej prezydent, p. Helfart, zwrócił się też listem z dnia 24 listopada 1905 roku do prezydenta m. Krakowa, Juliusza Leo, w którym domagał się zmiany decyzji Rady Miasta w wymienionej sprawie. Pisał: Doszło do wiadomości Centralnej Komisji, że rada Miasta Krakowa powzięła uchwałę względem zburzenia budynków otaczających kościół św. Idziego. Komisja Centralna z powodu tej uchwały musi wyrazić swe żywe ubolewanie, gdyż w razie jej wykonania zostanie Kraków pozbawionym nie tylko budynków pod względem artystycznym i historycznym bardzo znamiennych, ale także i jednego ze swych najbardziej malowniczych i uroczych placów. Zwraca się też Komisja z pełnym zaufaniem do Jaśnie Wielmożnego Pana z uprzejmą prośbą o interwencję w celu zachowania nie tylko tego starego budynku, ale także i tego tak miłego ze względu na swe położenie u stóp góry Zamkowej placu, oraz o spowodowanie zmiany zapadłej już uchwały Rady Miejskiej, co już z tego względu nie powinno natrafić na przeszkody, ile że odnowienie tych budynków da się z łatwością podciągnąć pod pojęcie restauracji starych zabytków. W tym względzie oczekuje Centralna Komisja łaskawej odpowiedzi [„Czas” 7.12.1905]. Wiele wskazuje na to, że prezydent Helfart podpisał pismo przygotowane przez Jerzego Mycielskiego, pojawiają się w nim bowiem argumenty znane nam już z wystąpienia tego autora w imieniu Towarzystwa Opieki na Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. W dniu 7 grudnia 1905 r prezydent m. Krakowa,

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To i tak lepiej niż realizacja pomysłu 3z 1906 roku, kiedy to zaproponowano, aby w budynkach tych umieścić „zakład dla podrzutków”.

To i tak lepiej niż realizacja pomysłu 3z 1906 roku, kiedy to zaproponowano, aby w budynkach tych umieścić „zakład dla podrzutków”.

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Juliusz Leo, przedstawił Radzie Miejskiej wszystkie nadesłane pisma. Po tygodniu Rada anulowała poprzednią uchwałę. Ostatecznie zwyciężył rozsądek i pozostawiono jeden najokazalszy domek. Dziś nadal cieszy on oczy turystów. Szkoda tylko, że zamiast oddania go na cele muzealne (np. na Muzeum Adama Mickiewicza – jak chciał Jerzy Mycielski) podobnie jak za czasów PRL mieści się w nim żłobek8. Równie piękną batalię – i również zwycięską – stoczyło Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury wraz z innymi podobnymi Towarzystwami i Kołami na początku drugiego dziesiątka lat XX wieku o uratowanie przed wyburzeniem Pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”. Ten wspaniały gmach, największy bodaj po Zamku Wawelskim w ówczesnym Krakowie, zbudowany został w I połowie XVII w. przez marszałka nadwornego, Adama Kazanowskiego, jednego z najbliższych przyjaciół króla Władysława IV. W ciągu blisko czterystu lat istnienia pałac przechodził w coraz to nowe ręce. W II połowie XVII w. kupił go Wawrzyniec Jan Wodzicki, podczaszy warszawski i żupnik wielicki oraz bocheński. W nim zatrzymał się w 1668 roku jadący do Francji król Jan Kazimierz. W trzy lata później zamieszkał w nim na krótko król Michał Wiśniowiecki. Jak przypomniał w 1914 roku Franciszek Klein [Klein, 1914], odtąd pałac ten uważany był powszechnie za drugą – po Wawelu – siedzibę godną monarchów. To dlatego pod koniec XVII w. ówczesny właściciel pałacu, Krzysztof Wodzicki, zaprosił znakomitego artystę włoskiego, Baltazara Fontanę, przybyłego do Krakowa aby zbudować kościół św. Anny do przyozdobienia stiukami dwóch sal pałacu (zachowały się do dziś!). W rękach rodu Wodzickich pozostawał pałac aż do 1774 roku, kiedy to Franciszek Wodzicki sprzedał je biskupowi Kajetanowi Sołtykowi. Ten nieszczęśliwy hierarcha kościelny mieszkał w pałacu osiem lat, aż do 1782 roku (w tym czasie bodaj jeden tylko raz – w 1781 roku – opuścił pałac, aby udać się w wielkim orszaku duchowieństwa do katedry wawelskiej w celu odprawienia tam nabożeństwa). W 1782 roku w pałacu zatrzymał się podróżujący incognito po Europie carewicz Paweł. W rodzinie Sołtyków pozostał pałac aż do schyłku XVIII w. W 1796 roku urządzono w nim siedzibę wojskowego gubernatora – namiestnika austriackiego, Margelika. W XIX wieku przez pewien czas pałac był własnością znanego dyrektora teatru krakowskiego Jacka Kluszewskiego, a następnie barona Edwarda Rastawieckiego. W 1843 roku zakupił go kupiec krakowski, Jan Walter. W rękach

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średnich. Ich wyburzenie sprawiłoby, że wiele na urodzie straciłaby i tak monotonna ulica Grodzka. Znamienne. że autorzy oświadczenia nie tyle protestują, co proszą Radę Miasta o zmianę decyzji. Piszą więc: Kochając nasz piękny Kraków, z wielkim żalem powzięliśmy wiadomość o uchwale świetnej Rady, która gdyby była wykonana umniejszyłaby znów o jedną cząstkę starożytną spuściznę świetnej przeszłości. Kraków wobec świata zagranicznego reprezentuje skarbnicę zabytków, w nich zagranica rozczytuje się o słynnej przeszłości, o naszych zasługach kulturalnych w dziejach powszechnych, więc apelujemy do serc patriotycznych i światłych umysłów świetnej Rady Miejskiej, by nam nie uszczuplała naszej najdroższej spuścizny i uchwałę swą reasumować raczyła [„Czas” 27.11.1905]. Obrońcy domków przy kościele św. Idziego uznali, że należy uruchomić wszelkie sprężyny, które mogłyby ocalić budynki. W akcji swej otrzymali też wsparcie ze strony Centralnej Komisji dla Badania i Konserwacji Zabytków Sztuki i Pomników Historycznych w Wiedniu. Jej prezydent, p. Helfart, zwrócił się też listem z dnia 24 listopada 1905 roku do prezydenta m. Krakowa, Juliusza Leo, w którym domagał się zmiany decyzji Rady Miasta w wymienionej sprawie. Pisał: Doszło do wiadomości Centralnej Komisji, że rada Miasta Krakowa powzięła uchwałę względem zburzenia budynków otaczających kościół św. Idziego. Komisja Centralna z powodu tej uchwały musi wyrazić swe żywe ubolewanie, gdyż w razie jej wykonania zostanie Kraków pozbawionym nie tylko budynków pod względem artystycznym i historycznym bardzo znamiennych, ale także i jednego ze swych najbardziej malowniczych i uroczych placów. Zwraca się też Komisja z pełnym zaufaniem do Jaśnie Wielmożnego Pana z uprzejmą prośbą o interwencję w celu zachowania nie tylko tego starego budynku, ale także i tego tak miłego ze względu na swe położenie u stóp góry Zamkowej placu, oraz o spowodowanie zmiany zapadłej już uchwały Rady Miejskiej, co już z tego względu nie powinno natrafić na przeszkody, ile że odnowienie tych budynków da się z łatwością podciągnąć pod pojęcie restauracji starych zabytków. W tym względzie oczekuje Centralna Komisja łaskawej odpowiedzi [„Czas” 7.12.1905]. Wiele wskazuje na to, że prezydent Helfart podpisał pismo przygotowane przez Jerzego Mycielskiego, pojawiają się w nim bowiem argumenty znane nam już z wystąpienia tego autora w imieniu Towarzystwa Opieki na Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. W dniu 7 grudnia 1905 r prezydent m. Krakowa,


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

rodziny Walterów pozostawał on do 1910 roku. W tym roku nad mocno zdewastowanym pałacem pojawiły się prawdziwie czarne chmury. Najpierw do akcji przystąpił bogaty magnat z Podola, który zdecydował się zakupić go i – po wyburzeniu – na jego miejscu wznieść zespół budowli hotelowohandlowych. Zamiaru jednak nie zrealizował, toteż w 1911 roku do akcji przystąpił krakowski potentat przemysłowy, Gustaw Gerson Bazes. Założył on w 1912 roku Krakowska Spółkę Budowlaną i Przemysłową, która w marcu następnego roku zakupiła pałac. Do końca 1913 roku trwała akcja opróżniania pałacu z lokatorów. Wiosną 1914 roku Rada Miasta wydała zgodę na wyburzenie monumentalnej budowli. W tej sytuacji do akcji w obronie pałacu przystąpił świat artystyczny i kulturalny Krakowa. Na czele obrońców „Krzysztoforów” stanęło Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. Na początku 1914 roku wydawało się, że pałac zostanie uratowany, zgodził się bowiem wykupić go z rąk wzmiankowanej Spółki Budowlanej Jakub hr. Potocki, który zgłosił gotowość odrestaurowania pałacu. Niestety, po kilku tygodniach hrabia wycofał się z transakcji. W tej sytuacji w kwietniu powróciła sprawa rozbiórki pałacu. Na dwa tygodnie przed rozpoczęciem tych robót prof. Jerzy Mycielski (za namową Franciszka Kleina) zdecydował się na krok ostateczny: wybrał się do Wiednia, do następcy tronu arcyksięcia Franciszka Ferdynanda, z prośbą o interwencję. Arcyksiążę, pomny zasług, jakie oddał mu swego czasu hr. Mycielski9, wysłał natychmiast list do prezydenta m. Krakowa, Juliusza Leo, z zaleceniem wstrzymania prac rozbiórkowych pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”. Tak też się stało. Z chwilą wybuchu I wojny światowej pałac zajęło wojsko austriackie 13. pułku piechoty. W listopadzie 1917 roku pałac zakupił ówczesny namiestnik Galicji, baron Diller, z przeznaczeniem na pomieszczenia dla Biura Odbudowy Galicji. Natychmiast też poddał go kompleksowej restauracji. Z chwilą upadku Austrii pałac „Pod Krzysztofory” przeszedł na własność państwa polskiego10. Przywołana wyżej historia walki członków Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, wspieranej przez inne stowarzyszenia grupujące miłośników dawnej stolicy Polski, dowodzi aktywności środowiska artystyczno-

kulturalnego Krakowa w obronie zabytków. I choć nie zawsze walka taka kończyła się sukcesem11, to przecież dowodziła ona siły tegoż środowiska, posiadającego świadomość wagi dziedzictwa, jakie odziedziczyło pokolenie z przełomu XIX-XX w. po swoich przodkach. Jak wspomniano, Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury zawsze mogło liczyć na wsparcie innych krakowskich towarzystw o podobnym charakterze. W pierwszej kolejności – na wsparcie ze strony założonego jeszcze w 1896 roku Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa. Celem statutowym tego Towarzystwa było: poznawanie dziejowej przeszłości Krakowa i jego okolic a także – obudzenie poszanowania dla pamiątek i zabytków Krakowa wśród ogółu jego mieszkańców [Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników…, 1896, s. 1]. Towarzystwo to skupiło znakomite grono krakowskich uczonych, wśród których znaleźli się profesorowie UJ (Stanisław Krzyżanowski – pierwszy prezes Towarzystwa, Stanisław Estreicher, Adam Krzyżanowski, Leonard Lepszy, Franciszek Piekosiński, Marian Sokołowski, Bolesław Ulanowski), ale także ludzie kultury (Klemens Bąkowski, Adam Chmiel, Zygmunt Hendel, Stanisław Tomkowicz), a także artyści (Władysław Łuszczkiewicz i Stanisław Wyspiański). Nie miejsce i czas, aby przywoływać tu historię tego Towarzystwa, które istnieje do dziś [por. Bieńkowski, 1997; Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków…, 1997]. Godzi się jednak wspomnieć przynajmniej o niektórych przedsięwzięciach Towarzystwa mających na celu ratowanie zabytków. Znamienne, że jedną z pierwszych komisji Towarzystwa, jaką powołano w 1897 roku, było powołanie Komisji Konserwatorskiej. Działając w imieniu całego Towarzystwa Komisja ta występowała z coraz nowymi, ważnymi inicjatywami. M.in. pod koniec lat dziewięćdziesiątych Towarzystwo – wespół z innymi – „obroniło” Barbakan przed przekazaniem go Teatrowi Ludowemu (a w 1909 roku – przed zakusami przekształcenia go przez Jana Stykę w siedzibę „Panoramy Grunwaldzkiej”). W 1913 r skutecznie protestowało przeciw planom zabudowy Błoń. Jego staraniem i dzięki zebranym przez Towarzystwo funduszom, na początku XX wieku odrestaurowano gotycki Ogrojec przy kościele św. Barbary. W 1906 roku Towarzystwo

Znany historyk sztuki i historyk, profesor UJ, udokumentował swego czasu odpowiednie pochodzenie małżonki arcyksięcia, hrabianki Chotko, dzięki czemu została ona uznana przez cesarski dwór!

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Dramatyczne dzieje walk o uratowanie pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory” przed wybuchem I wojny światowej opisał Franciszek Klein w książce: Notatnik krakowski (Kraków 1965, s. 7 – 16).

Przykładem może być fakt wyburzenia w 1909 roku tzw. Baszty Kościuszki przez krakowskiego kupca, późniejszego prezydenta m. Krakowa, Jana Kantego Federowicza.

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Przykładem może być fakt wyburzenia w 1909 roku tzw. Baszty Kościuszki przez krakowskiego kupca, późniejszego prezydenta m. Krakowa, Jana Kantego Federowicza.

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Dramatyczne dzieje walk o uratowanie pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory” przed wybuchem I wojny światowej opisał Franciszek Klein w książce: Notatnik krakowski (Kraków 1965, s. 7 – 16).

Znany historyk sztuki i historyk, profesor UJ, udokumentował swego czasu odpowiednie pochodzenie małżonki arcyksięcia, hrabianki Chotko, dzięki czemu została ona uznana przez cesarski dwór!

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rodziny Walterów pozostawał on do 1910 roku. W tym roku nad mocno zdewastowanym pałacem pojawiły się prawdziwie czarne chmury. Najpierw do akcji przystąpił bogaty magnat z Podola, który zdecydował się zakupić go i – po wyburzeniu – na jego miejscu wznieść zespół budowli hotelowohandlowych. Zamiaru jednak nie zrealizował, toteż w 1911 roku do akcji przystąpił krakowski potentat przemysłowy, Gustaw Gerson Bazes. Założył on w 1912 roku Krakowska Spółkę Budowlaną i Przemysłową, która w marcu następnego roku zakupiła pałac. Do końca 1913 roku trwała akcja opróżniania pałacu z lokatorów. Wiosną 1914 roku Rada Miasta wydała zgodę na wyburzenie monumentalnej budowli. W tej sytuacji do akcji w obronie pałacu przystąpił świat artystyczny i kulturalny Krakowa. Na czele obrońców „Krzysztoforów” stanęło Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury. Na początku 1914 roku wydawało się, że pałac zostanie uratowany, zgodził się bowiem wykupić go z rąk wzmiankowanej Spółki Budowlanej Jakub hr. Potocki, który zgłosił gotowość odrestaurowania pałacu. Niestety, po kilku tygodniach hrabia wycofał się z transakcji. W tej sytuacji w kwietniu powróciła sprawa rozbiórki pałacu. Na dwa tygodnie przed rozpoczęciem tych robót prof. Jerzy Mycielski (za namową Franciszka Kleina) zdecydował się na krok ostateczny: wybrał się do Wiednia, do następcy tronu arcyksięcia Franciszka Ferdynanda, z prośbą o interwencję. Arcyksiążę, pomny zasług, jakie oddał mu swego czasu hr. Mycielski9, wysłał natychmiast list do prezydenta m. Krakowa, Juliusza Leo, z zaleceniem wstrzymania prac rozbiórkowych pałacu „Pod Krzysztofory”. Tak też się stało. Z chwilą wybuchu I wojny światowej pałac zajęło wojsko austriackie 13. pułku piechoty. W listopadzie 1917 roku pałac zakupił ówczesny namiestnik Galicji, baron Diller, z przeznaczeniem na pomieszczenia dla Biura Odbudowy Galicji. Natychmiast też poddał go kompleksowej restauracji. Z chwilą upadku Austrii pałac „Pod Krzysztofory” przeszedł na własność państwa polskiego10. Przywołana wyżej historia walki członków Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, wspieranej przez inne stowarzyszenia grupujące miłośników dawnej stolicy Polski, dowodzi aktywności środowiska artystyczno-

kulturalnego Krakowa w obronie zabytków. I choć nie zawsze walka taka kończyła się sukcesem11, to przecież dowodziła ona siły tegoż środowiska, posiadającego świadomość wagi dziedzictwa, jakie odziedziczyło pokolenie z przełomu XIX-XX w. po swoich przodkach. Jak wspomniano, Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury zawsze mogło liczyć na wsparcie innych krakowskich towarzystw o podobnym charakterze. W pierwszej kolejności – na wsparcie ze strony założonego jeszcze w 1896 roku Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa. Celem statutowym tego Towarzystwa było: poznawanie dziejowej przeszłości Krakowa i jego okolic a także – obudzenie poszanowania dla pamiątek i zabytków Krakowa wśród ogółu jego mieszkańców [Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników…, 1896, s. 1]. Towarzystwo to skupiło znakomite grono krakowskich uczonych, wśród których znaleźli się profesorowie UJ (Stanisław Krzyżanowski – pierwszy prezes Towarzystwa, Stanisław Estreicher, Adam Krzyżanowski, Leonard Lepszy, Franciszek Piekosiński, Marian Sokołowski, Bolesław Ulanowski), ale także ludzie kultury (Klemens Bąkowski, Adam Chmiel, Zygmunt Hendel, Stanisław Tomkowicz), a także artyści (Władysław Łuszczkiewicz i Stanisław Wyspiański). Nie miejsce i czas, aby przywoływać tu historię tego Towarzystwa, które istnieje do dziś [por. Bieńkowski, 1997; Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków…, 1997]. Godzi się jednak wspomnieć przynajmniej o niektórych przedsięwzięciach Towarzystwa mających na celu ratowanie zabytków. Znamienne, że jedną z pierwszych komisji Towarzystwa, jaką powołano w 1897 roku, było powołanie Komisji Konserwatorskiej. Działając w imieniu całego Towarzystwa Komisja ta występowała z coraz nowymi, ważnymi inicjatywami. M.in. pod koniec lat dziewięćdziesiątych Towarzystwo – wespół z innymi – „obroniło” Barbakan przed przekazaniem go Teatrowi Ludowemu (a w 1909 roku – przed zakusami przekształcenia go przez Jana Stykę w siedzibę „Panoramy Grunwaldzkiej”). W 1913 r skutecznie protestowało przeciw planom zabudowy Błoń. Jego staraniem i dzięki zebranym przez Towarzystwo funduszom, na początku XX wieku odrestaurowano gotycki Ogrojec przy kościele św. Barbary. W 1906 roku Towarzystwo


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

towanie zabytków krakowskich kończyły się zwycięstwem. Mimo protestów wszystkich jedenastu towarzystw kulturalnych krakowskich w 1909 roku zburzono Basztę Kościuszki. Austriackie władze wojskowe nie zgodziły się na otoczenie opieką przez Towarzystwo Miłośników ulegających degradacji Kopców Wandy i Krakusa. Nie wchodząc bliżej w szczegóły działań poszczególnych towarzystw czy indywidualnych osób z II połowy XIX w. i lat poprzedzających wybuch I wojny światowej jedno godzi się podkreślić: w II połowie XIX wieku w Krakowie zrodził się społeczny ruch mający na celu ratowanie od zniszczenia zabytkowych budowli, a także zabytków ruchomych. Początek temu ruchowi dali ludzie pokroju Feliksa Radwańskiego (ojca), Floriana Straszewskiego, Karola Kremera czy Ambrożego Grabowskiego. Z czasem powstały stowarzyszenia kulturalne, które – działając na różnych polach – przykładały coraz większe znaczenie do ochrony zabytków. Pojawienie się na początku XX wieku, przy okazji walki o uratowanie przed wyburzeniem domków koło kościoła św. Idziego, Związku Jedenastu Towarzystw Kulturalnych, który zaczął działać w sposób skoordynowany, wspólnie, jest jedynym w swoim rodzaju, nieznanym w innych miastach polskich i europejskich przykładem łączenia wysiłków wielu ludzi w celu ratowania dziedzictwa narodowego. Godzi się zatem o tych ludziach i ich bezinteresownej pracy pamiętać.

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zainicjowało akcję mającą na celu wykupienie z rąk prywatnych budynku kościoła św. Agnieszki (znajdował się w nim w tym czasie skład złomu żelaznego). W 1905 roku Towarzystwo włączyło się bardzo czynnie (finansowo!) w dzieło ratowania budynków przy kościele św. Idziego. Trzeba z mocą podkreślić, że Towarzystwu Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury oraz Towarzystwu Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa udało się przy okazji walki o uratowanie domków przy kościele św. Idziego włączyć do współpracy dziewięć innych krakowskich stowarzyszeń kulturalnych. Występując odtąd pod nazwą: „Związek Jedenastu Towarzystw Kulturalnych”, na progu XX wieku stworzono w Krakowie bardzo silne środowisko opiniodawcze, z którymi musiały liczyć się zarówno władze miasta, jak i właściciele budowli zabytkowych (w wypadku wzmiankowanych domków – oo. Dominikanie)12. Wiele energii członkowie Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa wkładali w akcję upamiętnienia tablicami wybitnych osobistości miasta, a także przybyszy. Zdołali m.in. doprowadzić do wmurowania tablic pamiątkowych Marcina Oracewicza (na murach obronnych k/Bramy Floriańskiej), Władysława Łuszczkiewicza (na ścianie kościoła Mariackiego), Wincentego Pola (na budynku przy ul. Szpitalnej 26), ks. Piotra Skargi (na ścianie budynku przy ul. Siennej), Johanna Wolfganga Goethego (w Rynku Głównym) i in. Niestety, nie wszystkie boje Towarzystwa o ura-

W skład nieformalnego „Związku 11 Towarzystw Kulturalnych” wchodziły: Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych, Towarzystwo Upiększania Miasta Krakowa i Okolicy, Krakowskie Towarzystwo Techniczne, Koło Artystyczno – Literackie, Towarzystwo Numizmatyczno – Archeologiczne, Grono Konserwatorów Galicji Zachodniej, Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, Towarzystwo Artystów Polskich „Sztuka”, Towarzystwo „Polska Sztuka Stosowana”, Krajowy Związek Turystyczny. W zbiorach Archiwum Państwowego w Krakowie (sygn., I.T. 1100, s. 623) znajduje się dokument z września 1908 roku potwierdzający pojawienie się inicjatywy nadania „Związkowi” statusu formalnego „Związku Instytucji Artystyczno-Kulturalnych Straż Artystyczna w Krakowie”, którego celem miało być ustalenie zbiorowej opinii, inicjatywa i wykonanie wspólnej, solidarnej akcji w sprawach artystyczno - kulturalnych, obchodzących Kraków. Mimo że formalnie nie doszło do powołania takiego związku, to przecież odtąd aż do wybuchu I wojny światowej „Związek jedenastu” występował systematycznie w obronie przekazanego przez przodków bogatego dziedzictwa kulturalnego.

12

12 W skład nieformalnego „Związku 11 Towarzystw Kulturalnych” wchodziły: Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych, Towarzystwo Upiększania Miasta Krakowa i Okolicy, Krakowskie Towarzystwo Techniczne, Koło Artystyczno – Literackie, Towarzystwo Numizmatyczno – Archeologiczne, Grono Konserwatorów Galicji Zachodniej, Towarzystwo Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, Towarzystwo Artystów Polskich „Sztuka”, Towarzystwo „Polska Sztuka Stosowana”, Krajowy Związek Turystyczny. W zbiorach Archiwum Państwowego w Krakowie (sygn., I.T. 1100, s. 623) znajduje się dokument z września 1908 roku potwierdzający pojawienie się inicjatywy nadania „Związkowi” statusu formalnego „Związku Instytucji Artystyczno-Kulturalnych Straż Artystyczna w Krakowie”, którego celem miało być ustalenie zbiorowej opinii, inicjatywa i wykonanie wspólnej, solidarnej akcji w sprawach artystyczno - kulturalnych, obchodzących Kraków. Mimo że formalnie nie doszło do powołania takiego związku, to przecież odtąd aż do wybuchu I wojny światowej „Związek jedenastu” występował systematycznie w obronie przekazanego przez przodków bogatego dziedzictwa kulturalnego.

towanie zabytków krakowskich kończyły się zwycięstwem. Mimo protestów wszystkich jedenastu towarzystw kulturalnych krakowskich w 1909 roku zburzono Basztę Kościuszki. Austriackie władze wojskowe nie zgodziły się na otoczenie opieką przez Towarzystwo Miłośników ulegających degradacji Kopców Wandy i Krakusa. Nie wchodząc bliżej w szczegóły działań poszczególnych towarzystw czy indywidualnych osób z II połowy XIX w. i lat poprzedzających wybuch I wojny światowej jedno godzi się podkreślić: w II połowie XIX wieku w Krakowie zrodził się społeczny ruch mający na celu ratowanie od zniszczenia zabytkowych budowli, a także zabytków ruchomych. Początek temu ruchowi dali ludzie pokroju Feliksa Radwańskiego (ojca), Floriana Straszewskiego, Karola Kremera czy Ambrożego Grabowskiego. Z czasem powstały stowarzyszenia kulturalne, które – działając na różnych polach – przykładały coraz większe znaczenie do ochrony zabytków. Pojawienie się na początku XX wieku, przy okazji walki o uratowanie przed wyburzeniem domków koło kościoła św. Idziego, Związku Jedenastu Towarzystw Kulturalnych, który zaczął działać w sposób skoordynowany, wspólnie, jest jedynym w swoim rodzaju, nieznanym w innych miastach polskich i europejskich przykładem łączenia wysiłków wielu ludzi w celu ratowania dziedzictwa narodowego. Godzi się zatem o tych ludziach i ich bezinteresownej pracy pamiętać.

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zainicjowało akcję mającą na celu wykupienie z rąk prywatnych budynku kościoła św. Agnieszki (znajdował się w nim w tym czasie skład złomu żelaznego). W 1905 roku Towarzystwo włączyło się bardzo czynnie (finansowo!) w dzieło ratowania budynków przy kościele św. Idziego. Trzeba z mocą podkreślić, że Towarzystwu Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury oraz Towarzystwu Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa udało się przy okazji walki o uratowanie domków przy kościele św. Idziego włączyć do współpracy dziewięć innych krakowskich stowarzyszeń kulturalnych. Występując odtąd pod nazwą: „Związek Jedenastu Towarzystw Kulturalnych”, na progu XX wieku stworzono w Krakowie bardzo silne środowisko opiniodawcze, z którymi musiały liczyć się zarówno władze miasta, jak i właściciele budowli zabytkowych (w wypadku wzmiankowanych domków – oo. Dominikanie)12. Wiele energii członkowie Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa wkładali w akcję upamiętnienia tablicami wybitnych osobistości miasta, a także przybyszy. Zdołali m.in. doprowadzić do wmurowania tablic pamiątkowych Marcina Oracewicza (na murach obronnych k/Bramy Floriańskiej), Władysława Łuszczkiewicza (na ścianie kościoła Mariackiego), Wincentego Pola (na budynku przy ul. Szpitalnej 26), ks. Piotra Skargi (na ścianie budynku przy ul. Siennej), Johanna Wolfganga Goethego (w Rynku Głównym) i in. Niestety, nie wszystkie boje Towarzystwa o ura-


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Literatura Bąkowski K., Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898. Bieńkowski W., Strażnicy dziejów miasta narodowej pamięci. Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa w latach 1896 – 1996, Kraków 1997 Chmiel A., Feliks Radwański (1926) [w:] tegoż, Szkice krakowskie, Kraków 1939-1947. Grabowski A., Wspomnienia, red. Estreicher S., Kraków 1909, t. II. Klein F., Notatnik krakowski, Kraków 1965. Klein F., Pałac „Pod Krzysztofory“ w Krakowie, Kraków 1914. Krzyżanowski S., Ludność Krakowa z końcem XVIII w. [w:] „Kalendarz Krakowski Józefa Czecha na rok 1902”, Kraków 1901. Lepiarczyk J., Działalność architektoniczna Sebastiana Sierakowskiego. Projekty klasycystyczne i neogotyckie (1777 – 1824), Kraków 1968. Lepiarczyk J., Konserwacja zabytków architektury, Kraków 1954.

Łuszczkiewicz W., Sokołowski M., Paweł Popiel (1807 – 1892), Kraków 1893. Palarczykowa A., Artur Potocki i jego pałac „Pod Baranami” w Krakowie, Kraków 1995. Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu miłośników ojczystych zabytków w Krakowie w dniach 3 i 4 lipca 1911 roku, Kraków 1912. Piekarczyk J., Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory [w:] „Kraków” 1984, nr 1. Rożek M., Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa [w:] „Biuletyn Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej” XXXIII (1983). Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, Kraków 1896. Statut Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury, Kraków 1901. Ślesiński W., Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku [w:] „Ochrona Zabytków” 1963, nr 1, Żmudziński J., Restauracja zabytków malarstwa sztalu-

Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków. Założyciele Towarzy-

gowego w działalności krakowskiego Towarzystwa

stwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, pod

Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury (1902

red. W. Bieńkowskiego, Kraków 1997.

– 1926) [w:] „Rocznik Biblioteki PAN w Krakowie”

Łepkowski J., Sprawozdanie z podróży archeologicznej

XLII, 1997.

po Sądecczyźnie [w:] „Rocznik Towarzystwa Naukowego Krakowskiego”, t. 23, 1851.

wego Krakowskiego”, t. 23, 1851. po Sądecczyźnie [w:] „Rocznik Towarzystwa NaukoŁepkowski J., Sprawozdanie z podróży archeologicznej

XLII, 1997. – 1926) [w:] „Rocznik Biblioteki PAN w Krakowie”

red. W. Bieńkowskiego, Kraków 1997.

Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Sztuki i Kultury (1902

stwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, pod

gowego w działalności krakowskiego Towarzystwa

Ludzie, którzy umiłowali Kraków. Założyciele TowarzyKraków 1954. Lepiarczyk J., Konserwacja zabytków architektury, tyckie (1777 – 1824), Kraków 1968. Sierakowskiego. Projekty klasycystyczne i neogoLepiarczyk J., Działalność architektoniczna Sebastiana 1902”, Kraków 1901. [w:] „Kalendarz Krakowski Józefa Czecha na rok Krzyżanowski S., Ludność Krakowa z końcem XVIII w. 1914. Klein F., Pałac „Pod Krzysztofory“ w Krakowie, Kraków Klein F., Notatnik krakowski, Kraków 1965. 1909, t. II. Grabowski A., Wspomnienia, red. Estreicher S., Kraków krakowskie, Kraków 1939-1947. Chmiel A., Feliks Radwański (1926) [w:] tegoż, Szkice Krakowa w latach 1896 – 1996, Kraków 1997 pamięci. Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Bieńkowski W., Strażnicy dziejów miasta narodowej Bąkowski K., Historia Krakowa, Kraków 1898.

Literatura Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Żmudziński J., Restauracja zabytków malarstwa sztalubytków” 1963, nr 1, w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku [w:] „Ochrona ZaŚlesiński W., Problemy konserwatorskie Krakowa Sztuki i Kultury, Kraków 1901. Statut Towarzystwa Opieki nad Polskimi Zabytkami Krakowa, Kraków 1896. Statut Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej” XXXIII (1983). Rożek M., Nie istniejące kościoły Krakowa [w:] „Biuletyn [w:] „Kraków” 1984, nr 1. Piekarczyk J., Inwazja burzymurków. Krakowskie spory Kraków 1912. zabytków w Krakowie w dniach 3 i 4 lipca 1911 roku, Pamiętnik pierwszego zjazdu miłośników ojczystych nami” w Krakowie, Kraków 1995. Palarczykowa A., Artur Potocki i jego pałac „Pod Bara– 1892), Kraków 1893. Łuszczkiewicz W., Sokołowski M., Paweł Popiel (1807


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Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych1

Przedstawiony tekst został przygotowany na podstawie międzynarodowego raportu porównawczego i raportu polskiego, opracowanych w ramach międzynarodowego badania zrealizowanego jesienią 2007 roku przez CIRCLE (sieć europejskich instytutów badawczych i centrów dokumentacji) i zatytułowanego Festival Policies of Public Authorithies in Europe. Wstępne rezultaty badania były omawiane na konferencji zorganizowanej przez Interarts w Barcelonie w dniach 19-ego i 20-ego października 2007. Przedmiotem badania było zaangażowanie władz publicznych we wspieranie festiwali w 20-u krajach Europy. Każdy z przedstawicieli 20 krajów biorących udział w badaniu przygotował raport krajowy składający się z dwóch zasadniczych części: szkicu ogólnej sytuacji wspieranych publicznie festiwali artystycznych oraz studium przypadku dotyczącego wybranego festiwalu. Autorami raportu porównawczego były Dorota Ilczuk i Magdalena Kulikowska, a raportu polskiego Michał Merczyński i zespół Fundacji Pro Cultura.

1

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

uropejski krajobraz festiwalowy jest niezwykle bogaty. Obserwuje się generalną tendencję wzrostową liczby organizowanych festiwali. Dotyczy to także festiwali stanowiących przedmiot badania – artystycznych, międzynarodowych i wspieranych ze środków publicznych. Sytuacja taka ma miejsce w szczególności w takich krajach jak Hiszpania, Finlandia, Niemcy (przede wszystkim w odniesieniu do okresu po zjednoczeniu kraju) czy Chorwacja, gdzie w ostatnie dekadzie odnotowano wzrost liczby festiwali o 100%. Jednak, jak pokazuje tabela 1, liczba organizowanych festiwali jest różna w poszczególnych krajach i zależy od szerokiego wachlarza uwarunkowań ekonomicznych, kulturowych i społecznych.

F

E

Na Węgrzech opublikowano w 2005 roku raport National Survey on Festival in Hungary. Ma on charakter aplikacyjny i posłużył jako pomoc przy opracowywaniu planu działań władz. Mimo to wpływ, jaki festiwale wywierają na całokształt obszaru kultury danego terytorium został w krajach europejskich dostrzeżony zarówno przez społeczeństwa, jak i władze publiczne, które włączyły festiwale do obszaru ich zainteresowania. W niniejszym tekście aspekt podejścia władz publicznych do festiwali jest aspektem wiodącym.

1.1. Liczba festiwali i miejsca ich organizacji

1. FESTIWALE W EUROPIE

1. FESTIWALE W EUROPIE

1.1. Liczba festiwali i miejsca ich organizacji

Na Węgrzech opublikowano w 2005 roku raport National Survey on Festival in Hungary. Ma on charakter aplikacyjny i posłużył jako pomoc przy opracowywaniu planu działań władz. Mimo to wpływ, jaki festiwale wywierają na całokształt obszaru kultury danego terytorium został w krajach europejskich dostrzeżony zarówno przez społeczeństwa, jak i władze publiczne, które włączyły festiwale do obszaru ich zainteresowania. W niniejszym tekście aspekt podejścia władz publicznych do festiwali jest aspektem wiodącym.

E

estiwale to wydarzenia o wymiarze narodowym i ponad-narodowym, mające na celu promocję jednej lub wielu dyscyplin artystycznych, zorganizowane w określonym miejscu i czasie. Festiwale są często areną międzykulturowych interakcji, a także ważnym czynnikiem wpływającym na reorganizację przestrzeni publicznej. Głównym miejscem ich organizowania są europejskie miasta, a zwłaszcza metropolie. Władze miejskie szybko zaczęły doceniać ich złożony charakter, wielość funkcji społecznych, artystycznych, kulturalnych i ekonomicznych, jak również siłę ich oddziaływania. Współczesne festiwale stają się jednym z najważniejszych fenomenów na europejskiej scenie kulturalnej. Tekst ten skupiać się będzie jedynie na festiwalach otrzymujących publiczne wsparcie finansowe i spełniających dwa dodatkowe kryteria, którymi są: międzynarodowy charakter i profil artystyczny. Czy różnią się one od reszty festiwali? Do pewnego stopnia tak. Przede wszystkim ze względu na wspomniane wyżej cechy, cieszą się wysokim prestiżem. Ponadto władze publiczne chętniej współfinansują festiwale międzynarodowe niż te o znaczeniu lokalnym, sprawiając, że mają one większą finansową stabilność. Dotychczasowy stan badań, raportów i studiów nad festiwalami w Europie nie prezentuje się zbyt dobrze. Festiwale badano jedynie we Włoszech, Francji, Austrii i Finlandii, a badania zazwyczaj odnosiły się tylko do wybranych aspektów zaangażowania władz publicznych w festiwale.

uropejski krajobraz festiwalowy jest niezwykle bogaty. Obserwuje się generalną tendencję wzrostową liczby organizowanych festiwali. Dotyczy to także festiwali stanowiących przedmiot badania – artystycznych, międzynarodowych i wspieranych ze środków publicznych. Sytuacja taka ma miejsce w szczególności w takich krajach jak Hiszpania, Finlandia, Niemcy (przede wszystkim w odniesieniu do okresu po zjednoczeniu kraju) czy Chorwacja, gdzie w ostatnie dekadzie odnotowano wzrost liczby festiwali o 100%. Jednak, jak pokazuje tabela 1, liczba organizowanych festiwali jest różna w poszczególnych krajach i zależy od szerokiego wachlarza uwarunkowań ekonomicznych, kulturowych i społecznych.

F

estiwale to wydarzenia o wymiarze narodowym i ponad-narodowym, mające na celu promocję jednej lub wielu dyscyplin artystycznych, zorganizowane w określonym miejscu i czasie. Festiwale są często areną międzykulturowych interakcji, a także ważnym czynnikiem wpływającym na reorganizację przestrzeni publicznej. Głównym miejscem ich organizowania są europejskie miasta, a zwłaszcza metropolie. Władze miejskie szybko zaczęły doceniać ich złożony charakter, wielość funkcji społecznych, artystycznych, kulturalnych i ekonomicznych, jak również siłę ich oddziaływania. Współczesne festiwale stają się jednym z najważniejszych fenomenów na europejskiej scenie kulturalnej. Tekst ten skupiać się będzie jedynie na festiwalach otrzymujących publiczne wsparcie finansowe i spełniających dwa dodatkowe kryteria, którymi są: międzynarodowy charakter i profil artystyczny. Czy różnią się one od reszty festiwali? Do pewnego stopnia tak. Przede wszystkim ze względu na wspomniane wyżej cechy, cieszą się wysokim prestiżem. Ponadto władze publiczne chętniej współfinansują festiwale międzynarodowe niż te o znaczeniu lokalnym, sprawiając, że mają one większą finansową stabilność. Dotychczasowy stan badań, raportów i studiów nad festiwalami w Europie nie prezentuje się zbyt dobrze. Festiwale badano jedynie we Włoszech, Francji, Austrii i Finlandii, a badania zazwyczaj odnosiły się tylko do wybranych aspektów zaangażowania władz publicznych w festiwale.

dr hab. Dorota Ilczuk Profesor nauk humanistycznych w Szkole Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej. Założycielka i prezes Fundacji Pro Cultura, członkini Europejskiego Parlamentu Kulturalnego. Do roku 2001 adiunkt w Instytucie Kultury w Warszawie. W latach 2002–2007 Prezydent CIRCLE. Współpracuje z zagranicznymi organizacjami i towarzystwami naukowymi, jak na przykład ERICArts, Association for Cultural Economics, ISTR. Brała aktywny udział w ponad stu krajowych i międzynarodowych konferencjach naukowych. Jest kierownikiem licznych programów badawczych. Jako ekspert Rady Europy, Komisji Europejskiej i Parlamentu Europejskiego uczestniczy w międzynarodowych programach badawczych poświęconych

dr hab. Dorota Ilczuk Profesor nauk humanistycznych w Szkole Wyższej Psychologii Społecznej. Założycielka i prezes Fundacji Pro Cultura, członkini Europejskiego Parlamentu Kulturalnego. Do roku 2001 adiunkt w Instytucie Kultury w Warszawie. W latach 2002–2007 Prezydent CIRCLE. Współpracuje z zagranicznymi organizacjami i towarzystwami naukowymi, jak na przykład ERICArts, Association for Cultural Economics, ISTR. Brała aktywny udział w ponad stu krajowych i międzynarodowych konferencjach naukowych. Jest kierownikiem licznych programów badawczych. Jako ekspert Rady Europy, Komisji Europejskiej i Parlamentu Europejskiego uczestniczy w międzynarodowych programach badawczych poświęconych

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

1 Przedstawiony tekst został przygotowany na podstawie międzynarodowego raportu porównawczego i raportu polskiego, opracowanych w ramach międzynarodowego badania zrealizowanego jesienią 2007 roku przez CIRCLE (sieć europejskich instytutów badawczych i centrów dokumentacji) i zatytułowanego Festival Policies of Public Authorithies in Europe. Wstępne rezultaty badania były omawiane na konferencji zorganizowanej przez Interarts w Barcelonie w dniach 19-ego i 20-ego października 2007. Przedmiotem badania było zaangażowanie władz publicznych we wspieranie festiwali w 20-u krajach Europy. Każdy z przedstawicieli 20 krajów biorących udział w badaniu przygotował raport krajowy składający się z dwóch zasadniczych części: szkicu ogólnej sytuacji wspieranych publicznie festiwali artystycznych oraz studium przypadku dotyczącego wybranego festiwalu. Autorami raportu porównawczego były Dorota Ilczuk i Magdalena Kulikowska, a raportu polskiego Michał Merczyński i zespół Fundacji Pro Cultura.

Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych1


261

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

PAŃSTWO

LICZBA*

Francja

ok. 1 000

Hiszpania

ok. 700

Niemcy

474

1.3. Motywy

Włochy

200

Polska

163

Rosja

ponad 100

M

Węgry

89

Bułgaria

85

Portugalia

77

Słowacja

16

*Ze względu na brak oficjalnych statystyk, dane mają w większości charakter szacunkowy

Większość festiwali w krajach objętych rozpoznaniem odbywa się w dużych ośrodkach miejskich i regionach turystycznych. Dobrym przykładem jest Hiszpania, gdzie w roku 2005 Andaluzja, Katalonia i region Madrytu gościły odpowiednio 18%, 14% i 13% wszystkich festiwali teatralnych oraz 16%, 23% i 9% festiwali muzycznych, włączając konkursy jazzowe.

1.2. Rodzaje festiwali

W

śród międzynarodowych i artystycznych festiwali w Europie festiwale muzyczne nie tylko przeważają pod względem ilości, ale także wysokości dofinansowania ze środków publicznych. Przykładowo wydatki na festiwale muzyczne na szczeblu centralnym we Włoszech w 2005 roku wyniosły 8,84 miliona euro, co stanowiło aż 83,6% wszystkich wydatków z tego szczebla przeznaczonych na wspieranie festiwali. Ze środków tych skorzystało 68 festiwali – z czego wiele to te poświęcone operze, jak np. Rossini Opera Festival, Torre del Lago-Puccini, Valle d’Itria. Taka sytuacja występuje niemal we wszystkich badanych krajach. Jedynym wyjątkiem jest Polska, gdzie festiwali teatralnych jest więcej niż muzycznych. Zazwyczaj, festiwale teatralne plasują się na drugiej pozycji. Kolejne miejsca zajmują przeważnie festiwale taneczne i filmowe. Rośnie też liczba festiwali interdyscyplinarnych, odchodzących od przywiązania do jednego gatunku artystycznej ekspresji. Jak dotąd trudno jest ocenić wysokość dofinansowania tego typu festiwali, ponieważ zazwyczaj przyporządkowuje się je do imprez poświęconych jednej z form artystycznych.

otywy, którymi kierują się władze publiczne decydując się na wspieranie festiwali, najkrócej można określić następująco: na szczeblu państwa chodzi głównie o realizację celów artystycznych, z naciskiem na imprezy prestiżowe promujące kraj za granicą, natomiast na regionalnym i lokalnym cele artystyczne mieszają się z politycznymi, ekonomicznymi i społecznymi. Często władze samorządowe są w o wiele mniejszym stopniu zainteresowane wartością artystyczną danego festiwalu niż jego innymi wartościami, na przykład ekonomicznymi. Taka sytuacja jest między innymi w Austrii, Finlandii, Flandrii i Niemczech. Przykładowo w Austrii prowadzi się systematyczne badania na temat ekonomicznego wpływu festiwali na region, w którym są organizowane. Badania te wpływają w znaczący sposób na proces podejmowania decyzji dotyczących wspierania festiwali. Na przykład festiwal Bregenzer Festspiele (land Vorarlberg), otrzymujący od władz regionalnych i lokalnych łącznie 2,65 miliona euro i prawie drugie tyle od władz centralnych, średnio generuje rocznie zyski w wysokości 167 milionów euro jednocześnie tworząc rocznie 1 160 pełnoetatowych miejsc pracy.

1.4. Szczeble sektora publicznego odpowiedzialne za wspieranie festiwali w Europie

N

a szczeblu centralnym sektora publicznego za wsparcie festiwali odpowiada w pierwszym rzędzie ministerstwo kultury lub ministerstwo zajmujące się sprawami kultury (np. Ministerstwo Edukacji w Finlandii). Nie można zdecydowanie wskazać jednego departamentu wewnątrz ministerstw kultury, który jest odpowiedzialny za wspieranie festiwali. Są to zazwyczaj różnorodne departamenty, odpowiedzialne za różne dziedziny sztuki. W Turcji przykładowo są to General Directorate for Research and Education – Deptartment of Folk Culture, General Directorate for Fine Arts, General Directorate for State Opera and Ballets i General Directorate for State Theatres. W Portugalii natomiast znajduje się Direcção-Geral das Artes (Directorate-General for the Arts). W krajach federalnych sytuacja jest odmienna wyłącznie ze

Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych1

a szczeblu centralnym sektora publicznego za wsparcie festiwali odpowiada w pierwszym rzędzie ministerstwo kultury lub ministerstwo zajmujące się sprawami kultury (np. Ministerstwo Edukacji w Finlandii). Nie można zdecydowanie wskazać jednego departamentu wewnątrz ministerstw kultury, który jest odpowiedzialny za wspieranie festiwali. Są to zazwyczaj różnorodne departamenty, odpowiedzialne za różne dziedziny sztuki. W Turcji przykładowo są to General Directorate for Research and Education – Deptartment of Folk Culture, General Directorate for Fine Arts, General Directorate for State Opera and Ballets i General Directorate for State Theatres. W Portugalii natomiast znajduje się Direcção-Geral das Artes (Directorate-General for the Arts). W krajach federalnych sytuacja jest odmienna wyłącznie ze

W

1.2. Rodzaje festiwali Większość festiwali w krajach objętych rozpoznaniem odbywa się w dużych ośrodkach miejskich i regionach turystycznych. Dobrym przykładem jest Hiszpania, gdzie w roku 2005 Andaluzja, Katalonia i region Madrytu gościły odpowiednio 18%, 14% i 13% wszystkich festiwali teatralnych oraz 16%, 23% i 9% festiwali muzycznych, włączając konkursy jazzowe. *Ze względu na brak oficjalnych statystyk, dane mają w większości charakter szacunkowy

16

Słowacja

77

Portugalia

85

Bułgaria

89

Węgry

ponad 100

Rosja

163

Polska

200

Włochy

474

Niemcy

ok. 700

Hiszpania

ok. 1 000

Francja

LICZBA*

PAŃSTWO

TABELA 1: Liczba międzynarodowych, artystycznych festiwali wspieranych ze środków publicznych w wybranych krajach

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

Jedynym z krajów, w którym wyróżnia się festiwale interdyscyplinarne i kwalifikuje je jako osobną kategorię, to Francja. Interdyscyplinarne festiwale zajmują tam drugie miejsce, za muzycznymi, w rankingu wysokości publicznego dofinansowania.

Dorota Ilczuk, Magdalena Kulikowska

śród międzynarodowych i artystycznych festiwali w Europie festiwale muzyczne nie tylko przeważają pod względem ilości, ale także wysokości dofinansowania ze środków publicznych. Przykładowo wydatki na festiwale muzyczne na szczeblu centralnym we Włoszech w 2005 roku wyniosły 8,84 miliona euro, co stanowiło aż 83,6% wszystkich wydatków z tego szczebla przeznaczonych na wspieranie festiwali. Ze środków tych skorzystało 68 festiwali – z czego wiele to te poświęcone operze, jak np. Rossini Opera Festival, Torre del Lago-Puccini, Valle d’Itria. Taka sytuacja występuje niemal we wszystkich badanych krajach. Jedynym wyjątkiem jest Polska, gdzie festiwali teatralnych jest więcej niż muzycznych. Zazwyczaj, festiwale teatralne plasują się na drugiej pozycji. Kolejne miejsca zajmują przeważnie festiwale taneczne i filmowe. Rośnie też liczba festiwali interdyscyplinarnych, odchodzących od przywiązania do jednego gatunku artystycznej ekspresji. Jak dotąd trudno jest ocenić wysokość dofinansowania tego typu festiwali, ponieważ zazwyczaj przyporządkowuje się je do imprez poświęconych jednej z form artystycznych.

Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych1

TABELA 1: Liczba międzynarodowych, artystycznych festiwali wspieranych ze środków publicznych w wybranych krajach

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

261

problemom kultury. Autorka i współautorka licznych publikacji książkowych oraz ponad stu ekspertyz i artykułów w trzech obszarach badawczych dotyczących: 1) ekonomicznych aspektów prowadzenia działalności kulturalnej, tzn. ekonomiki kultury; 2) zależności pomiędzy polityką kulturalną i rozwojem społeczeństwa obywatelskiego; 3) zarządzania w kulturze. Prowadzone przez nią prace w szczególności koncentrowały się na bieżącej obserwacji zagadnień tj.: zagraniczne modele finansowania kultury, komercjalizacja kultury, rynek w kulturze, zasady, formy i kryteria finansowania kultury ze środków publicznych, możliwości organizowania i finansowania działalności kulturalnej w ramach tzw. trzeciego sektora, prywatyzacja kultury, mecenat i sponsorowanie kultury ze środków prywatnych, znaczenie ekonomiczne sektora kreatywnego i przemysłów kultury i zmiany w publicznych instytucjach kultury. Szczególne miejsce wśród realizowanych projektów zajmują te, które posiadają charakter aplikacyjny i dotyczą kształtowania polityki kulturalnej metropolii.

N

1.4. Szczeble sektora publicznego odpowiedzialne za wspieranie festiwali w Europie otywy, którymi kierują się władze publiczne decydując się na wspieranie festiwali, najkrócej można określić następująco: na szczeblu państwa chodzi głównie o realizację celów artystycznych, z naciskiem na imprezy prestiżowe promujące kraj za granicą, natomiast na regionalnym i lokalnym cele artystyczne mieszają się z politycznymi, ekonomicznymi i społecznymi. Często władze samorządowe są w o wiele mniejszym stopniu zainteresowane wartością artystyczną danego festiwalu niż jego innymi wartościami, na przykład ekonomicznymi. Taka sytuacja jest między innymi w Austrii, Finlandii, Flandrii i Niemczech. Przykładowo w Austrii prowadzi się systematyczne badania na temat ekonomicznego wpływu festiwali na region, w którym są organizowane. Badania te wpływają w znaczący sposób na proces podejmowania decyzji dotyczących wspierania festiwali. Na przykład festiwal Bregenzer Festspiele (land Vorarlberg), otrzymujący od władz regionalnych i lokalnych łącznie 2,65 miliona euro i prawie drugie tyle od władz centralnych, średnio generuje rocznie zyski w wysokości 167 milionów euro jednocześnie tworząc rocznie 1 160 pełnoetatowych miejsc pracy.

M

1.3. Motywy Jedynym z krajów, w którym wyróżnia się festiwale interdyscyplinarne i kwalifikuje je jako osobną kategorię, to Francja. Interdyscyplinarne festiwale zajmują tam drugie miejsce, za muzycznymi, w rankingu wysokości publicznego dofinansowania.

problemom kultury. Autorka i współautorka licznych publikacji książkowych oraz ponad stu ekspertyz i artykułów w trzech obszarach badawczych dotyczących: 1) ekonomicznych aspektów prowadzenia działalności kulturalnej, tzn. ekonomiki kultury; 2) zależności pomiędzy polityką kulturalną i rozwojem społeczeństwa obywatelskiego; 3) zarządzania w kulturze. Prowadzone przez nią prace w szczególności koncentrowały się na bieżącej obserwacji zagadnień tj.: zagraniczne modele finansowania kultury, komercjalizacja kultury, rynek w kulturze, zasady, formy i kryteria finansowania kultury ze środków publicznych, możliwości organizowania i finansowania działalności kulturalnej w ramach tzw. trzeciego sektora, prywatyzacja kultury, mecenat i sponsorowanie kultury ze środków prywatnych, znaczenie ekonomiczne sektora kreatywnego i przemysłów kultury i zmiany w publicznych instytucjach kultury. Szczególne miejsce wśród realizowanych projektów zajmują te, które posiadają charakter aplikacyjny i dotyczą kształtowania polityki kulturalnej metropolii.


262

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

FINLANDIA

FRANCJA

PortugalIA

POLSKA

SLOWACJA

HISZPANIA

żowania w organizację szczególnie istotnych dla miasta festiwali własne instytucje. Przykładem jest polska Stołeczna Estrada, miejska instytucja kultury zajmująca się organizacją imprez kulturalnych własnych i zleconych, festiwali, akcji kulturalnych w Warszawie. Wskazanie najbardziej zaangażowanego szczebla władz publicznych we wspieranie festiwali jest trudne. Sytuację można określić jako zróżnicowaną. Często najbardziej zaangażowany jest szczebel centralny (tab. 2). Tak jest m.in. w Turcji, Finlandii, Słowacji, Polsce i Chorwacji. Przykładowo fińskie Ministerstwo Edukacji przyznało w 2007 roku 3,7 milionów euro 147 wydarzeniom kulturalnym, z których większość stanowiły festiwale. W tym samym czasie władze lokalne przyznały 1,3 miliony euro 43 festiwalom. W przypadku Polski można stwierdzić, że w praktyce ministerstwo kultury i gminy są w zasadzie jedynymi jednostkami aktywnymi na tym polu. Z drugiej strony francuskie ministerstwo kultury od 2001 roku deleguje odpowiedzialność za wspieranie festiwali władzom regionalnym i lokalnym. Także przykład słowackiego festiwalu Divadelna Nitra International Festiwal wskazuje na wysoki poziom finansowania ze szczebla centralnego – 54,5% całego budżetu festiwal otrzymał z tego źródła a jedynie 2,6% od władz pozostałych szczebli administracji publicznej. W krajach o strukturze federalnej (Niemcy, Belgia) szczebel centralny tylko sporadycznie angażuje się we wspieranie festiwali. Aktywność władz regionalnych i lokalnych w poszczególnych krajach w odniesieniu do wspierania festiwali jest także widoczna. W zależności od kraju różni się stopień zaangażowania poszczególnych szczebli władz samorządowych. W Austrii, Belgii i Francji bardziej aktywne są szczeble regionalne.

CHORWACJA

względu na ciężar zaangażowania władz publicznych różnych szczebli – tutaj na czoło wychodzi szczebel regionalny (landy). Te kraje, które tak, jak Francja posiadają państwowe struktury administracji kulturalnej odpowiedzialne za regiony (np. DRAC’s), włączają je do finansowania ze środków centralnych festiwali regionalnych i lokalnych. W krajach, w których istnieją organizacje typu Quango, to właśnie one aktywnie wspierają festiwale, przykładowo Arts Council w Finlandii, Kultuurkapital w Estonii, National Film Centre w Bułgarii, Film and Audiovisual Institute w Portugalii czy Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography w Rosji. Jeśli na szczeblu centralnym europejskiego sektora publicznego usytuujemy Unię Europejską i jej struktury, to możemy ocenić je jako partnera festiwali, nadal rzadkiego, ale stopniowo aktywizującego swoją działalność. Drugim ważnym ogniwem publicznego sektora zaangażowanym we wspieranie festiwali są w Europie samorządy szczebla regionalnego i lokalnego. Samorządy desygnują uprawnienia do wspierania festiwali zazwyczaj swoim biurom/departamentom/wydziałom zajmującym się sprawami kultury i promocji miasta. Wśród analizowanych krajów znaleziono tylko jeden przykład tworzenia przez władze samorządowe specjalnych komórek/biur działających wewnątrz urzędów zajmujących się sprawami festiwali – Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe. Warto zwrócić uwagę na przykład spoza Europy. W Chicago funkcjonuje MOSE – Mayor’s Office of Special Events – departament chicagowskiego ratusza, który odpowiada za organizację lub koprodukcję największych ogólnodostępnych festiwali miejskich. Natomiast samorządy europejskie, szczególnie w metropoliach (i to przede wszystkim krajów postkomunistycznych), wykorzystują do zaanga-

BUłGARIA

Tabela 2: Wsparcie władz publicznych dla festiwali wg stopnia zaangażowania

BELGIA

gminy

centrum

Centrum

centrum/ Gminy

Regiony/ powiaty

POZIOM ZAANGAŻOWANIA

centrum

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

centrum

262

gminy

centrum

regiony/ powiaty

gminy

wysoki

-

regiony

-

regiony/ powiaty

Centrum

Gminy

regiony/ powiaty

-

-

gminy

-

Gminy

-

regiony/ powiaty

Niski

centrum

regiony

gminy

regiony/ powiaty

średni

Gminy

centrum

-

gminy

gminy

-

Gminy

-

regiony/ powiaty

Centrum

centrum

regiony/ powiaty

gminy

-

średni

-

gminy

-

centrum

Niski

Centrum

POZIOM ZAANGAŻOWANIA

centrum/ Gminy

BELGIA

Regiony/ powiaty

BUłGARIA

centrum

CHORWACJA

centrum

FINLANDIA

gminy

FRANCJA

regiony/ powiaty

PortugalIA

wysoki

POLSKA

Tabela 2: Wsparcie władz publicznych dla festiwali wg stopnia zaangażowania

SLOWACJA

żowania w organizację szczególnie istotnych dla miasta festiwali własne instytucje. Przykładem jest polska Stołeczna Estrada, miejska instytucja kultury zajmująca się organizacją imprez kulturalnych własnych i zleconych, festiwali, akcji kulturalnych w Warszawie. Wskazanie najbardziej zaangażowanego szczebla władz publicznych we wspieranie festiwali jest trudne. Sytuację można określić jako zróżnicowaną. Często najbardziej zaangażowany jest szczebel centralny (tab. 2). Tak jest m.in. w Turcji, Finlandii, Słowacji, Polsce i Chorwacji. Przykładowo fińskie Ministerstwo Edukacji przyznało w 2007 roku 3,7 milionów euro 147 wydarzeniom kulturalnym, z których większość stanowiły festiwale. W tym samym czasie władze lokalne przyznały 1,3 miliony euro 43 festiwalom. W przypadku Polski można stwierdzić, że w praktyce ministerstwo kultury i gminy są w zasadzie jedynymi jednostkami aktywnymi na tym polu. Z drugiej strony francuskie ministerstwo kultury od 2001 roku deleguje odpowiedzialność za wspieranie festiwali władzom regionalnym i lokalnym. Także przykład słowackiego festiwalu Divadelna Nitra International Festiwal wskazuje na wysoki poziom finansowania ze szczebla centralnego – 54,5% całego budżetu festiwal otrzymał z tego źródła a jedynie 2,6% od władz pozostałych szczebli administracji publicznej. W krajach o strukturze federalnej (Niemcy, Belgia) szczebel centralny tylko sporadycznie angażuje się we wspieranie festiwali. Aktywność władz regionalnych i lokalnych w poszczególnych krajach w odniesieniu do wspierania festiwali jest także widoczna. W zależności od kraju różni się stopień zaangażowania poszczególnych szczebli władz samorządowych. W Austrii, Belgii i Francji bardziej aktywne są szczeble regionalne.

HISZPANIA

względu na ciężar zaangażowania władz publicznych różnych szczebli – tutaj na czoło wychodzi szczebel regionalny (landy). Te kraje, które tak, jak Francja posiadają państwowe struktury administracji kulturalnej odpowiedzialne za regiony (np. DRAC’s), włączają je do finansowania ze środków centralnych festiwali regionalnych i lokalnych. W krajach, w których istnieją organizacje typu Quango, to właśnie one aktywnie wspierają festiwale, przykładowo Arts Council w Finlandii, Kultuurkapital w Estonii, National Film Centre w Bułgarii, Film and Audiovisual Institute w Portugalii czy Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography w Rosji. Jeśli na szczeblu centralnym europejskiego sektora publicznego usytuujemy Unię Europejską i jej struktury, to możemy ocenić je jako partnera festiwali, nadal rzadkiego, ale stopniowo aktywizującego swoją działalność. Drugim ważnym ogniwem publicznego sektora zaangażowanym we wspieranie festiwali są w Europie samorządy szczebla regionalnego i lokalnego. Samorządy desygnują uprawnienia do wspierania festiwali zazwyczaj swoim biurom/departamentom/wydziałom zajmującym się sprawami kultury i promocji miasta. Wśród analizowanych krajów znaleziono tylko jeden przykład tworzenia przez władze samorządowe specjalnych komórek/biur działających wewnątrz urzędów zajmujących się sprawami festiwali – Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe. Warto zwrócić uwagę na przykład spoza Europy. W Chicago funkcjonuje MOSE – Mayor’s Office of Special Events – departament chicagowskiego ratusza, który odpowiada za organizację lub koprodukcję największych ogólnodostępnych festiwali miejskich. Natomiast samorządy europejskie, szczególnie w metropoliach (i to przede wszystkim krajów postkomunistycznych), wykorzystują do zaanga-


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Przykładowo, festiwal austriacki Steirischer Herbst otrzymuje środki ze szczebla regionalnego pokrywające 47% całego budżetu. Natomiast władze lokalne odpowiedzialne są za wspieranie festiwali w takich krajach jak: Bułgaria, Flandria (Summer of Antwerp: szczebel lokalny – 65%, regionalny – 12,5%) czy Hiszpania (Dancing Days – International Dance Festival in Urban Landscapes: szczebel lokalny – 53%, regionalny – 22%, centralny – 12%). Sytuacja prezentuje się odmiennie w przypadku zaangażowania władz publicznych we wsparcie festiwali poprzez pomoc rzeczową. Wydaje się, że władze centralne rzadko udzielają takiego wsparcia. Można powiedzieć, że im niższy szczebel administracji publicznej, tym częściej wsparcie rzeczowe jest udzielane. Najczęściej przyjmuje postać bezpłatnego użyczania przestrzeni publicznych. Festiwale potrzebują zaplecza infrastrukturalnego i właśnie to władze lokalne mogą im zapewnić. Bywa także, jak w przypadku niektórych mniejszych miast francuskich, że na ich terenie organizowane są festiwale o charakterze regionalnym lub międzynarodowym, a budżet władz miejskich jest zbyt skromny, aby je wesprzeć finansowo. W efekcie miasto udziela wsparcia rzeczowego (np. festiwal Ile-de-France oraz festiwal Automne en Normandie). Zarysowana tendencja z oczywistych względów nie występuje, gdy władze publiczne są współorganizatorem festiwalu lub gdy ten jest organizowany przez instytucje publiczne. W takich przypadkach wsparcie rzeczowe jest powszechne na wszystkich szczeblach władz publicznych.

1.5. Formy finansowania

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Europie można wskazać finansowanie projektów (project funding) jako tę formę publicznego finansowania festiwali, która występuje we wszystkich analizowanych krajach. Finansowanie projektów realizowane jest z różnym natężeniem – od raczkującej w tej dziedzinie Bułgarii po Finlandię, gdzie zasadą jest przyjęcie tej formy przez ministerstwo kultury jako jedynej stosowanej przy finansowaniu festiwali. Finansowanie projektów może mieć różną perspektywę czasową, różnych odbiorców, różny sposób selekcji i kontroli wydanych środków i być odmienne w wypadku różnych dziedzin kultury. Jest to forma popularna, ale oczywiście nie jedyna. Obok niej środki finansowe mogą być przekazywane na podstawie m.in. porozumienia zawieranego jako partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne (np. Słowacja), w ramach programów (linia budżetowa – budgetary lines, np. Hiszpania) oraz dekretów ministerialnych (np. Włochy). Ponadto spotykane jest przekazywanie

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

subwencji na organizacje festiwalu. Subwencje występują zazwyczaj w sytuacjach, gdy samorząd sam organizuje festiwal lub czyni to samorządowa instytucja kultury (np. Francja, Bułgaria, Polska).

1.6. Skala finansowania festiwali ze źródeł publicznych

O

kreślenie jasnych tendencji dotyczących publicznego finansowania festiwali nie jest możliwe, jako że festiwale, jak zostało wcześniej wspomniane, nie są uwzględniane w oficjalnych statystykach. Dotyczy to także wydatków publicznych. Można zatem stwierdzić jedynie, że „publicznie finansowane festiwale” to tak naprawdę „festiwale współfinansowane ze źródeł publicznych”. Wysokość wsparcia dla festiwali w poszczególnych krajach Europejskich jest zróżnicowana. Poniżej przedstawiamy kilka przykładów ilustrujących sytuację. W 2005 Austriacki Departament Sztuki przeznaczył ok. 13,2 miliony euro na wsparcie i promocję festiwali. Stanowiło to 15,6% całego budżetu departamentu – tym samym festiwale to trzecia dziedzina sztuki co do wysokości uzyskanego z tego źródła wsparcia. Przykładowo festiwal Salzburger Festspiele uzyskał ok. 5,2 milionów euro z Departamentu Sztuki, 2,74 miliona euro z Prowincji Salzburga i 2,6 miliona euro od władz miasta Salzburg. Fińskie ministerstwo kultury w 2007 przeznaczyło 3,7 miliona euro na wsparcie najważniejszych wydarzeń kulturalnych, z czego większość to festiwale. Najwyższe granty przyznane zostały: Savonlinna Opera Festival (660 000 euro), Tampere Theatre Festival (217 000 euro), Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (172 000 euro), Kuopio Dance Festival (151 000 euro) i Kaustinen Folk Music Festival (150 000 euro). Francuskie ministerstwo kultury przeznaczyło w 2006 roku 7,5 miliona euro na bezpośrednie finansowanie trzech festiwali (festiwal operowy Lyrique d’Aix en Provence, teatralny Festival d’Avignon oraz muzyczny Festival d’Automne). Dodatkowo wsparło 400 festiwali na szczeblu regionalnym w kwocie łącznej 11,6 miliona euro. Dane te dotyczą jedynie festiwali poświęconych sztukom performatywnym i nie uwzględniają dotacji dla instytucji kultury organizujących festiwale. Festiwale muzyczne, taneczne i teatralne we Włoszech otrzymały łącznie ze szczebla centralnego w 2005 roku ponad 10,5 miliona euro. Średnia wysokość przyznanego grantu wyniosła 89,000 euro. Festiwale te najczęściej otrzymywały także środki od władz samorządowych.

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Europie można wskazać finansowanie projektów (project funding) jako tę formę publicznego finansowania festiwali, która występuje we wszystkich analizowanych krajach. Finansowanie projektów realizowane jest z różnym natężeniem – od raczkującej w tej dziedzinie Bułgarii po Finlandię, gdzie zasadą jest przyjęcie tej formy przez ministerstwo kultury jako jedynej stosowanej przy finansowaniu festiwali. Finansowanie projektów może mieć różną perspektywę czasową, różnych odbiorców, różny sposób selekcji i kontroli wydanych środków i być odmienne w wypadku różnych dziedzin kultury. Jest to forma popularna, ale oczywiście nie jedyna. Obok niej środki finansowe mogą być przekazywane na podstawie m.in. porozumienia zawieranego jako partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne (np. Słowacja), w ramach programów (linia budżetowa – budgetary lines, np. Hiszpania) oraz dekretów ministerialnych (np. Włochy). Ponadto spotykane jest przekazywanie

W

1.5. Formy finansowania Przykładowo, festiwal austriacki Steirischer Herbst otrzymuje środki ze szczebla regionalnego pokrywające 47% całego budżetu. Natomiast władze lokalne odpowiedzialne są za wspieranie festiwali w takich krajach jak: Bułgaria, Flandria (Summer of Antwerp: szczebel lokalny – 65%, regionalny – 12,5%) czy Hiszpania (Dancing Days – International Dance Festival in Urban Landscapes: szczebel lokalny – 53%, regionalny – 22%, centralny – 12%). Sytuacja prezentuje się odmiennie w przypadku zaangażowania władz publicznych we wsparcie festiwali poprzez pomoc rzeczową. Wydaje się, że władze centralne rzadko udzielają takiego wsparcia. Można powiedzieć, że im niższy szczebel administracji publicznej, tym częściej wsparcie rzeczowe jest udzielane. Najczęściej przyjmuje postać bezpłatnego użyczania przestrzeni publicznych. Festiwale potrzebują zaplecza infrastrukturalnego i właśnie to władze lokalne mogą im zapewnić. Bywa także, jak w przypadku niektórych mniejszych miast francuskich, że na ich terenie organizowane są festiwale o charakterze regionalnym lub międzynarodowym, a budżet władz miejskich jest zbyt skromny, aby je wesprzeć finansowo. W efekcie miasto udziela wsparcia rzeczowego (np. festiwal Ile-de-France oraz festiwal Automne en Normandie). Zarysowana tendencja z oczywistych względów nie występuje, gdy władze publiczne są współorganizatorem festiwalu lub gdy ten jest organizowany przez instytucje publiczne. W takich przypadkach wsparcie rzeczowe jest powszechne na wszystkich szczeblach władz publicznych.

kreślenie jasnych tendencji dotyczących publicznego finansowania festiwali nie jest możliwe, jako że festiwale, jak zostało wcześniej wspomniane, nie są uwzględniane w oficjalnych statystykach. Dotyczy to także wydatków publicznych. Można zatem stwierdzić jedynie, że „publicznie finansowane festiwale” to tak naprawdę „festiwale współfinansowane ze źródeł publicznych”. Wysokość wsparcia dla festiwali w poszczególnych krajach Europejskich jest zróżnicowana. Poniżej przedstawiamy kilka przykładów ilustrujących sytuację. W 2005 Austriacki Departament Sztuki przeznaczył ok. 13,2 miliony euro na wsparcie i promocję festiwali. Stanowiło to 15,6% całego budżetu departamentu – tym samym festiwale to trzecia dziedzina sztuki co do wysokości uzyskanego z tego źródła wsparcia. Przykładowo festiwal Salzburger Festspiele uzyskał ok. 5,2 milionów euro z Departamentu Sztuki, 2,74 miliona euro z Prowincji Salzburga i 2,6 miliona euro od władz miasta Salzburg. Fińskie ministerstwo kultury w 2007 przeznaczyło 3,7 miliona euro na wsparcie najważniejszych wydarzeń kulturalnych, z czego większość to festiwale. Najwyższe granty przyznane zostały: Savonlinna Opera Festival (660 000 euro), Tampere Theatre Festival (217 000 euro), Kuhmo Chamber Music Festival (172 000 euro), Kuopio Dance Festival (151 000 euro) i Kaustinen Folk Music Festival (150 000 euro). Francuskie ministerstwo kultury przeznaczyło w 2006 roku 7,5 miliona euro na bezpośrednie finansowanie trzech festiwali (festiwal operowy Lyrique d’Aix en Provence, teatralny Festival d’Avignon oraz muzyczny Festival d’Automne). Dodatkowo wsparło 400 festiwali na szczeblu regionalnym w kwocie łącznej 11,6 miliona euro. Dane te dotyczą jedynie festiwali poświęconych sztukom performatywnym i nie uwzględniają dotacji dla instytucji kultury organizujących festiwale. Festiwale muzyczne, taneczne i teatralne we Włoszech otrzymały łącznie ze szczebla centralnego w 2005 roku ponad 10,5 miliona euro. Średnia wysokość przyznanego grantu wyniosła 89,000 euro. Festiwale te najczęściej otrzymywały także środki od władz samorządowych.

O

1.6. Skala finansowania festiwali ze źródeł publicznych subwencji na organizacje festiwalu. Subwencje występują zazwyczaj w sytuacjach, gdy samorząd sam organizuje festiwal lub czyni to samorządowa instytucja kultury (np. Francja, Bułgaria, Polska).


W Hiszpanii, jak już wcześniej wspomniano, ministerstwo kultury przyznaje granty w ramach konkursów na poszczególne dziedziny sztuki. I tak, w ramach konkursu na działalność teatralną i cyrkową, w 2006 roku, ministerstwo przyznało ponad milion euro 87 festiwalom (średnio granty wyniosły 12 000 euro). W tym samym roku, na działalność związaną z muzyką i tańcem, ministerstwo przyznało granty 26 festiwalom o łącznej wysokości 385 000 euro (średni grant – 14 800 euro). Odrębny konkurs poświęcony festiwalom muzycznym, kongresom i innym wydarzeniom, pozwolił na udzielnie wsparcia kolejnym 65 imprezom w wysokości 795 000 euro (średni grant – 12 000 euro). Festiwale poświęcone sztukom preformatywnym w Portugalii otrzymały w 2006 roku wsparcie ze szczebla centralnego o łącznej wysokości prawie 4 milionów euro. 7 festiwali tanecznych otrzymało 242 000 euro (co stanowiło 13% wszystkich wydatków na taniec), 14 festiwali tanecznych otrzymało 1,17 miliona euro (11%) i 18 multidyscyplinarnych – 1,5 miliona euro (44%).

1.7. Polityka władz publicznych wobec festiwali w Europie

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eśli zdefiniujemy politykę kulturalną jako celowy i systematyczny interwencjonizm różnych szczebli władzy dotyczący festiwali, to takiego podejścia do wspierania festiwali nie znaleziono w wielu krajach. Eksperci z różnych krajów zapytani, czy istnieje u nich zazwyczaj odpowiadali następująco: MM Hiszpania: „Żadna oficjalna polityka nie została zidentyfikowana w tym obszarze.” MM Słowacja: „Władze publiczne nie posiadają systematycznej strategii wspierania festiwali.” MM Niemcy: „Żaden szczebel władz publicznych nie wprowadził odrębnych regulacji dotyczących festiwali.” Można więc stwierdzić, że kwestie związane z festiwalami regulowane są poprzez zestaw regulacji, rozwiązań, sposobów i programów, które nazwijmy umownie praktykami wynikającymi z ogólnych założeń polityki kulturalnej danego kraju. W efekcie, przykładowo festiwale teatralne traktowane są jak same teatry i podlegają tym samym, co teatry, regulacjom lub zaliczane są do ogólnej kategorii „inne wydarzenia” i wtedy traktowane są jednakowo z konferencjami, festynami czy imprezami plenerowymi. Zestaw praktyk , o których tu mowa, to powszechne zjawisko we wszystkich krajach europejskich, jako że wszystkie z nich udzielają publicznego wsparcia festiwalom. Zalicza się do nich między innymi:

MM zróżnicowane formy finansowania i odmienne w poszczególnych krajach kryteria udzielania wsparcia festiwalom, MM preferowanie finansowania poprzez projekty, MM zasady współpracy pomiędzy poszczególnymi szczeblami władz publicznych i organizacjami pozarządowymi przy organizacji i finansowaniu festiwali, MM wprowadzanie specjalnych programów (np. Hiszpania), etc. Jednakże praktyk tego typu nie można postrzegać jako spójnej polityki względem festiwali. Jak zostało to już wcześniej wspomniane, władze publiczne większości krajów europejskich dostrzegły rosnąca rolę festiwali, a co za tym idzie także potrzebę wprowadzania odrębnych regulacji w zakresie ich wspierania. Przykładowo w wielu krajach władze publiczne inicjują debaty dotyczące braku „polityki festiwalowej”. W niektórych krajach, podjęto dalsze kroki. Za przykład może tu posłużyć Flandria, gdzie główna ustawa – Flamandzka Ustawa Parlamentarna (Flemish Parliament Act), regulująca działalność kulturalną, zawiera także pewne regulacje dotyczące festiwali. Pomimo, że jest to ustawa obejmująca całą sferę kultury, to jednak poprzez uwzględnienie w niej festiwali legitymizuje ona jasno wspieranie tego typu wydarzeń. Choć nie jest to spójna polityka adresowana wyłącznie do festiwali, może być potraktowana jako znacząca próba budowy takowej. Trzy kraje odbiegają od innych. We Francji, Austrii oraz Portugalii można wskazać na istnienie choćby elementów publicznej polityki festiwalowej. We Francji można założyć, że, głównie na szczeblu państwowym, mamy do czynienia ze wsparciem festiwali zgodnym z przemyślaną linią polityki kulturalnej. Mamy tu do czynienia z jasno określonym priorytetem dziedzinowym w obszarze festiwali – tańcem. We Francji państwo decyduje się na kompensowanie wydatków na drogie publiczne instytucje tańca wspieraniem festiwali w tej dziedzinie. Można się z taką decyzją państwa zgadzać lub nie, ale jest ona dowodem na świadomy interwencjonizm państwa. Oznacza to przyjęcie konkretnej drogi działania: wspieramy festiwale tańca, bo ograniczamy finansowanie instytucji kultury w tej dziedzinie. Ponadto francuskie ministerstwo, desygnując większość odpowiedzialności za wsparcie festiwali do szczebla regionalnego i lokalnego, jasno określa kto ma być „głównym rozgrywającym” na tym polu. W Austrii wspieranie festiwali to jeden z głównych priorytetów federalnej polityki kulturalnej. Są one świadomie traktowane jako istotny

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

zróżnicowane formy finansowania i odmienne w poszczególnych krajach kryteria udzielania wsparcia festiwalom, MM preferowanie finansowania poprzez projekty, MM zasady współpracy pomiędzy poszczególnymi szczeblami władz publicznych i organizacjami pozarządowymi przy organizacji i finansowaniu festiwali, MM wprowadzanie specjalnych programów (np. Hiszpania), etc. Jednakże praktyk tego typu nie można postrzegać jako spójnej polityki względem festiwali. Jak zostało to już wcześniej wspomniane, władze publiczne większości krajów europejskich dostrzegły rosnąca rolę festiwali, a co za tym idzie także potrzebę wprowadzania odrębnych regulacji w zakresie ich wspierania. Przykładowo w wielu krajach władze publiczne inicjują debaty dotyczące braku „polityki festiwalowej”. W niektórych krajach, podjęto dalsze kroki. Za przykład może tu posłużyć Flandria, gdzie główna ustawa – Flamandzka Ustawa Parlamentarna (Flemish Parliament Act), regulująca działalność kulturalną, zawiera także pewne regulacje dotyczące festiwali. Pomimo, że jest to ustawa obejmująca całą sferę kultury, to jednak poprzez uwzględnienie w niej festiwali legitymizuje ona jasno wspieranie tego typu wydarzeń. Choć nie jest to spójna polityka adresowana wyłącznie do festiwali, może być potraktowana jako znacząca próba budowy takowej. Trzy kraje odbiegają od innych. We Francji, Austrii oraz Portugalii można wskazać na istnienie choćby elementów publicznej polityki festiwalowej. We Francji można założyć, że, głównie na szczeblu państwowym, mamy do czynienia ze wsparciem festiwali zgodnym z przemyślaną linią polityki kulturalnej. Mamy tu do czynienia z jasno określonym priorytetem dziedzinowym w obszarze festiwali – tańcem. We Francji państwo decyduje się na kompensowanie wydatków na drogie publiczne instytucje tańca wspieraniem festiwali w tej dziedzinie. Można się z taką decyzją państwa zgadzać lub nie, ale jest ona dowodem na świadomy interwencjonizm państwa. Oznacza to przyjęcie konkretnej drogi działania: wspieramy festiwale tańca, bo ograniczamy finansowanie instytucji kultury w tej dziedzinie. Ponadto francuskie ministerstwo, desygnując większość odpowiedzialności za wsparcie festiwali do szczebla regionalnego i lokalnego, jasno określa kto ma być „głównym rozgrywającym” na tym polu. W Austrii wspieranie festiwali to jeden z głównych priorytetów federalnej polityki kulturalnej. Są one świadomie traktowane jako istotny MM

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eśli zdefiniujemy politykę kulturalną jako celowy i systematyczny interwencjonizm różnych szczebli władzy dotyczący festiwali, to takiego podejścia do wspierania festiwali nie znaleziono w wielu krajach. Eksperci z różnych krajów zapytani, czy istnieje u nich zazwyczaj odpowiadali następująco: MM Hiszpania: „Żadna oficjalna polityka nie została zidentyfikowana w tym obszarze.” MM Słowacja: „Władze publiczne nie posiadają systematycznej strategii wspierania festiwali.” MM Niemcy: „Żaden szczebel władz publicznych nie wprowadził odrębnych regulacji dotyczących festiwali.” Można więc stwierdzić, że kwestie związane z festiwalami regulowane są poprzez zestaw regulacji, rozwiązań, sposobów i programów, które nazwijmy umownie praktykami wynikającymi z ogólnych założeń polityki kulturalnej danego kraju. W efekcie, przykładowo festiwale teatralne traktowane są jak same teatry i podlegają tym samym, co teatry, regulacjom lub zaliczane są do ogólnej kategorii „inne wydarzenia” i wtedy traktowane są jednakowo z konferencjami, festynami czy imprezami plenerowymi. Zestaw praktyk , o których tu mowa, to powszechne zjawisko we wszystkich krajach europejskich, jako że wszystkie z nich udzielają publicznego wsparcia festiwalom. Zalicza się do nich między innymi:

J

1.7. Polityka władz publicznych wobec festiwali w Europie W Hiszpanii, jak już wcześniej wspomniano, ministerstwo kultury przyznaje granty w ramach konkursów na poszczególne dziedziny sztuki. I tak, w ramach konkursu na działalność teatralną i cyrkową, w 2006 roku, ministerstwo przyznało ponad milion euro 87 festiwalom (średnio granty wyniosły 12 000 euro). W tym samym roku, na działalność związaną z muzyką i tańcem, ministerstwo przyznało granty 26 festiwalom o łącznej wysokości 385 000 euro (średni grant – 14 800 euro). Odrębny konkurs poświęcony festiwalom muzycznym, kongresom i innym wydarzeniom, pozwolił na udzielnie wsparcia kolejnym 65 imprezom w wysokości 795 000 euro (średni grant – 12 000 euro). Festiwale poświęcone sztukom preformatywnym w Portugalii otrzymały w 2006 roku wsparcie ze szczebla centralnego o łącznej wysokości prawie 4 milionów euro. 7 festiwali tanecznych otrzymało 242 000 euro (co stanowiło 13% wszystkich wydatków na taniec), 14 festiwali tanecznych otrzymało 1,17 miliona euro (11%) i 18 multidyscyplinarnych – 1,5 miliona euro (44%).

