ISBN 978-83-62139-18-7 ISSN 2081-4712 Editor in-Chief Emil Orzechowski Scientific Secretary Łukasz Gaweł Editorial Board Peter Bendixen (Istanbul) Ivars Bērziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Cracow) Dorota Ilczuk (Warsaw) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warsaw) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Cracow) Małgorzata Sternal (Cracow) Mathias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Editorial Staff Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć-Gocyk Adjustment Anna Skowronek Cover photo Ryszard Stotko Editorial Office Address Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Cracow Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 culture_management@uj.edu.pl © Copyright by Jagiellonian University Department of Cultural Management Cracow 2009 All rights reserved The magazine is financed by: Jagiellonian University Office for the City of Cracow Marshal of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (Ars Quaerendi Prize) Attyka Publishing House W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 biuro@attyka.net.pl ISBN 978-83-62139-18-7 ISSN 2081-4712
Table of Contents Introduction........................................................................ 7 Emil Orzechowski
Culture and Responsibility ................................................9 Tadeusz Gadacz
What is Cultural Policy? . ................................................. 15 Matthias Theodor Vogt
Belarus. Cultural Policy.....................................................40 Nastassia Chmiel
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment.................50 Anda Laķe
The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strategy.... 57 Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Factory of initiatives, mine of ideas – employing postindustrial objects for cultural activity as an impulse for creative management..........62 Małgorzata Ćwikła
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian experience................68 Jānis Garjāns
The authority of an animator of culture ....................... 73 Józef Kargul
Major aspects of development of music management education.................................... 78 Ivars Bērziņš
Management of media in the system approach .......... 81 Bogusław Nierenberg
Cultural Revolution – yes, but what kind of revolution? About the possible directions of the Polish cultural policy...................................................................89 Jan Sowa
Third Reality......................................................................99 Levan Khetaguri
Abstracts......................................................................... 301
Attyka Publishing House W. Żeleńskiego Str. 29 31–353 Cracow Tel. +48 12 623 10 18 biuro@attyka.net.pl The magazine is financed by: Jagiellonian University Office for the City of Cracow Marshal of the Małopolskie Voivodeship (Ars Quaerendi Prize) © Copyright by Jagiellonian University Department of Cultural Management Cracow 2009 All rights reserved Editorial Office Address Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Cracow Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 culture_management@uj.edu.pl Cover photo Ryszard Stotko Adjustment Anna Skowronek Editorial Staff Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć-Gocyk Editorial Board Peter Bendixen (Istanbul) Ivars Bērziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Cracow) Dorota Ilczuk (Warsaw) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warsaw) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Cracow) Małgorzata Sternal (Cracow) Mathias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Scientific Secretary Łukasz Gaweł Editor in-Chief Emil Orzechowski
Abstracts......................................................................... 301 Levan Khetaguri
Third Reality......................................................................99 Jan Sowa
Cultural Revolution – yes, but what kind of revolution? About the possible directions of the Polish cultural policy...................................................................89 Bogusław Nierenberg
Management of media in the system approach .......... 81 Ivars Bērziņš
Major aspects of development of music management education.................................... 78 Józef Kargul
The authority of an animator of culture ....................... 73 Jānis Garjāns
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian experience................68 Małgorzata Ćwikła
Factory of initiatives, mine of ideas – employing postindustrial objects for cultural activity as an impulse for creative management..........62 Birgit-Katherine Seemann
The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strategy.... 57 Anda Laķe
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment.................50 Nastassia Chmiel
Belarus. Cultural Policy.....................................................40 Matthias Theodor Vogt
What is Cultural Policy? . ................................................. 15 Tadeusz Gadacz
Culture and Responsibility ................................................9 Emil Orzechowski
Introduction........................................................................ 7
Table of Contents
Resümees..............................................................................304
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Łukasz Gaweł Chefredakteur Emil Orzechowski
Was ist Kulturpolitik?.............................................................113 Tadeusz Gadacz
Kultur und Verantwortung................................................... 107 Emil Orzechowski
Einführung.........................................................................105
Inhalt
Resümees..............................................................................304
Matthias Theodor Vogt
Levan Khetaguri
Weißrussland. Kulturpolitik...................................................137
ISBN 978-83-62139-18-7 ISSN 2081-4712
Nastassia Chmiel
Die dritte Wirklichkeit....................................................... 199
Redaktionskomitee: Peter Bendixen (Istanbul) Ivars Bērziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)
Jan Sowa
Aspekte der Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik unter wirtschaftlich schwierigen Umständen: Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik ................................................................... 149
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik........................................................................... 188
Redaktion Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć
Bogusław Nierenberg
Anda Laķe
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell.......................... 180
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie.....................156
Ivars Bērziņš
Korrektur Anna Skowronek
Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung..................................177
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Józef Kargul
Abdeckungsfoto Ryszard Stotko
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs.....................................172
Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management...................................................161
Jānis Garjāns
Małgorzata Ćwikła
Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung ...........167
Redaktionsadresse Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 culture_management@uj.edu.pl
Małgorzata Ćwikła
Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung ...........167
Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management...................................................161
Jānis Garjāns
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs.....................................172
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie.....................156
Józef Kargul
Anda Laķe
© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2010 All rights reserved
Aspekte der Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik unter wirtschaftlich schwierigen Umständen: Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik ................................................................... 149
Ivars Bērziņš
Nastassia Chmiel
Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung..................................177
Attyka Verlag ul. W. Żeleńskiego 29 31-353 Kraków Tel. +48 12 623-10-18 biuro@attyka.net.pl
Weißrussland. Kulturpolitik...................................................137
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell.......................... 180
Die Halbjahresschrift wird von der Jagiellonen Universität, dem Stadtamt in Kraków und dem Marschall der Woiwodschaft Małopolska (Ars Quaerendi Preis) mitfinanziert
Matthias Theodor Vogt
Bogusław Nierenberg
© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2010 All rights reserved
Was ist Kulturpolitik?.............................................................113
Die Halbjahresschrift wird von der Jagiellonen Universität, dem Stadtamt in Kraków und dem Marschall der Woiwodschaft Małopolska (Ars Quaerendi Preis) mitfinanziert
Redaktionsadresse Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków Tel. +48 12 411 47 84 culture_management@uj.edu.pl
Tadeusz Gadacz
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik........................................................................... 188
Abdeckungsfoto Ryszard Stotko
Kultur und Verantwortung................................................... 107
Jan Sowa
Korrektur Anna Skowronek
Emil Orzechowski
Attyka Verlag ul. W. Żeleńskiego 29 31-353 Kraków Tel. +48 12 623-10-18 biuro@attyka.net.pl
Redaktion Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć
Einführung.........................................................................105
Die dritte Wirklichkeit....................................................... 199
Redaktionskomitee: Peter Bendixen (Istanbul) Ivars Bērziņš (Riga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)
Levan Khetaguri
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter Łukasz Gaweł
Inhalt
ISBN 978-83-62139-18-7 ISSN 2081-4712
Chefredakteur Emil Orzechowski
ISBN 978-83-62139-18-7 ISSN 2081-4712 Redaktor naczelny Emil Orzechowski Sekretarz naukowy Łukasz Gaweł
Spis treści
Komitet redakcyjny: Peter Bendixen (Stambuł) Ivars Bērziņš (Ryga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz)
WSTĘP.............................................................................. 205
Redakcja Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć
Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach: Konieczność oceny polityki kulturalnej . ...................... 249
Korekta Anna Skowronek
Anda Laķe
Zdjęcie na okładce Ryszard Stotko
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Adres Redakcji Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków tel. +48 12 411 47 84 culture_management@uj.edu.pl
Emil Orzechowski
Kultura i odpowiedzialność ...............................................207 Tadeusz Gadacz
Czym jest polityka kulturalna?....................................... 213 Matthias Theodor Vogt
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna.......................................... 238 Nastassia Chmiel
Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska.................. 256 Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania............................................. 261 Małgorzata Ćwikła
© Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2010 All rights reserved
Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie................. 267
Pismo finansowane przez: Uniwersytet Jagielloński Urząd Miasta Krakowa Marszałka Województwa Małopolskiego (Nagroda Ars Quaerendi)
Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką.................................... 277
Wydawnictwo Attyka ul. W. Żeleńskiego 29 31–353 Kraków Tel. +48 12 623-10-18 biuro@attyka.net.pl
Jānis Garjāns
Autorytet animatora kultury.......................................... 272 Józef Kargul
Ivars Bērziņš
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym..............280 Bogusław Nierenberg
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej.............................288 Jan Sowa
Trzecia rzeczywistość.....................................................298 ISBN 978-83-62139-18-7 ISSN 2081-4712
Levan Khetaguri
Streszczenia....................................................................308
Streszczenia....................................................................308 Levan Khetaguri
Trzecia rzeczywistość.....................................................298 Wydawnictwo Attyka ul. W. Żeleńskiego 29 31–353 Kraków Tel. +48 12 623-10-18 biuro@attyka.net.pl Pismo finansowane przez: Uniwersytet Jagielloński Urząd Miasta Krakowa Marszałka Województwa Małopolskiego (Nagroda Ars Quaerendi) © Copyright by Uniwersytet Jagielloński Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Kraków 2010 All rights reserved Adres Redakcji Rynek Główny 8 31-042 Kraków tel. +48 12 411 47 84 culture_management@uj.edu.pl Zdjęcie na okładce Ryszard Stotko Korekta Anna Skowronek Redakcja Alicja Kędziora Katarzyna Kopeć Komitet redakcyjny: Peter Bendixen (Stambuł) Ivars Bērziņš (Ryga) Milena Dragićević-Šešic (Belgrad) Danuta Glondys (Kraków) Dorota Ilczuk (Warszawa) Levan Khetaguri (Tbilisi) Kazimierz Krzysztofek (Warszawa) Krzysztof Pleśniarowicz (Kraków) Małgorzata Sternal (Kraków) Matthias Theodor Vogt (Görlitz) Lech Witkowski (Bydgoszcz) Sekretarz naukowy Łukasz Gaweł Redaktor naczelny Emil Orzechowski
Jan Sowa
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej.............................288 Bogusław Nierenberg
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym..............280 Ivars Bērziņš
Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką.................................... 277 Józef Kargul
Autorytet animatora kultury.......................................... 272 Jānis Garjāns
Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie................. 267 Małgorzata Ćwikła
Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania............................................. 261 Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska.................. 256 Anda Laķe
Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach: Konieczność oceny polityki kulturalnej . ...................... 249 Nastassia Chmiel
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna.......................................... 238 Matthias Theodor Vogt
Czym jest polityka kulturalna?....................................... 213 Tadeusz Gadacz
Kultura i odpowiedzialność ...............................................207 Emil Orzechowski
WSTĘP.............................................................................. 205
Spis treści
Culture Management Culture Management
7
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Introduction Emil Orzechowski
A