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

czynnik budujący wizerunek państwa, regionów i miast, element wpływający na narodową czy regionalną tożsamość. Także w Portugalii widoczne są przykłady spójnej polityki władz publicznych wobec festiwali. Głównym celem rządów Portugalii od połowy lat 90-tych w dziedzinie kultury jest „wspieranie produkcji artystycznej i upowszechnianie kultury”. Festiwale postrzegane są jako jedno z istotnych narzędzi w tym kontekście – platformę, na której sektor rozwija się poprzez eksponowanie pracy artystów zarówno w kraju, jak i za granicą. Mając tak jasno określony stosunek do festiwali na szczeblu centralnym, władze samorządowe przykładają szczególnych starań, aby inkorporować kwestie festiwali także do strategii rozwoju miast. Ponadto regulacje dotyczące festiwali doczekały się miejsca w większości ogólnych dokumentów legislacyjnych dotyczących kultury i sztuki, a także tym, które są im wyłącznie poświęcone. W efekcie można z całą pewnością stwierdzić, że w Portugalii istnieją już podstawy do tworzenia polityki kulturalnej wobec festiwali. Są też kraje, gdzie sytuacja jest o wiele bardziej skomplikowana. Nie można ich sklasyfikować jako krajów, w których w ogóle nie ma żadnych elementów polityki kulturalnej wobec festiwali, ani przyporządkować do takich krajów, w których rozpoczęto już dyskusję, ani też do tych posiadających spójną politykę festiwalową. Za przykład może tu posłużyć Anglia. Tam z jednej strony Rada Sztuki nie posiada polityki festiwalowej, a większość władz lokalnych (71%) udziela wsparcia festiwalom na podstawie szeroko rozumianych ogólnych wytycznych polityki kulturalnej. Z drugiej jednak strony, 12% władz publicznych deklaruje, że ma w planach uchwalenie i wprowadzenie w życie, w ciągu najbliższego roku, regulacji poświęconych wyłącznie festiwalom. Wreszcie aż 16% jednostek władz lokalnych deklaruje, że posiada już własną politykę festiwalową

2. FESTIWALE W POLSCE 2.1. Liczba i charakter festiwali

R

ozkwit festiwali w Polsce nastąpił po 1989 r. Przyczyniły się do tego zarówno ogólne światowe tendencje rozwoju tej formy kulturalnej i możliwość ich implementacji na terytorium Polski, a także zasadnicze zmiany w samej polskiej polityce kulturalnej, która zaczęła sprzyjać różnorodnym inicjatywom kulturalnym i elastycznie reagować na potrzeby konsumentów kultury.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Bardzo trudno jest zdobyć w pełni wiarygodne informacje dotyczące liczby i charakteru festiwali w Polsce. Główny Urząd Statystyczny nie gromadzi systematycznie zbieranych danych o polskich festiwalach. Nie robi tego też Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Bierne jak do tej pory w monitorowaniu festiwali były polskie samorządy. Prowadzone rozpoznanie jest pierwszą próbą systemowej oceny zjawiska festiwali w formule ekspertyzy czy raportu. Ze względu na charakter wykorzystanych źródeł, podane w raporcie dane są wyrywkowe i mają układ przede wszystkim branżowy. Pochodzą z Polskiego Instytutu Sztuki Filmowej, Polskiego Centrum Informacji Muzycznej, Instytutu Teatralnego im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego, Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego oraz magistratów w Warszawie i Poznaniu. Pomocnym źródłem okazały się zasoby Internetu, np. POLMIC.PL (internetowa baza informacji muzycznej), regionalne i lokalne portale internetowe, a także niepublikowane prace licencjackie i magisterskie. I tak Instytut Teatralny im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego informuje za pośrednictwem portalu internetowego www.teatr.pl, że w Polsce regularnie odbywa się około 280 festiwali teatralnych. Spośród nich, około 80 ma charakter międzynarodowy. Większość odbywa się w dużych miastach: w Warszawie jest ich 18, w Krakowie 15, we Wrocławiu 10, w Poznaniu 6, w Lublinie 5, w Gdańsku 3. Największą grupę wśród festiwali międzynarodowych stanowią te poświęcone teatrowi dramatycznemu (jest ich 30, co daje 37,5% ogólnej liczby imprez), choć liczne są również festiwale teatru tańca i przedstawień ulicznych (odpowiednio 11 i 17 wydarzeń). Inne imprezy dotyczą teatru lakowego (9), opery (8) oraz sztuki performatywnej (5). W tym samym 2006 roku miało miejsce 199 festiwali muzycznych. Większość (dokładnie 134) z nich była co najmniej częściowo finansowana ze środków publicznych. Organizatorzy imprez festiwalowych otrzymywali wsparcie od władz różnego szczebla (gminnego, powiatowego, wojewódzkiego i centralnego). W wielu przypadkach, oprócz dofinansowania publicznego, korzystano ze sponsoringu prywatnego. Ze wspomnianych 134 festiwali dokładnie połowa, czyli 67, miało wymiar międzynarodowy. Festiwale o takiej orientacji odbywały się zwłaszcza w miastach wojewódzkich: w Warszawie było ich 10, w Krakowie 8, we Wrocławiu 6, w Gdańsku 4 a w Poznaniu i Toruniu po 3. Tematykę wielu z nich stanowiła muzyka dawna i religijna (łącznie 20 imprez) oraz muzyka wykonywana na jednym instrumencie, jak gitara, organy etc. (18 imprez). Inne festiwale poświęcone były muzyce folklorystycznej, współ-

265

ozkwit festiwali w Polsce nastąpił po 1989 r. Przyczyniły się do tego zarówno ogólne światowe tendencje rozwoju tej formy kulturalnej i możliwość ich implementacji na terytorium Polski, a także zasadnicze zmiany w samej polskiej polityce kulturalnej, która zaczęła sprzyjać różnorodnym inicjatywom kulturalnym i elastycznie reagować na potrzeby konsumentów kultury.

R

2.1. Liczba i charakter festiwali 2. FESTIWALE W POLSCE czynnik budujący wizerunek państwa, regionów i miast, element wpływający na narodową czy regionalną tożsamość. Także w Portugalii widoczne są przykłady spójnej polityki władz publicznych wobec festiwali. Głównym celem rządów Portugalii od połowy lat 90-tych w dziedzinie kultury jest „wspieranie produkcji artystycznej i upowszechnianie kultury”. Festiwale postrzegane są jako jedno z istotnych narzędzi w tym kontekście – platformę, na której sektor rozwija się poprzez eksponowanie pracy artystów zarówno w kraju, jak i za granicą. Mając tak jasno określony stosunek do festiwali na szczeblu centralnym, władze samorządowe przykładają szczególnych starań, aby inkorporować kwestie festiwali także do strategii rozwoju miast. Ponadto regulacje dotyczące festiwali doczekały się miejsca w większości ogólnych dokumentów legislacyjnych dotyczących kultury i sztuki, a także tym, które są im wyłącznie poświęcone. W efekcie można z całą pewnością stwierdzić, że w Portugalii istnieją już podstawy do tworzenia polityki kulturalnej wobec festiwali. Są też kraje, gdzie sytuacja jest o wiele bardziej skomplikowana. Nie można ich sklasyfikować jako krajów, w których w ogóle nie ma żadnych elementów polityki kulturalnej wobec festiwali, ani przyporządkować do takich krajów, w których rozpoczęto już dyskusję, ani też do tych posiadających spójną politykę festiwalową. Za przykład może tu posłużyć Anglia. Tam z jednej strony Rada Sztuki nie posiada polityki festiwalowej, a większość władz lokalnych (71%) udziela wsparcia festiwalom na podstawie szeroko rozumianych ogólnych wytycznych polityki kulturalnej. Z drugiej jednak strony, 12% władz publicznych deklaruje, że ma w planach uchwalenie i wprowadzenie w życie, w ciągu najbliższego roku, regulacji poświęconych wyłącznie festiwalom. Wreszcie aż 16% jednostek władz lokalnych deklaruje, że posiada już własną politykę festiwalową

265

Bardzo trudno jest zdobyć w pełni wiarygodne informacje dotyczące liczby i charakteru festiwali w Polsce. Główny Urząd Statystyczny nie gromadzi systematycznie zbieranych danych o polskich festiwalach. Nie robi tego też Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Bierne jak do tej pory w monitorowaniu festiwali były polskie samorządy. Prowadzone rozpoznanie jest pierwszą próbą systemowej oceny zjawiska festiwali w formule ekspertyzy czy raportu. Ze względu na charakter wykorzystanych źródeł, podane w raporcie dane są wyrywkowe i mają układ przede wszystkim branżowy. Pochodzą z Polskiego Instytutu Sztuki Filmowej, Polskiego Centrum Informacji Muzycznej, Instytutu Teatralnego im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego, Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego oraz magistratów w Warszawie i Poznaniu. Pomocnym źródłem okazały się zasoby Internetu, np. POLMIC.PL (internetowa baza informacji muzycznej), regionalne i lokalne portale internetowe, a także niepublikowane prace licencjackie i magisterskie. I tak Instytut Teatralny im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego informuje za pośrednictwem portalu internetowego www.teatr.pl, że w Polsce regularnie odbywa się około 280 festiwali teatralnych. Spośród nich, około 80 ma charakter międzynarodowy. Większość odbywa się w dużych miastach: w Warszawie jest ich 18, w Krakowie 15, we Wrocławiu 10, w Poznaniu 6, w Lublinie 5, w Gdańsku 3. Największą grupę wśród festiwali międzynarodowych stanowią te poświęcone teatrowi dramatycznemu (jest ich 30, co daje 37,5% ogólnej liczby imprez), choć liczne są również festiwale teatru tańca i przedstawień ulicznych (odpowiednio 11 i 17 wydarzeń). Inne imprezy dotyczą teatru lakowego (9), opery (8) oraz sztuki performatywnej (5). W tym samym 2006 roku miało miejsce 199 festiwali muzycznych. Większość (dokładnie 134) z nich była co najmniej częściowo finansowana ze środków publicznych. Organizatorzy imprez festiwalowych otrzymywali wsparcie od władz różnego szczebla (gminnego, powiatowego, wojewódzkiego i centralnego). W wielu przypadkach, oprócz dofinansowania publicznego, korzystano ze sponsoringu prywatnego. Ze wspomnianych 134 festiwali dokładnie połowa, czyli 67, miało wymiar międzynarodowy. Festiwale o takiej orientacji odbywały się zwłaszcza w miastach wojewódzkich: w Warszawie było ich 10, w Krakowie 8, we Wrocławiu 6, w Gdańsku 4 a w Poznaniu i Toruniu po 3. Tematykę wielu z nich stanowiła muzyka dawna i religijna (łącznie 20 imprez) oraz muzyka wykonywana na jednym instrumencie, jak gitara, organy etc. (18 imprez). Inne festiwale poświęcone były muzyce folklorystycznej, współ-


266

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

266

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

2.2. Wsparcie władz publicznych dla festiwali – skala i formy

162

W

80

sparcie udzielane festiwalom przez władze publiczne zarówno na szczeblu rządowym, jak i samorządowym, przyjmuje przede wszystkim formę finansową oraz wsparcia rzeczowego. Niezwykle rzadko władze publiczne są bezpośrednio zaangażowane w organizację festiwali. Częstokroć natomiast motywują podległe im instytucje kulturalne do współpracy z organizatorami festiwali (przeważnie z organizacjami pozarządowymi). W rezultacie, instytucje publiczne udostępniają m.in. sale koncertowe i niezbędny sprzęt. Władze samorządowe sporadycznie wspierają międzynarodowe festiwale. Sytuacja wygląda inaczej w przypadku dużych miast, zwłaszcza wojewódzkich, gdzie zaangażowanie we wspieranie i organizowanie festiwali jest większe. Tam samorządy wojewódzkie, jak i miejskie z ochotą wspierają festiwale odbywające się na terenie objętym ich jurysdykcją, ponieważ wydarzenia te przyczyniają się do rozwoju turystyki kulturalnej i promocji miasta. W tym miejscu należy zaznaczyć, że prawnym partnerem władz publicznych jest w przypadku festiwali zazwyczaj ich organizator. W Polsce nie istnieje żaden odrębny akt prawny dotyczący festiwali. Władze uważają je za „inne formy działalności kulturalnej”. Festiwale mogą być realizowane zarówno przez organizacje pozarządowe, instytucje publiczne lub przedsiębiorstwa prywatne. W rzeczywistości zaledwie kilka festiwali organizowanych jest przez prywatne przedsiębiorstwa a większość z nich istnieje dzięki organizacjom pozarządowym. Oczywiście, wejście w partnerstwo z instytucją publiczną jest znacznym ułatwieniem przy organizacji festiwalu, tym bardziej, że taka współpraca jest nawet często wymagana przez władze lokalne. Przeważająca liczba festiwali posiada budżety mieszane. Składają się one w większej części ze środków publicznych pochodzących od władz różnego szczebla administracyjnego i w mniejszej z prywatnych.

64

czesnej, twórczości wokalnej i chóralnej oraz dorobkowi konkretnych kompozytorów. W roku 2006 w Polsce odbyło się 29 festiwali filmowych, w tym 14 międzynarodowych. Wszystkie otrzymały dofinansowanie ze środków publicznych, przede wszystkim za pośrednictwem wspomnianego już Polskiego Instytutu Sztuki Filmowej, który jest agencją rządową powołaną przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego w celu finansowego wspierania produkcji filmowej i innych działań w zakresie kinematografii. Co roku w Polsce odbywa się 16 festiwali literackich. Zaledwie cztery to imprezy międzynarodowe, są to: Port Wrocław (organizowany przez prywatną firmę wydawniczą Biuro Literackie i wspierany finansowo przez Urząd Miasta Wrocławia, Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, Instytut Książki oraz organizacyjnie przez miejskie instytucje kultury) prezentujący m.in. poezję z konkretnego kraju, w 2007 roku były to Stany Zjednoczone; Spoken’Word Festival (współfinansowany przez British Council, Instytut Francuski oraz Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej w Warszawie) – impreza poświęcona slamowi poetyckiemu, w której udział biorą artyści z Francji, Wielkiej Brytanii oraz Polski; Międzynarodowy Festiwal Sztuki Opowiadania (współfinansowany przez Urząd Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy); Międzynarodowy Festiwal Sztuki Słowa „Verba Sacra” (współfinansowany przez Urząd Miasta Poznania). Na podstawie zebranych dla potrzeb raportu danych można pokusić się o pewne uogólnienie i podanie, że przynajmniej 162 festiwale realizowane w Polsce spełniają przyjęte w badaniu kryteria, tzn. mają artystyczny charakter, międzynarodowy komponent i wsparcie publiczne. Trzeba jednak stale pamiętać, że są to wyłącznie wyliczenia szacunkowe wynikające z analizy wybranych źródeł, a nie oficjalne dane statystyczne. Zauważalny jest nowy kierunek działania największych festiwali, które ewoluują w stronę mulltidyscyplinarności. Praktycznie są teatralne, filmowe czy muzyczne tylko z nazwy, a jednocześnie prezentują zestaw koncertów, projekcji, przedstawień itp. (Festiwal Malta, Heineken Open’er, Era Nowe Horyzonty, Festiwal Dialogu Czterech Kultur).

4

Międzynarodowe festiwale artystyczne współfinansowane ze środków publicznych w Polsce w 2006

14

Razem

Liczba

162

Razem

Teatralne

Teatralne

80

muzyczne

muzyczne

literackie

64

filmowe

literackie

Rodzaj festiwalu

4

Międzynarodowe festiwale artystyczne współfinansowane ze środków publicznych w Polsce w 2006

filmowe

sparcie udzielane festiwalom przez władze publiczne zarówno na szczeblu rządowym, jak i samorządowym, przyjmuje przede wszystkim formę finansową oraz wsparcia rzeczowego. Niezwykle rzadko władze publiczne są bezpośrednio zaangażowane w organizację festiwali. Częstokroć natomiast motywują podległe im instytucje kulturalne do współpracy z organizatorami festiwali (przeważnie z organizacjami pozarządowymi). W rezultacie, instytucje publiczne udostępniają m.in. sale koncertowe i niezbędny sprzęt. Władze samorządowe sporadycznie wspierają międzynarodowe festiwale. Sytuacja wygląda inaczej w przypadku dużych miast, zwłaszcza wojewódzkich, gdzie zaangażowanie we wspieranie i organizowanie festiwali jest większe. Tam samorządy wojewódzkie, jak i miejskie z ochotą wspierają festiwale odbywające się na terenie objętym ich jurysdykcją, ponieważ wydarzenia te przyczyniają się do rozwoju turystyki kulturalnej i promocji miasta. W tym miejscu należy zaznaczyć, że prawnym partnerem władz publicznych jest w przypadku festiwali zazwyczaj ich organizator. W Polsce nie istnieje żaden odrębny akt prawny dotyczący festiwali. Władze uważają je za „inne formy działalności kulturalnej”. Festiwale mogą być realizowane zarówno przez organizacje pozarządowe, instytucje publiczne lub przedsiębiorstwa prywatne. W rzeczywistości zaledwie kilka festiwali organizowanych jest przez prywatne przedsiębiorstwa a większość z nich istnieje dzięki organizacjom pozarządowym. Oczywiście, wejście w partnerstwo z instytucją publiczną jest znacznym ułatwieniem przy organizacji festiwalu, tym bardziej, że taka współpraca jest nawet często wymagana przez władze lokalne. Przeważająca liczba festiwali posiada budżety mieszane. Składają się one w większej części ze środków publicznych pochodzących od władz różnego szczebla administracyjnego i w mniejszej z prywatnych.

14

W

Rodzaj festiwalu

2.2. Wsparcie władz publicznych dla festiwali – skala i formy

Liczba

czesnej, twórczości wokalnej i chóralnej oraz dorobkowi konkretnych kompozytorów. W roku 2006 w Polsce odbyło się 29 festiwali filmowych, w tym 14 międzynarodowych. Wszystkie otrzymały dofinansowanie ze środków publicznych, przede wszystkim za pośrednictwem wspomnianego już Polskiego Instytutu Sztuki Filmowej, który jest agencją rządową powołaną przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego w celu finansowego wspierania produkcji filmowej i innych działań w zakresie kinematografii. Co roku w Polsce odbywa się 16 festiwali literackich. Zaledwie cztery to imprezy międzynarodowe, są to: Port Wrocław (organizowany przez prywatną firmę wydawniczą Biuro Literackie i wspierany finansowo przez Urząd Miasta Wrocławia, Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, Instytut Książki oraz organizacyjnie przez miejskie instytucje kultury) prezentujący m.in. poezję z konkretnego kraju, w 2007 roku były to Stany Zjednoczone; Spoken’Word Festival (współfinansowany przez British Council, Instytut Francuski oraz Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej w Warszawie) – impreza poświęcona slamowi poetyckiemu, w której udział biorą artyści z Francji, Wielkiej Brytanii oraz Polski; Międzynarodowy Festiwal Sztuki Opowiadania (współfinansowany przez Urząd Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy); Międzynarodowy Festiwal Sztuki Słowa „Verba Sacra” (współfinansowany przez Urząd Miasta Poznania). Na podstawie zebranych dla potrzeb raportu danych można pokusić się o pewne uogólnienie i podanie, że przynajmniej 162 festiwale realizowane w Polsce spełniają przyjęte w badaniu kryteria, tzn. mają artystyczny charakter, międzynarodowy komponent i wsparcie publiczne. Trzeba jednak stale pamiętać, że są to wyłącznie wyliczenia szacunkowe wynikające z analizy wybranych źródeł, a nie oficjalne dane statystyczne. Zauważalny jest nowy kierunek działania największych festiwali, które ewoluują w stronę mulltidyscyplinarności. Praktycznie są teatralne, filmowe czy muzyczne tylko z nazwy, a jednocześnie prezentują zestaw koncertów, projekcji, przedstawień itp. (Festiwal Malta, Heineken Open’er, Era Nowe Horyzonty, Festiwal Dialogu Czterech Kultur).


267

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Szczebel centralny Na poziomie państwa głównym ciałem wspierającym festiwale jest Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, które finansuje i współfinansuje wiele polskich festiwali, włączając w to również festiwale międzynarodowe. Głównym narzędziem dofinansowania festiwali jest program operacyjny MKiDN Promocja twórczości w ramach priorytetu I Wspieranie wydarzeń artystycznych w Polsce. W ramach tego priorytetu dofinansowywane są „najważniejsze wydarzenia artystyczne, organizowane w Polsce o charakterze międzynarodowym, ogólnopolskim lub ponadregionalnym i regionalnym, z zakresu wszystkich dziedzin sztuki – festiwale, konkursy, koncerty, przeglądy, premiery spektakli, wystawy i inne imprezy artystyczne.”2 Festiwale są wymienione na pierwszym miejscu wśród wspieranych zadań i to one dominują na liście wniosków rozpatrzonych pozytywnie. Ministerstwo jednocześnie współfinansuje festiwale w odrębnych rodzajach dotacji. W szczególnych przypadkach w ramach programu Promocja twórczości (priorytet I) „wnioskodawca może ubiegać się o dofinansowanie festiwali, konkursów i przeglądów na okres 3 kolejnych lat”. Imprezy, których organizatorzy ubiegają się o trzyletnie dofinansowanie muszą spełnić dodatkowe kryteria. Są to: udokumentowane stałe źródło finansowania w wysokości co najmniej 20% kosztów zadania na okres 3 kolejnych lat; wieloletnia tradycja; budżet powyżej 1 mln zł rocznie; znaczący wkład w dorobek kultury polskiej, zasięg co najmniej ogólnopolski. Tę możliwość stworzono w 2005 roku w celu ułatwienia organizatorom festiwali planowania programu na kilka lat do przodu – najlepsi zagraniczni artyści czy zespoły rezerwują terminy z kilkuletnim wyprzedzeniem. Organizatorzy festiwali mogą zwracać się o granty również z ministerialnych programów operacyjnych (PO) Fryderyk Chopin, Wyspiański (działania poświęcone wybitnym twórcom), Edukacja kulturalna i upowszechnianie kultury (popularyzacja twórczości amatorskiej, w tym głównie dziecięcej), Rozwój inicjatyw lokalnych (zadania niskobudżetowe, dotacja do 25 tys. złotych), Patriotyzm jutra (organizacja programów edukacyjnych, akcji społecznych i wydarzeń kulturalnych podnoszących świadomość historyczną i znajomość historii polskiej kultury, promujących postawę obywatelską i odpowiedzialność za państwo). Natomiast PO Promocja kultury pol-

2

Budżet programu operacyjnego Promocja twórczości w 20063 Budżet programu operacyjnego

40 00 000

w tym: Budżet na granty trzyletnie

4 523 000

Budżet priorytetu I-ego programu (wspieranie wydarzeń artystycznych w Polsce)

29 734 311

Wydatki Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego na międzynarodowe festiwale z budżetu Priorytetu I Programu Operacyjnego Promocja twórczości w 2006 Budżet priorytetu I-ego programu (wspieranie wydarzeń artystycznych w Polsce)

29 734 311

100,00%

Muzyczne

2 544 000

8,50%

Sztuk pięknych i kulturalne

1 190 000

4%

Teatralne

2 040 000

7%

Filmowe

616 000

2%

Taneczne

100 000

0,50%

Wydatki z I priorytetu na festiwale łącznie

6 489 000

22%

skiej za granicą wspiera udział polskich artystów w „kluczowych przedsięwzięciach międzynarodowych (festiwalach, koncertach, wystawach, tournee artystycznych, konkursach i warsztatach artystycznych, itp.) odbywających się poza granicami kraju.” W 2006 roku MKiDN wsparło 158 festiwali w ramach naboru wniosków (w tym 95 międzynarodowych; najwyższą dotację otrzymał Wielkanocny Festiwal im. Ludwika van Beethovena – 1 300 000 zł) oraz 10 festiwali w ramach zadań trzyletnich (8 międzynarodowych, najwyższą roczną dotację otrzymał festiwal muzyki współczesnej Warszawska Jesień 1 500 000 zł). Minimalna kwota wsparcia to 25 000 zł. Ministerstwo może pokryć nawet 90% kosztów przedsięwzięcia (w szczególnych przypadkach więcej, nawet 100%), choć ważnym kryterium jest, by środki pochodziły z różnych źródeł. Na podstawie umów międzyrządowych dofinansowywane są specjalne wydarzenia, jednorazowe festiwale w ramach Roku Polskiego np. w Belgii, Francji, Rosji czy Izraelu.

Regulamin programu operacyjnego Promocja Twórczości, 2006.

Kalkulacja własna na podstawie danych Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Podobnie w przypadku drugiej tabeli.

3

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

100,00%

267

Kalkulacja własna na podstawie danych Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Podobnie w przypadku drugiej tabeli.

3

2

Regulamin programu operacyjnego Promocja Twórczości, 2006.

Szczebel centralny Na poziomie państwa głównym ciałem wspierającym festiwale jest Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, które finansuje i współfinansuje wiele polskich festiwali, włączając w to również festiwale międzynarodowe. Głównym narzędziem dofinansowania festiwali jest program operacyjny MKiDN Promocja twórczości w ramach priorytetu I Wspieranie wydarzeń artystycznych w Polsce. W ramach tego priorytetu dofinansowywane są „najważniejsze wydarzenia artystyczne, organizowane w Polsce o charakterze międzynarodowym, ogólnopolskim lub ponadregionalnym i regionalnym, z zakresu wszystkich dziedzin sztuki – festiwale, konkursy, koncerty, przeglądy, premiery spektakli, wystawy i inne imprezy artystyczne.”2 Festiwale są wymienione na pierwszym miejscu wśród wspieranych zadań i to one dominują na liście wniosków rozpatrzonych pozytywnie. Ministerstwo jednocześnie współfinansuje festiwale w odrębnych rodzajach dotacji. W szczególnych przypadkach w ramach programu Promocja twórczości (priorytet I) „wnioskodawca może ubiegać się o dofinansowanie festiwali, konkursów i przeglądów na okres 3 kolejnych lat”. Imprezy, których organizatorzy ubiegają się o trzyletnie dofinansowanie muszą spełnić dodatkowe kryteria. Są to: udokumentowane stałe źródło finansowania w wysokości co najmniej 20% kosztów zadania na okres 3 kolejnych lat; wieloletnia tradycja; budżet powyżej 1 mln zł rocznie; znaczący wkład w dorobek kultury polskiej, zasięg co najmniej ogólnopolski. Tę możliwość stworzono w 2005 roku w celu ułatwienia organizatorom festiwali planowania programu na kilka lat do przodu – najlepsi zagraniczni artyści czy zespoły rezerwują terminy z kilkuletnim wyprzedzeniem. Organizatorzy festiwali mogą zwracać się o granty również z ministerialnych programów operacyjnych (PO) Fryderyk Chopin, Wyspiański (działania poświęcone wybitnym twórcom), Edukacja kulturalna i upowszechnianie kultury (popularyzacja twórczości amatorskiej, w tym głównie dziecięcej), Rozwój inicjatyw lokalnych (zadania niskobudżetowe, dotacja do 25 tys. złotych), Patriotyzm jutra (organizacja programów edukacyjnych, akcji społecznych i wydarzeń kulturalnych podnoszących świadomość historyczną i znajomość historii polskiej kultury, promujących postawę obywatelską i odpowiedzialność za państwo). Natomiast PO Promocja kultury pol-

skiej za granicą wspiera udział polskich artystów w „kluczowych przedsięwzięciach międzynarodowych (festiwalach, koncertach, wystawach, tournee artystycznych, konkursach i warsztatach artystycznych, itp.) odbywających się poza granicami kraju.” W 2006 roku MKiDN wsparło 158 festiwali w ramach naboru wniosków (w tym 95 międzynarodowych; najwyższą dotację otrzymał Wielkanocny Festiwal im. Ludwika van Beethovena – 1 300 000 zł) oraz 10 festiwali w ramach zadań trzyletnich (8 międzynarodowych, najwyższą roczną dotację otrzymał festiwal muzyki współczesnej Warszawska Jesień 1 500 000 zł). Minimalna kwota wsparcia to 25 000 zł. Ministerstwo może pokryć nawet 90% kosztów przedsięwzięcia (w szczególnych przypadkach więcej, nawet 100%), choć ważnym kryterium jest, by środki pochodziły z różnych źródeł. Na podstawie umów międzyrządowych dofinansowywane są specjalne wydarzenia, jednorazowe festiwale w ramach Roku Polskiego np. w Belgii, Francji, Rosji czy Izraelu. 6 489 000

Wydatki z I priorytetu na festiwale łącznie

100 000

Taneczne

616 000

Filmowe

2 040 000

Teatralne

1 190 000

Sztuk pięknych i kulturalne

2 544 000

Muzyczne

29 734 311

Budżet priorytetu I-ego programu (wspieranie wydarzeń artystycznych w Polsce)

22% 0,50% 2% 7% 4% 8,50% 100,00%

Wydatki Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego na międzynarodowe festiwale z budżetu Priorytetu I Programu Operacyjnego Promocja twórczości w 2006 29 734 311

Budżet priorytetu I-ego programu (wspieranie wydarzeń artystycznych w Polsce)

4 523 000

Budżet na granty trzyletnie w tym: Budżet programu operacyjnego

40 00 000

Budżet programu operacyjnego Promocja twórczości w 20063

100,00%


268

Drugim resortem, który finansuje, często w całości, szereg festiwali kulturalnych jest Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej. Należy do nich Międzynarodowy Festiwal Orkiestr Wojskowych w Krakowie. W szczególnych przypadkach organizator festiwalu może wnioskować do Premiera Rządu o przyznanie dotacji z Rezerwy Ogólnej Budżetu Państwa. Wniosek opiniuje MKiDN. Ostateczną decyzję podejmuje premier. W ten sposób dofinansowywany jest międzynarodowy Festiwal Dialogu Czterech Kultur w Łodzi (kwota dotacji 900 000 zł).

dziewięćdziesiątych pojawiły się propozycje, by imprezę przenieść do Warszawy. Często to władze samorządowe stają się inicjatorem transferu festiwalu. Władze obiecują zaplecze organizacyjne i większe niż dotychczas wsparcie finansowe. Cztery lata temu władze Gdyni doprowadziły do przeniesienia z Warszawy do Gdyni festiwalu muzycznego Heineken Open’er. W tym samym czasie z Krakowa do Warszawy przeniesiono Wielkanocny Festiwal im. Ludwika van Beethovena (mocno związany z osobą Krzysztofa Pendereckiego). Festiwal filmowy Era Nowe Horyzonty zaczynał w niniejszych miastach: Sanoku, potem był Cieszyn (tym atrakcyjniejszy, że jest to miasto, przez które przechodzi polsko-czeska granica), a od 2006 roku festiwal organizowany jest w wielkomiejskim Wrocławiu. Pomysłodawca i organizator festiwalu – Roman Gutek wyjaśniał, że o przeniesieniu festiwalu decydowały kwestie infrastrukturalne (w mniejszych miastach był kłopot z salami do projekcji), szczególnie ze względu na wzrastającą ilość widzów (W 2006 roku – 118 tys. osób, w 2007 - ponad 120 tys. osób) W tego typu sytuacjach obie strony – władze i organizatorzy festiwalu – podpisują umowy, w których jasno określają swoje zobowiązania. W przypadku festiwalu Nowe Horyzonty Gutek zastrzegł utrzymanie dotychczasowego charakteru festiwalu, z drugiej strony władze miasta zaproponowały szersze otworzenie festiwalu na mieszkańców Wrocławia – na wrocławskim rynku zorganizowano bezpłatne projekcje na wolnym powietrzu.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

2.2. Główne motywy i oczekiwania władz samorządowych wobec festiwali

MM

N

MM

a podstawie wywiadów z przedstawicielami samorządów zdefiniowano następujące motywy i oczekiwania samorządów finansujących festiwale:

MM

MM

MM

Motywy: budowa cywilizacyjnego statusu miasta – ważny aspekt dla wielkich inwestorów, poprawa jakości życia – tworzenie przyjaznego środowiska dla pracowników i stwarzanie możliwości samorealizacji (Wrocław, Kraków), promowanie partycypacji w kulturze (szerszej działalności społecznej), jako tworzenie przestrzeni dla realizacji ambicji pozazawodowych (Wrocław), wspieranie różnorodności oferty kulturalnej (kultura wysoka, średnia i popkultura), – zaspokajanie różnych gustów mieszkańców (Wrocław) budowanie pozycji, wizerunku i marki miasta,

MM

MM

MM

a podstawie wywiadów z przedstawicielami samorządów zdefiniowano następujące motywy i oczekiwania samorządów finansujących festiwale:

MM

N

Motywy: budowa cywilizacyjnego statusu miasta – ważny aspekt dla wielkich inwestorów, poprawa jakości życia – tworzenie przyjaznego środowiska dla pracowników i stwarzanie możliwości samorealizacji (Wrocław, Kraków), promowanie partycypacji w kulturze (szerszej działalności społecznej), jako tworzenie przestrzeni dla realizacji ambicji pozazawodowych (Wrocław), wspieranie różnorodności oferty kulturalnej (kultura wysoka, średnia i popkultura), – zaspokajanie różnych gustów mieszkańców (Wrocław) budowanie pozycji, wizerunku i marki miasta,

268

2.2. Główne motywy i oczekiwania władz samorządowych wobec festiwali

MM

Szczebel samorządowy Tendencje w finansowaniu festiwali przez władze samorządowe nie dają się precyzyjnie określić. Powodem ich zaangażowania są zazwyczaj indywidualne preferencje i priorytety poszczególnych samorządów, w których próżno szukać przejawów wspólnego myślenia. Formułą w jakiej w pierwszym rzędzie samorządy udzielają wsparcia festiwalom są konkursy projektów. W ich ramach wyłanianie są projekty zasługujące, zdaniem specjalnych komisji, na współfinansowanie. Kraków jest jedynym polskim miastem, które posiada Biuro Festiwalowe (miejska instytucja kultury). Zostało powołane w 1997 roku, gdy miasto otrzymało tytuł Europejskiego Miasta Kultury na rok 2000. W roku 2005, decyzją rady miasta nazwę zmieniono na „Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe”. Biuro podlega bezpośrednio Prezydentowi Krakowa natomiast organem opiniującym kierunki jego działalności jest 10-osobowa Rada Programowa [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/index.php]. Do najważniejszych zadań biura należą realizacja i promocja wydarzeń kulturalnych o wymiarze lokalnym, narodowym i międzynarodowym. Współpracuje ono z instytucjami kulturalnymi i edukacyjnymi, stowarzyszeniami twórczymi i zagranicznymi ośrodkami kulturalnymi. W Warszawie działa Stołeczna Estrada, którą utworzono w 1995 roku jako miejską instytucję przeznaczoną do organizowania i prowadzenia działalności kulturalnej (koncerty i inne imprezy). Obecnie Stołeczna Estrada organizuje dwa festiwale międzynarodowe i kilka lokalnych. Należy zwrócić uwagę na pewną specyfikę działań samorządów wobec festiwali. Władze samorządowe często dostrzegają wartość organizowanych na jej terenie imprez w momencie, gdy pojawia się inny ośrodek z propozycją transferu. Miasto Gdynia ze względów prestiżowych dofinansowuje Festiwal Polskich Filmów Fabularnych – najważniejszą imprezę krajowego przemysłu filmowego – od momentu, gdy w połowie lat

dziewięćdziesiątych pojawiły się propozycje, by imprezę przenieść do Warszawy. Często to władze samorządowe stają się inicjatorem transferu festiwalu. Władze obiecują zaplecze organizacyjne i większe niż dotychczas wsparcie finansowe. Cztery lata temu władze Gdyni doprowadziły do przeniesienia z Warszawy do Gdyni festiwalu muzycznego Heineken Open’er. W tym samym czasie z Krakowa do Warszawy przeniesiono Wielkanocny Festiwal im. Ludwika van Beethovena (mocno związany z osobą Krzysztofa Pendereckiego). Festiwal filmowy Era Nowe Horyzonty zaczynał w niniejszych miastach: Sanoku, potem był Cieszyn (tym atrakcyjniejszy, że jest to miasto, przez które przechodzi polsko-czeska granica), a od 2006 roku festiwal organizowany jest w wielkomiejskim Wrocławiu. Pomysłodawca i organizator festiwalu – Roman Gutek wyjaśniał, że o przeniesieniu festiwalu decydowały kwestie infrastrukturalne (w mniejszych miastach był kłopot z salami do projekcji), szczególnie ze względu na wzrastającą ilość widzów (W 2006 roku – 118 tys. osób, w 2007 - ponad 120 tys. osób) W tego typu sytuacjach obie strony – władze i organizatorzy festiwalu – podpisują umowy, w których jasno określają swoje zobowiązania. W przypadku festiwalu Nowe Horyzonty Gutek zastrzegł utrzymanie dotychczasowego charakteru festiwalu, z drugiej strony władze miasta zaproponowały szersze otworzenie festiwalu na mieszkańców Wrocławia – na wrocławskim rynku zorganizowano bezpłatne projekcje na wolnym powietrzu.

Szczebel samorządowy Tendencje w finansowaniu festiwali przez władze samorządowe nie dają się precyzyjnie określić. Powodem ich zaangażowania są zazwyczaj indywidualne preferencje i priorytety poszczególnych samorządów, w których próżno szukać przejawów wspólnego myślenia. Formułą w jakiej w pierwszym rzędzie samorządy udzielają wsparcia festiwalom są konkursy projektów. W ich ramach wyłanianie są projekty zasługujące, zdaniem specjalnych komisji, na współfinansowanie. Kraków jest jedynym polskim miastem, które posiada Biuro Festiwalowe (miejska instytucja kultury). Zostało powołane w 1997 roku, gdy miasto otrzymało tytuł Europejskiego Miasta Kultury na rok 2000. W roku 2005, decyzją rady miasta nazwę zmieniono na „Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe”. Biuro podlega bezpośrednio Prezydentowi Krakowa natomiast organem opiniującym kierunki jego działalności jest 10-osobowa Rada Programowa [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/index.php]. Do najważniejszych zadań biura należą realizacja i promocja wydarzeń kulturalnych o wymiarze lokalnym, narodowym i międzynarodowym. Współpracuje ono z instytucjami kulturalnymi i edukacyjnymi, stowarzyszeniami twórczymi i zagranicznymi ośrodkami kulturalnymi. W Warszawie działa Stołeczna Estrada, którą utworzono w 1995 roku jako miejską instytucję przeznaczoną do organizowania i prowadzenia działalności kulturalnej (koncerty i inne imprezy). Obecnie Stołeczna Estrada organizuje dwa festiwale międzynarodowe i kilka lokalnych. Należy zwrócić uwagę na pewną specyfikę działań samorządów wobec festiwali. Władze samorządowe często dostrzegają wartość organizowanych na jej terenie imprez w momencie, gdy pojawia się inny ośrodek z propozycją transferu. Miasto Gdynia ze względów prestiżowych dofinansowuje Festiwal Polskich Filmów Fabularnych – najważniejszą imprezę krajowego przemysłu filmowego – od momentu, gdy w połowie lat

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Drugim resortem, który finansuje, często w całości, szereg festiwali kulturalnych jest Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej. Należy do nich Międzynarodowy Festiwal Orkiestr Wojskowych w Krakowie. W szczególnych przypadkach organizator festiwalu może wnioskować do Premiera Rządu o przyznanie dotacji z Rezerwy Ogólnej Budżetu Państwa. Wniosek opiniuje MKiDN. Ostateczną decyzję podejmuje premier. W ten sposób dofinansowywany jest międzynarodowy Festiwal Dialogu Czterech Kultur w Łodzi (kwota dotacji 900 000 zł).


269

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2) MM

MM

MM

MM MM

MM MM

MM

absorpcja funduszy europejskich (odciążanie budżetu samorządu, rozwój infrastruktury) – na przykład na dodatkowe środki liczą samorządy starające się o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury, festiwale włączane są w „pakiet kulturalny miasta” (Wrocław, Gdynia) – uzupełniają codzienną ofertę instytucji kultury, budowanie oferty kulturalnej ze względu na zgłoszenie kandydatury na Europejską Stolicę Kultury w 2016 roku (Toruń, Łódź, Gdańsk, Lublin, Poznań, Warszawa), przyciąganie turystów kulturalnych, festiwal organizowany i wymyślony przez Urząd Miasta, traktowany jako produkt (marka turystyczna) składający się na ofertę turystyczną miasta (Elbląg). Oczekiwania: wzrost ruchu turystycznego, podniesienie atrakcyjności regionu w oczach inwestorów, budowanie prestiżu miasta i władz lokalnych.

2.3. Festiwale w WARSZAWIE

W

2007 roku Urząd Miasta Warszawy współfinansował 60 festiwali (32 z nich ma status międzynarodowy) drogą konkursu wniosków. Najliczniejsze wśród nich były festiwale muzyczne. Jedenaście międzynarodowych festiwali otrzymało publiczne wsparcie w wysokości większej niż 120 tysięcy złotych. Najwyższe sumy przeznaczono na: Międzynarodowy Festiwal Filmowy „Żydowskie Motywy” (531 tys. zł), Warszawski Festiwal Filmowy (385 tys. zł), a spośród festiwali muzycznych na: Warszawską Jesień (900 tys. zł), Wielkanocny Festiwal Ludwiga van Beethovena (2 350 tys. zł). Mniejsze i debiutujące imprezy otrzymywały niższe dofinansowania (od 20 tys. do 120 tys. złotych). Z powyższego zestawienia wy-

nika, że festiwale muzyczne przeważają zarówno pod względem ilości, jak i wysokości dofinansowania. Pomimo że miasto Warszawa nie posiada własnej publicznej instytucji muzycznej, nie zaniedbuje tej sfery twórczości i udziela wsparcia wielu imprezom, jak choćby festiwale sztuki didżejskiej, muzyki dawnej, festiwale bębniarzy i poświęcone współczesnym kompozytorom. Władze warszawskie wspierają festiwale nie tylko poprzez granty, o które można ubiegać się w konkursach. W przypadku wydarzeń priorytetowych, zwłaszcza gdy niezbędne jest wysokie dofinansowanie, podpisywane są specjalne porozumienia z organizatorami. Taką procedurę stosuje się najczęściej, kiedy festiwal jest organizowany bądź współorganizowany przez instytucje publiczne. W takich przypadkach, władze powiększają budżet danej instytucji o sumę mającą stanowić kwotę potrzebną do zorganizowania festiwalu. W 2007 roku zostały sfinansowane w ten sposób następujące festiwale: Warszawską Jesień, Festiwal Muzyczna Praga, Wielkanocny Festiwal Ludwiga van Beethovena, Festiwal Skrzyżowanie Kultur (współorganizowany przez Stołeczną Estradę), Festiwal festiwali teatralnych „Spotkania” (organizowany przez Teatr Dramatyczny Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy). Rok wcześniej Warszawska Jesień oraz Wielkanocny Festiwal Ludwiga van Beethovena otrzymały wysoką pomoc finansową w drodze konkursowej. Innym przykładem zaangażowania publicznego tego typu był IV Międzynarodowy Festiwal Szkół Teatralnych. W tym przypadku, podstawą wsparcia oprócz wspomnianego wcześniej specjalnego porozumienia była Ustawa o Szkolnictwie Wyższym. Festiwal został zorganizowany przez Państwową Wyższą Szkołę Teatralną, której przekazano z miejskiego budżetu 500 tys. złotych (59,5% całkowitego budżetu festiwalu). Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego po przeprowadzeniu konkursu dofinansowało imprezę grantem w wysokości 280 tys. złotych (33,3% całkowitego budżetu festiwalu).

Festiwale współfinansowane przez Urząd Miasta st. Warszawy Typ festiwalu

Festiwale ogółem

Festiwale międzynarodowe

Muzyczne

37

20

Filmowe

9

7

Teatralne

7

2

Multidyscyplinarne

4

1

Taneczne

2

1

Fotograficzny

1

1

Razem

60

32

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

269

60

Razem

1

Fotograficzny

2

Taneczne

4

Multidyscyplinarne

7

Teatralne

9

Filmowe

37

Muzyczne

Festiwale ogółem

Typ festiwalu

32 1 1 1 2 7 20 Festiwale międzynarodowe

Festiwale współfinansowane przez Urząd Miasta st. Warszawy

2007 roku Urząd Miasta Warszawy współfinansował 60 festiwali (32 z nich ma status międzynarodowy) drogą konkursu wniosków. Najliczniejsze wśród nich były festiwale muzyczne. Jedenaście międzynarodowych festiwali otrzymało publiczne wsparcie w wysokości większej niż 120 tysięcy złotych. Najwyższe sumy przeznaczono na: Międzynarodowy Festiwal Filmowy „Żydowskie Motywy” (531 tys. zł), Warszawski Festiwal Filmowy (385 tys. zł), a spośród festiwali muzycznych na: Warszawską Jesień (900 tys. zł), Wielkanocny Festiwal Ludwiga van Beethovena (2 350 tys. zł). Mniejsze i debiutujące imprezy otrzymywały niższe dofinansowania (od 20 tys. do 120 tys. złotych). Z powyższego zestawienia wy-

W

2.3. Festiwale w WARSZAWIE MM MM MM MM MM MM MM MM

Oczekiwania: wzrost ruchu turystycznego, podniesienie atrakcyjności regionu w oczach inwestorów, budowanie prestiżu miasta i władz lokalnych. absorpcja funduszy europejskich (odciążanie budżetu samorządu, rozwój infrastruktury) – na przykład na dodatkowe środki liczą samorządy starające się o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury, festiwale włączane są w „pakiet kulturalny miasta” (Wrocław, Gdynia) – uzupełniają codzienną ofertę instytucji kultury, budowanie oferty kulturalnej ze względu na zgłoszenie kandydatury na Europejską Stolicę Kultury w 2016 roku (Toruń, Łódź, Gdańsk, Lublin, Poznań, Warszawa), przyciąganie turystów kulturalnych, festiwal organizowany i wymyślony przez Urząd Miasta, traktowany jako produkt (marka turystyczna) składający się na ofertę turystyczną miasta (Elbląg).

nika, że festiwale muzyczne przeważają zarówno pod względem ilości, jak i wysokości dofinansowania. Pomimo że miasto Warszawa nie posiada własnej publicznej instytucji muzycznej, nie zaniedbuje tej sfery twórczości i udziela wsparcia wielu imprezom, jak choćby festiwale sztuki didżejskiej, muzyki dawnej, festiwale bębniarzy i poświęcone współczesnym kompozytorom. Władze warszawskie wspierają festiwale nie tylko poprzez granty, o które można ubiegać się w konkursach. W przypadku wydarzeń priorytetowych, zwłaszcza gdy niezbędne jest wysokie dofinansowanie, podpisywane są specjalne porozumienia z organizatorami. Taką procedurę stosuje się najczęściej, kiedy festiwal jest organizowany bądź współorganizowany przez instytucje publiczne. W takich przypadkach, władze powiększają budżet danej instytucji o sumę mającą stanowić kwotę potrzebną do zorganizowania festiwalu. W 2007 roku zostały sfinansowane w ten sposób następujące festiwale: Warszawską Jesień, Festiwal Muzyczna Praga, Wielkanocny Festiwal Ludwiga van Beethovena, Festiwal Skrzyżowanie Kultur (współorganizowany przez Stołeczną Estradę), Festiwal festiwali teatralnych „Spotkania” (organizowany przez Teatr Dramatyczny Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy). Rok wcześniej Warszawska Jesień oraz Wielkanocny Festiwal Ludwiga van Beethovena otrzymały wysoką pomoc finansową w drodze konkursowej. Innym przykładem zaangażowania publicznego tego typu był IV Międzynarodowy Festiwal Szkół Teatralnych. W tym przypadku, podstawą wsparcia oprócz wspomnianego wcześniej specjalnego porozumienia była Ustawa o Szkolnictwie Wyższym. Festiwal został zorganizowany przez Państwową Wyższą Szkołę Teatralną, której przekazano z miejskiego budżetu 500 tys. złotych (59,5% całkowitego budżetu festiwalu). Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego po przeprowadzeniu konkursu dofinansowało imprezę grantem w wysokości 280 tys. złotych (33,3% całkowitego budżetu festiwalu).


Dotacje na projekty kulturalne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku4 21 989 789

Projekty kulturalne ogółem

w PLN

Dotacje

w tym

6 941 800

festiwale międzynarodowe ogółem

8 627 100

festiwale ogółem

Dotacje na projekty kulturalne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku

7 039 760

dotacje na projekty dotyczące zadań w dziedzinie kultury (np. film, taniec, fotografia, wystawy, sztuki piękne, edukacja)

w PLN

Rodzaj dotacji

w tym dotacje na:

130 000

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale fotograficzne

130 000

festiwale fotograficzne ogółem

50 000

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale tańca

89 900

festiwale tańca ogółem

73 000

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale multidyscyplinarne

393 000

festiwale multidyscyplinarne ogółem

1 309 800

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale filmowe

1 359 800

festiwale filmowe ogółem

Dotacje na projekty teatralne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku 3 690 309

dotacje na projekty dotyczące promocji twórczości teatralnej

w PLN

Rodzaj dotacji

w tym dotacje na:

488 800

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale teatralne

610 800

festiwale teatralne ogółem

Dotacje na projekty muzyczne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku

2.5. Polityka „festiwalowa” władz publicznych w Polsce

M

inisterstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego RP nie opracowało specjalnego programu wsparcia festiwali. Nie można również wskazać specyficznego paradygmatu postępowania, którym miałyby się kierować władze lokalne przy finansowaniu festiwali. Można jednak zauważyć, że władze samorządowe coraz bardziej świadomie kształtują lokalną politykę kulturalną i coraz lepiej zarządzają finansami na imprezy kulturalne, do których zaliczają się festiwale. Rzadko już zdarza się, że festiwal finansowany jest „z przyzwyczajenia”. Władze finansują przeważnie te festiwale, które budują ich prestiż – na ogół mieszkańcy są szeroko informowani o zaangażowaniu władz. Można wskazać dwa rodzaje tego zaangażowania – jedni decydenci chcą się grzać w blasku artystów i budować swoją pozycję w lokalnej społeczności, inni poprzez finansowanie wielkich imprez dbają o budowanie pozycji miasta lub regionu. W dalszym ciągu, ogólnie rzecz ujmując, festiwale stanowią raczej drugoplanowy element zainteresowania władz odpowiedzialnych za miejską politykę kulturalną. Za pewne wyjątki można tu uznać Wrocław, Gdynię, Kraków, a ostatnio także Warszawę. Można stwierdzić, że władze publiczne w Polsce nie prowadzą jasno sprecyzowanej polityki „festiwalowej”. Jednak, jak pokazało badanie, istnieją wyraźne przykłady dobrej praktyki na tym polu i coraz więcej władz próbuje przynajmniej włączyć festiwale w obszar działań strategicznych dla lokalnego krajobrazu kulturalnego.

3. Organizacja i finansowanie festiwalu MALTA – studium przypadku5 Nazwa Festiwalu i najważniejsze informacje o jego misji, charakterze, procesie planowania i realizacji:

Nazwa Festiwalu i najważniejsze informacje o jego misji, charakterze, procesie planowania i realizacji:

3. Organizacja i finansowanie festiwalu MALTA – studium przypadku5

w PLN

130 000

Rodzaj dotacji

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale fotograficzne

5 023 000

130 000

dotacje na projekty dotyczące promocji twórczości muzycznej

festiwale fotograficzne ogółem

w tym dotacje na:

50 000

2 873 000

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale tańca

festiwale muzyczne ogółem

89 900

MM MIĘDZYNARODOWY FESTIWAL MALTA (www.malta-festival.pl) Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatralny MALTA odbywa się w Poznaniu od 1991 i jest obecnie jednym z największych festiwali teatralnych w Centralnej Europie. Nazwa Festiwalu wzięła się od nazwy sztucznego jeziora w Poznaniu, dookoła którego na wolnym powietrzu grane są przedstawienia. Od pierwszej edycji festiwalu liczba uczestników

festiwale tańca ogółem

2 175 000

73 000

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale muzyczne

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale multidyscyplinarne

Obliczenia własne na podstawie danych Urzędu Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy. Podobnie w przypadku kolejnych tabel dotyczących wydatków Urzędu Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy.

393 000

inisterstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego RP nie opracowało specjalnego programu wsparcia festiwali. Nie można również wskazać specyficznego paradygmatu postępowania, którym miałyby się kierować władze lokalne przy finansowaniu festiwali. Można jednak zauważyć, że władze samorządowe coraz bardziej świadomie kształtują lokalną politykę kulturalną i coraz lepiej zarządzają finansami na imprezy kulturalne, do których zaliczają się festiwale. Rzadko już zdarza się, że festiwal finansowany jest „z przyzwyczajenia”. Władze finansują przeważnie te festiwale, które budują ich prestiż – na ogół mieszkańcy są szeroko informowani o zaangażowaniu władz. Można wskazać dwa rodzaje tego zaangażowania – jedni decydenci chcą się grzać w blasku artystów i budować swoją pozycję w lokalnej społeczności, inni poprzez finansowanie wielkich imprez dbają o budowanie pozycji miasta lub regionu. W dalszym ciągu, ogólnie rzecz ujmując, festiwale stanowią raczej drugoplanowy element zainteresowania władz odpowiedzialnych za miejską politykę kulturalną. Za pewne wyjątki można tu uznać Wrocław, Gdynię, Kraków, a ostatnio także Warszawę. Można stwierdzić, że władze publiczne w Polsce nie prowadzą jasno sprecyzowanej polityki „festiwalowej”. Jednak, jak pokazało badanie, istnieją wyraźne przykłady dobrej praktyki na tym polu i coraz więcej władz próbuje przynajmniej włączyć festiwale w obszar działań strategicznych dla lokalnego krajobrazu kulturalnego.

M

4

2 175 000 5 023 000 488 800 3 690 309

festiwale multidyscyplinarne ogółem

7 039 760 6 941 800 21 989 789

Opracowanie – Michał Merczyński (dyrektor festiwalu Malta)

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale muzyczne dotacje na projekty dotyczące promocji twórczości muzycznej w tym międzynarodowe festiwale teatralne dotacje na projekty dotyczące promocji twórczości teatralnej

1 309 800

dotacje na projekty dotyczące zadań w dziedzinie kultury (np. film, taniec, fotografia, wystawy, sztuki piękne, edukacja) festiwale międzynarodowe ogółem Projekty kulturalne ogółem

5

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Obliczenia własne na podstawie danych Urzędu Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy. Podobnie w przypadku kolejnych tabel dotyczących wydatków Urzędu Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy.

2 873 000 w PLN

MIĘDZYNARODOWY FESTIWAL MALTA (www.malta-festival.pl) Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatralny MALTA odbywa się w Poznaniu od 1991 i jest obecnie jednym z największych festiwali teatralnych w Centralnej Europie. Nazwa Festiwalu wzięła się od nazwy sztucznego jeziora w Poznaniu, dookoła którego na wolnym powietrzu grane są przedstawienia. Od pierwszej edycji festiwalu liczba uczestników

MM

610 800 w PLN 1 359 800

w tym międzynarodowe festiwale filmowe

w PLN 8 627 100 w PLN

2.5. Polityka „festiwalowa” władz publicznych w Polsce

270

270 Opracowanie – Michał Merczyński (dyrektor festiwalu Malta)

5

4

festiwale muzyczne ogółem w tym dotacje na: Rodzaj dotacji Dotacje na projekty muzyczne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku festiwale teatralne ogółem w tym dotacje na: Rodzaj dotacji

Dotacje na projekty teatralne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku festiwale filmowe ogółem w tym dotacje na: Rodzaj dotacji

Dotacje na projekty kulturalne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku festiwale ogółem w tym Dotacje

Dotacje na projekty kulturalne przyznane przez władze Warszawy w ramach konkursów w 2006 roku4

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)


271

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

wciąż rośnie. Wzrasta także liczba widzów zainteresowanych alternatywnym/eksperymentalnym teatrem. Każdego roku, przez co najmniej pięć dni i nocy trwania Festiwalu, blisko 200-tysięczna publiczność ogląda różnego rodzaju przedstawienia. Ulice, parki, place, podwórza, hale rynkowe, opuszczone fabryki, obszar dookoła jeziora Malty i inne miejsca publiczne adaptowane są na potrzeby Festiwalu. Od kilku lat Festiwal posiada dużych rozmiarów scenę koncertową pod gołym niebem. To właśnie tu, nad jeziorem Malta, Goran Bregovic rozpoczął swoją karierę w Polsce; w tym miejscu po raz pierwszy w Polsce wystąpiły światowej sławy zespoły, takie jak Buena Vista Social Club, Orchestra BAOBAB, Philip Glass and the Philip Glass Ensemble i Leningrad Cowboys. Odbyły się tu również koncerty Jana A. P. Kaczmarka, Wojciecha Kilara i Alberto Iglesiasa, Sinead O’Connor, Toumani Diabe & Symmetric Orchestra, na maltańskiej scenie wystąpił Beirut. Każde z tych wydarzeń muzycznych przyciągnęło tysiące widzów. Przede wszystkim jednak MALTA to święto teatru zarówno tradycyjnego, jak i awangardowego. Program Festiwalu MALTA obejmuje sześć dziedzin: 1. teatr – prezentowane są tutaj nowatorskie i znaczące przedstawienia na wolnym powietrzu oraz występy zagranicznych zespołów teatru ulicznego. Większość spektakli grana jest nad jeziorem Malta, na poznańskich ulicach i placach, ale pokazywane są również przedstawienia odbywające się w zamkniętych przestrzeniach. Jednym z kryteriów włączenia ich w program festiwalu jest niekonwencjonalne potraktowanie przestrzeni teatralnej. Szczególnie popierane są produkcje stworzone specjalnie na Festiwal. Warunki uczestnictwa w ramach tej sekcji (każdego roku zaliczane jest około dwudziestu spektakli) są indywidualnie negocjowane z organizatorami. 2. taniec, 3. muzykę, 4. film, 5. Nową Sytuację /dziedzina konkursowa/. Do tej dziedziny zaliczane są najbardziej nowatorskie i interesujące prezentacje sztuk wizualnych, teatralne i muzyczne. Twórcami są tu przedstawiciele młodszej generacji polskich artystów. Kwestia zaproszeń do uczestnictwa jest dyskutowana przez cały rok, a wnioski o przyjęcie napływają z całego kraju. To jedyna dziedzina, która przyjmuje formę konkursu. MALTA i Instytut Teatralny im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego przyznają “nagrodę dla najlepszego zespołu w programie”, wynosi ona 30 tys. zł. 6. różne

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Festiwal MALTA, to ważne miejsce spotkań dyrektorów europejskich festiwali, jak również paneli dyskusyjnych na temat współczesnego teatru i jego roli w dzisiejszym społeczeństwie. W trakcie forum dyskusyjnego poruszane są takie tematy, jak problemy organizacyjne festiwali teatralnych oraz wpływ najbardziej znaczących wydarzeń teatralnych na kulturalną atmosferę Europy. W roku bieżącym odbędzie się 17 edycja Festiwalu. Blisko 2 tys. artystów i performerów zostało zaproszonych do uczestnictwa. Status organizacyjno-prawny Festiwalu: Fundacja Czas trwania i miejsce: Wydarzenie coroczne. Czas trwania – każdego roku 5-10 dni, miejsce – Poznań Łączna liczba widzów wszystkich wydarzeń artystycznych ostatniej edycji: 200.000 widzów Liczba sprzedanych biletów: 10.000 Warunki uczestnictwa (proporcja imprez darmowych, przedział cen biletów itp.): wstępy darmowe – 70 %, wydarzenia biletowane – 30%. Ceny biletów : od 5 zł. do 80 zł. /1,2 Euro – 20 Euro /. Najdroższe bilety – koncert Sinead O’Connor. Struktura organizacyjna Festiwalu: Tabela 1 – struktura organizacyjna Zespół organizacyjny Artyści i wykonawcy Zatrudnionych na etat/ umowę zlecenie (f/pf)*

Administracja

T echnicy

Artyści i wykonawcy

25

120

1000

Zatrudnionych na etat/ umowę zlecenie (f/pf)*

0

4

1

Wolontariusze

0

30

0

* Podczas festiwalu (f) i w okresie przed festiwalowym (pf)

271

Program Festiwalu MALTA obejmuje sześć dziedzin: 1. teatr – prezentowane są tutaj nowatorskie i znaczące przedstawienia na wolnym powietrzu oraz występy zagranicznych zespołów teatru ulicznego. Większość spektakli grana jest nad jeziorem Malta, na poznańskich ulicach i placach, ale pokazywane są również przedstawienia odbywające się w zamkniętych przestrzeniach. Jednym z kryteriów włączenia ich w program festiwalu jest niekonwencjonalne potraktowanie przestrzeni teatralnej. Szczególnie popierane są produkcje stworzone specjalnie na Festiwal. Warunki uczestnictwa w ramach tej sekcji (każdego roku zaliczane jest około dwudziestu spektakli) są indywidualnie negocjowane z organizatorami. 2. taniec, 3. muzykę, 4. film, 5. Nową Sytuację /dziedzina konkursowa/. Do tej dziedziny zaliczane są najbardziej nowatorskie i interesujące prezentacje sztuk wizualnych, teatralne i muzyczne. Twórcami są tu przedstawiciele młodszej generacji polskich artystów. Kwestia zaproszeń do uczestnictwa jest dyskutowana przez cały rok, a wnioski o przyjęcie napływają z całego kraju. To jedyna dziedzina, która przyjmuje formę konkursu. MALTA i Instytut Teatralny im. Zbigniewa Raszewskiego przyznają “nagrodę dla najlepszego zespołu w programie”, wynosi ona 30 tys. zł. 6. różne wciąż rośnie. Wzrasta także liczba widzów zainteresowanych alternatywnym/eksperymentalnym teatrem. Każdego roku, przez co najmniej pięć dni i nocy trwania Festiwalu, blisko 200-tysięczna publiczność ogląda różnego rodzaju przedstawienia. Ulice, parki, place, podwórza, hale rynkowe, opuszczone fabryki, obszar dookoła jeziora Malty i inne miejsca publiczne adaptowane są na potrzeby Festiwalu. Od kilku lat Festiwal posiada dużych rozmiarów scenę koncertową pod gołym niebem. To właśnie tu, nad jeziorem Malta, Goran Bregovic rozpoczął swoją karierę w Polsce; w tym miejscu po raz pierwszy w Polsce wystąpiły światowej sławy zespoły, takie jak Buena Vista Social Club, Orchestra BAOBAB, Philip Glass and the Philip Glass Ensemble i Leningrad Cowboys. Odbyły się tu również koncerty Jana A. P. Kaczmarka, Wojciecha Kilara i Alberto Iglesiasa, Sinead O’Connor, Toumani Diabe & Symmetric Orchestra, na maltańskiej scenie wystąpił Beirut. Każde z tych wydarzeń muzycznych przyciągnęło tysiące widzów. Przede wszystkim jednak MALTA to święto teatru zarówno tradycyjnego, jak i awangardowego.

* Podczas festiwalu (f) i w okresie przed festiwalowym (pf) 0

Wolontariusze

0

Zatrudnionych na etat/ umowę zlecenie (f/pf)* Zatrudnionych na etat/ umowę zlecenie (f/pf)*

30 4 25

Artyści i wykonawcy

Administracja

Zespół organizacyjny Tabela 1 – struktura organizacyjna

Struktura organizacyjna Festiwalu: Warunki uczestnictwa (proporcja imprez darmowych, przedział cen biletów itp.): wstępy darmowe – 70 %, wydarzenia biletowane – 30%. Ceny biletów : od 5 zł. do 80 zł. /1,2 Euro – 20 Euro /. Najdroższe bilety – koncert Sinead O’Connor. Liczba sprzedanych biletów: 10.000 Łączna liczba widzów wszystkich wydarzeń artystycznych ostatniej edycji: 200.000 widzów Czas trwania i miejsce: Wydarzenie coroczne. Czas trwania – każdego roku 5-10 dni, miejsce – Poznań Status organizacyjno-prawny Festiwalu: Fundacja W roku bieżącym odbędzie się 17 edycja Festiwalu. Blisko 2 tys. artystów i performerów zostało zaproszonych do uczestnictwa. Festiwal MALTA, to ważne miejsce spotkań dyrektorów europejskich festiwali, jak również paneli dyskusyjnych na temat współczesnego teatru i jego roli w dzisiejszym społeczeństwie. W trakcie forum dyskusyjnego poruszane są takie tematy, jak problemy organizacyjne festiwali teatralnych oraz wpływ najbardziej znaczących wydarzeń teatralnych na kulturalną atmosferę Europy.

0 1 120 T echnicy

1000 Artyści i wykonawcy


272

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Czy Festiwal ma ciała nadzorcze lub doradcze? (np. rada nadzorcza, itp.)? Fundacja Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Teatralnego MALTA:

Rada Fundacji: Ryszard Grobelny, Przewodniczący Grażyna Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Grzegorz Ganowicz

Fundatorzy: Grażyna Kulczyk Jan Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Michał Merczyński

Foundation Board: Michał Merczynski, Prezes Renata Borowska, Wice-prezes Szczegółowy opis budżetu festiwalu (źródła przychodów i rodzaje wydatków)

Tabela 2 – Źródła przychodów

0,00 97 434,86 €

Wkład własny (m.in. przychód z biletów, materiałów promocyjnych, wynajmów itp.)

0,00

Prywatni donatorzy

82 894,74 €

Sponsorzy

13 157,89 €

Środki od sektora non-profit (fundacje, stowarzyszenia, itp.)

0,00

Finansowanie publiczne: 17,22% 5,29%

Środki od sektora non-profit (fundacje, stowarzyszenia, itp.)

13 157,89 €

2,33%

Sponsorzy

82 894,74 €

14,65%

Prywatni donatorzy

0,00

0,00

Wkład własny (m.in. przychód z biletów, materiałów promocyjnych, wynajmów itp.)

97 434,86 €

17,22%

Inne

0,00

0,00

Suma

565 760,33 €

100%

78 947,37 € x x 263 157,89 €

29 930,15 €

2,33% 5,29% 0,00 46,51% 13,95%

Finansowanie publiczne: Źródła przychodów

Kwota w euro

% całkowitego budżetu

komentarze (jeśli konieczne)

Granty od ciał międzynarodowych (EU, Vishegrad, Nordic Council itp.)

Władze: państwowe/centralne regionalne powiatowe gminne

0,00

0,00

0,00

Inne źródła publiczne (np. rady sztuki, fundusze specjalne itp.)

Inne źródła publiczne (np. rady sztuki, fundusze specjalne itp.)

46,51%

29 930,15 €

13,95%

14,65%

78 947,37 € x x 263 157,89 €

0,00

Władze: państwowe/centralne regionalne powiatowe gminne

Granty od ciał międzynarodowych (EU, Vishegrad, Nordic Council itp.)

komentarze (jeśli konieczne)

Inne

100%

% całkowitego budżetu

565 760,33 €

Kwota w euro

Suma

Źródła przychodów

Tabela 2 – Źródła przychodów

Czy Festiwal ma ciała nadzorcze lub doradcze? (np. rada nadzorcza, itp.)? Fundacja Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Teatralnego MALTA:

Foundation Board: Michał Merczynski, Prezes Renata Borowska, Wice-prezes Rada Fundacji: Ryszard Grobelny, Przewodniczący Grażyna Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Grzegorz Ganowicz Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Fundatorzy: Grażyna Kulczyk Jan Kulczyk Piotr Voelkel Karol Działoszyński Michał Merczyński

Szczegółowy opis budżetu festiwalu (źródła przychodów i rodzaje wydatków) 272


273

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Jeśli otrzymano znaczące wsparcie, proszę opisać jego rodzaju, uwzględniając znaczenie dla budżetu (np. darmowy wynajem miejsca, możliwości PR, zapewnienie kwater etc.)

Na jakich zasadach realizowana była współpraca władz i organizatorów? Czy władze angażowały się tylko jako fundatorzy (proszę opisać warunki współfinansowania), jeśli nie, jaką inną rolę władze odegrały przy organizacji festiwalu?

Tabela 3 – wydatki wg kategorii Wydatki

Kwota w euro

% całkowitego budżetu

Wynagrodzenie i wydatki związane z pracą artystyczną zakwalifikowanych produkcji (prawa autorskie, itp.)

261 010,61 €

46,13%

Wynagrodzenia dla ekipy festiwalowej: administracji, techników, itp.

114 911,70 €

20,31%

Koszty techniczne *

118 421,05 €

20,93%

Reklama i PR

31 960,88 €

5,65%

Inne

39 456,09 €

6,98%

Suma

565 760,33 €

100%

komentarze (jeśli konieczne)

Wydatki administracyjne i organizacyjne **

* scenografia, światło i dźwięk, usługi techniczne, itp. ** koszty funkcjonowania i wyposażenia biura, koszty podróży, hoteli, transportu, koszty druku, ochrony, itp.

Zaangażowanie władz publicznych (państwowych, regionalnych, prowincjonalnych, lokalnych) w proces organizowania i finansowania festiwalu Jak przebiegał proces decyzyjny władz publicznych (np. jakie były motywy zaangażowania się i/lub finansowania festiwalu i jakie były ich oczekiwania; jak długo trwało podejmowanie decyzji; czy festiwal był częścią długoterminowej strategii, czy decyzją ad hoc?; jakie były podstawy prawne zaangażowania władz – czy wymagane było zorganizowanie przetargu, składanie aplikacji, lub inne)? Władze miejskie Poznania są jednym z najważniejszych współorganizatorów od początku istnienia festiwalu. Festiwal MALTA uważany jest za kulturalną wizytówkę Poznania i podkreślany w strategii starań o tytuł Kulturalnej Stolicy Europy 2016. Organizatorzy Festiwalu zawarli z władzami miejskimi 3-letni kontrakt. Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego co roku dotuje festiwal i uznaje go za ważne artystyczne wydarzenie o znaczeniu międzynarodowym. Dla Biura Wojewody Wielkopolskiego MALTA jest niepowtarzalną okazją do rozwoju regionalnej działalności artystycznej.

Jak przebiegał proces decyzyjny władz publicznych (np. jakie były motywy zaangażowania się i/lub finansowania festiwalu i jakie były ich oczekiwania; jak długo trwało podejmowanie decyzji; czy festiwal był częścią długoterminowej strategii, czy decyzją ad hoc?; jakie były podstawy prawne zaangażowania władz – czy wymagane było zorganizowanie przetargu, składanie aplikacji, lub inne)? Władze miejskie Poznania są jednym z najważniejszych współorganizatorów od początku istnienia festiwalu. Festiwal MALTA uważany jest za kulturalną wizytówkę Poznania i podkreślany w strategii starań o tytuł Kulturalnej Stolicy Europy 2016. Organizatorzy Festiwalu zawarli z władzami miejskimi 3-letni kontrakt. Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego co roku dotuje festiwal i uznaje go za ważne artystyczne wydarzenie o znaczeniu międzynarodowym. Dla Biura Wojewody Wielkopolskiego MALTA jest niepowtarzalną okazją do rozwoju regionalnej działalności artystycznej. Zaangażowanie władz publicznych (państwowych, regionalnych, prowincjonalnych, lokalnych) w proces organizowania i finansowania festiwalu

Przeszkody Jako organizacja non-profit, możemy pozyskiwać granty i podpisywać umowę z władzami publicznymi jedynie na maksimum 3 lata. Nie pozwala to realizować długoterminowej strategii rozwoju Festiwalu. Występuje tez potrzeba organizowania większej ilości spotkań z reprezentantami władz miejskich i usług miejskich w trakcie przygotowań do festiwalu. Ocena zaangażowania władz publicznych z obu perspektyw: władz i organizatorów Jaki rodzaj kontroli i oceny działań zastosowały jednostki, będące źródłami finansowania publicznego? Każdego roku po festiwalu organizatorzy wysyłają finansowe i merytoryczne raporty do władz miejskich w Poznaniu, Biura Wojewody Wielkopolskiego oraz Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Władze miejskie Poznania, oprócz dotacji, oferują dużą pomoc w kwestiach organizacyjnych. Wszystkie instytucje miejskie – policja, usługi miejskie, centra kultury, teatry – pomagają przy festiwalu. Z taką pomocą znacznie łatwiej jest przykładowo uzyskać pozwolenie na organizowanie wydarzeń kulturalnych w niecodziennych miejscach, takich jak stare fabryki czy ulice.

* scenografia, światło i dźwięk, usługi techniczne, itp. ** koszty funkcjonowania i wyposażenia biura, koszty podróży, hoteli, transportu, koszty druku, ochrony, itp.

565 760,33 €

Suma

39 456,09 €

Inne

31 960,88 €

Reklama i PR

100% 6,98% 5,65%

Wydatki administracyjne i organizacyjne ** 118 421,05 €

Koszty techniczne *

114 911,70 €

Wynagrodzenia dla ekipy festiwalowej: administracji, techników, itp. Wynagrodzenie i wydatki związane z pracą artystyczną zakwalifikowanych produkcji (prawa autorskie, itp.) Wydatki

261 010,61 € Kwota w euro

20,93% 20,31% 46,13% % całkowitego budżetu

komentarze (jeśli konieczne)

Tabela 3 – wydatki wg kategorii

Jeśli otrzymano znaczące wsparcie, proszę opisać jego rodzaju, uwzględniając znaczenie dla budżetu (np. darmowy wynajem miejsca, możliwości PR, zapewnienie kwater etc.) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Władze miejskie Poznania, oprócz dotacji, oferują dużą pomoc w kwestiach organizacyjnych. Wszystkie instytucje miejskie – policja, usługi miejskie, centra kultury, teatry – pomagają przy festiwalu. Z taką pomocą znacznie łatwiej jest przykładowo uzyskać pozwolenie na organizowanie wydarzeń kulturalnych w niecodziennych miejscach, takich jak stare fabryki czy ulice. Jaki rodzaj kontroli i oceny działań zastosowały jednostki, będące źródłami finansowania publicznego? Każdego roku po festiwalu organizatorzy wysyłają finansowe i merytoryczne raporty do władz miejskich w Poznaniu, Biura Wojewody Wielkopolskiego oraz Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Ocena zaangażowania władz publicznych z obu perspektyw: władz i organizatorów Przeszkody Jako organizacja non-profit, możemy pozyskiwać granty i podpisywać umowę z władzami publicznymi jedynie na maksimum 3 lata. Nie pozwala to realizować długoterminowej strategii rozwoju Festiwalu. Występuje tez potrzeba organizowania większej ilości spotkań z reprezentantami władz miejskich i usług miejskich w trakcie przygotowań do festiwalu.

273

Na jakich zasadach realizowana była współpraca władz i organizatorów? Czy władze angażowały się tylko jako fundatorzy (proszę opisać warunki współfinansowania), jeśli nie, jaką inną rolę władze odegrały przy organizacji festiwalu?


274

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Wyzwania Umowy zawierane na dłuższy okres pozwoliłyby nam rozwinąć Festiwal, realizować więcej specjalnych produkcji, zapraszać nietypowe projekty, eksperymentować, poszukiwać nowych młodych artystów. Festiwalowi przydałby się stały budynek od władz miasta. W miejscu tym zorganizowane zostałoby centrum pracowni, rezydencje dla teatrów i archiwum.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

W jakim stopniu publiczna polityka realizowana w innych obszarach społecznych wpływa na festiwale?

274

wcale

odsumowując, można stwierdzić, że przeważająca w Europie jest liczba tych krajów, gdzie władze publiczne nie mają jeszcze wypracowanej jasnej i przejrzystej polityki lub strategii działań wobec festiwali. Festiwale tymczasem zyskały silną pozycję na mapie życie kulturalnego, szczególnie miast metropolitarnych, często kosztem bardziej konwencjonalnych i tradycyjnych form aktywności artystycznej. W bliskiej przyszłości pozycja ta stanie się prawdopodobnie jaszcze bardziej znacząca. Dlatego prawdopodobnie najważniejszym wnioskiem a zarazem rekomendacją jest fakt, że kwestii festiwali należy poświęcić więcej uwagi. Władze publiczne krajów Europejskich powinny zatem określić swoją politykę „festiwalową” w podobny sposób, jak dokonały tego w odniesieniu do teatrów, muzeów, bibliotek. Zalecenie to odnosi się szczególnie do metropolii, gdzie organizuje się najwięcej festiwali. Należy jednak podkreślić specyfikę festiwali, która odróżnia je od innych typów ekspresji kulturalnej. Dlatego też ciężko oczekiwać, by możliwe było wzorowanie się na już istniejących politykach dotyczących innych dziedzin życia kulturalnego lub wypracowanie jednej polityki w odniesieniu do festiwali, którą można by powielać w różnych krajach.

mocno w pewnym nieznacznie stopniu

P

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[x]

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turystyka

[x]

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aktywność lokalna

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[x]

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[x]

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[x]

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[x]

rozwój ekonomiczny

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spójność społeczna

zatrudnienie

zatrudnienie

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

[x]

[x]

[  ]

[  ]

spójność społeczna

rozwój ekonomiczny

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

[  ]

[x]

[x]

aktywność lokalna

turystyka

4. Wskazówki nie tylko dla Warszawy

wcale

P

mocno w pewnym nieznacznie stopniu

Definiowanie polityki festiwalowej należy zacząć od rozpoznania specyfiki festiwali i ich zagęszczenia w danym kraju, regionie czy mieście oraz od określenia jak silna jest pozycja festiwali w krajobrazie życia kulturalnego. To z pozoru proste przedsięwzięcie może być utrudnione przez brak powszechnie przyjętej definicji festiwali. Najwięcej wątpliwości budzi zapewne duża liczba różnego typu festynów, które często przyjmują nazwę festiwali. Wskazane jest posługiwanie się definicją przyjętą przez europejskie stowarzyszenia festiwali, jak np. Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Festiwali (European Association of Festivals), ale definicja ta może być modyfikowana przez okoliczności historyczne ważne dla rozwoju danego kraju, regionu. Precyzyjne rozpoznanie zjawiska nie może być ograniczone do festiwali, których głównymi organizatorami są władze; musi odnosić się do znacznie szerszego spektrum. Myśląc o polityce festiwalowej, władze publiczne powinny być świadome nie tylko wielkiego zróżnicowania cechującego festiwale, lecz również zdawać sobie sprawę z ich wielofunkcyjności. W tym tekście już o tym pisano, wiec nie decydujemy się na powtórzenie. Należy jednak podkreślić, ze opracowanie polityki festiwalowej jest nie tylko okazją do uwypuklenia tych funkcji, ale również do określenia zbioru celów, które wspierane przez władze publiczne festiwale powinny osiągać. Oczywistym jest, że cele te powinny być jak najbardziej zbieżne z przyjętymi przez władze publiczne priorytetami ogólnymi, gdyż polityka/strategia względem festiwali musi być spójna z ogólną polityką kulturalna władz publicznych. Określenie narzędzi i zasobów finansowych stanowi podstawową cześć procesu opracowywania strategii odnoszących się do festiwali. Interwencja finansowa jest najbardziej oczywistym narzędziem w rękach władz publicznych. W tym kontekście, przewidywalność wielkości nakładów publicznych jest równie ważna, jak ich faktyczna wysokość. Warunki konieczne i oczywiste zarazem to przejrzystość procedur przyznawania wsparcia finansowego i konsekwencja w realizacji zobowiązań. Poza finansowaniem, ważne jest też zademonstrowanie woli wsparcia politycznego, a także chęci promocji całego przedsięwzięcia. Tworzenie atmosfery współpracy, wzajemnego zaufania jest tak samo ważne, jak przyznawanie funduszy na cele kulturalne. Definiując politykę festiwalową, władze powinny rozważyć tworzenie rozmaitych porozumień i konieczność określania ram i zasad współpracy z różnymi podmiotami. Do takich zaliczają się np. porozumienia z menadżerami

W jakim stopniu publiczna polityka realizowana w innych obszarach społecznych wpływa na festiwale?

Definiowanie polityki festiwalowej należy zacząć od rozpoznania specyfiki festiwali i ich zagęszczenia w danym kraju, regionie czy mieście oraz od określenia jak silna jest pozycja festiwali w krajobrazie życia kulturalnego. To z pozoru proste przedsięwzięcie może być utrudnione przez brak powszechnie przyjętej definicji festiwali. Najwięcej wątpliwości budzi zapewne duża liczba różnego typu festynów, które często przyjmują nazwę festiwali. Wskazane jest posługiwanie się definicją przyjętą przez europejskie stowarzyszenia festiwali, jak np. Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Festiwali (European Association of Festivals), ale definicja ta może być modyfikowana przez okoliczności historyczne ważne dla rozwoju danego kraju, regionu. Precyzyjne rozpoznanie zjawiska nie może być ograniczone do festiwali, których głównymi organizatorami są władze; musi odnosić się do znacznie szerszego spektrum. Myśląc o polityce festiwalowej, władze publiczne powinny być świadome nie tylko wielkiego zróżnicowania cechującego festiwale, lecz również zdawać sobie sprawę z ich wielofunkcyjności. W tym tekście już o tym pisano, wiec nie decydujemy się na powtórzenie. Należy jednak podkreślić, ze opracowanie polityki festiwalowej jest nie tylko okazją do uwypuklenia tych funkcji, ale również do określenia zbioru celów, które wspierane przez władze publiczne festiwale powinny osiągać. Oczywistym jest, że cele te powinny być jak najbardziej zbieżne z przyjętymi przez władze publiczne priorytetami ogólnymi, gdyż polityka/strategia względem festiwali musi być spójna z ogólną polityką kulturalna władz publicznych. Określenie narzędzi i zasobów finansowych stanowi podstawową cześć procesu opracowywania strategii odnoszących się do festiwali. Interwencja finansowa jest najbardziej oczywistym narzędziem w rękach władz publicznych. W tym kontekście, przewidywalność wielkości nakładów publicznych jest równie ważna, jak ich faktyczna wysokość. Warunki konieczne i oczywiste zarazem to przejrzystość procedur przyznawania wsparcia finansowego i konsekwencja w realizacji zobowiązań. Poza finansowaniem, ważne jest też zademonstrowanie woli wsparcia politycznego, a także chęci promocji całego przedsięwzięcia. Tworzenie atmosfery współpracy, wzajemnego zaufania jest tak samo ważne, jak przyznawanie funduszy na cele kulturalne. Definiując politykę festiwalową, władze powinny rozważyć tworzenie rozmaitych porozumień i konieczność określania ram i zasad współpracy z różnymi podmiotami. Do takich zaliczają się np. porozumienia z menadżerami

odsumowując, można stwierdzić, że przeważająca w Europie jest liczba tych krajów, gdzie władze publiczne nie mają jeszcze wypracowanej jasnej i przejrzystej polityki lub strategii działań wobec festiwali. Festiwale tymczasem zyskały silną pozycję na mapie życie kulturalnego, szczególnie miast metropolitarnych, często kosztem bardziej konwencjonalnych i tradycyjnych form aktywności artystycznej. W bliskiej przyszłości pozycja ta stanie się prawdopodobnie jaszcze bardziej znacząca. Dlatego prawdopodobnie najważniejszym wnioskiem a zarazem rekomendacją jest fakt, że kwestii festiwali należy poświęcić więcej uwagi. Władze publiczne krajów Europejskich powinny zatem określić swoją politykę „festiwalową” w podobny sposób, jak dokonały tego w odniesieniu do teatrów, muzeów, bibliotek. Zalecenie to odnosi się szczególnie do metropolii, gdzie organizuje się najwięcej festiwali. Należy jednak podkreślić specyfikę festiwali, która odróżnia je od innych typów ekspresji kulturalnej. Dlatego też ciężko oczekiwać, by możliwe było wzorowanie się na już istniejących politykach dotyczących innych dziedzin życia kulturalnego lub wypracowanie jednej polityki w odniesieniu do festiwali, którą można by powielać w różnych krajach.

Wyzwania Umowy zawierane na dłuższy okres pozwoliłyby nam rozwinąć Festiwal, realizować więcej specjalnych produkcji, zapraszać nietypowe projekty, eksperymentować, poszukiwać nowych młodych artystów. Festiwalowi przydałby się stały budynek od władz miasta. W miejscu tym zorganizowane zostałoby centrum pracowni, rezydencje dla teatrów i archiwum.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

275

kultury, inicjatorami i „duchowymi” patronami festiwali, instytucjami kulturalnymi oraz innymi przedstawicielami podmiotów subsydiowanych (krajowe, regionalne i lokalne organy władzy), organizatorami festiwali, organizacjami charytatywnymi, etc. Polityka festiwalowa musi tworzyć możliwości do powoływania sojuszy z wieloma grupami zaangażowanymi lub choćby tylko zainteresowanymi istnieniem festiwali. Pomoże to też na pewno w promocji przedsięwzięcia, a nawet jego upowszechnianiu na znacznie większym niż pierwotnie zakładano obszarze. Kwestia ewaluacji działań powinna pojawić się już w trakcie prac koncepcyjnych nad polityką festiwalową. Jeżeli uda się stworzyć precyzyjnie zdefiniowane cele strategiczne i kryteria, na podstawie których zapadnie decyzja o dofinansowaniu poszczególnych festiwali, to później łatwiej będzie je przetransformować na kryteria oceny i ewaluacji. Szczegółowo określone cele nie muszą jednak oznaczać liczbowych/ilościowych wskaźników. Często wystarczą jasno określone

oczekiwania władz publicznych względem festiwalu. Precyzyjne wytyczne/wskaźniki stanowią ogromną pomoc dla każdej z zainteresowanych stron, dla grantodawców, organizatorów festiwali, podmiotów monitorujących i oceniających. Dodatkowa korzyść pojawia się, gdy wspomniane wytyczne/wskaźniki mogą zostać wykorzystane w analizach porównawczych, pozwalających określić jak w praktyce władze publiczne wspierają festiwale. Mimo wielkiego bogactwa pomysłów na tworzenie instrumentów ewaluacyjnych, które oceniałyby nie tylko poziom realizacji ustalonych celów, lecz także ekonomiczne, społeczne i inne skutki festiwali, nie można wskazać rzeczywiście efektywnych i godnych polecenia narzędzi tego typu. Można natomiast zalecić władzom publicznym ostrożność w ocenieniu wpływu festiwali na otaczającą rzeczywistość, lecz jednocześnie, rekomendować, aby nie zaprzestawały poszukiwania pośrednich i długoterminowych korzyści płynących z polityki festiwalowej.

kultury, inicjatorami i „duchowymi” patronami festiwali, instytucjami kulturalnymi oraz innymi przedstawicielami podmiotów subsydiowanych (krajowe, regionalne i lokalne organy władzy), organizatorami festiwali, organizacjami charytatywnymi, etc. Polityka festiwalowa musi tworzyć możliwości do powoływania sojuszy z wieloma grupami zaangażowanymi lub choćby tylko zainteresowanymi istnieniem festiwali. Pomoże to też na pewno w promocji przedsięwzięcia, a nawet jego upowszechnianiu na znacznie większym niż pierwotnie zakładano obszarze. Kwestia ewaluacji działań powinna pojawić się już w trakcie prac koncepcyjnych nad polityką festiwalową. Jeżeli uda się stworzyć precyzyjnie zdefiniowane cele strategiczne i kryteria, na podstawie których zapadnie decyzja o dofinansowaniu poszczególnych festiwali, to później łatwiej będzie je przetransformować na kryteria oceny i ewaluacji. Szczegółowo określone cele nie muszą jednak oznaczać liczbowych/ilościowych wskaźników. Często wystarczą jasno określone Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

275

oczekiwania władz publicznych względem festiwalu. Precyzyjne wytyczne/wskaźniki stanowią ogromną pomoc dla każdej z zainteresowanych stron, dla grantodawców, organizatorów festiwali, podmiotów monitorujących i oceniających. Dodatkowa korzyść pojawia się, gdy wspomniane wytyczne/wskaźniki mogą zostać wykorzystane w analizach porównawczych, pozwalających określić jak w praktyce władze publiczne wspierają festiwale. Mimo wielkiego bogactwa pomysłów na tworzenie instrumentów ewaluacyjnych, które oceniałyby nie tylko poziom realizacji ustalonych celów, lecz także ekonomiczne, społeczne i inne skutki festiwali, nie można wskazać rzeczywiście efektywnych i godnych polecenia narzędzi tego typu. Można natomiast zalecić władzom publicznym ostrożność w ocenieniu wpływu festiwali na otaczającą rzeczywistość, lecz jednocześnie, rekomendować, aby nie zaprzestawały poszukiwania pośrednich i długoterminowych korzyści płynących z polityki festiwalowej.


276

Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Jan Sadkiewicz

tamtym okresie polityka historyczna nie była jeszcze popularna, dopiero otwarcie Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego miało zmienić to nastawienie. Tymczasem jednak już od drugiej połowy lat 90. kształtowała się w Polsce grupa filozofów, historyków idei i publicystów, którzy doceniali

P

W

historycznej, jest zaś szczególnie interesujący z punktu widzenia menedżera kultury. Zagadnienie to jest dla ludzi związanych z zarządzaniem kulturą tym bardziej interesujące, że głównym aktorem działań związanych z polityką historyczną było do niedawna Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, a ona sama stała się po 2005 roku istotnym elementem nowej polityki kulturalnej. Ministrowi Kazimierzowi Ujazdowskiemu trzeba oddać sprawiedliwość, jako inicjatorowi akcji, którą można śmiało uznać za początek polityki historycznej jako pojęcia, jeżeli nawet nie jako zjawiska; i to akcji podjętej w momencie, gdy sama idea „powrotu do historii” nie była jeszcze popularna ani szeroko akceptowana. W listopadzie 2000 roku, gdy Kazimierz Ujazdowski kierował resortem kultury, jeszcze w ramach rządu Jerzego Buzka, na plakatach i billboardach w 26 największych polskich miastach pojawiło się pytanie: Poświęcić życie za Ojczyznę?! Był to początek wizualnej kampanii reklamowej wystawy Bohaterowie Naszej Wolności, oddającej hołd bohaterom polskich zmagań o niepodległość. Od 11 listopada eksponowano plakaty-odpowiedzi, przedstawiające zdjęcia osób zasłużonych w XXwiecznej historii Polski. Przedsięwzięcie było realizowane przez młodzież i dla młodzieży. Jego nowoczesna forma wzbudziła pewne zainteresowanie i uznanie, ale generalnie wystawa nie wywołała szerszego odzewu, a nawet spotkała się z przejawami dezaprobaty.

Historia i polityka

Historia i polityka

276

historycznej, jest zaś szczególnie interesujący z punktu widzenia menedżera kultury. Zagadnienie to jest dla ludzi związanych z zarządzaniem kulturą tym bardziej interesujące, że głównym aktorem działań związanych z polityką historyczną było do niedawna Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, a ona sama stała się po 2005 roku istotnym elementem nowej polityki kulturalnej. Ministrowi Kazimierzowi Ujazdowskiemu trzeba oddać sprawiedliwość, jako inicjatorowi akcji, którą można śmiało uznać za początek polityki historycznej jako pojęcia, jeżeli nawet nie jako zjawiska; i to akcji podjętej w momencie, gdy sama idea „powrotu do historii” nie była jeszcze popularna ani szeroko akceptowana. W listopadzie 2000 roku, gdy Kazimierz Ujazdowski kierował resortem kultury, jeszcze w ramach rządu Jerzego Buzka, na plakatach i billboardach w 26 największych polskich miastach pojawiło się pytanie: Poświęcić życie za Ojczyznę?! Był to początek wizualnej kampanii reklamowej wystawy Bohaterowie Naszej Wolności, oddającej hołd bohaterom polskich zmagań o niepodległość. Od 11 listopada eksponowano plakaty-odpowiedzi, przedstawiające zdjęcia osób zasłużonych w XXwiecznej historii Polski. Przedsięwzięcie było realizowane przez młodzież i dla młodzieży. Jego nowoczesna forma wzbudziła pewne zainteresowanie i uznanie, ale generalnie wystawa nie wywołała szerszego odzewu, a nawet spotkała się z przejawami dezaprobaty.

W

Jan Sadkiewicz Absolwent zarządzania kulturą w Instytucie Spraw Publicznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, student V roku historii na tej samej uczelni. W 2006 roku spędził 6 miesięcy w Roskilde Universitetscenter w Danii w ramach programu Socrates/Erasmus. Stypendysta ministra nauki i szkolnictwa wyższego za osiągnięcia w nauce w roku akademickim 2006/2007. Zastępca kierownika redakcji w krakowskim wydawnictwie Universitas.

ojęcie „polityka historyczna” zrobiło we współczesnej Polsce zawrotną karierę i jest dziś przedmiotem – nierzadko burzliwej – debaty wciągającej filozofów, polityków, historyków czy publicystów. Samo pojęcie pojawiło się zresztą w kontekście ogólnego wzrostu zainteresowania historią, którego przejawy możemy dziś obserwować na każdym kroku. Gazety i czasopisma prześcigają się w publikowaniu dodatków zatytułowanych „Historia” lub „Cywilizacja”, stacje radiowe poświęcają całe audycje rocznicom ważnych wydarzeń historycznych, władze gminne organizują inscenizacje bitew, które odbyły się na danym terenie. Kanał tematyczny poświęcony historii uruchomiła nie tylko telewizja publiczna, ale również komercyjna stacja TVN. Bestsellerami stają się książki historyczne, a wydania kolejnych są głośnymi wydarzeniami kulturalnymi. Nie trzeba chyba podkreślać, jakie emocje budzi powrót do ważnych i nie do końca wyjaśnionych spraw z najnowszej historii Polski, przede wszystkim lustracji czy osądzenia komunistycznych zbrodniarzy. Polityka historyczna stała się jednak nie tylko nowym polem badawczym w dziedzinie nauk społecznych, ale także strefą starć politycznych. Wciągnięcie tego pojęcia w obszar walki pomiędzy poszczególnymi partiami i grupami interesu narzuciło dyskusji o polityce historycznej specyficzny język, właściwy dla polskiej sceny politycznej, czy wręcz w ogóle dla wszelkiej publicznej debaty w dobie mediów elektronicznych; wykreowana wizja polityki historycznej ma coraz mniej wspólnego z rzeczywistością. Ocena zjawiska została w wielu przypadkach podporządkowana partykularnym interesom ugrupowania, które reprezentuje oceniający. Stąd w rzeczonej dyskusji zwraca uwagę brak jasnego sprecyzowania, czym właściwie jest polityka historyczna? Jak wygląda praktyczna realizacja jej postulatów? Taki wgląd w zagadnienie, zwracający uwagę na instytucjonalne formy wdrażania w życie idei polityki

tamtym okresie polityka historyczna nie była jeszcze popularna, dopiero otwarcie Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego miało zmienić to nastawienie. Tymczasem jednak już od drugiej połowy lat 90. kształtowała się w Polsce grupa filozofów, historyków idei i publicystów, którzy doceniali

P

ojęcie „polityka historyczna” zrobiło we współczesnej Polsce zawrotną karierę i jest dziś przedmiotem – nierzadko burzliwej – debaty wciągającej filozofów, polityków, historyków czy publicystów. Samo pojęcie pojawiło się zresztą w kontekście ogólnego wzrostu zainteresowania historią, którego przejawy możemy dziś obserwować na każdym kroku. Gazety i czasopisma prześcigają się w publikowaniu dodatków zatytułowanych „Historia” lub „Cywilizacja”, stacje radiowe poświęcają całe audycje rocznicom ważnych wydarzeń historycznych, władze gminne organizują inscenizacje bitew, które odbyły się na danym terenie. Kanał tematyczny poświęcony historii uruchomiła nie tylko telewizja publiczna, ale również komercyjna stacja TVN. Bestsellerami stają się książki historyczne, a wydania kolejnych są głośnymi wydarzeniami kulturalnymi. Nie trzeba chyba podkreślać, jakie emocje budzi powrót do ważnych i nie do końca wyjaśnionych spraw z najnowszej historii Polski, przede wszystkim lustracji czy osądzenia komunistycznych zbrodniarzy. Polityka historyczna stała się jednak nie tylko nowym polem badawczym w dziedzinie nauk społecznych, ale także strefą starć politycznych. Wciągnięcie tego pojęcia w obszar walki pomiędzy poszczególnymi partiami i grupami interesu narzuciło dyskusji o polityce historycznej specyficzny język, właściwy dla polskiej sceny politycznej, czy wręcz w ogóle dla wszelkiej publicznej debaty w dobie mediów elektronicznych; wykreowana wizja polityki historycznej ma coraz mniej wspólnego z rzeczywistością. Ocena zjawiska została w wielu przypadkach podporządkowana partykularnym interesom ugrupowania, które reprezentuje oceniający. Stąd w rzeczonej dyskusji zwraca uwagę brak jasnego sprecyzowania, czym właściwie jest polityka historyczna? Jak wygląda praktyczna realizacja jej postulatów? Taki wgląd w zagadnienie, zwracający uwagę na instytucjonalne formy wdrażania w życie idei polityki

Jan Sadkiewicz

Jan Sadkiewicz Absolwent zarządzania kulturą w Instytucie Spraw Publicznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, student V roku historii na tej samej uczelni. W 2006 roku spędził 6 miesięcy w Roskilde Universitetscenter w Danii w ramach programu Socrates/Erasmus. Stypendysta ministra nauki i szkolnictwa wyższego za osiągnięcia w nauce w roku akademickim 2006/2007. Zastępca kierownika redakcji w krakowskim wydawnictwie Universitas.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny

todologia nauki rozróżnia historię jako to, co się działo, od tego, jak to zostało utrwalone w źródłach i opisach. Podobnie jest z rolą państwa lub narodu w historii. To jak ona wyglądała naprawdę, a jak funkcjonuje w świadomości ludzi, to dwie różne rzeczy” [Roszkowski, 2005, s. 115]. Prawda nie broni się sama, dlatego rezygnacja z ofensywnej polityki historycznej to karygodne osłabianie własnej pozycji w stosunkach z podmiotami międzynarodowymi. Postawę taka wzmacniają przykłady podobnej działalności z zagranicy, chociaż w innych krajach często nie nazywa się tego polityką historyczną. Szczególną rolę w zmianie polskich nastrojów wobec przeszłości odegrała konfrontacja z radykalnym projektem niemieckiej polityki historycznej; Niemcy są nota bene ojczyzną tego pojęcia – pojawiło się tam ono już w 1989 roku. Rosja z kolei stworzyła spójną, konsekwentną, realizowaną różnymi kanałami wizję polityki historycznej, która z jednej strony ma jednoczyć naród wokół pojęcia imperium, a z drugiej stanowi instrument polityki zagranicznej, służący do rozszerzania wpływów nad dawnymi republikami i państwami satelickimi ZSRR, a także umacniania swojej pozycji w stosunkach z Zachodem. Jednym z jej celów, jak twierdzi prof. Andrzej Nowak [Panewka, 2005, s. 128], jest udowodnienie tezy, że Polska była kolaborantem nazistów w czasie II wojny światowej. Obraz ten dopełnia powszechna ignorancja dziejów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej na Zachodzie, skutkująca próbami zrzucania na Polaków odpowiedzialności za Holocaust czy twierdzeniami o ich „wrodzonym antysemityzmie”. We współczesnym świecie, gdzie wizerunek państwa i narodu przekłada się na wymierne korzyści, nie wspominając nawet o wyższych racjach, takich jak duma narodowa, przejście do porządku dziennego nad opisanym wyżej stanem rzeczy jest nie do przyjęcia. Tym bardziej, że argumenty historyczne są dziś także chętnie wykorzystywane, i to nie tylko przez Polskę, w trakcie rozmaitych negocjacji na forum Unii Europejskiej. Projekt polityki historycznej ma dziś w Polsce zarówno wiernych obrońców, jak i zagorzałych przeciwników. Zarzuty opierają się na utożsamieniu polityki historycznej z praktykami propagandowymi, zdezawuowanymi przez działalność XX-wiecznych totalitaryzmów. Obawy takie wzmagają doświadczenia lat PRL-u, kiedy działalność państwa w obszarze pamięci była jedynie ordynarną manipulacją, bezwzględną przeciwniczką prawdy historycznej. Pojawiają się często oskarżenia o instrumentalizację historii i próby wykreowania określonej wizji przeszłości, wygodnej dla aktualnego obozu rządzącego. W tym świetle polityka historyczna

Jan Sadkiewicz

todologia nauki rozróżnia historię jako to, co się działo, od tego, jak to zostało utrwalone w źródłach i opisach. Podobnie jest z rolą państwa lub narodu w historii. To jak ona wyglądała naprawdę, a jak funkcjonuje w świadomości ludzi, to dwie różne rzeczy” [Roszkowski, 2005, s. 115]. Prawda nie broni się sama, dlatego rezygnacja z ofensywnej polityki historycznej to karygodne osłabianie własnej pozycji w stosunkach z podmiotami międzynarodowymi. Postawę taka wzmacniają przykłady podobnej działalności z zagranicy, chociaż w innych krajach często nie nazywa się tego polityką historyczną. Szczególną rolę w zmianie polskich nastrojów wobec przeszłości odegrała konfrontacja z radykalnym projektem niemieckiej polityki historycznej; Niemcy są nota bene ojczyzną tego pojęcia – pojawiło się tam ono już w 1989 roku. Rosja z kolei stworzyła spójną, konsekwentną, realizowaną różnymi kanałami wizję polityki historycznej, która z jednej strony ma jednoczyć naród wokół pojęcia imperium, a z drugiej stanowi instrument polityki zagranicznej, służący do rozszerzania wpływów nad dawnymi republikami i państwami satelickimi ZSRR, a także umacniania swojej pozycji w stosunkach z Zachodem. Jednym z jej celów, jak twierdzi prof. Andrzej Nowak [Panewka, 2005, s. 128], jest udowodnienie tezy, że Polska była kolaborantem nazistów w czasie II wojny światowej. Obraz ten dopełnia powszechna ignorancja dziejów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej na Zachodzie, skutkująca próbami zrzucania na Polaków odpowiedzialności za Holocaust czy twierdzeniami o ich „wrodzonym antysemityzmie”. We współczesnym świecie, gdzie wizerunek państwa i narodu przekłada się na wymierne korzyści, nie wspominając nawet o wyższych racjach, takich jak duma narodowa, przejście do porządku dziennego nad opisanym wyżej stanem rzeczy jest nie do przyjęcia. Tym bardziej, że argumenty historyczne są dziś także chętnie wykorzystywane, i to nie tylko przez Polskę, w trakcie rozmaitych negocjacji na forum Unii Europejskiej. Projekt polityki historycznej ma dziś w Polsce zarówno wiernych obrońców, jak i zagorzałych przeciwników. Zarzuty opierają się na utożsamieniu polityki historycznej z praktykami propagandowymi, zdezawuowanymi przez działalność XX-wiecznych totalitaryzmów. Obawy takie wzmagają doświadczenia lat PRL-u, kiedy działalność państwa w obszarze pamięci była jedynie ordynarną manipulacją, bezwzględną przeciwniczką prawdy historycznej. Pojawiają się często oskarżenia o instrumentalizację historii i próby wykreowania określonej wizji przeszłości, wygodnej dla aktualnego obozu rządzącego. W tym świetle polityka historyczna

Jan Sadkiewicz

znaczenie troski o obraz przeszłości i argumentowali za koniecznością prowadzenia polityki historycznej. W skład tej grupy, z którą związany jest także Kazimierz Ujazdowski, wchodzili m.in. Marek A. Cichocki, Dariusz Gawin, Andrzej Gniazdowski, Dariusz Karłowicz, Robert Krasowski, Tomasz Merta, Janusz Ostrowski, Paweł Paliwoda. Podstawą ich działalności publicystycznej był spójny system filozoficzny, stworzony w ramach Warszawskiego Klubu Krytyki Politycznej. W ramach tego systemu znajdziemy uzasadnienie i cele prowadzenia polityki historycznej, motywowane wewnętrznym interesem państwa. Poznanie to jest tym cenniejsze, że członkowie klubu oddziałują w ostatnim czasie na polską rzeczywistość już nie tylko piórem, ale sprawując realną władzę: T. Merta jest podsekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, M. A. Cichocki Społecznym Doradcą Prezydenta RP, zaś D. Gawin wicedyrektorem Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego. Projekt polityki historycznej jest elementem szerszego spojrzenia na istotę i rolę nowoczesnego państwa. Podkreślany jest przede wszystkim fakt determinowania skuteczności funkcjonowania demokracji przez tradycję i historyczny dorobek narodu. Ustrój musi być oparty na zakorzenionych w kulturze danego społeczeństwa wartościach, ponieważ przeszczepianie instytucji, które sprawdziły się gdzie indziej, nie gwarantuje sukcesu, czego dowodzą są na przykład nieudane (jak dotąd) próby „instalacji” demokracji na Bliskim Wschodzie. W tym świetle polityka historyczna jest misją kultywowania tradycji, kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego; konieczną, jako że wartości te nie odtwarzają się samoistnie. Zaniedbanie tej misji w pierwszej dekadzie polskiej wolności po 1989 roku, według warszawskich konserwatystów, powoduje słabość państwa i patologie w społeczeństwie. Z katastroficznym obrazem współczesnej Polski na pewno można polemizować, ale idea polityki historycznej zasługuje na uznanie, nawet po wyjęciu jej ze wspomnianego wyżej kontekstu. Konieczność kultywowania historii narodu nie wynika jedynie z subiektywnego jej uznania za wartość emocjonalnie cenną dla zbiorowości, ale także z obiektywnego docenienia dorobku pokoleń jako ważnego czynnika państwotwórczego. Zbudowanie stabilnej demokracji nie może odbyć się na drodze technokratycznego projektu; poszanowanie dla własnej tradycji i przeszłości jest tu równie ważne jak tworzenie dobrego prawa i budowanie stosunków społecznych opartych na zdrowych zasadach. Polityka historyczna ma być też istotnym elementem budowania pozytywnego wizerunku Polski w sferze relacji międzynarodowych. „Me-

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Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny

znaczenie troski o obraz przeszłości i argumentowali za koniecznością prowadzenia polityki historycznej. W skład tej grupy, z którą związany jest także Kazimierz Ujazdowski, wchodzili m.in. Marek A. Cichocki, Dariusz Gawin, Andrzej Gniazdowski, Dariusz Karłowicz, Robert Krasowski, Tomasz Merta, Janusz Ostrowski, Paweł Paliwoda. Podstawą ich działalności publicystycznej był spójny system filozoficzny, stworzony w ramach Warszawskiego Klubu Krytyki Politycznej. W ramach tego systemu znajdziemy uzasadnienie i cele prowadzenia polityki historycznej, motywowane wewnętrznym interesem państwa. Poznanie to jest tym cenniejsze, że członkowie klubu oddziałują w ostatnim czasie na polską rzeczywistość już nie tylko piórem, ale sprawując realną władzę: T. Merta jest podsekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, M. A. Cichocki Społecznym Doradcą Prezydenta RP, zaś D. Gawin wicedyrektorem Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego. Projekt polityki historycznej jest elementem szerszego spojrzenia na istotę i rolę nowoczesnego państwa. Podkreślany jest przede wszystkim fakt determinowania skuteczności funkcjonowania demokracji przez tradycję i historyczny dorobek narodu. Ustrój musi być oparty na zakorzenionych w kulturze danego społeczeństwa wartościach, ponieważ przeszczepianie instytucji, które sprawdziły się gdzie indziej, nie gwarantuje sukcesu, czego dowodzą są na przykład nieudane (jak dotąd) próby „instalacji” demokracji na Bliskim Wschodzie. W tym świetle polityka historyczna jest misją kultywowania tradycji, kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego; konieczną, jako że wartości te nie odtwarzają się samoistnie. Zaniedbanie tej misji w pierwszej dekadzie polskiej wolności po 1989 roku, według warszawskich konserwatystów, powoduje słabość państwa i patologie w społeczeństwie. Z katastroficznym obrazem współczesnej Polski na pewno można polemizować, ale idea polityki historycznej zasługuje na uznanie, nawet po wyjęciu jej ze wspomnianego wyżej kontekstu. Konieczność kultywowania historii narodu nie wynika jedynie z subiektywnego jej uznania za wartość emocjonalnie cenną dla zbiorowości, ale także z obiektywnego docenienia dorobku pokoleń jako ważnego czynnika państwotwórczego. Zbudowanie stabilnej demokracji nie może odbyć się na drodze technokratycznego projektu; poszanowanie dla własnej tradycji i przeszłości jest tu równie ważne jak tworzenie dobrego prawa i budowanie stosunków społecznych opartych na zdrowych zasadach. Polityka historyczna ma być też istotnym elementem budowania pozytywnego wizerunku Polski w sferze relacji międzynarodowych. „Me-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

kraju, jak i na zewnątrz, poprzez różnego rodzaju formy instytucjonalizacji tego dyskursu” [Cichocki]. Każdy może zabrać głos w tym dyskursie, także krytycy działań rządu. W świetle tej definicji nawet chybione inicjatywy, paradoksalnie, nabierają pozytywnego wymiaru, jako że ich właściwym celem nie jest przekazanie określonej wizji przeszłości, ale pobudzenie dyskusji na jej temat. Dzięki takiej dyskusji, byleby tylko opartej na faktach, poszerza się społeczna świadomość własnej historii, na temat której każdy wolny obywatel może wyrobić sobie swoje zdanie. Zarzucanie władzom prób narzucania całemu społeczeństwu jednej wizji przeszłości jest czystą demagogią, ponieważ coś takiego w demokratycznym i pluralistycznym państwie, kontrolowanym przez liczne instytucje, w warunkach wolności słowa i prywatnych mediów, jest po prostu niemożliwe. Co prawda, jak twierdzi dr hab. Antoni Dudek [Panewka, 2005, s. 84–85], element arbitralności w kreowaniu celów i środków polityki historycznej jest nie do uniknięcia, i zwycięzca wyborów będzie zawsze narzucał swoje koncepcje, ale nawet gdyby ktoś chciał uprawiać propagandę, to dziś nie ma instrumentów, które pozwalałyby działać tak, jak np. propaganda w PRL-u – chociaż z drugiej strony udoskonalono inne narzędzia manipulacji, z tym że one są dziś raczej domeną mediów, a nie polityków. Debata publiczna na temat polityki historycznej nosi niestety silne piętno bieżących rozgrywek politycznych. Formacja, która poruszyła ten problem, a następnie, po przejęciu władzy, rozpoczęła realizację pewnego projektu „walki o pamięć”, czyli Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, związała to zagadnienie z ideą rozliczania przeszłości, między innymi z lustracją. Wplecenie polityki historycznej w sieć współczesnych problemów polskiego społeczeństwa, a zwłaszcza jego establishmentu, z jednej strony udowodniło istotny wpływ historii na dzisiejszą rzeczywistość, z drugiej zaś doprowadziło do silnej polaryzacji poglądów na temat działań ówczesnych władz, w tym działań w sferze przeszłości, co utrudnia osiągnięcie konsensusu i wypracowanie powszechnie akceptowanej wizji polityki historycznej. Projekt ten powinien być jednak oceniany w drodze analizy konkretnych działań organów władzy, co powinno pozwolić na rzetelną odpowiedź na pytanie: czy polityka historyczna spełnia warunki określane przez jej apologetów, czy może potwierdza słuszność stawianych jej zarzutów?

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

to forma marketingu politycznego, mająca pozyskać wyborców poprzez odwołanie do wyznawanych przez nich wartości, a także narzędzie obrony bądź walki z III Rzeczpospolitą. Taka polityka historyczna ma nieść szereg zagrożeń: budować podziały, fałszować historię, pobudzać tępy nacjonalizm i samouwielbienie, przynosić szkody w polityce zagranicznej. Za mało w niej miejsca dla krytycyzmu w stosunku do własnych dziejów, oraz chęci pojednania. Postulatorom polityki historycznej inkryminuje się chęć budowy wąskiej, wręcz plemiennej wspólnoty, poprzez siermiężną indoktrynację w swojej, jedynie słusznej i niepodlegającej krytyce wizji historii, co w dzisiejszej rzeczywistości ma być anachronizmem, i świadczyć o niemożności sprostania wyzwaniom nowoczesności. Tymczasem warszawscy konserwatyści uważają swoją koncepcję polityki historycznej za jak najbardziej dostosowaną do wymagań rzeczywistości XXI wieku. Jest to wyzwanie, któremu Polska musi sprostać, jeśli w zjednoczonej Europie pragnie być nie tylko konsumentem korzyści płynących z pomocy swych partnerów, lecz także aktywnym uczestnikiem budowania wspólnej europejskiej tożsamości. Trzeba tu zauważyć, że założenia polityki historycznej, jakiekolwiek by były, wchodzą w realną sytuację, w pewne realia polityczne. Inicjatywy stawiane w porządku intelektualnym są realizowane w konkretnej sytuacji przez konkretnych ludzi, którzy akurat są przy władzy. Siłą rzeczy mają też opozycję, która, jak udowadnia praktyka polskiej sceny politycznej, wykorzystuje każdą sytuację, aby zaatakować rządzących. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba zwraca uwagę, że uczynienie z polityki historycznej elementu programu Prawa i Sprawiedliwości przysporzyło jej wielu przeciwników, którzy krytykowali ją głównie dlatego, że był to pomysł PiS-u1. Można śmiało przyjąć, że absolutny, ogólnonarodowy konsensus w sprawie wersji historii, którą wszyscy uznaliby za „swoją”, jest niemożliwy. Zawsze będzie przecież jakaś opozycja wobec aktualnej władzy, która, szczerze czy nie, będzie z przyczyn politycznych potępiać jej działania w sferze pamięci – jeśli nie pryncypia, to przynajmniej metody ich realizacji. Nie jest to bynajmniej wada, ale zaleta współczesnej polityki historycznej, odróżniająca ją od propagandowych praktyk XXwiecznych totalitaryzmów. Zgodnie z definicją Marka A. Cichockiego jest ona „wzmocnieniem publicznego dyskursu o przeszłości, tak wewnątrz

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Wywiad autora z prof. dr. hab. Andrzejem Chwalbą, kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Społeczno-Religijnej XIX i XX wieku w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, przeprowadzony 16 V 2007 roku.

Wywiad autora z prof. dr. hab. Andrzejem Chwalbą, kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Społeczno-Religijnej XIX i XX wieku w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, przeprowadzony 16 V 2007 roku.

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kraju, jak i na zewnątrz, poprzez różnego rodzaju formy instytucjonalizacji tego dyskursu” [Cichocki]. Każdy może zabrać głos w tym dyskursie, także krytycy działań rządu. W świetle tej definicji nawet chybione inicjatywy, paradoksalnie, nabierają pozytywnego wymiaru, jako że ich właściwym celem nie jest przekazanie określonej wizji przeszłości, ale pobudzenie dyskusji na jej temat. Dzięki takiej dyskusji, byleby tylko opartej na faktach, poszerza się społeczna świadomość własnej historii, na temat której każdy wolny obywatel może wyrobić sobie swoje zdanie. Zarzucanie władzom prób narzucania całemu społeczeństwu jednej wizji przeszłości jest czystą demagogią, ponieważ coś takiego w demokratycznym i pluralistycznym państwie, kontrolowanym przez liczne instytucje, w warunkach wolności słowa i prywatnych mediów, jest po prostu niemożliwe. Co prawda, jak twierdzi dr hab. Antoni Dudek [Panewka, 2005, s. 84–85], element arbitralności w kreowaniu celów i środków polityki historycznej jest nie do uniknięcia, i zwycięzca wyborów będzie zawsze narzucał swoje koncepcje, ale nawet gdyby ktoś chciał uprawiać propagandę, to dziś nie ma instrumentów, które pozwalałyby działać tak, jak np. propaganda w PRL-u – chociaż z drugiej strony udoskonalono inne narzędzia manipulacji, z tym że one są dziś raczej domeną mediów, a nie polityków. Debata publiczna na temat polityki historycznej nosi niestety silne piętno bieżących rozgrywek politycznych. Formacja, która poruszyła ten problem, a następnie, po przejęciu władzy, rozpoczęła realizację pewnego projektu „walki o pamięć”, czyli Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, związała to zagadnienie z ideą rozliczania przeszłości, między innymi z lustracją. Wplecenie polityki historycznej w sieć współczesnych problemów polskiego społeczeństwa, a zwłaszcza jego establishmentu, z jednej strony udowodniło istotny wpływ historii na dzisiejszą rzeczywistość, z drugiej zaś doprowadziło do silnej polaryzacji poglądów na temat działań ówczesnych władz, w tym działań w sferze przeszłości, co utrudnia osiągnięcie konsensusu i wypracowanie powszechnie akceptowanej wizji polityki historycznej. Projekt ten powinien być jednak oceniany w drodze analizy konkretnych działań organów władzy, co powinno pozwolić na rzetelną odpowiedź na pytanie: czy polityka historyczna spełnia warunki określane przez jej apologetów, czy może potwierdza słuszność stawianych jej zarzutów?

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to forma marketingu politycznego, mająca pozyskać wyborców poprzez odwołanie do wyznawanych przez nich wartości, a także narzędzie obrony bądź walki z III Rzeczpospolitą. Taka polityka historyczna ma nieść szereg zagrożeń: budować podziały, fałszować historię, pobudzać tępy nacjonalizm i samouwielbienie, przynosić szkody w polityce zagranicznej. Za mało w niej miejsca dla krytycyzmu w stosunku do własnych dziejów, oraz chęci pojednania. Postulatorom polityki historycznej inkryminuje się chęć budowy wąskiej, wręcz plemiennej wspólnoty, poprzez siermiężną indoktrynację w swojej, jedynie słusznej i niepodlegającej krytyce wizji historii, co w dzisiejszej rzeczywistości ma być anachronizmem, i świadczyć o niemożności sprostania wyzwaniom nowoczesności. Tymczasem warszawscy konserwatyści uważają swoją koncepcję polityki historycznej za jak najbardziej dostosowaną do wymagań rzeczywistości XXI wieku. Jest to wyzwanie, któremu Polska musi sprostać, jeśli w zjednoczonej Europie pragnie być nie tylko konsumentem korzyści płynących z pomocy swych partnerów, lecz także aktywnym uczestnikiem budowania wspólnej europejskiej tożsamości. Trzeba tu zauważyć, że założenia polityki historycznej, jakiekolwiek by były, wchodzą w realną sytuację, w pewne realia polityczne. Inicjatywy stawiane w porządku intelektualnym są realizowane w konkretnej sytuacji przez konkretnych ludzi, którzy akurat są przy władzy. Siłą rzeczy mają też opozycję, która, jak udowadnia praktyka polskiej sceny politycznej, wykorzystuje każdą sytuację, aby zaatakować rządzących. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba zwraca uwagę, że uczynienie z polityki historycznej elementu programu Prawa i Sprawiedliwości przysporzyło jej wielu przeciwników, którzy krytykowali ją głównie dlatego, że był to pomysł PiS-u1. Można śmiało przyjąć, że absolutny, ogólnonarodowy konsensus w sprawie wersji historii, którą wszyscy uznaliby za „swoją”, jest niemożliwy. Zawsze będzie przecież jakaś opozycja wobec aktualnej władzy, która, szczerze czy nie, będzie z przyczyn politycznych potępiać jej działania w sferze pamięci – jeśli nie pryncypia, to przynajmniej metody ich realizacji. Nie jest to bynajmniej wada, ale zaleta współczesnej polityki historycznej, odróżniająca ją od propagandowych praktyk XXwiecznych totalitaryzmów. Zgodnie z definicją Marka A. Cichockiego jest ona „wzmocnieniem publicznego dyskursu o przeszłości, tak wewnątrz


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Polityka historyczna a polityka kulturalna

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olityka historyczna może (i powinna) być obszarem działalności różnych resortów, jednak fakt, że Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych działało w sposób, najoględniej mówiąc, bardzo dyskretny, natomiast inicjatywy Ministerstwa Edukacji Narodowej skoncentrowane były na innych obszarach, szczególna rola przypadła Ministerstwu Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Implikuje to refleksję na temat określenia miejsca polityki historycznej względem innych sfer działalności państwa, w szczególności zaś wobec uważanej dotąd za główne zadanie resortu kultury polityki kulturalnej. Dariusz Gawin i Paweł Kowal sugerują [tamże, s. 13], że polityka historyczna jest nowym (nowo odkrytym) elementem działalności państwa, równoległym wobec innych dziedzin. Polityka historyczna – piszą – będzie zatem pełnoprawnym elementem polityki polskiej obok polityki gospodarczej, socjalnej czy zagranicznej. Podobne zdanie ma prof. Andrzej Nowak, który politykę historyczną wiąże jednak ściśle z polityką kulturalną, a przede wszystkim z polityką edukacyjną państwa, a ewentualne sprzeczności w tych dziedzinach uważałby za przejaw swego rodzaju schizofrenii2. Z kolei prof. Andrzej Chwalba reprezentuje przeciwny punkt widzenia, zgodnie z którym historia jest obecna we wszystkich innych dziedzinach, w polityce kulturalnej, edukacyjnej, zagranicznej, gospodarczej, finansowej etc3. Wobec tego polityka historyczna nie jest działalnością równoległą wobec innych, ale jest obecna w różnych obszarach. Pogląd ten uzupełnia zdanie prof. Piotra Franaszka, który uważa, że polityka kulturalna pełni służebną rolę wobec polityki historycznej4. Poprzez politykę kulturalną realizuje się pewne koncepcje polityki historycznej. W tym sensie troska o obraz przeszłości jest czymś nadrzędnym wobec polityki kulturalnej, edukacyjnej czy zagranicznej, które można uznać za instrumenty realizacji postulatów i idei tej pierwszej. Problem określenia miejsca polityki historycznej wśród innych działalności państwa pogłębia zdominowanie zagadnienia przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, co może sugerować, że polityka historyczna jest częścią polityki kulturalnej państwa. Jak zatem wybrnąć z tego definicyjnego chaosu?

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Moim zdaniem należałoby rozgraniczyć politykę historyczną jako pewnego rodzaju tendencję intelektualną, skłaniającą do przyznania historii istotnej roli w kształtowaniu obrazu współczesnego świata i wzywającej do nie zapominania o przeszłości, oraz politykę historyczną jako konkretną działalność państwa i jego organów. Tę drugą najlepiej określa wspomniana wyżej definicja M. Cichockiego, która wydaje mi się najtrafniejszym określeniem nowoczesnej polityki historycznej. W szerszym znaczeniu ta ostatnia jest obecna w wielu dziedzinach, co zresztą nie jest niczym nowym. W polityce zagranicznej na przykład odwołania do historii były, są i zawsze będą obecne, chociażby w kwestii przestrzegania czy renegocjacji zawartych w przeszłości umów. Natomiast proponowany przez warszawskich konserwatystów projekt instytucjonalizacji dyskursu o historii jest nową jakością w polskim życiu publicznym. Podjęcie tego zadania przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego powoduje redefinicję pojęcia „polityka kulturalna”, polegającą na znacznym rozszerzeniu jego znaczenia. Trudno bowiem uznać politykę historyczną za nową, całkowicie odrębną działalność resortu kultury, funkcjonującą obok dotychczasowej polityki kulturalnej. Zachowanie tożsamości narodowej to jeden z tradycyjnych elementów tej ostatniej. Polityka historyczna wprowadza jednak w tym obszarze jakościowy postęp. Dotychczas na dziedzictwo historyczne patrzono przede wszystkim przez pryzmat jego materialnych świadectw, które przetrwały do naszych czasów; w tym sensie dziedzictwem jest zamek na Wawelu, szabla Żółkiewskiego czy sukmana Kościuszki. Postulatorzy polityki historycznej są pierwszymi, którzy w tak dużym stopniu położyli nacisk na wartości zakotwiczone w duchu wspólnoty, jaką stanowią Polacy. Z tego punktu widzenia o kształcie dziedzictwa decydują mity, symbole, wierzenia, tradycje kraju, jego instytucji i systemu praw. Troska o kulturę polską, zarówno tę współczesną jak i przeszłą, jest naturalnym elementem działalności resortu kultury, ale wyznaczono w niej nowe priorytety. Działania odnoszące się do przeszłości, obok stworzenia silnych podstaw finansowo-prawnych rozwoju kultury, upowszechniania twórczości współczesnej oraz odbudowy autorytetu me-

Wywiad autora z prof. UJ, dr. hab. Andrzejem Nowakiem, kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Europy Wschodniej w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, przeprowadzony 27 IV 2007 roku.

Wywiad autora z prof. Chwalbą.

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Wywiad autora z prof. dr. hab. Piotrem Franaszkiem, kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Gospodarczej i Społecznej w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, przeprowadzony w dniu 30 V 2007 roku.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Wywiad autora z prof. dr. hab. Piotrem Franaszkiem, kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Gospodarczej i Społecznej w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, przeprowadzony w dniu 30 V 2007 roku.

Wywiad autora z prof. Chwalbą.

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Wywiad autora z prof. UJ, dr. hab. Andrzejem Nowakiem, kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Europy Wschodniej w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, przeprowadzony 27 IV 2007 roku.

olityka historyczna może (i powinna) być obszarem działalności różnych resortów, jednak fakt, że Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych działało w sposób, najoględniej mówiąc, bardzo dyskretny, natomiast inicjatywy Ministerstwa Edukacji Narodowej skoncentrowane były na innych obszarach, szczególna rola przypadła Ministerstwu Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Implikuje to refleksję na temat określenia miejsca polityki historycznej względem innych sfer działalności państwa, w szczególności zaś wobec uważanej dotąd za główne zadanie resortu kultury polityki kulturalnej. Dariusz Gawin i Paweł Kowal sugerują [tamże, s. 13], że polityka historyczna jest nowym (nowo odkrytym) elementem działalności państwa, równoległym wobec innych dziedzin. Polityka historyczna – piszą – będzie zatem pełnoprawnym elementem polityki polskiej obok polityki gospodarczej, socjalnej czy zagranicznej. Podobne zdanie ma prof. Andrzej Nowak, który politykę historyczną wiąże jednak ściśle z polityką kulturalną, a przede wszystkim z polityką edukacyjną państwa, a ewentualne sprzeczności w tych dziedzinach uważałby za przejaw swego rodzaju schizofrenii2. Z kolei prof. Andrzej Chwalba reprezentuje przeciwny punkt widzenia, zgodnie z którym historia jest obecna we wszystkich innych dziedzinach, w polityce kulturalnej, edukacyjnej, zagranicznej, gospodarczej, finansowej etc3. Wobec tego polityka historyczna nie jest działalnością równoległą wobec innych, ale jest obecna w różnych obszarach. Pogląd ten uzupełnia zdanie prof. Piotra Franaszka, który uważa, że polityka kulturalna pełni służebną rolę wobec polityki historycznej4. Poprzez politykę kulturalną realizuje się pewne koncepcje polityki historycznej. W tym sensie troska o obraz przeszłości jest czymś nadrzędnym wobec polityki kulturalnej, edukacyjnej czy zagranicznej, które można uznać za instrumenty realizacji postulatów i idei tej pierwszej. Problem określenia miejsca polityki historycznej wśród innych działalności państwa pogłębia zdominowanie zagadnienia przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, co może sugerować, że polityka historyczna jest częścią polityki kulturalnej państwa. Jak zatem wybrnąć z tego definicyjnego chaosu?

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Polityka historyczna a polityka kulturalna

Moim zdaniem należałoby rozgraniczyć politykę historyczną jako pewnego rodzaju tendencję intelektualną, skłaniającą do przyznania historii istotnej roli w kształtowaniu obrazu współczesnego świata i wzywającej do nie zapominania o przeszłości, oraz politykę historyczną jako konkretną działalność państwa i jego organów. Tę drugą najlepiej określa wspomniana wyżej definicja M. Cichockiego, która wydaje mi się najtrafniejszym określeniem nowoczesnej polityki historycznej. W szerszym znaczeniu ta ostatnia jest obecna w wielu dziedzinach, co zresztą nie jest niczym nowym. W polityce zagranicznej na przykład odwołania do historii były, są i zawsze będą obecne, chociażby w kwestii przestrzegania czy renegocjacji zawartych w przeszłości umów. Natomiast proponowany przez warszawskich konserwatystów projekt instytucjonalizacji dyskursu o historii jest nową jakością w polskim życiu publicznym. Podjęcie tego zadania przez Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego powoduje redefinicję pojęcia „polityka kulturalna”, polegającą na znacznym rozszerzeniu jego znaczenia. Trudno bowiem uznać politykę historyczną za nową, całkowicie odrębną działalność resortu kultury, funkcjonującą obok dotychczasowej polityki kulturalnej. Zachowanie tożsamości narodowej to jeden z tradycyjnych elementów tej ostatniej. Polityka historyczna wprowadza jednak w tym obszarze jakościowy postęp. Dotychczas na dziedzictwo historyczne patrzono przede wszystkim przez pryzmat jego materialnych świadectw, które przetrwały do naszych czasów; w tym sensie dziedzictwem jest zamek na Wawelu, szabla Żółkiewskiego czy sukmana Kościuszki. Postulatorzy polityki historycznej są pierwszymi, którzy w tak dużym stopniu położyli nacisk na wartości zakotwiczone w duchu wspólnoty, jaką stanowią Polacy. Z tego punktu widzenia o kształcie dziedzictwa decydują mity, symbole, wierzenia, tradycje kraju, jego instytucji i systemu praw. Troska o kulturę polską, zarówno tę współczesną jak i przeszłą, jest naturalnym elementem działalności resortu kultury, ale wyznaczono w niej nowe priorytety. Działania odnoszące się do przeszłości, obok stworzenia silnych podstaw finansowo-prawnych rozwoju kultury, upowszechniania twórczości współczesnej oraz odbudowy autorytetu me-


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

diów publicznych, mają stworzyć z Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego nowoczesny i skuteczny instrument rządzenia państwem, współpracujący z instytucjami i osobami działającymi na rzecz polskiej kultury. Przejawem nowej polityki kulturalnej, co prawda tylko symbolicznym, ale samą politykę historyczną można by nazwać „zarządzaniem symbolami”, stało się przywrócenie członu „dziedzictwa kulturowego”, usuniętego przez Andrzeja Celińskiego w 2001 roku, do nazwy ministerstwa, co uzasadniono zobowiązaniami konstytucyjnymi. Preambuła przyjętej w 1997 roku ustawy zasadniczej wzywa obywateli Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, aby „wdzięczni naszym przodkom za ich pracę, za walkę o niepodległość okupioną ogromnymi ofiarami, za kulturę zakorzenioną w chrześcijańskim dziedzictwie Narodu i ogólnoludzkich wartościach, nawiązując do najlepszych tradycji Pierwszej i Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, zobowiązani, by przekazać przyszłym pokoleniom wszystko, co cenne z ponadtysiącletniego dorobku [...] czynili to, dbając o zachowanie przyrodzonej godności człowieka, jego prawa do wolności i obowiązku solidarności z innymi, a poszanowanie tych zasad mieli za niewzruszoną podstawę Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej”. Rolę dziedzictwa narodowego w kształtowaniu tożsamości narodowej oraz obowiązek jego ochrony określają też artykuły 5. i 6. Konstytucji. W tym kontekście polityka historyczna jest konstytucyjnym obowiązkiem państwa, a uzupełnienie nazwy ministerstwa wskazaniem obszaru, na którym zostaje podjęta działalność, zgodna z tej polityki założeniami.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Działalność Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego

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W bieżącym roku (2009) Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego ogłosił następujące programy: 1) Wydarzenie artystyczne; 2) Rozwój infrastruktury kultury; 3) Edukacja kulturalna i diagnoza kultury; 4) Dziedzictwo kulturowe; 5) Literatura i czytelnictwo; 6) Promocja kultury polskiej za granicą; 7) Promesa Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego; 8) Fryderyk Chopin; 9) Infrastruktura bibliotek.

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Program operacyjny „Patriotyzm jutra” był prowadzony, z upoważnienia Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, przez Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Jego celem było wspieranie inicjatyw, które w sposób systematyczny, przy wykorzystaniu nośnych, nowoczesnych i nade wszystko skutecznych form przekazu, kształtują postawy patriotyczne i obywatelskie, upowszechniają wiedzę na temat polskiego doświadczenia historycznego, tradycji narodowej i państwowej, mówią w ciekawy sposób o polskiej przeszłości. Program pozwalał też uzyskać fundusze na badania i dokumentację w zakresie historii kultury oraz historii narodu i państwa polskiego. „Patriotyzm jutra” miał z jednej strony inicjować nowe przedsięwzięcia, a z drugiej pozwolić na wyszukanie i wsparcie już istniejących. Przykładem może być, skierowany do uczniów szkół podstawowych i ponadpodstawowych, projekt edukacyjny „Ślady przeszłości”. Jego organizator, Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej, zachęcał młodych ludzi do odnajdywania w rodzinnej miejscowości i okolicy zaniedbanych obiektów (cmentarzy, krzyży, kapliczek, pomników, kościołów, domów, alei, sprzętów użytkowych) lub zapomnianych elementów kultury niematerialnej (legend, zwyczajów, lokalnych bohaterów), a następnie odnawiania ich i otaczania opieką, przez co były przywracane lokalnej społeczności. Misją projektu było przekonanie, że młodzież, odkrywając przeszłość swojego regionu i lokalną tradycję, kształtuje własną tożsamość i wyrabia poczucie odpowiedzialności za przyszłość swoją i innych. Innym projektem dofinansowanym w ramach tego programu była wrocławska akcja „Święto na plakacie”, zachęcająca do ozdabiania okien szkolnych i okien domów rodzinnych plakatami upamiętniającymi Święta Narodowe. Z kolei w stolicy poprzez „Patriotyzm jutra” wsparty został konkurs „Tryptyk warszawski”, stawiający sobie za cel pokazanie, jak trzy generacje warszawiaków walczyły o wolność ojczyzny podczas Bitwy Warszawskiej w 1920 roku, II wojny światowej oraz „karnawału Solidarności”. Dzieci i młodzież, podzieleni na trzy kategorie wiekowe, mówili o tych wydarzeniach przy użyciu różnych form ekspresji artystycznej: prac plastycznych, inscenizacji i prezentacji multimedialnych. Wśród innych inicjatyw, które otrzymały dofinansowanie z programu, można wymienić realizowany przez Zin Zin Press projekt stworzenia komiksu opisu-

esort kultury realizuje dziś postulaty polityki historycznej przede wszystkim poprzez tzw. programy operacyjne5. Za ich pośrednictwem instytucje samorządowe, Kościoły i związki wyznaniowe, szkoły i uczelnie artystyczne, organizacje pozarządowe, podmioty gospodarcze i inne mogą ubiegać się o środki finansowe na realizację zadań z zakresu kultury. W 2006 na liście programów obejmującej 11 pozycji pojawił się program operacyjny „Patriotyzm jutra”. Do idei realizowania polityki historycznej nawiązywał również program „Dziedzictwo kulturowe”.

esort kultury realizuje dziś postulaty polityki historycznej przede wszystkim poprzez tzw. programy operacyjne5. Za ich pośrednictwem instytucje samorządowe, Kościoły i związki wyznaniowe, szkoły i uczelnie artystyczne, organizacje pozarządowe, podmioty gospodarcze i inne mogą ubiegać się o środki finansowe na realizację zadań z zakresu kultury. W 2006 na liście programów obejmującej 11 pozycji pojawił się program operacyjny „Patriotyzm jutra”. Do idei realizowania polityki historycznej nawiązywał również program „Dziedzictwo kulturowe”.

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5 W bieżącym roku (2009) Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego ogłosił następujące programy: 1) Wydarzenie artystyczne; 2) Rozwój infrastruktury kultury; 3) Edukacja kulturalna i diagnoza kultury; 4) Dziedzictwo kulturowe; 5) Literatura i czytelnictwo; 6) Promocja kultury polskiej za granicą; 7) Promesa Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego; 8) Fryderyk Chopin; 9) Infrastruktura bibliotek.

Działalność Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego

Program operacyjny „Patriotyzm jutra” był prowadzony, z upoważnienia Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, przez Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Jego celem było wspieranie inicjatyw, które w sposób systematyczny, przy wykorzystaniu nośnych, nowoczesnych i nade wszystko skutecznych form przekazu, kształtują postawy patriotyczne i obywatelskie, upowszechniają wiedzę na temat polskiego doświadczenia historycznego, tradycji narodowej i państwowej, mówią w ciekawy sposób o polskiej przeszłości. Program pozwalał też uzyskać fundusze na badania i dokumentację w zakresie historii kultury oraz historii narodu i państwa polskiego. „Patriotyzm jutra” miał z jednej strony inicjować nowe przedsięwzięcia, a z drugiej pozwolić na wyszukanie i wsparcie już istniejących. Przykładem może być, skierowany do uczniów szkół podstawowych i ponadpodstawowych, projekt edukacyjny „Ślady przeszłości”. Jego organizator, Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej, zachęcał młodych ludzi do odnajdywania w rodzinnej miejscowości i okolicy zaniedbanych obiektów (cmentarzy, krzyży, kapliczek, pomników, kościołów, domów, alei, sprzętów użytkowych) lub zapomnianych elementów kultury niematerialnej (legend, zwyczajów, lokalnych bohaterów), a następnie odnawiania ich i otaczania opieką, przez co były przywracane lokalnej społeczności. Misją projektu było przekonanie, że młodzież, odkrywając przeszłość swojego regionu i lokalną tradycję, kształtuje własną tożsamość i wyrabia poczucie odpowiedzialności za przyszłość swoją i innych. Innym projektem dofinansowanym w ramach tego programu była wrocławska akcja „Święto na plakacie”, zachęcająca do ozdabiania okien szkolnych i okien domów rodzinnych plakatami upamiętniającymi Święta Narodowe. Z kolei w stolicy poprzez „Patriotyzm jutra” wsparty został konkurs „Tryptyk warszawski”, stawiający sobie za cel pokazanie, jak trzy generacje warszawiaków walczyły o wolność ojczyzny podczas Bitwy Warszawskiej w 1920 roku, II wojny światowej oraz „karnawału Solidarności”. Dzieci i młodzież, podzieleni na trzy kategorie wiekowe, mówili o tych wydarzeniach przy użyciu różnych form ekspresji artystycznej: prac plastycznych, inscenizacji i prezentacji multimedialnych. Wśród innych inicjatyw, które otrzymały dofinansowanie z programu, można wymienić realizowany przez Zin Zin Press projekt stworzenia komiksu opisu-

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diów publicznych, mają stworzyć z Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego nowoczesny i skuteczny instrument rządzenia państwem, współpracujący z instytucjami i osobami działającymi na rzecz polskiej kultury. Przejawem nowej polityki kulturalnej, co prawda tylko symbolicznym, ale samą politykę historyczną można by nazwać „zarządzaniem symbolami”, stało się przywrócenie członu „dziedzictwa kulturowego”, usuniętego przez Andrzeja Celińskiego w 2001 roku, do nazwy ministerstwa, co uzasadniono zobowiązaniami konstytucyjnymi. Preambuła przyjętej w 1997 roku ustawy zasadniczej wzywa obywateli Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, aby „wdzięczni naszym przodkom za ich pracę, za walkę o niepodległość okupioną ogromnymi ofiarami, za kulturę zakorzenioną w chrześcijańskim dziedzictwie Narodu i ogólnoludzkich wartościach, nawiązując do najlepszych tradycji Pierwszej i Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej, zobowiązani, by przekazać przyszłym pokoleniom wszystko, co cenne z ponadtysiącletniego dorobku [...] czynili to, dbając o zachowanie przyrodzonej godności człowieka, jego prawa do wolności i obowiązku solidarności z innymi, a poszanowanie tych zasad mieli za niewzruszoną podstawę Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej”. Rolę dziedzictwa narodowego w kształtowaniu tożsamości narodowej oraz obowiązek jego ochrony określają też artykuły 5. i 6. Konstytucji. W tym kontekście polityka historyczna jest konstytucyjnym obowiązkiem państwa, a uzupełnienie nazwy ministerstwa wskazaniem obszaru, na którym zostaje podjęta działalność, zgodna z tej polityki założeniami.


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

jącego wydarzenia poznańskiego czerwca 1956 roku, koncert Śladami Powstania Warszawskiego zespołu Lao Che, organizowany przez Stowarzyszenia Inicjatyw Społecznych, rekonstrukcję bitwy raszyńskiej z 1809 roku przeprowadzoną przez gminę Raszyn czy też Święto Parlamentaryzmu Polskiego w Chęcinach. Wspieranie takich przedsięwzięć miało, zgodnie z założeniami programu, pozwolić na wykreowanie w Polsce stałego zjawiska wychowania patriotycznego. Zakładano, że edukacja patriotyczna nie będzie, w swojej treści, zadekretowana z góry, ale będzie polegać na promowaniu inicjatyw oddolnych. W 2006 roku w ramach programu przyznano ponad 6,5 mln zł dotacji, a jego budżet na rok 2007 wyniósł 5 mln zł6. Realizowany do dnia dzisiejszego program operacyjny „Dziedzictwo kulturowe” przewiduje dofinansowywanie projektów związanych z konserwacją zabytków ruchomych i nieruchomych. W 2006 roku do programu wprowadzono dwa nowe priorytety: 1) ochronę dziedzictwa narodowego poza granicami kraju, 2) ochronę zabytków archeologicznych. Pierwszy z nich miał zapewnić wzmocnienie prac związanych z dokumentacją zabytków, rewaloryzacją zabytkowych cmentarzy i miejsc martyrologii oraz renowacją zabytków wymagających najpilniejszej konserwacji. Celem drugiego było m.in. stworzenie stałego mechanizmu ochrony zabytków archeologicznych oraz kontynuacja projektu archeologicznego „Zdjęcia Polski”, służącemu odnajdywaniu zabytków archeologicznych oraz ochronie tych najbardziej zagrożonych. Do 2006 roku w ramach programu przyznano ponad 48 mln zł dotacji, a dofinansowanie objęło ponad 150 obiektów. Obok programów operacyjnych Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, we współpracy z innymi podmiotami, podejmowało szereg innych działań związanych z polityką historyczną. Jednym z nich jest program „Świadkowie Historii”, zainicjowany wspólnie z Instytutem Pamięci Narodowej, a realizowany przez Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Stanowi on kontynuację akcji zbierania świadectw związanych z historią powstania „Solidarności”, podjętej w 2000 roku. Program polega na zbieraniu i multimedialnym archiwizowaniu świadectw osób, które były świadkami historii XX wieku. Chodzi przede wszystkim o ludzi, których postawa w trudnych momentach minionego stulecia może być dzisiaj stawiana za wzór wartości

patriotycznych i obywatelskich. Zebrane materiały mają być następnie prezentowane wszystkim zainteresowanym przy użyciu nowoczesnych technik, a także wykorzystywane w programach edukacyjno-badawczych powstającego Muzeum Historii Polski. 27 marca 2007 roku Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego dokonał otwarcia sieci dokumentacyjnej programu „Świadkowie Historii”, która jest kompleksową bazą wszystkich podmiotów, stowarzyszeń i organizacji w Polsce, które zbierają lub mają w swoim posiadaniu relacje i wspomnienia świadków historii XX wieku. W maju 2007 roku w centrach handlowych w Warszawie oraz w Łodzi stanęły pierwsze stanowiska multimedialne, przedstawiające krótkie filmy przybliżające bohaterów programu. Kolejnym przedsięwzięciem podjętym przez Ministerstwo Kultury wspólnie z Instytutem Pamięci Narodowej był projekt naukowo badawczy „Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod okupacją niemiecką”, zainaugurowany 1 września 2006 roku. Jego uzasadnieniem był niepełny charakter dotychczasowych opracowań dotyczących liczby osób, które zginęły w obozach koncentracyjnych bądź były poddane różnego rodzaju represjom. W czerwcu 2007 roku sukcesem zostały uwieńczone starania resortu kultury o zmianę nazwy byłego obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz-Birkenau na Liście Światowego Dziedzictwa Kulturowego UNESCO. Nowa nazwa, brzmiąca: „Były Nazistowski Niemiecki Obóz Koncentracyjny i Zagłady Auschwitz-Birkenau”, ma na celu oddanie prawdy historycznej o rzeczywistym charakterze obozu i jest reakcją na pojawiające się w zagranicznych mediach przypadki nazywania obozów koncentracyjnych „polskimi”. W ministerstwie zwrócono też uwagę na rolę dyplomacji kulturalnej jako ważnego elementu polityki zagranicznej państwa. W związku z tym w marcu 2006 roku Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego przywrócił podział Instytutu im. Adama Mickiewicza na dwie niezależne i spełniające różne misje instytucje: Instytut Adama Mickiewicza oraz Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Ta druga ma zajmować się popularyzacją zagadnień kultury, tradycji narodowej i państwowej na terenie kraju, promocją polskiego dziedzictwa narodowego, edukacją kulturalną oraz kreowaniem zainteresowania kulturą i sztuką, udzielać informacji kulturalnej, a także współpracować z samorządami terytorialnymi w prowadzeniu prac badawczych i eksperckich z zakresu kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego. NCK zaangażowane

Niestety zmiana partii rządzącej wiązała się z zarzuceniem programu „Patriotyzm jutra”.

6

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Niestety zmiana partii rządzącej wiązała się z zarzuceniem programu „Patriotyzm jutra”.

6

jącego wydarzenia poznańskiego czerwca 1956 roku, koncert Śladami Powstania Warszawskiego zespołu Lao Che, organizowany przez Stowarzyszenia Inicjatyw Społecznych, rekonstrukcję bitwy raszyńskiej z 1809 roku przeprowadzoną przez gminę Raszyn czy też Święto Parlamentaryzmu Polskiego w Chęcinach. Wspieranie takich przedsięwzięć miało, zgodnie z założeniami programu, pozwolić na wykreowanie w Polsce stałego zjawiska wychowania patriotycznego. Zakładano, że edukacja patriotyczna nie będzie, w swojej treści, zadekretowana z góry, ale będzie polegać na promowaniu inicjatyw oddolnych. W 2006 roku w ramach programu przyznano ponad 6,5 mln zł dotacji, a jego budżet na rok 2007 wyniósł 5 mln zł6. Realizowany do dnia dzisiejszego program operacyjny „Dziedzictwo kulturowe” przewiduje dofinansowywanie projektów związanych z konserwacją zabytków ruchomych i nieruchomych. W 2006 roku do programu wprowadzono dwa nowe priorytety: 1) ochronę dziedzictwa narodowego poza granicami kraju, 2) ochronę zabytków archeologicznych. Pierwszy z nich miał zapewnić wzmocnienie prac związanych z dokumentacją zabytków, rewaloryzacją zabytkowych cmentarzy i miejsc martyrologii oraz renowacją zabytków wymagających najpilniejszej konserwacji. Celem drugiego było m.in. stworzenie stałego mechanizmu ochrony zabytków archeologicznych oraz kontynuacja projektu archeologicznego „Zdjęcia Polski”, służącemu odnajdywaniu zabytków archeologicznych oraz ochronie tych najbardziej zagrożonych. Do 2006 roku w ramach programu przyznano ponad 48 mln zł dotacji, a dofinansowanie objęło ponad 150 obiektów. Obok programów operacyjnych Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, we współpracy z innymi podmiotami, podejmowało szereg innych działań związanych z polityką historyczną. Jednym z nich jest program „Świadkowie Historii”, zainicjowany wspólnie z Instytutem Pamięci Narodowej, a realizowany przez Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Stanowi on kontynuację akcji zbierania świadectw związanych z historią powstania „Solidarności”, podjętej w 2000 roku. Program polega na zbieraniu i multimedialnym archiwizowaniu świadectw osób, które były świadkami historii XX wieku. Chodzi przede wszystkim o ludzi, których postawa w trudnych momentach minionego stulecia może być dzisiaj stawiana za wzór wartości

patriotycznych i obywatelskich. Zebrane materiały mają być następnie prezentowane wszystkim zainteresowanym przy użyciu nowoczesnych technik, a także wykorzystywane w programach edukacyjno-badawczych powstającego Muzeum Historii Polski. 27 marca 2007 roku Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego dokonał otwarcia sieci dokumentacyjnej programu „Świadkowie Historii”, która jest kompleksową bazą wszystkich podmiotów, stowarzyszeń i organizacji w Polsce, które zbierają lub mają w swoim posiadaniu relacje i wspomnienia świadków historii XX wieku. W maju 2007 roku w centrach handlowych w Warszawie oraz w Łodzi stanęły pierwsze stanowiska multimedialne, przedstawiające krótkie filmy przybliżające bohaterów programu. Kolejnym przedsięwzięciem podjętym przez Ministerstwo Kultury wspólnie z Instytutem Pamięci Narodowej był projekt naukowo badawczy „Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod okupacją niemiecką”, zainaugurowany 1 września 2006 roku. Jego uzasadnieniem był niepełny charakter dotychczasowych opracowań dotyczących liczby osób, które zginęły w obozach koncentracyjnych bądź były poddane różnego rodzaju represjom. W czerwcu 2007 roku sukcesem zostały uwieńczone starania resortu kultury o zmianę nazwy byłego obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz-Birkenau na Liście Światowego Dziedzictwa Kulturowego UNESCO. Nowa nazwa, brzmiąca: „Były Nazistowski Niemiecki Obóz Koncentracyjny i Zagłady Auschwitz-Birkenau”, ma na celu oddanie prawdy historycznej o rzeczywistym charakterze obozu i jest reakcją na pojawiające się w zagranicznych mediach przypadki nazywania obozów koncentracyjnych „polskimi”. W ministerstwie zwrócono też uwagę na rolę dyplomacji kulturalnej jako ważnego elementu polityki zagranicznej państwa. W związku z tym w marcu 2006 roku Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego przywrócił podział Instytutu im. Adama Mickiewicza na dwie niezależne i spełniające różne misje instytucje: Instytut Adama Mickiewicza oraz Narodowe Centrum Kultury. Ta druga ma zajmować się popularyzacją zagadnień kultury, tradycji narodowej i państwowej na terenie kraju, promocją polskiego dziedzictwa narodowego, edukacją kulturalną oraz kreowaniem zainteresowania kulturą i sztuką, udzielać informacji kulturalnej, a także współpracować z samorządami terytorialnymi w prowadzeniu prac badawczych i eksperckich z zakresu kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego. NCK zaangażowane


jest w szereg programów, w tym wspomniane wyżej, a związane z polityką historyczną „Patriotyzm jutra” i „ Świadkowie historii”. Z kolei skutkiem reorganizacji dla Instytutu Adama Mickiewicza ma być przywrócenie mu roli głównego instrumentu polskiej dyplomacji kulturalnej. Jego zadaniem jest realizacja przedsięwzięć w sposób nowoczesny i skuteczny promujących za granicą historyczny i współczesny dorobek polskiej kultury. Służyć temu ma organizacja zagranicznych imprez kulturalnych oraz produkcja materiałów promocyjnych. Intensywne kontakty z podobnymi instytucjami na świecie mają być jednym z elementów aktywnego kreowania pozytywnego wizerunku Polski, podobnie jak ścisła współpraca z polskimi placówkami kulturalnymi za granicą. W Instytucie działa kolegium złożone z przedstawicieli Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego oraz Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych, wyznaczające główne kierunki wspólnych działań w obszarze popularyzacji polskiej kultury.

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Muzeum Historii Polski

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Zgodnie z założeniami siedziba muzeum zostanie wzniesiona do 2013 roku, a około 80% środków potrzebnych na budowę pochodziło będzie z funduszy europejskich.

cowanie Polski w Europie i cywilizacji zachodniej. Afirmatywny stosunek do narodowej przeszłości nie może jednak wykluczać uwzględnienia europejskiego kontekstu ani krytycznego osądu. Skuteczność działań edukacyjnych i popularyzatorskich zależy przede wszystkim od dostarczania rzetelnej wiedzy oraz materiału do refleksji i samodzielnej interpretacji dylematów historycznych, a nie od tendencyjnego narzucania wniosków. Muzeum ma tworzyć i prowadzić projekty edukacyjne i popularyzatorskie, aktywizujące młodzież, a także dostarczające użytecznych narzędzi nauczycielom; powinno aktywnie współpracować z ośrodkami akademickimi i instytutami naukowymi w debacie na temat historii Polski poprzez organizację wystaw czasowych, konferencji, inicjowanie publikacji. Placówka może prowadzić i koordynować długofalowe projekty naukowe, badawcze i translatorskie. Jednym ze statutowych zadań Muzeum jest kształtowanie międzynarodowego wizerunku Polski, popularyzowanie polskiej historii i kultury zagranicą; dlatego powinno utrzymywać międzynarodowe kontakty, współpracować z Instytutem Adama Mickiewicza, Instytutem Książki, Instytutem Pamięci Narodowej, Instytutami Polskimi oraz innymi agendami rządowymi, instytucjami życia akademickiego i organizacjami pozarządowymi zajmującymi się promocją Polski. W planach Muzeum jest stworzenia systemu stypendiów dla młodych uczonych-cudzoziemców, badających polską historię i kulturę. Muzeum jest nastawione na pozyskanie przede wszystkim młodej publiczności, młodzieży szkolnej w wieku 11–19 lat, dlatego warunkiem sukcesu jest umiejętne wykorzystanie nowoczesnych form przekazu, w tym multimediów, oraz interaktywność ekspozycji. Pozostałe, najważniejsze grupy docelowe to turyści polscy zwiedzający Warszawę, goście zagraniczni i pasjonaci historii. Twórcy zakładają, że większość zwiedzających będzie słabo znała historię, dlatego Muzeum ma ukazywać możliwie szeroką panoramę dziejów Polski, przy jednoczesnej koncentracji na wybranych jej aspektach, jak historia polskiego parlamentaryzmu czy wkładu w obalenie komunizmu. Z kolei osoby zainteresowane mają mieć możliwość skorzystania z komputerowej bazy danych, zawierającej możliwie obszerny wybór źródeł i komentarzy naukowych. Kluczowe miejsce w strukturze Muzeum będzie zajmować zespół wystawienniczy, odpowiedzialny za główną ekspozycję i wystawy czasowe. Dużą rolę odgrywają też działy: edukacyjny i badawczy,

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uzeum Historii Polski, powołane jako państwowa instytucja kultury 2 maja 2006 roku, stało się sztandarowym projektem Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego w sferze polityki historycznej7. Podstawowym celem jego powołania jest stworzenie atrakcyjnej placówki, która będzie rozbudzać zainteresowanie historią i tradycją narodową, przyczyniać się do pogłębiania wiedzy historycznej i lepszego rozumienia korzeni współczesności. Muzeum ma być też środkiem kształtowania postaw obywatelskich i patriotycznych przy poszanowaniu dorobku innych grup narodowych, etnicznych i religijnych, instytucją pobudzającą debatę i badania na temat historii. Działalność Muzeum skoncentrowana jest na uwypuklaniu specyficznych i fascynujących aspektów polskiej historii, a ideą przewodnią ekspozycji ma być wolność jako wartość ważna zarówno w życiu jednostki, jak i wspólnoty. Muzeum ma poruszać problem równowagi wolności i autorytetu, indywidualizmu i solidarności, jako jednego z najważniejszych wyzwań w czasach niepodległości. Obok wolności przekaz ekspozycji i innych form działalności ma podkreślać pozytywne doświadczenie ciągłości państwa o ponad tysiącletniej tradycji, oryginalną, synkretyczną kulturę, rolę Polski jako miejsce schronienia dla wygnańców, wreszcie umo-

uzeum Historii Polski, powołane jako państwowa instytucja kultury 2 maja 2006 roku, stało się sztandarowym projektem Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego w sferze polityki historycznej7. Podstawowym celem jego powołania jest stworzenie atrakcyjnej placówki, która będzie rozbudzać zainteresowanie historią i tradycją narodową, przyczyniać się do pogłębiania wiedzy historycznej i lepszego rozumienia korzeni współczesności. Muzeum ma być też środkiem kształtowania postaw obywatelskich i patriotycznych przy poszanowaniu dorobku innych grup narodowych, etnicznych i religijnych, instytucją pobudzającą debatę i badania na temat historii. Działalność Muzeum skoncentrowana jest na uwypuklaniu specyficznych i fascynujących aspektów polskiej historii, a ideą przewodnią ekspozycji ma być wolność jako wartość ważna zarówno w życiu jednostki, jak i wspólnoty. Muzeum ma poruszać problem równowagi wolności i autorytetu, indywidualizmu i solidarności, jako jednego z najważniejszych wyzwań w czasach niepodległości. Obok wolności przekaz ekspozycji i innych form działalności ma podkreślać pozytywne doświadczenie ciągłości państwa o ponad tysiącletniej tradycji, oryginalną, synkretyczną kulturę, rolę Polski jako miejsce schronienia dla wygnańców, wreszcie umo-

Zgodnie z założeniami siedziba muzeum zostanie wzniesiona do 2013 roku, a około 80% środków potrzebnych na budowę pochodziło będzie z funduszy europejskich.