s the old proverb says “Third time lucky”. And this is the third time our three-lingual magazine comes out. It is focused on the reflection upon the theoretical basis of culture management and exemplification of this process in the countries of East and South Europe because this area seems to us constantly the most exciting, because of the obvious reason: “here we come from” and because of more serious ones: the reflection upon the place of culture in building civil societies, expanding the frame of thinking within European Union categories, co-creating a new map of West-East relations, where culture issues should enable or even be ahead of political decisions. Countries in the east of the River Elbe and in the south of the Baltic Sea have always been places of culture crossing – often made under very painful circumstances. There has to be a lesson learned from that. Materials published in this third issue of our magazine have been collected for over a year. Finally, they focus in theoretical section around seemingly time-worn topic of cultural policy. This topic is only seemingly timeworn because the basic rule of management is still obligatory: the mission, and the mission has to be a result of reflection on the question asked some time ago in the times of communism, by Cracow Cabaret “Piwnica pod Baranami” – “How are we living? What have we brought our flats to look like?” This question is crucial and can’t be neutralized by an attempt to direct discussion on more politically correct tracks, like: “cultural diplomacy”. First we have to answer the questions: what? for what? why? in the name of what? for whom? etc. to establish the scale of the most important values, and only then implementation can take place.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
I
n the present issue of the magazine this topic is undertaken in texts concerning the most important problems: Tadeusz Gadacz Culture and Responsibility and engaged in polemics with him the voice of young generation: Jan Sowa Cultural Revolution – yes, but what kind of revolution? About the possible directions of the Polish cultural policy. These texts are a consequence of The Congress of Polish Culture, which was to set new values, to propose new legislation frames and modern financial regulations for culture. In the next, the fourth issue of the magazine we will try to sum up and comment on these attempts – now it is too early for that; work is still in progress. I emphasize the importance of these texts as they are a very serious attempt to set the frames in which people of culture find themselves in our part of the world. I believe it has great meaning not only for Poland but also can be important in the context of Polish presidency in The European Union, of course if Polish people can specify the system of values that is worth popularizing. Nowadays the firm, effective and helpful in building Solidarity and destroying the Berlin Wall statement: “Don’t be afraid” is not enough. That’s why so important is the completion of these observations by Matthias T. Vogt in his text, Was is Kulturpolitik? Andy Lake, Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment, and a daring attempt of Nastassia Chmiel, Belarus. Cultural Policy. Of course all these cultural policy establishments are just frames. Frames which have to be filled by animators and culture managers. This is another block of texts: Józef Kargul, The authority of an animator of culture, Birgit Katharine Seemann, The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strat-
7
s the old proverb says “Third time lucky”. And this is the third time our three-lingual magazine comes out. It is focused on the reflection upon the theoretical basis of culture management and exemplification of this process in the countries of East and South Europe because this area seems to us constantly the most exciting, because of the obvious reason: “here we come from” and because of more serious ones: the reflection upon the place of culture in building civil societies, expanding the frame of thinking within European Union categories, co-creating a new map of West-East relations, where culture issues should enable or even be ahead of political decisions. Countries in the east of the River Elbe and in the south of the Baltic Sea have always been places of culture crossing – often made under very painful circumstances. There has to be a lesson learned from that. Materials published in this third issue of our magazine have been collected for over a year. Finally, they focus in theoretical section around seemingly time-worn topic of cultural policy. This topic is only seemingly timeworn because the basic rule of management is still obligatory: the mission, and the mission has to be a result of reflection on the question asked some time ago in the times of communism, by Cracow Cabaret “Piwnica pod Baranami” – “How are we living? What have we brought our flats to look like?” This question is crucial and can’t be neutralized by an attempt to direct discussion on more politically correct tracks, like: “cultural diplomacy”. First we have to answer the questions: what? for what? why? in the name of what? for whom? etc. to establish the scale of the most important values, and only then implementation can take place.
A
Emil Orzechowski
Introduction
n the present issue of the magazine this topic is undertaken in texts concerning the most important problems: Tadeusz Gadacz Culture and Responsibility and engaged in polemics with him the voice of young generation: Jan Sowa Cultural Revolution – yes, but what kind of revolution? About the possible directions of the Polish cultural policy. These texts are a consequence of The Congress of Polish Culture, which was to set new values, to propose new legislation frames and modern financial regulations for culture. In the next, the fourth issue of the magazine we will try to sum up and comment on these attempts – now it is too early for that; work is still in progress. I emphasize the importance of these texts as they are a very serious attempt to set the frames in which people of culture find themselves in our part of the world. I believe it has great meaning not only for Poland but also can be important in the context of Polish presidency in The European Union, of course if Polish people can specify the system of values that is worth popularizing. Nowadays the firm, effective and helpful in building Solidarity and destroying the Berlin Wall statement: “Don’t be afraid” is not enough. That’s why so important is the completion of these observations by Matthias T. Vogt in his text, Was is Kulturpolitik? Andy Lake, Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment, and a daring attempt of Nastassia Chmiel, Belarus. Cultural Policy. Of course all these cultural policy establishments are just frames. Frames which have to be filled by animators and culture managers. This is another block of texts: Józef Kargul, The authority of an animator of culture, Birgit Katharine Seemann, The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strat-
I
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3) Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
egy. These texts are also discussing realities of particular disciples: Ivars Berzinš Major Aspects of Development of Music Management Education, Janis Gardjans, Museum Boundaries: the Latvian Experience, Małgorzata Ćwikła, Factory of initiatives, mine of ideas – employing postindustrial objects for cultural activity as an impulse for creative management. The present issue of magazine is closed by a text written by an author who has never been influenced by fads: Levan Khetaguri and Third Reality.
but also articles written by candidates for doctor’s degree or young scholarship holders; we will conform to this rule consequently. Although we encounter some reluctance of public academies authorities to support the common actions, despite declared equality of academic sectors: public, private and non-governmental, universities and artistic academies and postulated their cooperation, we won’t be taking such voices under consideration and our magazine will be a true community of everyone for whom the matters of culture management are important. We ask for your comments, texts and cooperation for the sake of culture, which “matters” for each of us and for every community. 8
electing articles for the third issue we obeyed the rule, set at the beginning: there are articles written by acknowledged academic authorities
electing articles for the third issue we obeyed the rule, set at the beginning: there are articles written by acknowledged academic authorities
but also articles written by candidates for doctor’s degree or young scholarship holders; we will conform to this rule consequently. Although we encounter some reluctance of public academies authorities to support the common actions, despite declared equality of academic sectors: public, private and non-governmental, universities and artistic academies and postulated their cooperation, we won’t be taking such voices under consideration and our magazine will be a true community of everyone for whom the matters of culture management are important. We ask for your comments, texts and cooperation for the sake of culture, which “matters” for each of us and for every community.
S
S
8
egy. These texts are also discussing realities of particular disciples: Ivars Berzinš Major Aspects of Development of Music Management Education, Janis Gardjans, Museum Boundaries: the Latvian Experience, Małgorzata Ćwikła, Factory of initiatives, mine of ideas – employing postindustrial objects for cultural activity as an impulse for creative management. The present issue of magazine is closed by a text written by an author who has never been influenced by fads: Levan Khetaguri and Third Reality.
9
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Culture and Responsibility Tadeusz Gadacz
A
Cracovian philosopher, Roman Ingarden, wrote in his Booklet on Man: “what we call a value: good, beauty, truth, justice etc. does not exist in an alien physical-biological substrate of our human world, but is present only in the superstructure of reality, which is human-specific and created by man” [Ingarden, 1987, p. 38]. This new reality created by man is culture. Culture is a response of man to internal experience, to the values which have been realized or those which call for realization. The sphere of human life, the sphere of culture is a sphere of values. Human world is a world in which pleasure and displeasure coexist, as well as functionality and dysfunctionality, beauty and ugliness, justice and injustice, wisdom and stupidity. There is no escape from values. If we do not construct functional roads, than they are dysfunctional. If we do not select beauty, then we opt for ugliness. If we do not make justice, then we are unjust. The Reverend Józef Tischner wrote: “in our world, in which we are born and in which we die, there is a home, and a homelessness, there is a job and a joblessness, there is a school, a church, there is also a cemetery, and all of this presents a specific dignity for us. There is also hunger in the world, there is injustice, there is courage and death, an important cause and a less important cause. If one became suddenly totally indifferent to all of this, we would ask alarmed: what is happening to this man?” [Tischner, 1982, p. 484]. Living, whether we like it or not, we respond to values. Culture and responsibility are connected by the word “response”. However, the response of man cannot be simple and explicit, since culture itself is internally complex. It is full of irremovable tension which often leads to contention. It is less visible in times of oppression, in the closed societies exposed to the pressure of political ideologies. It is something natural in the open, democratic societies. Thus, it should be an object of a dialogue rather than a contention. Every tension has its specificity and a different weight. Coexistence of various types of tension constitutes an area of
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz
responsibility of culture. I will try to define the most important ones. The first type of an irremovable tension is connected with the relation of culture to time, on the one hand to the past, on the other hand to the future, both in the aspect of national community and creation. Culture is a way of existence of a nation, the foundation of its identity. John Paul II said in UNESCO “I am a son of the nation which endured the most horrible experience in history, which many times was sentenced to death by the neighbours – and it stayed alive and remained itself. It preserved identity [...] based on its own culture, which occurred to be a power more mighty than those oppressive powers” [the speech in the seat of UNESCO of June 2, 1980]. National identity extends to the past, but it must also reach to the future. Opening the Polish House in Rome, Stanisław Grygiel mentioned in this context remembrance and imagination of a nation: “Self-consciousness of a nation is born of common remembrance and of common imagination. National remembrance embraces the heritage of the fathers, their work of the truth and of the related freedom. This heritage is a construction material used for creating one’s own today. On the other hand, with imagination, which remembers, the nation reaches into the future, into this great consequence of the truth and freedom to derive from it an idea of a home which it is building” [Grygiel, 1982]. A nation cannot live without its remembrance, but it cannot live either without creative ideas. Over twenty years ago freedom became the great idea of the Polish Solidarity. It opened a new chapter in the history of Poland. In the last twenty years we started to regain remembrance. This remembrance often interfered with politics, disputes and national discord. What is the use of remembrance? Is it the base for constructing of the present and the future, or is it merely a political revenge? The cemeteries are the places which we visit, but they are not the places where we live. Thus the tension between the romantic and the positivistic paradigm is ir-
9