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Muzeum Historii Polski

cowanie Polski w Europie i cywilizacji zachodniej. Afirmatywny stosunek do narodowej przeszłości nie może jednak wykluczać uwzględnienia europejskiego kontekstu ani krytycznego osądu. Skuteczność działań edukacyjnych i popularyzatorskich zależy przede wszystkim od dostarczania rzetelnej wiedzy oraz materiału do refleksji i samodzielnej interpretacji dylematów historycznych, a nie od tendencyjnego narzucania wniosków. Muzeum ma tworzyć i prowadzić projekty edukacyjne i popularyzatorskie, aktywizujące młodzież, a także dostarczające użytecznych narzędzi nauczycielom; powinno aktywnie współpracować z ośrodkami akademickimi i instytutami naukowymi w debacie na temat historii Polski poprzez organizację wystaw czasowych, konferencji, inicjowanie publikacji. Placówka może prowadzić i koordynować długofalowe projekty naukowe, badawcze i translatorskie. Jednym ze statutowych zadań Muzeum jest kształtowanie międzynarodowego wizerunku Polski, popularyzowanie polskiej historii i kultury zagranicą; dlatego powinno utrzymywać międzynarodowe kontakty, współpracować z Instytutem Adama Mickiewicza, Instytutem Książki, Instytutem Pamięci Narodowej, Instytutami Polskimi oraz innymi agendami rządowymi, instytucjami życia akademickiego i organizacjami pozarządowymi zajmującymi się promocją Polski. W planach Muzeum jest stworzenia systemu stypendiów dla młodych uczonych-cudzoziemców, badających polską historię i kulturę. Muzeum jest nastawione na pozyskanie przede wszystkim młodej publiczności, młodzieży szkolnej w wieku 11–19 lat, dlatego warunkiem sukcesu jest umiejętne wykorzystanie nowoczesnych form przekazu, w tym multimediów, oraz interaktywność ekspozycji. Pozostałe, najważniejsze grupy docelowe to turyści polscy zwiedzający Warszawę, goście zagraniczni i pasjonaci historii. Twórcy zakładają, że większość zwiedzających będzie słabo znała historię, dlatego Muzeum ma ukazywać możliwie szeroką panoramę dziejów Polski, przy jednoczesnej koncentracji na wybranych jej aspektach, jak historia polskiego parlamentaryzmu czy wkładu w obalenie komunizmu. Z kolei osoby zainteresowane mają mieć możliwość skorzystania z komputerowej bazy danych, zawierającej możliwie obszerny wybór źródeł i komentarzy naukowych. Kluczowe miejsce w strukturze Muzeum będzie zajmować zespół wystawienniczy, odpowiedzialny za główną ekspozycję i wystawy czasowe. Dużą rolę odgrywają też działy: edukacyjny i badawczy,

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jest w szereg programów, w tym wspomniane wyżej, a związane z polityką historyczną „Patriotyzm jutra” i „ Świadkowie historii”. Z kolei skutkiem reorganizacji dla Instytutu Adama Mickiewicza ma być przywrócenie mu roli głównego instrumentu polskiej dyplomacji kulturalnej. Jego zadaniem jest realizacja przedsięwzięć w sposób nowoczesny i skuteczny promujących za granicą historyczny i współczesny dorobek polskiej kultury. Służyć temu ma organizacja zagranicznych imprez kulturalnych oraz produkcja materiałów promocyjnych. Intensywne kontakty z podobnymi instytucjami na świecie mają być jednym z elementów aktywnego kreowania pozytywnego wizerunku Polski, podobnie jak ścisła współpraca z polskimi placówkami kulturalnymi za granicą. W Instytucie działa kolegium złożone z przedstawicieli Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego oraz Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych, wyznaczające główne kierunki wspólnych działań w obszarze popularyzacji polskiej kultury.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

które działają już od chwili prawnego ukonstytuowania Muzeum, przed powstaniem docelowej siedziby i zasadniczej ekspozycji. W przyszłości planuje się powołanie równie istotnego działu współpracy międzynarodowej. Sama siedziba ma pozwalać na realizację celów i funkcji Muzeum, pomieścić nie tylko wystawę stałą i czasowe, lecz również nowoczesne centrum konferencyjne, jak również pomieszczenia umożliwiające prowadzenie działalności naukowej i edukacyjnej. Budynek powinien być symbolem więzi pomiędzy tradycją a nowoczesnością, a także żywym centrum kulturalnym, odwiedzanym przez turystów z Polski i zagranicy. Muzeum Historii Polski ma być placówką narracyjną. Taka formuła pozwala z jednej strony ominąć ograniczenia związane z brakiem dostępności eksponatów, co szczególnie w Polsce może być poważną przeszkodą na drodze stworzenia pełnowartościowej kolekcji, a z drugiej jest atrakcyjna dla widzów gorzej przygotowanych merytorycznie. Nie oznacza to, że w muzeum narracyjnym zabytkowe przedmioty nie odgrywają żadnej roli, ale oś ekspozycji nie jest na nich oparta. Muzeum wykorzystując idee nowoczesnego muzealnictwa, pozwala dotrzeć do grup docelowych, które zazwyczaj nie traktują pobytu w muzeum jako atrakcyjnego sposobu spędzania wolnego czasu. Metodę narracyjną wykorzystują obecnie takie ważne placówki na świecie, jak Muzeum Holocaustu w Waszyngtonie, Muzeum Republiki Federalnej Niemiec w Bonn czy Dom Terroru w Budapeszcie. Ekspozycja główna ma mieć charakter stały, jednak okresowe jej modyfikacje mogą być metodą uatrakcyjniania przekazu Muzeum. Poza tym zawsze ma być czynna przynajmniej jedna wystawa czasowa. Przygotowywanie ich będzie jednym z zadań działu wystawienniczego. Muzeum ma zarówno przyjmować wystawy czasowe z zewnątrz, jak i dążyć do zaprezentowania własnych wystaw w innych placówkach muzealnych w kraju i zagranicą. Ekspozycje czasowe mogą eksponować pewne interesujące wątki zaznaczone na wystawie głównej, konfrontować historię Polski z ówczesną sytuacją innych państw, prezentować aspekty przeszłości z jakichś powodów ważne w bieżącym kontekście (np. rocznice ważnych wydarzeń). Interaktywność ekspozycji mają zapewnić nie tylko multimedialne rozwiązania techniczne, lecz także próby zaktywizowania widza, pobudzenia go do samodzielnego myślenia i wciągnięcia do dyskusji. Zagadnienia historyczne mają być prezentowane w sposób ukazujący racje różnych stron, odmienne interpretacje i oceny wydarzeń, pozwalając na wysnuwanie własnych wniosków.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

W Muzeum mają się także pojawiać wystawy poruszające problemy definicji polskości, miejsca Polski w Europie i na świecie; każda z nich ma być inspiracją do kształtowania swojego zdania na dany temat. Warto zaznaczyć, że do opracowywania wyglądu przyszłej ekspozycji Muzeum wciągnięto wielu historyków, którzy nie tylko sugerują tematy wystaw (prof. Urszula Augustyniak, prof. Andrzej Nowak), lecz także przygotowali całościowe ekspertyzy dotyczące ogólnej struktury ekspozycji (prof. Andrzej Rottermund, prof. Krzysztof Konarzewski, prof. Andrzej Nowak, dr hab. Antoni Dudek). Poza gromadzeniem, odpowiednim przechowywaniem i udostępnianiem zbiorów, statut przewiduje szereg innych metod realizacji celów placówki. Może być to działalność promocyjna, edukacyjna, badawcza, opracowywanie, publikowanie i rozpowszechnianie drukowanych oraz multimedialnych wydawnictw, upowszechnianie kultury, współpraca z wszelkimi, także zagranicznymi, instytucjami pokrewnymi, tworzenie programów stypendialnych, organizacja zjazdów, konferencji, i inne. Programy edukacyjne i popularyzatorskie mają przybierać różne formy i być skierowane tak na publiczność krajową, jak i zagraniczną. Na konferencji Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, która odbyła się 11 maja 2006 w Warszawie, władze Muzeum podały wstępną listę propozycji tych programów [Matusiak, 2006, s. 25]: MM nowoczesny portal internetowy (również w wersji anglojęzycznej), zawierający podstawowe zestawy materiałów przydatnych dla pasjonatów historii, nauczycieli i uczniów, w tym słownik internetowy i archiwum ikonografii, filmów i nagrań dotyczących historii Polski, MM lekcje muzealne, MM konkursy i projekty edukacyjne, MM sieć klubów nauczycielskich w różnych regionach Polski, MM publikacje źródłowe i inne materiały dydaktyczne, MM program translatorski, MM reagowanie na publikacje zagraniczne przedstawiające w fałszywym świetle problematykę wiążącą się z historią Polski, MM biuletyn dydaktyczny dla nauczycieli historii, języka polskiego i wiedzy o społeczeństwie, MM wykłady otwarte i dyskusje. Kierownictwo Muzeum zakłada też wprowadzenie programów badawczych i dokumentacyjnych, takich jak [tamże, s. 25–26]: MM organizowanie konferencji i seminariów naukowych, MM inicjowanie wieloelementowych projektów badawczych, realizowanych w porozumieniu z instytutami naukowymi i uniwersytetami,

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które działają już od chwili prawnego ukonstytuowania Muzeum, przed powstaniem docelowej siedziby i zasadniczej ekspozycji. W przyszłości planuje się powołanie równie istotnego działu współpracy międzynarodowej. Sama siedziba ma pozwalać na realizację celów i funkcji Muzeum, pomieścić nie tylko wystawę stałą i czasowe, lecz również nowoczesne centrum konferencyjne, jak również pomieszczenia umożliwiające prowadzenie działalności naukowej i edukacyjnej. Budynek powinien być symbolem więzi pomiędzy tradycją a nowoczesnością, a także żywym centrum kulturalnym, odwiedzanym przez turystów z Polski i zagranicy. Muzeum Historii Polski ma być placówką narracyjną. Taka formuła pozwala z jednej strony ominąć ograniczenia związane z brakiem dostępności eksponatów, co szczególnie w Polsce może być poważną przeszkodą na drodze stworzenia pełnowartościowej kolekcji, a z drugiej jest atrakcyjna dla widzów gorzej przygotowanych merytorycznie. Nie oznacza to, że w muzeum narracyjnym zabytkowe przedmioty nie odgrywają żadnej roli, ale oś ekspozycji nie jest na nich oparta. Muzeum wykorzystując idee nowoczesnego muzealnictwa, pozwala dotrzeć do grup docelowych, które zazwyczaj nie traktują pobytu w muzeum jako atrakcyjnego sposobu spędzania wolnego czasu. Metodę narracyjną wykorzystują obecnie takie ważne placówki na świecie, jak Muzeum Holocaustu w Waszyngtonie, Muzeum Republiki Federalnej Niemiec w Bonn czy Dom Terroru w Budapeszcie. Ekspozycja główna ma mieć charakter stały, jednak okresowe jej modyfikacje mogą być metodą uatrakcyjniania przekazu Muzeum. Poza tym zawsze ma być czynna przynajmniej jedna wystawa czasowa. Przygotowywanie ich będzie jednym z zadań działu wystawienniczego. Muzeum ma zarówno przyjmować wystawy czasowe z zewnątrz, jak i dążyć do zaprezentowania własnych wystaw w innych placówkach muzealnych w kraju i zagranicą. Ekspozycje czasowe mogą eksponować pewne interesujące wątki zaznaczone na wystawie głównej, konfrontować historię Polski z ówczesną sytuacją innych państw, prezentować aspekty przeszłości z jakichś powodów ważne w bieżącym kontekście (np. rocznice ważnych wydarzeń). Interaktywność ekspozycji mają zapewnić nie tylko multimedialne rozwiązania techniczne, lecz także próby zaktywizowania widza, pobudzenia go do samodzielnego myślenia i wciągnięcia do dyskusji. Zagadnienia historyczne mają być prezentowane w sposób ukazujący racje różnych stron, odmienne interpretacje i oceny wydarzeń, pozwalając na wysnuwanie własnych wniosków.

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W Muzeum mają się także pojawiać wystawy poruszające problemy definicji polskości, miejsca Polski w Europie i na świecie; każda z nich ma być inspiracją do kształtowania swojego zdania na dany temat. Warto zaznaczyć, że do opracowywania wyglądu przyszłej ekspozycji Muzeum wciągnięto wielu historyków, którzy nie tylko sugerują tematy wystaw (prof. Urszula Augustyniak, prof. Andrzej Nowak), lecz także przygotowali całościowe ekspertyzy dotyczące ogólnej struktury ekspozycji (prof. Andrzej Rottermund, prof. Krzysztof Konarzewski, prof. Andrzej Nowak, dr hab. Antoni Dudek). Poza gromadzeniem, odpowiednim przechowywaniem i udostępnianiem zbiorów, statut przewiduje szereg innych metod realizacji celów placówki. Może być to działalność promocyjna, edukacyjna, badawcza, opracowywanie, publikowanie i rozpowszechnianie drukowanych oraz multimedialnych wydawnictw, upowszechnianie kultury, współpraca z wszelkimi, także zagranicznymi, instytucjami pokrewnymi, tworzenie programów stypendialnych, organizacja zjazdów, konferencji, i inne. Programy edukacyjne i popularyzatorskie mają przybierać różne formy i być skierowane tak na publiczność krajową, jak i zagraniczną. Na konferencji Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, która odbyła się 11 maja 2006 w Warszawie, władze Muzeum podały wstępną listę propozycji tych programów [Matusiak, 2006, s. 25]: MM nowoczesny portal internetowy (również w wersji anglojęzycznej), zawierający podstawowe zestawy materiałów przydatnych dla pasjonatów historii, nauczycieli i uczniów, w tym słownik internetowy i archiwum ikonografii, filmów i nagrań dotyczących historii Polski, MM lekcje muzealne, MM konkursy i projekty edukacyjne, MM sieć klubów nauczycielskich w różnych regionach Polski, MM publikacje źródłowe i inne materiały dydaktyczne, MM program translatorski, MM reagowanie na publikacje zagraniczne przedstawiające w fałszywym świetle problematykę wiążącą się z historią Polski, MM biuletyn dydaktyczny dla nauczycieli historii, języka polskiego i wiedzy o społeczeństwie, MM wykłady otwarte i dyskusje. Kierownictwo Muzeum zakłada też wprowadzenie programów badawczych i dokumentacyjnych, takich jak [tamże, s. 25–26]: MM organizowanie konferencji i seminariów naukowych, MM inicjowanie wieloelementowych projektów badawczych, realizowanych w porozumieniu z instytutami naukowymi i uniwersytetami,


MM organizowanie debat i projektów dotyczących historii z udziałem ludzi kultury, warsztaty dotyczące wykorzystania wątków historycznych w sztuce, MM prowadzenie badań nad świadomością historyczną Polaków, MM prowadzenie prac dokumentacyjnych, np. rejestrowanie świadectw osób zaangażowanych w walkę o niepodległość i demokrację, MM digitalizowanie i udostępnianie trudno dostępnych materiałów o charakterze archiwalnym (m.in. dokumentów znajdujących się poza granicami kraju). Jak pisze wiceminister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Tomasz Merta, „pole znaczeniowe słowa muzeum w języku polskim jest dość trwałe i jednoznacznie odsyła do placówki, której cała działalność jest nakierowana na główną ekspozycję. […] Otóż Muzeum Historii Polski musi próbować, jeśli nawet nie zmienić, to przynajmniej bardzo rozszerzyć pole znaczeniowe słowa muzeum. Musi być instytucją, w której będzie się rozwijało wiele różnych inicjatyw” [tamże, s. 13]. Narracyjne Muzeum ma stać się żywym centrum kulturalnym, odwiedzanym przez turystów z Polski i zagranicy.

Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego

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ie sposób mówić o polityce historycznej w Polsce, nie wspominając o tej instytucji. Huczne obchody 60. rocznicy wybuchu Powstania Warszawskiego i związany z tym rozgłos nadany otwarciu muzeum uczyniły z nowej placówki swoisty symbol polityki historycznej. Marek A. Cichocki nazwał je w sierpniu 2006 roku wręcz „jedynym realnym przykładem instytucjonalizacji polityki historycznej w Polsce”[Cichocki M., Marek A., 2006]. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba zauważa, że stworzono wrażenie, iż jest to placówka niejako oddelegowana do prowadzenia polityki historycznej8. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego nastawione jest na szeroko rozumianą komunikację z odbiorcą i edukację, w czym nawiązuje do najskuteczniejszych w propagowaniu wiedzy historycznej muzeów na świecie. Takie formy ekspresji jak scenograficzne środki wizualne, fotografie, animacje komputerowe, materiały filmowe, przekaz muzyczny czy Internet mają zapewnić zainteresowanie odbiorców. Z kolei przedstawienie indywidualnych losów uczestników Powstania, w formie wywiadów, zdjęć, nagrań głosu, zapisków i dokumentów rodzinnych, służy wprowadzeniu w atmosferę walczącej Warszawy i ma oddziaływać na emocje

8

zwiedzających. Element edukacyjny, ucieleśniony w nowoczesnych formach popularyzacji tematyki Powstania, jest równie ważny, co klasyczne funkcje muzeum, takie jak gromadzenie, konserwacja i udostępnianie zbiorów. Ekspozycja ma być przystosowana do możliwości intelektualnych i emocjonalnych dzieci tak, by przekaz był zrozumiały i „odczuwalny” także dla najmłodszych widzów. Podkreślenie bohaterstwa członków Szarych Szeregów, jak również dramatyzmu uczestnictwa w walkach dzieci, ma służyć pobudzeniu współczesnej młodzieży do dyskusji o patriotyzmie. Kolejną funkcją Muzeum ma być przyjęcie roli miejsca spędzania wolnego czasu dla turystów, młodzieży, studentów, weteranów Powstania, oferującego tym grupom różne formy aktywności. I tak Muzeum może być, w zależności od oczekiwań zwiedzającego, miejscem nauki z wykorzystaniem materiałów źródłowych, przestrzenią twórczej rozrywki, miejscem spotkań towarzyskich. Różnorodność proponowanych aktywności powinna zachęcać do wielokrotnych odwiedzin placówki. Ważnym zadaniem jest połączenie ekspozycji o wysokiej wartości merytorycznej z popularyzującą historię częścią multimedialną; w jego osiągnięciu może pomóc skonsultowanie działań ze specjalistami z różnych dziedzin: psychologami, historykami, socjologami. Muzeum jest wyrazem hołdu wobec poległych i darem społeczności Warszawy dla żyjących jeszcze powstańców. Podkreśla to nie tylko ceremonia otwarcia placówki w 60. rocznicę wybuchu walk, ale także założenia architektoniczne budynku i jego otoczenia. Otaczający Muzeum Park Wolności akcentuje główny cel, o jaki walczyli powstańcy, jest wyrazem dumy Polaków ze swoich bohaterów; w przyszłości mają w nim zostać upamiętnione nazwiska wszystkich, żyjących, zmarłych i poległych uczestników Powstania. Muzeum ma być płaszczyzną komunikacji między dzisiejszą młodzieżą i nie tylko kombatantami, ale także młodymi ludźmi z tamtych lat, którzy mieli podobne marzenia. Instytucja ma służyć promowaniu ideałów, których dziadkowie bronili w czasach wojny, a które wnuki mogą realizować w czasie pokoju. Muzeum stawia sobie za cel przedstawienie Powstania Warszawskiego w szerokim kontekście politycznych i militarnych realiów 1944 roku. Ważne jest, aby zwiedzający poznali sytuację międzynarodową tamtego okresu i motywacje poszczególnych stron: władz polskich, aliantów zachodnich, Związku Sowieckiego i Niemców. W tym zakresie Muzeum realizuje konkretny profil programowy, oscylujący wokół trzech głównych wątków:

Wywiad Autora z prof. Chwalbą.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Wywiad Autora z prof. Chwalbą.

zwiedzających. Element edukacyjny, ucieleśniony w nowoczesnych formach popularyzacji tematyki Powstania, jest równie ważny, co klasyczne funkcje muzeum, takie jak gromadzenie, konserwacja i udostępnianie zbiorów. Ekspozycja ma być przystosowana do możliwości intelektualnych i emocjonalnych dzieci tak, by przekaz był zrozumiały i „odczuwalny” także dla najmłodszych widzów. Podkreślenie bohaterstwa członków Szarych Szeregów, jak również dramatyzmu uczestnictwa w walkach dzieci, ma służyć pobudzeniu współczesnej młodzieży do dyskusji o patriotyzmie. Kolejną funkcją Muzeum ma być przyjęcie roli miejsca spędzania wolnego czasu dla turystów, młodzieży, studentów, weteranów Powstania, oferującego tym grupom różne formy aktywności. I tak Muzeum może być, w zależności od oczekiwań zwiedzającego, miejscem nauki z wykorzystaniem materiałów źródłowych, przestrzenią twórczej rozrywki, miejscem spotkań towarzyskich. Różnorodność proponowanych aktywności powinna zachęcać do wielokrotnych odwiedzin placówki. Ważnym zadaniem jest połączenie ekspozycji o wysokiej wartości merytorycznej z popularyzującą historię częścią multimedialną; w jego osiągnięciu może pomóc skonsultowanie działań ze specjalistami z różnych dziedzin: psychologami, historykami, socjologami. Muzeum jest wyrazem hołdu wobec poległych i darem społeczności Warszawy dla żyjących jeszcze powstańców. Podkreśla to nie tylko ceremonia otwarcia placówki w 60. rocznicę wybuchu walk, ale także założenia architektoniczne budynku i jego otoczenia. Otaczający Muzeum Park Wolności akcentuje główny cel, o jaki walczyli powstańcy, jest wyrazem dumy Polaków ze swoich bohaterów; w przyszłości mają w nim zostać upamiętnione nazwiska wszystkich, żyjących, zmarłych i poległych uczestników Powstania. Muzeum ma być płaszczyzną komunikacji między dzisiejszą młodzieżą i nie tylko kombatantami, ale także młodymi ludźmi z tamtych lat, którzy mieli podobne marzenia. Instytucja ma służyć promowaniu ideałów, których dziadkowie bronili w czasach wojny, a które wnuki mogą realizować w czasie pokoju. Muzeum stawia sobie za cel przedstawienie Powstania Warszawskiego w szerokim kontekście politycznych i militarnych realiów 1944 roku. Ważne jest, aby zwiedzający poznali sytuację międzynarodową tamtego okresu i motywacje poszczególnych stron: władz polskich, aliantów zachodnich, Związku Sowieckiego i Niemców. W tym zakresie Muzeum realizuje konkretny profil programowy, oscylujący wokół trzech głównych wątków:

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ie sposób mówić o polityce historycznej w Polsce, nie wspominając o tej instytucji. Huczne obchody 60. rocznicy wybuchu Powstania Warszawskiego i związany z tym rozgłos nadany otwarciu muzeum uczyniły z nowej placówki swoisty symbol polityki historycznej. Marek A. Cichocki nazwał je w sierpniu 2006 roku wręcz „jedynym realnym przykładem instytucjonalizacji polityki historycznej w Polsce”[Cichocki M., Marek A., 2006]. Prof. Andrzej Chwalba zauważa, że stworzono wrażenie, iż jest to placówka niejako oddelegowana do prowadzenia polityki historycznej8. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego nastawione jest na szeroko rozumianą komunikację z odbiorcą i edukację, w czym nawiązuje do najskuteczniejszych w propagowaniu wiedzy historycznej muzeów na świecie. Takie formy ekspresji jak scenograficzne środki wizualne, fotografie, animacje komputerowe, materiały filmowe, przekaz muzyczny czy Internet mają zapewnić zainteresowanie odbiorców. Z kolei przedstawienie indywidualnych losów uczestników Powstania, w formie wywiadów, zdjęć, nagrań głosu, zapisków i dokumentów rodzinnych, służy wprowadzeniu w atmosferę walczącej Warszawy i ma oddziaływać na emocje

N

Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego organizowanie debat i projektów dotyczących historii z udziałem ludzi kultury, warsztaty dotyczące wykorzystania wątków historycznych w sztuce, MM prowadzenie badań nad świadomością historyczną Polaków, MM prowadzenie prac dokumentacyjnych, np. rejestrowanie świadectw osób zaangażowanych w walkę o niepodległość i demokrację, MM digitalizowanie i udostępnianie trudno dostępnych materiałów o charakterze archiwalnym (m.in. dokumentów znajdujących się poza granicami kraju). Jak pisze wiceminister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Tomasz Merta, „pole znaczeniowe słowa muzeum w języku polskim jest dość trwałe i jednoznacznie odsyła do placówki, której cała działalność jest nakierowana na główną ekspozycję. […] Otóż Muzeum Historii Polski musi próbować, jeśli nawet nie zmienić, to przynajmniej bardzo rozszerzyć pole znaczeniowe słowa muzeum. Musi być instytucją, w której będzie się rozwijało wiele różnych inicjatyw” [tamże, s. 13]. Narracyjne Muzeum ma stać się żywym centrum kulturalnym, odwiedzanym przez turystów z Polski i zagranicy. MM

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

sensowność Powstania, niepowodzenie (tragizm, dwuznaczność) polityki aliantów zachodnich, MM zagrożenie ze strony Związku Sowieckiego. Ekspozycja uwzględnia różne interpretacje Powstania w historiografii, ale też przeciwstawia się próbom zniekształcania jego obrazu wbrew oczywistym faktom. Przekaz odwołuje się do przedstawień Powstania w kinie, literaturze i sztuce, do podstawowych ikon, symboli i skojarzeń związanych z Powstaniem, takich jak na przykład mały żołnierz, ślub powstańczy czy znak „Polski Walczącej”. Muzeum ma prezentować Powstanie nie tylko jako fakt historyczny, ale także jako wydarzenie, które odcisnęło swoje piętno na wielu polskich rodzinach, którego skutki są oczywiste do czasów współczesnych. W tym sensie dorobek Powstania jest, obok doświadczenia indywidualnego tysięcy osób, dobrem wspólnym obywateli współczesnej Polski. Koncepcja Muzeum zakłada tworzenie instytucji „wzrastającej na oczach mieszkańców stolicy”, „obecnej na wszystkich ulicach, w metrze i tramwajach”, będącej środkiem komunikacji z warszawiakami, wciągania ich w dyskusję o Powstaniu i współczesnym patriotyzmie. Aby osiągnąć ten efekt przeprowadzono kampanię informacyjną o powstającym Muzeum jeszcze w trakcie realizacji projektu, organizuje się otwarte konkursy i publiczne akcje zbierania pamiątek oraz świadectw Powstania, wreszcie podkreślane jest zaangażowanie władz miasta w budowę placówki. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego jest, podobnie jak Muzeum Historii Polski, placówką narracyjną. Jak powiedział dyrektor Muzeum Jan Ołdakowski, „ekspozycja ma być jak dobry film i prowadzić widza przez ściśle określoną narrację” [Kraj, 2005, s. 2]. Ma oddziaływać światłem, dźwiękiem, obrazem; tradycyjną ekspozycję z gablotami ma tu zastąpić opowieść, tłumacząca zwiedzającym, czym naprawdę był ten zryw i jak wyglądało życie w walczącym mieście. Podstawowymi grupami odbiorców Muzeum są dzieci, młodzież szkolna i studenci, kombatanci i ich rodziny, turyści polscy i zagraniczni (w szczególności Polacy zza granicy), studenci i naukowcy prowadzący badania naukowe, pasjonaci najnowszej historii Polski, żołnierze pełniący obecnie służbę wojskową. Zróżnicowanie oczekiwań poszczególnych grup wymaga odpowiedniego dostosowania przekazu Muzeum; każda z nich musi znaleźć w nim coś dla siebie. Gromadzenie i eksponowanie zbiorów to najważniejsze formy działania Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, ale nie jedyne. Dużą wagę przywiązuje się w nim do promowania historii Polski, działalności edukacyjnej, wydawniczej i naukowo MM MM

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badawczej. Muzeum jest przy tym instytucją kultury, a co za tym idzie jednym z jego celów jest szeroko rozumiane upowszechnianie kultury. Osiąga się go poprzez realizację stricte kulturalnych projektów, które pozornie nie mają nic wspólnego z Powstaniem Warszawskim, ale już przez sam swój rozgłos przyciągają ludzi do Muzeum. Szereg akcji wśród warszawiaków przeprowadzono jeszcze przed otwarciem Muzeum. Zbiórkę przyszłych eksponatów w listopadzie 2003 roku reklamowały plakaty z hasłem Czy zachowasz nas w pamięci, Warszawo?, stylizowane na autentyczne odezwy, kierowane do mieszkańców stolicy w pamiętne dni 1944 roku. Przez cały tydzień poprzedzający zbiórkę, po Warszawie jeździł zabytkowy tramwaj, w którym grała muzyka powstańcza, a harcerze rozdawali ulotki informujące o zbiórce. Na początku 2004 roku na szybach autobusów, tramwajów i na przystankach komunikacji miejskiej pojawiły się wiersze o Powstaniu Warszawskim. Henryk Chmielewski „Jupiter”, znany też jako Papcio Chmiel, autor komiksu o przygodach Tytusa, Romka i A’Tomka, przygotował specjalne wydanie swojego komiksu, poświęcone Muzeum. Tuż przed otwarciem placówki na ulicach Warszawy zawisły billboardy z napisem na ceglanym murze: Jedyna taka rocznica. Jedyne takie muzeum. Jednym z projektów realizowanych już po otwarciu Muzeum była wystawa „Mur sztuki”; po drugiej stronie Muru Pamięci zaprezentowali swoje prace artyści, składając hołd Powstańcom swoją sztuką. Koncerty jazzowe festiwalu „Niewinni Czarodzieje – Tyrmand*Komeda*Polański” nawiązywały do atmosfery Warszawy lat 50. Organizowano też naukę przedwojennych tańców. Muzeum stara się organizować możliwie dużo tego typu imprez, a także promocji filmów i książek związanych z II wojną światową. Muzeum nie ma ustalonej i zdefiniowanej strategii public relations; prowadzi jednak szereg działań, mających na celu dotarcie do jak najszerszej grupy odbiorców, których skuteczność i zgodność z misją instytucji jest weryfikowana przez Radę Powierniczą i dyrektora, którzy ustalają też priorytety działalności placówki. Jedną z jej myśli przewodnich jest możliwie jak największa obecność w przestrzeni publicznej, co jest tym łatwiejsze, że na fali zainteresowania historią i dyskusji na temat polityki historycznej media poświęcają Muzeum wiele uwagi. Działania public relations prowadzi głównie Centrum Informacyjne Muzeum, a są one ukierunkowane nie tylko na przyciągnięcie maksymalnej liczby gości, zarówno polskich, jak i zagranicznych, ale także na zaangażowanie zainteresowanych, głównie młodzieży, do różnego rodzaju projektów, które odbywają się w całej Polsce.

MM sensowność Powstania, MM niepowodzenie (tragizm, dwuznaczność) polityki aliantów zachodnich, MM zagrożenie ze strony Związku Sowieckiego. Ekspozycja uwzględnia różne interpretacje Powstania w historiografii, ale też przeciwstawia się próbom zniekształcania jego obrazu wbrew oczywistym faktom. Przekaz odwołuje się do przedstawień Powstania w kinie, literaturze i sztuce, do podstawowych ikon, symboli i skojarzeń związanych z Powstaniem, takich jak na przykład mały żołnierz, ślub powstańczy czy znak „Polski Walczącej”. Muzeum ma prezentować Powstanie nie tylko jako fakt historyczny, ale także jako wydarzenie, które odcisnęło swoje piętno na wielu polskich rodzinach, którego skutki są oczywiste do czasów współczesnych. W tym sensie dorobek Powstania jest, obok doświadczenia indywidualnego tysięcy osób, dobrem wspólnym obywateli współczesnej Polski. Koncepcja Muzeum zakłada tworzenie instytucji „wzrastającej na oczach mieszkańców stolicy”, „obecnej na wszystkich ulicach, w metrze i tramwajach”, będącej środkiem komunikacji z warszawiakami, wciągania ich w dyskusję o Powstaniu i współczesnym patriotyzmie. Aby osiągnąć ten efekt przeprowadzono kampanię informacyjną o powstającym Muzeum jeszcze w trakcie realizacji projektu, organizuje się otwarte konkursy i publiczne akcje zbierania pamiątek oraz świadectw Powstania, wreszcie podkreślane jest zaangażowanie władz miasta w budowę placówki. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego jest, podobnie jak Muzeum Historii Polski, placówką narracyjną. Jak powiedział dyrektor Muzeum Jan Ołdakowski, „ekspozycja ma być jak dobry film i prowadzić widza przez ściśle określoną narrację” [Kraj, 2005, s. 2]. Ma oddziaływać światłem, dźwiękiem, obrazem; tradycyjną ekspozycję z gablotami ma tu zastąpić opowieść, tłumacząca zwiedzającym, czym naprawdę był ten zryw i jak wyglądało życie w walczącym mieście. Podstawowymi grupami odbiorców Muzeum są dzieci, młodzież szkolna i studenci, kombatanci i ich rodziny, turyści polscy i zagraniczni (w szczególności Polacy zza granicy), studenci i naukowcy prowadzący badania naukowe, pasjonaci najnowszej historii Polski, żołnierze pełniący obecnie służbę wojskową. Zróżnicowanie oczekiwań poszczególnych grup wymaga odpowiedniego dostosowania przekazu Muzeum; każda z nich musi znaleźć w nim coś dla siebie. Gromadzenie i eksponowanie zbiorów to najważniejsze formy działania Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, ale nie jedyne. Dużą wagę przywiązuje się w nim do promowania historii Polski, działalności edukacyjnej, wydawniczej i naukowo

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

badawczej. Muzeum jest przy tym instytucją kultury, a co za tym idzie jednym z jego celów jest szeroko rozumiane upowszechnianie kultury. Osiąga się go poprzez realizację stricte kulturalnych projektów, które pozornie nie mają nic wspólnego z Powstaniem Warszawskim, ale już przez sam swój rozgłos przyciągają ludzi do Muzeum. Szereg akcji wśród warszawiaków przeprowadzono jeszcze przed otwarciem Muzeum. Zbiórkę przyszłych eksponatów w listopadzie 2003 roku reklamowały plakaty z hasłem Czy zachowasz nas w pamięci, Warszawo?, stylizowane na autentyczne odezwy, kierowane do mieszkańców stolicy w pamiętne dni 1944 roku. Przez cały tydzień poprzedzający zbiórkę, po Warszawie jeździł zabytkowy tramwaj, w którym grała muzyka powstańcza, a harcerze rozdawali ulotki informujące o zbiórce. Na początku 2004 roku na szybach autobusów, tramwajów i na przystankach komunikacji miejskiej pojawiły się wiersze o Powstaniu Warszawskim. Henryk Chmielewski „Jupiter”, znany też jako Papcio Chmiel, autor komiksu o przygodach Tytusa, Romka i A’Tomka, przygotował specjalne wydanie swojego komiksu, poświęcone Muzeum. Tuż przed otwarciem placówki na ulicach Warszawy zawisły billboardy z napisem na ceglanym murze: Jedyna taka rocznica. Jedyne takie muzeum. Jednym z projektów realizowanych już po otwarciu Muzeum była wystawa „Mur sztuki”; po drugiej stronie Muru Pamięci zaprezentowali swoje prace artyści, składając hołd Powstańcom swoją sztuką. Koncerty jazzowe festiwalu „Niewinni Czarodzieje – Tyrmand*Komeda*Polański” nawiązywały do atmosfery Warszawy lat 50. Organizowano też naukę przedwojennych tańców. Muzeum stara się organizować możliwie dużo tego typu imprez, a także promocji filmów i książek związanych z II wojną światową. Muzeum nie ma ustalonej i zdefiniowanej strategii public relations; prowadzi jednak szereg działań, mających na celu dotarcie do jak najszerszej grupy odbiorców, których skuteczność i zgodność z misją instytucji jest weryfikowana przez Radę Powierniczą i dyrektora, którzy ustalają też priorytety działalności placówki. Jedną z jej myśli przewodnich jest możliwie jak największa obecność w przestrzeni publicznej, co jest tym łatwiejsze, że na fali zainteresowania historią i dyskusji na temat polityki historycznej media poświęcają Muzeum wiele uwagi. Działania public relations prowadzi głównie Centrum Informacyjne Muzeum, a są one ukierunkowane nie tylko na przyciągnięcie maksymalnej liczby gości, zarówno polskich, jak i zagranicznych, ale także na zaangażowanie zainteresowanych, głównie młodzieży, do różnego rodzaju projektów, które odbywają się w całej Polsce.

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

oraz spotkania otwarte. Muzeum organizuje też długoterminowe seminaria z tego samego zakresu, zawierające elementy kształcenia w pracy i edukacji muzealnej, obejmujące 12 spotkań odbywających się w ciągu sześciu miesięcy. Zajęcia w Muzeum, prowadzone przez doświadczonych naukowców i pedagogów są honorowane przez instytucje opiniujące w procesie awansu zawodowego nauczyciela. Muzeum prowadzi lekcje muzealne (także w języku angielskim) – zajęcia dla przedszkolaków, uczniów szkół podstawowych, gimnazjów i szkół ponadgimnazjalnych. Tematy zajęć są dostosowane do poziomu rozwoju dzieci i młodzieży. Koszt jednej lekcji wynosi zaledwie 50 zł od grupy. W październiku 2004 roku powstało Archiwum Historii Mówionej. Jego głównym zadaniem jest utrwalenie relacji kilku tysięcy żołnierzy Armii Krajowej – uczestników Powstania Warszawskiego, żyjących dzisiaj w Polsce i za granicą. Pytania są tak sformułowane, by można było utrwalić różne aspekty powstańczych losów, nie tylko walki, ale też życia codziennego. Do końca 2006 roku zgromadzono tysiąc takich, często kilkugodzinnych, nagrań. Wszystkie one są utrwalane w wersji elektronicznej i publikowane na stronie Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, a zapisy filmowe rozmów są sukcesywnie udostępniane w czytelni Muzeum. Celem Archiwum jest stworzenie bezprecedensowego w swej skali materiału badawczego, służącego obecnym i przyszłym pokoleniom historyków i pedagogów, a także sportretowanie pokolenia urodzonego w Polsce przedwrześniowej, jego powojennych losów w kraju i na emigracji, oraz wyrażenie hołdu dla obecnych jeszcze wśród nas weteranów Powstania. Muzeum szybko zyskało międzynarodowy wymiar. Omówienia jego ekspozycji pojawiły się w najważniejszych periodykach muzealnych na świecie. W polskiej i zagranicznej prasie ukazało się przeszło tysiąc artykułów związanych z otwarciem placówki. Działalność Muzeum stworzyła przyjazny klimat dla podobnych inicjatyw. Budowane jest Muzeum Historii Polski, planowana jest stworzenie Muzeum Komunizmu Socland, Muzeum Historii Żydów Polskich oraz Muzeum Solidarności. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego stało się aktywnym uczestnikiem i animatorem debaty na temat historii i jej znaczenia.

ożna odnieść wrażenie, że wielu uczestników publicznej debaty na temat historii i jej roli w codziennym funkcjonowaniu współczesnego społeczeństwa przechodzi do porządku dzien-

Szanse i zagrożenia

M

M

Szanse i zagrożenia

ożna odnieść wrażenie, że wielu uczestników publicznej debaty na temat historii i jej roli w codziennym funkcjonowaniu współczesnego społeczeństwa przechodzi do porządku dzien-

286

oraz spotkania otwarte. Muzeum organizuje też długoterminowe seminaria z tego samego zakresu, zawierające elementy kształcenia w pracy i edukacji muzealnej, obejmujące 12 spotkań odbywających się w ciągu sześciu miesięcy. Zajęcia w Muzeum, prowadzone przez doświadczonych naukowców i pedagogów są honorowane przez instytucje opiniujące w procesie awansu zawodowego nauczyciela. Muzeum prowadzi lekcje muzealne (także w języku angielskim) – zajęcia dla przedszkolaków, uczniów szkół podstawowych, gimnazjów i szkół ponadgimnazjalnych. Tematy zajęć są dostosowane do poziomu rozwoju dzieci i młodzieży. Koszt jednej lekcji wynosi zaledwie 50 zł od grupy. W październiku 2004 roku powstało Archiwum Historii Mówionej. Jego głównym zadaniem jest utrwalenie relacji kilku tysięcy żołnierzy Armii Krajowej – uczestników Powstania Warszawskiego, żyjących dzisiaj w Polsce i za granicą. Pytania są tak sformułowane, by można było utrwalić różne aspekty powstańczych losów, nie tylko walki, ale też życia codziennego. Do końca 2006 roku zgromadzono tysiąc takich, często kilkugodzinnych, nagrań. Wszystkie one są utrwalane w wersji elektronicznej i publikowane na stronie Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, a zapisy filmowe rozmów są sukcesywnie udostępniane w czytelni Muzeum. Celem Archiwum jest stworzenie bezprecedensowego w swej skali materiału badawczego, służącego obecnym i przyszłym pokoleniom historyków i pedagogów, a także sportretowanie pokolenia urodzonego w Polsce przedwrześniowej, jego powojennych losów w kraju i na emigracji, oraz wyrażenie hołdu dla obecnych jeszcze wśród nas weteranów Powstania. Muzeum szybko zyskało międzynarodowy wymiar. Omówienia jego ekspozycji pojawiły się w najważniejszych periodykach muzealnych na świecie. W polskiej i zagranicznej prasie ukazało się przeszło tysiąc artykułów związanych z otwarciem placówki. Działalność Muzeum stworzyła przyjazny klimat dla podobnych inicjatyw. Budowane jest Muzeum Historii Polski, planowana jest stworzenie Muzeum Komunizmu Socland, Muzeum Historii Żydów Polskich oraz Muzeum Solidarności. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego stało się aktywnym uczestnikiem i animatorem debaty na temat historii i jej znaczenia.

W dziele popularyzowania historii i samego Muzeum ważną rolę spełniają sklepy muzealne. Można w nich kupić publikacje Wydawnictwa Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, książki z innych wydawnictw dotyczące Powstania i II wojny światowej, jak również współczesnych debat o historii, a także plakaty, albumy, przewodniki po samym Muzeum i po Warszawie, czasopisma, płyty z muzyką, filmy, gry strategiczne. Sklepik prowadzi też sprzedaż różnego rodzaju gadżetów opatrzonych logo muzeum, którym jest oczywiście symbol „Polski Walczącej”. Są to na przykład smycze na klucze, figurki samochodów, samolotów czy żołnierzy z okresu II wojny światowej, szachy, kubki, z jakich pili powstańcy, jak również czekolada, kawa zbożowa czy cukierki w opakowaniach wzorowanych na oryginalnych z lat 40. Te niekonwencjonalne gadżety są ważnym elementem działalności marketingowej Muzeum. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, poprzez własne wydawnictwo, publikuje albumy, pocztówki, druki ulotne, teksty popularnonaukowe oraz prace o charakterze naukowym. Dba się też o to, by publikacje te trafiały do odpowiednich osób i instytucji: raport Wielka koalicja prof. Normana Daviesa został wysłany do zagranicznych bibliotek uniwersyteckich, parlamentarzystów europejskich, kongresmanów USA, opiniotwórczych mediów na świecie, i zaprezentowany w Parlamencie Europejskim, podobnie jak The Shadow of Yalta (Cień Jałty), książka prof. Wojciecha Roszkowskiego. Organizowane są wystawy za granicą. Specjalna wystawa prezentowana jest w szkołach w całej Polsce. Muzeum utrzymuje kontakty z zagranicznymi placówkami muzealnymi. Pobyty studyjne w Collage Park pod Waszyngtonem a także w londyńskich Imperial War Museum i Museum of London pozwoliły podpatrzeć pewne pomysły ekspozycyjne, sposoby dotarcia do widza i dopracować koncepcję Muzeum. Współpraca konsultacyjna prowadzona jest z takimi instytucjami jak Dom Terroru w Budapeszcie, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum w Waszyngtonie, Muzeum Yad Vashem w Jerozolimie, Museum of Londyn, Imperial War Museum w Londynie, Smithsonian Institution w Waszyngtonie i Muzeum Głodu w Kijowie. Kwerendy prowadzone są w Studium Polski Podziemnej w Londynie, w Collage Park pod Waszyngtonem, w Imperial War Museum i w RAF Museum w Hendon. Ważnym aspektem działalności Muzeum jest oferta skierowana do nauczycieli i studentów historii oraz polonistyki. Placówka prowadzi szkolenia rozszerzające wiedzę nauczycieli i prezentujące nowoczesne rozwiązania metodyczne w nauczaniu na temat Powstania Warszawskiego i okresu okupacji, bezpłatne wykłady

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

W dziele popularyzowania historii i samego Muzeum ważną rolę spełniają sklepy muzealne. Można w nich kupić publikacje Wydawnictwa Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, książki z innych wydawnictw dotyczące Powstania i II wojny światowej, jak również współczesnych debat o historii, a także plakaty, albumy, przewodniki po samym Muzeum i po Warszawie, czasopisma, płyty z muzyką, filmy, gry strategiczne. Sklepik prowadzi też sprzedaż różnego rodzaju gadżetów opatrzonych logo muzeum, którym jest oczywiście symbol „Polski Walczącej”. Są to na przykład smycze na klucze, figurki samochodów, samolotów czy żołnierzy z okresu II wojny światowej, szachy, kubki, z jakich pili powstańcy, jak również czekolada, kawa zbożowa czy cukierki w opakowaniach wzorowanych na oryginalnych z lat 40. Te niekonwencjonalne gadżety są ważnym elementem działalności marketingowej Muzeum. Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, poprzez własne wydawnictwo, publikuje albumy, pocztówki, druki ulotne, teksty popularnonaukowe oraz prace o charakterze naukowym. Dba się też o to, by publikacje te trafiały do odpowiednich osób i instytucji: raport Wielka koalicja prof. Normana Daviesa został wysłany do zagranicznych bibliotek uniwersyteckich, parlamentarzystów europejskich, kongresmanów USA, opiniotwórczych mediów na świecie, i zaprezentowany w Parlamencie Europejskim, podobnie jak The Shadow of Yalta (Cień Jałty), książka prof. Wojciecha Roszkowskiego. Organizowane są wystawy za granicą. Specjalna wystawa prezentowana jest w szkołach w całej Polsce. Muzeum utrzymuje kontakty z zagranicznymi placówkami muzealnymi. Pobyty studyjne w Collage Park pod Waszyngtonem a także w londyńskich Imperial War Museum i Museum of London pozwoliły podpatrzeć pewne pomysły ekspozycyjne, sposoby dotarcia do widza i dopracować koncepcję Muzeum. Współpraca konsultacyjna prowadzona jest z takimi instytucjami jak Dom Terroru w Budapeszcie, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum w Waszyngtonie, Muzeum Yad Vashem w Jerozolimie, Museum of Londyn, Imperial War Museum w Londynie, Smithsonian Institution w Waszyngtonie i Muzeum Głodu w Kijowie. Kwerendy prowadzone są w Studium Polski Podziemnej w Londynie, w Collage Park pod Waszyngtonem, w Imperial War Museum i w RAF Museum w Hendon. Ważnym aspektem działalności Muzeum jest oferta skierowana do nauczycieli i studentów historii oraz polonistyki. Placówka prowadzi szkolenia rozszerzające wiedzę nauczycieli i prezentujące nowoczesne rozwiązania metodyczne w nauczaniu na temat Powstania Warszawskiego i okresu okupacji, bezpłatne wykłady


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

nego nad działaniami związanymi z polityką historyczną, angażując się w oderwaną od rzeczywistości dyskusję. Często padają utarte już słowa o „wykorzystywaniu historii”, stawiające politykę historyczną na z góry przegranej pozycji. Negatywne konotacje słowa „wykorzystywanie” a priori wytrącają broń z rąk obrońców „walki o pamięć”; skutkiem tego często brak miejsca na rzetelną ocenę praktycznych sposobów realizacji polityki historycznej, a to one decydują o jej obliczu. Pytanie o to czy polityka historyczna, sama w sobie, jest dobra czy zła nie ma racji bytu. Jej istnienie jest obiektywnym faktem. Ocenie powinny przede wszystkim podlegać metody wdrażania jej w życie, które, podobnie jak jest to w przypadku każdej innej aktywności, mogą być zgodne lub niezgodne ze standardami nowoczesnej demokracji i społeczeństwa obywatelskiego; mogą wypaczać bądź nie sens samej idei. Postulatorzy polityki historycznej wysuwają pod adresem decydentów z lat 90. szereg zarzutów o zaniechanie troski o obraz przeszłości czy wręcz amputację zbiorowej pamięci. Pierwsze dziesięciolecie wolnej Polski miało być okresem, w którym język publicznej debaty zdominowały zagadnienia ekonomiczne. Państwo było uważane za swego rodzaju przedsiębiorstwo, a uprawianie polityki zaczęto ograniczać do kwestii zarządzania procesami wzrostu gospodarczego. Tymczasem myślę, że – paradoksalnie – w dziedzinie zarządzania można znaleźć interesującą analogię do polityki historycznej. Przedsiębiorstwa prowadzą przecież różnego rodzaju działania zmierzające do integracji pracowników oraz ich samoutożsamiania się z firmą. Polityka historyczna może być uznana za podobne działanie na poziomie państwa. Sztandarowym przykładem zinstytucjonalizowanego prowadzenia polityki historycznej stało się Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego. W tej nazwie mieści się sprawnie i skutecznie zrealizowany projekt, wcielający w życie postulaty „walki o pamięć” w jak najlepszym sensie. Miejsce to, tworzone jako wyraz hołdu dla bohaterów Polski Podziemnej, nie tylko przypomniało Polakom i obcokrajowcom o takim wydarzeniu jak Powstanie Warszawskie, ale stało się także ważną i wyraziście obecną w przestrzeni publicznej instytucją kultury, upowszechniającą zarówno wiedzę o historycznych faktach, jak i szeroko rozumianą kulturę. Twórcom Muzeum, dzięki oparciu koncepcji na nośnych środkach przekazu, udało się stworzyć nową jakość: instytucję, która nie poprzestaje na emitowaniu ograniczonego czasowo przekazu, ale aspiruje do roli miejsca przyjaznego, zachęcającego do spędzania w nim wolnego czasu, przez co jego możliwości oddziaływania zostały zwielokrotnione.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Idee polityki historycznej mogą znajdować rzeczywisty wymiar w działalności wielu podmiotów, jednak jak dotąd dominującą rolę w tej dziedzinie odgrywa w Polsce Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego (zwłaszcza w okresie, gdy ministrem był Kazimierz Michał Ujazdowski). Aktywność tego resortu nadaje nowy sens tej części polityki kulturalnej, której domeną jest ochrona dziedzictwa narodowego. Zwraca uwagę, że jej celem jest nie tylko przetrwanie materialnych świadectw przeszłości, ale przede wszystkim pielęgnacja rdzenia kulturowego, na którym oparta jest wspólnota narodowa. Jego inicjatywy, zostawiając sporo miejsca dla inicjatyw obywatelskich, pozostają przy tym w zgodzie ze standardami nowoczesnej demokracji i społeczeństwa obywatelskiego; nie sposób zarzucić im próby kreowania i narzucania jakiejś określonej wizji historycznych wydarzeń, która byłaby sprzeczna z faktami. Przy tym działalność rządu na tym polu podlega krytyce tak samo, jak i na każdym innym. Największy projekt Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, Muzeum Historii Polski, jest dopiero w budowie, więc z pełną oceną dorobku ekipy ministra Ujazdowskiego trzeba poczekać. Na razie jednak myślę, że politykę historyczną w jej wykonaniu można uznać nie tyle za „wykorzystywanie historii” do celów politycznych, ile za znakomitą szansę wykorzystania form i instytucji polityki kulturalnej państwa dla upowszechniania i promocji historii. Przyszłość polityki historycznej nie jest w Polsce pozbawiona zagrożeń. Jednym z nich jest zjawisko określane bądź to jako krytyczny patriotyzm, bądź to jako historyczny nihilizm, czyli tendencja intelektualna w spojrzeniu na historię, przejawiająca się podejrzliwością wobec jakoby z natury potencjalnie groźnej idei narodu i stałą gotowością do dezawuowania dorobku przeszłych pokoleń. Ponadto kwestie lustracji i rozliczania okresu PRL, wiążące politykę historyczną w sposób bezpośredni z dziejami najnowszymi, a przede wszystkim z rozgrywkami politycznymi, przysparzają jej kolejnych wrogów. W rozmowach, które przeprowadzałem z historykami z Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego uderzyło mnie przede wszystkim to, że wielu z nich miało kłopoty ze sformułowaniem definicji polityki historycznej czy podaniem przykładowych form jej praktycznej realizacji. Jest ona niestety postrzegana bardziej jako zagrożenie niż jako szansa. Z drugiej jednak strony, równie trudno uzyskać konkretne przykłady szkodliwej działalności. Tocząca się w Polce od kilku lat dyskusja na temat polityki historycznej, wykreowała w dużej części społeczeństwa zupełnie wykrzywiony jej obraz. Na projekt popularyzacji historii odpowie-

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nego nad działaniami związanymi z polityką historyczną, angażując się w oderwaną od rzeczywistości dyskusję. Często padają utarte już słowa o „wykorzystywaniu historii”, stawiające politykę historyczną na z góry przegranej pozycji. Negatywne konotacje słowa „wykorzystywanie” a priori wytrącają broń z rąk obrońców „walki o pamięć”; skutkiem tego często brak miejsca na rzetelną ocenę praktycznych sposobów realizacji polityki historycznej, a to one decydują o jej obliczu. Pytanie o to czy polityka historyczna, sama w sobie, jest dobra czy zła nie ma racji bytu. Jej istnienie jest obiektywnym faktem. Ocenie powinny przede wszystkim podlegać metody wdrażania jej w życie, które, podobnie jak jest to w przypadku każdej innej aktywności, mogą być zgodne lub niezgodne ze standardami nowoczesnej demokracji i społeczeństwa obywatelskiego; mogą wypaczać bądź nie sens samej idei. Postulatorzy polityki historycznej wysuwają pod adresem decydentów z lat 90. szereg zarzutów o zaniechanie troski o obraz przeszłości czy wręcz amputację zbiorowej pamięci. Pierwsze dziesięciolecie wolnej Polski miało być okresem, w którym język publicznej debaty zdominowały zagadnienia ekonomiczne. Państwo było uważane za swego rodzaju przedsiębiorstwo, a uprawianie polityki zaczęto ograniczać do kwestii zarządzania procesami wzrostu gospodarczego. Tymczasem myślę, że – paradoksalnie – w dziedzinie zarządzania można znaleźć interesującą analogię do polityki historycznej. Przedsiębiorstwa prowadzą przecież różnego rodzaju działania zmierzające do integracji pracowników oraz ich samoutożsamiania się z firmą. Polityka historyczna może być uznana za podobne działanie na poziomie państwa. Sztandarowym przykładem zinstytucjonalizowanego prowadzenia polityki historycznej stało się Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego. W tej nazwie mieści się sprawnie i skutecznie zrealizowany projekt, wcielający w życie postulaty „walki o pamięć” w jak najlepszym sensie. Miejsce to, tworzone jako wyraz hołdu dla bohaterów Polski Podziemnej, nie tylko przypomniało Polakom i obcokrajowcom o takim wydarzeniu jak Powstanie Warszawskie, ale stało się także ważną i wyraziście obecną w przestrzeni publicznej instytucją kultury, upowszechniającą zarówno wiedzę o historycznych faktach, jak i szeroko rozumianą kulturę. Twórcom Muzeum, dzięki oparciu koncepcji na nośnych środkach przekazu, udało się stworzyć nową jakość: instytucję, która nie poprzestaje na emitowaniu ograniczonego czasowo przekazu, ale aspiruje do roli miejsca przyjaznego, zachęcającego do spędzania w nim wolnego czasu, przez co jego możliwości oddziaływania zostały zwielokrotnione.

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Idee polityki historycznej mogą znajdować rzeczywisty wymiar w działalności wielu podmiotów, jednak jak dotąd dominującą rolę w tej dziedzinie odgrywa w Polsce Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego (zwłaszcza w okresie, gdy ministrem był Kazimierz Michał Ujazdowski). Aktywność tego resortu nadaje nowy sens tej części polityki kulturalnej, której domeną jest ochrona dziedzictwa narodowego. Zwraca uwagę, że jej celem jest nie tylko przetrwanie materialnych świadectw przeszłości, ale przede wszystkim pielęgnacja rdzenia kulturowego, na którym oparta jest wspólnota narodowa. Jego inicjatywy, zostawiając sporo miejsca dla inicjatyw obywatelskich, pozostają przy tym w zgodzie ze standardami nowoczesnej demokracji i społeczeństwa obywatelskiego; nie sposób zarzucić im próby kreowania i narzucania jakiejś określonej wizji historycznych wydarzeń, która byłaby sprzeczna z faktami. Przy tym działalność rządu na tym polu podlega krytyce tak samo, jak i na każdym innym. Największy projekt Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, Muzeum Historii Polski, jest dopiero w budowie, więc z pełną oceną dorobku ekipy ministra Ujazdowskiego trzeba poczekać. Na razie jednak myślę, że politykę historyczną w jej wykonaniu można uznać nie tyle za „wykorzystywanie historii” do celów politycznych, ile za znakomitą szansę wykorzystania form i instytucji polityki kulturalnej państwa dla upowszechniania i promocji historii. Przyszłość polityki historycznej nie jest w Polsce pozbawiona zagrożeń. Jednym z nich jest zjawisko określane bądź to jako krytyczny patriotyzm, bądź to jako historyczny nihilizm, czyli tendencja intelektualna w spojrzeniu na historię, przejawiająca się podejrzliwością wobec jakoby z natury potencjalnie groźnej idei narodu i stałą gotowością do dezawuowania dorobku przeszłych pokoleń. Ponadto kwestie lustracji i rozliczania okresu PRL, wiążące politykę historyczną w sposób bezpośredni z dziejami najnowszymi, a przede wszystkim z rozgrywkami politycznymi, przysparzają jej kolejnych wrogów. W rozmowach, które przeprowadzałem z historykami z Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego uderzyło mnie przede wszystkim to, że wielu z nich miało kłopoty ze sformułowaniem definicji polityki historycznej czy podaniem przykładowych form jej praktycznej realizacji. Jest ona niestety postrzegana bardziej jako zagrożenie niż jako szansa. Z drugiej jednak strony, równie trudno uzyskać konkretne przykłady szkodliwej działalności. Tocząca się w Polce od kilku lat dyskusja na temat polityki historycznej, wykreowała w dużej części społeczeństwa zupełnie wykrzywiony jej obraz. Na projekt popularyzacji historii odpowie-


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

dziano silnym kontrprojektem, przedstawiającym znajomość i przywiązanie do rodzimej historii jako rzecz niepotrzebną, czy wręcz szkodliwą. Uznano, że historią powinni zajmować się naukowcy, zamknięci w murach uczelni i nieprzedstawiający wyników swych badań ogółowi. Niestety siła oddziaływania tego poglądu jest na tyle duża, że w kraju – któremu na świecie zapomniano już nie tylko udziału w pokonaniu III Rzeszy, ale i wkładu w rozmonotowanie komunizmu, w którym znakomita większość obywateli nie potrafi zidentyfikować najprostszych historycznych dat – wiele osób uznaje, że o polskiej historii mówi się niepotrzebnie i za dużo. Koncepcja państwa wysuwana przez warszawskich konserwatystów, związana z nią polityka

historyczna, a także sposoby jej realizacji proponowane przez twórców Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego oraz ekipę Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego w czasach rządów PIS-u, mają swoich przeciwników, i mieć ich zapewne będą zawsze. Jest to jednak projekt, którego można i warto bronić, jako odwołującego się do patriotyzmu, zgodnego ze standardami współczesnej demokracji i ukierunkowanego na osiąganie celów przynoszących wymierne korzyści. Projekt zasługuje na swoje miejsce w polskiej przestrzeni publicznej nie jako jedynie słuszna wizja, którą należy narzucać, ale jako ważny głos w debacie nad kształtem nowoczesnego państwa oraz jego polityki.

Literatura

[w:] Pamięć i odpowiedzialność, pod red. Kostro R.,

2007.06.14]. onet.pl/,1581,1352888,czasopisma.html [odczyt: tyka historyczna - za i przeciw. http://portalwiedzy. Cichocki M., Marek A., et. al. [Dok. elektr.] (2006), Poli-

[w:] Pamięć i odpowiedzialność, pod red. Kostro R.,

Stańczyk T., Warszawa 2005.

Cichocki M., Polityka historyczna – za i przeciw, www.

Merta T., Kraków – Wrocław 2005.

go [w:] Pamięć Powstania ’44, pod. red. Rosalak M.,

Merta T., Kraków – Wrocław 2005.

portalwiedzy.onet.pl. Kraj I., Przewodnik po Muzeum Powstania Warszawskie-

newka A., Warszawa 2005. Roszkowski W., O potrzebie polskiej polityki historycznej

portalwiedzy.onet.pl.

2007.06.14]. Cichocki M., Polityka historyczna – za i przeciw, www.

M., Warszawa 2006. Polityka historyczna. Historycy – politycy – prasa, Pa-

go [w:] Pamięć Powstania ’44, pod. red. Rosalak M.,

onet.pl/,1581,1352888,czasopisma.html [odczyt:

Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, pod red. Matusiak

Kraj I., Przewodnik po Muzeum Powstania Warszawskie-

tyka historyczna - za i przeciw. http://portalwiedzy.

Stańczyk T., Warszawa 2005.

Cichocki M., Marek A., et. al. [Dok. elektr.] (2006), Poli-

Roszkowski W., O potrzebie polskiej polityki historycznej newka A., Warszawa 2005. Polityka historyczna. Historycy – politycy – prasa, PaM., Warszawa 2006. Odkryć historię – Zrozumieć wolność, pod red. Matusiak

Literatura historyczna, a także sposoby jej realizacji proponowane przez twórców Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego oraz ekipę Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego w czasach rządów PIS-u, mają swoich przeciwników, i mieć ich zapewne będą zawsze. Jest to jednak projekt, którego można i warto bronić, jako odwołującego się do patriotyzmu, zgodnego ze standardami współczesnej demokracji i ukierunkowanego na osiąganie celów przynoszących wymierne korzyści. Projekt zasługuje na swoje miejsce w polskiej przestrzeni publicznej nie jako jedynie słuszna wizja, którą należy narzucać, ale jako ważny głos w debacie nad kształtem nowoczesnego państwa oraz jego polityki. Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

dziano silnym kontrprojektem, przedstawiającym znajomość i przywiązanie do rodzimej historii jako rzecz niepotrzebną, czy wręcz szkodliwą. Uznano, że historią powinni zajmować się naukowcy, zamknięci w murach uczelni i nieprzedstawiający wyników swych badań ogółowi. Niestety siła oddziaływania tego poglądu jest na tyle duża, że w kraju – któremu na świecie zapomniano już nie tylko udziału w pokonaniu III Rzeszy, ale i wkładu w rozmonotowanie komunizmu, w którym znakomita większość obywateli nie potrafi zidentyfikować najprostszych historycznych dat – wiele osób uznaje, że o polskiej historii mówi się niepotrzebnie i za dużo. Koncepcja państwa wysuwana przez warszawskich konserwatystów, związana z nią polityka

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Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja Levan Khetaguri

N

iniejszy artykuł jest próbą zwięzłej prezentacji sposobu rozwoju kształtowania polityki kulturalnej Gruzji na przestrzeni ostatnich kilkunastu lat. Po krótkim wprowadzeniu historycznym przedstawione zostaną najważniejsze aspekty polityki kulturalnej z uwzględnieniem edukacji, działalności trzeciego sektora i turystyki kulturalnej.

Uwagi wstępne

P

rzede wszystkim na wstępie konieczne jest podkreślenie, że termin Region Kaukazu dotyczy krajów Kaukazu Południowego: Gruzji, Azerbejdżanu i Armenii, podczas gdy kraje Kaukazu Północnego określamy jako jego rosyjską część. Być może nie jest to właściwy moment, aby debatować nad zjawiskiem Kaukazu jako regionu, niemniej ważne wydaje się zwrócenie uwagi na jego znaczenie jako jednego z najstarszych regionów, swego rodzaju wyspy kulturalnej między cywilizacjami Wschodu i Zachodu, między dwoma morzami. Rola, jaką odgrywają kraje Kaukazu jest istotna nie tylko dla historii społeczeństw, ale też dla szkół ezoterycznych, historii, religii, rozmaitych ruchów okultystycznych Wschodu i Zachodu. Często zdarza się, że w miejscach atrakcyjnych z powodów ezoterycznych obserwujemy problemy wynikające z braku stabilności politycznej. Dobrym przykładem jest Bliski Wschód, który boryka się z wyzwaniami podobnymi do tych, które obecne są w regionie Kaukazu. Po upadku Związku Sowieckiego w 1991 r., który można uznać za ostatnie wyzwolenie, region Kaukazu wkroczył w fazę przemian. Tak zwany okres przemian, który wówczas się rozpoczął, przekształcił się w okres turbulencji, charakteryzowany przez konflikty regionalne i etniczne, wojny domowe, rewolucje, brak stabilności politycznej i inne poważne kłopoty. W pierwszej dekadzie XXI wieku mamy do czynienia z regionem, w którym konflikty zostały zamrożone, osiągnięto stabilizację oraz

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Tłumaczenie: Małgorzata Sternal

można zaobserwować zaangażowanie krajów Kaukazu w wielkie międzynarodowe projekty gospodarcze. Po tych ogólnych uwagach spróbuję nieco bardziej szczegółowo omówić zjawiska, które doprowadziły do obecnie panującej sytuacji w Gruzji.

Krótka historia

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zięki osiągnięciom kulturalnym i potencjałowi intelektualnemu, Gruzja była w Związku Sowieckim obszarem wyjątkowym. Ideologia sowiecka z jednej strony wspierała rozwój tak zwanej tożsamości kulturowej oraz istnienie grup etnicznych, natomiast z drugiej powoli i z rozmysłem prowadziła do eliminacji pamięci narodowej poszczególnych narodów wchodzących w skład państwa sowieckiego. Począwszy od historii aż do tożsamości narodowej wszystko było likwidowane po to, by państwo mogło być sprawnie prowadzone przez komunistyczną machinę, działającą obsesyjnie na rzecz stworzenia Homo Sovieticus. Dziś jasne jest, że mówiąc o polityce sowieckiej czy komunistycznej, powinniśmy w istocie mówić o neo-imperialistycznych ambicjach rosyjskich, które umiejętnie ukryto pod przebraniem idei socjalistycznych i komunistycznych. Aż do dziś rosyjski neo-imperializm pozostaje poważnym zagrożeniem dla cywilizowanej, niezależnej Europy i reszty świata, co bardzo dobrze ilustruje przykład wojny, do wybuchu której doszło w sierpniu 2008 r. Czy możliwe jest powiązanie polityki kulturalnej z wolnością? Jak duża jest zależność prawa do kultury z rozwojem polityki kulturalnej? Z dzisiejszego punktu widzenia jakiekolwiek gwarancje praw do kultury są takie same jak gwarancje ogólnych praw człowieka. Czy jesteśmy w stanie tworzyć politykę kulturalną w zgodzie z europejskimi wartościami demokratycznymi, podczas gdy potrzeba praw do kultury nie jest uznawana?

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prof. Levan Khetaguri Prorektor Gruzińskiego Państwowego Uniwersytetu Teatru i Filmu im. Szoty Rustawelego w Tbilisi. Koordynator i moderator gruzińskich i międzynarodowych programów kulturalnych, festiwali, konferencji, seminariów, warsztatów i wykładów otwartych. Producent i autor programów telewizyjnych. Napisał i opublikował ponad 80 prac naukowych i artykułów w profesjonalnych wydawnictwach, czasopismach i gazetach (po gruzińsku, rosyjsku, angielsku, azerbejdżańsku, białorusku, słowacku i innych językach); tłumacz kilku książek. Laureat wielu nagród i odznaczeń, między innymi nagrody Stowarzyszenia Szwedzkich Pisarzy (2000), dyplomu Akademii Nauk Związku Radzieckiego (1985), nagrody Gruzińskiej Akademii Nauk (1982). Członek wielu prestiżowych instytucji. W latach 1996-1997 dyrektor Międzynarodowych Programów Kulturalnych w gruzińskim Ministerstwie Kultury, w roku 2008 członek Europejskiego Parlamentu Kultury. W 2007 roku kierownik magisterskich

rzede wszystkim na wstępie konieczne jest podkreślenie, że termin Region Kaukazu dotyczy krajów Kaukazu Południowego: Gruzji, Azerbejdżanu i Armenii, podczas gdy kraje Kaukazu Północnego określamy jako jego rosyjską część. Być może nie jest to właściwy moment, aby debatować nad zjawiskiem Kaukazu jako regionu, niemniej ważne wydaje się zwrócenie uwagi na jego znaczenie jako jednego z najstarszych regionów, swego rodzaju wyspy kulturalnej między cywilizacjami Wschodu i Zachodu, między dwoma morzami. Rola, jaką odgrywają kraje Kaukazu jest istotna nie tylko dla historii społeczeństw, ale też dla szkół ezoterycznych, historii, religii, rozmaitych ruchów okultystycznych Wschodu i Zachodu. Często zdarza się, że w miejscach atrakcyjnych z powodów ezoterycznych obserwujemy problemy wynikające z braku stabilności politycznej. Dobrym przykładem jest Bliski Wschód, który boryka się z wyzwaniami podobnymi do tych, które obecne są w regionie Kaukazu. Po upadku Związku Sowieckiego w 1991 r., który można uznać za ostatnie wyzwolenie, region Kaukazu wkroczył w fazę przemian. Tak zwany okres przemian, który wówczas się rozpoczął, przekształcił się w okres turbulencji, charakteryzowany przez konflikty regionalne i etniczne, wojny domowe, rewolucje, brak stabilności politycznej i inne poważne kłopoty. W pierwszej dekadzie XXI wieku mamy do czynienia z regionem, w którym konflikty zostały zamrożone, osiągnięto stabilizację oraz

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Uwagi wstępne iniejszy artykuł jest próbą zwięzłej prezentacji sposobu rozwoju kształtowania polityki kulturalnej Gruzji na przestrzeni ostatnich kilkunastu lat. Po krótkim wprowadzeniu historycznym przedstawione zostaną najważniejsze aspekty polityki kulturalnej z uwzględnieniem edukacji, działalności trzeciego sektora i turystyki kulturalnej.

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Levan Khetaguri

zięki osiągnięciom kulturalnym i potencjałowi intelektualnemu, Gruzja była w Związku Sowieckim obszarem wyjątkowym. Ideologia sowiecka z jednej strony wspierała rozwój tak zwanej tożsamości kulturowej oraz istnienie grup etnicznych, natomiast z drugiej powoli i z rozmysłem prowadziła do eliminacji pamięci narodowej poszczególnych narodów wchodzących w skład państwa sowieckiego. Począwszy od historii aż do tożsamości narodowej wszystko było likwidowane po to, by państwo mogło być sprawnie prowadzone przez komunistyczną machinę, działającą obsesyjnie na rzecz stworzenia Homo Sovieticus. Dziś jasne jest, że mówiąc o polityce sowieckiej czy komunistycznej, powinniśmy w istocie mówić o neo-imperialistycznych ambicjach rosyjskich, które umiejętnie ukryto pod przebraniem idei socjalistycznych i komunistycznych. Aż do dziś rosyjski neo-imperializm pozostaje poważnym zagrożeniem dla cywilizowanej, niezależnej Europy i reszty świata, co bardzo dobrze ilustruje przykład wojny, do wybuchu której doszło w sierpniu 2008 r. Czy możliwe jest powiązanie polityki kulturalnej z wolnością? Jak duża jest zależność prawa do kultury z rozwojem polityki kulturalnej? Z dzisiejszego punktu widzenia jakiekolwiek gwarancje praw do kultury są takie same jak gwarancje ogólnych praw człowieka. Czy jesteśmy w stanie tworzyć politykę kulturalną w zgodzie z europejskimi wartościami demokratycznymi, podczas gdy potrzeba praw do kultury nie jest uznawana?

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Krótka historia można zaobserwować zaangażowanie krajów Kaukazu w wielkie międzynarodowe projekty gospodarcze. Po tych ogólnych uwagach spróbuję nieco bardziej szczegółowo omówić zjawiska, które doprowadziły do obecnie panującej sytuacji w Gruzji.

Tłumaczenie: Małgorzata Sternal

Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja

prof. Levan Khetaguri Prorektor Gruzińskiego Państwowego Uniwersytetu Teatru i Filmu im. Szoty Rustawelego w Tbilisi. Koordynator i moderator gruzińskich i międzynarodowych programów kulturalnych, festiwali, konferencji, seminariów, warsztatów i wykładów otwartych. Producent i autor programów telewizyjnych. Napisał i opublikował ponad 80 prac naukowych i artykułów w profesjonalnych wydawnictwach, czasopismach i gazetach (po gruzińsku, rosyjsku, angielsku, azerbejdżańsku, białorusku, słowacku i innych językach); tłumacz kilku książek. Laureat wielu nagród i odznaczeń, między innymi nagrody Stowarzyszenia Szwedzkich Pisarzy (2000), dyplomu Akademii Nauk Związku Radzieckiego (1985), nagrody Gruzińskiej Akademii Nauk (1982). Członek wielu prestiżowych instytucji. W latach 1996-1997 dyrektor Międzynarodowych Programów Kulturalnych w gruzińskim Ministerstwie Kultury, w roku 2008 członek Europejskiego Parlamentu Kultury. W 2007 roku kierownik magisterskich


Równocześnie obserwujemy pewne niepokojące tendencje zachodzące w wielu post-sowieckich krajach, takie jak na przykład przypadkowe wizyty zachodnich, amatorskich „ekspertów” (zarówno europejskich, jak i amerykańskich). W tej chwili powstrzymam się od podawania konkretnych sytuacji, gdy owi „eksperci” charakteryzujący się kompletną ignorancją instrumentów prawnych i specyfiki lokalnej, organizują szkolenia lub przedstawiają rekomendacje całkowicie niemające zastosowania w krajach będących w okresie przemian. Doskonałą ilustracją może być nieustający nacisk na wprowadzenie prawa dotyczącego ulg podatkowych dla podmiotów podejmujących się sponsoringu w obszarze kultury. Prawo to działa skutecznie w Stanach Zjednoczonych, lecz zapożyczenie go i wdrażanie w Gruzji stanowiłoby całkowity nonsens, byłoby zupełnie nieadekwatne do struktury systemu istniejącej infrastruktury politycznej i kulturalnej naszego kraju. W gruzińskich szkołach wyższych historia kształcenia zarządzania w kulturze rozpoczyna się w połowie lat 70. XX w. Nauczanie to w pełni korespondowało z sowieckimi tendencjami tamtych czasów i było podobne do rosyjskiego podejścia stosowanego na Wydziale Zarządzania Teatrem w Sankt Petersburgu, czy bardziej precyzyjnie rzecz ujmując „ekonomii i zarządzania teatrem”. Podejście to, w połączeniu ze współczesnym rozumieniem zarządzania teatrem, doprowadziło do uruchomienia studiów zarządzania w kulturze, także i na naszym uniwersytecie w Tbilisi. W ciągu dwóch dekad plan kształcenia przekształcił się w nowoczesny program zarządzania w kulturze. W latach 90. XX w., nadal na tle realiów sowieckich, dała się wyraźnie zauważyć potrzeba importowania zachodniej wiedzy i doświadczenia, ponieważ lokalna wiedza akademicka w dziedzinie zarządzania kulturą była niewystarczająca i nie spełniała współczesnych standardów. Próbowaliśmy praktycznie zastosować wiele pomysłów. W latach 1990–91 ja sam zainicjowałem pierwszy teatralny projekt oparty na kontrakcie, który nie odniósł komercyjnego sukcesu z powodu wielu nieprzewidzianych czynników. Główne znaczenie odegrał brak specyficznej wiedzy i praktyki w zakresie zarządzania kulturą, bowiem moje akademickie wykształcenie było wówczas – i nadal jest – teatrologiczne. Kolejnym działaniem było uruchomienie pierwszego w Gruzji ośrodka produkcyjnego o nazwie „ARTEX”, który – wyprzedzając swoje czasy osiągnął wiele – niemniej jednak nie pozostawał w zgodzie z lokalnym systemem prawnym

i „zachodnim” rynkiem (wówczas były to już inicjatywy niemodne na Zachodzie). Mogę zatem z całą pewnością powiedzieć, że moja wiedza o zarządzaniu rozwinęła się na skutek analizy własnych błędów. Wraz z moimi przyjaciółmi zdobyłem wiedzę o zarządzaniu w sferze kultury na Zachodzie. Pierwsze profesjonalne szkolenie w dziedzinie zarządzania zorganizowane zostało w Gruzji dopiero w roku 1998, jako inicjatywa wynikająca wyłącznie z mojej współpracy z partnerami w Holandii i Gruzji. Eksport doświadczeń europejskich lub amerykańskich do krajów post-sowieckich, szczególnie w sferze kultury, dla wielu międzynarodowych programów pomocowych nie był priorytetem. Tego rodzaju działania wspierane były przez Soros Foundation, kilka organizacji holenderskich oraz austriacki Kultur Kontakt. W pewnym momencie włączył się również British Council oraz Visiting Arts, ale nie przerodziło się to w systemowe wsparcie, które przyjęłoby zinstytucjonalizowaną formę, co zachodziło w innych dziedzinach życia gospodarczego i społecznego. Z mojego punktu widzenia, za taki stan rzeczy należy winić organizacje finansowo wspierające tego typu działalność. Proste odrzucenie kultury w kraju, który uzyskuje główną część swego przychodu narodowego z turystyki kulturalnej, oznacza zmarnowanie potencjału ludzkiego w tym obszarze. W procesie finansowego wspierania rozwoju demokracji, reform systemu prawnego i innych obszarów, kultura była jedyną dziedziną podlegającą wykluczeniu z owego wsparcia, co poskutkowało uformowaniem pokolenia polityków i urzędników administracji państwowej całkowicie niewrażliwych na kulturę (co z kolei stworzyło kolejne problemy). W krajach należących niegdyś do Związku Sowieckiego powszechna była definicja „ideologii”, którą mniej więcej wyrażano współczesne rozumienie polityki kulturalnej. Ale ta „ideologia” umożliwiała zarówno cenzurę, jak i stanowiła instrument politycznego nacisku oraz odbicie politycznych celów sowieckiego establishmentu. Począwszy od końca lat 60. XX Gruzja była swego rodzaju wyjątkiem w polityce sowieckiej. Przede wszystkim bardzo mocno zaznaczała się w życiu Gruzji obecność religii, z licznymi kościołami traktowanymi jako dziedzictwo kultury oraz instytucjami życia kulturalnego i religijnego. Równocześnie kultura gruzińska stanowiła silną motywację do zaznaczania własnej tożsamości w ramach imperium rosyjskiego, jako jedna z republik, której historia rozwijała się na przestrzeni trzech tysięcy lat, z własną tradycją oryginalnego języka i kultury.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

i doktoranckich studiów w Gruzińskim Państwowym Uniwersytecie Teatru i Filmu. Jako teatrolog uczestniczył w międzynarodowych wykładach i sympozjach w Rosji, Azerbejdżanie, Hiszpanii, Słowacji, Białorusi, Wielkiej Brytanii. Prowadził kursy uniwersyteckie z zakresu powszechnej historii teatru, teorii dramatu, teorii krytyki, teatru XX wieku, historii cywilizacji europejskiej, zarządzania sztukami widowiskowymi. Od 1999 roku jako ekspert z zakresu m.in. zarządzania, sponsoringu, międzynarodowej współpracy dotyczącej sztuki i polityki kulturalnej współpracował z ośrodkami w Erywaniu, Baku, Sofii, Biszkeku, Wilnie, Kijowie, Gorlitz, Goteborgu, St. Petersburgu.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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i „zachodnim” rynkiem (wówczas były to już inicjatywy niemodne na Zachodzie). Mogę zatem z całą pewnością powiedzieć, że moja wiedza o zarządzaniu rozwinęła się na skutek analizy własnych błędów. Wraz z moimi przyjaciółmi zdobyłem wiedzę o zarządzaniu w sferze kultury na Zachodzie. Pierwsze profesjonalne szkolenie w dziedzinie zarządzania zorganizowane zostało w Gruzji dopiero w roku 1998, jako inicjatywa wynikająca wyłącznie z mojej współpracy z partnerami w Holandii i Gruzji. Eksport doświadczeń europejskich lub amerykańskich do krajów post-sowieckich, szczególnie w sferze kultury, dla wielu międzynarodowych programów pomocowych nie był priorytetem. Tego rodzaju działania wspierane były przez Soros Foundation, kilka organizacji holenderskich oraz austriacki Kultur Kontakt. W pewnym momencie włączył się również British Council oraz Visiting Arts, ale nie przerodziło się to w systemowe wsparcie, które przyjęłoby zinstytucjonalizowaną formę, co zachodziło w innych dziedzinach życia gospodarczego i społecznego. Z mojego punktu widzenia, za taki stan rzeczy należy winić organizacje finansowo wspierające tego typu działalność. Proste odrzucenie kultury w kraju, który uzyskuje główną część swego przychodu narodowego z turystyki kulturalnej, oznacza zmarnowanie potencjału ludzkiego w tym obszarze. W procesie finansowego wspierania rozwoju demokracji, reform systemu prawnego i innych obszarów, kultura była jedyną dziedziną podlegającą wykluczeniu z owego wsparcia, co poskutkowało uformowaniem pokolenia polityków i urzędników administracji państwowej całkowicie niewrażliwych na kulturę (co z kolei stworzyło kolejne problemy). W krajach należących niegdyś do Związku Sowieckiego powszechna była definicja „ideologii”, którą mniej więcej wyrażano współczesne rozumienie polityki kulturalnej. Ale ta „ideologia” umożliwiała zarówno cenzurę, jak i stanowiła instrument politycznego nacisku oraz odbicie politycznych celów sowieckiego establishmentu. Począwszy od końca lat 60. XX Gruzja była swego rodzaju wyjątkiem w polityce sowieckiej. Przede wszystkim bardzo mocno zaznaczała się w życiu Gruzji obecność religii, z licznymi kościołami traktowanymi jako dziedzictwo kultury oraz instytucjami życia kulturalnego i religijnego. Równocześnie kultura gruzińska stanowiła silną motywację do zaznaczania własnej tożsamości w ramach imperium rosyjskiego, jako jedna z republik, której historia rozwijała się na przestrzeni trzech tysięcy lat, z własną tradycją oryginalnego języka i kultury.

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i doktoranckich studiów w Gruzińskim Państwowym Uniwersytecie Teatru i Filmu. Jako teatrolog uczestniczył w międzynarodowych wykładach i sympozjach w Rosji, Azerbejdżanie, Hiszpanii, Słowacji, Białorusi, Wielkiej Brytanii. Prowadził kursy uniwersyteckie z zakresu powszechnej historii teatru, teorii dramatu, teorii krytyki, teatru XX wieku, historii cywilizacji europejskiej, zarządzania sztukami widowiskowymi. Od 1999 roku jako ekspert z zakresu m.in. zarządzania, sponsoringu, międzynarodowej współpracy dotyczącej sztuki i polityki kulturalnej współpracował z ośrodkami w Erywaniu, Baku, Sofii, Biszkeku, Wilnie, Kijowie, Gorlitz, Goteborgu, St. Petersburgu.

Równocześnie obserwujemy pewne niepokojące tendencje zachodzące w wielu post-sowieckich krajach, takie jak na przykład przypadkowe wizyty zachodnich, amatorskich „ekspertów” (zarówno europejskich, jak i amerykańskich). W tej chwili powstrzymam się od podawania konkretnych sytuacji, gdy owi „eksperci” charakteryzujący się kompletną ignorancją instrumentów prawnych i specyfiki lokalnej, organizują szkolenia lub przedstawiają rekomendacje całkowicie niemające zastosowania w krajach będących w okresie przemian. Doskonałą ilustracją może być nieustający nacisk na wprowadzenie prawa dotyczącego ulg podatkowych dla podmiotów podejmujących się sponsoringu w obszarze kultury. Prawo to działa skutecznie w Stanach Zjednoczonych, lecz zapożyczenie go i wdrażanie w Gruzji stanowiłoby całkowity nonsens, byłoby zupełnie nieadekwatne do struktury systemu istniejącej infrastruktury politycznej i kulturalnej naszego kraju. W gruzińskich szkołach wyższych historia kształcenia zarządzania w kulturze rozpoczyna się w połowie lat 70. XX w. Nauczanie to w pełni korespondowało z sowieckimi tendencjami tamtych czasów i było podobne do rosyjskiego podejścia stosowanego na Wydziale Zarządzania Teatrem w Sankt Petersburgu, czy bardziej precyzyjnie rzecz ujmując „ekonomii i zarządzania teatrem”. Podejście to, w połączeniu ze współczesnym rozumieniem zarządzania teatrem, doprowadziło do uruchomienia studiów zarządzania w kulturze, także i na naszym uniwersytecie w Tbilisi. W ciągu dwóch dekad plan kształcenia przekształcił się w nowoczesny program zarządzania w kulturze. W latach 90. XX w., nadal na tle realiów sowieckich, dała się wyraźnie zauważyć potrzeba importowania zachodniej wiedzy i doświadczenia, ponieważ lokalna wiedza akademicka w dziedzinie zarządzania kulturą była niewystarczająca i nie spełniała współczesnych standardów. Próbowaliśmy praktycznie zastosować wiele pomysłów. W latach 1990–91 ja sam zainicjowałem pierwszy teatralny projekt oparty na kontrakcie, który nie odniósł komercyjnego sukcesu z powodu wielu nieprzewidzianych czynników. Główne znaczenie odegrał brak specyficznej wiedzy i praktyki w zakresie zarządzania kulturą, bowiem moje akademickie wykształcenie było wówczas – i nadal jest – teatrologiczne. Kolejnym działaniem było uruchomienie pierwszego w Gruzji ośrodka produkcyjnego o nazwie „ARTEX”, który – wyprzedzając swoje czasy osiągnął wiele – niemniej jednak nie pozostawał w zgodzie z lokalnym systemem prawnym


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Podsumowując, możemy powiedzieć, że sytuacja w Gruzji rozwijała się w następujący sposób: kraj zorientowany był narodowo, z położeniem punktu ciężkości na zachowanie religii i języka. Silne poczucie tożsamości oparte jest na tysiącach lat kultury narodowej. Po upadku Związku Sowieckiego, kraj wkroczył w długi okres przemian, nacechowany wstrząsami powodowanymi przez rewolucje, konflikty etniczne itp. Pierwsze debaty na temat polityki kulturalnej zapoczątkowane zostały w roku 1996. Po okresie zdobywania europejskich doświadczeń (studia w Amsterdamie), zajmowałem kluczowe stanowisko w ministerstwie kultury i zdołałem zorganizować pierwszą konferencję poświęconą problematyce polityki kulturalnej w Gruzji. O ile dobrze pamiętam, była to pierwsza tego typu konferencja w całym regionie Kaukazu. Państwo powróciło do tych problemów dopiero po roku 2001.

Działalność organizacji pozarządowych w Gruzji

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ależy podkreślić znaczenie rozwoju sektora organizacji pozarządowych nie tylko dla utworzenia społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, lecz także dla samej polityki kulturalnej w krajach post-sowieckich. Jestem przekonany, że moje własne doświadczenie może posłużyć za dobry przykład działalności organizacji pozarządowych w Gruzji. W roku 1997, wspólnie z kolegami holenderskimi i gruzińskimi, założyliśmy w Amsterdamie fundację Stichting Caucasus Foundation (SCF), jako międzynarodową organizację działającą według prawa holenderskiego, z siedzibą w Holandii. W niedługim czasie SCF zainicjowała kilka bardzo ważnych projektów regionalnych: MM International Bureau for Caucasian Cultural Programs (IBCCP) – prawne przedstawicielstwo SCF w regionie Kaukazu, MM Caucasian Spring University – międzynarodowe centrum szkoleniowe, MM wydawnictwo, MM Caucasian Arts Managers Network (CAMN) sieć menedżerów kultury w regionie Kaukazu, MM Culture Video Center (CVC) – ogromny, archiwalny ośrodek kultury, MM Consulting and Management Centre – Centrum Konsultingu i Zarządzania, MM International Culture Fair (ICF) – multidyscyplinarne targi kultury.1

Polityka kulturalna w okresie przemian – rola Rady Europy

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roku 1999 Gruzja przystąpiła do Rady Europy (Council of Europe – CoE). Działalność Rady Europy w Gruzji – i ogólnie w całym Kaukazie – począwszy od roku 2000, skupiała się głównie na rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w regionie. W latach 2000–2001 stworzono dla Kaukazu program Rady Europy o nazwie STAGE. Początkowo służył on szkoleniom personelu ministerstwa poprzez organizacje pozarządowe, ale w obliczu niezadowolenia i niechęci ze strony administracji kulturalnej, autorzy programu wycofali się i stracili obiektywne spojrzenie, służąc politycznej koniunkturze, a nie wartościom czy potrzebom społecznym. Ministerstwo Kultury nie potrafiło znaleźć sposobu na rozwój współpracy regionalnej czy też dialog z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Pierwsze dokumenty dotyczące polityki kulturalnej napisane w latach 2002–2003 ukazały się w roku 2003, kiedy zorganizowano narodową debatę o polityce kulturalnej. Wydarzenie to, przygotowane wspólnie z Radą Europy, było ważną inicjatywą, ale nie doczekało się żadnej kontynuacji, ponieważ pod koniec roku 2003 nastąpiła zmiana rządu, a wkrótce potem kryzys polityczny. Jeśli chodzi o informację na temat polityki kulturalnej w Gruzji w publikowanym przez Radę Europy Compendium (Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe) – zespół przygotowujący profil gruziński stworzony został przez urzędników miejskiej administracji bez jakichkolwiek praktycznych umiejętności w zarządzaniu kulturą, bez doświadczenia badawczego w dziedzinie polityki kulturalnej, jak również bez zaangażowania lokalnych ekspertów. Stworzony w ten sposób dokument był oparty głównie na przeniesieniu europejskich wzorców i nie posiadał żadnego praktycznego użytku dla Gruzji, co więcej, nie jestem pewien, czy mógłby być użyty przez ekspertów poza naszym krajem. Dokument ten nigdy nie został wykorzystany w praktyce. Wydaje się, że głównymi błędami Rady Europy były alians z lokalną władzą, ignorowanie potrzeb społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i pominięcie miejscowych, niezależnych ekspertów. W roku 2003, rząd – z którym Rada Europy pozostawała w przyjaznych relacjach – został obalony przez Rewolucję Róż z powodu panującej w nim korupcji. Po tych wydarzeniach nie obserwowaliśmy działań Rady Europy w kwestii polityki kulturalnej w Gruzji.

Więcej informacji o każdym z tych projektów można znaleźć na stronie internetowej SCF: http://www.caucasusfoundation.ge

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Więcej informacji o każdym z tych projektów można znaleźć na stronie internetowej SCF: http://www.caucasusfoundation.ge

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ależy podkreślić znaczenie rozwoju sektora organizacji pozarządowych nie tylko dla utworzenia społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, lecz także dla samej polityki kulturalnej w krajach post-sowieckich. Jestem przekonany, że moje własne doświadczenie może posłużyć za dobry przykład działalności organizacji pozarządowych w Gruzji. W roku 1997, wspólnie z kolegami holenderskimi i gruzińskimi, założyliśmy w Amsterdamie fundację Stichting Caucasus Foundation (SCF), jako międzynarodową organizację działającą według prawa holenderskiego, z siedzibą w Holandii. W niedługim czasie SCF zainicjowała kilka bardzo ważnych projektów regionalnych: MM International Bureau for Caucasian Cultural Programs (IBCCP) – prawne przedstawicielstwo SCF w regionie Kaukazu, MM Caucasian Spring University – międzynarodowe centrum szkoleniowe, MM wydawnictwo, MM Caucasian Arts Managers Network (CAMN) sieć menedżerów kultury w regionie Kaukazu, MM Culture Video Center (CVC) – ogromny, archiwalny ośrodek kultury, MM Consulting and Management Centre – Centrum Konsultingu i Zarządzania, MM International Culture Fair (ICF) – multidyscyplinarne targi kultury.1

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Działalność organizacji pozarządowych w Gruzji Podsumowując, możemy powiedzieć, że sytuacja w Gruzji rozwijała się w następujący sposób: kraj zorientowany był narodowo, z położeniem punktu ciężkości na zachowanie religii i języka. Silne poczucie tożsamości oparte jest na tysiącach lat kultury narodowej. Po upadku Związku Sowieckiego, kraj wkroczył w długi okres przemian, nacechowany wstrząsami powodowanymi przez rewolucje, konflikty etniczne itp. Pierwsze debaty na temat polityki kulturalnej zapoczątkowane zostały w roku 1996. Po okresie zdobywania europejskich doświadczeń (studia w Amsterdamie), zajmowałem kluczowe stanowisko w ministerstwie kultury i zdołałem zorganizować pierwszą konferencję poświęconą problematyce polityki kulturalnej w Gruzji. O ile dobrze pamiętam, była to pierwsza tego typu konferencja w całym regionie Kaukazu. Państwo powróciło do tych problemów dopiero po roku 2001.

roku 1999 Gruzja przystąpiła do Rady Europy (Council of Europe – CoE). Działalność Rady Europy w Gruzji – i ogólnie w całym Kaukazie – począwszy od roku 2000, skupiała się głównie na rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w regionie. W latach 2000–2001 stworzono dla Kaukazu program Rady Europy o nazwie STAGE. Początkowo służył on szkoleniom personelu ministerstwa poprzez organizacje pozarządowe, ale w obliczu niezadowolenia i niechęci ze strony administracji kulturalnej, autorzy programu wycofali się i stracili obiektywne spojrzenie, służąc politycznej koniunkturze, a nie wartościom czy potrzebom społecznym. Ministerstwo Kultury nie potrafiło znaleźć sposobu na rozwój współpracy regionalnej czy też dialog z organizacjami pozarządowymi. Pierwsze dokumenty dotyczące polityki kulturalnej napisane w latach 2002–2003 ukazały się w roku 2003, kiedy zorganizowano narodową debatę o polityce kulturalnej. Wydarzenie to, przygotowane wspólnie z Radą Europy, było ważną inicjatywą, ale nie doczekało się żadnej kontynuacji, ponieważ pod koniec roku 2003 nastąpiła zmiana rządu, a wkrótce potem kryzys polityczny. Jeśli chodzi o informację na temat polityki kulturalnej w Gruzji w publikowanym przez Radę Europy Compendium (Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe) – zespół przygotowujący profil gruziński stworzony został przez urzędników miejskiej administracji bez jakichkolwiek praktycznych umiejętności w zarządzaniu kulturą, bez doświadczenia badawczego w dziedzinie polityki kulturalnej, jak również bez zaangażowania lokalnych ekspertów. Stworzony w ten sposób dokument był oparty głównie na przeniesieniu europejskich wzorców i nie posiadał żadnego praktycznego użytku dla Gruzji, co więcej, nie jestem pewien, czy mógłby być użyty przez ekspertów poza naszym krajem. Dokument ten nigdy nie został wykorzystany w praktyce. Wydaje się, że głównymi błędami Rady Europy były alians z lokalną władzą, ignorowanie potrzeb społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i pominięcie miejscowych, niezależnych ekspertów. W roku 2003, rząd – z którym Rada Europy pozostawała w przyjaznych relacjach – został obalony przez Rewolucję Róż z powodu panującej w nim korupcji. Po tych wydarzeniach nie obserwowaliśmy działań Rady Europy w kwestii polityki kulturalnej w Gruzji.

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Polityka kulturalna w okresie przemian – rola Rady Europy


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Polityka od roku 2003

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Instrumenty prawne Zmiany oraz wzrost dochodów z turystyki można zaobserwować nie tylko w stolicy, Tbilisi, lecz także w innych wiodących miastach: Batumi, Signagi, Zugdidi, Kutaisi. Egzotyczne części Gruzji, obejmujące rozmaite wioski górskie w regionach Svaneti, Khevsureti czy Tusheti, również stały się bardzo atrakcyjne dla turystów krajowych i zagranicznych. Należy tu jednak podkreślić, że począwszy od roku 2008 państwo ponownie dokonuje centralizacji struktur oraz zakłada nowe, monopolistyczne instytucje państwowe w sferze kultury.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

ocząwszy od lat 90. XX w. parlament gruziński przyjął następujące ustawy: MM ustawę o kulturze, MM ustawę o artystycznych związkach twórczych, MM ustawę o dziedzictwie kultury, MM ustawę o teatrach (ostatnio nowelizowana w latach 2006–07), która zachęca do wprowadzania funkcji tak zwanych „intendentów” – dyrektorów naczelnych lub administratorów, drogą otwartych konkursów. Pierwszych administratorów wyłonionych w ten sposób zatrudniono w 2007 r. Ważne wydaje się zwrócenie uwagi na fakt, że pomimo wejścia w życie wymienionych ustaw, nadal mamy do czynienia z decyzjami – takimi, jak sprzedaż nieruchomości należących do związków twórczych – mającymi charakter polityczny.

inisterstwo podjęło decyzję o utworzeniu narodowych instytucji w różnych dziedzinach sztuki, jako priorytet państwowej polityki kulturalnej. Przykładami tego typu instytucji są: Narodowe Centrum Filmowe, Narodowe Centrum Muzealne, Narodowe Centrum Muzyki itd. Narodowe Centrum Filmowe działające jako Fundacja Filmowa, zajmuje się dystrybucją funduszy państwowych poprzez decyzje rady ekspertów (podobnie jak dzieje się to na przykład we Francji). Natomiast inne centra narodowe usiłują monopolizować fundusze i przeznaczać je na budowanie struktur biurokratycznych, zamiast prowadzić podział środków poprzez granty i decyzje eksperckie. Instytucje te centralizują działania w swoich obszarach, co stanowi bardzo złą praktykę. W roku 2009 miasto Tbilisi ustanowiło Centrum Festiwalowe, niestety bez wcześniejszych badań lub dyskusji z ekspertami. W efekcie Centrum to zmonopolizowało działania festiwalowe w mieście, co jest właśnie przykładem wspomnianych złych praktyk.

Polityka instytucji narodowych

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Polityka instytucji narodowych

roku 2004 Ministerstwo Kultury stworzyło po raz pierwszy radę ekspertów. Uległa zmianie nazwa ministerstwa, siedziba, wymieniono około 65–70% personelu, utworzono nowe departamenty i przygotowano strategię rozwoju. Jednocześnie Ministerstwo stało się bardziej polityczne aniżeli profesjonalne, zgodnie ze zmianami prawnymi wprowadzanymi przez nowy rząd. Nazwę ministerstwa zmieniono na: Ministerstwo Kultury, Ochrony Zabytków i Sportu (później dodano do niej również Departament Młodzieży). W roku 2004 ministerstwo zainicjowało program wspierania kultury i organizacje pozarządowe mogły odtąd ubiegać się o dofinansowanie w ramach konkursów, do których przystępowały na równych prawach wraz z organizacjami państwowymi. W pierwszej rundzie konkursowej na realizację poszczególnych programów priorytetowych przeznaczono następujące kwoty: MM dziedzictwo kulturowe – 200 000$, MM teatr – 150 000$, MM muzyka – 150 000$, MM literatura – 100 000$, MM centrum filmowe – 400 000$. Są to przybliżone kwoty pokazujące proporcje państwowego finansowania w oparciu o wnioski instytucji poza stałymi subsydiami, jakie organizacje otrzymywały w roku 2004. W latach 90. XX w. rozpoczął się w Gruzji proces decentralizacji. Od tego czasu ustalone zostały trzy poziomy władzy: MM centralny – ministerialny lub federalny, MM regionalny, MM municypalny. Spośród około 60 (państwowych i prywatnych) teatrów w Gruzji jedynie niewiele ponad 10% finansowanych jest na poziomie federalnym. Pozostałe finansuje się z innych źródeł.

procesie decentralizacji wdrażanym w Gruzji zaobserwować można następujące elementy: MM rozwój różnych miast, MM państwowe finansowanie nowych inwestycji związanych z renowacją miast, MM inwestycje państwa w komunikację, drogi federalne, ochronę budynków, MM departament turystyki stał się częścią ministerstwa gospodarki, MM atrakcje turystyczne stanowią priorytet dla rad miejskich.

ocząwszy od lat 90. XX w. parlament gruziński przyjął następujące ustawy: MM ustawę o kulturze, MM ustawę o artystycznych związkach twórczych, MM ustawę o dziedzictwie kultury, MM ustawę o teatrach (ostatnio nowelizowana w latach 2006–07), która zachęca do wprowadzania funkcji tak zwanych „intendentów” – dyrektorów naczelnych lub administratorów, drogą otwartych konkursów. Pierwszych administratorów wyłonionych w ten sposób zatrudniono w 2007 r. Ważne wydaje się zwrócenie uwagi na fakt, że pomimo wejścia w życie wymienionych ustaw, nadal mamy do czynienia z decyzjami – takimi, jak sprzedaż nieruchomości należących do związków twórczych – mającymi charakter polityczny.

Jak przebiegał proces decentralizacji?

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Jak przebiegał proces decentralizacji?

Instrumenty prawne

inisterstwo podjęło decyzję o utworzeniu narodowych instytucji w różnych dziedzinach sztuki, jako priorytet państwowej polityki kulturalnej. Przykładami tego typu instytucji są: Narodowe Centrum Filmowe, Narodowe Centrum Muzealne, Narodowe Centrum Muzyki itd. Narodowe Centrum Filmowe działające jako Fundacja Filmowa, zajmuje się dystrybucją funduszy państwowych poprzez decyzje rady ekspertów (podobnie jak dzieje się to na przykład we Francji). Natomiast inne centra narodowe usiłują monopolizować fundusze i przeznaczać je na budowanie struktur biurokratycznych, zamiast prowadzić podział środków poprzez granty i decyzje eksperckie. Instytucje te centralizują działania w swoich obszarach, co stanowi bardzo złą praktykę. W roku 2009 miasto Tbilisi ustanowiło Centrum Festiwalowe, niestety bez wcześniejszych badań lub dyskusji z ekspertami. W efekcie Centrum to zmonopolizowało działania festiwalowe w mieście, co jest właśnie przykładem wspomnianych złych praktyk.

roku 2004 Ministerstwo Kultury stworzyło po raz pierwszy radę ekspertów. Uległa zmianie nazwa ministerstwa, siedziba, wymieniono około 65–70% personelu, utworzono nowe departamenty i przygotowano strategię rozwoju. Jednocześnie Ministerstwo stało się bardziej polityczne aniżeli profesjonalne, zgodnie ze zmianami prawnymi wprowadzanymi przez nowy rząd. Nazwę ministerstwa zmieniono na: Ministerstwo Kultury, Ochrony Zabytków i Sportu (później dodano do niej również Departament Młodzieży). W roku 2004 ministerstwo zainicjowało program wspierania kultury i organizacje pozarządowe mogły odtąd ubiegać się o dofinansowanie w ramach konkursów, do których przystępowały na równych prawach wraz z organizacjami państwowymi. W pierwszej rundzie konkursowej na realizację poszczególnych programów priorytetowych przeznaczono następujące kwoty: MM dziedzictwo kulturowe – 200 000$, MM teatr – 150 000$, MM muzyka – 150 000$, MM literatura – 100 000$, MM centrum filmowe – 400 000$. Są to przybliżone kwoty pokazujące proporcje państwowego finansowania w oparciu o wnioski instytucji poza stałymi subsydiami, jakie organizacje otrzymywały w roku 2004. W latach 90. XX w. rozpoczął się w Gruzji proces decentralizacji. Od tego czasu ustalone zostały trzy poziomy władzy: MM centralny – ministerialny lub federalny, MM regionalny, MM municypalny. Spośród około 60 (państwowych i prywatnych) teatrów w Gruzji jedynie niewiele ponad 10% finansowanych jest na poziomie federalnym. Pozostałe finansuje się z innych źródeł.

procesie decentralizacji wdrażanym w Gruzji zaobserwować można następujące elementy: MM rozwój różnych miast, MM państwowe finansowanie nowych inwestycji związanych z renowacją miast, MM inwestycje państwa w komunikację, drogi federalne, ochronę budynków, MM departament turystyki stał się częścią ministerstwa gospodarki, atrakcje turystyczne stanowią priorytet dla rad miejskich.

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Zmiany oraz wzrost dochodów z turystyki można zaobserwować nie tylko w stolicy, Tbilisi, lecz także w innych wiodących miastach: Batumi, Signagi, Zugdidi, Kutaisi. Egzotyczne części Gruzji, obejmujące rozmaite wioski górskie w regionach Svaneti, Khevsureti czy Tusheti, również stały się bardzo atrakcyjne dla turystów krajowych i zagranicznych. Należy tu jednak podkreślić, że począwszy od roku 2008 państwo ponownie dokonuje centralizacji struktur oraz zakłada nowe, monopolistyczne instytucje państwowe w sferze kultury.

MM

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Polityka od roku 2003


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Priorytety od roku 2006

Turystyka jako priorytet

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d roku 2006 sformułowano kilka wyraźnych priorytetów polityki kulturalnej. Dotyczą one głównie trzech obszarów: dziedzictwa kultury, kultury młodzieżowej i edukacji oraz folkloru gruzińskiego. W sferze dziedzictwa kultury punkt ciężkości położono na dziedzictwo materialne, włączając w to katedry, inne budynki zabytkowe oraz rękopisy. Edukacja i animacja kulturalna pozostają w centrum działalności młodzieżowych obozów letnich i szkół. Tradycyjna kultura Gruzji, obejmująca taniec i muzykę polifoniczną, wspierana jest poprzez dofinansowanie przyznawane w celu nabycia niezbędnych instrumentów i wyposażenia zespołów tanecznych i muzycznych. Niestety nie można powiedzieć, że wspomniane priorytety wyznaczone zostały poprzez debaty ekspertów czy z udziałem społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, nie wspominając już o udziale obywateli na poziomie lokalnym. Jest to raczej decyzja administracji państwowej, być może poparta profesjonalną wiedzą, ale nie uwzględniająca debaty publicznej czy też, o czym wspomniano wcześniej, udziału ekspertów niezależnych. W 2006 roku prezydent Gruzji powołał „Państwową Radę Kultury i Sztuki” oraz „Prezydencki Fundusz Kultury”. Żałować jednak należy, że te ważne inicjatywy nie zostały w pełni wdrożone, a tym samym, pozostając jedynie na papierze, nie funkcjonują w praktyce.

Sektor prywatny i polityka kulturalna

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jawisko wspierania kultury ze źródeł prywatnych zaistniało po upadku Związku Sowieckiego, w latach 90. Zamożni Gruzini z rozmaitych krajów dofinansowali renowacje wszystkich teatrów w Tbilisi oraz głównych ośrodków kultury w całym kraju, jak również zabytków sakralnych. Większość z nich jest własnością gruzińskiego kościoła prawosławnego. Wysokość prywatnych dotacji przekracza 100 mln dolarów amerykańskich. Prywatne wsparcie oferowane jest również w celu pokrycia kosztów wynagrodzeń personelu pracującego w ośrodkach odnowionych na koszt prywatnych fundatorów. Ważna część prywatnych dotacji kierowana jest na cele renowacji zabytkowych manuskryptów, ikon, katedr, ekspedycji archeologicznych itd.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

urystyka pozostaje w zakresie odpowiedzialności Ministerstwa Gospodarki, ale dane statystyczne pokazują, że większość wizyt turystycznych w Gruzji zorientowana jest na działania kulturalne. W przemyśle turystycznym obserwujemy następujące tendencje: MM turystyka kulturalna, MM polityka miejska, prowadząca do rozwoju miast jako atrakcji turystycznych. Inwestycje na poziomie centralnym zostały dokonane nie tylko w stolicy, lecz także w innych miastach Gruzji, wcześniej już wspomnianych (Signagi, Zugdidi, Batumi, Kutaisi). W Tbilisi powstała nowa dzielnica administracyjna miasta, obejmująca „Stare Miasto”. Dla tego regionu powstał generalny plan renowacji oraz wprowadzania produktów turystycznych, takich jak nowe formy zwiedzania miasta z przewodnikiem, oferowane nie tylko gościom zagranicznym, ale też turystom krajowym. Turystyka kulturalna przechodzi obecnie okres ożywionego wzrostu a statystyki pokazują, że liczba turystów zwiększyła się znacznie na przestrzeni ostatnich lat. Dotyczy to zarówno turystów zagranicznych (wzrost o 85%), turystów z krajów Kaukazu (wzrost o 35%), jak i turystów krajowych (wzrost o 40%). Oczywiście rosyjska interwencja militarna w sierpniu 2008 roku miała bardzo negatywne skutki dla rozwoju turystyki, zwłaszcza w przypadku turystów zagranicznych. Ponadto wprowadzane są specjalne programy dla studentów i uczniów, zachęcające do poznawania własnego kraju. Programy te realizowane są przez studenckie organizacje pozarządowe i finansowane ze źródeł rządowych lub uniwersyteckich.

Priorytety polityki kulturalnej państwa w roku 2007

N

owe priorytety w polityce kulturalnej państwa pojawiły się na początku roku 2007. Poprzez inicjatywę zatytułowaną „Sezony Gruzińskie”, próbuje się promować Gruzję i kulturę gruzińską za granicami kraju. Przyjmuje to zazwyczaj formę festiwali kultury, wystaw, projektów współpracy, itp. Przykładowo, słynna wystawa zatytułowana „Kolkh’s Gold”, prezentująca zbiory muzeów gruzińskich, pokazana została w Niemczech, Francji, kilku innych krajach europejskich oraz w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Gruzja zaczęła prezentować swoich twórców na rozmaitych międzynarodowych imprezach

293

jawisko wspierania kultury ze źródeł prywatnych zaistniało po upadku Związku Sowieckiego, w latach 90. Zamożni Gruzini z rozmaitych krajów dofinansowali renowacje wszystkich teatrów w Tbilisi oraz głównych ośrodków kultury w całym kraju, jak również zabytków sakralnych. Większość z nich jest własnością gruzińskiego kościoła prawosławnego. Wysokość prywatnych dotacji przekracza 100 mln dolarów amerykańskich. Prywatne wsparcie oferowane jest również w celu pokrycia kosztów wynagrodzeń personelu pracującego w ośrodkach odnowionych na koszt prywatnych fundatorów. Ważna część prywatnych dotacji kierowana jest na cele renowacji zabytkowych manuskryptów, ikon, katedr, ekspedycji archeologicznych itd.

Z

owe priorytety w polityce kulturalnej państwa pojawiły się na początku roku 2007. Poprzez inicjatywę zatytułowaną „Sezony Gruzińskie”, próbuje się promować Gruzję i kulturę gruzińską za granicami kraju. Przyjmuje to zazwyczaj formę festiwali kultury, wystaw, projektów współpracy, itp. Przykładowo, słynna wystawa zatytułowana „Kolkh’s Gold”, prezentująca zbiory muzeów gruzińskich, pokazana została w Niemczech, Francji, kilku innych krajach europejskich oraz w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Gruzja zaczęła prezentować swoich twórców na rozmaitych międzynarodowych imprezach

N

Priorytety polityki kulturalnej państwa w roku 2007 urystyka pozostaje w zakresie odpowiedzialności Ministerstwa Gospodarki, ale dane statystyczne pokazują, że większość wizyt turystycznych w Gruzji zorientowana jest na działania kulturalne. W przemyśle turystycznym obserwujemy następujące tendencje: MM turystyka kulturalna, MM polityka miejska, prowadząca do rozwoju miast jako atrakcji turystycznych. Inwestycje na poziomie centralnym zostały dokonane nie tylko w stolicy, lecz także w innych miastach Gruzji, wcześniej już wspomnianych (Signagi, Zugdidi, Batumi, Kutaisi). W Tbilisi powstała nowa dzielnica administracyjna miasta, obejmująca „Stare Miasto”. Dla tego regionu powstał generalny plan renowacji oraz wprowadzania produktów turystycznych, takich jak nowe formy zwiedzania miasta z przewodnikiem, oferowane nie tylko gościom zagranicznym, ale też turystom krajowym. Turystyka kulturalna przechodzi obecnie okres ożywionego wzrostu a statystyki pokazują, że liczba turystów zwiększyła się znacznie na przestrzeni ostatnich lat. Dotyczy to zarówno turystów zagranicznych (wzrost o 85%), turystów z krajów Kaukazu (wzrost o 35%), jak i turystów krajowych (wzrost o 40%). Oczywiście rosyjska interwencja militarna w sierpniu 2008 roku miała bardzo negatywne skutki dla rozwoju turystyki, zwłaszcza w przypadku turystów zagranicznych. Ponadto wprowadzane są specjalne programy dla studentów i uczniów, zachęcające do poznawania własnego kraju. Programy te realizowane są przez studenckie organizacje pozarządowe i finansowane ze źródeł rządowych lub uniwersyteckich.

d roku 2006 sformułowano kilka wyraźnych priorytetów polityki kulturalnej. Dotyczą one głównie trzech obszarów: dziedzictwa kultury, kultury młodzieżowej i edukacji oraz folkloru gruzińskiego. W sferze dziedzictwa kultury punkt ciężkości położono na dziedzictwo materialne, włączając w to katedry, inne budynki zabytkowe oraz rękopisy. Edukacja i animacja kulturalna pozostają w centrum działalności młodzieżowych obozów letnich i szkół. Tradycyjna kultura Gruzji, obejmująca taniec i muzykę polifoniczną, wspierana jest poprzez dofinansowanie przyznawane w celu nabycia niezbędnych instrumentów i wyposażenia zespołów tanecznych i muzycznych. Niestety nie można powiedzieć, że wspomniane priorytety wyznaczone zostały poprzez debaty ekspertów czy z udziałem społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, nie wspominając już o udziale obywateli na poziomie lokalnym. Jest to raczej decyzja administracji państwowej, być może poparta profesjonalną wiedzą, ale nie uwzględniająca debaty publicznej czy też, o czym wspomniano wcześniej, udziału ekspertów niezależnych. W 2006 roku prezydent Gruzji powołał „Państwową Radę Kultury i Sztuki” oraz „Prezydencki Fundusz Kultury”. Żałować jednak należy, że te ważne inicjatywy nie zostały w pełni wdrożone, a tym samym, pozostając jedynie na papierze, nie funkcjonują w praktyce.

Turystyka jako priorytet

Priorytety od roku 2006

Sektor prywatny i polityka kulturalna

O

T


(np. Biennale w Wenecji, Istambule, konferencje międzynarodowe, itp.) Powstaje również wiele nowych publikacji – zarówno drukowanych, jak i cyfrowych – które są dystrybuowane w celu promocji kultury gruzińskiej i samego kraju.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Edukacja

294

W

ielu intelektualistów w kraju uważa, że Gruzja nadal nie posiada wyraźnej polityki kulturalnej, co jest do pewnego stopnia prawdą.

raz ze zmianami zachodzącymi w kraju oraz wdrożeniem systemu programów finansowania poprzez granty w sferze kultury, wprowadzono również pewne zmiany w programach studiów. Wszyscy studenci Uniwersytetu Teatru i Filmu im. Szoty Rustawelego, będącego wiodącą uczelnią w dziedzinie teatru, filmu, mediów, kultury tradycyjnej i zarządzania kulturą, zobligowani są do realizowania kursu zarządzania projektem, jako obowiązkowego przedmiotu na studiach. Podejmując się realizacji założeń Procesu Bolońskiego, uczelnia postrzega to jako ważny element zarówno programów studiów, jak i orientacji kwalifikacji rynkowych, jakie uzyskuje absolwent. Uniwersytet uruchomił program studiów magisterskich (MA) na kierunku Zarządzanie kulturą i polityka kulturalna; w styczniu 2008 r. przygotowywano program studiów doktoranckich w zakresie polityki kulturalnej, które ostatecznie uruchomiono jesienią 2008. Również wydawnictwo uniwersytetu utworzyło nowy dział poświęcony zarządzaniu kulturą i polityce kulturalnej, publikując prace z tej dziedziny (również tłumaczone), a coroczna konferencja międzykulturowa dla studentów studiów magisterskich i doktoranckich jest ważnym aspektem rozwoju tej dyscypliny w naszym kraju. Inną drogą budowania wiedzy stały się coroczne interaktywne programy szkoleniowe w zakresie polityki kulturalnej i zarządzania kulturą, realizowane przez organizacje pozarządowe z udziałem ekspertów lokalnych i międzynarodowych. Szczególnie ważny wydaje się fakt, że obserwujemy już przykłady transferu wiedzy i know how do krajów sąsiednich za pośrednictwem działań w sieciach kulturalnych i programów szkoleniowych. Przykładem posłużyć tu mogą interaktywne programy szkoleniowe oferowane przez SCF w Armenii, Azerbejdżanie i niektórych krajach Azji Środkowej.

W

Słabości

Słabości

Nasze Ministerstwo Kultury okazuje brak zainteresowania sztuką współczesną, koncentrując się jedynie na tradycyjnych formach działań artystycznych i kulturalnych, co skutkuje brakiem różnorodności kulturowej. Nadal obserwujemy silny wpływ czynników personalnych na poziomie politycznym, co oznacza ograniczenie rozwoju wartości demokratycznych. Sektor organizacji pozarządowych w sferze kultury ciągle jest bardzo słaby, a tym samym udział społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w rozwoju kultury, tworzeniu i upowszechnianiu jest bardzo ograniczony. Brak debaty publicznej na temat polityki kulturalnej jest bardzo złą praktyką. Ważne jest stworzenie przestrzeni publicznej dla działań społecznych, dyskusji i prezentacji służących popularyzacji wartości europejskich. Warto zwrócić uwagę na sytuację, w jakiej znajdował się sektor organizacji pozarządowych w ciągu ostatnich dziesięciu lat. W latach 90. XX w. był on w dużym stopniu wykorzystywany dla celów politycznych ówczesnej ekipy rządzącej. Poprzednie rządy używały relacji z organizacjami pozarządowymi dla zaspokajania wewnętrznych ambicji i rozgrywek. Po zmianach politycznych w roku 2003, większości działaczy NGO w sferze kultury zaproponowano pracę w sektorze publicznym, co przyniosło problemy w funkcjonowaniu społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, ponieważ oznaczało ograniczenie monitoringu działania państwa. Moim zdaniem to właśnie było powodem, dla którego tak wiele osób wzięło udział w manifestacjach antyrządowych w listopadzie 2007 r. w Tbilisi. W ten sposób uczestnicy manifestacji wzięli we własne ręce sprawy obrony wartości obywatelskich, ponieważ dawniejsi działacze i przywódcy NGO w tamtej chwili reprezentowali rząd (wiem od moich kolegów, że podobny proces zastępowania urzędników administracji państwowej działaczami organizacji pozarządowych, jako efekt lokalnej pokojowej rewolucji podobnej do tej w Gruzji, można zaobserwować również w Serbii). Od roku 2008 mamy do czynienia z poważnym krokiem wstecz – państwo powraca do idei centralizacji. Władze miejskie i państwowe zakładają monopolistyczne instytucje, centralizując organizowanie wydarzeń i festiwali kulturalnych w całym kraju bez jakichkolwiek negocjacji z grupami obywatelskimi czy ekspertami. Według mnie jest to bardzo niedobry znak kryzysu politycznego i intelektualnego rządu, który pokonuje drogę od demokracji do administracji totalitarnej. W moim przekonaniu, nacisk ze strony międzynarodowej społeczności demokratycznej stał się bardzo ważny.

raz ze zmianami zachodzącymi w kraju oraz wdrożeniem systemu programów finansowania poprzez granty w sferze kultury, wprowadzono również pewne zmiany w programach studiów. Wszyscy studenci Uniwersytetu Teatru i Filmu im. Szoty Rustawelego, będącego wiodącą uczelnią w dziedzinie teatru, filmu, mediów, kultury tradycyjnej i zarządzania kulturą, zobligowani są do realizowania kursu zarządzania projektem, jako obowiązkowego przedmiotu na studiach. Podejmując się realizacji założeń Procesu Bolońskiego, uczelnia postrzega to jako ważny element zarówno programów studiów, jak i orientacji kwalifikacji rynkowych, jakie uzyskuje absolwent. Uniwersytet uruchomił program studiów magisterskich (MA) na kierunku Zarządzanie kulturą i polityka kulturalna; w styczniu 2008 r. przygotowywano program studiów doktoranckich w zakresie polityki kulturalnej, które ostatecznie uruchomiono jesienią 2008. Również wydawnictwo uniwersytetu utworzyło nowy dział poświęcony zarządzaniu kulturą i polityce kulturalnej, publikując prace z tej dziedziny (również tłumaczone), a coroczna konferencja międzykulturowa dla studentów studiów magisterskich i doktoranckich jest ważnym aspektem rozwoju tej dyscypliny w naszym kraju. Inną drogą budowania wiedzy stały się coroczne interaktywne programy szkoleniowe w zakresie polityki kulturalnej i zarządzania kulturą, realizowane przez organizacje pozarządowe z udziałem ekspertów lokalnych i międzynarodowych. Szczególnie ważny wydaje się fakt, że obserwujemy już przykłady transferu wiedzy i know how do krajów sąsiednich za pośrednictwem działań w sieciach kulturalnych i programów szkoleniowych. Przykładem posłużyć tu mogą interaktywne programy szkoleniowe oferowane przez SCF w Armenii, Azerbejdżanie i niektórych krajach Azji Środkowej.

W

W

ielu intelektualistów w kraju uważa, że Gruzja nadal nie posiada wyraźnej polityki kulturalnej, co jest do pewnego stopnia prawdą.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Edukacja

Nasze Ministerstwo Kultury okazuje brak zainteresowania sztuką współczesną, koncentrując się jedynie na tradycyjnych formach działań artystycznych i kulturalnych, co skutkuje brakiem różnorodności kulturowej. Nadal obserwujemy silny wpływ czynników personalnych na poziomie politycznym, co oznacza ograniczenie rozwoju wartości demokratycznych. Sektor organizacji pozarządowych w sferze kultury ciągle jest bardzo słaby, a tym samym udział społeczeństwa obywatelskiego w rozwoju kultury, tworzeniu i upowszechnianiu jest bardzo ograniczony. Brak debaty publicznej na temat polityki kulturalnej jest bardzo złą praktyką. Ważne jest stworzenie przestrzeni publicznej dla działań społecznych, dyskusji i prezentacji służących popularyzacji wartości europejskich. Warto zwrócić uwagę na sytuację, w jakiej znajdował się sektor organizacji pozarządowych w ciągu ostatnich dziesięciu lat. W latach 90. XX w. był on w dużym stopniu wykorzystywany dla celów politycznych ówczesnej ekipy rządzącej. Poprzednie rządy używały relacji z organizacjami pozarządowymi dla zaspokajania wewnętrznych ambicji i rozgrywek. Po zmianach politycznych w roku 2003, większości działaczy NGO w sferze kultury zaproponowano pracę w sektorze publicznym, co przyniosło problemy w funkcjonowaniu społeczeństwa obywatelskiego, ponieważ oznaczało ograniczenie monitoringu działania państwa. Moim zdaniem to właśnie było powodem, dla którego tak wiele osób wzięło udział w manifestacjach antyrządowych w listopadzie 2007 r. w Tbilisi. W ten sposób uczestnicy manifestacji wzięli we własne ręce sprawy obrony wartości obywatelskich, ponieważ dawniejsi działacze i przywódcy NGO w tamtej chwili reprezentowali rząd (wiem od moich kolegów, że podobny proces zastępowania urzędników administracji państwowej działaczami organizacji pozarządowych, jako efekt lokalnej pokojowej rewolucji podobnej do tej w Gruzji, można zaobserwować również w Serbii). Od roku 2008 mamy do czynienia z poważnym krokiem wstecz – państwo powraca do idei centralizacji. Władze miejskie i państwowe zakładają monopolistyczne instytucje, centralizując organizowanie wydarzeń i festiwali kulturalnych w całym kraju bez jakichkolwiek negocjacji z grupami obywatelskimi czy ekspertami. Według mnie jest to bardzo niedobry znak kryzysu politycznego i intelektualnego rządu, który pokonuje drogę od demokracji do administracji totalitarnej. W moim przekonaniu, nacisk ze strony międzynarodowej społeczności demokratycznej stał się bardzo ważny.

294

(np. Biennale w Wenecji, Istambule, konferencje międzynarodowe, itp.) Powstaje również wiele nowych publikacji – zarówno drukowanych, jak i cyfrowych – które są dystrybuowane w celu promocji kultury gruzińskiej i samego kraju.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

295

Uważam, że jeżeli mają zaistnieć jakiekolwiek zmiany prowadzące do nowej strategii polityki kulturalnej, muszą być one oparte na decentralizacji, stymulacji działań osobowości świata kultury, zaangażowaniu i partycypacji obywateli, na nowym pokoleniu rozumiejącym kwestie wolności społeczeństwa i kultury z jednoczesnym poczuciem szacunku dla innych. Może się to dokonać poprzez wspieranie i stymulowanie wzajemnego zrozumienia, wielokulturowości i współpracy. Sądzę, że aby osiągnąć ów cel musimy w tym procesie oprzeć się na nowej generacji, której przedstawicielami są nasi studenci.

W nowych okolicznościach potrzebne jest utrzymywanie silnych kontaktów z organizacjami pozarządowymi lub przedstawicielami społeczeństwa obywatelskiego oraz z uniwersytetami albo ośrodkami szkoleniowymi jako miejscami spotkania studentów i innych przedstawicieli młodego pokolenia. Potrzebne jest podtrzymywanie kontaktu i rozwijanie go. Jestem przekonany, że ta nowa generacja, która ma możliwość wspólnej pracy ze swymi sąsiadami, osiągnie bardziej różnorodne, pokojowe i twórcze rezultaty we współpracy i partnerstwie interregionalnym.

Uważam, że jeżeli mają zaistnieć jakiekolwiek zmiany prowadzące do nowej strategii polityki kulturalnej, muszą być one oparte na decentralizacji, stymulacji działań osobowości świata kultury, zaangażowaniu i partycypacji obywateli, na nowym pokoleniu rozumiejącym kwestie wolności społeczeństwa i kultury z jednoczesnym poczuciem szacunku dla innych. Może się to dokonać poprzez wspieranie i stymulowanie wzajemnego zrozumienia, wielokulturowości i współpracy. Sądzę, że aby osiągnąć ów cel musimy w tym procesie oprzeć się na nowej generacji, której przedstawicielami są nasi studenci. Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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W nowych okolicznościach potrzebne jest utrzymywanie silnych kontaktów z organizacjami pozarządowymi lub przedstawicielami społeczeństwa obywatelskiego oraz z uniwersytetami albo ośrodkami szkoleniowymi jako miejscami spotkania studentów i innych przedstawicieli młodego pokolenia. Potrzebne jest podtrzymywanie kontaktu i rozwijanie go. Jestem przekonany, że ta nowa generacja, która ma możliwość wspólnej pracy ze swymi sąsiadami, osiągnie bardziej różnorodne, pokojowe i twórcze rezultaty we współpracy i partnerstwie interregionalnym.


Olga Łukowska

Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Okres ten jest przedstawiany jako nowe zjawisko w życiu ukraińskiej społeczności. Był to ruch kulturalny skierowany na przechowywanie narodowych tradycji, języka, ideowo-estetycznego odnawiania kultury. Zapoczątkowany został przez literatów, m.in. takich jak: W. Symonenko, W. Stus, I. Kostenko, I. Switlycznyj, I. Dziuba, I. Dracz, I. Kałyneć. Ruch pokolenia lat 60. stał się niebawem uniwersalny i do pewnego stopnia określił dalsze perspektywy zmian nie tylko literackich, ale i artystycznych na Ukrainie. Na początku lat 60. dokonał się gwałtowny, niezwykły rozkwit narodowej twórczości artystycznej. Istotne jest, że osnową tego ruchu było uświadomienie sobie przez inteligencję roli, jaką powinna pełnić, w kontekście kultury ukraińskiej właśnie, a nie kultury ogólnosowieckiej. I chociaż ta świadomość dla wielu osób na początku lat 70. skończyła się tragicznie, jednak wpływ pokolenia lat 60. na dalszy przebieg wydarzeń był bardzo duży. Analizując sytuację dotyczącą środowiska artystycznego należy zwrócić uwagę na to, że ogólne zmiany w rozwoju sztuki w Związku Radzieckim (więc i w Ukraińskiej SRR) rozpoczęły się jeszcze w połowie lat 50., kiedy została wydana słynna uchwała KC KPZR (Komitetu Centralnego Komunistycznej Partii Związku Radzieckiego) i Rady Ministrów O usunięciu nadmiernej dekoracyjności w projektowaniu i budownictwie. Formalnie ten dokument dotyczył architektury i budownictwa: jego celem było stworzenie unikatowej internacjonalistycznej, a jednocześnie socjalistycznej architektury. Budowle zostały pozbawione dekoracyjnych fasad, przeciążonych bogatymi elementami zdobniczymi i płaskorzeźbami, można było spostrzec odejście od detali oraz elementów, które służą tylko dla ozdoby, pojawiła się asymetrycz-

Okres ten jest przedstawiany jako nowe zjawisko w życiu ukraińskiej społeczności. Był to ruch kulturalny skierowany na przechowywanie narodowych tradycji, języka, ideowo-estetycznego odnawiania kultury. Zapoczątkowany został przez literatów, m.in. takich jak: W. Symonenko, W. Stus, I. Kostenko, I. Switlycznyj, I. Dziuba, I. Dracz, I. Kałyneć. Ruch pokolenia lat 60. stał się niebawem uniwersalny i do pewnego stopnia określił dalsze perspektywy zmian nie tylko literackich, ale i artystycznych na Ukrainie. Na początku lat 60. dokonał się gwałtowny, niezwykły rozkwit narodowej twórczości artystycznej. Istotne jest, że osnową tego ruchu było uświadomienie sobie przez inteligencję roli, jaką powinna pełnić, w kontekście kultury ukraińskiej właśnie, a nie kultury ogólnosowieckiej. I chociaż ta świadomość dla wielu osób na początku lat 70. skończyła się tragicznie, jednak wpływ pokolenia lat 60. na dalszy przebieg wydarzeń był bardzo duży. Analizując sytuację dotyczącą środowiska artystycznego należy zwrócić uwagę na to, że ogólne zmiany w rozwoju sztuki w Związku Radzieckim (więc i w Ukraińskiej SRR) rozpoczęły się jeszcze w połowie lat 50., kiedy została wydana słynna uchwała KC KPZR (Komitetu Centralnego Komunistycznej Partii Związku Radzieckiego) i Rady Ministrów O usunięciu nadmiernej dekoracyjności w projektowaniu i budownictwie. Formalnie ten dokument dotyczył architektury i budownictwa: jego celem było stworzenie unikatowej internacjonalistycznej, a jednocześnie socjalistycznej architektury. Budowle zostały pozbawione dekoracyjnych fasad, przeciążonych bogatymi elementami zdobniczymi i płaskorzeźbami, można było spostrzec odejście od detali oraz elementów, które służą tylko dla ozdoby, pojawiła się asymetrycz-

dr Olga Łukowska Historyk sztuki, wykładowca na Ukraińskiej Akademii Druku we Lwowie oraz zastępca dyrektora ds. naukowo-artystycznych we Lwowskim Pałacu Sztuki. Stypendystka programu „Gaude Polonia” Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Polski oraz programu im. Lane`a Kirklanda Polsko-Amerykańskiej Fundacji Wolności Komisji Fulbright. Zajmuje się zarządzaniem kulturą, badaniem sztuki współczesnej, zwłaszcza tkaniny artystycznej.

historii ludzkości od zawsze istniało pragnienie swobodnego przekazu myśli i twórczości. Dlatego naukowcy i artyści pragnęli spojrzeć na życie innymi oczyma oraz przedstawić swój punkt widzenia, nierzadko odmienny od tego, który był dozwolony przez władzę. Problemy wzajemnych relacji między kulturą i polityką są odwieczne. Jaskrawym przykładem tego jest sytuacja kulturalno-polityczna na Ukrainie, w drugiej połowie XX wieku. Koniec lat 50. XX w. przyniósł nowe zjawisko społeczno-kulturalne, jakim w latach 60. był renesans narodowej idei ukraińskiej. Dzisiaj to zjawisko często nazywa się drugim ukraińskim odrodzeniem narodowym. Dlaczego drugim? Nastąpiło ono bowiem po „unicestwionym” odrodzeniu z lat 20. i początku 30., kiedy z życia publicznego usunięto wielu przedstawicieli ukraińskiej inteligencji. Można powiedzieć, że cała historia ukraińska składa się z takich okresów odrodzenia, które były tłumione przez rosyjskie imperium, ale w kolejnych pokoleniach ponownie odżywały. Po śmierci Stalina, 5 marca 1953 roku, totalitaryzm uległ częściowemu zmiękczeniu. „Komunistycznego Boga” wolno było krytykować, a więc wolno było w niego wątpić. Czy było to osłabienie ideologicznego nacisku? Na społeczno-kulturalnej drodze budowania komunizmu w latach 1956–64, zostało to określone jako „odwilż Chruszczowa”, która doprowadziła do fali narodowego odrodzenia. W społeczności Ukrainy pojawiła się atmosfera wewnętrznego intelektualno-kulturowego sprzeciwu wobec systemu. Nadzieja na możliwość budowania „socjalizmu z ludzką twarzą” oraz obrona społeczeństwa od arbitralności władzy, stopniowo niwelowała strach, a ludzie zaczynali odważniej myśleć i mówić.

historii ludzkości od zawsze istniało pragnienie swobodnego przekazu myśli i twórczości. Dlatego naukowcy i artyści pragnęli spojrzeć na życie innymi oczyma oraz przedstawić swój punkt widzenia, nierzadko odmienny od tego, który był dozwolony przez władzę. Problemy wzajemnych relacji między kulturą i polityką są odwieczne. Jaskrawym przykładem tego jest sytuacja kulturalno-polityczna na Ukrainie, w drugiej połowie XX wieku. Koniec lat 50. XX w. przyniósł nowe zjawisko społeczno-kulturalne, jakim w latach 60. był renesans narodowej idei ukraińskiej. Dzisiaj to zjawisko często nazywa się drugim ukraińskim odrodzeniem narodowym. Dlaczego drugim? Nastąpiło ono bowiem po „unicestwionym” odrodzeniu z lat 20. i początku 30., kiedy z życia publicznego usunięto wielu przedstawicieli ukraińskiej inteligencji. Można powiedzieć, że cała historia ukraińska składa się z takich okresów odrodzenia, które były tłumione przez rosyjskie imperium, ale w kolejnych pokoleniach ponownie odżywały. Po śmierci Stalina, 5 marca 1953 roku, totalitaryzm uległ częściowemu zmiękczeniu. „Komunistycznego Boga” wolno było krytykować, a więc wolno było w niego wątpić. Czy było to osłabienie ideologicznego nacisku? Na społeczno-kulturalnej drodze budowania komunizmu w latach 1956–64, zostało to określone jako „odwilż Chruszczowa”, która doprowadziła do fali narodowego odrodzenia. W społeczności Ukrainy pojawiła się atmosfera wewnętrznego intelektualno-kulturowego sprzeciwu wobec systemu. Nadzieja na możliwość budowania „socjalizmu z ludzką twarzą” oraz obrona społeczeństwa od arbitralności władzy, stopniowo niwelowała strach, a ludzie zaczynali odważniej myśleć i mówić.

W

dr Olga Łukowska Historyk sztuki, wykładowca na Ukraińskiej Akademii Druku we Lwowie oraz zastępca dyrektora ds. naukowo-artystycznych we Lwowskim Pałacu Sztuki. Stypendystka programu „Gaude Polonia” Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Polski oraz programu im. Lane`a Kirklanda Polsko-Amerykańskiej Fundacji Wolności Komisji Fulbright. Zajmuje się zarządzaniem kulturą, badaniem sztuki współczesnej, zwłaszcza tkaniny artystycznej.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Olga Łukowska

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Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku

Turyn, M. i R. Selśki, K. Zwiryńśkyj i inni. Artyści lat 60. przejęli ich idee; na tle szarej powszedniości oraz prymitywnych ideologicznych dogmatów, twórcza młodzież (M. Andruszczenko, L. Medwid`, B. Soroka, M. Krystopczuk, I. Marczuk, O. Myńko) gromadziła się wokół autorytetów i znanych osobowości. Dla generacji lat 1960–1970 ważne było również geograficzne położenie Lwowa. Tutaj znajdowało się źródło intelektualnych inspiracji, podstawa tradycji i światopoglądów, z których młodzi artyści mogli czerpać i adaptować formalne idee Zachodu. W czasie „odwilży” w bibliotekach pojawiły się pisma o profilu artystycznym, pochodzące z krajów tak zwanego obozu socjalistycznego (Polski, Czechosłowacji itp.). Pokolenie to kształciło się m.in. na takich czasopismach jak „Projekt”, „Sztuka”, „Arta” czy „Umění a řemesla”. Dzięki dostępowi do nich, artyści-malarze zdobywali informacje o popularnych w Europie kierunkach artystycznych (m.in. o dynamice rozwoju tkaniny artystycznej w Polsce i twórczości Magdaleny Abakanowicz, o ukazaniu się w Europie nowatorskich awangardowych form tkaniny artystycznej – Art Fabric, Fiber Art). Nastąpiła także aktywizacja związków z republikami Bałtyckimi (Litwą, Łotwą i Estonią), mającymi podobne do Ukrainy warunki działania, podobną historię oraz analogiczne poglądy na zagadnienia nowoczesnych problemów sztuki [tamże]. Oczywiście postępujący tymi torami rozwój nie mógł podobać się ówczesnej komunistycznej władzy. Jeszcze w 1960 roku Nikita Chruszczow przeprowadził szeroko reklamowane spotkania z działaczami kultury i sztuki, na których potępił „odwroty od socjalistycznego realizmu” i „przejawy formalizmu i abstrakcjonizmu”. Nie bacząc na to, sztuka zaczęła się rozwijać wbrew totalitarnemu reżimowi. Obawiając się by „swoboda” działań i myśli nie wymknęła się spod kontroli, Kreml zdecydował się na uderzenie w postępujący w całym Związku Radzieckim ruch odrodzenia. Po pierwszych politycznych aresztowaniach znanych społecznych działaczy i literatów dla wszystkich stało się zrozumiałe, że reżim nie będzie tolerował wolnomyślicielstwa. Zaczęły się masowe aresztowania opozycyjnej inteligencji, która stanęła przed wyborem między jawnym przeciwstawianiem się władzy a strategią przystosowania. Artystom dano do zrozumienia, że „określona modyfikacja formy dzieł sztuki, w żaden sposób nie oznacza osłabienia kontroli ich ideowo tematycznego kierunku. Metoda socjalistycznego realizmu jest jedyną, oficjalnie uznaną w sferach twórczych” [tamże, s. 75]. Sztuka taka pielęgnowała pozornie korzystną ideę pokoju i internacjonalizmu, nie zauważając,

Olga Łukowska

Turyn, M. i R. Selśki, K. Zwiryńśkyj i inni. Artyści lat 60. przejęli ich idee; na tle szarej powszedniości oraz prymitywnych ideologicznych dogmatów, twórcza młodzież (M. Andruszczenko, L. Medwid`, B. Soroka, M. Krystopczuk, I. Marczuk, O. Myńko) gromadziła się wokół autorytetów i znanych osobowości. Dla generacji lat 1960–1970 ważne było również geograficzne położenie Lwowa. Tutaj znajdowało się źródło intelektualnych inspiracji, podstawa tradycji i światopoglądów, z których młodzi artyści mogli czerpać i adaptować formalne idee Zachodu. W czasie „odwilży” w bibliotekach pojawiły się pisma o profilu artystycznym, pochodzące z krajów tak zwanego obozu socjalistycznego (Polski, Czechosłowacji itp.). Pokolenie to kształciło się m.in. na takich czasopismach jak „Projekt”, „Sztuka”, „Arta” czy „Umění a řemesla”. Dzięki dostępowi do nich, artyści-malarze zdobywali informacje o popularnych w Europie kierunkach artystycznych (m.in. o dynamice rozwoju tkaniny artystycznej w Polsce i twórczości Magdaleny Abakanowicz, o ukazaniu się w Europie nowatorskich awangardowych form tkaniny artystycznej – Art Fabric, Fiber Art). Nastąpiła także aktywizacja związków z republikami Bałtyckimi (Litwą, Łotwą i Estonią), mającymi podobne do Ukrainy warunki działania, podobną historię oraz analogiczne poglądy na zagadnienia nowoczesnych problemów sztuki [tamże]. Oczywiście postępujący tymi torami rozwój nie mógł podobać się ówczesnej komunistycznej władzy. Jeszcze w 1960 roku Nikita Chruszczow przeprowadził szeroko reklamowane spotkania z działaczami kultury i sztuki, na których potępił „odwroty od socjalistycznego realizmu” i „przejawy formalizmu i abstrakcjonizmu”. Nie bacząc na to, sztuka zaczęła się rozwijać wbrew totalitarnemu reżimowi. Obawiając się by „swoboda” działań i myśli nie wymknęła się spod kontroli, Kreml zdecydował się na uderzenie w postępujący w całym Związku Radzieckim ruch odrodzenia. Po pierwszych politycznych aresztowaniach znanych społecznych działaczy i literatów dla wszystkich stało się zrozumiałe, że reżim nie będzie tolerował wolnomyślicielstwa. Zaczęły się masowe aresztowania opozycyjnej inteligencji, która stanęła przed wyborem między jawnym przeciwstawianiem się władzy a strategią przystosowania. Artystom dano do zrozumienia, że „określona modyfikacja formy dzieł sztuki, w żaden sposób nie oznacza osłabienia kontroli ich ideowo tematycznego kierunku. Metoda socjalistycznego realizmu jest jedyną, oficjalnie uznaną w sferach twórczych” [tamże, s. 75]. Sztuka taka pielęgnowała pozornie korzystną ideę pokoju i internacjonalizmu, nie zauważając,

Olga Łukowska

ność w projektowaniu. Oszczędność i dbałość o jak najmniejszą ilość środków artystycznych – to była główna cecha „nowego” stylu we współczesnej architekturze, która zastąpiła epokę przerostu dekoracyjności [Арндт, 1962]. Wykorzenianie tej nadmiernej dekoracyjności w architekturze wpłynęło bezpośrednio na całą sztukę radziecką. Tendencję do tworzenia prostych monumentalnych form obserwowano również w sztuce pięknej. Mimo że kierunek socjalistyczny dalej był uznawany za jedyny oficjalnie dopuszczalny, w malarstwie tego czasu można dostrzec rezygnację z drobiazgowego naturalistycznego obrazowania charakterystycznego dla poprzednich lat. Nowe cechy utrwaliły się również w stosowanej sztuce dekoracyjnej, a dzieła artystyczne wykonane w drewnie, szkle, metalu oraz tkaninach wypełniały wnętrza budowli spółdzielczych. Trójwymiarową iluzyjno-naturalistyczną przestrzeń zastąpiły płaszczyzny traktowane umownie, przeważnie dwumiarowe, podporządkowane idei zachowania spójności architektonicznej [Савицкая, 1995]. Tendencja pozbywania się nadmiernej dekoracyjności szybko się rozpowszechniała. W artystycznych kompozycjach dominowały naturalność form i prostota linii – artyści unikali form geometrycznych, linii równoległych, kompozycji symetrycznych, dając przewagę miękkim, płynnym konturom i przejściom oraz owalnym konfiguracjom [Голубець, 2001]. Oczywistym jest, że w tym czasie artyści nie mieli pełnej swobody myśli twórczej i działania, ale nawet iluzja tej wolności okazała się wystarczająca, żeby zaktywizować twórczość: artyści zaczęli myśleć bardziej kreatywnie, spostrzega się w tym okresie tendencję do tworzenia prac o charakterze abstrakcyjnym. Był to czas twórczego rozkwitu wybitnych ukraińskich twórców, takich jak: J. Beznisko, T. Bryż, O. Załywacha, А. Horyśka, W. Patyk i wielu innych (A. Horyśka określała lata 60. jako niepowtarzalne, płomienne, pełne idealizmu, kiedy wszyscy czuli się wspólnotą i działali wspólnie). W kontekście badanych problemów warto zwrócić uwagę na sytuację artystyczną, dotyczącą terenów Ukrainy Zachodniej, a w szczególności Lwowa. Lwowska szkoła artystyczna zawsze zdecydowanie odróżniała się od stołecznej (kijowskiej), przede wszystkim fundamentalnym przyswojeniem estetycznych zasad sztuki. Nauczano tutaj umiejętności indywidualnego widzenia i szukania własnej drogi. Istniało nawet takie pojęcie jak „szkoła parysko-galicyjska”, przez którą przeszli wybitni artyści starszej generacji, tacy jak O. Nowakiwśkyj, O. Kulczyćka, J. Muzyka, R.

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Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku

ność w projektowaniu. Oszczędność i dbałość o jak najmniejszą ilość środków artystycznych – to była główna cecha „nowego” stylu we współczesnej architekturze, która zastąpiła epokę przerostu dekoracyjności [Арндт, 1962]. Wykorzenianie tej nadmiernej dekoracyjności w architekturze wpłynęło bezpośrednio na całą sztukę radziecką. Tendencję do tworzenia prostych monumentalnych form obserwowano również w sztuce pięknej. Mimo że kierunek socjalistyczny dalej był uznawany za jedyny oficjalnie dopuszczalny, w malarstwie tego czasu można dostrzec rezygnację z drobiazgowego naturalistycznego obrazowania charakterystycznego dla poprzednich lat. Nowe cechy utrwaliły się również w stosowanej sztuce dekoracyjnej, a dzieła artystyczne wykonane w drewnie, szkle, metalu oraz tkaninach wypełniały wnętrza budowli spółdzielczych. Trójwymiarową iluzyjno-naturalistyczną przestrzeń zastąpiły płaszczyzny traktowane umownie, przeważnie dwumiarowe, podporządkowane idei zachowania spójności architektonicznej [Савицкая, 1995]. Tendencja pozbywania się nadmiernej dekoracyjności szybko się rozpowszechniała. W artystycznych kompozycjach dominowały naturalność form i prostota linii – artyści unikali form geometrycznych, linii równoległych, kompozycji symetrycznych, dając przewagę miękkim, płynnym konturom i przejściom oraz owalnym konfiguracjom [Голубець, 2001]. Oczywistym jest, że w tym czasie artyści nie mieli pełnej swobody myśli twórczej i działania, ale nawet iluzja tej wolności okazała się wystarczająca, żeby zaktywizować twórczość: artyści zaczęli myśleć bardziej kreatywnie, spostrzega się w tym okresie tendencję do tworzenia prac o charakterze abstrakcyjnym. Był to czas twórczego rozkwitu wybitnych ukraińskich twórców, takich jak: J. Beznisko, T. Bryż, O. Załywacha, А. Horyśka, W. Patyk i wielu innych (A. Horyśka określała lata 60. jako niepowtarzalne, płomienne, pełne idealizmu, kiedy wszyscy czuli się wspólnotą i działali wspólnie). W kontekście badanych problemów warto zwrócić uwagę na sytuację artystyczną, dotyczącą terenów Ukrainy Zachodniej, a w szczególności Lwowa. Lwowska szkoła artystyczna zawsze zdecydowanie odróżniała się od stołecznej (kijowskiej), przede wszystkim fundamentalnym przyswojeniem estetycznych zasad sztuki. Nauczano tutaj umiejętności indywidualnego widzenia i szukania własnej drogi. Istniało nawet takie pojęcie jak „szkoła parysko-galicyjska”, przez którą przeszli wybitni artyści starszej generacji, tacy jak O. Nowakiwśkyj, O. Kulczyćka, J. Muzyka, R.

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kwiatowym ornamentem lub dekoracyjne ceramiczne i drewniane talerze z portretami wodzów, w obramowaniu dekoracji huculskich. Te „dzieła” socjalistycznej sztuki wyglądały już nie tylko sztucznie, ale tragikomicznie. Radzieccy „teoretycy” porzucili więc w końcu nieskuteczne próby wprowadzania socrealizmu do sztuki narodowej i dekoracyjnej. Ten słaby punkt w ideologicznym systemie umożliwił artystom-malarzom rozwinięcie twórczej energii. Proces ten można wyraźnie dostrzec badając twórczość artystów Zachodniej Ukrainy, w szczególności pochodzących ze Lwowa. Posługując się formą dekoracyjności artyści-malarze próbowali maskować swoje poszukiwania i eksperymenty w dziedzinie kompozycji obrazu, rozgraniczać i zestawiać tradycyjne i nowatorskie realizacje [Голубець, 2001]. W tym czasie, kiedy malarstwo, rzeźba, grafika podlegały nadmiernej ideologizacji, plastycy, którzy tworzyli posługiwali się tkaniną, szkłem, drewnem, ceramiką, znajdowali oryginalne i niepowtarzalne formy ucieleśnienia artystycznych pomysłów, ich wizje, inspiracje, znajdowały swój wyraz w oryginalnych postaciach i kompozycjach obrazów. Dwudziestolecie, które nastąpiło po okresie rządów Chruszczowa (1965–1985) przeszło na Ukrainie pod znakiem nieustannego pogłębiania się w społeczeństwie sowieckim kryzysu, który zdominował wszystkie sfery życia – politykę, ekonomię, stosunki społeczne (niewątpliwie miał również wpływ na kulturę). Reżim pragnął wzmocnić bezpłodne idee „rozwiniętego socjalistycznego społeczeństwa i uznania go jako wyższej formy cywilizacji”. Zamówienia płynące ze szczytów władzy do artystów kusiły wysokimi honorariami, tytułami, honorami. Kontrola była prowadzona nad wszystkimi dziedzinami kultury. Świadectwem o narastaniu presji na pisarzy stało się przyjęcie na posiedzeniu CK KPZR w marcu 1973 r. uchwały O działalności literacko-artystycznej, w której żądano większej aktywności w realizacji ideowych pouczeń partii. Na scenach teatrów surowo zabroniono grania przedstawień demaskujących wady istniejącego ustroju. Doprowadziło to do tego, że ukraiński teatr coraz bardziej tracił swoją narodową tożsamość, np. wśród teatrów dla dzieci w republice ukraińskiej tylko lwowski teatr był ukraiński, pozostałe – rosyjskie. W tym czasie powstało ukraińskie kino poetyckie. Jego początki wiążąc się z takimi filmami jak Kamienny krzyż w reżyserii L. Osyky, Studnia dla spragnionych J. Illenka wg scenariusza I. Dracza, Babilon XX I. Mykołajczuka czy Cienie zapomnianych przodków S. Paradżanowa. Żywot tych dzieł filmowych nie był prosty – często oceniano je nie

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

że wypielęgnowane dziecko stawało się coraz bardziej agresywne. Ideologiczna funkcja kultury dochodziła do absurdu. Pod nieustanną opieką partyjną znajdowali się tak młodzi artyści, jak i przedstawiciele starszego pokolenia, którzy przeszli szkolenie w artystycznych szkołach Paryża, Pragi, Krakowa i przekazywali swoim uczniom ducha wyszukiwania nowych form artystycznego wyrażenia, które nie układały się w kanon socrealizmu. Jak zaznacza M. Ilnyćkyj, nie przypadkowo partyjni urzędnicy regionalnej i republikańskiej rangi lubili zaglądać do pracowni artystów, by potem z wysokich trybun i w decyzjach narad „po ojcowsku” ostrzegać przed podejmowaniem błędnych kroków lub wydawać swoje surowe werdykty wobec stosunkowo niezależnych artystów malarzy, których „pogoń za modnymi wymysłami sprowadziła z drogi realistycznej sztuki” [Ільницький, 2002]. Dogmatyczność socrealizmu z jego dekretowanymi konwencjami i ograniczeniami kierowała sztukę w stronę ideowo patriotycznych tematów, które w jedynie właściwy sposób musiały być zrozumiałe dla wszystkich bez wyjątku. Odbywała się wówczas internacjonalizacja sztuki ludów ZSRR, która miała służyć jako tworzywo sztuce sowieckiej. Przygotowywano monografie i doktoraty na temat problemów „duchowej wspólnoty bratnich kultur”, przy czym w doszukiwaniu się podobieństw pomiędzy elementami różnych kultur szło o ilustrację podstawowej koncepcji o unifikacji narodów w duchu socjalizmu [Яців, 1991]. Ponieważ rosnące ciśnienie zamówień partyjnej tematyki budziło protest, a artystyczne powołanie żądało realizacji, nastąpiło odejście artystów malarzy od malarstwa w stronę sztuki dekoracyjno-stosowanej, która wówczas traktowana była jako drugorzędna. Na prestiżowych wystawach na pierwszym miejscu stawiana była sztuka piękna, która odgrywała rolę ideologiczną. Za to w dziedzinie sztuki dekoracyjno-stosowanej łatwiej można było maskować własny styl, unikając oskarżenia o „formalizm”. Była to również forma protestu przeciwko upolitycznieniu sztuki. Sztuka dekoracyjno-stosowana (użytkowa) opierała się na tradycji narodowej. W Zachodniej Ukrainie, na przykład, niemożliwie było odrzucanie tradycyjnych geometrycznych ornamentów lub niefiguratywnych elementów abstrakcyjnego charakteru. W realistycznym (figuratywnym) przedstawieniu nie udawało się – nawet sztucznie – nawiązać do sztuki narodowej. Od artystów trudno było więc żądać realistycznego odtwarzania historyczno-rewolucyjnych fabuł czy ukazywania „osiągnięć” uprzemysłowienia. Dla przykładu można przywołać tkane dywany z obrazami rządzących oraz radzieckich herbów obramowanych

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kwiatowym ornamentem lub dekoracyjne ceramiczne i drewniane talerze z portretami wodzów, w obramowaniu dekoracji huculskich. Te „dzieła” socjalistycznej sztuki wyglądały już nie tylko sztucznie, ale tragikomicznie. Radzieccy „teoretycy” porzucili więc w końcu nieskuteczne próby wprowadzania socrealizmu do sztuki narodowej i dekoracyjnej. Ten słaby punkt w ideologicznym systemie umożliwił artystom-malarzom rozwinięcie twórczej energii. Proces ten można wyraźnie dostrzec badając twórczość artystów Zachodniej Ukrainy, w szczególności pochodzących ze Lwowa. Posługując się formą dekoracyjności artyści-malarze próbowali maskować swoje poszukiwania i eksperymenty w dziedzinie kompozycji obrazu, rozgraniczać i zestawiać tradycyjne i nowatorskie realizacje [Голубець, 2001]. W tym czasie, kiedy malarstwo, rzeźba, grafika podlegały nadmiernej ideologizacji, plastycy, którzy tworzyli posługiwali się tkaniną, szkłem, drewnem, ceramiką, znajdowali oryginalne i niepowtarzalne formy ucieleśnienia artystycznych pomysłów, ich wizje, inspiracje, znajdowały swój wyraz w oryginalnych postaciach i kompozycjach obrazów. Dwudziestolecie, które nastąpiło po okresie rządów Chruszczowa (1965–1985) przeszło na Ukrainie pod znakiem nieustannego pogłębiania się w społeczeństwie sowieckim kryzysu, który zdominował wszystkie sfery życia – politykę, ekonomię, stosunki społeczne (niewątpliwie miał również wpływ na kulturę). Reżim pragnął wzmocnić bezpłodne idee „rozwiniętego socjalistycznego społeczeństwa i uznania go jako wyższej formy cywilizacji”. Zamówienia płynące ze szczytów władzy do artystów kusiły wysokimi honorariami, tytułami, honorami. Kontrola była prowadzona nad wszystkimi dziedzinami kultury. Świadectwem o narastaniu presji na pisarzy stało się przyjęcie na posiedzeniu CK KPZR w marcu 1973 r. uchwały O działalności literacko-artystycznej, w której żądano większej aktywności w realizacji ideowych pouczeń partii. Na scenach teatrów surowo zabroniono grania przedstawień demaskujących wady istniejącego ustroju. Doprowadziło to do tego, że ukraiński teatr coraz bardziej tracił swoją narodową tożsamość, np. wśród teatrów dla dzieci w republice ukraińskiej tylko lwowski teatr był ukraiński, pozostałe – rosyjskie. W tym czasie powstało ukraińskie kino poetyckie. Jego początki wiążąc się z takimi filmami jak Kamienny krzyż w reżyserii L. Osyky, Studnia dla spragnionych J. Illenka wg scenariusza I. Dracza, Babilon XX I. Mykołajczuka czy Cienie zapomnianych przodków S. Paradżanowa. Żywot tych dzieł filmowych nie był prosty – często oceniano je nie

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że wypielęgnowane dziecko stawało się coraz bardziej agresywne. Ideologiczna funkcja kultury dochodziła do absurdu. Pod nieustanną opieką partyjną znajdowali się tak młodzi artyści, jak i przedstawiciele starszego pokolenia, którzy przeszli szkolenie w artystycznych szkołach Paryża, Pragi, Krakowa i przekazywali swoim uczniom ducha wyszukiwania nowych form artystycznego wyrażenia, które nie układały się w kanon socrealizmu. Jak zaznacza M. Ilnyćkyj, nie przypadkowo partyjni urzędnicy regionalnej i republikańskiej rangi lubili zaglądać do pracowni artystów, by potem z wysokich trybun i w decyzjach narad „po ojcowsku” ostrzegać przed podejmowaniem błędnych kroków lub wydawać swoje surowe werdykty wobec stosunkowo niezależnych artystów malarzy, których „pogoń za modnymi wymysłami sprowadziła z drogi realistycznej sztuki” [Ільницький, 2002]. Dogmatyczność socrealizmu z jego dekretowanymi konwencjami i ograniczeniami kierowała sztukę w stronę ideowo patriotycznych tematów, które w jedynie właściwy sposób musiały być zrozumiałe dla wszystkich bez wyjątku. Odbywała się wówczas internacjonalizacja sztuki ludów ZSRR, która miała służyć jako tworzywo sztuce sowieckiej. Przygotowywano monografie i doktoraty na temat problemów „duchowej wspólnoty bratnich kultur”, przy czym w doszukiwaniu się podobieństw pomiędzy elementami różnych kultur szło o ilustrację podstawowej koncepcji o unifikacji narodów w duchu socjalizmu [Яців, 1991]. Ponieważ rosnące ciśnienie zamówień partyjnej tematyki budziło protest, a artystyczne powołanie żądało realizacji, nastąpiło odejście artystów malarzy od malarstwa w stronę sztuki dekoracyjno-stosowanej, która wówczas traktowana była jako drugorzędna. Na prestiżowych wystawach na pierwszym miejscu stawiana była sztuka piękna, która odgrywała rolę ideologiczną. Za to w dziedzinie sztuki dekoracyjno-stosowanej łatwiej można było maskować własny styl, unikając oskarżenia o „formalizm”. Była to również forma protestu przeciwko upolitycznieniu sztuki. Sztuka dekoracyjno-stosowana (użytkowa) opierała się na tradycji narodowej. W Zachodniej Ukrainie, na przykład, niemożliwie było odrzucanie tradycyjnych geometrycznych ornamentów lub niefiguratywnych elementów abstrakcyjnego charakteru. W realistycznym (figuratywnym) przedstawieniu nie udawało się – nawet sztucznie – nawiązać do sztuki narodowej. Od artystów trudno było więc żądać realistycznego odtwarzania historyczno-rewolucyjnych fabuł czy ukazywania „osiągnięć” uprzemysłowienia. Dla przykładu można przywołać tkane dywany z obrazami rządzących oraz radzieckich herbów obramowanych


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

za kunszt reżyserski czy aktorski, ale kierowano się reakcją władzy. Z tego samego powodu tragiczny był los niektórych wybitnych reżyserów, np. światowej sławy reżyser filmowy pochodzenia ormiańskiego S. Paradżanow na wiele lat został uwięziony przez władze za głoszone przez siebie poglądy i niezależność artystyczną. Dopiero w połowie lat 80. XX w. złagodzenie represji władz wobec artysty umożliwiło mu dalszą pracę artystyczną. Po śmierci nazwano go ostatnim geniuszem kina XX wieku. Widoczny stał się natomiast zanik zainteresowania muzyką narodową. Jej tradycję próbował zachować chór imienia Weriowky, kapela „Dumka” (zlikwidowana w 1971 r.) oraz folklorystyczny zespół ludowy „Gomin”. Jako dowód presji wywieranej na ukraińskich muzyków można podać fakt, że w 1979 r. w nieznanych okolicznościach zginął tragicznie wybitny ukraiński kompozytor W. Iwasiuk, autor pieśni Czerwona ruta i Wodograj. W latach 80. XX w. życie kulturalne rozwijało się w dosyć specyficznych warunkach. Był to okres tzw. zastoju czasu Breżniewa, kiedy nawet ideologiczne organy władzy objęła dogłębna apatia, cynizm i sceptycyzm. W tej atmosferze – pomimo pozornej zgody na ideologię sowiecką, która karała za zwrot w stronę „kierunku narodowego” – odważniej myślący artyści jednoczyli się w dążeniach wprowadzania idei narodowej do własnych utworów. Idea ta, w duchowym życiu społeczeństwa, nabierała coraz większej wagi. I choć, niestety, artyści ci nie zawsze mieli możliwość prezentowania swojej sztuki, to nie do przecenienia był sam fakt istnienia nowej jakości w myśli twórczej. W konsekwencji, chociaż okres tak zwanego „czasu zastoju” wydaje się monotonny, to właśnie wówczas dostrzec można dążenie artystów do samookreślenia własnej postawy twórczej. Ważna staje się możliwość międzynarodowych kontaktów i wyjazdów na zagraniczne wystawy, choć nadal działo się to pod uważnym okiem Moskwy. Zmiany, które zaszły w życiu społeczeństwa ukraińskiego po roku 1990 związane były przede wszystkim z „przebudową”, a następnie rozpadem ZSRR i – w konsekwencji tego – uzyskaniem przez Ukrainę niepodległości w 1991 r. Wówczas nadeszła kolejna fala narodowego odrodzenia.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Wyraźne ożywienie życia kulturalnego stopniowo objęło całą Ukrainę. Skomplikowane procesy polityczne zachodzące w kraju dotknęły wszystkich sfer życia społecznego. Kultura i sztuka stopniowo uniezależniły się od obowiązujących w poprzednim systemie dogmatów, przestając być jedynie narzędziem panującej ideologii. Widoczna stała się aktywna integracja ukraińskiej sztuki i jej obecność w światowej przestrzeni kulturalnej. Jak zauważa R. Jaciw, sztuka coraz bardziej wchodzi w „metaforyczny pas rozwoju” [Яців, 1991]. Odbywa się zasadnicza przemiana wartości estetycznych, co jest związane z wielkimi zmianami w świadomości artystycznej, dokonującej się na bazie całkowicie nowego rozumienia istoty sztuki [Чегусова, 2003]. Przemiany społeczno-polityczne i reformy okresu niepodległej Ukrainy, znacząco wpłynęły na rozwój życia kulturalnego. Nastąpiło wzmocnienie pierwiastka psychologicznego w sztuce oraz wzrost roli czynnika subiektywnego. Ludzie, poddawani przez wiele lat agresywnej ideologizacji, zatracili poczucie własnej godności, jak również zdolność swobodnego wyrażania autentycznych uczuć. Teraz powracały oficjalnie odrzucane wartości (moralne, estetyczne, społeczno-ekonomiczne), powodując przemianę społecznej świadomości i odnowę pierwiastka duchowego. W latach 90. XX w. charakterystyczne stało się „zawieszenie” między dwiema rzeczywistościami: sformowaną w sowieckim systemie totalitarnym oraz drugą, ukształtowaną w wyniku poszukiwania dla niego alternatywy. Ukraińska kultura jest dzisiaj złożona, pełna sprzeczności, polemik, jednocześnie jest bardzo dynamiczna. Nierzadko dokonujących się dziś zmian nie sposób ocenić jednoznacznie. Prawda jest jednak taka, że jest to proces normalny w takich warunkach (historycznych i dzisiejszych), jakie panują na Ukrainie. Zapewne minie wiele czasu zanim historycy i kulturoznawcy scharakteryzują i ocenią nowoczesną sztukę oraz kulturę Ukrainy. Jaka będzie ich przyszłość zależy od naszego społeczeństwa, od nas samych. Szczególnie trafne wydają się tu słowa klasyka ukraińskiej historii I. Krypjakiewicza: „W naszej kulturze nie utworzył się jeszcze styl. Mamy wiele wartościowych cech, lecz wiele jeszcze potrzeba starań, żeby zespolić je w harmonijną całość” [Яців, 1991].

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za kunszt reżyserski czy aktorski, ale kierowano się reakcją władzy. Z tego samego powodu tragiczny był los niektórych wybitnych reżyserów, np. światowej sławy reżyser filmowy pochodzenia ormiańskiego S. Paradżanow na wiele lat został uwięziony przez władze za głoszone przez siebie poglądy i niezależność artystyczną. Dopiero w połowie lat 80. XX w. złagodzenie represji władz wobec artysty umożliwiło mu dalszą pracę artystyczną. Po śmierci nazwano go ostatnim geniuszem kina XX wieku. Widoczny stał się natomiast zanik zainteresowania muzyką narodową. Jej tradycję próbował zachować chór imienia Weriowky, kapela „Dumka” (zlikwidowana w 1971 r.) oraz folklorystyczny zespół ludowy „Gomin”. Jako dowód presji wywieranej na ukraińskich muzyków można podać fakt, że w 1979 r. w nieznanych okolicznościach zginął tragicznie wybitny ukraiński kompozytor W. Iwasiuk, autor pieśni Czerwona ruta i Wodograj. W latach 80. XX w. życie kulturalne rozwijało się w dosyć specyficznych warunkach. Był to okres tzw. zastoju czasu Breżniewa, kiedy nawet ideologiczne organy władzy objęła dogłębna apatia, cynizm i sceptycyzm. W tej atmosferze – pomimo pozornej zgody na ideologię sowiecką, która karała za zwrot w stronę „kierunku narodowego” – odważniej myślący artyści jednoczyli się w dążeniach wprowadzania idei narodowej do własnych utworów. Idea ta, w duchowym życiu społeczeństwa, nabierała coraz większej wagi. I choć, niestety, artyści ci nie zawsze mieli możliwość prezentowania swojej sztuki, to nie do przecenienia był sam fakt istnienia nowej jakości w myśli twórczej. W konsekwencji, chociaż okres tak zwanego „czasu zastoju” wydaje się monotonny, to właśnie wówczas dostrzec można dążenie artystów do samookreślenia własnej postawy twórczej. Ważna staje się możliwość międzynarodowych kontaktów i wyjazdów na zagraniczne wystawy, choć nadal działo się to pod uważnym okiem Moskwy. Zmiany, które zaszły w życiu społeczeństwa ukraińskiego po roku 1990 związane były przede wszystkim z „przebudową”, a następnie rozpadem ZSRR i – w konsekwencji tego – uzyskaniem przez Ukrainę niepodległości w 1991 r. Wówczas nadeszła kolejna fala narodowego odrodzenia.