Tadeusz Gadacz lecturer, philosopher, religiosopher. Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy (Pontifical University of John Paul II, Cracow; 1991-1995); head of the Chair of Religious Philosophy (Faculty of Philosophy, Warszawa University; 1996-1999). He works at the Philosophy and Sociology Institute (the Polish Academy of the Sciences; since 2002). He is a head of Philosophy Chair (Collegium Civitas; since 1998). President of the Committee of Philosophical Sciences, PAN. Laureate of many awards and distinctions: professor subsidy of Foundation for Polish Science (1998), Award of President of the City Warszawa for the Best Academic Teacher (2002), Award of Minister of Culture, National Library and New Books for the Best Author in 2003 for the scientific edition 10 volumes of encyclopaedia Religia (2004), Award for the Best Lecturer in History of the Collegium Civitas (2008). Scholar of Louvain-la-Neuve University (Belgium), Catholic University of America (Washington), Hebrew University ( Jerusalem),
Cracovian philosopher, Roman Ingarden, wrote in his Booklet on Man: “what we call a value: good, beauty, truth, justice etc. does not exist in an alien physical-biological substrate of our human world, but is present only in the superstructure of reality, which is human-specific and created by man” [Ingarden, 1987, p. 38]. This new reality created by man is culture. Culture is a response of man to internal experience, to the values which have been realized or those which call for realization. The sphere of human life, the sphere of culture is a sphere of values. Human world is a world in which pleasure and displeasure coexist, as well as functionality and dysfunctionality, beauty and ugliness, justice and injustice, wisdom and stupidity. There is no escape from values. If we do not construct functional roads, than they are dysfunctional. If we do not select beauty, then we opt for ugliness. If we do not make justice, then we are unjust. The Reverend Józef Tischner wrote: “in our world, in which we are born and in which we die, there is a home, and a homelessness, there is a job and a joblessness, there is a school, a church, there is also a cemetery, and all of this presents a specific dignity for us. There is also hunger in the world, there is injustice, there is courage and death, an important cause and a less important cause. If one became suddenly totally indifferent to all of this, we would ask alarmed: what is happening to this man?” [Tischner, 1982, p. 484]. Living, whether we like it or not, we respond to values. Culture and responsibility are connected by the word “response”. However, the response of man cannot be simple and explicit, since culture itself is internally complex. It is full of irremovable tension which often leads to contention. It is less visible in times of oppression, in the closed societies exposed to the pressure of political ideologies. It is something natural in the open, democratic societies. Thus, it should be an object of a dialogue rather than a contention. Every tension has its specificity and a different weight. Coexistence of various types of tension constitutes an area of
A
Tadeusz Gadacz
responsibility of culture. I will try to define the most important ones. The first type of an irremovable tension is connected with the relation of culture to time, on the one hand to the past, on the other hand to the future, both in the aspect of national community and creation. Culture is a way of existence of a nation, the foundation of its identity. John Paul II said in UNESCO “I am a son of the nation which endured the most horrible experience in history, which many times was sentenced to death by the neighbours – and it stayed alive and remained itself. It preserved identity [...] based on its own culture, which occurred to be a power more mighty than those oppressive powers” [the speech in the seat of UNESCO of June 2, 1980]. National identity extends to the past, but it must also reach to the future. Opening the Polish House in Rome, Stanisław Grygiel mentioned in this context remembrance and imagination of a nation: “Self-consciousness of a nation is born of common remembrance and of common imagination. National remembrance embraces the heritage of the fathers, their work of the truth and of the related freedom. This heritage is a construction material used for creating one’s own today. On the other hand, with imagination, which remembers, the nation reaches into the future, into this great consequence of the truth and freedom to derive from it an idea of a home which it is building” [Grygiel, 1982]. A nation cannot live without its remembrance, but it cannot live either without creative ideas. Over twenty years ago freedom became the great idea of the Polish Solidarity. It opened a new chapter in the history of Poland. In the last twenty years we started to regain remembrance. This remembrance often interfered with politics, disputes and national discord. What is the use of remembrance? Is it the base for constructing of the present and the future, or is it merely a political revenge? The cemeteries are the places which we visit, but they are not the places where we live. Thus the tension between the romantic and the positivistic paradigm is ir-
Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz
Culture and Responsibility
Tadeusz Gadacz lecturer, philosopher, religiosopher. Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy (Pontifical University of John Paul II, Cracow; 1991-1995); head of the Chair of Religious Philosophy (Faculty of Philosophy, Warszawa University; 1996-1999). He works at the Philosophy and Sociology Institute (the Polish Academy of the Sciences; since 2002). He is a head of Philosophy Chair (Collegium Civitas; since 1998). President of the Committee of Philosophical Sciences, PAN. Laureate of many awards and distinctions: professor subsidy of Foundation for Polish Science (1998), Award of President of the City Warszawa for the Best Academic Teacher (2002), Award of Minister of Culture, National Library and New Books for the Best Author in 2003 for the scientific edition 10 volumes of encyclopaedia Religia (2004), Award for the Best Lecturer in History of the Collegium Civitas (2008). Scholar of Louvain-la-Neuve University (Belgium), Catholic University of America (Washington), Hebrew University ( Jerusalem),
Institute of Human Science (Vienna). Author more than 130 publications in Polish and foreign languages. Co-editor of series Philosophical Texts containing inter alia the translations of E. Husserl, J. Patočka, E. Lévinas, M. Heidegger. Author of History of Philosophy XX century. Presently he publishes series Classic of Philosophy at IFiS PAN. Scientific interests include history of philosophy XX century, philosophy of God and religious, metaphysics, philosophy of human and education.