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Wyraźne ożywienie życia kulturalnego stopniowo objęło całą Ukrainę. Skomplikowane procesy polityczne zachodzące w kraju dotknęły wszystkich sfer życia społecznego. Kultura i sztuka stopniowo uniezależniły się od obowiązujących w poprzednim systemie dogmatów, przestając być jedynie narzędziem panującej ideologii. Widoczna stała się aktywna integracja ukraińskiej sztuki i jej obecność w światowej przestrzeni kulturalnej. Jak zauważa R. Jaciw, sztuka coraz bardziej wchodzi w „metaforyczny pas rozwoju” [Яців, 1991]. Odbywa się zasadnicza przemiana wartości estetycznych, co jest związane z wielkimi zmianami w świadomości artystycznej, dokonującej się na bazie całkowicie nowego rozumienia istoty sztuki [Чегусова, 2003]. Przemiany społeczno-polityczne i reformy okresu niepodległej Ukrainy, znacząco wpłynęły na rozwój życia kulturalnego. Nastąpiło wzmocnienie pierwiastka psychologicznego w sztuce oraz wzrost roli czynnika subiektywnego. Ludzie, poddawani przez wiele lat agresywnej ideologizacji, zatracili poczucie własnej godności, jak również zdolność swobodnego wyrażania autentycznych uczuć. Teraz powracały oficjalnie odrzucane wartości (moralne, estetyczne, społeczno-ekonomiczne), powodując przemianę społecznej świadomości i odnowę pierwiastka duchowego. W latach 90. XX w. charakterystyczne stało się „zawieszenie” między dwiema rzeczywistościami: sformowaną w sowieckim systemie totalitarnym oraz drugą, ukształtowaną w wyniku poszukiwania dla niego alternatywy. Ukraińska kultura jest dzisiaj złożona, pełna sprzeczności, polemik, jednocześnie jest bardzo dynamiczna. Nierzadko dokonujących się dziś zmian nie sposób ocenić jednoznacznie. Prawda jest jednak taka, że jest to proces normalny w takich warunkach (historycznych i dzisiejszych), jakie panują na Ukrainie. Zapewne minie wiele czasu zanim historycy i kulturoznawcy scharakteryzują i ocenią nowoczesną sztukę oraz kulturę Ukrainy. Jaka będzie ich przyszłość zależy od naszego społeczeństwa, od nas samych. Szczególnie trafne wydają się tu słowa klasyka ukraińskiej historii I. Krypjakiewicza: „W naszej kulturze nie utworzył się jeszcze styl. Mamy wiele wartościowych cech, lecz wiele jeszcze potrzeba starań, żeby zespolić je w harmonijną całość” [Яців, 1991].


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Literatura Савицкая В. Превращения шпалеры. – М.: Галарт,

студії. – №1. – 1991.

Арндт Ю. Новая арх-ра и ее требования// ДИ СССР.

// Дзвін.- №10.- 2002.

ст. // Наукова збірка “Міст”. – К.: ВХ Студіо, 2003. Яців Р. Ідеали повертайтеся, або ЛКУМ // Мистецькі

- №1. – 1962.

Ільницький М. Літературний Львів і шістдесятництво

декоративному мистецтві України 80-90-х рр. ХХ

- 2001.

- 2001.

Чегусова З. Трансформація образу в професійному

Голубець М. Між свободою і тоталітаризмом. - Львів.

Голубець М. Між свободою і тоталітаризмом. - Львів.

1995.

// Дзвін.- №10.- 2002.

- №1. – 1962.

Ільницький М. Літературний Львів і шістдесятництво

Арндт Ю. Новая арх-ра и ее требования// ДИ СССР.

студії. – №1. – 1991. Яців Р. Ідеали повертайтеся, або ЛКУМ // Мистецькі ст. // Наукова збірка “Міст”. – К.: ВХ Студіо, 2003. декоративному мистецтві України 80-90-х рр. ХХ Чегусова З. Трансформація образу в професійному 1995. Савицкая В. Превращения шпалеры. – М.: Галарт,

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Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii) Marta Materska–Samek

L

iczba kin lokalnych w Polsce, czyli kin będących własnością samorządów i jedno­cześnie działających w miejscowościach do 100 tysięcy mieszkańców, stale maleje [www.stat.gov.pl]. Ciekawą ilustracją tego zjawiska jest projekt „Tu było kino” [http://www.tubylokino.pl/web/artykul/ksiazka], który przez samych twórców nazywany jest „projektem o końcu świata małych kin”. Badacze do dziś dnia spierają się o źródła tej negatywnej tendencji, choć niewielu z nich zajmowało się tym zagadnieniem. Roger Bennet twierdzi [Bennet, 2005, s. 391-401], że organizacje takie cierpią na konkurencyjną krótkowzroczność (competitive myopia). Kina lokalne należą do grupy niechlubnych przykładów zdiagnozowanego problemu i winy za ich upadek należy upatrywać w braku zmian organizacyjnych i prób dostosowania do płynących z otoczenia wyzwań. By móc zrozumieć te wyzwania konieczna jest dokładna analiza otoczenia. Istniejący stan wiedzy z zakresu specyfiki rynku kinowego pochodzi głownie z opracowań zajmujących się kinami sieciowymi. W literaturze z zakresu zarządzania jednostkami kultury brakuje pozycji, które zajmowałyby się tą tematyką. Jednocześnie jest to bardzo istotne ze względu na swoją wartość aplikacyjną nie tylko z punktu widzenia społeczności lokalnych, którym grozi wykluczenie z dostępu do kultury, ale także administracji lokalnych, które ten dostęp są zobowiązane zapewnić.

Charakterystyka przemysłu kinowego

S

tworzone pod koniec XIX wieku przez braci Lumière kino należy do przemysłów kultury [Braun, Parker, 1993, s. 155-191] i jednocześnie jest ciągłym przedmiotem interwencjonizmu i protek-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

cjonizmu [Barth, 1998, s. 43]. Ta charakterystyka rynku po części tłumaczy dlaczego Hollywood było w stanie na tyle się rozwinąć by zdominować nie tylko rodzimy, ale i zagraniczne rynki. Fenomen monopolistycznej pozycji „fabryki snów” wynika z pionowej koncentracji rynku (vertical integration), którą dokładnie analizują w swoim modelu Erwin A. Blackstone i Gary W. Bowman [Blackstone, Bowman, 1999, s. 123-130]. Wskazują oni także, że koncentracja kapitałowa produkcji – dystrybucji – eksploatacji kinowej pozwala na zmniejszenie kosztów biletu kinowego na filmy typu blockbusters o prawie 30% i skutkuje podwojeniem liczby widzów. Jest to bardzo ważne biorąc pod uwagę wysokie koszty produkcji i średnio bardzo niską stopę zwrotu. W porównaniu do spójnych i skoncentrowanych struktur rynku kinowego w USA, rynek europejski jest bardzo podzielony. To studia hollywoodzkie kontrolują kanały dystrybucji i mają znaczący udział w globalnym rynku. Zgodnie z raportem Bridge Media z 1994 roku wykonanym dla Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT) w celu przedstawienia przed komisją Mergers and Monopolies Commission (MMC) stanowi to skuteczną barierę wejścia na rynek: the integration of the US majors, combined with their massive share of the exhibition and distribution markets, places insuperable obstacles in the way of new entrants to those markets [PACT/MMC, 1994, s. 49]. Jednak raport ten nie wykazał, że dominacja „majorsów” na rynku łamie prawa dotyczące wolnej konkurencji. Dominacja Hollywood nie wynika jedynie z koncentracji pionowej. Wiąże się także z kontrolą wykorzystywanej technologii [Robinson, 1996]. Jak opisuje Robinson to wynalazca Edison patentując swoje wynalazki i tworząc w 1909 roku

301

Marta Materska-Samek Doktorantka Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, gdzie przygotowuje rozprawę na temat zarządzania kinami lokalnymi. Laureatka programu Doctus Małopolski i stypendystka Funduszu Stypendialnego i Szkoleniowego – w ramach Działania III. Stypendia Indywidualne – otrzymała grant na badania kin lokalnych w Norwegii. Specjalista z zakresu zarządzania kinem i wdrażania nowych technologii kinotechnicznych, wiceprezes Fundacji Rozwoju Kina i koordynator pilotażowego projektu „Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych”.

tworzone pod koniec XIX wieku przez braci Lumière kino należy do przemysłów kultury [Braun, Parker, 1993, s. 155-191] i jednocześnie jest ciągłym przedmiotem interwencjonizmu i protek-

S

Charakterystyka przemysłu kinowego iczba kin lokalnych w Polsce, czyli kin będących własnością samorządów i jedno­cześnie działających w miejscowościach do 100 tysięcy mieszkańców, stale maleje [www.stat.gov.pl]. Ciekawą ilustracją tego zjawiska jest projekt „Tu było kino” [http://www.tubylokino.pl/web/artykul/ksiazka], który przez samych twórców nazywany jest „projektem o końcu świata małych kin”. Badacze do dziś dnia spierają się o źródła tej negatywnej tendencji, choć niewielu z nich zajmowało się tym zagadnieniem. Roger Bennet twierdzi [Bennet, 2005, s. 391-401], że organizacje takie cierpią na konkurencyjną krótkowzroczność (competitive myopia). Kina lokalne należą do grupy niechlubnych przykładów zdiagnozowanego problemu i winy za ich upadek należy upatrywać w braku zmian organizacyjnych i prób dostosowania do płynących z otoczenia wyzwań. By móc zrozumieć te wyzwania konieczna jest dokładna analiza otoczenia. Istniejący stan wiedzy z zakresu specyfiki rynku kinowego pochodzi głownie z opracowań zajmujących się kinami sieciowymi. W literaturze z zakresu zarządzania jednostkami kultury brakuje pozycji, które zajmowałyby się tą tematyką. Jednocześnie jest to bardzo istotne ze względu na swoją wartość aplikacyjną nie tylko z punktu widzenia społeczności lokalnych, którym grozi wykluczenie z dostępu do kultury, ale także administracji lokalnych, które ten dostęp są zobowiązane zapewnić.

L

cjonizmu [Barth, 1998, s. 43]. Ta charakterystyka rynku po części tłumaczy dlaczego Hollywood było w stanie na tyle się rozwinąć by zdominować nie tylko rodzimy, ale i zagraniczne rynki. Fenomen monopolistycznej pozycji „fabryki snów” wynika z pionowej koncentracji rynku (vertical integration), którą dokładnie analizują w swoim modelu Erwin A. Blackstone i Gary W. Bowman [Blackstone, Bowman, 1999, s. 123-130]. Wskazują oni także, że koncentracja kapitałowa produkcji – dystrybucji – eksploatacji kinowej pozwala na zmniejszenie kosztów biletu kinowego na filmy typu blockbusters o prawie 30% i skutkuje podwojeniem liczby widzów. Jest to bardzo ważne biorąc pod uwagę wysokie koszty produkcji i średnio bardzo niską stopę zwrotu. W porównaniu do spójnych i skoncentrowanych struktur rynku kinowego w USA, rynek europejski jest bardzo podzielony. To studia hollywoodzkie kontrolują kanały dystrybucji i mają znaczący udział w globalnym rynku. Zgodnie z raportem Bridge Media z 1994 roku wykonanym dla Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television (PACT) w celu przedstawienia przed komisją Mergers and Monopolies Commission (MMC) stanowi to skuteczną barierę wejścia na rynek: the integration of the US majors, combined with their massive share of the exhibition and distribution markets, places insuperable obstacles in the way of new entrants to those markets [PACT/MMC, 1994, s. 49]. Jednak raport ten nie wykazał, że dominacja „majorsów” na rynku łamie prawa dotyczące wolnej konkurencji. Dominacja Hollywood nie wynika jedynie z koncentracji pionowej. Wiąże się także z kontrolą wykorzystywanej technologii [Robinson, 1996]. Jak opisuje Robinson to wynalazca Edison patentując swoje wynalazki i tworząc w 1909 roku

Marta Materska–Samek

Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii)

Marta Materska-Samek Doktorantka Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, gdzie przygotowuje rozprawę na temat zarządzania kinami lokalnymi. Laureatka programu Doctus Małopolski i stypendystka Funduszu Stypendialnego i Szkoleniowego – w ramach Działania III. Stypendia Indywidualne – otrzymała grant na badania kin lokalnych w Norwegii. Specjalista z zakresu zarządzania kinem i wdrażania nowych technologii kinotechnicznych, wiceprezes Fundacji Rozwoju Kina i koordynator pilotażowego projektu „Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych”.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

ustrukturyzowany przemysł nazywany potocznie The Trust (The Motion Picture Patents Company) ma duże zasługi w rozwoju drugiego po Dolinie Krzemowej na świecie klastera. W opozycji do trustu Edisona dziesięć niezależnych organizacji stworzyło spójną opozycję i ulokowało swoje studia produkcyjne na wzgórzach w stanie Kalifornia, gdyż ten stan nie respektował praw patentowych Edisona. Obecnie dzięki większościowemu udziałowi w globalnym rynku, Hollywood kontroluje format dystrybucji i wyświetlania filmów a zarazem decyduje o wprowadzeniu standardu systemu kina cyfrowego (d-cinema)1 którego wysokie koszty zakupu najczęściej ponoszą kina. Do 1947 roku, czyli do powstania General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), przemysł filmowy rządził się prawami wolnego rynku. Następnie hollywoodzkiemu kinu przyznano specjalne ochronne prawa powołując się na doznane straty w trakcie II Wojny Światowej i znaczenie kina w kształtowaniu postaw obywatelskich [Litman, 1998]. W odpowiedzi na politykę amerykańską Francuzi pod przewodnictwem André Malraux i z inspiracji Davida Puttnama przyznali europejskiemu przemysłowi audiowizualnemu status wyjątku kulturalnego (cultural exception)2. W uzasadnieniu wskazywano konieczność ochrony europejskich języków, tożsamości i kultury rozpowszechnianych za pośrednictwem filmu. Europejska Komisja powołując do życia Program MEDIA określiła cel jego działania jako podniesienie jakości i konkurencyjności przemysłu audiowizualnego oraz zwiększenie dystrybucji filmów europejskic [Media Programme, 1992, s. 5].

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Polski rynek kinowy

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Pojęcie cultural exception posiada francuskie źródła i nieodłącznie wiąże się z przemysłem filmowym. Francja, gdzie kino stawiało swoje pierwsze kroki, od zawsze miała aspiracje artystyczne. W latach 20. i 30. twórcy tacy jak: Jean Renoir, René Clair i Marcel Carné stworzyli legendę francuskiej kinematografii. W tym samym czasie w Stanach Zjednoczonych kino miało znaczenie wyłącznie ekonomiczne. Ze względu na wybuch II Wojny Światowej kinematografia istniała prawie wyłącznie w Ameryce, gdzie rozwijała się prężnie i rosła w siłę, by w latach 40. i 50. rocznie wypuszczać nawet 400 produkcji. Po zakończeniu wojny Francja jako pierwsze europejskie państwo zaczęła walczyć z hegemonią Stanów Zjednoczonych wprowadzając w 1945 roku publiczny system finansowania kinematografii i jednocześnie ustanawiając l’exception culturelle [Regourd, 2002].

często powiązane z wyższymi ogniwami łańcucha wartości kontrolują rynek. Według raportu przeprowadzonego na zlecenie CF Helios, trzeciego największego operatora kin wielosalowych w Polsce, w krajach Europy Zachodniej do kina chodzi się ponad dwukrotnie częściej, mimo że bilety są prawie dwukrotnie droższe. W Polsce na jeden ekran przypada 40 tys. widzów, podczas gdy średnia UE wynosi 15 tys. i podobnie sytuacja wygląda u naszych południowych sąsiadów. Statystyczny Polak chodzi do kina 0,8 razy w roku podczas gdy wskaźnik ten w Norwegii jest ponad trzy razy wyższy. W związku z tym w polskim rynku drzemie duży potencjał rozwoju, co widać na podstawie danych z ostatnich kilku lat. Od 2000 roku, w wyniku inwestycji sieci multipleksów przybyło w Polsce ok. 160 ekranów kinowych i obecnie jest ich około 980. To dużo więcej niż w Finlandii, ale aż czterokrotnie mniej niż w Hiszpanii [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa. eu/portal/page/portal/culture/data/cultural_participation ]. Wszystkie komercyjne sieci rozwijają się w miastach powyżej 100 tys. mieszkańców pozostawiając poza zainteresowaniem 4/5 powierzchni Polski [Battek, Materska-Samek, 2008] co skutkuje rażącą dysproporcją pomiędzy dostępem do oferty kinowej między metropoliami, dużymi, niegdyś wojewódzkimi miastami a mniejszymi miejscowościami. Dodatkowo większość Polaków mieszkających poza metropoliami by zobaczyć premierowo film musi pokonać dystans ponad 50 km, który stanowi skuteczną barierę odległościową wpływającą na brak lub bardzo niski wskaźnik uczestnictwa w kulturze. Brak aktualnej oferty kin tradycyjnych wynika z faktu ich działania w mniejszych miejscowościach, co bezpośrednio przekłada się na ich przychody. Dystrybutorzy filmów, ze względu na powiązania kapitałowe i poziom wpływów z biletów w kinach lokalnych decydują o przekazaniu kopii filmu 35 mm do kin w mniejszych miejscowościach dopiero

2

Nowoczesne technologie zwane kinem cyfrowym (d-cinema) obejmują swoim zakresem zastosowanie projektorów cyfrowych, nowoczesnego cyfrowego systemu nagłaśniania oraz zakładają rezygnację z kopii filmowej 35 mm jako nośnika filmu, w zamian wykorzystanie kopii filmowej (DCP- Digital Cinema Package). Dane zawarte na DCP (obrazy, dźwięk i napisy) winny odpowiadać wymaganiom zamieszczonym w „Specyfikacji systemu kina cyfrowego” wydanej w lipcu 2005 roku przez DCI. Kino cyfrowe (d-cinema) wykorzystuje projektory cyfrowe zamiast analogowych. Jest w stanie magazynować, przekazywać i wyświetlać duże pliki tak jak zostały one nagrane. W tym przypadku nie ma możliwości zużycia nośnika. Łańcuch kina cyfrowego rozpoczyna się od powstania działa filmowego w technice cyfrowej, jego postprodukcji, dystrybucji i wyświetlania z zastosowaniem plików zamiast taśmy 35 mm.

olski rynek kinowy odzwierciedla światowe tendencje. Udział produkcji amerykańskich waha się w zależności od roku w granicach 75-83% boxoffice’u, a duże sieci multipleksów,

1

1

olski rynek kinowy odzwierciedla światowe tendencje. Udział produkcji amerykańskich waha się w zależności od roku w granicach 75-83% boxoffice’u, a duże sieci multipleksów,

Nowoczesne technologie zwane kinem cyfrowym (d-cinema) obejmują swoim zakresem zastosowanie projektorów cyfrowych, nowoczesnego cyfrowego systemu nagłaśniania oraz zakładają rezygnację z kopii filmowej 35 mm jako nośnika filmu, w zamian wykorzystanie kopii filmowej (DCP- Digital Cinema Package). Dane zawarte na DCP (obrazy, dźwięk i napisy) winny odpowiadać wymaganiom zamieszczonym w „Specyfikacji systemu kina cyfrowego” wydanej w lipcu 2005 roku przez DCI. Kino cyfrowe (d-cinema) wykorzystuje projektory cyfrowe zamiast analogowych. Jest w stanie magazynować, przekazywać i wyświetlać duże pliki tak jak zostały one nagrane. W tym przypadku nie ma możliwości zużycia nośnika. Łańcuch kina cyfrowego rozpoczyna się od powstania działa filmowego w technice cyfrowej, jego postprodukcji, dystrybucji i wyświetlania z zastosowaniem plików zamiast taśmy 35 mm.

P

2 Pojęcie cultural exception posiada francuskie źródła i nieodłącznie wiąże się z przemysłem filmowym. Francja, gdzie kino stawiało swoje pierwsze kroki, od zawsze miała aspiracje artystyczne. W latach 20. i 30. twórcy tacy jak: Jean Renoir, René Clair i Marcel Carné stworzyli legendę francuskiej kinematografii. W tym samym czasie w Stanach Zjednoczonych kino miało znaczenie wyłącznie ekonomiczne. Ze względu na wybuch II Wojny Światowej kinematografia istniała prawie wyłącznie w Ameryce, gdzie rozwijała się prężnie i rosła w siłę, by w latach 40. i 50. rocznie wypuszczać nawet 400 produkcji. Po zakończeniu wojny Francja jako pierwsze europejskie państwo zaczęła walczyć z hegemonią Stanów Zjednoczonych wprowadzając w 1945 roku publiczny system finansowania kinematografii i jednocześnie ustanawiając l’exception culturelle [Regourd, 2002].

Polski rynek kinowy

często powiązane z wyższymi ogniwami łańcucha wartości kontrolują rynek. Według raportu przeprowadzonego na zlecenie CF Helios, trzeciego największego operatora kin wielosalowych w Polsce, w krajach Europy Zachodniej do kina chodzi się ponad dwukrotnie częściej, mimo że bilety są prawie dwukrotnie droższe. W Polsce na jeden ekran przypada 40 tys. widzów, podczas gdy średnia UE wynosi 15 tys. i podobnie sytuacja wygląda u naszych południowych sąsiadów. Statystyczny Polak chodzi do kina 0,8 razy w roku podczas gdy wskaźnik ten w Norwegii jest ponad trzy razy wyższy. W związku z tym w polskim rynku drzemie duży potencjał rozwoju, co widać na podstawie danych z ostatnich kilku lat. Od 2000 roku, w wyniku inwestycji sieci multipleksów przybyło w Polsce ok. 160 ekranów kinowych i obecnie jest ich około 980. To dużo więcej niż w Finlandii, ale aż czterokrotnie mniej niż w Hiszpanii [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa. eu/portal/page/portal/culture/data/cultural_participation ]. Wszystkie komercyjne sieci rozwijają się w miastach powyżej 100 tys. mieszkańców pozostawiając poza zainteresowaniem 4/5 powierzchni Polski [Battek, Materska-Samek, 2008] co skutkuje rażącą dysproporcją pomiędzy dostępem do oferty kinowej między metropoliami, dużymi, niegdyś wojewódzkimi miastami a mniejszymi miejscowościami. Dodatkowo większość Polaków mieszkających poza metropoliami by zobaczyć premierowo film musi pokonać dystans ponad 50 km, który stanowi skuteczną barierę odległościową wpływającą na brak lub bardzo niski wskaźnik uczestnictwa w kulturze. Brak aktualnej oferty kin tradycyjnych wynika z faktu ich działania w mniejszych miejscowościach, co bezpośrednio przekłada się na ich przychody. Dystrybutorzy filmów, ze względu na powiązania kapitałowe i poziom wpływów z biletów w kinach lokalnych decydują o przekazaniu kopii filmu 35 mm do kin w mniejszych miejscowościach dopiero

302

ustrukturyzowany przemysł nazywany potocznie The Trust (The Motion Picture Patents Company) ma duże zasługi w rozwoju drugiego po Dolinie Krzemowej na świecie klastera. W opozycji do trustu Edisona dziesięć niezależnych organizacji stworzyło spójną opozycję i ulokowało swoje studia produkcyjne na wzgórzach w stanie Kalifornia, gdyż ten stan nie respektował praw patentowych Edisona. Obecnie dzięki większościowemu udziałowi w globalnym rynku, Hollywood kontroluje format dystrybucji i wyświetlania filmów a zarazem decyduje o wprowadzeniu standardu systemu kina cyfrowego (d-cinema)1 którego wysokie koszty zakupu najczęściej ponoszą kina. Do 1947 roku, czyli do powstania General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), przemysł filmowy rządził się prawami wolnego rynku. Następnie hollywoodzkiemu kinu przyznano specjalne ochronne prawa powołując się na doznane straty w trakcie II Wojny Światowej i znaczenie kina w kształtowaniu postaw obywatelskich [Litman, 1998]. W odpowiedzi na politykę amerykańską Francuzi pod przewodnictwem André Malraux i z inspiracji Davida Puttnama przyznali europejskiemu przemysłowi audiowizualnemu status wyjątku kulturalnego (cultural exception)2. W uzasadnieniu wskazywano konieczność ochrony europejskich języków, tożsamości i kultury rozpowszechnianych za pośrednictwem filmu. Europejska Komisja powołując do życia Program MEDIA określiła cel jego działania jako podniesienie jakości i konkurencyjności przemysłu audiowizualnego oraz zwiększenie dystrybucji filmów europejskic [Media Programme, 1992, s. 5].


303

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

w momencie, gdy film nie gromadzi już widowni w dużych miastach, czyli nawet po kilku miesiącach od premiery. Można z tego wnioskować, że prowadzenie działalności kinowej w mniejszych miejscowościach nie jest w stanie zagwarantować zysków, które mogłyby zapewnić zwrot inwestycji. W tej dramatycznej sytuacji, eliminującej z dostępu do kultury kinowej prawie połowę obywateli, samorządy lokalne podejmują zadanie upowszechniania kultury filmowej organizując w ramach gminnych instytucji kultury lokalne kino. Niestety działania te nie są koordynowane horyzontalnie i odznaczają się niskim poziomem profesjonalizmu.

Norweskie kina lokalne

N

orwegia posiada 4,5 miliona mieszkańców i 234 kina (440 ekranów), co stawia ją na trzecim miejscu w Europie przeliczając liczbę mieszkańców na kino (11 454). Mimo, że roczna frekwencja w kinach wynosi 12 milionów jedynie 15 kin na 234 jest w stanie się samofinansować [Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008]. Jest to też kraj z najwyższym na świecie udziałem kin lokalnych, gdyż posiada jedynie kilka kin komercyjnych działających w największych miejscowościach – Oslo i Bergen. Oprócz uwarunkowania demograficznego istotny wpływ na rozwój kin lokalnych miało wprowadzone w 1913 roku prawo ustanawiające licencjonowanie działalności kin przez lokalne samorządy. Kilka lat później, lokalne samorządy zdecydowały o utworzeniu Kommunale Kinematografers Landsforbund czyli narodowego stowarzyszenia kin lokalnych, które po wielu latach przemianowało się na Film&Kino. Obecnie F&K skupia 149 członków, zarządza Norweskim Funduszem Kina i Filmu, w którego imieniu, zgodnie z prawem norweskim, pobiera 2,5 procent dochodów ze sprzedaży biletów kinowych oraz 3,5 % od sprzedaży i wypożyczania video/dvd. Na tle innych państw norweski system kin lokalnych w postaci horyzontalnej sieci zarządzanej przez jedną wyspecjalizowaną w tej dziedzinie organizację jest ewenementem. Żadne z państw oprócz Norwegii nie rozwinęło modelu zarządzania kinami lokalnymi wykorzystując innowacje strategiczne zastosowane przez komercyjne sieci multipleksów, jednak nie zatracając tożsamości kin lokalnych. Żaden też z narodowych instytutów filmowych nie przygotował programu zmian dostosowujących wszystkie kina na rynku do płynących z otoczenia wyzwań związanych ze zmianą technologiczną.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Cyfryzacja kina

N

owoczesne technologie zwane kinem cyfrowym (d-cinema) obejmują swoim zakresem zastosowanie projektorów cyfrowych, nowoczesnego cyfrowego systemu nagłaśniania oraz zakładają rezygnację z kopii filmowej 35 mm jako nośnika filmu, a w zamian wykorzystanie kopii filmowej w postaci pliku (DCP – Digital Cinema Package). Dane zawarte na DCP (obrazy, dźwięk i napisy) winny odpowiadać wymaganiom zamieszczonym w „Specyfikacji systemu kina cyfrowego” [www.dcimovies.com] wydanej w lipcu 2005 roku przez Digital Cinema Iniciatives. DCI jest organizacją utworzoną w 2002 roku przez siedmiu największych producentów filmów z Hollywood: Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal i Warner Bros. Została powołana by opracować wspólne rozwiązania techniczne oraz jakościowe, które pozwolą na podniesienie jakości wyświetlanego w kinach filmu, zmniejszą koszty dystrybucji oraz dadzą możliwość szerszego rozpowszechniania zapewniając nieograniczoną ilość filmów w pierwszym obiegu. „Specyfikacja Systemu Kina Cyfrowego” precyzuje dokładne wymagania odnośnie rozdzielczości, koloru, kompresji, formatu pliku i bezpieczeństwa. Jedynie kina posiadające system cyfrowy zgodny ze specyfikacją DCI mogą wyświetlać produkcje hollywoodzkie. W technologii kina cyfrowego (d-cinema) nie ma możliwości zużycia nośnika, gdyż jest nim plik, a nie taśma filmowa. Dzięki zmniejszeniu kosztów wytworzenia kopii filmowej i transportu, kino może liczyć na filmy w tzw. „pierwszym obiegu”, mieć ciekawszy repertuar, transmitować ważne wydarzenia kulturalne, społeczne i sportowe; stać się centrum multimedialno-kulturalnym. Łańcuch kina cyfrowego rozpoczyna się od powstania dzieła filmowego w technice cyfrowej, jego postprodukcji, dystrybucji i wyświetlania z zastosowaniem plików zamiast taśmy 35 mm. Docelowo treści przetwarzane u dystrybutora, wysyłane są do kin drogą satelitarną lub siecią szerokopasmową. Obecnie stosuje się przesył fizyczny twardych dysków. Każde z tych działań wymaga specjalistycznego sprzętu. W procesie postprodukcji niezbędne jest zapewnienie możliwości magazynowania plików z wieloma wersjami tego samego filmu, różnymi ścieżkami dźwiękowymi i napisami. Dystrybutor natomiast musi posiadać urządzenia umożliwiające kompresję plików zawierających jedną z wersji filmu i wysyłanie ich za pomocą drogi satelitarnej, twardych dysków do odbiorcy – kin. Te zaś zmuszone są posiadać, niezależnie od ilości miejsc na sali, serwer z odpowiednim oprogramowaniem i możliwościami magazynowania. Konieczne jest także

303

orwegia posiada 4,5 miliona mieszkańców i 234 kina (440 ekranów), co stawia ją na trzecim miejscu w Europie przeliczając liczbę mieszkańców na kino (11 454). Mimo, że roczna frekwencja w kinach wynosi 12 milionów jedynie 15 kin na 234 jest w stanie się samofinansować [Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008]. Jest to też kraj z najwyższym na świecie udziałem kin lokalnych, gdyż posiada jedynie kilka kin komercyjnych działających w największych miejscowościach – Oslo i Bergen. Oprócz uwarunkowania demograficznego istotny wpływ na rozwój kin lokalnych miało wprowadzone w 1913 roku prawo ustanawiające licencjonowanie działalności kin przez lokalne samorządy. Kilka lat później, lokalne samorządy zdecydowały o utworzeniu Kommunale Kinematografers Landsforbund czyli narodowego stowarzyszenia kin lokalnych, które po wielu latach przemianowało się na Film&Kino. Obecnie F&K skupia 149 członków, zarządza Norweskim Funduszem Kina i Filmu, w którego imieniu, zgodnie z prawem norweskim, pobiera 2,5 procent dochodów ze sprzedaży biletów kinowych oraz 3,5 % od sprzedaży i wypożyczania video/dvd. Na tle innych państw norweski system kin lokalnych w postaci horyzontalnej sieci zarządzanej przez jedną wyspecjalizowaną w tej dziedzinie organizację jest ewenementem. Żadne z państw oprócz Norwegii nie rozwinęło modelu zarządzania kinami lokalnymi wykorzystując innowacje strategiczne zastosowane przez komercyjne sieci multipleksów, jednak nie zatracając tożsamości kin lokalnych. Żaden też z narodowych instytutów filmowych nie przygotował programu zmian dostosowujących wszystkie kina na rynku do płynących z otoczenia wyzwań związanych ze zmianą technologiczną.

N

Norweskie kina lokalne w momencie, gdy film nie gromadzi już widowni w dużych miastach, czyli nawet po kilku miesiącach od premiery. Można z tego wnioskować, że prowadzenie działalności kinowej w mniejszych miejscowościach nie jest w stanie zagwarantować zysków, które mogłyby zapewnić zwrot inwestycji. W tej dramatycznej sytuacji, eliminującej z dostępu do kultury kinowej prawie połowę obywateli, samorządy lokalne podejmują zadanie upowszechniania kultury filmowej organizując w ramach gminnych instytucji kultury lokalne kino. Niestety działania te nie są koordynowane horyzontalnie i odznaczają się niskim poziomem profesjonalizmu.

owoczesne technologie zwane kinem cyfrowym (d-cinema) obejmują swoim zakresem zastosowanie projektorów cyfrowych, nowoczesnego cyfrowego systemu nagłaśniania oraz zakładają rezygnację z kopii filmowej 35 mm jako nośnika filmu, a w zamian wykorzystanie kopii filmowej w postaci pliku (DCP – Digital Cinema Package). Dane zawarte na DCP (obrazy, dźwięk i napisy) winny odpowiadać wymaganiom zamieszczonym w „Specyfikacji systemu kina cyfrowego” [www.dcimovies.com] wydanej w lipcu 2005 roku przez Digital Cinema Iniciatives. DCI jest organizacją utworzoną w 2002 roku przez siedmiu największych producentów filmów z Hollywood: Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony, Universal i Warner Bros. Została powołana by opracować wspólne rozwiązania techniczne oraz jakościowe, które pozwolą na podniesienie jakości wyświetlanego w kinach filmu, zmniejszą koszty dystrybucji oraz dadzą możliwość szerszego rozpowszechniania zapewniając nieograniczoną ilość filmów w pierwszym obiegu. „Specyfikacja Systemu Kina Cyfrowego” precyzuje dokładne wymagania odnośnie rozdzielczości, koloru, kompresji, formatu pliku i bezpieczeństwa. Jedynie kina posiadające system cyfrowy zgodny ze specyfikacją DCI mogą wyświetlać produkcje hollywoodzkie. W technologii kina cyfrowego (d-cinema) nie ma możliwości zużycia nośnika, gdyż jest nim plik, a nie taśma filmowa. Dzięki zmniejszeniu kosztów wytworzenia kopii filmowej i transportu, kino może liczyć na filmy w tzw. „pierwszym obiegu”, mieć ciekawszy repertuar, transmitować ważne wydarzenia kulturalne, społeczne i sportowe; stać się centrum multimedialno-kulturalnym. Łańcuch kina cyfrowego rozpoczyna się od powstania dzieła filmowego w technice cyfrowej, jego postprodukcji, dystrybucji i wyświetlania z zastosowaniem plików zamiast taśmy 35 mm. Docelowo treści przetwarzane u dystrybutora, wysyłane są do kin drogą satelitarną lub siecią szerokopasmową. Obecnie stosuje się przesył fizyczny twardych dysków. Każde z tych działań wymaga specjalistycznego sprzętu. W procesie postprodukcji niezbędne jest zapewnienie możliwości magazynowania plików z wieloma wersjami tego samego filmu, różnymi ścieżkami dźwiękowymi i napisami. Dystrybutor natomiast musi posiadać urządzenia umożliwiające kompresję plików zawierających jedną z wersji filmu i wysyłanie ich za pomocą drogi satelitarnej, twardych dysków do odbiorcy – kin. Te zaś zmuszone są posiadać, niezależnie od ilości miejsc na sali, serwer z odpowiednim oprogramowaniem i możliwościami magazynowania. Konieczne jest także

N

Cyfryzacja kina


304

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Ok. 70 tysięcy złotych w zależności od typu i ilości okularów. Dane pochodzą z budżetu projektu „Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych”.

3

Źródło: A.Battek, M. Materska-Samek, Studium Wykonalność dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008, str. 33

Wymaga wymiany ekranu na tzw. silver screen

Nie wymaga wymiany ekranu

Ekran

Wymaga modulatora Z screen5 podpiętego do projektora

Wymaga synchronizacji nadajnika podczerwieni (instalacja oprogramowania)

System kinowy

Jednorazowe, mogą zostać zwrócone bądź zabrane jako pamiątka

Obsługa kina musi każdorazowo zbierać, czyścić i rozdawać widzom okulary

Okulary

REAL D

Nuvison

Nie wymaga wymiany ekranu Wymaga serwera firmy dolby Obsługa kina musi każdorazowo zbierać, czyścić i rozdawać widzom okulary Dolby

K

Tabela 1. Porównanie systemów 3D

ina lokalne są w zasadniczej części obiektami niedochodowymi, współfinansowanymi z dotacji podmiotowej organizatora. Wynika to głównie z ich lokalizacji (miejscowości do 100 tys. mieszkańców), która nie gwarantuje uzyskiwania progu rentowności dla tej działalności. Trudności finansowe wynikają także z problemów związanych z pozyskiwaniem kopii filmowych od dystrybutorów, co przekłada się często na mało atrakcyjną, nieaktualną ofertę, brak wystarczających środków finansowych pozwalających na inwestycje w nowe technologie, brak środków na reklamę i promocję, niski standard budynków i wyposażenia. Do najważniejszych barier rozwoju kin lokalnych należy zatem zaliczyć barierę finansową. Kolejnym czynnikiem

K

Dolby

Jednorazowe, mogą zostać zwrócone bądź zabrane jako pamiątka

Obsługa kina musi każdorazowo zbierać, czyścić i rozdawać widzom okulary

System kinowy

Wymaga synchronizacji nadajnika podczerwieni (instalacja oprogramowania)

Wymaga modulatora Z screen5 podpiętego do projektora

Wymaga serwera firmy dolby

Ekran

Nie wymaga wymiany ekranu

Wymaga wymiany ekranu na tzw. silver screen

Nie wymaga wymiany ekranu

Źródło: A.Battek, M. Materska-Samek, Studium Wykonalność dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008, str. 33

3

Dane pochodzą z budżetu projektu „Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych”.

4

Ok. 70 tysięcy złotych w zależności od typu i ilości okularów.

5

Z-screen to przystawka na obiektyw projektora, synchronizująca polaryzację dla lewego i prawego oka.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

W zakresie projekcji trójwymiarowej kina nie wiążą wytyczne specyfikacji, a wybór systemu zależy od jego ceny i uniwersalności w łączeniu z rożnymi modelami serwerów i projektorów. Istnieje kilka systemów 3D a do najważniejszych dostawców trzeba zakwalifikować: RealD, Expand (funkcjonujący wcześniej pod nazwą Nuvision) i Dolby. Poniższa tabela pokazuje różnice w tych systemach. Cyfryzacja i możliwość wyposażenia kin w system do projekcji trójwymiarowej jest ogromnym wyzwaniem stojącym przed kinami lokalnymi – szansą na lepszą realizację misji instytucji kultury, w ramach której działa kino oraz zagrożeniem dla dalszego działania w obecnej postaci.

REAL D

Obsługa kina musi każdorazowo zbierać, czyścić i rozdawać widzom okulary

Bariery rozwoju kin lokalnych

Nuvison Okulary

zabezpieczenie, aby w przypadku braku zasilania elektrycznego zapewnić sprawne funkcjonowanie i projekcje. Kino cyfrowe, które chce wyświetlać filmy trójwymiarowo (3D) musi zainstalować specjalny system. W skład takiego systemu wchodzi np. nadajnik podczerwieni podłączany do projektora, specjalne okulary oraz w zależności od technologii aktywny ekran zwany srebrnym (silver screen). Dostępne systemy można podzielić na dwa rodzaje: te wymagające wymiany ekranu na srebrny, oraz te, gdzie rolę aktywną – odbieranie sygnału z nadajnika podczerwieni i sterowanie naprzemiennie raz lewym, raz prawym okiem lub filtrowanie kolorów – pełnią okulary. Zastosowanie technologii kina cyfrowego oraz sprzętu, który odpowiada wymaganiom „Specyfikacji Systemu Kina Cyfrowego” nie podlega dyskusji ze względu na wyświetlanie filmów amerykańskich, które stanowią ponad 75% repertuaru kin. O ile przystosowanie kina lokalnego do wyświetlania filmów cyfrowo wiąże się z nakładami rzędu 500 tysięcy złotych brutto3, stosunkowo małym nakładem jest zakup systemu do projekcji trójwymiarowych4. Pozwala on zaoferować widzom produkty o większej wartości dodanej i wyżej je wyceniać. Jak wskazują boxoffice’y, filmy te cieszą się od trzech do czterech razy większą frekwencją niż ich dwuwymiarowe odpowiedniki [http://www.digitalcinemainfo. com/reald_06_29_09.php]. Jak zapowiadają największe studia produkujące filmy dla dzieci (Disney, Pixar i Dreamworks) za niedługo wszystkie ich filmy będą jedynie w wersjach 3D.

ina lokalne są w zasadniczej części obiektami niedochodowymi, współfinansowanymi z dotacji podmiotowej organizatora. Wynika to głównie z ich lokalizacji (miejscowości do 100 tys. mieszkańców), która nie gwarantuje uzyskiwania progu rentowności dla tej działalności. Trudności finansowe wynikają także z problemów związanych z pozyskiwaniem kopii filmowych od dystrybutorów, co przekłada się często na mało atrakcyjną, nieaktualną ofertę, brak wystarczających środków finansowych pozwalających na inwestycje w nowe technologie, brak środków na reklamę i promocję, niski standard budynków i wyposażenia. Do najważniejszych barier rozwoju kin lokalnych należy zatem zaliczyć barierę finansową. Kolejnym czynnikiem

Tabela 1. Porównanie systemów 3D

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Bariery rozwoju kin lokalnych

Z-screen to przystawka na obiektyw projektora, synchronizująca polaryzację dla lewego i prawego oka.

W zakresie projekcji trójwymiarowej kina nie wiążą wytyczne specyfikacji, a wybór systemu zależy od jego ceny i uniwersalności w łączeniu z rożnymi modelami serwerów i projektorów. Istnieje kilka systemów 3D a do najważniejszych dostawców trzeba zakwalifikować: RealD, Expand (funkcjonujący wcześniej pod nazwą Nuvision) i Dolby. Poniższa tabela pokazuje różnice w tych systemach. Cyfryzacja i możliwość wyposażenia kin w system do projekcji trójwymiarowej jest ogromnym wyzwaniem stojącym przed kinami lokalnymi – szansą na lepszą realizację misji instytucji kultury, w ramach której działa kino oraz zagrożeniem dla dalszego działania w obecnej postaci.

5

zabezpieczenie, aby w przypadku braku zasilania elektrycznego zapewnić sprawne funkcjonowanie i projekcje. Kino cyfrowe, które chce wyświetlać filmy trójwymiarowo (3D) musi zainstalować specjalny system. W skład takiego systemu wchodzi np. nadajnik podczerwieni podłączany do projektora, specjalne okulary oraz w zależności od technologii aktywny ekran zwany srebrnym (silver screen). Dostępne systemy można podzielić na dwa rodzaje: te wymagające wymiany ekranu na srebrny, oraz te, gdzie rolę aktywną – odbieranie sygnału z nadajnika podczerwieni i sterowanie naprzemiennie raz lewym, raz prawym okiem lub filtrowanie kolorów – pełnią okulary. Zastosowanie technologii kina cyfrowego oraz sprzętu, który odpowiada wymaganiom „Specyfikacji Systemu Kina Cyfrowego” nie podlega dyskusji ze względu na wyświetlanie filmów amerykańskich, które stanowią ponad 75% repertuaru kin. O ile przystosowanie kina lokalnego do wyświetlania filmów cyfrowo wiąże się z nakładami rzędu 500 tysięcy złotych brutto3, stosunkowo małym nakładem jest zakup systemu do projekcji trójwymiarowych4. Pozwala on zaoferować widzom produkty o większej wartości dodanej i wyżej je wyceniać. Jak wskazują boxoffice’y, filmy te cieszą się od trzech do czterech razy większą frekwencją niż ich dwuwymiarowe odpowiedniki [http://www.digitalcinemainfo. com/reald_06_29_09.php]. Jak zapowiadają największe studia produkujące filmy dla dzieci (Disney, Pixar i Dreamworks) za niedługo wszystkie ich filmy będą jedynie w wersjach 3D.


305

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

jest brak odpowiedniego sprzętu technicznego pozwalającego wykorzystać kino do alternatywnych działalności. System kina cyfrowego umożliwia organizację interaktywnych warsztatów, konferencji, sesji tzw. question & answers ze znanymi postaciami, projekcji 3D, transmisji światowych wydarzeń kulturalnych. Inną barierą jest architektura kina oparta na jednej dużej sali. Kina komercyjne w latach dziewięćdziesiątych, jak to dokładnie analizuje Le Roy [Le Roy, 2005, s. 97-116], wprowadziły innowację polegającą na specjalnie zaprojektowanych wielosalowych obiektach kinowych minimalizujących stratę przestrzeni poprzez większe przewyższenia na salach, specjalną architekturę ciągów komunikacyjnych przeprowadzającą widzów obok barów kinowych i połączeniu kabin projekcyjnych, tak by jeden kinooperator mógł obsługiwać wiele seansów. W przeciwieństwie do kin sieciowych, kina lokalne dysponują najczęściej jedną dużą salą widowiskową, co w przypadku kina opartego o format 35 mm znacznie utrudnia pozyskanie i różnicowanie repertuaru. Dystrybutorzy, chcąc osiągnąć jak najwyższy przychód z kopii filmu w danym okresie wymuszają na kinach podpisywanie tzw. „umowy na wyłączność”. Zobowiązuje ona kino do projekcji jednego tytułu na wszystkich seansach w ciągu dwóch tygodni. Bariera ta może zostać przekuta w atut w wyniku cyfryzacji kin. Jedna, duża sala widowiskowa jest idealnym miejscem do organizowania specjalnych wydarzeń takich jak transmisje oper, baletów czy koncertów, które gromadzą szeroką publiczność i wymagają specjalnej oprawy. Bariera repertuarowa wynika z czynników ekonomicznych – kosztów przygotowania kopii filmu 35mm. Powinna ona zniknąć, gdyż wdrożenie technologii cyfrowej powoduje drastyczne obniżenie kosztu krańcowego wyprodukowania kopii filmu. Jednak ze względu na istniejący obecnie oligopol dystrybutorów i bardzo restrykcyjne podejście do kin będzie to proces długotrwały. Największą barierą rozwoju kin lokalnych w Polsce wydaje się jednak brak systemu i współpracy pomiędzy kinami. Polski Instytut Sztuki Filmowej w swoich programach operacyjnych posiada schemat pomocy kinom, jednak wielkość alokacji pozwala na pomoc jedynie wybranym. Planowany Narodowy Program Cyfryzacji zakłada

6

w swojej roboczej wersji częściowe sfinansowanie zmiany technologicznej w 50 lub 70 kinach. Istniejące organizacje tj. Stowarzyszenie „Kina Polskie” czy Sieć Kin Studyjnych i Lokalnych także nie są w stanie zapewnić współpracy horyzontalnej. Z roku na rok liczba kin w małych miastach spada, a kina komercyjne kupują cyfrowe projektory powoli pozwalając dystrybutorom na rezygnację z taśmy 35 mm. Cyfryzacja zatem, nie tylko umożliwi lokalnym ośrodkom kultury stać się prawdziwymi „centrami sztuk” (art houses) i dostarczyć nieznaną dotąd ofertę (transmisje live oper, operetek, baletów, koncertów etc.) lokalnym społecznościom, ale przede wszystkim zagwarantuje możliwość dalszego prowadzenia działalności kinowej. By zapewnić stabilny i trwały rozwój kin lokalnych, nie tylko powinny one zostać cyfrowe, ale także należy powiązać je w sieć, która pozwoli na zmniejszenie kosztów całego procesu i ułatwi wymianę doświadczeń oraz dalsze pozyskiwanie środków.

Norweski program dla kin

F

ilm&Kino koordynuje całość działań związanych z rozwojem kin lokalnych w Norwegii. Do największych jego projektów należy zaliczyć tzw. roll-out czyli program cyfryzacji wszystkich kin w kraju. Bardzo gruntowne przygotowania do przedsięwzięcia objęły opracowanie raportu o ekonomicznych i kulturalnych aspektach rozwoju kina – Økonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift [Grefsrud, Vaagland, 2006]. Potwierdza on, że aktywne kina generują zyski dla całego przemysłu czasu wolnego w danej miejscowości. Dostarczył też wiele znaczących argumentów w dyskusji nad programem. Innym przykładem przemawiającym za pozytywną decyzją parlamentu w sprawie przyjęcia programu było przeprowadzenie przez Film&Kino dwóch pilotażowych projektów cyfryzacji testujących nie tylko aspekty techniczne, ale także wpływ technologii na zmiany w repertuarowaniu i wynikach finansowych kina. Stworzono lokalne centra know-how, które w przyszłości wspierać będą narodowy program. Zaczyna się on tej jesieni i dzięki środkom pochodzącym ze składek kin Film&Kino (60%) oraz przychodom płynącym z VPF – virtual print fee6 (40%) w ciągu

Nie jest to klasyczny VPF (virtual print fee), czyli w wolnym tłumaczeniu opłata za kopię. VPF polega w uproszczeniu na finansowaniu sprzętu przez dystrybutora filmu. Dostarczając kopię cyfrową uiszcza on opłatę wynikającą z różnicy w kosztach kopii 35 mm a kopii cyfrowej za wyświetlanie cyfrowe filmu w danym kinie. Opłaty te pozwalają na opłacenie rat instytucji finansującej a w tym przypadku kredytu zaciągniętego przez F&K. To ono negocjuje umowę z dystrybutorami (w praktyce bezpośrednio ze studiami w Hollywood) i ustala z nimi zasady pobierania opłat, w tym przypadku znacznie zmniejszonych, ze względu na 60% wkład własny.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

305

6

Nie jest to klasyczny VPF (virtual print fee), czyli w wolnym tłumaczeniu opłata za kopię. VPF polega w uproszczeniu na finansowaniu sprzętu przez dystrybutora filmu. Dostarczając kopię cyfrową uiszcza on opłatę wynikającą z różnicy w kosztach kopii 35 mm a kopii cyfrowej za wyświetlanie cyfrowe filmu w danym kinie. Opłaty te pozwalają na opłacenie rat instytucji finansującej a w tym przypadku kredytu zaciągniętego przez F&K. To ono negocjuje umowę z dystrybutorami (w praktyce bezpośrednio ze studiami w Hollywood) i ustala z nimi zasady pobierania opłat, w tym przypadku znacznie zmniejszonych, ze względu na 60% wkład własny.

jest brak odpowiedniego sprzętu technicznego pozwalającego wykorzystać kino do alternatywnych działalności. System kina cyfrowego umożliwia organizację interaktywnych warsztatów, konferencji, sesji tzw. question & answers ze znanymi postaciami, projekcji 3D, transmisji światowych wydarzeń kulturalnych. Inną barierą jest architektura kina oparta na jednej dużej sali. Kina komercyjne w latach dziewięćdziesiątych, jak to dokładnie analizuje Le Roy [Le Roy, 2005, s. 97-116], wprowadziły innowację polegającą na specjalnie zaprojektowanych wielosalowych obiektach kinowych minimalizujących stratę przestrzeni poprzez większe przewyższenia na salach, specjalną architekturę ciągów komunikacyjnych przeprowadzającą widzów obok barów kinowych i połączeniu kabin projekcyjnych, tak by jeden kinooperator mógł obsługiwać wiele seansów. W przeciwieństwie do kin sieciowych, kina lokalne dysponują najczęściej jedną dużą salą widowiskową, co w przypadku kina opartego o format 35 mm znacznie utrudnia pozyskanie i różnicowanie repertuaru. Dystrybutorzy, chcąc osiągnąć jak najwyższy przychód z kopii filmu w danym okresie wymuszają na kinach podpisywanie tzw. „umowy na wyłączność”. Zobowiązuje ona kino do projekcji jednego tytułu na wszystkich seansach w ciągu dwóch tygodni. Bariera ta może zostać przekuta w atut w wyniku cyfryzacji kin. Jedna, duża sala widowiskowa jest idealnym miejscem do organizowania specjalnych wydarzeń takich jak transmisje oper, baletów czy koncertów, które gromadzą szeroką publiczność i wymagają specjalnej oprawy. Bariera repertuarowa wynika z czynników ekonomicznych – kosztów przygotowania kopii filmu 35mm. Powinna ona zniknąć, gdyż wdrożenie technologii cyfrowej powoduje drastyczne obniżenie kosztu krańcowego wyprodukowania kopii filmu. Jednak ze względu na istniejący obecnie oligopol dystrybutorów i bardzo restrykcyjne podejście do kin będzie to proces długotrwały. Największą barierą rozwoju kin lokalnych w Polsce wydaje się jednak brak systemu i współpracy pomiędzy kinami. Polski Instytut Sztuki Filmowej w swoich programach operacyjnych posiada schemat pomocy kinom, jednak wielkość alokacji pozwala na pomoc jedynie wybranym. Planowany Narodowy Program Cyfryzacji zakłada

ilm&Kino koordynuje całość działań związanych z rozwojem kin lokalnych w Norwegii. Do największych jego projektów należy zaliczyć tzw. roll-out czyli program cyfryzacji wszystkich kin w kraju. Bardzo gruntowne przygotowania do przedsięwzięcia objęły opracowanie raportu o ekonomicznych i kulturalnych aspektach rozwoju kina – Økonomiske og kulturelle aspekter ved kinodrift [Grefsrud, Vaagland, 2006]. Potwierdza on, że aktywne kina generują zyski dla całego przemysłu czasu wolnego w danej miejscowości. Dostarczył też wiele znaczących argumentów w dyskusji nad programem. Innym przykładem przemawiającym za pozytywną decyzją parlamentu w sprawie przyjęcia programu było przeprowadzenie przez Film&Kino dwóch pilotażowych projektów cyfryzacji testujących nie tylko aspekty techniczne, ale także wpływ technologii na zmiany w repertuarowaniu i wynikach finansowych kina. Stworzono lokalne centra know-how, które w przyszłości wspierać będą narodowy program. Zaczyna się on tej jesieni i dzięki środkom pochodzącym ze składek kin Film&Kino (60%) oraz przychodom płynącym z VPF – virtual print fee6 (40%) w ciągu

F

Norweski program dla kin w swojej roboczej wersji częściowe sfinansowanie zmiany technologicznej w 50 lub 70 kinach. Istniejące organizacje tj. Stowarzyszenie „Kina Polskie” czy Sieć Kin Studyjnych i Lokalnych także nie są w stanie zapewnić współpracy horyzontalnej. Z roku na rok liczba kin w małych miastach spada, a kina komercyjne kupują cyfrowe projektory powoli pozwalając dystrybutorom na rezygnację z taśmy 35 mm. Cyfryzacja zatem, nie tylko umożliwi lokalnym ośrodkom kultury stać się prawdziwymi „centrami sztuk” (art houses) i dostarczyć nieznaną dotąd ofertę (transmisje live oper, operetek, baletów, koncertów etc.) lokalnym społecznościom, ale przede wszystkim zagwarantuje możliwość dalszego prowadzenia działalności kinowej. By zapewnić stabilny i trwały rozwój kin lokalnych, nie tylko powinny one zostać cyfrowe, ale także należy powiązać je w sieć, która pozwoli na zmniejszenie kosztów całego procesu i ułatwi wymianę doświadczeń oraz dalsze pozyskiwanie środków.


Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008

MM „Kinosonen” – strefę dla kin w postaci zaawansowanego systemu CRM umożliwiającego komunikację smsową i przez mailing do wybranych grup odbiorców. Koordynowanie rozwoju całego rynku kinowego jest bardzo trudne, co potwierdzają niepowodzenia innych organizacji w tym względzie. Dokumentuje to także stale zmniejszająca się liczba kin lokalnych. Jednak zaplecze budowane przez prawie 100 lat (np. w postaci narzędzi typu filmweb. no), wysoki stopień profesjonalizacji kadr, innowacyjne pilotażowe projekty oraz wsparcie płynące z lokalnych samorządów – członków organizacji są kluczowymi czynnikami sukcesu Film&Kino. Stanowią także jeden z warunków rozwoju kin lokalnych, dlatego w niektórych krajach powstają podobne inicjatywy sieciowe. Jednak sieci łączące kina w Digital Cinema Buyers Group [http://www. digitalcinemainfo.com], Digital Funding Group [http://www.cinemauk.org.uk] czy inne przedsięwzięcia mają najczęściej wymiar regionalny i zwykle nie są w stanie zapewnić jednorodnej sieci dostępności filmu i uniknięcia wykluczenia z dostępu do kultury całych społeczności.

kilku lat wszystkie kina norweskie będą miały szanse zostać wyposażone w najnowszy sprzęt kinotechniczny. Całość budżetu przedsięwzięcia jest oszacowana na 60-70 milionów USD. Oczywiście narodowy projekt cyfryzacji jest osiągnięciem niepowtarzalnym w skali światowej i nie do przecenienia. Jednak warto zauważyć, że nie byłby on możliwy, gdyby nie systematyczna i długoletnia praca w porozumieniu z kinami. Na uwagę zasługuje w szczególności portal Filmweb. no, który powstał już 1997 a obecnie jest największym portalem kulturalnym w Norwegii. Posiada on trzy ukryte dla widza serwery: MM media.filmweb.no dla mediów zawierający materiały od wszystkich dystrybutorów i kin tj. zdjęcia, plakaty, presskit’y, zwiastuny etc., MM rapport.filmweb.no dla kin i manedżerów obejmujący dane statystyczne ze wszystkich kin tj. boxoffice, frekwencja, ilość biletów na film, na kino etc. Program został uruchomiony 1 stycznia 2009, jest zintegrowany z funkcjonującymi systemami sprzedaży biletów, obejmuje 99% kin, dysponuje danymi już dzień po wydarzeniu.

UK Market, Bridge Media, London. Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 1998. nr 2 – 155, s. 97-116

Literatura

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Paris 2002. Regourd S., L’Exception culturelle, coll. «Que sais-je ?», Supply and Exhibition of Independent Films in the PACT/MMC (1994) Factors Influencing the Production, Brussels. MEDIA Programme (1992) European Commission, Litman, B. R., The Motion Picture Mega-Industry [w:] leaders de marche. Revue francaise de gestion, 2005, aspekter ved kinodrift, ØF-rapport, 2006, nr 10.

Barth S., Cultural Protectionism [w:] „World Trade”, III 1998. Battek A., Materska-Samek M., Studium. Wykonalność dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008. Bennet R., Factors encouraging Competitive Myopia in the Performing Arts Sector: An Empirical Investigation [w:] „The service Industries Journal”, t. 25, nr 3, IV 2005, s. 391-401. Blackstone E. A., Bowman G. W., Vertical integration in motion pictures. Journal of Communication, III 1999, t. 49, nr 1, s. 123-130.

Grefsrud R., Vaagland J., Økonomiske og kulturelle

t. 49, nr 1, s. 123-130. Cyfrowych, Fundacja Rozwoju Kina 2008. 1998.

Le Roy P., Vertus de l’innovation strategique pour les Grefsrud R., Vaagland J., Økonomiske og kulturelle Full Fart Forover, Arsmelding 2008, Film&Kino 2008

aspekter ved kinodrift, ØF-rapport, 2006, nr 10. Le Roy P., Vertus de l’innovation strategique pour les leaders de marche. Revue francaise de gestion, 2005, nr 2 – 155, s. 97-116 Litman, B. R., The Motion Picture Mega-Industry [w:] Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights, MA 1998. MEDIA Programme (1992) European Commission, Brussels. PACT/MMC (1994) Factors Influencing the Production, Supply and Exhibition of Independent Films in the UK Market, Bridge Media, London. Regourd S., L’Exception culturelle, coll. «Que sais-je ?», Paris 2002.

duct or Cherished Articulation of a Nation’s Soul? [w:] „Denver Journal of International Law”, jesień 1993, s. 155-191.

„Kinosonen” – strefę dla kin w postaci zaawansowanego systemu CRM umożliwiającego komunikację smsową i przez mailing do wybranych grup odbiorców. Koordynowanie rozwoju całego rynku kinowego jest bardzo trudne, co potwierdzają niepowodzenia innych organizacji w tym względzie. Dokumentuje to także stale zmniejszająca się liczba kin lokalnych. Jednak zaplecze budowane przez prawie 100 lat (np. w postaci narzędzi typu filmweb. no), wysoki stopień profesjonalizacji kadr, innowacyjne pilotażowe projekty oraz wsparcie płynące z lokalnych samorządów – członków organizacji są kluczowymi czynnikami sukcesu Film&Kino. Stanowią także jeden z warunków rozwoju kin lokalnych, dlatego w niektórych krajach powstają podobne inicjatywy sieciowe. Jednak sieci łączące kina w Digital Cinema Buyers Group [http://www. digitalcinemainfo.com], Digital Funding Group [http://www.cinemauk.org.uk] czy inne przedsięwzięcia mają najczęściej wymiar regionalny i zwykle nie są w stanie zapewnić jednorodnej sieci dostępności filmu i uniknięcia wykluczenia z dostępu do kultury całych społeczności.

Braun M., Parker L., Trade in Culture: Consumable Pro-

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1993, s. 155-191. [w:] „Denver Journal of International Law”, jesień duct or Cherished Articulation of a Nation’s Soul? Braun M., Parker L., Trade in Culture: Consumable Promotion pictures. Journal of Communication, III 1999, Blackstone E. A., Bowman G. W., Vertical integration in IV 2005, s. 391-401. tion [w:] „The service Industries Journal”, t. 25, nr 3, the Performing Arts Sector: An Empirical InvestigaBennet R., Factors encouraging Competitive Myopia in dla projektu Inwestycyjnego Małopolska Sieć Kin Battek A., Materska-Samek M., Studium. Wykonalność Barth S., Cultural Protectionism [w:] „World Trade”, III

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kilku lat wszystkie kina norweskie będą miały szanse zostać wyposażone w najnowszy sprzęt kinotechniczny. Całość budżetu przedsięwzięcia jest oszacowana na 60-70 milionów USD. Oczywiście narodowy projekt cyfryzacji jest osiągnięciem niepowtarzalnym w skali światowej i nie do przecenienia. Jednak warto zauważyć, że nie byłby on możliwy, gdyby nie systematyczna i długoletnia praca w porozumieniu z kinami. Na uwagę zasługuje w szczególności portal Filmweb. no, który powstał już 1997 a obecnie jest największym portalem kulturalnym w Norwegii. Posiada on trzy ukryte dla widza serwery: MM media.filmweb.no dla mediów zawierający materiały od wszystkich dystrybutorów i kin tj. zdjęcia, plakaty, presskit’y, zwiastuny etc., MM rapport.filmweb.no dla kin i manedżerów obejmujący dane statystyczne ze wszystkich kin tj. boxoffice, frekwencja, ilość biletów na film, na kino etc. Program został uruchomiony 1 stycznia 2009, jest zintegrowany z funkcjonującymi systemami sprzedaży biletów, obejmuje 99% kin, dysponuje danymi już dzień po wydarzeniu.

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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki Olga Łukowska

W

ażnym zadaniem nowoczesnego pokolenia Ukraińców jest uświadomienie sobie własnej tożsamości narodowej i związków z kulturą. Pragnienie nieustannego doskonalenia samego siebie i swojego otoczenia jest świadectwem kulturalnego rozwoju człowieka. Dbając i troszcząc się o kulturę własną, zyskujemy uznanie i szacunek w całym świecie. Duże znaczenie w promocji ojczystej kultury mają rozmaite ośrodki i centra, działalność których aktywizuje i kształtuje narodową świadomość społeczną. Jednym z takich potężnych ośrodków kulturalnych jest Lwowski Pałac Sztuki, który już od 12 lat odgrywa ważną rolę w życiu kulturalnym nie tylko Lwowa, ale całej Zachodniej Ukrainy. Kulturalno-artystyczny kompleks Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki powstał z inicjatywy i przy poparciu Związku Artystów Ukrainy, jest miejską instytucją kultury o charakterze niedochodowym i działa na podstawie uchwały Rady Ministrów USSR z dnia 30 listopada 1983 roku (Nr 517) O organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej, decyzji państwowej administracji obwodowej oraz Statutu Pałacu. Działalność Pałacu Sztuki rozpoczęto 24 sierpnia 1996 roku. Podstawowym celem działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki jest stworzenie warunków dla: MM rozwoju i promocji wszystkich dziedzin sztuki, ukraińskiej kultury oraz tradycji narodowych, MM realizacji twórczego potencjału artystów oraz promocji ich dzieł, MM rozwijanie ogólnoukraińskich i międzynarodowych związków kulturalnych. Źródłem dochodów organizacji są dotacje z budżetu, środki otrzymane z realizacji usług płatnych, środki przekazane przez sponsorów i mecenasów, dobrowolne składki i in. Instytucją kieruje dyrektor, który ponosi pełną odpowiedzialność za rezultaty pracy organizacji. Dyrektora

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

wyznacza Zarząd Kultury Obwodu Lwowskiego poprzez zawarcie umowy o pracę. Dyrektor może być zwolniony ze swego stanowiska przed zakończeniem terminu umowy na podstawach, przewidzianych przepisami. W celu realizacji głównych kierunków działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki dyrektor: MM odpowiada za stworzenie wewnętrznych struktur jednostki, zasad ich działania i ich zmiany w razie konieczności, MM zatwierdza wykaz etatów, przyjmuje i zwalnia pracowników zgodnie z działającym prawodawstwem, zatwierdza służbowe obowiązki personelu, ustala wysokość pensji, MM wydaje wewnętrzne regulaminy, polecenia, zarządzenia, redaguje i podpisuje umowy, porozumienia, kontrakty, MM zarządza środkami i majątkiem Pałacu Sztuki w celu zabezpieczenia realizacji zadań, ustalonych w Statucie [Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв]. Skala działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki jest bardzo szeroka. Podstawowe kierunki i charakter działania placówki to opracowanie planu twórczego, oparte na zasadach docelowych programów, projektów i zamówień. Ten plan zatwierdza Zarząd Kultury administracji państwowej Obwodu Lwowskiego. Zamówienia miejscowych i państwowych organów rządowych, organizacji społecznych, uczelni oraz innych placówek realizowane są na podstawie umów. Na takich również zasadach Pałac Sztuki współpracuje z osobami prywatnymi. Ważnym kierunkiem działalności Pałacu Sztuki jest prowadzenie międzynarodowych, regionalnych, tematycznych, grupowych i indywidualnych wystaw wszelkiego rodzaju gatunków sztuki pięknej i dekoracyjnej (malarstwo, instalacja, rzeźba, ceramika, tkaniny artystyczne itp.). Or-

307

dr Olga Łukowska Historyk sztuki, wykładowca na Ukraińskiej Akademii Druku we Lwowie oraz zastępca dyrektora ds. naukowo-artystycznych we Lwowskim Pałacu Sztuki. Stypendystka programu „Gaude Polonia” Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Polski oraz programu im. Lane`a Kirklanda Polsko-Amerykańskiej Fundacji Wolności Komisji Fulbright. Zajmuje się zarządzaniem kulturą, badaniem sztuki współczesnej, zwłaszcza tkaniny artystycznej.

ażnym zadaniem nowoczesnego pokolenia Ukraińców jest uświadomienie sobie własnej tożsamości narodowej i związków z kulturą. Pragnienie nieustannego doskonalenia samego siebie i swojego otoczenia jest świadectwem kulturalnego rozwoju człowieka. Dbając i troszcząc się o kulturę własną, zyskujemy uznanie i szacunek w całym świecie. Duże znaczenie w promocji ojczystej kultury mają rozmaite ośrodki i centra, działalność których aktywizuje i kształtuje narodową świadomość społeczną. Jednym z takich potężnych ośrodków kulturalnych jest Lwowski Pałac Sztuki, który już od 12 lat odgrywa ważną rolę w życiu kulturalnym nie tylko Lwowa, ale całej Zachodniej Ukrainy. Kulturalno-artystyczny kompleks Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki powstał z inicjatywy i przy poparciu Związku Artystów Ukrainy, jest miejską instytucją kultury o charakterze niedochodowym i działa na podstawie uchwały Rady Ministrów USSR z dnia 30 listopada 1983 roku (Nr 517) O organizowaniu i prowadzeniu działalności kulturalnej, decyzji państwowej administracji obwodowej oraz Statutu Pałacu. Działalność Pałacu Sztuki rozpoczęto 24 sierpnia 1996 roku. Podstawowym celem działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki jest stworzenie warunków dla: MM rozwoju i promocji wszystkich dziedzin sztuki, ukraińskiej kultury oraz tradycji narodowych, MM realizacji twórczego potencjału artystów oraz promocji ich dzieł, MM rozwijanie ogólnoukraińskich i międzynarodowych związków kulturalnych. Źródłem dochodów organizacji są dotacje z budżetu, środki otrzymane z realizacji usług płatnych, środki przekazane przez sponsorów i mecenasów, dobrowolne składki i in. Instytucją kieruje dyrektor, który ponosi pełną odpowiedzialność za rezultaty pracy organizacji. Dyrektora

W

wyznacza Zarząd Kultury Obwodu Lwowskiego poprzez zawarcie umowy o pracę. Dyrektor może być zwolniony ze swego stanowiska przed zakończeniem terminu umowy na podstawach, przewidzianych przepisami. W celu realizacji głównych kierunków działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki dyrektor: MM odpowiada za stworzenie wewnętrznych struktur jednostki, zasad ich działania i ich zmiany w razie konieczności, MM zatwierdza wykaz etatów, przyjmuje i zwalnia pracowników zgodnie z działającym prawodawstwem, zatwierdza służbowe obowiązki personelu, ustala wysokość pensji, MM wydaje wewnętrzne regulaminy, polecenia, zarządzenia, redaguje i podpisuje umowy, porozumienia, kontrakty, MM zarządza środkami i majątkiem Pałacu Sztuki w celu zabezpieczenia realizacji zadań, ustalonych w Statucie [Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв]. Skala działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki jest bardzo szeroka. Podstawowe kierunki i charakter działania placówki to opracowanie planu twórczego, oparte na zasadach docelowych programów, projektów i zamówień. Ten plan zatwierdza Zarząd Kultury administracji państwowej Obwodu Lwowskiego. Zamówienia miejscowych i państwowych organów rządowych, organizacji społecznych, uczelni oraz innych placówek realizowane są na podstawie umów. Na takich również zasadach Pałac Sztuki współpracuje z osobami prywatnymi. Ważnym kierunkiem działalności Pałacu Sztuki jest prowadzenie międzynarodowych, regionalnych, tematycznych, grupowych i indywidualnych wystaw wszelkiego rodzaju gatunków sztuki pięknej i dekoracyjnej (malarstwo, instalacja, rzeźba, ceramika, tkaniny artystyczne itp.). Or-

Olga Łukowska

Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki

dr Olga Łukowska Historyk sztuki, wykładowca na Ukraińskiej Akademii Druku we Lwowie oraz zastępca dyrektora ds. naukowo-artystycznych we Lwowskim Pałacu Sztuki. Stypendystka programu „Gaude Polonia” Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Polski oraz programu im. Lane`a Kirklanda Polsko-Amerykańskiej Fundacji Wolności Komisji Fulbright. Zajmuje się zarządzaniem kulturą, badaniem sztuki współczesnej, zwłaszcza tkaniny artystycznej.


międzynarodowe konkursy artystyczne dla dzieci, coroczne wystawy i plenery poświęcone T. Szewczence, Lwowski Salon Jesienny „Wysoki Zamek” oraz artystyczno-kulturalne akcje mające na celu kultywowanie ukraińskich tradycji narodowych („Jabłkowa choinka na Jordan”, „Wielkanocna pisanka”). Osobliwą wizytówką Pałacu Sztuk jest coroczna międzynarodowa wystawa-konkurs Lwowski Salon Jesienny „Wysoki Zamek”, która z każdym rokiem nabiera coraz większych rozmiarów. We współczesnym kulturalno-artystycznym życiu Lwowa Jesienny Salon stał się już tradycją. Głównym celem imprezy jest MM promocja nowoczesnej sztuki ukraińskiej oraz aktywizacja artystycznego środowiska Lwowa i regionu, MM prezentacja corocznego dorobku artystów różnych pokoleń, stylów, kierunków, które demonstrują artystyczną współczesną rzeczywistość, MM poparcie zainteresowania dla sztuki tak ze strony państwowej jak i biznesu, przyciągnięcie mecenasów i sponsorów, MM aktywizacja i rozwój ogólnoukraińskich i międzynarodowych związków artystycznych. We Lwowskim Jesiennym Salonie corocznie biorą udział znani artyści, a także utalentowana artystycznie młodzież z Ukrainy, Polski, Litwy, Łotwy, Niemiec, Hiszpanii, Włoch oraz innych krajów. Wśród zagranicznych uczestników wernisażu są artyści, którzy stale prezentują swoje prace w trakcie tej imprezy. To daje możliwość bliższego zapoznania się z twórczymi koncepcjami europejskiej sztuki współczesnej [Луковська, 2006; Луковська 2005]. Na corocznych wystawach zbiorowych, podobnych do koncepcji Salonu, przedstawiane są rozmaite dziedziny sztuki, ilustrujące skalę twórczych poszukiwań. Takie imprezy dają zainteresowanym sztuką możliwość podziwiania corocznych rezultatów jej rozwoju. Dla historyków sztuki jest to okazja, by badać idee i kierunki twórczej działalności artystów, więc jest to też możliwość analizowania, krytycznej analizy, debaty nad pozytywnymi jak i negatywnymi artystycznymi tendencjami nowoczesności. Pewne imprezy i wystawy, które odbywają się w Pałacu Sztuki, na dzisiejszy dzień nie mają alternatywy w Zachodniej Ukrainie i są tym bardziej ważne. Jednak istnieje wiele problemów dotyczących ich organizacji. Brak odpowiedniego finansowania – to główna przyczyna, która utrudnia pełne rozwinięcie działalności placówki. Ze względu na brak środków niemożliwe jest formowanie zbioru sztuki współczesnej, stworzenie uniwersalnej informacyjnej bazy komputerowej danych o nowych zjawiskach

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

ganizowane są także wystawy-targi, przeglądy, wykłady, sympozja, festiwale, konkursy, plenery, literackie i muzyczne wieczory oraz inne imprezy kulturalno-artystyczne. Na licznych zjazdach, zebraniach, prezentacjach i konferencjach, odbywających się w Pałacu Sztuki, spotykają się różne warstwy nowego ukraińskiego społeczeństwa – działacze kultury i nauki, artyści, biznesmeni, politycy [Луковська, 2007]. W ramach działalności artystycznej ważne jest nawiązywanie wymiany kulturalnej, a mianowicie współpracy z artystami, związkami twórczymi, stowarzyszeniami i organizacjami. Na wystawach i rozmaitych imprezach, które zostały zrealizowane w Pałacu Sztuki w ciągu 12 lat, miłośnicy sztuki mieli okazję zobaczyć panoramę artystycznych zjawisk i idei, zapoznać się z największymi osiągnięciami twórców kultury ukraińskiej, wśród których jest wielu wybitnych i znanych artystów. Warto przypomnieć chociażby jubileuszowe wernisaże znanych lwowskich malarzy Z. Kecała, K. Kaczanowa, W. Patyka lub wystawy arcydzieł wybitnych ukraińskich artystów-grafików G. Jakutowycza, S. Jakutowycza, N. Hasewycza, I. Ostafijczuka i wielu innych. Od 2004 roku w Pałacu działa Świetlica-Muzeum im. Tarasa Szewczenki – ukraińskiego malarza i poety. Podstawę kolekcji Muzeum stanowią arcydzieła, które zostały stworzone podczas wędrówek szlakami twórczości ukraińskiego geniusza (Ukraina, Rosja, Kazachstan, Łotwa). Placówka może pochwalić się również kilkudziesięcioma pracami znanych lwowskich malarzy. W Świetlicy stworzono bibliotekę, gdzie znajdują się liczne materiały dotyczące poetyckiej oraz artystycznej działalności T. Szewczenki. Jeszcze jednym kierunkiem działalności, na który szczególnie zwraca się dziś uwagę, jest integracja z europejską przestrzenią artystyczną. Administracja Pałacu Sztuki wciąż próbuje nawiązywać i podtrzymywać stosunki z zagranicznymi galeriami, ambasadami, wyższymi uczelniami artystycznymi i przedstawicielstwami innych krajów. Niestety, z powodu wielu przyczyn, międzynarodowa współpraca z zagranicznymi partnerami w sferze artystyczno-kulturalnej jest ograniczona. I chociaż w Pałacu odbywały się międzynarodowe wystawy oraz zostały zrealizowane wspólne projekty (zwłaszcza ukraińsko-polskie), współpraca ta nie ma charakteru systematycznego. W okresie dwunastuletniej działalności Pałacu Sztuki wyróżniły się tematyczne wydarzenia i wystawy, które stały się już regularnymi cyklami, znanymi w całej Ukrainie, przyciągające wielu miłośników sztuk pięknych. W szczególności są to: coroczna wystawa malarstwa członków Związku Lwowskich Artystów-Malarzy „Wiosna”,

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międzynarodowe konkursy artystyczne dla dzieci, coroczne wystawy i plenery poświęcone T. Szewczence, Lwowski Salon Jesienny „Wysoki Zamek” oraz artystyczno-kulturalne akcje mające na celu kultywowanie ukraińskich tradycji narodowych („Jabłkowa choinka na Jordan”, „Wielkanocna pisanka”). Osobliwą wizytówką Pałacu Sztuk jest coroczna międzynarodowa wystawa-konkurs Lwowski Salon Jesienny „Wysoki Zamek”, która z każdym rokiem nabiera coraz większych rozmiarów. We współczesnym kulturalno-artystycznym życiu Lwowa Jesienny Salon stał się już tradycją. Głównym celem imprezy jest MM promocja nowoczesnej sztuki ukraińskiej oraz aktywizacja artystycznego środowiska Lwowa i regionu, MM prezentacja corocznego dorobku artystów różnych pokoleń, stylów, kierunków, które demonstrują artystyczną współczesną rzeczywistość, MM poparcie zainteresowania dla sztuki tak ze strony państwowej jak i biznesu, przyciągnięcie mecenasów i sponsorów, MM aktywizacja i rozwój ogólnoukraińskich i międzynarodowych związków artystycznych. We Lwowskim Jesiennym Salonie corocznie biorą udział znani artyści, a także utalentowana artystycznie młodzież z Ukrainy, Polski, Litwy, Łotwy, Niemiec, Hiszpanii, Włoch oraz innych krajów. Wśród zagranicznych uczestników wernisażu są artyści, którzy stale prezentują swoje prace w trakcie tej imprezy. To daje możliwość bliższego zapoznania się z twórczymi koncepcjami europejskiej sztuki współczesnej [Луковська, 2006; Луковська 2005]. Na corocznych wystawach zbiorowych, podobnych do koncepcji Salonu, przedstawiane są rozmaite dziedziny sztuki, ilustrujące skalę twórczych poszukiwań. Takie imprezy dają zainteresowanym sztuką możliwość podziwiania corocznych rezultatów jej rozwoju. Dla historyków sztuki jest to okazja, by badać idee i kierunki twórczej działalności artystów, więc jest to też możliwość analizowania, krytycznej analizy, debaty nad pozytywnymi jak i negatywnymi artystycznymi tendencjami nowoczesności. Pewne imprezy i wystawy, które odbywają się w Pałacu Sztuki, na dzisiejszy dzień nie mają alternatywy w Zachodniej Ukrainie i są tym bardziej ważne. Jednak istnieje wiele problemów dotyczących ich organizacji. Brak odpowiedniego finansowania – to główna przyczyna, która utrudnia pełne rozwinięcie działalności placówki. Ze względu na brak środków niemożliwe jest formowanie zbioru sztuki współczesnej, stworzenie uniwersalnej informacyjnej bazy komputerowej danych o nowych zjawiskach

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ganizowane są także wystawy-targi, przeglądy, wykłady, sympozja, festiwale, konkursy, plenery, literackie i muzyczne wieczory oraz inne imprezy kulturalno-artystyczne. Na licznych zjazdach, zebraniach, prezentacjach i konferencjach, odbywających się w Pałacu Sztuki, spotykają się różne warstwy nowego ukraińskiego społeczeństwa – działacze kultury i nauki, artyści, biznesmeni, politycy [Луковська, 2007]. W ramach działalności artystycznej ważne jest nawiązywanie wymiany kulturalnej, a mianowicie współpracy z artystami, związkami twórczymi, stowarzyszeniami i organizacjami. Na wystawach i rozmaitych imprezach, które zostały zrealizowane w Pałacu Sztuki w ciągu 12 lat, miłośnicy sztuki mieli okazję zobaczyć panoramę artystycznych zjawisk i idei, zapoznać się z największymi osiągnięciami twórców kultury ukraińskiej, wśród których jest wielu wybitnych i znanych artystów. Warto przypomnieć chociażby jubileuszowe wernisaże znanych lwowskich malarzy Z. Kecała, K. Kaczanowa, W. Patyka lub wystawy arcydzieł wybitnych ukraińskich artystów-grafików G. Jakutowycza, S. Jakutowycza, N. Hasewycza, I. Ostafijczuka i wielu innych. Od 2004 roku w Pałacu działa Świetlica-Muzeum im. Tarasa Szewczenki – ukraińskiego malarza i poety. Podstawę kolekcji Muzeum stanowią arcydzieła, które zostały stworzone podczas wędrówek szlakami twórczości ukraińskiego geniusza (Ukraina, Rosja, Kazachstan, Łotwa). Placówka może pochwalić się również kilkudziesięcioma pracami znanych lwowskich malarzy. W Świetlicy stworzono bibliotekę, gdzie znajdują się liczne materiały dotyczące poetyckiej oraz artystycznej działalności T. Szewczenki. Jeszcze jednym kierunkiem działalności, na który szczególnie zwraca się dziś uwagę, jest integracja z europejską przestrzenią artystyczną. Administracja Pałacu Sztuki wciąż próbuje nawiązywać i podtrzymywać stosunki z zagranicznymi galeriami, ambasadami, wyższymi uczelniami artystycznymi i przedstawicielstwami innych krajów. Niestety, z powodu wielu przyczyn, międzynarodowa współpraca z zagranicznymi partnerami w sferze artystyczno-kulturalnej jest ograniczona. I chociaż w Pałacu odbywały się międzynarodowe wystawy oraz zostały zrealizowane wspólne projekty (zwłaszcza ukraińsko-polskie), współpraca ta nie ma charakteru systematycznego. W okresie dwunastuletniej działalności Pałacu Sztuki wyróżniły się tematyczne wydarzenia i wystawy, które stały się już regularnymi cyklami, znanymi w całej Ukrainie, przyciągające wielu miłośników sztuk pięknych. W szczególności są to: coroczna wystawa malarstwa członków Związku Lwowskich Artystów-Malarzy „Wiosna”,


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w ukraińskiej sztuce i o teoretycznych debatach w dziedzinie sztuki. Środków finansowych brakuje też na kompletowanie biblioteki artystycznej, na druk reklam, przygotowanie katalogów, przewodników i ich prezentację. Stałym problemem jest brak pomieszczeń i wyposażenia dla odpowiedniego wystawiania i przechowywania dzieł.

Odczuwalny jest także brak fachowej znajomości zasad zarządzania kulturą. Wymiana specjalistów i staże ukraińskich pracowników za granicą są niezbędne dla nawiązywania kontaktów i zdobycia doświadczeń, bowiem gwarancją sukcesu jest finansowanie, powiązane z doświadczeniem i wysokimi kwalifikacjami.

Literatura

Луковська О. Львівський Осінній Салон “Високий

Луковська O. Львівський Палац мистецтв у культурному просторі Львова (співпраця з громадськими організаціями) // Голос Українки. – 2007. – № 2 (11).

Замок - 2006”. 10 років. Каталог виставки. – 2006. Луковська О. Осінній Салон “Високий Замок - 2007”. Каталог виставки. – 2005. Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв.

– № 2 (11). ськими організаціями) // Голос Українки. – 2007. турному просторі Львова (співпраця з громадЛуковська O. Львівський Палац мистецтв у кульZarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Статут Львівського Палацу Мистецтв. Каталог виставки. – 2005. Луковська О. Осінній Салон “Високий Замок - 2007”. – 2006. Замок - 2006”. 10 років. Каталог виставки. Луковська О. Львівський Осінній Салон “Високий

Literatura

Odczuwalny jest także brak fachowej znajomości zasad zarządzania kulturą. Wymiana specjalistów i staże ukraińskich pracowników za granicą są niezbędne dla nawiązywania kontaktów i zdobycia doświadczeń, bowiem gwarancją sukcesu jest finansowanie, powiązane z doświadczeniem i wysokimi kwalifikacjami.

w ukraińskiej sztuce i o teoretycznych debatach w dziedzinie sztuki. Środków finansowych brakuje też na kompletowanie biblioteki artystycznej, na druk reklam, przygotowanie katalogów, przewodników i ich prezentację. Stałym problemem jest brak pomieszczeń i wyposażenia dla odpowiedniego wystawiania i przechowywania dzieł.


Michał Zawadzki

O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu (Recenzja: Łukasz Sułkowski, Epistemologia w naukach o zarządzaniu, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)

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został poddany surowej krytyce, nadal głęboko tkwi w umysłach badaczy i specjalistów od zarządzania. Często pozostaje on rodzajem niezbyt świadomej, ‘zdroworozsądkowej’ wizji uprawianej dyscypliny, która nie wymaga stawiania kłopotliwych pytań o podstawy poznawcze” (s. 60). Ten patologiczny stan inercji na gruncie refleksji nad podstawowymi założeniami nauk o zarządzaniu, zazwyczaj wypływa z wygodnego przekonania, że oto wiedza produkowana na gruncie tej nauki ma charakter racjonalnie zuniwersalizowanej Prawdy Obiektywnej i zarówno ona, jak proces poznawczy prowadzący do jej uzyskania, są wolne od wartościowania. Tym samym, w co głęboko wierzą wyznawcy tej ideologii (a jest ich naprawdę wielu), uzyskiwana przez nich wiedza nie musi być poddawana nieustannej, twórczej krytyce w celu permanentnego badania jej rzetelności czy adekwatności. Profesor Sułkowski, wykorzystując nurt krytyczny obecny na płaszczyźnie filozofii nauki, znakomicie dekonstruuje ten naiwny przesąd pokazując, że proces zdobywania wiedzy, jak i sama wiedza, nieuchronnie uwikłane są zawsze w kontekst społeczno-kulturowy. Wiedza nigdy nie powstaje w aksjologicznej próżni, zawsze niesie ze sobą swoisty bagaż normatywny, który wyklucza możliwość traktowania jej jako jakiejś uniwersalnej, racjonalnej Prawdy. Innymi słowy, społeczno-kulturowy kontekst determinujący proces zdobywania wiedzy powoduje, że w procesie

został poddany surowej krytyce, nadal głęboko tkwi w umysłach badaczy i specjalistów od zarządzania. Często pozostaje on rodzajem niezbyt świadomej, ‘zdroworozsądkowej’ wizji uprawianej dyscypliny, która nie wymaga stawiania kłopotliwych pytań o podstawy poznawcze” (s. 60). Ten patologiczny stan inercji na gruncie refleksji nad podstawowymi założeniami nauk o zarządzaniu, zazwyczaj wypływa z wygodnego przekonania, że oto wiedza produkowana na gruncie tej nauki ma charakter racjonalnie zuniwersalizowanej Prawdy Obiektywnej i zarówno ona, jak proces poznawczy prowadzący do jej uzyskania, są wolne od wartościowania. Tym samym, w co głęboko wierzą wyznawcy tej ideologii (a jest ich naprawdę wielu), uzyskiwana przez nich wiedza nie musi być poddawana nieustannej, twórczej krytyce w celu permanentnego badania jej rzetelności czy adekwatności. Profesor Sułkowski, wykorzystując nurt krytyczny obecny na płaszczyźnie filozofii nauki, znakomicie dekonstruuje ten naiwny przesąd pokazując, że proces zdobywania wiedzy, jak i sama wiedza, nieuchronnie uwikłane są zawsze w kontekst społeczno-kulturowy. Wiedza nigdy nie powstaje w aksjologicznej próżni, zawsze niesie ze sobą swoisty bagaż normatywny, który wyklucza możliwość traktowania jej jako jakiejś uniwersalnej, racjonalnej Prawdy. Innymi słowy, społeczno-kulturowy kontekst determinujący proces zdobywania wiedzy powoduje, że w procesie

Michał Zawadzki Absolwent Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu na kierunkach socjologia i filozofia (studia w ramach MISH), doktorant na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej. Zajmuje się m.in. strategiami zarządzania sobą i kulturą w kontekście pułapek racjonalności instrumentalnej i rozumu cynicznego. W pracy badawczej wykorzystuje dodatkowo tropy badawcze wyczytane z dzieł literackich. Zafascynowany prozą Hermanna Hessego. Perkusista.

auki o zarządzaniu borykają się z poważnymi, fundamentalnymi problemami natury epistemologicznej. Brak kryteriów pozwalających na odróżnienie wiedzy naukowej od zdroworozsądkowej to tylko jedna z wielu, aczkolwiek najpoważniejsza, patologia. Epistemologiczna niemoc nauk o zarządzaniu rzadko jednak bywa zauważana i poddawana gruntownej refleksji. Profesor Łukasz Sułkowski jest tutaj chlubnym wyjątkiem, przekonująco pokazując w swojej książce pilną konieczność ukonstytuowania permanentnego procesu autorefleksji i autokrytycyzmu na płaszczyźnie nauk o zarządzaniu. Wymaga tego troska nie tylko o zarządzanie jako praktykę naukową, ale również jako praktykę kulturową determinującą jakość i sposób funkcjonowania rzeczywistości społeczno-kulturowej, w której żyjemy. Rozważania w omawianej książce ujęte zostały w ramach epistemologicznego dylematu: czy nauki o zarządzaniu powinny lokować się w przestrzeni paradygmatycznej charakterystycznej dla nauk ścisłych (neopozytywizm, ekonomizm) czy może nauk humanistycznych (nurt interpretatywny, hermeneutyczny). W zasadzie już samo przedstawienie zarządzania na płaszczyźnie tego dualizmu stanowi kapitalną wartość, ponieważ poddaje w wątpliwość powszechne przekonanie o potrzebie sytuowania tej nauki na przeekonomizowanym, scjentystycznym paradygmacie. Wygodnym zresztą dla badaczy. Jak zauważa autor, „neopozytywistyczny obraz zarządzania, mimo że

auki o zarządzaniu borykają się z poważnymi, fundamentalnymi problemami natury epistemologicznej. Brak kryteriów pozwalających na odróżnienie wiedzy naukowej od zdroworozsądkowej to tylko jedna z wielu, aczkolwiek najpoważniejsza, patologia. Epistemologiczna niemoc nauk o zarządzaniu rzadko jednak bywa zauważana i poddawana gruntownej refleksji. Profesor Łukasz Sułkowski jest tutaj chlubnym wyjątkiem, przekonująco pokazując w swojej książce pilną konieczność ukonstytuowania permanentnego procesu autorefleksji i autokrytycyzmu na płaszczyźnie nauk o zarządzaniu. Wymaga tego troska nie tylko o zarządzanie jako praktykę naukową, ale również jako praktykę kulturową determinującą jakość i sposób funkcjonowania rzeczywistości społeczno-kulturowej, w której żyjemy. Rozważania w omawianej książce ujęte zostały w ramach epistemologicznego dylematu: czy nauki o zarządzaniu powinny lokować się w przestrzeni paradygmatycznej charakterystycznej dla nauk ścisłych (neopozytywizm, ekonomizm) czy może nauk humanistycznych (nurt interpretatywny, hermeneutyczny). W zasadzie już samo przedstawienie zarządzania na płaszczyźnie tego dualizmu stanowi kapitalną wartość, ponieważ poddaje w wątpliwość powszechne przekonanie o potrzebie sytuowania tej nauki na przeekonomizowanym, scjentystycznym paradygmacie. Wygodnym zresztą dla badaczy. Jak zauważa autor, „neopozytywistyczny obraz zarządzania, mimo że

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Michał Zawadzki Absolwent Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu na kierunkach socjologia i filozofia (studia w ramach MISH), doktorant na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej. Zajmuje się m.in. strategiami zarządzania sobą i kulturą w kontekście pułapek racjonalności instrumentalnej i rozumu cynicznego. W pracy badawczej wykorzystuje dodatkowo tropy badawcze wyczytane z dzieł literackich. Zafascynowany prozą Hermanna Hessego. Perkusista.

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O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu (Recenzja: Łukasz Sułkowski, Epistemologia w naukach o zarządzaniu, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu (Recenzja: Łukasz Sułkowski, Epistemologia w naukach o zarządzaniu, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)

1 Warto dodać, że w Polsce inicjatorem idei przekraczania granic dyscyplinarnych na gruncie nauk o zarządzaniu jest profesor Emil Orzechowski, który od wielu lat upomina się o „odekonomizowanie” zarządzania na rzecz perspektywy humanistycznej, związanej z otwartością na dorobek innych nauk (zob. np. tegoż Arte et Ratione [w:] Monika Jaworska-Witkowska (red.), Jaka kultura? Jaki dyskurs? Sfera publiczna a spory o edukację, pedagogikę i zarządzanie, Szczecin: „Pedagogium”, Wyd. OR TWP, 2008, s. 117-132).

badawczym nie mamy dostępu do rzeczywistości jako takiej, ponieważ badając tę rzeczywistość, jednocześnie aktywnie ją współtworzymy i zmieniamy. Tym samym „nauki o zarządzaniu nie zajmują się wyłącznie opisem rzeczywistości, one ją aktywnie współtworzą. Są zatem w równym stopniu poznawcze, co i kreatywne, są jednocześnie nauką i sztuką” (s. 7). Autor przekonująco pokazuje jakie konsekwencje – dla myślenia o naukach o zarządzaniu i ich rozwoju – wynikają z owej podwójnej hermeneutyki tych nauk. Przede wszystkim autor analizując poszczególne nurty charakterystyczne dla nauk o zarządzaniu, fluktuuje od perspektywy neopozytywistycznej, poprzez nurt interpretatywny, aż po perspektywę postmodernistyczną udowadniając, że nauki te mają z natury charakter wieloparadygmatyczny. Warto w tym kontekście podkreślić kapitalne, przygotowane w większości przez samego autora zestawienia tabelaryczne obrazujące w różnych kontekstach różnice pomiędzy omawianymi nurtami. Ze względu na wieloparadygmatyczność nieuprawniona jest hermetyzacja nauk o zarządzaniu w sztywnym gorsecie jednego podejścia epistemologicznego, który niestety pod postacią neopozytywistycznego ekonomizmu współcześnie hamuje rozwój tej dyscypliny. Wiąże się to między innymi z nieuprawnionym, aczkolwiek cały czas obecnym w świadomości przedstawicieli nauk o zarządzaniu sztucznym rozdziałem na zarządzanie „twarde”, „naukowe”, realizujące postulaty wynikające z założeń ekonomicznych i neopozytywistycznych oraz zarządzanie „miękkie”, oparte na paradygmacie humanistycznym, któremu odbiera się status naukowości. Jak zauważa autor, „ważniejsze od restrykcyjnego wytyczenia granic nauk o zarządzaniu wydaje się poddawanie krytycznej ocenie tworzonego dorobku z wykorzystaniem perspektyw poznawczych różnych nauk” (s. 38). Dlatego właśnie zarządzaniu, bardziej od ścisłej demarkacji od innych nauk, potrzeba wręcz transdyscyplinarnej otwartości na dorobek innych dziedzin, szczególnie humanistycznych, aby mogło dojść do wymiany koncepcji i poglądów nasycających dyskurs nauk o zarządzaniu1. Jednocześnie taka otwartość wiązałaby się z uruchomieniem procesu twórczego, krytycznego ścierania się idei charakterystycznych dla różnych płaszczyzn epistemologicznych, co dla zarządzania przyniosłoby korzyść w postaci permanentnej autorefleksji i autokrytyki.

Usunięcie wygodnego parawanu neopozytywizmu i związanej z nim wolności od wartościowania na rzecz uznania podwójnej hermeneutyki nauk o zarządzaniu determinującej konieczność transdyscyplinarnej otwartości, nie tylko postawiłoby zarządzanie pod koniecznym ostrzem samokrytyki, ale – co się z tym wiąże – również pod etyczną i społeczną presją. Jak bardzo konieczny jest to zabieg w kontekście dalszego rozwoju tej nauki, przekonuje profesor Sułkowski. Trudno się nie zgodzić ze stwierdzeniem autora, że „wstrząs autokrytyczny jest w zarządzaniu potrzebny, ponieważ może on posłużyć do wypracowania kryteriów wiedzy wartościowej, które pozwolą oddzielić poznanie od ‘poznawczego kuglarstwa’. Mnożące się pseudoteorie, ‘złote recepty’ i ‘uniwersalne prawdy’ poradników z zakresu zarządzania budują wizerunek nauki pozornej, w której aspekty poznawcze schodzą na plan dalszy, przyćmione przez sfery komercyjne” (s. 16). Kryteria wiedzy wartościowej pozwoliłyby zatem w pierwszej kolejności na eliminację (przynajmniej w pewnym stopniu) tak zwanych szamanów i guru zarządzania, którzy wykorzystując uwikłanie nauki w masowy rynek dóbr intelektualnych, przemycają (często pod etykietką naukowości i obiektywizmu) bezwartościowe, ale ładnie opakowane teorie. Chodzi tutaj o to, aby nie tylko patrzeć na ręce autorów modnych poradników opisujących „dietę cud” zarządzania, ale aby poddawać krytyce koncepcje nawet (a może przede wszystkim) tych, którzy już zostali uznani za nietykalne autorytety (autor słusznie nie oszczędza nawet Petera Druckera pisząc, że analiza dyskursywna jego tekstów odkrywa na przykład naiwne, głęboko zakorzenione, podświadome przekonanie „o posłannictwie i legitymizacji władzy menedżerskiej, mającej prowadzić do lepszego świata” (s. 47). Innymi słowy, z racji tego, że czyjaś koncepcja jest popularna i powszechnie uznana, nawet jeśli jej autor piastuje wysokie stanowisko akademickie czy menedżerskie, nie wynika jeszcze, że koncepcja ta nie przemyca „modnych bzdur”, na haczyk których naiwnie nabierają się inni. Potrzebna jest zatem demistyfikacja władzy symbolicznej wykorzystywanej do realizacji interesów wpływowych grup społecznych czy instytucji. Swoistym paradoksem jest na przykład opisywana przez autora działalność firm konsultingowych, które wykorzystując środki masowe

Michał Zawadzki

Usunięcie wygodnego parawanu neopozytywizmu i związanej z nim wolności od wartościowania na rzecz uznania podwójnej hermeneutyki nauk o zarządzaniu determinującej konieczność transdyscyplinarnej otwartości, nie tylko postawiłoby zarządzanie pod koniecznym ostrzem samokrytyki, ale – co się z tym wiąże – również pod etyczną i społeczną presją. Jak bardzo konieczny jest to zabieg w kontekście dalszego rozwoju tej nauki, przekonuje profesor Sułkowski. Trudno się nie zgodzić ze stwierdzeniem autora, że „wstrząs autokrytyczny jest w zarządzaniu potrzebny, ponieważ może on posłużyć do wypracowania kryteriów wiedzy wartościowej, które pozwolą oddzielić poznanie od ‘poznawczego kuglarstwa’. Mnożące się pseudoteorie, ‘złote recepty’ i ‘uniwersalne prawdy’ poradników z zakresu zarządzania budują wizerunek nauki pozornej, w której aspekty poznawcze schodzą na plan dalszy, przyćmione przez sfery komercyjne” (s. 16). Kryteria wiedzy wartościowej pozwoliłyby zatem w pierwszej kolejności na eliminację (przynajmniej w pewnym stopniu) tak zwanych szamanów i guru zarządzania, którzy wykorzystując uwikłanie nauki w masowy rynek dóbr intelektualnych, przemycają (często pod etykietką naukowości i obiektywizmu) bezwartościowe, ale ładnie opakowane teorie. Chodzi tutaj o to, aby nie tylko patrzeć na ręce autorów modnych poradników opisujących „dietę cud” zarządzania, ale aby poddawać krytyce koncepcje nawet (a może przede wszystkim) tych, którzy już zostali uznani za nietykalne autorytety (autor słusznie nie oszczędza nawet Petera Druckera pisząc, że analiza dyskursywna jego tekstów odkrywa na przykład naiwne, głęboko zakorzenione, podświadome przekonanie „o posłannictwie i legitymizacji władzy menedżerskiej, mającej prowadzić do lepszego świata” (s. 47). Innymi słowy, z racji tego, że czyjaś koncepcja jest popularna i powszechnie uznana, nawet jeśli jej autor piastuje wysokie stanowisko akademickie czy menedżerskie, nie wynika jeszcze, że koncepcja ta nie przemyca „modnych bzdur”, na haczyk których naiwnie nabierają się inni. Potrzebna jest zatem demistyfikacja władzy symbolicznej wykorzystywanej do realizacji interesów wpływowych grup społecznych czy instytucji. Swoistym paradoksem jest na przykład opisywana przez autora działalność firm konsultingowych, które wykorzystując środki masowe

Michał Zawadzki

311

O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu (Recenzja: Łukasz Sułkowski, Epistemologia w naukach o zarządzaniu, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne, Warszawa 2005)

badawczym nie mamy dostępu do rzeczywistości jako takiej, ponieważ badając tę rzeczywistość, jednocześnie aktywnie ją współtworzymy i zmieniamy. Tym samym „nauki o zarządzaniu nie zajmują się wyłącznie opisem rzeczywistości, one ją aktywnie współtworzą. Są zatem w równym stopniu poznawcze, co i kreatywne, są jednocześnie nauką i sztuką” (s. 7). Autor przekonująco pokazuje jakie konsekwencje – dla myślenia o naukach o zarządzaniu i ich rozwoju – wynikają z owej podwójnej hermeneutyki tych nauk. Przede wszystkim autor analizując poszczególne nurty charakterystyczne dla nauk o zarządzaniu, fluktuuje od perspektywy neopozytywistycznej, poprzez nurt interpretatywny, aż po perspektywę postmodernistyczną udowadniając, że nauki te mają z natury charakter wieloparadygmatyczny. Warto w tym kontekście podkreślić kapitalne, przygotowane w większości przez samego autora zestawienia tabelaryczne obrazujące w różnych kontekstach różnice pomiędzy omawianymi nurtami. Ze względu na wieloparadygmatyczność nieuprawniona jest hermetyzacja nauk o zarządzaniu w sztywnym gorsecie jednego podejścia epistemologicznego, który niestety pod postacią neopozytywistycznego ekonomizmu współcześnie hamuje rozwój tej dyscypliny. Wiąże się to między innymi z nieuprawnionym, aczkolwiek cały czas obecnym w świadomości przedstawicieli nauk o zarządzaniu sztucznym rozdziałem na zarządzanie „twarde”, „naukowe”, realizujące postulaty wynikające z założeń ekonomicznych i neopozytywistycznych oraz zarządzanie „miękkie”, oparte na paradygmacie humanistycznym, któremu odbiera się status naukowości. Jak zauważa autor, „ważniejsze od restrykcyjnego wytyczenia granic nauk o zarządzaniu wydaje się poddawanie krytycznej ocenie tworzonego dorobku z wykorzystaniem perspektyw poznawczych różnych nauk” (s. 38). Dlatego właśnie zarządzaniu, bardziej od ścisłej demarkacji od innych nauk, potrzeba wręcz transdyscyplinarnej otwartości na dorobek innych dziedzin, szczególnie humanistycznych, aby mogło dojść do wymiany koncepcji i poglądów nasycających dyskurs nauk o zarządzaniu1. Jednocześnie taka otwartość wiązałaby się z uruchomieniem procesu twórczego, krytycznego ścierania się idei charakterystycznych dla różnych płaszczyzn epistemologicznych, co dla zarządzania przyniosłoby korzyść w postaci permanentnej autorefleksji i autokrytyki.

Warto dodać, że w Polsce inicjatorem idei przekraczania granic dyscyplinarnych na gruncie nauk o zarządzaniu jest profesor Emil Orzechowski, który od wielu lat upomina się o „odekonomizowanie” zarządzania na rzecz perspektywy humanistycznej, związanej z otwartością na dorobek innych nauk (zob. np. tegoż Arte et Ratione [w:] Monika Jaworska-Witkowska (red.), Jaka kultura? Jaki dyskurs? Sfera publiczna a spory o edukację, pedagogikę i zarządzanie, Szczecin: „Pedagogium”, Wyd. OR TWP, 2008, s. 117-132).

1

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jak i społeczeństwa, stref wpływu. Nie chodzi zatem tutaj – co wyraźnie podkreśla profesor Sułkowski – o dewaluację czy destrukcję nauk o zarządzaniu, lecz o ustanowienie permanentnej, krytycznej autoanalizy, która pozwoliłaby zarządzaniu stać się pełną, niezakłóconą autorefleksją społeczeństwa. Lista koniecznych do wprowadzenia zmian związanych z nieuchronnym uwikłaniem wiedzy generowanej przez nauki o zarządzaniu w kontekst społeczno-kulturowy jest naprawdę długa. Autor między innymi wskazuje na konieczność uwolnienia metodologii od neopozytywistycznych i scjentystycznych tendencji. Naiwna wiara przedstawicieli nauk o zarządzaniu w Polsce w niezachwianą wartość badawczą i cudowną moc predykcyjną metod ilościowych, skutkująca między innymi ankietomanią, prowadzi do bezwartościowych, niczego nowego nieodkrywających wyników badań. Powielanie utartych, wygodnych schematów bez próby wglądu w ukryte, niejawne aspekty obszarów stanowiących przedmiot badań, to bardziej hamowanie rozwoju nauki niż jej rzeczywisty rozwój. Dlatego autor wskazuje na konieczność otwarcia się przedstawicieli nauk o zarządzaniu na metody jakościowe, w tym chociażby na wykorzystanie w procesie badawczym analizy tekstu czy stosowanie metafor, które „nie stanowią jedynie ozdobników retorycznych, ale tkwią w doświadczeniu, tworzą ramy naszego odczytywania świata oraz budują podstawowe kategorie poznawcze” (s. 122). Być może dobrym, sugerowanym przez autora rozwiązaniem metodologicznym byłoby przyjęcie otwartej postawy eklektyzmu metodologicznego, związanego z twórczym łączeniem różnych, komplementarnych metod charakterystycznych dla różnych dziedzin. Książka profesora Sułkowskiego to ewenement na płaszczyźnie publikacji dotyczących zarządzania. Trudno choćby skrótowo omówić wszystkie podjęte w tej publikacji tropy badawcze. Ja skupiłem się na analizie tropów składających się na perspektywę krytyczną, która stanowi swoiste novum na gruncie refleksji nad naukami o zarządzaniu. Na omawianą książkę można oczywiście spojrzeć z innej perspektywy. Może ona, a nawet powinna stanowić również cenny podręcznik zarówno dla studentów, jak i doświadczonej kadry menedżerskiej czy akademickiej, ponieważ zawiera usystematyzowane zestawienie i kapitalne omówienie podstawowych nurtów epistemologicznych nauk o zarządzaniu. Profesor Sułkowski podjął niezwykle trudną problematykę, wymagającą nie tylko odwagi poznawczej, ale zapewne również obywatelskiej – wszak przedstawione przez niego tezy na pew-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

i elementy socjotechniki przedstawiają bezużyteczne koncepcje zarządzania (wypracowane przez ośrodki akademickie) jako wartościowe i sprawdzające się w praktyce. Reklamowane koncepcje zazwyczaj przedstawia się opinii publicznej jako gwarant sukcesu organizacji, kiedy to nawet wartościowe i rzetelne teorie zarządzania mogą co jedynie zwiększyć jego prawdopodobieństwo – oczywiście przy założeniu, że nie są bezkrytycznie przyjmowane i wdrażane przez ich zwolenników. Nie bez znaczenia wydaje się w tym kontekście również krytyczna analiza instytucji akademickich, które sprawują władzę symboliczną poprzez tworzenie programów nauczania, programów badawczych czy też norm naukowości. Konieczna jest tutaj m.in. refleksja, jak środowisko akademickie, wykorzystując prestiż społeczny wiedzy uznawanej za naukową, „samo kreuje zapotrzebowanie na własną wiedzę, a w konsekwencji własne znaczenie społeczne i władzę. Ciekawa mogłaby być analiza, jak dyskursy rozwijające się w obrębie zarządzania próbują wchłaniać jak największą ilość problematyki, udowadniając tym samym własne znaczenie” (s. 96). Innym, powiązanym z powyższym, koniecznym do demistyfikacji i rozwiązania problemem jest dymna zasłona żargonu zarządzania, ponieważ często pod płaszczykiem skomplikowanej terminologii naukowej produkowane są bezwartościowe koncepcje, które służą jedynie realizacji partykularnych interesów ich autorów. Ponadto – co dotyczy szczególnie polskiej rzeczywistości – nauki o zarządzaniu narażone są w wysokim stopniu na kumoterstwo. Spełnianie roli jednocześnie naukowca produkującego teorie i eksperta w organizacji czy biznesmena rodzi niebezpieczeństwo tworzenia koterii i sieci wpływów mających służyć możliwości realizacji osobistych interesów, co odbywa się ze szkodą dla rzetelności wiedzy. Ostatecznie zatem, co podkreśla w swojej książce profesor Sułkowski, należy pamiętać, że zarządzanie dając możliwość wpływania na kierunki zmian organizacji, stanowi potężne narzędzie ideologiczne pozwalające manipulować społeczeństwem – dlatego w trosce o egzystencję każdego członka tego społeczeństwa nie jest bez znaczenia rzetelność i wartość produkowanej wiedzy oraz kompetencje jej autorów. Skutecznym narzędziem demistyfikacji interesów kryjących się za poczynaniami teoretyków i praktyków zarządzania może być – na co wskazuje autor – aparat teoretyczny wypracowany przez tak zwany mocny program socjologii wiedzy. Potraktowany jako metoda analizy krytycznej, pozwoliłby na skuteczną dekonstrukcję nauk o zarządzaniu w trosce o jej uwolnienie od różnych, destrukcyjnych dla niej

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jak i społeczeństwa, stref wpływu. Nie chodzi zatem tutaj – co wyraźnie podkreśla profesor Sułkowski – o dewaluację czy destrukcję nauk o zarządzaniu, lecz o ustanowienie permanentnej, krytycznej autoanalizy, która pozwoliłaby zarządzaniu stać się pełną, niezakłóconą autorefleksją społeczeństwa. Lista koniecznych do wprowadzenia zmian związanych z nieuchronnym uwikłaniem wiedzy generowanej przez nauki o zarządzaniu w kontekst społeczno-kulturowy jest naprawdę długa. Autor między innymi wskazuje na konieczność uwolnienia metodologii od neopozytywistycznych i scjentystycznych tendencji. Naiwna wiara przedstawicieli nauk o zarządzaniu w Polsce w niezachwianą wartość badawczą i cudowną moc predykcyjną metod ilościowych, skutkująca między innymi ankietomanią, prowadzi do bezwartościowych, niczego nowego nieodkrywających wyników badań. Powielanie utartych, wygodnych schematów bez próby wglądu w ukryte, niejawne aspekty obszarów stanowiących przedmiot badań, to bardziej hamowanie rozwoju nauki niż jej rzeczywisty rozwój. Dlatego autor wskazuje na konieczność otwarcia się przedstawicieli nauk o zarządzaniu na metody jakościowe, w tym chociażby na wykorzystanie w procesie badawczym analizy tekstu czy stosowanie metafor, które „nie stanowią jedynie ozdobników retorycznych, ale tkwią w doświadczeniu, tworzą ramy naszego odczytywania świata oraz budują podstawowe kategorie poznawcze” (s. 122). Być może dobrym, sugerowanym przez autora rozwiązaniem metodologicznym byłoby przyjęcie otwartej postawy eklektyzmu metodologicznego, związanego z twórczym łączeniem różnych, komplementarnych metod charakterystycznych dla różnych dziedzin. Książka profesora Sułkowskiego to ewenement na płaszczyźnie publikacji dotyczących zarządzania. Trudno choćby skrótowo omówić wszystkie podjęte w tej publikacji tropy badawcze. Ja skupiłem się na analizie tropów składających się na perspektywę krytyczną, która stanowi swoiste novum na gruncie refleksji nad naukami o zarządzaniu. Na omawianą książkę można oczywiście spojrzeć z innej perspektywy. Może ona, a nawet powinna stanowić również cenny podręcznik zarówno dla studentów, jak i doświadczonej kadry menedżerskiej czy akademickiej, ponieważ zawiera usystematyzowane zestawienie i kapitalne omówienie podstawowych nurtów epistemologicznych nauk o zarządzaniu. Profesor Sułkowski podjął niezwykle trudną problematykę, wymagającą nie tylko odwagi poznawczej, ale zapewne również obywatelskiej – wszak przedstawione przez niego tezy na pew-

312

i elementy socjotechniki przedstawiają bezużyteczne koncepcje zarządzania (wypracowane przez ośrodki akademickie) jako wartościowe i sprawdzające się w praktyce. Reklamowane koncepcje zazwyczaj przedstawia się opinii publicznej jako gwarant sukcesu organizacji, kiedy to nawet wartościowe i rzetelne teorie zarządzania mogą co jedynie zwiększyć jego prawdopodobieństwo – oczywiście przy założeniu, że nie są bezkrytycznie przyjmowane i wdrażane przez ich zwolenników. Nie bez znaczenia wydaje się w tym kontekście również krytyczna analiza instytucji akademickich, które sprawują władzę symboliczną poprzez tworzenie programów nauczania, programów badawczych czy też norm naukowości. Konieczna jest tutaj m.in. refleksja, jak środowisko akademickie, wykorzystując prestiż społeczny wiedzy uznawanej za naukową, „samo kreuje zapotrzebowanie na własną wiedzę, a w konsekwencji własne znaczenie społeczne i władzę. Ciekawa mogłaby być analiza, jak dyskursy rozwijające się w obrębie zarządzania próbują wchłaniać jak największą ilość problematyki, udowadniając tym samym własne znaczenie” (s. 96). Innym, powiązanym z powyższym, koniecznym do demistyfikacji i rozwiązania problemem jest dymna zasłona żargonu zarządzania, ponieważ często pod płaszczykiem skomplikowanej terminologii naukowej produkowane są bezwartościowe koncepcje, które służą jedynie realizacji partykularnych interesów ich autorów. Ponadto – co dotyczy szczególnie polskiej rzeczywistości – nauki o zarządzaniu narażone są w wysokim stopniu na kumoterstwo. Spełnianie roli jednocześnie naukowca produkującego teorie i eksperta w organizacji czy biznesmena rodzi niebezpieczeństwo tworzenia koterii i sieci wpływów mających służyć możliwości realizacji osobistych interesów, co odbywa się ze szkodą dla rzetelności wiedzy. Ostatecznie zatem, co podkreśla w swojej książce profesor Sułkowski, należy pamiętać, że zarządzanie dając możliwość wpływania na kierunki zmian organizacji, stanowi potężne narzędzie ideologiczne pozwalające manipulować społeczeństwem – dlatego w trosce o egzystencję każdego członka tego społeczeństwa nie jest bez znaczenia rzetelność i wartość produkowanej wiedzy oraz kompetencje jej autorów. Skutecznym narzędziem demistyfikacji interesów kryjących się za poczynaniami teoretyków i praktyków zarządzania może być – na co wskazuje autor – aparat teoretyczny wypracowany przez tak zwany mocny program socjologii wiedzy. Potraktowany jako metoda analizy krytycznej, pozwoliłby na skuteczną dekonstrukcję nauk o zarządzaniu w trosce o jej uwolnienie od różnych, destrukcyjnych dla niej


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

313

no nie są wygodne dla środowiska teoretyków i praktyków zarządzania, do którego sam należy. Faktem jest jednak, że jedynie takie – krytyczne i odważne publikacje mogą wnieść nową jakość do refleksji nad kondycją nauk o zarządzaniu. Obok trudnego do przecenienia kontekstu treściowego książki, warto jeszcze zauważyć niezwykle cenny aspekt bibliograficzny: autor

swoje refleksje oparł na gigantycznej bibliografii zarówno polskiej, jak i zagranicznej, znacznie ułatwiając dalszą, samodzielną eksplorację podjętej problematyki. A warto taką, zaproponowaną przez autora problematykę, podjąć, jeżeli chcemy nauki o zarządzaniu uwolnić ze stanu porównywalnego z szamańską medycyną plemienną lub show-biznesem.

no nie są wygodne dla środowiska teoretyków i praktyków zarządzania, do którego sam należy. Faktem jest jednak, że jedynie takie – krytyczne i odważne publikacje mogą wnieść nową jakość do refleksji nad kondycją nauk o zarządzaniu. Obok trudnego do przecenienia kontekstu treściowego książki, warto jeszcze zauważyć niezwykle cenny aspekt bibliograficzny: autor Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

313

swoje refleksje oparł na gigantycznej bibliografii zarówno polskiej, jak i zagranicznej, znacznie ułatwiając dalszą, samodzielną eksplorację podjętej problematyki. A warto taką, zaproponowaną przez autora problematykę, podjąć, jeżeli chcemy nauki o zarządzaniu uwolnić ze stanu porównywalnego z szamańską medycyną plemienną lub show-biznesem.



Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Prezentacje ośrodków partnerskich

315

Program studiów Studia licencjackie trwają cztery lata, w czasie których studenci koncentrują się na trzech głównych tematach: produkcja teatralna, produkcja radiowa, zarządzanie w kulturze i polityka kulturalna. Studiowanie ich jest wspomagane przez

Cele programu nauczania Głównym celem programu studiów jest zapoznanie słuchaczy z profesjonalnymi i specyficznymi potrzebami instytucji medialnych i kulturalnych. Celem programu doktoranckiego jest rozwój obszaru akademickiego i badawczego

na polu zarządzania sztuką i mediami oraz rozwój polityki kulturalnej. W tych działaniach Katedra ciągle dąży do polepszenia jakości kształcenia, łącząc różne ujęcia aktywnego nauczania: interaktywne wykłady, kształcenie oparte na projektach, edukacja bazująca na badaniach, warsztaty, zadania indywidualne i grupowe, staże w profesjonalnych organizacjach. Katedra organizuje warsztaty tematyczne i seminaria, dzięki którym studenci mają możliwość spotkania ze znanymi badaczami kultury i mediów, jak również praktykami. Dzięki temu mogą dyskutować o aktualnych i praktycznych zagadnieniach dotyczących różnych aspektów ich pracy. Katedra jest czynnie zaangażowana w różne artystyczne i naukowe projekty oraz w pracę organów zarządzających i specjalistycznych Wydziału i Uniwersytetu. Studenckie inicjatywy wewnątrz Katedry owocują wieloma, z powodzeniem realizowanymi projektami. Dwa najważniejsze z nich to Studencki Festiwal Filmowy (FSF) i Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatrów Studenckich (FIST). Oba festiwale stały się pełnoprawnymi wydarzeniami dla międzynarodowych szkół i studentów, dając im zarówno sposobność do zaprezentowania swojej pracy, jak i dyskusji oraz podzielenia się swoimi pomysłami i doświadczeniami. Katedra zachęca i umożliwia aktywnym studentom udział w projektach badawczych.

d 1961 roku Wydział Sztuk Dramatycznych prowadzi studia z zakresu organizacji, produkcji i zarządzania w mediach, kulturze i sztuce (pierwszy taki kierunek w Europie). W latach 2004/2005 Katedra Produkcji została przemianowana na Katedrę Zarządzania i Produkcji w Teatrze, Radiu i Kulturze. Nowa nazwa odzwierciedla znaczące zmiany w strukturze planu studiów i kursów indywidualnych zarówno w profilu studenta, jak i w praktyce nauczania. Ponad 600 studentów, którzy ukończyli ten kierunek, piastowało wcześniej albo awansuje na kierownicze stanowiska w teatrach, radiu i stacjach telewizyjnych oraz wielu instytucjach kulturalnych. Wydział prowadzi studia: MM licencjackie (Zarządzanie i produkcja w teatrze, radiu i kulturze), MM magisterskie (Zarządzanie i produkcja w teatrze, radiu i kulturze), MM magisterskie (Polityka kulturalna i zarządzanie; międzykulturowa mediacja na Bałkanach), doktoranckie (Zarządzanie sztuką i mediami). MM

Zgodnie z zapowiedzią, zamieszczoną w numerze pierwszym, przedstawiamy poniżej prezentacje nadesłane przez ośrodki partnerskie – współtwórców pisma. W związku z nowym polem działalności profesora Petera Bendixena, zamiast informacji o uczelni w Istambule, pojawia się notatka o ośrodku wiedeńskim. Być może ta inicjatywa da nam szansę na bliższe współdziałanie w zakresie wspólnego redagowania naszego pisma – czas pokaże. Pozwoliliśmy sobie na umieszczenie na końcu tej części również informacji o Katedrze Zarządzania Kulturą UJ, a to z przyczyny zmian organizacyjnych, jakie dokonały się u nas w roku 2009.

BELGRAD

d 1961 roku Wydział Sztuk Dramatycznych prowadzi studia z zakresu organizacji, produkcji i zarządzania w mediach, kulturze i sztuce (pierwszy taki kierunek w Europie). W latach 2004/2005 Katedra Produkcji została przemianowana na Katedrę Zarządzania i Produkcji w Teatrze, Radiu i Kulturze. Nowa nazwa odzwierciedla znaczące zmiany w strukturze planu studiów i kursów indywidualnych zarówno w profilu studenta, jak i w praktyce nauczania. Ponad 600 studentów, którzy ukończyli ten kierunek, piastowało wcześniej albo awansuje na kierownicze stanowiska w teatrach, radiu i stacjach telewizyjnych oraz wielu instytucjach kulturalnych. Wydział prowadzi studia: MM licencjackie (Zarządzanie i produkcja w teatrze, radiu i kulturze), MM magisterskie (Zarządzanie i produkcja w teatrze, radiu i kulturze), MM magisterskie (Polityka kulturalna i zarządzanie; międzykulturowa mediacja na Bałkanach), MM doktoranckie (Zarządzanie sztuką i mediami).

na polu zarządzania sztuką i mediami oraz rozwój polityki kulturalnej. W tych działaniach Katedra ciągle dąży do polepszenia jakości kształcenia, łącząc różne ujęcia aktywnego nauczania: interaktywne wykłady, kształcenie oparte na projektach, edukacja bazująca na badaniach, warsztaty, zadania indywidualne i grupowe, staże w profesjonalnych organizacjach. Katedra organizuje warsztaty tematyczne i seminaria, dzięki którym studenci mają możliwość spotkania ze znanymi badaczami kultury i mediów, jak również praktykami. Dzięki temu mogą dyskutować o aktualnych i praktycznych zagadnieniach dotyczących różnych aspektów ich pracy. Katedra jest czynnie zaangażowana w różne artystyczne i naukowe projekty oraz w pracę organów zarządzających i specjalistycznych Wydziału i Uniwersytetu. Studenckie inicjatywy wewnątrz Katedry owocują wieloma, z powodzeniem realizowanymi projektami. Dwa najważniejsze z nich to Studencki Festiwal Filmowy (FSF) i Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatrów Studenckich (FIST). Oba festiwale stały się pełnoprawnymi wydarzeniami dla międzynarodowych szkół i studentów, dając im zarówno sposobność do zaprezentowania swojej pracy, jak i dyskusji oraz podzielenia się swoimi pomysłami i doświadczeniami. Katedra zachęca i umożliwia aktywnym studentom udział w projektach badawczych.

Cele programu nauczania Głównym celem programu studiów jest zapoznanie słuchaczy z profesjonalnymi i specyficznymi potrzebami instytucji medialnych i kulturalnych. Celem programu doktoranckiego jest rozwój obszaru akademickiego i badawczego

Program studiów Studia licencjackie trwają cztery lata, w czasie których studenci koncentrują się na trzech głównych tematach: produkcja teatralna, produkcja radiowa, zarządzanie w kulturze i polityka kulturalna. Studiowanie ich jest wspomagane przez

Katedra Zarządzania i Produkcji w Teatrze, Radiu i Kulturze Wydział Sztuk Dramatycznych, Uniwersytet Sztuk, Belgrad www.fdubg.com/en/cms/about_fdu

O

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

315

O

Katedra Zarządzania i Produkcji w Teatrze, Radiu i Kulturze Wydział Sztuk Dramatycznych, Uniwersytet Sztuk, Belgrad www.fdubg.com/en/cms/about_fdu

BELGRAD

Zgodnie z zapowiedzią, zamieszczoną w numerze pierwszym, przedstawiamy poniżej prezentacje nadesłane przez ośrodki partnerskie – współtwórców pisma. W związku z nowym polem działalności profesora Petera Bendixena, zamiast informacji o uczelni w Istambule, pojawia się notatka o ośrodku wiedeńskim. Być może ta inicjatywa da nam szansę na bliższe współdziałanie w zakresie wspólnego redagowania naszego pisma – czas pokaże. Pozwoliliśmy sobie na umieszczenie na końcu tej części również informacji o Katedrze Zarządzania Kulturą UJ, a to z przyczyny zmian organizacyjnych, jakie dokonały się u nas w roku 2009.

Prezentacje ośrodków partnerskich


316

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2) MM MM

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Przedmioty główne: zarządzanie teatrem, zarządzanie radiem, zarządzanie kulturą, polityka kulturalna, historia powszechna teatru i dramatu, historia południowosłowiańskiego teatru i dramatu, technologia sceniczna, elementy reżyserii teatralnej, zarządzanie filmem, estetyka, historia sztuki, muzyka, psychologia, marketing, język obcy. Przedmioty dodatkowe: język obcy (2), komunikacja biznesowa, media masowej komunikacji, zarządzanie agencją biznesową, dziennikarstwo.

316

dodatkowe przedmioty zawodowe i teoretyczne: architektura sceniczna i technologia, marketing, prawa autorskie, reżyseria teatralna i radiowa, historia teatru i dramatu powszechnego, historia teatru i dramatu jugosłowiańskiego, psychologia, historia sztuki, socjologia sztuki, historia kultury i in. W trakcie kursów studenci biorą czynny udział w profesjonalnych pracach nad różnymi przedsięwzięciami, od produkcji nowych sztuk począwszy, na organizacji międzynarodowych festiwali (FEST, BITEF i BELEF) skończywszy.

1. Studia magisterskie 2. Podoktoranckie studia humanistyczne.

UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE

12. Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

WYDZIAŁ SZTUK DRAMATYCZNYCH

Licencjat z zakresu Zarządzania i produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze; menedżer – producent w teatrze, radiu i kulturze.

WYDZIAŁ

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

SZTUKA

Po pomyślnym ukończeniu pierwszego stopnia edukacji menedżer – producent w teatrze, radiu i kulturze posiada wiedzę z zakresu kluczowych zagadnień we wszystkich obszarach oraz szeroki zakres umiejętności niezbędnych w tworzeniu i wprowadzaniu w życie organizacyjnych i produkcyjnych zadań związanych z: – zarządzaniem i produkowaniem sztuk teatralnych, widowisk i programów radiowych oraz różnorodnych projektów kulturalnych (wystawy, manifestacje, koncerty i in.), – organizowaniem i zarządzaniem segmentami/sektorami w organizacjach/instytucjach kulturalnych (planowanie, kontrola nad pracami, monitoring, rozwój programu i organizacji, międzynarodowa współpraca kulturalna, fundraising), – zdobywaniem funduszy na produkcję, organizację i zarządzanie kampaniami marketingowymi oraz im podobnymi.

Dziedzina edukacji

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

1.

Dyplom ukończenia szkoły średniej i odpowiednia liczba punktów w teście kompetencji ułożonym zgodnie ze statutem instytucji edukacji wyższej. Egzamin wstępny składa się z: – testu z wiedzy ogólnej, – testu sprawdzającego zdolności analityczne, – testu sprawdzającego umiejętności kierownicze. Końcowa ocena kandydatów jest oparta na sumie punktów osiągniętych w szkole średniej oraz rezultatów wstępnego egzaminu

Zarządzanie

9. Zasady rekrutacji

2. Dziedzina studiów

Nie więcej niż 20 studentów

Zarządzanie i Produkcja w Teatrze, Radiu i Kulturze

8. Liczba studentów

3. Program studiów

240

Punkty ECTS

4. Cele programu studiów

7.

Celem czteroletniego programu studiów pierwszego stopnia jest umożliwienie studentom zdobycia wiedzy i umiejętności w obszarze zarządzania i produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze. Dzięki wykładom, projektom, zadaniom praktycznym i pracy badawczej studenci nabywają niezbędnych umiejętności, które pozwalają im na aktywny udział w procesie organizowania i zarządzania projektami artystycznymi. Ta metoda pracy umożliwia studentom: – zrozumienie technik stosowanych w organizacji produkcji związanej z pracą we wszystkich obszarach, – samodzielną pracę nad projektami, jak również w niezależnych organizacjach i stowarzyszeniach, – aktywne uczestnictwo w instytucjonalnym systemie kultury i mediów, – zdobycie wiedzy niezbędnej dla kształtowania i wprowadzania w życie instrumentów polityki kulturalnej. Określony przez teoretyczne wytyczne program studiów jest empirycznie rozwijany dzięki zrozumieniu aktualnych, lokalnych i międzynarodowych trendów w różnych aspektach produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze oraz ich powiązań w szerszym środowisku.

4 lata (8 semestrów)

Licencjat/studia licencjackie

6. Czas trwania

5. Poziom i typ studiów

Licencjat/studia licencjackie

4 lata (8 semestrów)

5. Poziom i typ studiów

6. Czas trwania

Celem czteroletniego programu studiów pierwszego stopnia jest umożliwienie studentom zdobycia wiedzy i umiejętności w obszarze zarządzania i produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze. Dzięki wykładom, projektom, zadaniom praktycznym i pracy badawczej studenci nabywają niezbędnych umiejętności, które pozwalają im na aktywny udział w procesie organizowania i zarządzania projektami artystycznymi. Ta metoda pracy umożliwia studentom: – zrozumienie technik stosowanych w organizacji produkcji związanej z pracą we wszystkich obszarach, – samodzielną pracę nad projektami, jak również w niezależnych organizacjach i stowarzyszeniach, – aktywne uczestnictwo w instytucjonalnym systemie kultury i mediów, – zdobycie wiedzy niezbędnej dla kształtowania i wprowadzania w życie instrumentów polityki kulturalnej. Określony przez teoretyczne wytyczne program studiów jest empirycznie rozwijany dzięki zrozumieniu aktualnych, lokalnych i międzynarodowych trendów w różnych aspektach produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze oraz ich powiązań w szerszym środowisku.

240

4. Cele programu studiów

Punkty ECTS

Zarządzanie i Produkcja w Teatrze, Radiu i Kulturze

7.

3. Program studiów

Nie więcej niż 20 studentów

Zarządzanie

8. Liczba studentów

2. Dziedzina studiów

9. Zasady rekrutacji

SZTUKA

Dziedzina edukacji

Dyplom ukończenia szkoły średniej i odpowiednia liczba punktów w teście kompetencji ułożonym zgodnie ze statutem instytucji edukacji wyższej. Egzamin wstępny składa się z: – testu z wiedzy ogólnej, – testu sprawdzającego zdolności analityczne, – testu sprawdzającego umiejętności kierownicze. Końcowa ocena kandydatów jest oparta na sumie punktów osiągniętych w szkole średniej oraz rezultatów wstępnego egzaminu

1.

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

WYDZIAŁ SZTUK DRAMATYCZNYCH

Po pomyślnym ukończeniu pierwszego stopnia edukacji menedżer – producent w teatrze, radiu i kulturze posiada wiedzę z zakresu kluczowych zagadnień we wszystkich obszarach oraz szeroki zakres umiejętności niezbędnych w tworzeniu i wprowadzaniu w życie organizacyjnych i produkcyjnych zadań związanych z: – zarządzaniem i produkowaniem sztuk teatralnych, widowisk i programów radiowych oraz różnorodnych projektów kulturalnych (wystawy, manifestacje, koncerty i in.), – organizowaniem i zarządzaniem segmentami/sektorami w organizacjach/instytucjach kulturalnych (planowanie, kontrola nad pracami, monitoring, rozwój programu i organizacji, międzynarodowa współpraca kulturalna, fundraising), – zdobywaniem funduszy na produkcję, organizację i zarządzanie kampaniami marketingowymi oraz im podobnymi.

WYDZIAŁ

Licencjat z zakresu Zarządzania i produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze; menedżer – producent w teatrze, radiu i kulturze.

UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

MM

Przedmioty główne: zarządzanie teatrem, zarządzanie radiem, zarządzanie kulturą, polityka kulturalna, historia powszechna teatru i dramatu, historia południowosłowiańskiego teatru i dramatu, technologia sceniczna, elementy reżyserii teatralnej, zarządzanie filmem, estetyka, historia sztuki, muzyka, psychologia, marketing, język obcy. Przedmioty dodatkowe: język obcy (2), komunikacja biznesowa, media masowej komunikacji, zarządzanie agencją biznesową, dziennikarstwo.

1. Studia magisterskie 2. Podoktoranckie studia humanistyczne.

MM

12. Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

dodatkowe przedmioty zawodowe i teoretyczne: architektura sceniczna i technologia, marketing, prawa autorskie, reżyseria teatralna i radiowa, historia teatru i dramatu powszechnego, historia teatru i dramatu jugosłowiańskiego, psychologia, historia sztuki, socjologia sztuki, historia kultury i in. W trakcie kursów studenci biorą czynny udział w profesjonalnych pracach nad różnymi przedsięwzięciami, od produkcji nowych sztuk począwszy, na organizacji międzynarodowych festiwali (FEST, BITEF i BELEF) skończywszy.


317

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE WYDZIAŁ

WYDZIAŁ SZTUK DRAMATYCZNYCH

1.

SZTUKA

Dziedzina edukacji

2. Dziedzina studiów

Zarządzanie

3. Program studiów

Zarządzanie i produkcja w teatrze, radiu i kulturze

4. Cele programu studiów

Zdobycie wiedzy teoretycznej, Opanowanie zdolności kierowniczych niezbędnych w zarządzaniu projektami i w instytucjach, których polem działania jest teatr, radio i kultura (muzea, festiwale, centra kulturalne i in.).

5. Poziom i typ studiów

Studia magisterskie

6. Czas trwania

1 rok (2 semestry)

7.

60

1) Studia podyplomowe. 2) Studia doktoranckie z zakresu zarządzania sztuką i mediami. 3) Humanistyczne studia doktoranckie. 4) Studia doktoranckie z zakresu sztuk dramatycznych, mediów i kultury.

Możliwości zdobycia ko12. lejnych stopni edukacji

Magisterium z zakresu Polityki Kulturalnej i Zarządzania

11.

Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

10. Rezultaty kształcenia Punkty ECTS

8. Liczba studentów

Nie więcej niż 20 studentów

9. Zasady rekrutacji

Ukończone studia pierwszego stopnia – (240 punktów ECTS) i inne warunki zgodne ze Statutem Uniwersytetu Sztuk w Belgradzie i Wydziału Sztuk Dramatycznych.

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

Po ukończeniu drugiego stopnia studiów, student może: – przeprowadzać badania w dziedzinach związanych z teatrem, radiem i kulturą – pozycjonowanie organizacji, – zastosować strategiczne metody analityczne i instrumenty strategicznego planowania oraz rozwoju w kulturalnych i medialnych organizacjach/instytucjach, – zaprojektować i stworzyć organizację i instytucję (teatr, instytucje medialne i kulturalne), – użyć kreatywnego podejścia w rozwiązywaniu kierowniczych i produkcyjnych problemów – ryzyko i zmiany zarządzania.

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

Magisterium z zakresu Zarządzania i produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze

12. Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

1. Studia podyplomowe. 2. Studia doktoranckie z zakresu zarządzania sztuką i mediami. 3. Humanistyczne studia doktoranckie. 4. Studia doktoranckie z zakresu sztuk dramatycznych, mediów i kultury.

Zasady rekrutacji

9.

Liczba studentów

8.

Punkty ECTS

7.

Po ukończeniu drugiego stopnia studiów, student może: – przeprowadzić badania związane z zadaniami w sferze polityki kulturalnej, zarządzania kulturą, międzykulturowości, – zastosować strategiczne metody analityczne i instrumenty strategicznego planowania oraz rozwoju w kulturalnych i medialnych organizacjach/instytucjach, – zaprojektować i stworzyć organizację i instytucję (teatr, medialne i kulturalne), – użyć kreatywnego podejścia w rozwiązywaniu problemów produkcyjnych i związanych ze stanowiskiem kierowniczym – ryzyko i zmiany zarządzania, – rozwijać współpracę kulturalną i sieć programów. Ukończone studia pierwszego stopnia – (240 punktów ECTS) i inne warunki zgodne ze Statutem Uniwersytetu Sztuk w Belgradzie i Wydziału Sztuk Dramatycznych. Nie więcej niż 30 studentów 60

Czas trwania

6.

Poziom i typ studiów

5.

Cele programu studiów

4.

Program studiów - nazwa Przewodnictwo UNESCO w polityce kulturalnej i zarządzaniu (międzykulturalna mediacja na Bałkanach)

3.

Dziedzina studiów i badań Zarządzanie

2.

Dziedzina edukacji

1.

1 rok (2 semestry) lub 2 lata (4 semestry) dla profesjonalistów Studia magisterskie Zdobycie wiedzy teoretycznej Doskonalenie umiejętności kierowniczych w zarządzaniu kulturą i międzykulturowych projektach z zakresu zarządzania Humanistyka Polityka kulturalna i zarządzanie

Zajęcia w języku angielskim i francuskim

UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE (We współpracy z Uniwersytetem w Lyon II, Lyon, Francja)

UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE (We współpracy z Uniwersytetem w Lyon II, Lyon, Francja)

1. Studia podyplomowe. 2. Studia doktoranckie z zakresu zarządzania sztuką i mediami. 3. Humanistyczne studia doktoranckie. 4. Studia doktoranckie z zakresu sztuk dramatycznych, mediów i kultury.

12. Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

Magisterium z zakresu Zarządzania i produkcji w teatrze, radiu i kulturze

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

Polityka kulturalna i zarządzanie

Zajęcia w języku angielskim i francuskim

1.

Dziedzina edukacji

Humanistyka

2.

Dziedzina studiów i badań Zarządzanie

3.

Program studiów - nazwa Przewodnictwo UNESCO w polityce kulturalnej i zarządzaniu (międzykulturalna mediacja na Bałkanach)

4.

Cele programu studiów

5.

Poziom i typ studiów

Studia magisterskie

6.

Czas trwania

1 rok (2 semestry) lub 2 lata (4 semestry) dla profesjonalistów

7.

Punkty ECTS

60

8.

Liczba studentów

Nie więcej niż 30 studentów

9.

Zasady rekrutacji

Ukończone studia pierwszego stopnia – (240 punktów ECTS) i inne warunki zgodne ze Statutem Uniwersytetu Sztuk w Belgradzie i Wydziału Sztuk Dramatycznych.

Zdobycie wiedzy teoretycznej Doskonalenie umiejętności kierowniczych w zarządzaniu kulturą i międzykulturowych projektach z zakresu zarządzania

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

Po ukończeniu drugiego stopnia studiów, student może: – przeprowadzić badania związane z zadaniami w sferze polityki kulturalnej, zarządzania kulturą, międzykulturowości, – zastosować strategiczne metody analityczne i instrumenty strategicznego planowania oraz rozwoju w kulturalnych i medialnych organizacjach/instytucjach, – zaprojektować i stworzyć organizację i instytucję (teatr, medialne i kulturalne), – użyć kreatywnego podejścia w rozwiązywaniu problemów produkcyjnych i związanych ze stanowiskiem kierowniczym – ryzyko i zmiany zarządzania, – rozwijać współpracę kulturalną i sieć programów.

11.

Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

Magisterium z zakresu Polityki Kulturalnej i Zarządzania

12.

Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

1) Studia podyplomowe. 2) Studia doktoranckie z zakresu zarządzania sztuką i mediami. 3) Humanistyczne studia doktoranckie. 4) Studia doktoranckie z zakresu sztuk dramatycznych, mediów i kultury.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

317

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

Po ukończeniu drugiego stopnia studiów, student może: – przeprowadzać badania w dziedzinach związanych z teatrem, radiem i kulturą – pozycjonowanie organizacji, – zastosować strategiczne metody analityczne i instrumenty strategicznego planowania oraz rozwoju w kulturalnych i medialnych organizacjach/instytucjach, – zaprojektować i stworzyć organizację i instytucję (teatr, instytucje medialne i kulturalne), – użyć kreatywnego podejścia w rozwiązywaniu kierowniczych i produkcyjnych problemów – ryzyko i zmiany zarządzania. Ukończone studia pierwszego stopnia – (240 punktów ECTS) i inne warunki zgodne ze Statutem Uniwersytetu Sztuk w Belgradzie i Wydziału Sztuk Dramatycznych.

9. Zasady rekrutacji

Nie więcej niż 20 studentów

8. Liczba studentów

60

7.

Punkty ECTS

1 rok (2 semestry)

6. Czas trwania

Studia magisterskie

5. Poziom i typ studiów

Zdobycie wiedzy teoretycznej, Opanowanie zdolności kierowniczych niezbędnych w zarządzaniu projektami i w instytucjach, których polem działania jest teatr, radio i kultura (muzea, festiwale, centra kulturalne i in.).

4. Cele programu studiów

Zarządzanie i produkcja w teatrze, radiu i kulturze

3. Program studiów

Zarządzanie

2. Dziedzina studiów

SZTUKA

1.

Dziedzina edukacji

WYDZIAŁ

WYDZIAŁ SZTUK DRAMATYCZNYCH UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE


318

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Zarządzanie

2. Dziedzina studiów i badań

Humanistyka

1.

Dziedzina edukacji

Program studiów Zarządzanie Sztuką i Mediami WYDZIAŁ SZTUK DRAMATYCZNYCH UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE

Zajęcia w języku serbochorwackim i angielskim

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Zarządzanie sztuką i mediami

318

3. Program studiów - nazwa

aksoński Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej powstał w 1994 roku. Saksoński Minister Stanu ds. Nauki i Sztuki prof. dr Hans Joachim Meyer impulsem do jego założenia nazwał „konieczność znalezienia dla sztuki i nauki nowych, odpowiadających liberalnemu społeczeństwu form instytucjonalnych oraz form wspierania, aby wśród znaczących procesów transformacji utrzymać oraz rozwijać odpowiednie fora również ich życia duchowego”. Do międzynarodowych forów stworzonych przez Instytut należą Europejska Sieć „Kultura i Zarządzanie“ (od 1997 roku), trójnarodowe kolegium naukowe Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (od 2002 roku) oraz Międzynarodowa Szkoła Letnia Sztuk Pięknych (od 2003 roku).

4. Cele programu studiów

S

Rozwój badań i teorii w zarządzaniu sztuką. Stworzenie odpowiedniej metodologii zarządzania w kulturze i mediach. Wypracowanie interdyscyplinarnego podejścia w badaniach zagadnień, które potrzebują analitycznych i krytycznych zdolności. Rozwój wiedzy z tej dziedziny. Kształcenie kompetentnych badaczy i wykładowców akademickich w tym obszarze.

Saksoński Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej www.kultur.org

Swe specyficzne analizy naukowe dotyczące polityki kulturalnej, Instytut rozwija i różnicuje w ramach licznych międzydyscyplinarnych prac badawczych, inicjatyw dotyczących uruchamiania nowych kierunków studiów, projektów artystycznych i doradczych (ostatnio m.in. dla komisji badawczej niemieckiego Bundestagu i na rzecz Fundacji dla Narodu Serbołużyckiego). Pojęcie „infrastruktura kulturalna” pochodzi z Saksonii. Zadomowiło się ono w latach 80. ubiegłego stulecia w środowisku skupionym wokół Uniwersytetu w Lipsku (Hardy Geyer). Republika Federalna Niemiec i Niemiecka Republika Demokratyczna podjęły to wyrażenie w art. 35 ust. 7 umowy zjednoczeniowej. Na tej podstawie Federacja wprowadziła w latach 1991–1994, obok programu modernizacyjnego, program infrastrukturalny w celu wspierania kultury w tzw. nowych krajach związkowych. W 2007 roku komisja badawcza niemieckiego Bundestagu (Kultura w Niemczech), zaleciła pojmowanie „infrastruk-

Studia doktoranckie

GOERLITZ

5. Poziom i typ studiów

1. Podoktoranckie studia z zakresu zarządzania kulturą. 2. Podoktoranckie studia humanistyczne.

Program 3 letni

Doktorat w dziedzinie Zarządzania sztuką i mediami

Możliwości zdobycia 12. kolejnych stopni edukacji

6. Czas trwania

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

180

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

Po ukończeniu drugiego stopnia studiów, student może: – samodzielnie stworzyć projekt badawczy z zakresu polityki kulturalnej, zarządzania kulturą oraz międzykulturowości, – przewodzić porównawczym badaniom międzynarodowym, – tworzyć artykuły akademickie w celu publikacji, – zaprojektować i stworzyć program z zakresu badań, – zastosować interdyscyplinarną, badawczą metodologię i kreatywne podejście w próbach zrozumienia sytuacji kultury i jej problemów, – rozwijać naukową współpracę i sieć programów łączących badaczy (świat naukowy), krąg polityczny i praktyków.

Punkty ECTS

Ukończone (z wyróżnieniem) studia magisterskie (300 punktów); na korzyść kandydata wpływają doświadczenie badawcze i publikacje.

7.

9. Zasady rekrutacji

Nie więcej niż 10 studentów

Nie więcej niż 10 studentów

8. Liczba studentów

8. Liczba studentów

Ukończone (z wyróżnieniem) studia magisterskie (300 punktów); na korzyść kandydata wpływają doświadczenie badawcze i publikacje.

180

Punkty ECTS

9. Zasady rekrutacji

7.

10. Rezultaty kształcenia

Program 3 letni

Po ukończeniu drugiego stopnia studiów, student może: – samodzielnie stworzyć projekt badawczy z zakresu polityki kulturalnej, zarządzania kulturą oraz międzykulturowości, – przewodzić porównawczym badaniom międzynarodowym, – tworzyć artykuły akademickie w celu publikacji, – zaprojektować i stworzyć program z zakresu badań, – zastosować interdyscyplinarną, badawczą metodologię i kreatywne podejście w próbach zrozumienia sytuacji kultury i jej problemów, – rozwijać naukową współpracę i sieć programów łączących badaczy (świat naukowy), krąg polityczny i praktyków.

Studia doktoranckie

6. Czas trwania

Doktorat w dziedzinie Zarządzania sztuką i mediami

5. Poziom i typ studiów

11. Osiągnięte kwalifikacje

4. Cele programu studiów

Rozwój badań i teorii w zarządzaniu sztuką. Stworzenie odpowiedniej metodologii zarządzania w kulturze i mediach. Wypracowanie interdyscyplinarnego podejścia w badaniach zagadnień, które potrzebują analitycznych i krytycznych zdolności. Rozwój wiedzy z tej dziedziny. Kształcenie kompetentnych badaczy i wykładowców akademickich w tym obszarze.

1. Podoktoranckie studia z zakresu zarządzania kulturą. 2. Podoktoranckie studia humanistyczne.

Zarządzanie sztuką i mediami

Możliwości zdobycia kolejnych stopni edukacji

Zarządzanie

3. Program studiów - nazwa

12.

2. Dziedzina studiów i badań

GOERLITZ

Humanistyka

Saksoński Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej www.kultur.org

Dziedzina edukacji

S

1.

Zajęcia w języku serbochorwackim i angielskim

Swe specyficzne analizy naukowe dotyczące polityki kulturalnej, Instytut rozwija i różnicuje w ramach licznych międzydyscyplinarnych prac badawczych, inicjatyw dotyczących uruchamiania nowych kierunków studiów, projektów artystycznych i doradczych (ostatnio m.in. dla komisji badawczej niemieckiego Bundestagu i na rzecz Fundacji dla Narodu Serbołużyckiego). Pojęcie „infrastruktura kulturalna” pochodzi z Saksonii. Zadomowiło się ono w latach 80. ubiegłego stulecia w środowisku skupionym wokół Uniwersytetu w Lipsku (Hardy Geyer). Republika Federalna Niemiec i Niemiecka Republika Demokratyczna podjęły to wyrażenie w art. 35 ust. 7 umowy zjednoczeniowej. Na tej podstawie Federacja wprowadziła w latach 1991–1994, obok programu modernizacyjnego, program infrastrukturalny w celu wspierania kultury w tzw. nowych krajach związkowych. W 2007 roku komisja badawcza niemieckiego Bundestagu (Kultura w Niemczech), zaleciła pojmowanie „infrastruk-

Program studiów Zarządzanie Sztuką i Mediami

aksoński Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej powstał w 1994 roku. Saksoński Minister Stanu ds. Nauki i Sztuki prof. dr Hans Joachim Meyer impulsem do jego założenia nazwał „konieczność znalezienia dla sztuki i nauki nowych, odpowiadających liberalnemu społeczeństwu form instytucjonalnych oraz form wspierania, aby wśród znaczących procesów transformacji utrzymać oraz rozwijać odpowiednie fora również ich życia duchowego”. Do międzynarodowych forów stworzonych przez Instytut należą Europejska Sieć „Kultura i Zarządzanie“ (od 1997 roku), trójnarodowe kolegium naukowe Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (od 2002 roku) oraz Międzynarodowa Szkoła Letnia Sztuk Pięknych (od 2003 roku).

UNIWERSYTET SZTUK W BELGRADZIE WYDZIAŁ SZTUK DRAMATYCZNYCH


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

tury kulturalnej” jako centralnego przedmiotu polityki kulturalnej. Rada naukowa Instytutu kierowana jest przez prof. dr Dietera Bingena, dyrektora Polsko-Niemieckiego Instytutu w Darmstadt. Zastępcami przewodniczącego są filozof prof. dr Jan Sokol (Uniwersytet Karola w Pradze) oraz ekonomista kultury prof. dr Peter Bendixen (Istambuł, Wiedeń). Do rady należą również prof. dr Alfred Grossen (Paryż), prof. dr Hubert Orłowski (Poznań) oraz dalsi eksperci zagadnień europejskiego porozumienia i kultury. Kuratorium Instytutu przewodniczy Ulf Großmann, przewodniczący komisji kulturalnej Niemieckiego Związku Miast. Do kuratorium należą również Władysław Bartoszewski (Warszawa), Jiří Gruša (Wiedeń i Londyn,, rektor Akademii Dyplomatycznej we Wiedniu) oraz były przewodniczący Międzynarodowego PEN Clubu (Wolfgang Huber z Berlina, biskup regionalny Kościoła Ewangelickiego w Berlinie-Brandenburgu-Śląskich Górnych Łużycach oraz były przewodniczący Rady Kościoła Ewangelickiego w Niemczech), a także dalsi przedstawiciele społeczeństwa i świata polityki. Honorowymi przewodniczącymi są Freya von Moltke i Krzysztof Penderecki. Dyrektorem wykonawczym i założycielem instytutu jest prof. dr hab. Matthias Theodor Vogt. Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec zostało założone w 2001 roku w celu propagowania dyskursu na temat kulturalnego, duchowego i społecznego wymiaru Europy i Unii Europejskiej. Jest to kolegium naukowe, a jednocześnie sieć akademicka. Profesorowie i młodzi naukowcy spotykają się każdego lata od 2002 roku, aby w trakcie intensywnej pracy badawczej w Görlitz oraz następnych kilku tygodni, przygotować na na zadany temat publikację, zawierającą wyniki ich badań. W Collegium Pontes ma miejsce rzeczywiste współdziałanie pokoleń, narodów oraz dyscyplin naukowych. Format Collegium Pontes jest niezwykły. Na grono działających tutaj scientists in residence składają się z jednej strony doświadczeni naukowcy (senior fellows), którzy w trakcie letniej wspólnoty naukowej na czas Collegium Pontes budują mosty między swoimi dyscyplinami, z drugiej zaś strony są to naukowcy młodzi (junior fellows), doktoranci oraz post-docs, którzy aktywnie uczestniczą w tym dialogu. Wykłady i seminaria gościnne (visiting fellows) wzbogacają dyskusje. Collegium poprzez wspólną pracę w wielonarodowych i międzydyscyplinarnych zespołach otwiera dla swoich uczestników możliwość teoretycznego zajmowania się tematem europeizacji oraz jej praktycznego funkcjonowania w rzeczywi-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

stości. Trwająca siedem tygodni akademia letnia, charakteryzująca się niezwykłą intensywnością, jest wprawdzie nastawiona na wyniki, nie mniej jednak sama jej forma jest ważnym celem nauczania. Uczestnicy doświadczają solidarności i wspólnoty, do której dąży się na płaszczyźnie politycznej Unii Europejskiej. Naukowe i polityczno-naukowe znaczenie Collegium na międzynarodowej scenie zostało docenione poprzez patronów: od 2003 roku Collegium Pontes jest jedyną instytucją akademicką trzech krajów sąsiedzkich pod wspólnym patronatem Ministrów Spraw Wewnętrznych Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, Republiki Federalnej Niemiec oraz Republiki Czeskiej. Na zewnątrz Collegium Pontes działa jako publiczne forum oraz inicjator różnego rodzaju przedsięwzięć. Wyniki prac w formie publicznych prelekcji i prezentacji publikowane są systematycznie w serii wydawniczej. W 2009 roku ukazały się w wydawnictwie Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, pod red. Matthiasa Theodora Vogta, Jana Sokola, Beaty Ociepki, Beaty Mikołajczyk cztery tomy serii wydawniczej Collegium Pontes: MM Tom I – Bedingungen europäischer Solidarität MM Tom II – Peripherie in der Mitte Europas MM Tom III – Die Stärke der Schwäche MM Tom IV – Europäisierung im Alltag W 2008 roku ukazał się w serii „Edition kulturelle Infrastruktur“ tom Sorbisches NationalEnsemble. Eine kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse, będący wynikiem współpracy Philippa Bormanna, Andreasa Brachera, Vladimira Krecka i Katariny Markovic-Stokes (powstał na zlecenie Fundacji dla narodu serbołużyckiego). Międzynarodowa Szkoła Letnia Sztuk Pięknych Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec jest wspólnym kolegium badawczym Wydziału Nauk Ekonomicznych Wyższej Szkoły Zittau/Görlitz oraz Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej. Merytorycznym celem szkoły letniej jest budowanie mostów między produkcją sztuki a naukową i estetyczną refleksją, między pracą warsztatową a publicznymi imprezami, między własnymi wymaganiami a zainteresowaniem społeczeństwa. Każdego roku w centrum zainteresowania stoi współczesny kompozytor ze swoją biografią oraz twórczością. Europejska Sieć „Kultura i Zarządzanie“ jest koordynowana przez Saksoński Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej. Należą do niej: MM Wyższa Szkoła Zittau/Görlitz, Niemcy (kierunki z podwójnym dyplomem z Pécs i Nantes)

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Collegium Pontes Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec zostało założone w 2001 roku w celu propagowania dyskursu na temat kulturalnego, duchowego i społecznego wymiaru Europy i Unii Europejskiej. Jest to kolegium naukowe, a jednocześnie sieć akademicka. Profesorowie i młodzi naukowcy spotykają się każdego lata od 2002 roku, aby w trakcie intensywnej pracy badawczej w Görlitz oraz następnych kilku tygodni, przygotować na na zadany temat publikację, zawierającą wyniki ich badań. W Collegium Pontes ma miejsce rzeczywiste współdziałanie pokoleń, narodów oraz dyscyplin naukowych. Format Collegium Pontes jest niezwykły. Na grono działających tutaj scientists in residence składają się z jednej strony doświadczeni naukowcy (senior fellows), którzy w trakcie letniej wspólnoty naukowej na czas Collegium Pontes budują mosty między swoimi dyscyplinami, z drugiej zaś strony są to naukowcy młodzi (junior fellows), doktoranci oraz post-docs, którzy aktywnie uczestniczą w tym dialogu. Wykłady i seminaria gościnne (visiting fellows) wzbogacają dyskusje. Collegium poprzez wspólną pracę w wielonarodowych i międzydyscyplinarnych zespołach otwiera dla swoich uczestników możliwość teoretycznego zajmowania się tematem europeizacji oraz jej praktycznego funkcjonowania w rzeczywitury kulturalnej” jako centralnego przedmiotu polityki kulturalnej. Rada naukowa Instytutu kierowana jest przez prof. dr Dietera Bingena, dyrektora Polsko-Niemieckiego Instytutu w Darmstadt. Zastępcami przewodniczącego są filozof prof. dr Jan Sokol (Uniwersytet Karola w Pradze) oraz ekonomista kultury prof. dr Peter Bendixen (Istambuł, Wiedeń). Do rady należą również prof. dr Alfred Grossen (Paryż), prof. dr Hubert Orłowski (Poznań) oraz dalsi eksperci zagadnień europejskiego porozumienia i kultury. Kuratorium Instytutu przewodniczy Ulf Großmann, przewodniczący komisji kulturalnej Niemieckiego Związku Miast. Do kuratorium należą również Władysław Bartoszewski (Warszawa), Jiří Gruša (Wiedeń i Londyn,, rektor Akademii Dyplomatycznej we Wiedniu) oraz były przewodniczący Międzynarodowego PEN Clubu (Wolfgang Huber z Berlina, biskup regionalny Kościoła Ewangelickiego w Berlinie-Brandenburgu-Śląskich Górnych Łużycach oraz były przewodniczący Rady Kościoła Ewangelickiego w Niemczech), a także dalsi przedstawiciele społeczeństwa i świata polityki. Honorowymi przewodniczącymi są Freya von Moltke i Krzysztof Penderecki. Dyrektorem wykonawczym i założycielem instytutu jest prof. dr hab. Matthias Theodor Vogt.

Europejska Sieć „Kultura i Zarządzanie“ jest koordynowana przez Saksoński Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej. Należą do niej: Wyższa Szkoła Zittau/Görlitz, Niemcy (kierunki z podwójnym dyplomem z Pécs i Nantes)

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Międzynarodowa Szkoła Letnia Sztuk Pięknych Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec jest wspólnym kolegium badawczym Wydziału Nauk Ekonomicznych Wyższej Szkoły Zittau/Görlitz oraz Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej. Merytorycznym celem szkoły letniej jest budowanie mostów między produkcją sztuki a naukową i estetyczną refleksją, między pracą warsztatową a publicznymi imprezami, między własnymi wymaganiami a zainteresowaniem społeczeństwa. Każdego roku w centrum zainteresowania stoi współczesny kompozytor ze swoją biografią oraz twórczością. stości. Trwająca siedem tygodni akademia letnia, charakteryzująca się niezwykłą intensywnością, jest wprawdzie nastawiona na wyniki, nie mniej jednak sama jej forma jest ważnym celem nauczania. Uczestnicy doświadczają solidarności i wspólnoty, do której dąży się na płaszczyźnie politycznej Unii Europejskiej. Naukowe i polityczno-naukowe znaczenie Collegium na międzynarodowej scenie zostało docenione poprzez patronów: od 2003 roku Collegium Pontes jest jedyną instytucją akademicką trzech krajów sąsiedzkich pod wspólnym patronatem Ministrów Spraw Wewnętrznych Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, Republiki Federalnej Niemiec oraz Republiki Czeskiej. Na zewnątrz Collegium Pontes działa jako publiczne forum oraz inicjator różnego rodzaju przedsięwzięć. Wyniki prac w formie publicznych prelekcji i prezentacji publikowane są systematycznie w serii wydawniczej. W 2009 roku ukazały się w wydawnictwie Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, pod red. Matthiasa Theodora Vogta, Jana Sokola, Beaty Ociepki, Beaty Mikołajczyk cztery tomy serii wydawniczej Collegium Pontes: MM Tom I – Bedingungen europäischer Solidarität MM Tom II – Peripherie in der Mitte Europas MM Tom III – Die Stärke der Schwäche MM Tom IV – Europäisierung im Alltag W 2008 roku ukazał się w serii „Edition kulturelle Infrastruktur“ tom Sorbisches NationalEnsemble. Eine kulturpolitikwissenschaftliche Analyse, będący wynikiem współpracy Philippa Bormanna, Andreasa Brachera, Vladimira Krecka i Katariny Markovic-Stokes (powstał na zlecenie Fundacji dla narodu serbołużyckiego).


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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Prof. dr, dr h.c. Hans Joachim Meyer Były Minister Saksonii – Mosty ponad granicami. Uroczysta przemowa wygłoszona z okazji 15-lecia istnienia Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej i rozpoczęcia działalności Collegium Pontes (Görlitz, 25 sierpnia 2009 roku) Na początek pozwolę sobie na nieco zuchwałą tezę: Cokolwiek człowiek czyni, jest kulturą. To, w jaki sposób obchodzi się ze środowiskiem naturalnym, jaki ma stosunek do osób ze swojego otoczenia, co myśli o sobie, o swoich czasach, o świecie – to wszystko, jak i parę innych aspektów składa się na kulturę. W tej wszechobecności kultury, za każdym razem, gdy w grę wchodzi człowiek, znajduje się jej szczególne znaczenie. Zawsze, kiedy mam wypowiedzieć się na temat kultury, przypomina mi się zdanie Hansa Marchwitza, pisarza klasy robotniczej: Kultura to co drugie uderzenie serca naszego życia. W foyer starego ratusza w Poczdamie można w dalszym ciągu przeczytać tą sentencję (przynajmniej mam taką nadzieję). Jednak wcale nie jestem pewny, czy jest to w pełni udany obraz. Przecież Marchwitz mógł równie dobrze powiedzieć: Kultura to każde uderzenie serca naszego życia, ale nie chcę tu nikogo krytykować. W każdym razie jego słowa i tak na długo pozostaną w pamięci. A w dalszym ciągu w życiu jednostki, jak i w historii pojedyńczego

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www.kultur.org Strona internetowa instytutu odwiedzana jest miesięcznie ok. 70.000 razy. Pod linkiem „Schriften“ znajdują się na niej liczne teksty na tematy polityki kulturalnej, ekonomii kulturalnej oraz zarządzania kulturą.

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Haus Klingewalde. Siedzibą Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej jest Haus Klingewalde w Görlitz, dworek z XVI i XVII w., przebudowany w stylu neogotyckim w wieku XIX. Akustyka i optyka pomieszczeń seminaryjnych stwarza w Haus Klingewalde idealne warunki na organizowanie konferencji i seminariów na temat kultury i Europy Środkowej.