something be really good. It is important that it be new, unexpected, shocking. Novelty replaced perfection [Stróżewski, 2002, p. 174]. To a great extent this is also a result of commercialization of culture. The stores want to have a new and fresh merchandise all the time. The short expiry time creates pressure of expectation for a new supply, which is better (more valuable) only because it is new. This situation is also influenced by the media, for which novelty is everyday fuel. Nevertheless, we cannot remove dialectics of the two elements: remembrance and the images shaping the future, tradition and novelty. When we reach into the future too far or when we experiment, we begin to reach to the remembrance and to the past. When the remembrance and the past start to be a burden, we begin to reach into the future and experiment. The next line of irremovable tension lays between elitism and massification of culture. High culture has always been elitist. It required high competences, ability and effort, both in its creation and reception. It required education. The Enlightenment idea of equality (we all possess the same brains) introduced to the European culture an idea of common education and massification. It was strengthened by the idea of democracy, granting equal rights to all citizens. Common access to education is an important value in itself. An undeniable achievement of the Polish culture, and not only of education but also of culture, is a rapid increase of the number of students and people with university education, which may be observed in the last twenty years. The price which we paid for it is a drastic lowering of the level of education. Not to abuse anybody’s brains, we systematically lower the level of education. Worse and worse prepared candidates apply to the universities. They have higher and higher demands. This refers not only to knowledge and competences, but also the manners and personal culture. When in 1982 I was beginning my didactic work I had no problem discussing with the student the Iliad or referring to numerous codes of the classic culture. Presently, most of the students do not understand a request to write their names the examination papers in majuscule. One of the girls instructed me even that this is called caps lock. Big part of the blame for the present situation may be attributed to the academic environment itself – part of the private, but not exclusively private schools of higher education. Greediness results in gradual lowering of standards of teaching and requirements imposed on the students. The school of higher education used to be a shrine of knowledge and culture. Presently some of them turned into assembly lines used for production of
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
removable, since we cannot close the nation only in the memory of sacrifices, nor in the sphere of the civilization changes. Thus, we do not face the alternative whether we should concentrate on the cemeteries or on construction of freeways, or whether to build a museum of WWII or a museum of modern art. If freedom was once a great idea of the Polish Solidarity, then the idea which will open us to the future should be the idea of responsibility. We have to be equally responsible for the remembrance as for our future. Another manifestation of the irremovable tension between the bygone and the present is the relation between tradition and modernity. Historical tradition is a place where some works of culture assume the status of classics and become heritage about which we care. Not everybody, however, shares this conviction. There exist the limiting, even oppressive forms of tradition, which we have to breech or ever break free from them. Andrzej Osęka noted: “I belong to one of the generations of fanatics of freedom in art. Rejection of the doctrine of social-realism, which coincided with the moment when I was beginning to take active part in the artistic life, meant at that time also rejection of tradition” [Osęka, 1994, p. 28]. “For many artists, in the long run, freedom did not cease to be the foundation of a new wonderful order, but it was connected first of all with a vision of destruction, demolition – according to the Lenin’s principle: “one has to break the eggs to make an omelette”. The galleries, festivals of art, and museums for many decades became the scene of great breaking of the eggs” [ibid., p. 25]. “As the years passed by, the revolutionary zeal subsided, it no longer sufficed to be the base for the hopes” [ibid., p. 27]. If culture cannot limit itself exclusively to cultivation of tradition, then the measure of its value cannot be merely its novelty. Once more Andrzej Osęka: The curse of modern culture and the personal curse of many of the artists is freedom of choice of form, convention, tradition. It is as if you were opening a catalogue of interior design on various pages: you may arrange it in a modern, classic or rustic style, and even in a kitsch convention; or if you were going to a restaurant: old Polish, Hungarian, or Chinese. You may taste this or that, this way or another. [...] Referring to this phenomenon, one of the critics entitled his text: Can one become a Chinese? In fact – rather not, but many are doing it; they become Chinese, Indian medicine men, sexual maniacs, mystics of unclear denominations [ibid., p. 28]. Professor Władysław Stróżewski recalled a similar experience. We no longer follow the ideal of perfection in art, but we started to follow the ideal of novelty. “Moreover, it is not important that
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
10
something be really good. It is important that it be new, unexpected, shocking. Novelty replaced perfection [Stróżewski, 2002, p. 174]. To a great extent this is also a result of commercialization of culture. The stores want to have a new and fresh merchandise all the time. The short expiry time creates pressure of expectation for a new supply, which is better (more valuable) only because it is new. This situation is also influenced by the media, for which novelty is everyday fuel. Nevertheless, we cannot remove dialectics of the two elements: remembrance and the images shaping the future, tradition and novelty. When we reach into the future too far or when we experiment, we begin to reach to the remembrance and to the past. When the remembrance and the past start to be a burden, we begin to reach into the future and experiment. The next line of irremovable tension lays between elitism and massification of culture. High culture has always been elitist. It required high competences, ability and effort, both in its creation and reception. It required education. The Enlightenment idea of equality (we all possess the same brains) introduced to the European culture an idea of common education and massification. It was strengthened by the idea of democracy, granting equal rights to all citizens. Common access to education is an important value in itself. An undeniable achievement of the Polish culture, and not only of education but also of culture, is a rapid increase of the number of students and people with university education, which may be observed in the last twenty years. The price which we paid for it is a drastic lowering of the level of education. Not to abuse anybody’s brains, we systematically lower the level of education. Worse and worse prepared candidates apply to the universities. They have higher and higher demands. This refers not only to knowledge and competences, but also the manners and personal culture. When in 1982 I was beginning my didactic work I had no problem discussing with the student the Iliad or referring to numerous codes of the classic culture. Presently, most of the students do not understand a request to write their names the examination papers in majuscule. One of the girls instructed me even that this is called caps lock. Big part of the blame for the present situation may be attributed to the academic environment itself – part of the private, but not exclusively private schools of higher education. Greediness results in gradual lowering of standards of teaching and requirements imposed on the students. The school of higher education used to be a shrine of knowledge and culture. Presently some of them turned into assembly lines used for production of
10
Institute of Human Science (Vienna). Author more than 130 publications in Polish and foreign languages. Co-editor of series Philosophical Texts containing inter alia the translations of E. Husserl, J. Patočka, E. Lévinas, M. Heidegger. Author of History of Philosophy XX century. Presently he publishes series Classic of Philosophy at IFiS PAN. Scientific interests include history of philosophy XX century, philosophy of God and religious, metaphysics, philosophy of human and education.
removable, since we cannot close the nation only in the memory of sacrifices, nor in the sphere of the civilization changes. Thus, we do not face the alternative whether we should concentrate on the cemeteries or on construction of freeways, or whether to build a museum of WWII or a museum of modern art. If freedom was once a great idea of the Polish Solidarity, then the idea which will open us to the future should be the idea of responsibility. We have to be equally responsible for the remembrance as for our future. Another manifestation of the irremovable tension between the bygone and the present is the relation between tradition and modernity. Historical tradition is a place where some works of culture assume the status of classics and become heritage about which we care. Not everybody, however, shares this conviction. There exist the limiting, even oppressive forms of tradition, which we have to breech or ever break free from them. Andrzej Osęka noted: “I belong to one of the generations of fanatics of freedom in art. Rejection of the doctrine of social-realism, which coincided with the moment when I was beginning to take active part in the artistic life, meant at that time also rejection of tradition” [Osęka, 1994, p. 28]. “For many artists, in the long run, freedom did not cease to be the foundation of a new wonderful order, but it was connected first of all with a vision of destruction, demolition – according to the Lenin’s principle: “one has to break the eggs to make an omelette”. The galleries, festivals of art, and museums for many decades became the scene of great breaking of the eggs” [ibid., p. 25]. “As the years passed by, the revolutionary zeal subsided, it no longer sufficed to be the base for the hopes” [ibid., p. 27]. If culture cannot limit itself exclusively to cultivation of tradition, then the measure of its value cannot be merely its novelty. Once more Andrzej Osęka: The curse of modern culture and the personal curse of many of the artists is freedom of choice of form, convention, tradition. It is as if you were opening a catalogue of interior design on various pages: you may arrange it in a modern, classic or rustic style, and even in a kitsch convention; or if you were going to a restaurant: old Polish, Hungarian, or Chinese. You may taste this or that, this way or another. [...] Referring to this phenomenon, one of the critics entitled his text: Can one become a Chinese? In fact – rather not, but many are doing it; they become Chinese, Indian medicine men, sexual maniacs, mystics of unclear denominations [ibid., p. 28]. Professor Władysław Stróżewski recalled a similar experience. We no longer follow the ideal of perfection in art, but we started to follow the ideal of novelty. “Moreover, it is not important that
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
diplomas, and sometimes even became a place of pathology. We got used to significant lowering of the quality of scholarly papers. Sometimes I have an impression that Polish humanities have burned out. In a similar way massification of culture led to triviality, to tabloidization of the press, to suititing the lowest tastes and declining of the fundamental standards of decency. Mr. Jarosław Makowski wrote: “let’s imagine that an intellectual comes to Poland. He does not know anything about our country but he would like to quickly learn something. “Let me watch your programs and read your papers for a week,” he proposes “and I will tell you in what country you live.’ Then if the intellectual wanted to be honest, I am afraid, that after this week he would have to state one thing: “This is not a country for intelligent people” [Makowski, 2009, p. 2]. I do not say that both education and culture should become elitist again. Education is an inalienable right of every man. Every type of education is a value, even a fragmentary or superficial one. It is better if the student may listen in the university auditorium to a lecture which he does not understand in most part, since he or she is not capable of the intellectual effort, or does not want to try, than if he or she swelled the ranks of the unemployed. This, however, cannot be a reason for giving up the standards of the culture of the language and knowledge. Massification of education must not lead to axiological chaos and disappearance of models. Culture needs elites. Democracy does not exclude elitism, as the elite does not eliminate egalitarianism in humanity nor the access to education. There exist such domains of culture which are elitist in their nature. One cannot become a musician without an ear for music. I am dreaming of such a form of elitism in which a condition of studying administration, law, etc. would be ability to use Polish in conformity with the binding standards. Thus, the responsibility of the representatives of science and culture should not be only education of the masses, but also educating the elites, the people who are highly competent in various fields of knowledge and culture. Similarly to massification of education, massification of culture is also a value. A witty cabaret, an amusing quiz show, a pop music concert are also a value. Massification of culture must not, however, lead to denial of moral culture. It must not lead, either, to the conviction that the whole life of man is entertainment. Maintaining a division between elitism and massification is made difficult by blurring of the canon of culture, which is characteristic for the