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Uniwersytet Jagielloński (Kraków), Polska Uniwersytet w Pecz, Węgry Uniwersytet w Nantes, Francja Uniwersytet im. Friedricha II w Neapolu, Włochy Uniwersytet Babeş-Bolyai w Kluż-Napoka, Rumunia Uniwersytet Karola w Pradze, Republika Czeska Akademia Kultury w Rydze, Łotwa Uniwersytet w Salamance, Hiszpania Akademia Sztuk Pięknych w Wilnie, Litwa

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Haus Klingewalde. Siedzibą Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej jest Haus Klingewalde w Görlitz, dworek z XVI i XVII w., przebudowany w stylu neogotyckim w wieku XIX. Akustyka i optyka pomieszczeń seminaryjnych stwarza w Haus Klingewalde idealne warunki na organizowanie konferencji i seminariów na temat kultury i Europy Środkowej.

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www.kultur.org Strona internetowa instytutu odwiedzana jest miesięcznie ok. 70.000 razy. Pod linkiem „Schriften“ znajdują się na niej liczne teksty na tematy polityki kulturalnej, ekonomii kulturalnej oraz zarządzania kulturą.

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narodu, są sytuacje, w kórych rzeczy oczywiste muszą stać się wyraźne i uderzające. Bowiem w oczywistości tkwi największe niebezpieczeństwo dla wszystkiego, co musi być wszechobecne, ponieważ jest to dla nas ważne i konieczne. Nie zważamy już na nie i wierzymy, że nie trzeba się już troszczyć o ich zachowanie. A gdy radykalnie zmieniają się treść i okoliczności naszego życia, zauważamy, że działanie jest jednak potrzebne. Pytanie tylko czy zauważymy to w porę i czy będziemy wiedzieli, co należy zrobić. W takiej sytuacji – odnośnie kultury jako treści i wyrazu naszego życia – znaleźliśmy się po roku 1990. Na nowo musieliśmy uzgodnić nasz pogląd na kulturę i jej instytucjonalne uwarunkowania w życiu publicznym. Nasze doświadczenia z czasów NRD były przecież ambiwalentne. Z jednej strony polityczna i ideologiczna dyktatura przywłaszczyła sobie wszelkie publiczne wydarzenia kulturalne, próbując upaństwowić społeczeństwo we wszelkich jego formach wyrazu. Z drugiej zaś strony istota literackiego i artystycznego tworzenia polega na byciu kreatywnym, a przez to także niezależnym, jak i na unikaniu lub sprzeciwianiu się każdemu zewnętrznemu roszczeniu. W ten sposób z literackich i artystycznych dzieł pisarzy oraz artystów powstało w NRD coś w stylu kulturalnego podziemia. Obok świata życia własnego Kościołów i ich wewnętrznych swobód, istniało w życiu kulturalnym coś pełnego sprzeciwu i uporu, z czego wyrosło duchowe przygotowanie do rewolucyjnej jesieni 1989. Dlatego też pozwolę sobie na to śmiałe historyczne porównanie, że wtedy, w życiu codziennym w NRD rozmawiało się z takim samym ożywieniem o powieści, utworze muzycznym, obrazie czy przedstawieniu teatralnym, jak w czasach dawnego Kościoła, rozprawiano na targach i jarmarkach o ustaleniach soborów ekumenicznych, tocząc spór o dogmaty. W NRD książki mogły stać się produktem spod lady, jak też było z innymi rzeczami codziennego użytku. Niestety w zjednoczonych Niemczech jest pełno ludzi, którzy ani nie pojęli sprzeczności życia kulturalnego w NRD, ani nie chcą pojąć, ponieważ sami nie potrzebują takich doświadczeń. Po 1990 roku zagadnienie kultury stawiało przed nami dwa ważne pytania. Z jednej strony należało rozprawić się merytorycznie z tym, jakie znaczenie i jakie oblicze powinna mieć kultura w przyszłości. Ten spór był niezbędny, miał jednakże szeroki zakres. W zasadzie problem ten jest jeszcze dzisiaj obecny. Palącą i niecierpiącą zwłoki sprawą było pytanie, jak można zagwarantować przetrwanie struktur i instytucji kultury. To pytanie zawierało w sobie oczywiście decyzje o tym, co powinno przetrwać. Wprawdzie NRD pozostawiła w większości w stanie nienaru-

narodu, są sytuacje, w kórych rzeczy oczywiste muszą stać się wyraźne i uderzające. Bowiem w oczywistości tkwi największe niebezpieczeństwo dla wszystkiego, co musi być wszechobecne, ponieważ jest to dla nas ważne i konieczne. Nie zważamy już na nie i wierzymy, że nie trzeba się już troszczyć o ich zachowanie. A gdy radykalnie zmieniają się treść i okoliczności naszego życia, zauważamy, że działanie jest jednak potrzebne. Pytanie tylko czy zauważymy to w porę i czy będziemy wiedzieli, co należy zrobić. W takiej sytuacji – odnośnie kultury jako treści i wyrazu naszego życia – znaleźliśmy się po roku 1990. Na nowo musieliśmy uzgodnić nasz pogląd na kulturę i jej instytucjonalne uwarunkowania w życiu publicznym. Nasze doświadczenia z czasów NRD były przecież ambiwalentne. Z jednej strony polityczna i ideologiczna dyktatura przywłaszczyła sobie wszelkie publiczne wydarzenia kulturalne, próbując upaństwowić społeczeństwo we wszelkich jego formach wyrazu. Z drugiej zaś strony istota literackiego i artystycznego tworzenia polega na byciu kreatywnym, a przez to także niezależnym, jak i na unikaniu lub sprzeciwianiu się każdemu zewnętrznemu roszczeniu. W ten sposób z literackich i artystycznych dzieł pisarzy oraz artystów powstało w NRD coś w stylu kulturalnego podziemia. Obok świata życia własnego Kościołów i ich wewnętrznych swobód, istniało w życiu kulturalnym coś pełnego sprzeciwu i uporu, z czego wyrosło duchowe przygotowanie do rewolucyjnej jesieni 1989. Dlatego też pozwolę sobie na to śmiałe historyczne porównanie, że wtedy, w życiu codziennym w NRD rozmawiało się z takim samym ożywieniem o powieści, utworze muzycznym, obrazie czy przedstawieniu teatralnym, jak w czasach dawnego Kościoła, rozprawiano na targach i jarmarkach o ustaleniach soborów ekumenicznych, tocząc spór o dogmaty. W NRD książki mogły stać się produktem spod lady, jak też było z innymi rzeczami codziennego użytku. Niestety w zjednoczonych Niemczech jest pełno ludzi, którzy ani nie pojęli sprzeczności życia kulturalnego w NRD, ani nie chcą pojąć, ponieważ sami nie potrzebują takich doświadczeń. Po 1990 roku zagadnienie kultury stawiało przed nami dwa ważne pytania. Z jednej strony należało rozprawić się merytorycznie z tym, jakie znaczenie i jakie oblicze powinna mieć kultura w przyszłości. Ten spór był niezbędny, miał jednakże szeroki zakres. W zasadzie problem ten jest jeszcze dzisiaj obecny. Palącą i niecierpiącą zwłoki sprawą było pytanie, jak można zagwarantować przetrwanie struktur i instytucji kultury. To pytanie zawierało w sobie oczywiście decyzje o tym, co powinno przetrwać. Wprawdzie NRD pozostawiła w większości w stanie nienaru-

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Uniwersytet Jagielloński (Kraków), Polska Uniwersytet w Pecz, Węgry Uniwersytet w Nantes, Francja Uniwersytet im. Friedricha II w Neapolu, Włochy Uniwersytet Babeş-Bolyai w Kluż-Napoka, Rumunia Uniwersytet Karola w Pradze, Republika Czeska Akademia Kultury w Rydze, Łotwa Uniwersytet w Salamance, Hiszpania Akademia Sztuk Pięknych w Wilnie, Litwa

Prof. dr, dr h.c. Hans Joachim Meyer Były Minister Saksonii – Mosty ponad granicami. Uroczysta przemowa wygłoszona z okazji 15-lecia istnienia Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej i rozpoczęcia działalności Collegium Pontes (Görlitz, 25 sierpnia 2009 roku) Na początek pozwolę sobie na nieco zuchwałą tezę: Cokolwiek człowiek czyni, jest kulturą. To, w jaki sposób obchodzi się ze środowiskiem naturalnym, jaki ma stosunek do osób ze swojego otoczenia, co myśli o sobie, o swoich czasach, o świecie – to wszystko, jak i parę innych aspektów składa się na kulturę. W tej wszechobecności kultury, za każdym razem, gdy w grę wchodzi człowiek, znajduje się jej szczególne znaczenie. Zawsze, kiedy mam wypowiedzieć się na temat kultury, przypomina mi się zdanie Hansa Marchwitza, pisarza klasy robotniczej: Kultura to co drugie uderzenie serca naszego życia. W foyer starego ratusza w Poczdamie można w dalszym ciągu przeczytać tą sentencję (przynajmniej mam taką nadzieję). Jednak wcale nie jestem pewny, czy jest to w pełni udany obraz. Przecież Marchwitz mógł równie dobrze powiedzieć: Kultura to każde uderzenie serca naszego życia, ale nie chcę tu nikogo krytykować. W każdym razie jego słowa i tak na długo pozostaną w pamięci. A w dalszym ciągu w życiu jednostki, jak i w historii pojedyńczego

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MM


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

szonym historyczne instytucje kulturalne, lecz scentralizowała je politycznie i finansowo. W ten sposób orkiestra Gewandhaus w Lipsku (Leipziger Gewandhausorchester) była formalnie w dalszym ciągu orkiestrą miejską, ale o jej doli i niedoli decydowano ostatecznie w Berlinie. Z dnia na dzień został wprowadzony podział kompetencji w Republice Federacyjnej Niemiec, a to oznacza, że zwierzchnictwo w dziedzinie kultury i edukacji leży w kompetencji krajów związkowych, i że większość instytucji i ofert kulturalnych znajduje się w gestii władz lokalnych. Dla Saksonii z jej historycznie uwarunkowanym polimorfizmem form organizacyjnych, mogło to wtedy oznaczać, że organizacje kulturalne kraju związkowego, które znajdują się w większości w Dreźnie, przetrwałyby, a lokalne instytucje kultury przestałyby istnieć lub znalazłyby się na granicy upadku. Dla nas było jasne, że spraw tych nie można pozostawić samych sobie. Oczywiście traktat zjednoczeniowy stworzył nowe niemieckie prawo konstytucyjne, wyraźnie określając obowiązek państwa niemieckiego polegający na pielęgnowaniu kultury we wschodnich krajach związkowych. Naturalnie mogło to oznaczać wiele i nic. Dlatego do dziś godnym wymienienia dokonaniem historycznym jest fakt, że Kanclerz Niemiec Helmut Kohl postanowił, że przez określony okres wydatki na kulturę wschodnich krajów związkowych i gmin będą wspierane sumą w wysokości 900 milionów marek niemieckich pochodzących od państwa. Zasługą wschodnioniemieckich artystów, w tym również pochodzących z Saksonii, było nakłonienie kanclerza do podjęcia tego kroku. Decyzja ta wymagała olbrzymiej suwerenności w działaniu, ponieważ występowała przeciwko dotychczasowej praktyce, ugruntowanej w tym zakresie na obszarze Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. Sieghardt von Köckritz, ówczesny kierownik Wydziału Kultury w Ministerstwie Spraw Wewnętrznych, człowiek wysoce zasłużony dla wschodnioniemieckiej kultury, opowiedział mi raz z ironią, że na początku trudnych rozmów na temat wdrażania decyzji kanclerza w Ministerstwie Finansów, musiano za każdym razem zapewniać, że to nie oni byli tymi, którzy doprowadzili do niemieckiej jedności, ani z własnej winy, ani nieumyślnie, ale skoro stała się ona faktem, potrzebują pilnie pieniędzy na ratowanie kultury w tzw. nowych krajach związkowych. Wobec jednej sprawy nie mogło być oczywiście żadnych wątpliwości: pomoc państwa będzie ograniczona czasowo, a zegar tykał. W takich okolicznościach w Saksońskim Ministerstwie Nauki i Kultury narodził się pomysł stworzenia swego rodzaju Komisji ds. Struktur Kulturalnych (Kulturstrukturkommission) w celu

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

opracowywania rozwiązań dla całego kraju związkowego. Jako przykład służyła Saksońskia Komisja ds. Struktur Szkolnictwa Wyższego (Hochschulstrukturkommission), z którą mieliśmy już pozytywne doświadczenia. Komisja ds. Kultury była w swoich pierwszych założeniach skierowana instytucjonalnie, tzn. na początku miała koncentrować się wyłącznie na teatrze i orkiestrach. Jednak polityczne zlecenie jest rzeczą jedną, a praktyczna realizacja tych założeń sprawą zupełnie inną. Dlatego też ogromne znaczenie miał fakt, że w osobie Matthiasa Theodora Vogta, jako rzecznika komisji, znaleziono kogoś, kto łączył koncepcyjną oryginalność z zmysłem politycznej komunikacji. O tym świadczy już jego pomysł nadania komisji imienia kompozytora i kapelmistrza Johanna Gottlieba Naumanna, który po pokoju w Hubertusburgu z 1763 roku zasłużył się w sposób reformatorski dla życia muzycznego w splądrowanej Saksonii. To, że wówczas w Dreźnie została zamknięta opera, rozważnie przemilczał. Sprawą decydującą był fakt, iż idea obszarów kulturowych rozwinięta w dużej mierze przez Vogta była z jednej strony na tyle elastyczna, żeby zastosować ją odnośnie do każdego rodzaju aktywności kulturalnej, z drugiej zaś nawiązywała do istniejących interesów i tradycji regionalnych. Dlatego, gdy deputowani Landtagu i członkowie Landratu zażądali zasadniczego uwzględnienia wszystkich instytucji i zadań kulturalnych o znaczeniu nie tylko regionalnym w programie wspierania przez dany obszar kulturowy, możliwe było znalezienie politycznego porozumienia w ramach konceptu dotyczącego obszaru kulturowego. Ponieważ w tym czasie także Minister Finansów był gotowy do złożenia konkretnych obietnic finansowych, utorował tym samym ostatecznie drogę do olbrzymiego politycznego konsensusu. Również Geog Milbradt, dawny Skarbnik Miejski z Münster, wydawał się być przekonanym do zaakceptowania tego rozwiązania, dostrzegając analogię pomiędzy saksońskimi obszarami kulturowymi i Związkami Regionów w Nadrenii Północnej-Wesfalii. Jednocześnie spodziewał się na przyszłość wyraźnego efektu fuzji i oszczędzania. Saksonia ciągle oczekiwała wielkiego rozkwitu obszarów kultury, na razie konsumując efekty przeprowadzenia zasadniczych reform pierwszej kadencji parlamentu. Do tej atmosfery oczekiwania przyczyniła się w niemałym stopniu ustawa o instytucjach kulturalnych, uchwalona 17 grudnia 1993 roku z olbrzymim poparciem wszystkich frakcji politycznych. Była ona i jest w dalszym ciągu uważana za arcydzieło polityki kulturalnej z Saksonii. Słusznie więc wychwalano Matthiasa Theodora Vogta jako architekta koncepcji leżącej u podstaw tej ustawy.

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szonym historyczne instytucje kulturalne, lecz scentralizowała je politycznie i finansowo. W ten sposób orkiestra Gewandhaus w Lipsku (Leipziger Gewandhausorchester) była formalnie w dalszym ciągu orkiestrą miejską, ale o jej doli i niedoli decydowano ostatecznie w Berlinie. Z dnia na dzień został wprowadzony podział kompetencji w Republice Federacyjnej Niemiec, a to oznacza, że zwierzchnictwo w dziedzinie kultury i edukacji leży w kompetencji krajów związkowych, i że większość instytucji i ofert kulturalnych znajduje się w gestii władz lokalnych. Dla Saksonii z jej historycznie uwarunkowanym polimorfizmem form organizacyjnych, mogło to wtedy oznaczać, że organizacje kulturalne kraju związkowego, które znajdują się w większości w Dreźnie, przetrwałyby, a lokalne instytucje kultury przestałyby istnieć lub znalazłyby się na granicy upadku. Dla nas było jasne, że spraw tych nie można pozostawić samych sobie. Oczywiście traktat zjednoczeniowy stworzył nowe niemieckie prawo konstytucyjne, wyraźnie określając obowiązek państwa niemieckiego polegający na pielęgnowaniu kultury we wschodnich krajach związkowych. Naturalnie mogło to oznaczać wiele i nic. Dlatego do dziś godnym wymienienia dokonaniem historycznym jest fakt, że Kanclerz Niemiec Helmut Kohl postanowił, że przez określony okres wydatki na kulturę wschodnich krajów związkowych i gmin będą wspierane sumą w wysokości 900 milionów marek niemieckich pochodzących od państwa. Zasługą wschodnioniemieckich artystów, w tym również pochodzących z Saksonii, było nakłonienie kanclerza do podjęcia tego kroku. Decyzja ta wymagała olbrzymiej suwerenności w działaniu, ponieważ występowała przeciwko dotychczasowej praktyce, ugruntowanej w tym zakresie na obszarze Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. Sieghardt von Köckritz, ówczesny kierownik Wydziału Kultury w Ministerstwie Spraw Wewnętrznych, człowiek wysoce zasłużony dla wschodnioniemieckiej kultury, opowiedział mi raz z ironią, że na początku trudnych rozmów na temat wdrażania decyzji kanclerza w Ministerstwie Finansów, musiano za każdym razem zapewniać, że to nie oni byli tymi, którzy doprowadzili do niemieckiej jedności, ani z własnej winy, ani nieumyślnie, ale skoro stała się ona faktem, potrzebują pilnie pieniędzy na ratowanie kultury w tzw. nowych krajach związkowych. Wobec jednej sprawy nie mogło być oczywiście żadnych wątpliwości: pomoc państwa będzie ograniczona czasowo, a zegar tykał. W takich okolicznościach w Saksońskim Ministerstwie Nauki i Kultury narodził się pomysł stworzenia swego rodzaju Komisji ds. Struktur Kulturalnych (Kulturstrukturkommission) w celu

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opracowywania rozwiązań dla całego kraju związkowego. Jako przykład służyła Saksońskia Komisja ds. Struktur Szkolnictwa Wyższego (Hochschulstrukturkommission), z którą mieliśmy już pozytywne doświadczenia. Komisja ds. Kultury była w swoich pierwszych założeniach skierowana instytucjonalnie, tzn. na początku miała koncentrować się wyłącznie na teatrze i orkiestrach. Jednak polityczne zlecenie jest rzeczą jedną, a praktyczna realizacja tych założeń sprawą zupełnie inną. Dlatego też ogromne znaczenie miał fakt, że w osobie Matthiasa Theodora Vogta, jako rzecznika komisji, znaleziono kogoś, kto łączył koncepcyjną oryginalność z zmysłem politycznej komunikacji. O tym świadczy już jego pomysł nadania komisji imienia kompozytora i kapelmistrza Johanna Gottlieba Naumanna, który po pokoju w Hubertusburgu z 1763 roku zasłużył się w sposób reformatorski dla życia muzycznego w splądrowanej Saksonii. To, że wówczas w Dreźnie została zamknięta opera, rozważnie przemilczał. Sprawą decydującą był fakt, iż idea obszarów kulturowych rozwinięta w dużej mierze przez Vogta była z jednej strony na tyle elastyczna, żeby zastosować ją odnośnie do każdego rodzaju aktywności kulturalnej, z drugiej zaś nawiązywała do istniejących interesów i tradycji regionalnych. Dlatego, gdy deputowani Landtagu i członkowie Landratu zażądali zasadniczego uwzględnienia wszystkich instytucji i zadań kulturalnych o znaczeniu nie tylko regionalnym w programie wspierania przez dany obszar kulturowy, możliwe było znalezienie politycznego porozumienia w ramach konceptu dotyczącego obszaru kulturowego. Ponieważ w tym czasie także Minister Finansów był gotowy do złożenia konkretnych obietnic finansowych, utorował tym samym ostatecznie drogę do olbrzymiego politycznego konsensusu. Również Geog Milbradt, dawny Skarbnik Miejski z Münster, wydawał się być przekonanym do zaakceptowania tego rozwiązania, dostrzegając analogię pomiędzy saksońskimi obszarami kulturowymi i Związkami Regionów w Nadrenii Północnej-Wesfalii. Jednocześnie spodziewał się na przyszłość wyraźnego efektu fuzji i oszczędzania. Saksonia ciągle oczekiwała wielkiego rozkwitu obszarów kultury, na razie konsumując efekty przeprowadzenia zasadniczych reform pierwszej kadencji parlamentu. Do tej atmosfery oczekiwania przyczyniła się w niemałym stopniu ustawa o instytucjach kulturalnych, uchwalona 17 grudnia 1993 roku z olbrzymim poparciem wszystkich frakcji politycznych. Była ona i jest w dalszym ciągu uważana za arcydzieło polityki kulturalnej z Saksonii. Słusznie więc wychwalano Matthiasa Theodora Vogta jako architekta koncepcji leżącej u podstaw tej ustawy.


mógł stać się również Saksońskim Instytutem Krajowym. Z tego właśnie powodu wybrano długaśne określenie (infrastruktura kulturalna), oddające i sens istnienia nowej jednostki, i zakres jej naukowych poszukiwań. Każdy, kto przyjrzy się dokonaniom Instytutu od rozpoczęcia jego działalności w październiku 1995 roku, musi być pod wrażeniem jego osiągnięć, będących wynikiem podjęcia innowacyjnego, a przez to również ryzykownego programu. Dokonanie to zasługuje na tym większy szacunek, gdyż, czego nie chciałbym przemilczeć, faza założenia i powstania Instytutu przypada na czas polityki oszczędnościowej, która niespodziewanie spadła na nas na początku drugiej kadencji parlamentu. Nie chcę, żeby ten spór z tamtego czasu odżył na nowo w naszej pamięci, lecz chcę tylko przypomnieć o naszym dawnym doświadczeniu, które pokazuje że, jeśli z pieniędzmi jest ciężko a liczba miejsc pracy spada, wtedy każdy myśli najpierw o sobie. W tych okolicznościach dokonania te są tym bardziej imponujące. I nawet, jeśli nikt ode mnie nie oczekuje, abym tutaj przedstawił pewnego rodzaju sprawozdanie o 15 latach działalności (w końcu wszystko to ukazało się drukiem i można po to sięgnąć), to i tak chce podkreślić parę wydarzeń. Już w 1997 roku udało się stworzyć pierwsze w Europie dopiero kiełkujące akademickie miejsce kształcenia dla ekonomistów kultury i to z międzynarodową bracią studencką. W 2001 roku doszło do współpracy Instytutu w dwuletnich studiach magisterskich drugiego stopnia na Uniwersytecie Technicznym w Dreźnie i zaraz po tym rozpoczęto pracę nad europejskim programem kooperacyjnym różnych kierunków studiów z tej dziedziny. Od 2003 roku prowadzone są Międzynarodowe Szkoły Letnie, znaczące dla transgranicznego oddziaływania Instytutu. Wprowadzenie teorii w praktykę zostało przygotowane i towarzyszyły mu działania naukowe, z których chcę wymienić dwa projekty przypadające na pierwsze lata działalności: Procesy transformacji w sektorze kultury miast Europy Środkowej i Środkowowschodniej w odniesieniu do trzeciego sektora i Kultura i Gospodarka na obszarze wiejskim. Na przykładzie Saksonii Środkowej. Do tego dochodzą liczne konferencje, które zostały zorganizowane przez Instytut lub takie, w których przedstawiciele Instytutu brali udział. Świadczą one o szybko pomnażających się międzynarodowych kontaktach i programach współpracy. Rosnące poważanie dla Instytutu w Niemczech potwierdził przeprowadzony w 2005 roku projekt naukowy Wkład kościołów i wspólnot religijnych w życie kulturalne w Niemczech, ponieważ powstał on w związku z pracą specjalnej komisji badawczej

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Tym niemniej dla wszystkich było jasne, że twórcy tej ustawy musieli lawirować jak na polu minowym, pomiędzy kompetencjami politycznymi kraju związkowego a gmin. Po tym jak Komisja im. Naumanna zakończyła swoją pracę, Matthias Theodor Vogt zajął się obszarami kulturalnymi, które trzeba było dopiero zdefiniować. W niedługim czasie istniały one już jako struktury samorządów lokalnych, a współudział kraju związkowego mógł nastąpić, jak to zawsze jest w przypadkach wspólnego działania, tylko poprzez wkład finansowy uchwalony w tym celu przez Landtag. Ministerstwo musiało jednak za to odpowiadać politycznie. Z drugiej strony bezsprzecznym był fakt, iż ustawa musiała się najpierw sprawdzić w praktyce. Należało się spodziewać, że w procesie dialogu koniecznego w tej sytuacji – czy raczej sporów politycznych podmiotów kompetencyjnych, czyli kraju związkowego i obszarów kulturowych – współpraca wykwalifikowanego podmiotu kompetencyjnego okaże się pomocna i wartościowa. Te rozważania doprowadziły do założenia Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej, którego 15. rocznicę istnienia obchodzimy dzisiaj. Instytut był zaplanowany jako miejsce badań i analiz, jak również jako partner do rozmów dla poszukujących rady. Poza tym jego zadaniem było, w połączeniu z uczelnią wyższą, jak również przy współpracy z innymi uczelniami wyższymi, wprowadzanie wyników swoich ekspertyz do nauk akademickich. Debatującym o polityce kulturalnej miało to umożliwić zdobycie odpowiednich argumentów, jednocześnie działalność Instytutu miała inicjować i sprzyjać takim dyskusjom. Inaczej mówiąc, sensem Instytutu było działanie w dialogu polityki kulturalnej Saksonii jako naukowy i niezależny partner. Dlatego też wskazane było jego trwałe przyporządkowanie do uczelni wyższej, lecz z na tyle niezależnym statusem, żeby mogło być to ogólnie widoczne. Dla instytucji realizującej wszystkie te cele, zdefiniowane w nowatorskiej formule, trzeba było znaleźć stosowną nazwę. Określenie Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej nadawał się do tego znakomicie, ponieważ to pojęcie przyjęło się już dzięki art. 35 ustęp 7 traktatu zjednoczeniowego. Jego praktyczne wdrożenie pokazało, że chodziło o podtrzymywanie korzystnych okoliczności dla rozwoju kultury, a nie o merytoryczne wywieranie wpływu na nią. Infrastruktura kulturalna rozumiana jest więc jako warunek konieczny dla rozwoju i funkcjonowania kultury. Oczywiście fakt, że jednostka ta miała się zająć naukową analizą zagadnienia infrastruktury kulturalnej, nie mógł się równać temu, że sama będzie zepchnięta w stronę kulturalnej niemocy. Nowy Instytut nie

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

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mógł stać się również Saksońskim Instytutem Krajowym. Z tego właśnie powodu wybrano długaśne określenie (infrastruktura kulturalna), oddające i sens istnienia nowej jednostki, i zakres jej naukowych poszukiwań. Każdy, kto przyjrzy się dokonaniom Instytutu od rozpoczęcia jego działalności w październiku 1995 roku, musi być pod wrażeniem jego osiągnięć, będących wynikiem podjęcia innowacyjnego, a przez to również ryzykownego programu. Dokonanie to zasługuje na tym większy szacunek, gdyż, czego nie chciałbym przemilczeć, faza założenia i powstania Instytutu przypada na czas polityki oszczędnościowej, która niespodziewanie spadła na nas na początku drugiej kadencji parlamentu. Nie chcę, żeby ten spór z tamtego czasu odżył na nowo w naszej pamięci, lecz chcę tylko przypomnieć o naszym dawnym doświadczeniu, które pokazuje że, jeśli z pieniędzmi jest ciężko a liczba miejsc pracy spada, wtedy każdy myśli najpierw o sobie. W tych okolicznościach dokonania te są tym bardziej imponujące. I nawet, jeśli nikt ode mnie nie oczekuje, abym tutaj przedstawił pewnego rodzaju sprawozdanie o 15 latach działalności (w końcu wszystko to ukazało się drukiem i można po to sięgnąć), to i tak chce podkreślić parę wydarzeń. Już w 1997 roku udało się stworzyć pierwsze w Europie dopiero kiełkujące akademickie miejsce kształcenia dla ekonomistów kultury i to z międzynarodową bracią studencką. W 2001 roku doszło do współpracy Instytutu w dwuletnich studiach magisterskich drugiego stopnia na Uniwersytecie Technicznym w Dreźnie i zaraz po tym rozpoczęto pracę nad europejskim programem kooperacyjnym różnych kierunków studiów z tej dziedziny. Od 2003 roku prowadzone są Międzynarodowe Szkoły Letnie, znaczące dla transgranicznego oddziaływania Instytutu. Wprowadzenie teorii w praktykę zostało przygotowane i towarzyszyły mu działania naukowe, z których chcę wymienić dwa projekty przypadające na pierwsze lata działalności: Procesy transformacji w sektorze kultury miast Europy Środkowej i Środkowowschodniej w odniesieniu do trzeciego sektora i Kultura i Gospodarka na obszarze wiejskim. Na przykładzie Saksonii Środkowej. Do tego dochodzą liczne konferencje, które zostały zorganizowane przez Instytut lub takie, w których przedstawiciele Instytutu brali udział. Świadczą one o szybko pomnażających się międzynarodowych kontaktach i programach współpracy. Rosnące poważanie dla Instytutu w Niemczech potwierdził przeprowadzony w 2005 roku projekt naukowy Wkład kościołów i wspólnot religijnych w życie kulturalne w Niemczech, ponieważ powstał on w związku z pracą specjalnej komisji badawczej

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Tym niemniej dla wszystkich było jasne, że twórcy tej ustawy musieli lawirować jak na polu minowym, pomiędzy kompetencjami politycznymi kraju związkowego a gmin. Po tym jak Komisja im. Naumanna zakończyła swoją pracę, Matthias Theodor Vogt zajął się obszarami kulturalnymi, które trzeba było dopiero zdefiniować. W niedługim czasie istniały one już jako struktury samorządów lokalnych, a współudział kraju związkowego mógł nastąpić, jak to zawsze jest w przypadkach wspólnego działania, tylko poprzez wkład finansowy uchwalony w tym celu przez Landtag. Ministerstwo musiało jednak za to odpowiadać politycznie. Z drugiej strony bezsprzecznym był fakt, iż ustawa musiała się najpierw sprawdzić w praktyce. Należało się spodziewać, że w procesie dialogu koniecznego w tej sytuacji – czy raczej sporów politycznych podmiotów kompetencyjnych, czyli kraju związkowego i obszarów kulturowych – współpraca wykwalifikowanego podmiotu kompetencyjnego okaże się pomocna i wartościowa. Te rozważania doprowadziły do założenia Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej, którego 15. rocznicę istnienia obchodzimy dzisiaj. Instytut był zaplanowany jako miejsce badań i analiz, jak również jako partner do rozmów dla poszukujących rady. Poza tym jego zadaniem było, w połączeniu z uczelnią wyższą, jak również przy współpracy z innymi uczelniami wyższymi, wprowadzanie wyników swoich ekspertyz do nauk akademickich. Debatującym o polityce kulturalnej miało to umożliwić zdobycie odpowiednich argumentów, jednocześnie działalność Instytutu miała inicjować i sprzyjać takim dyskusjom. Inaczej mówiąc, sensem Instytutu było działanie w dialogu polityki kulturalnej Saksonii jako naukowy i niezależny partner. Dlatego też wskazane było jego trwałe przyporządkowanie do uczelni wyższej, lecz z na tyle niezależnym statusem, żeby mogło być to ogólnie widoczne. Dla instytucji realizującej wszystkie te cele, zdefiniowane w nowatorskiej formule, trzeba było znaleźć stosowną nazwę. Określenie Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej nadawał się do tego znakomicie, ponieważ to pojęcie przyjęło się już dzięki art. 35 ustęp 7 traktatu zjednoczeniowego. Jego praktyczne wdrożenie pokazało, że chodziło o podtrzymywanie korzystnych okoliczności dla rozwoju kultury, a nie o merytoryczne wywieranie wpływu na nią. Infrastruktura kulturalna rozumiana jest więc jako warunek konieczny dla rozwoju i funkcjonowania kultury. Oczywiście fakt, że jednostka ta miała się zająć naukową analizą zagadnienia infrastruktury kulturalnej, nie mógł się równać temu, że sama będzie zepchnięta w stronę kulturalnej niemocy. Nowy Instytut nie


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Bundestagu, powołanej w celu zbadania sytuacji kultury i w związku z jej przełomowym raportem, o trwałym, mam nadzieję, wpływie. To, co da się pokazać w rozwoju Instytutu jako przykład wzorcowy, to ożywiające i prowokujące działanie, które wypływa z charakteru jego lokalizacji. Zważywszy na to chcę tylko krótko podkreślić mądrość ministerialnej decyzji umieszczenia instytutu w Görlitz przy Wyższej Szkole Techniki i Gospodarki (Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft). Pierwotnie decyzja dotycząca wyboru miejsca była mianowicie uzasadniana w sposób negatywny, konkretnie mówiąc, nie powinno było nim zostać żadne z trzech dużych miast saksońskich, a już w żadnym wypadku stolica kraju związkowego, ponieważ to mogło tylko spotęgować już i tak istniejące antycentralistyczne uprzedzenia. Wiedzieliśmy przy tym, że miasto Görlitz – o które można by zapytać językiem na wpół biblijnym: „czyż nie jest najniższym ze wszystkich miast królewskich Saksonii” – byłoby dla Instytutu odpowiednim miejscem o charakterze kulturalnym. Imponujące jest i to, jak Matthias Theodor Vogt wyzyskał genius loci tego miasta dla Instytutu. Już w pierwszych latach istnienia doszło do zasługujących na uwagę projektów artystycznych realizowanych z europejskimi i międzynarodowymi partnerami, do których zaliczał się także performance Sztuka buduje pomost Zgorzelec/Görlitz (Kunstbrücke Görlitz / Zgorzelec). W tym właśnie wydarzeniu tak wcześnie była wyczuwalna myśl, która potem, w połączeniu z systematyczną pracą nad wartościowym projektem współpracy, a następnie poprzez eksperyment z Bridges College Görlitz/Zgorzelec, doprowadziła do założenia Collegium Pontes, którego inaugurację dziś, w roku 2009, świętujemy. W pierwszej kolejności chciałbym pochwalić, chociaż jestem anglistą, przejście od globalistycznego języka angielskiego do staroeuropiejskiej łaciny, chociaż sposób, w jaki dwa rzeczowniki collegium i pontes zostały ze sobą połączone, jest dla tego języka dość nietypowy. Czy jednak weźmiemy Brücke, bridges lub pontes, w każdym przypadku została wykreowana metafora, która mówi coś istotnego o kulturze: mianowicie to, że kultura jest mostem między granicami, pomiędzy dniem wczorajszym i dzisiejszym, pomiędzy dniem dzisiejszym i jutrzejszym, pomiędzy naszym życiem sprzed 1989/90 a naszym życiem po przełomie, pomiędzy narodami Europy wciąż jeszcze podzielonymi przez wiele gorzkich doświadczeń, pomiędzy obydwoma miastami Görlitz i Zgorzelcem, które połączyły się w nową i obecnie europejską wspólnotę. Wizerunek mostu przypomina w dużej mierze o różnorodnych stosunkach pomiędzy Instytutem i wieloma innymi instytu-

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

cjami w Europie, które angażują się w kulturę, które pracują naukowo w tej dziedzinie, które poprzez swoją działalność sprawiają, że kultura staje się żywa. Do stawiania tego mostu Matthias Theodor Vogt pozyskał znane i imponujące nazwiska – prominentnych polityków, uznanych naukowców, oryginalne osobowości. Dzięki niemu możliwa stała się olbrzymia różnorodność imprez i tematów – może troszeczkę za duża, ponieważ nieodzowną częścią mostu są także trwałe fundamenty. Oczywiście, nawet jeśli nawiązanie stosunków między granicami następuje punkt po punkcie, to i tak jest ono zagrożone. W każdym bądź razie Vogt nie uległ zagrożeniu prowincjonalnego zwężenia. Konieczne jest – jak to czyni Vogt – przekraczanie granic pomiędzy sztuką, polityką, nauką, pomiędzy transdyscyplinarnością i cross-over, z niewątpliwą rządzą przygód, żeby z tak niewielką podstawą – zarówno instytucjonalną jak i finansową – wywołać taki huragan skutków. Matthias Theodor Vogt (lub MTV, jak chętnie pozwalał na siebie mówić, zanim pewna telewizja wkroczyła w świat mediów) jest śmiałym twórcą instytucji współpracujących (łączem pomiędzy instytucjami współpracującymi) i nieustraszoną osobą robiącą szybko karierę (śmiało nawiązuje współpracę z instytucjami i szybko robi karierę w nowym środowisku o wyjątkowo różnych zapatrywaniach, ciągle w drodze). To, co go szczególnie wyróżnia, to rzadka kombinacja przeróżnych talentów. „Nie tylko zna się trochę na kulturze, ale także umie liczyć” – powiedział z uznaniem już dawno temu Georg Milbradt, w jednym z nielicznych okresów zgody panującej pomiędzy Ministrem Finansów a Ministrem Kultury i Nauki. Przy czym nie chcę być tu źle zrozumiany z moją reminiscencją. Jeśli właśnie nie chodziło o interesy naszych urzędów, lecz o spojrzenie na świat i na ludzi, byliśmy, Milbradt i ja, często zgodni. Dobrym przykładem dla tego, co też słusznie podziwia w swoim dictum Milbradt, jest kulutralno-politologiczna analiza Serbołużyckiego Zespołu Pieśni i Tańca, przeprowadzona przez Vogta, która ukazuje szeroką gamę zjawisk, wychodząc od wyjątkowo pouczającego kulturalno-historycznego przeglądu, poprzez wypowiedzi przepełnione wiedzą, estetykę sztuki ludowej w warunkach państwowego socjalizmu, kończąc na solidnych rozważaniach nad strukturą i budżetem. Czy też zleceniodawca chciał o tym wszystkim wiedzieć i rozumiał to nie tylko selektywnie, pytam się patrząc na moje doświadczenia z rozumieniem tekstu czytanego u polityków i urzędników. Ja wszakże przeczytałem tę publikację z właściwym zaangażowaniem i niewątpliwym zadowoleniem.

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Bundestagu, powołanej w celu zbadania sytuacji kultury i w związku z jej przełomowym raportem, o trwałym, mam nadzieję, wpływie. To, co da się pokazać w rozwoju Instytutu jako przykład wzorcowy, to ożywiające i prowokujące działanie, które wypływa z charakteru jego lokalizacji. Zważywszy na to chcę tylko krótko podkreślić mądrość ministerialnej decyzji umieszczenia instytutu w Görlitz przy Wyższej Szkole Techniki i Gospodarki (Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft). Pierwotnie decyzja dotycząca wyboru miejsca była mianowicie uzasadniana w sposób negatywny, konkretnie mówiąc, nie powinno było nim zostać żadne z trzech dużych miast saksońskich, a już w żadnym wypadku stolica kraju związkowego, ponieważ to mogło tylko spotęgować już i tak istniejące antycentralistyczne uprzedzenia. Wiedzieliśmy przy tym, że miasto Görlitz – o które można by zapytać językiem na wpół biblijnym: „czyż nie jest najniższym ze wszystkich miast królewskich Saksonii” – byłoby dla Instytutu odpowiednim miejscem o charakterze kulturalnym. Imponujące jest i to, jak Matthias Theodor Vogt wyzyskał genius loci tego miasta dla Instytutu. Już w pierwszych latach istnienia doszło do zasługujących na uwagę projektów artystycznych realizowanych z europejskimi i międzynarodowymi partnerami, do których zaliczał się także performance Sztuka buduje pomost Zgorzelec/Görlitz (Kunstbrücke Görlitz / Zgorzelec). W tym właśnie wydarzeniu tak wcześnie była wyczuwalna myśl, która potem, w połączeniu z systematyczną pracą nad wartościowym projektem współpracy, a następnie poprzez eksperyment z Bridges College Görlitz/Zgorzelec, doprowadziła do założenia Collegium Pontes, którego inaugurację dziś, w roku 2009, świętujemy. W pierwszej kolejności chciałbym pochwalić, chociaż jestem anglistą, przejście od globalistycznego języka angielskiego do staroeuropiejskiej łaciny, chociaż sposób, w jaki dwa rzeczowniki collegium i pontes zostały ze sobą połączone, jest dla tego języka dość nietypowy. Czy jednak weźmiemy Brücke, bridges lub pontes, w każdym przypadku została wykreowana metafora, która mówi coś istotnego o kulturze: mianowicie to, że kultura jest mostem między granicami, pomiędzy dniem wczorajszym i dzisiejszym, pomiędzy dniem dzisiejszym i jutrzejszym, pomiędzy naszym życiem sprzed 1989/90 a naszym życiem po przełomie, pomiędzy narodami Europy wciąż jeszcze podzielonymi przez wiele gorzkich doświadczeń, pomiędzy obydwoma miastami Görlitz i Zgorzelcem, które połączyły się w nową i obecnie europejską wspólnotę. Wizerunek mostu przypomina w dużej mierze o różnorodnych stosunkach pomiędzy Instytutem i wieloma innymi instytu-

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cjami w Europie, które angażują się w kulturę, które pracują naukowo w tej dziedzinie, które poprzez swoją działalność sprawiają, że kultura staje się żywa. Do stawiania tego mostu Matthias Theodor Vogt pozyskał znane i imponujące nazwiska – prominentnych polityków, uznanych naukowców, oryginalne osobowości. Dzięki niemu możliwa stała się olbrzymia różnorodność imprez i tematów – może troszeczkę za duża, ponieważ nieodzowną częścią mostu są także trwałe fundamenty. Oczywiście, nawet jeśli nawiązanie stosunków między granicami następuje punkt po punkcie, to i tak jest ono zagrożone. W każdym bądź razie Vogt nie uległ zagrożeniu prowincjonalnego zwężenia. Konieczne jest – jak to czyni Vogt – przekraczanie granic pomiędzy sztuką, polityką, nauką, pomiędzy transdyscyplinarnością i cross-over, z niewątpliwą rządzą przygód, żeby z tak niewielką podstawą – zarówno instytucjonalną jak i finansową – wywołać taki huragan skutków. Matthias Theodor Vogt (lub MTV, jak chętnie pozwalał na siebie mówić, zanim pewna telewizja wkroczyła w świat mediów) jest śmiałym twórcą instytucji współpracujących (łączem pomiędzy instytucjami współpracującymi) i nieustraszoną osobą robiącą szybko karierę (śmiało nawiązuje współpracę z instytucjami i szybko robi karierę w nowym środowisku o wyjątkowo różnych zapatrywaniach, ciągle w drodze). To, co go szczególnie wyróżnia, to rzadka kombinacja przeróżnych talentów. „Nie tylko zna się trochę na kulturze, ale także umie liczyć” – powiedział z uznaniem już dawno temu Georg Milbradt, w jednym z nielicznych okresów zgody panującej pomiędzy Ministrem Finansów a Ministrem Kultury i Nauki. Przy czym nie chcę być tu źle zrozumiany z moją reminiscencją. Jeśli właśnie nie chodziło o interesy naszych urzędów, lecz o spojrzenie na świat i na ludzi, byliśmy, Milbradt i ja, często zgodni. Dobrym przykładem dla tego, co też słusznie podziwia w swoim dictum Milbradt, jest kulutralno-politologiczna analiza Serbołużyckiego Zespołu Pieśni i Tańca, przeprowadzona przez Vogta, która ukazuje szeroką gamę zjawisk, wychodząc od wyjątkowo pouczającego kulturalno-historycznego przeglądu, poprzez wypowiedzi przepełnione wiedzą, estetykę sztuki ludowej w warunkach państwowego socjalizmu, kończąc na solidnych rozważaniach nad strukturą i budżetem. Czy też zleceniodawca chciał o tym wszystkim wiedzieć i rozumiał to nie tylko selektywnie, pytam się patrząc na moje doświadczenia z rozumieniem tekstu czytanego u polityków i urzędników. Ja wszakże przeczytałem tę publikację z właściwym zaangażowaniem i niewątpliwym zadowoleniem.


TBILISI Zainteresowania zawodowe Vogta skupiały się od początku na nauce. Szansę w postaci Instytutu wykorzystał, żeby móc wykazać się w nauce poprzez publikacje, na konferencjach i w szczególności jako nauczyciel akademicki. Równocześnie jest w nim coś z reżysera, w roli którego już raz występował. Reżyserem jest, w każdym razie w moim rozumieniu; jest kimś, kto pomiędzy sztuką, którą chce inscenizować, a rzeczywistością, odkrywa godny uwagi związek. I potem, na scenie, poprzez obrazy i akcję tworzy rzeczywistość, dzięki której publiczność powinna rozpoznać i zaakceptować ten związek. To jest oczywiście za każdym razem ryzykowne przedsięwzięcie. Do oddziaływania na publiczność prowadzi wiele dróg – duchowy wstrząs, prowokacja, efekt wyobcowania w celach dydaktycznych, a w szczególnej mierze ironia. Autoportret Matthiasa Theodora Vogta wyjawia wewnętrzną skłonność do posługiwania się tym ostatnim środkiem. Biały szal przy prezentacji wyników Komisji Naumana w Teatrze Fryburskim (Freiburger Theater), wesoła i drewniana kukiełka jako logo na publikacjach swojego Instytutu, motto Ars Saxoniae Vigilans, które każdemu rodowitemu Saksończykowi lub zżytemu z tym krajem przywodzi na myśl saksońską autocharakterystykę jako „sprytny i czujny” – wszystko to świadczy o odwadze i dążeniu do barwności, która w niemieckich naukach humanistycznych i kulturoznawstwie nie jest przecież częstym zjawiskiem. Przyciąga to na pewno uwagę. A wzbudzenie uwagi publiczności, jest, o czym wie nawet akademicka retoryka w angielskim obszarze językowym, nie tylko uzasadnione, ale także konieczne. Życzę prof. Matthiasowi Theodorowi Vogtowi, Instytutowi Infrastruktury Kulturalnej i jego mostowi do Europy – Collegium Pontes, wielu lat pełnych sukcesów i wielu jubileuszy do świętowania.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Państwowy Gruziński Uniwersytet Teatralny i Filmowy im. Shoty Rustavelego w Tbilisi www.tafu.edu.ge

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Studia magisterskie realizowane są na następujących kierunkach: Teatr zachodni Film amerykański Tradycyjny taniec gruziński Reżyseria współczesnymi mediami TV Kreatywna pedagogika Nauczanie metodologii na studiach wokalnych

Placówka skupia się na kształceniu profesjonalistów z dziedziny teatru, filmu, mediów TV, tradycjonalnego folkloru, sztuk widowiskowych lub użytkowych, zarządzania kulturą i turystyki kulturalnej. Jednym z głównych jej zadań jest udoskonalanie interdyscyplinarnych planów studiów i badań naukowych, które będą rozszerzać rynek pracy w sferze sztuki oraz zapewnią absolwentom umiejętność adaptacji w zmiennym rynku pracy na świecie. Uniwersytet reprezentuje narodowe wartości kultury i sztuki Gruzji, jest naukową, badawczą i edukacyjną placówką, kształcącą w zakresie dziedzictwa kulturowego, skoncentrowanego na obszarach teatru i kina, sztuk medialnych, naukowych studiów artystycznych, zarządzania kulturą, polityki kulturalnej oraz późniejszych działań dążących do ulepszenia (pogłębienia) tych obszarów. Uniwersytet prowadzi studia licencjackie, magisterskie i doktoranckie. Na Uniwersytecie 36 lat temu powstał Wydział Kina. Uniwersytet jest pomocniczym członkiem ELIA i CILECT. Uczelnię tworzą trzy wydziały: MM Wydział Dramatu Aktorstwo (teatralne i kinowe) Reżyseria teatralna Mimika Lalkarstwo Aktorstwo teatru muzycznego Choreografia i taniec gruziński Gruzińska muzyka polifoniczna i religijna Artysta muzyki pop Scenografia MM Wydział filmu i mediów TV Reżyseria filmowa (pełnometrażowa, dokumentalna, animacja) Operowanie kamerą Zarządzanie mediami TV Operowanie dźwiękiem MM Wydział nauk artystycznych i społecznych Teatrologia Filmoznawstwo Sztuka Dziennikarstwo radiowo-telewizyjne Zarządzanie kulturą Zarządzanie turystyką

aństwowy Gruziński Uniwersytet Teatralny i Filmowy im. Shoty Rustavelego jest wielodyscyplinarną instytucją najwyższego stopnia edukacji artystycznej, ulokowaną w Tbilisi w Gruzji i jest jednym z wiodących uniwersytetów artystycznych na całym Kaukazie. Uniwersytet mieści się w historycznej części miasta w dwóch budynkach, po obu brzegach rzeki Mtkvari. Uniwersytet został założony w 1923 roku. Służy gruzińskiej i światowej kulturze od 85 lat.

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Studia magisterskie realizowane są na następujących kierunkach: Teatr zachodni Film amerykański Tradycyjny taniec gruziński Reżyseria współczesnymi mediami TV Kreatywna pedagogika Nauczanie metodologii na studiach wokalnych

Państwowy Gruziński Uniwersytet Teatralny i Filmowy im. Shoty Rustavelego w Tbilisi www.tafu.edu.ge

aństwowy Gruziński Uniwersytet Teatralny i Filmowy im. Shoty Rustavelego jest wielodyscyplinarną instytucją najwyższego stopnia edukacji artystycznej, ulokowaną w Tbilisi w Gruzji i jest jednym z wiodących uniwersytetów artystycznych na całym Kaukazie. Uniwersytet mieści się w historycznej części miasta w dwóch budynkach, po obu brzegach rzeki Mtkvari. Uniwersytet został założony w 1923 roku. Służy gruzińskiej i światowej kulturze od 85 lat.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

TBILISI

Placówka skupia się na kształceniu profesjonalistów z dziedziny teatru, filmu, mediów TV, tradycjonalnego folkloru, sztuk widowiskowych lub użytkowych, zarządzania kulturą i turystyki kulturalnej. Jednym z głównych jej zadań jest udoskonalanie interdyscyplinarnych planów studiów i badań naukowych, które będą rozszerzać rynek pracy w sferze sztuki oraz zapewnią absolwentom umiejętność adaptacji w zmiennym rynku pracy na świecie. Uniwersytet reprezentuje narodowe wartości kultury i sztuki Gruzji, jest naukową, badawczą i edukacyjną placówką, kształcącą w zakresie dziedzictwa kulturowego, skoncentrowanego na obszarach teatru i kina, sztuk medialnych, naukowych studiów artystycznych, zarządzania kulturą, polityki kulturalnej oraz późniejszych działań dążących do ulepszenia (pogłębienia) tych obszarów. Uniwersytet prowadzi studia licencjackie, magisterskie i doktoranckie. Na Uniwersytecie 36 lat temu powstał Wydział Kina. Uniwersytet jest pomocniczym członkiem ELIA i CILECT. Uczelnię tworzą trzy wydziały: MM Wydział Dramatu Aktorstwo (teatralne i kinowe) Reżyseria teatralna Mimika Lalkarstwo Aktorstwo teatru muzycznego Choreografia i taniec gruziński Gruzińska muzyka polifoniczna i religijna Artysta muzyki pop Scenografia MM Wydział filmu i mediów TV Reżyseria filmowa (pełnometrażowa, dokumentalna, animacja) Operowanie kamerą Zarządzanie mediami TV Operowanie dźwiękiem MM Wydział nauk artystycznych i społecznych Teatrologia Filmoznawstwo Sztuka Dziennikarstwo radiowo-telewizyjne Zarządzanie kulturą Zarządzanie turystyką

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Zainteresowania zawodowe Vogta skupiały się od początku na nauce. Szansę w postaci Instytutu wykorzystał, żeby móc wykazać się w nauce poprzez publikacje, na konferencjach i w szczególności jako nauczyciel akademicki. Równocześnie jest w nim coś z reżysera, w roli którego już raz występował. Reżyserem jest, w każdym razie w moim rozumieniu; jest kimś, kto pomiędzy sztuką, którą chce inscenizować, a rzeczywistością, odkrywa godny uwagi związek. I potem, na scenie, poprzez obrazy i akcję tworzy rzeczywistość, dzięki której publiczność powinna rozpoznać i zaakceptować ten związek. To jest oczywiście za każdym razem ryzykowne przedsięwzięcie. Do oddziaływania na publiczność prowadzi wiele dróg – duchowy wstrząs, prowokacja, efekt wyobcowania w celach dydaktycznych, a w szczególnej mierze ironia. Autoportret Matthiasa Theodora Vogta wyjawia wewnętrzną skłonność do posługiwania się tym ostatnim środkiem. Biały szal przy prezentacji wyników Komisji Naumana w Teatrze Fryburskim (Freiburger Theater), wesoła i drewniana kukiełka jako logo na publikacjach swojego Instytutu, motto Ars Saxoniae Vigilans, które każdemu rodowitemu Saksończykowi lub zżytemu z tym krajem przywodzi na myśl saksońską autocharakterystykę jako „sprytny i czujny” – wszystko to świadczy o odwadze i dążeniu do barwności, która w niemieckich naukach humanistycznych i kulturoznawstwie nie jest przecież częstym zjawiskiem. Przyciąga to na pewno uwagę. A wzbudzenie uwagi publiczności, jest, o czym wie nawet akademicka retoryka w angielskim obszarze językowym, nie tylko uzasadnione, ale także konieczne. Życzę prof. Matthiasowi Theodorowi Vogtowi, Instytutowi Infrastruktury Kulturalnej i jego mostowi do Europy – Collegium Pontes, wielu lat pełnych sukcesów i wielu jubileuszy do świętowania.


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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Nowoczesne zarządzanie w kulturze Zarządzanie kulturą Antropologia teatru gruzińskiego Medioznawstwo Teoria i praktyka komunikacji medialnej Studia doktoranckie Teatr zachodni w XX wieku Pedagogika kreatywna Praktyka w mediach TV Zarządzanie kulturą, Polityka kulturalna Współczesna scenografia i studia artystyczne Współpraca międzynarodowa Państwowy Gruziński Uniwersytet Teatralny i Filmowy im. Shoty Rustavelego współpracuje i posiada podpisane umowy z: Kijowską Akademią Teatru, Filmu i TV Karpenko Kari (Ukraina), Instytutem Teatru i Fimu w Yerevan (Armenia), Uniwersytetem Sztuki w Baku (Azerbejdżan), Wileńską Akademią Muzyczyną i Filmową (Litwa), Uniwersytetem Bilgi w Istanbule (Turcja), Akademią Sztuki w Ałma-Acie (Kazachstan). Uniwersytet organizuje międzynarodowe programy szkoleniowe i zajęcia specjalistyczne, konferencje naukowe, seminaria i panele dyskusyjne. Od 1978 roku Uniwersytet organizuje coroczny międzynarodowy studencki festiwal filmowy Amirani, jak również stały Studencki Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatralny. Festiwal Amirani początkowo odbywał się co dwa lata. U podstaw jego założenia leżała chęć stworzenia najbardziej niezależnej imprezy cyklicznej w obrębie kinematografii Związku Sowieckiego. W latach 90., po rozpadzie ZSRS, festiwal przestał istnieć, a w 2007 roku został reaktywowany jako impreza coroczna. Jest ona spadkobierczynią festiwalu filmowego powołanego w 1978 roku, w którym członkami jury byli tak sławni artyści filmowi jak: Otar Ioseliani, Merab Kokochashvili, Rezo Esadze, Leonid Gaidai, Maschenko i Izraeliani. W tym przedsięwzięciu każdego roku bierze udział ponad 20 krajów z całego świata. Uniwersytet zapewnia wszystkim studentom dostęp do Internetu, ogromnej Biblioteki Naukowej (ponad 200 000 tomów), Kulturalnego Centrum Video (ponad 5000 materiałów), kilku scen, studiów i wielu innych udogodnień. Na Uniwersytecie został uruchomiony Instytut Badań Naukowych oraz wydawnictwo uniwersyteckie Kentavri. Rocznie wydawane są 4 tomy Cultural Science Studies i ponad 14 innych publikacji; miesięcznie ukazują się dwie edycje gazet „Duruji” i „Kultura”. W ciągu roku Uniwersytet gości wielu zaproszonych profesorów i ekspertów oraz uczestniczy, wraz z partnerskimi uczelniami i instytucjami, w wielu projektach międzynarodowych.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Władze uniwersytetu Rektor – prof. Giorgi Margvelashvili Prorektor, kierownik do spraw współpracy międzynarodowej i badań – prof. dr Levan Khetaguri Kierownik public relations – Jaba Sikharulidze

RYGA Łotewska Akademia Kultury www.kulturmedien-riga.de

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otewska Akademia Kultury została powołana do życia 29 grudnia 1990 roku decyzją Gabinetu Ministrów Republiki Łotwy. W 1991 roku 63 pierwszych studentów rozpoczęło studia licencjackie. 18 maja 1992 roku Rada Najwyższa zatwierdziła konstytucję Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Na LAC studiuje około 700 studentów (studia licencjackie: 520; studia magisterskie: 154, studia doktoranckie: 13), a zajęcia prowadzi 73 nauczycieli (22 profesorów zwyczajnych i nadzwyczajnych, 14 docentów, 37 wykładowców). Absolwenci Akademii Kultury piastują wybitne stanowiska w instytucjach dyplomatycznych na Łotwie i zagranicą, rozwijają kulturalne więzi pomiędzy Łotwą i krajami europejskimi, mierzą się z problemami międzynarodowej współpracy na Łotwie i w międzynarodowych firmach, przeprowadzają projekty kulturalne, pracują nad międzynarodowym wizerunkiem łotewskich instytucji, są kompetentnymi i wymagającymi nauczycielami nauk humanistycznych w szkołach łotewskich. Absolwenci studiów aktorskich i reżyserskich stają się popularnymi i międzynarodowo rozpoznawalnymi artystami nowej generacji, odgrywają znaczącą rolę w teatrach Łotwy, biorą udział w międzynarodowych projektach filmowych. Kamerzyści z Akademii uczestniczą w wybitnych telewizyjnych i filmowych projektach na Łotwie oraz biorą udział w jury międzynarodowych festiwali filmowych. Zagraniczni wykładowcy, prowadzący zarówno kursy teoretyczne, jak i aktorskie oraz warsztaty choreograficzne, regularnie przyjeżdżają do Akademii. W programach nauczania dla reżyserów telewizyjnych, kamerzystów i studentów kultury audiowizualnej duży nacisk kładzie się na samodzielność i współpracę z innymi akademickimi i naukowymi placówkami. Klasyczny, akademicki proces studiowania w Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury jest związany z badaniami i działaniami twórczymi tak wykładowców, jak i studentów. Głównym obszarem badań kadry akademickiej oraz studentów LAC jest ogólna teoria i historia kultury, dramatu, socjologii kultury, filozofii sztuki. W zgodności z profilem studiów LAC oprócz badań znajdują się

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Współpraca międzynarodowa Państwowy Gruziński Uniwersytet Teatralny i Filmowy im. Shoty Rustavelego współpracuje i posiada podpisane umowy z: Kijowską Akademią Teatru, Filmu i TV Karpenko Kari (Ukraina), Instytutem Teatru i Fimu w Yerevan (Armenia), Uniwersytetem Sztuki w Baku (Azerbejdżan), Wileńską Akademią Muzyczyną i Filmową (Litwa), Uniwersytetem Bilgi w Istanbule (Turcja), Akademią Sztuki w Ałma-Acie (Kazachstan). Uniwersytet organizuje międzynarodowe programy szkoleniowe i zajęcia specjalistyczne, konferencje naukowe, seminaria i panele dyskusyjne. Od 1978 roku Uniwersytet organizuje coroczny międzynarodowy studencki festiwal filmowy Amirani, jak również stały Studencki Międzynarodowy Festiwal Teatralny. Festiwal Amirani początkowo odbywał się co dwa lata. U podstaw jego założenia leżała chęć stworzenia najbardziej niezależnej imprezy cyklicznej w obrębie kinematografii Związku Sowieckiego. W latach 90., po rozpadzie ZSRS, festiwal przestał istnieć, a w 2007 roku został reaktywowany jako impreza coroczna. Jest ona spadkobierczynią festiwalu filmowego powołanego w 1978 roku, w którym członkami jury byli tak sławni artyści filmowi jak: Otar Ioseliani, Merab Kokochashvili, Rezo Esadze, Leonid Gaidai, Maschenko i Izraeliani. W tym przedsięwzięciu każdego roku bierze udział ponad 20 krajów z całego świata. Uniwersytet zapewnia wszystkim studentom dostęp do Internetu, ogromnej Biblioteki Naukowej (ponad 200 000 tomów), Kulturalnego Centrum Video (ponad 5000 materiałów), kilku scen, studiów i wielu innych udogodnień. Na Uniwersytecie został uruchomiony Instytut Badań Naukowych oraz wydawnictwo uniwersyteckie Kentavri. Rocznie wydawane są 4 tomy Cultural Science Studies i ponad 14 innych publikacji; miesięcznie ukazują się dwie edycje gazet „Duruji” i „Kultura”. W ciągu roku Uniwersytet gości wielu zaproszonych profesorów i ekspertów oraz uczestniczy, wraz z partnerskimi uczelniami i instytucjami, w wielu projektach międzynarodowych. Studia doktoranckie Teatr zachodni w XX wieku Pedagogika kreatywna Praktyka w mediach TV Zarządzanie kulturą, Polityka kulturalna Współczesna scenografia i studia artystyczne Nowoczesne zarządzanie w kulturze Zarządzanie kulturą Antropologia teatru gruzińskiego Medioznawstwo Teoria i praktyka komunikacji medialnej

otewska Akademia Kultury została powołana do życia 29 grudnia 1990 roku decyzją Gabinetu Ministrów Republiki Łotwy. W 1991 roku 63 pierwszych studentów rozpoczęło studia licencjackie. 18 maja 1992 roku Rada Najwyższa zatwierdziła konstytucję Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Na LAC studiuje około 700 studentów (studia licencjackie: 520; studia magisterskie: 154, studia doktoranckie: 13), a zajęcia prowadzi 73 nauczycieli (22 profesorów zwyczajnych i nadzwyczajnych, 14 docentów, 37 wykładowców). Absolwenci Akademii Kultury piastują wybitne stanowiska w instytucjach dyplomatycznych na Łotwie i zagranicą, rozwijają kulturalne więzi pomiędzy Łotwą i krajami europejskimi, mierzą się z problemami międzynarodowej współpracy na Łotwie i w międzynarodowych firmach, przeprowadzają projekty kulturalne, pracują nad międzynarodowym wizerunkiem łotewskich instytucji, są kompetentnymi i wymagającymi nauczycielami nauk humanistycznych w szkołach łotewskich. Absolwenci studiów aktorskich i reżyserskich stają się popularnymi i międzynarodowo rozpoznawalnymi artystami nowej generacji, odgrywają znaczącą rolę w teatrach Łotwy, biorą udział w międzynarodowych projektach filmowych. Kamerzyści z Akademii uczestniczą w wybitnych telewizyjnych i filmowych projektach na Łotwie oraz biorą udział w jury międzynarodowych festiwali filmowych. Zagraniczni wykładowcy, prowadzący zarówno kursy teoretyczne, jak i aktorskie oraz warsztaty choreograficzne, regularnie przyjeżdżają do Akademii. W programach nauczania dla reżyserów telewizyjnych, kamerzystów i studentów kultury audiowizualnej duży nacisk kładzie się na samodzielność i współpracę z innymi akademickimi i naukowymi placówkami. Klasyczny, akademicki proces studiowania w Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury jest związany z badaniami i działaniami twórczymi tak wykładowców, jak i studentów. Głównym obszarem badań kadry akademickiej oraz studentów LAC jest ogólna teoria i historia kultury, dramatu, socjologii kultury, filozofii sztuki. W zgodności z profilem studiów LAC oprócz badań znajdują się

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Łotewska Akademia Kultury www.kulturmedien-riga.de

RYGA Władze uniwersytetu Rektor – prof. Giorgi Margvelashvili Prorektor, kierownik do spraw współpracy międzynarodowej i badań – prof. dr Levan Khetaguri Kierownik public relations – Jaba Sikharulidze


także ważne artystyczne i twórcze działania. Są one dziełem zarówno studentów, jak kadry wykładowców Akademii. Nauczyciele sztuk teatralnych tworzą swoje artystyczne projekty w większości państwowych teatrów dramatycznych i często angażują w nie studentów Akademii.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Wydział Socjologii i Zarządzania Kulturą Ten wydział oferuje nauczanie na specjalnościach Socjologia kultury oraz Socjologia kultury i zarządzania. Programy studiów zawierają tak artystyczne, jak i ogólne nauki społeczne. Dodatkowo, program Zarządzanie kulturą przygotowuje studentów do możliwości pracy w różnych łotewskich instytucjach związanych z kulturą: Ministerstwie Kultury, kolegiach redakcyjnych czasopism artystycznych, firmach marketingowych, muzeach, galeriach i instytucjach edukacyjnych. Studia magisterskie programu Zarządzanie kulturą rozpoczęto w 1998 roku. Są one adresowane do dwóch głównych kategorii studentów: tych, którzy ukończyli studia licencjackie LAC lub innych instytucji oraz pracowników w obszarze kultury, którzy chcą uzupełnić swoją wiedzę i doświadczenie przez nabycie umiejętności zarządzania kulturą. Tak, jak i inne programy Akademii, ten program akademicki kładzie duży nacisk na połączenie wiedzy teoretycznej z praktycznym doświadczeniem. Od 2000 roku, na podstawie porozumienia pomiędzy hamburskim Uniwersytetem Muzyki i Teatru i Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury, został uruchomiony program studiów magisterskich Zarządzania kulturą i mediami (kierownikiem programu jest prof. dr hab. Ivars Berzins); studia prowadzone są w języku niemieckim. Celem tego programu jest szkolenie specjalistów, którzy mogliby pracować jako pośrednicy pomiędzy Łotwą i niemieckojęzyczną częścią Europy. Założeniem programu jest, że absolwenci będą reprezentować kulturę łotewską w instytucjach w Niemczech, Austrii i Szwajcarii oraz będą przyciągać międzynarodową publiczność na znaczące wydarzenia kulturalne w Łotwie.

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WIEDEŃ

entrum Studiów „Hohe Warte“ w Wiedniu oferuje studia w dziedzinie nauk ekonomicznych, medioznawstwa i prawodawstwa. Instytut ten współpracuje z wieloma ośrodkami uniwersyteckimi m.in. z akredytowaną Wyższą Szkołą

Prezentacja Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte“ www.hohe-warte.at

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Prezentacja Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte“ www.hohe-warte.at

Prawa w Bratysławie. Kierunki uniwersyteckie oferowane przez Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte” prowadzone są na następujących poziomach: studia licencjackie, magisterskie i doktoranckie. Centrum Studiów jest związane z uczelnią Sales-Manager Akademie (SMA), która powstała na bazie jednostki prowadzącej studia podyplomowe przy Uniwersytecie Ekonomii i Biznesu w Wiedniu. Obecnie SMA jako uczelnia prywatna oferuje szeroki wybór zajęć poświęconych tematyce ekonomicznej, które cieszą się dużym powodzeniem. Od 2002 roku w ofercie uczelni znajdują się również studia MBA. Cechą charakteryzującą kierunki studiów jest – obok niekwestionowanego poziomu naukowego – organizacja zajęć w formie bloków. Oznacza to, że seminaria każdorazowo kończące się uzyskaniem punktów ECTS zorganizowane są w formie 3- lub 4-dniowych zajęć obejmujących cały obszar tematyczny, a ich dydaktyczny profil kształtuje się dzięki intensywnej współpracy studentów. Polega ona na opracowaniu zadań (np. referatu na dany temat, komentarza dotyczącego publikacji specjalistycznej czy studium przypadku) oraz na pracy w niewielkich grupach (maksymalnie 12 uczestników). W przypadku większej liczby kandydatów wszystkie seminaria odbywają się kilka razy w ciągu roku. Oznacza to więc, iż studia można rozpocząć niemalże w dowolnym momencie. Studia doktoranckie podejmują problematykę zarządzania międzynarodowego w jego różnych aspektach i w odniesieniu do społecznego oraz kulturowego wymiaru. Studia oparte są na formule indywidualnej opieki nad studentem sprawowanej przez doświadczonego naukowca w ramach 5 seminariów obowiązkowych (m.in. filozofia i metodologia), jak i na obowiązku opublikowania przynajmniej dwóch artykułów specjalistycznych w uznanych czasopismach naukowych. Studia są również powiązane z praktyką zawodową, z tego względu seminaria obowiązkowe mają dogodną formę bloków tematycznych. Centrum Studiów zainicjowało w ostatnim czasie własny cykl wydawniczy, w ramach którego wydawane będą prace doktorskie o szczególnym znaczeniu dla świata nauki. Nowością jest również wydawanie czasopisma naukowego podejmującego na swoich łamach kwestie ekonomii, kultury i dziedzin pokrewnych. W roku 2009 Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte” zgłosiło wniosek akredytacyjny jako uniwersytet prywatny. Planowane jest prowadzenie dwóch niezależnych wydziałów: Wydziału Kulturoznawstwa oraz Wydziału Ekonomicznego. Wydział Kulturoznawstwa obejmował będzie trzy kierunki, każdy na poziomie studiów licencjackich i magisterskich: etyka stosowana, publicystyka i nowe

WIEDEŃ

entrum Studiów „Hohe Warte“ w Wiedniu oferuje studia w dziedzinie nauk ekonomicznych, medioznawstwa i prawodawstwa. Instytut ten współpracuje z wieloma ośrodkami uniwersyteckimi m.in. z akredytowaną Wyższą Szkołą

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Wydział Socjologii i Zarządzania Kulturą Ten wydział oferuje nauczanie na specjalnościach Socjologia kultury oraz Socjologia kultury i zarządzania. Programy studiów zawierają tak artystyczne, jak i ogólne nauki społeczne. Dodatkowo, program Zarządzanie kulturą przygotowuje studentów do możliwości pracy w różnych łotewskich instytucjach związanych z kulturą: Ministerstwie Kultury, kolegiach redakcyjnych czasopism artystycznych, firmach marketingowych, muzeach, galeriach i instytucjach edukacyjnych. Studia magisterskie programu Zarządzanie kulturą rozpoczęto w 1998 roku. Są one adresowane do dwóch głównych kategorii studentów: tych, którzy ukończyli studia licencjackie LAC lub innych instytucji oraz pracowników w obszarze kultury, którzy chcą uzupełnić swoją wiedzę i doświadczenie przez nabycie umiejętności zarządzania kulturą. Tak, jak i inne programy Akademii, ten program akademicki kładzie duży nacisk na połączenie wiedzy teoretycznej z praktycznym doświadczeniem. Od 2000 roku, na podstawie porozumienia pomiędzy hamburskim Uniwersytetem Muzyki i Teatru i Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury, został uruchomiony program studiów magisterskich Zarządzania kulturą i mediami (kierownikiem programu jest prof. dr hab. Ivars Berzins); studia prowadzone są w języku niemieckim. Celem tego programu jest szkolenie specjalistów, którzy mogliby pracować jako pośrednicy pomiędzy Łotwą i niemieckojęzyczną częścią Europy. Założeniem programu jest, że absolwenci będą reprezentować kulturę łotewską w instytucjach w Niemczech, Austrii i Szwajcarii oraz będą przyciągać międzynarodową publiczność na znaczące wydarzenia kulturalne w Łotwie.

Prawa w Bratysławie. Kierunki uniwersyteckie oferowane przez Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte” prowadzone są na następujących poziomach: studia licencjackie, magisterskie i doktoranckie. Centrum Studiów jest związane z uczelnią Sales-Manager Akademie (SMA), która powstała na bazie jednostki prowadzącej studia podyplomowe przy Uniwersytecie Ekonomii i Biznesu w Wiedniu. Obecnie SMA jako uczelnia prywatna oferuje szeroki wybór zajęć poświęconych tematyce ekonomicznej, które cieszą się dużym powodzeniem. Od 2002 roku w ofercie uczelni znajdują się również studia MBA. Cechą charakteryzującą kierunki studiów jest – obok niekwestionowanego poziomu naukowego – organizacja zajęć w formie bloków. Oznacza to, że seminaria każdorazowo kończące się uzyskaniem punktów ECTS zorganizowane są w formie 3- lub 4-dniowych zajęć obejmujących cały obszar tematyczny, a ich dydaktyczny profil kształtuje się dzięki intensywnej współpracy studentów. Polega ona na opracowaniu zadań (np. referatu na dany temat, komentarza dotyczącego publikacji specjalistycznej czy studium przypadku) oraz na pracy w niewielkich grupach (maksymalnie 12 uczestników). W przypadku większej liczby kandydatów wszystkie seminaria odbywają się kilka razy w ciągu roku. Oznacza to więc, iż studia można rozpocząć niemalże w dowolnym momencie. Studia doktoranckie podejmują problematykę zarządzania międzynarodowego w jego różnych aspektach i w odniesieniu do społecznego oraz kulturowego wymiaru. Studia oparte są na formule indywidualnej opieki nad studentem sprawowanej przez doświadczonego naukowca w ramach 5 seminariów obowiązkowych (m.in. filozofia i metodologia), jak i na obowiązku opublikowania przynajmniej dwóch artykułów specjalistycznych w uznanych czasopismach naukowych. Studia są również powiązane z praktyką zawodową, z tego względu seminaria obowiązkowe mają dogodną formę bloków tematycznych. Centrum Studiów zainicjowało w ostatnim czasie własny cykl wydawniczy, w ramach którego wydawane będą prace doktorskie o szczególnym znaczeniu dla świata nauki. Nowością jest również wydawanie czasopisma naukowego podejmującego na swoich łamach kwestie ekonomii, kultury i dziedzin pokrewnych. W roku 2009 Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte” zgłosiło wniosek akredytacyjny jako uniwersytet prywatny. Planowane jest prowadzenie dwóch niezależnych wydziałów: Wydziału Kulturoznawstwa oraz Wydziału Ekonomicznego. Wydział Kulturoznawstwa obejmował będzie trzy kierunki, każdy na poziomie studiów licencjackich i magisterskich: etyka stosowana, publicystyka i nowe

326

także ważne artystyczne i twórcze działania. Są one dziełem zarówno studentów, jak kadry wykładowców Akademii. Nauczyciele sztuk teatralnych tworzą swoje artystyczne projekty w większości państwowych teatrów dramatycznych i często angażują w nie studentów Akademii.


Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

media, zarządzanie kulturą. Początkowo kierunek zarządzanie kulturą będzie prowadzony jedynie na poziomie studiów licencjackich. Projekt studiów magisterskich w zakresie zarządzania kulturą znajduje się w fazie przygotowania i w roku 2010 powinien zostać zgłoszony do akredytacji. Studia magisterskie w zakresie zarządzania kulturą kłaść będą duży nacisk na wymiar kultury i sztuki oraz na pragmatyczne koncepcje w estetyce i komunikacji w szerokim ujęciu. Będzie to ich cechą charakterystyczną w porównaniu z dotychczas istniejącymi studiami w skali międzynarodowej. Na zajęcia zapraszane będą czołowe postaci austriackiego życia kultury i nauki. Studia magisterskie prowadzone będą z założeniem, iż – poza kilkoma wyjątkami – studenci posiadają znajomość podstaw ekonomicznych instrumentów zarządzania (potwierdzoną ukończeniem studiów licencjackich). Wymagana będzie również kilkuletnia praktyka w dziedzinie sztuki lub związanych z kulturą obszarach gospodarki (np. przemysły kreatywne, wydawnictwa czy samorządowe instytucje kultury).

KRAKÓW Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Instytut Kultury na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytet Jagielloński www.kultura.uj.edu.pl

U

tworzona w roku 2001 (wcześniej jako Szkoła Zarządzania Kulturą, działająca od roku 1994), była do 2008 częścią Instytutu Spraw Publicznych UJ, w ramach którego prowadziła studia w zakresie zarządzania kulturą na kierunku zarządzanie i marketing.

Zarządzanie Kulturą 2009, nr 2 (2)

Obecnie wchodzi w skład utworzonego w roku 2009 Instytutu Kultury na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ, w ramach którego prowadzi wszystkie typy studiów: licencjackie, magisterskie uzupełniające, podyplomowe, a także (w ramach Wydziału – doktoranckie). Specjalność dalej ta sama – zarządzanie kulturą, ale z zasadniczą zmianą kierunku studiów: z zarządzania na kulturoznawstwo. Jest to konsekwencja nowych standardów studiów, gdzie zarządzanie przyporządkowano naukom o orientacji ekonomicznej, zaś kulturoznawstwo naukom humanistycznym. Katedra zatrudnia 8 pracowników ze stopniem naukowym co najmniej doktora. Jest wydawcą rocznika Zeszyty Naukowe „Zarządzanie w kulturze” (ukazało się 10 numerów), serii Biblioteka Zarządzania Kulturą (od roku 2008 ukazało się 5 książek), serii prac tłumaczonych (3 książki: P. Bendixen, G. Hagoort, M. J. Schuster). W 2008 roku zainicjowała wydawanie międzynarodowego trójjęzycznego periodyku „Culture Management / Kulturmanagement / Zarządzanie Kulturą”. Ponadto staraniem Katedry ukazało się około 40 zeszytów zawierających wykłady ambasadorów na temat Polityka kulturalna mojego państwa. Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą jest członkiem ENCATC, ściśle współpracuje z wieloma lokalnymi, krajowymi i zagranicznymi instytucjami i organizacjami. Od roku 2009 w Katedrze funkcjonuje Pracownia Dokumentacji Życia i Twórczości Heleny Modrzejewskiej (archiwum internetowe w opracowaniu); przygotowane jest powołanie Pracowni Obserwatorium Życia Kulturalnego. Katedrą kieruje prof. dr hab. Emil Orzechowski, twórca Szkoły Zarządzania Kulturą oraz Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ.

327

tworzona w roku 2001 (wcześniej jako Szkoła Zarządzania Kulturą, działająca od roku 1994), była do 2008 częścią Instytutu Spraw Publicznych UJ, w ramach którego prowadziła studia w zakresie zarządzania kulturą na kierunku zarządzanie i marketing.

U

Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Instytut Kultury na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytet Jagielloński www.kultura.uj.edu.pl

KRAKÓW media, zarządzanie kulturą. Początkowo kierunek zarządzanie kulturą będzie prowadzony jedynie na poziomie studiów licencjackich. Projekt studiów magisterskich w zakresie zarządzania kulturą znajduje się w fazie przygotowania i w roku 2010 powinien zostać zgłoszony do akredytacji. Studia magisterskie w zakresie zarządzania kulturą kłaść będą duży nacisk na wymiar kultury i sztuki oraz na pragmatyczne koncepcje w estetyce i komunikacji w szerokim ujęciu. Będzie to ich cechą charakterystyczną w porównaniu z dotychczas istniejącymi studiami w skali międzynarodowej. Na zajęcia zapraszane będą czołowe postaci austriackiego życia kultury i nauki. Studia magisterskie prowadzone będą z założeniem, iż – poza kilkoma wyjątkami – studenci posiadają znajomość podstaw ekonomicznych instrumentów zarządzania (potwierdzoną ukończeniem studiów licencjackich). Wymagana będzie również kilkuletnia praktyka w dziedzinie sztuki lub związanych z kulturą obszarach gospodarki (np. przemysły kreatywne, wydawnictwa czy samorządowe instytucje kultury).

327

Obecnie wchodzi w skład utworzonego w roku 2009 Instytutu Kultury na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ, w ramach którego prowadzi wszystkie typy studiów: licencjackie, magisterskie uzupełniające, podyplomowe, a także (w ramach Wydziału – doktoranckie). Specjalność dalej ta sama – zarządzanie kulturą, ale z zasadniczą zmianą kierunku studiów: z zarządzania na kulturoznawstwo. Jest to konsekwencja nowych standardów studiów, gdzie zarządzanie przyporządkowano naukom o orientacji ekonomicznej, zaś kulturoznawstwo naukom humanistycznym. Katedra zatrudnia 8 pracowników ze stopniem naukowym co najmniej doktora. Jest wydawcą rocznika Zeszyty Naukowe „Zarządzanie w kulturze” (ukazało się 10 numerów), serii Biblioteka Zarządzania Kulturą (od roku 2008 ukazało się 5 książek), serii prac tłumaczonych (3 książki: P. Bendixen, G. Hagoort, M. J. Schuster). W 2008 roku zainicjowała wydawanie międzynarodowego trójjęzycznego periodyku „Culture Management / Kulturmanagement / Zarządzanie Kulturą”. Ponadto staraniem Katedry ukazało się około 40 zeszytów zawierających wykłady ambasadorów na temat Polityka kulturalna mojego państwa. Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą jest członkiem ENCATC, ściśle współpracuje z wieloma lokalnymi, krajowymi i zagranicznymi instytucjami i organizacjami. Od roku 2009 w Katedrze funkcjonuje Pracownia Dokumentacji Życia i Twórczości Heleny Modrzejewskiej (archiwum internetowe w opracowaniu); przygotowane jest powołanie Pracowni Obserwatorium Życia Kulturalnego. Katedrą kieruje prof. dr hab. Emil Orzechowski, twórca Szkoły Zarządzania Kulturą oraz Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ.



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