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
present times. It is the canon which protects the standards and provides models. Professor Jerzy Jarzębski expressed his doubts whether the canon still existed and wrote: “It became a fact that the canon turned into merchandise, and its marketing quickly led to a loss, and at least to blurring of its internal structure. It is due not only to the commercialism, ever thirsty of novelty, but also to functioning of the mechanisms of democracy on the one hand, and the ideal of tolerance on the other hand, making us accept all kinds of meanings and values, if only a larger group of people subscribe to them. Finally, on top of those factors, there is a post modernistic crisis of all hierarchies, triumph of the surface over the depth, and of multitude over exclusiveness of What-has-been-chosen” [ Jarzębski, 1994, p. 14]. Any hierarchy underlying the canon was questioned in the 19th century and viewed as oppressive. It was pointed out that the division into the higher and the lower was a camouflaged form of an ideology of domination. A hierarchy has no right to exist, and only the different and odd may stay. However, oppression is not embedded in the canon itself. We cannot help it, as noted Jerzy Szacki, that neither Homer nor Shakespeare or Goethe, let alone the minor creators of culture, were not women or Africans [Szacki, op. cit., p. 19]. Culture may become the source of suffering not due to the existence of the canon, but due to lack of understanding and respect for the different being different. The present European culture is strongly pluralized, multi-dimensional. Ascertaining the fact that we face different currents of culture and different types of sensitivity and we have to respect choices made by each individual, cannot in my opinion excuse us from the obligation to defend the local canons in numerous domains of culture and science. Otherwise, forcing the students to learn the rules of grammar and orthography would be viewed as oppression. We would have to eliminate reviews, academic criticism, and the culture criticism, as everyone may feel differently, think differently and write differently. Prof. Barbara Skarga wrote in Borders of Historicity: “Are there indeed no such elements of thought, which would be a condition of its existence and development, and consequently a condition of development of our culture? Doesn’t the fact of seeking the truth and values alone say something about the essence of the human existence? Is the history of thought, never satisfied, always open and thus assuming the form of a question, only an expression of our limitation as an ‘existence aimed at death’, or the opposite – is it a testimony of an overwhelming wish to step out towards some-
11
diplomas, and sometimes even became a place of pathology. We got used to significant lowering of the quality of scholarly papers. Sometimes I have an impression that Polish humanities have burned out. In a similar way massification of culture led to triviality, to tabloidization of the press, to suititing the lowest tastes and declining of the fundamental standards of decency. Mr. Jarosław Makowski wrote: “let’s imagine that an intellectual comes to Poland. He does not know anything about our country but he would like to quickly learn something. “Let me watch your programs and read your papers for a week,” he proposes “and I will tell you in what country you live.’ Then if the intellectual wanted to be honest, I am afraid, that after this week he would have to state one thing: “This is not a country for intelligent people” [Makowski, 2009, p. 2]. I do not say that both education and culture should become elitist again. Education is an inalienable right of every man. Every type of education is a value, even a fragmentary or superficial one. It is better if the student may listen in the university auditorium to a lecture which he does not understand in most part, since he or she is not capable of the intellectual effort, or does not want to try, than if he or she swelled the ranks of the unemployed. This, however, cannot be a reason for giving up the standards of the culture of the language and knowledge. Massification of education must not lead to axiological chaos and disappearance of models. Culture needs elites. Democracy does not exclude elitism, as the elite does not eliminate egalitarianism in humanity nor the access to education. There exist such domains of culture which are elitist in their nature. One cannot become a musician without an ear for music. I am dreaming of such a form of elitism in which a condition of studying administration, law, etc. would be ability to use Polish in conformity with the binding standards. Thus, the responsibility of the representatives of science and culture should not be only education of the masses, but also educating the elites, the people who are highly competent in various fields of knowledge and culture. Similarly to massification of education, massification of culture is also a value. A witty cabaret, an amusing quiz show, a pop music concert are also a value. Massification of culture must not, however, lead to denial of moral culture. It must not lead, either, to the conviction that the whole life of man is entertainment. Maintaining a division between elitism and massification is made difficult by blurring of the canon of culture, which is characteristic for the
11
present times. It is the canon which protects the standards and provides models. Professor Jerzy Jarzębski expressed his doubts whether the canon still existed and wrote: “It became a fact that the canon turned into merchandise, and its marketing quickly led to a loss, and at least to blurring of its internal structure. It is due not only to the commercialism, ever thirsty of novelty, but also to functioning of the mechanisms of democracy on the one hand, and the ideal of tolerance on the other hand, making us accept all kinds of meanings and values, if only a larger group of people subscribe to them. Finally, on top of those factors, there is a post modernistic crisis of all hierarchies, triumph of the surface over the depth, and of multitude over exclusiveness of What-has-been-chosen” [ Jarzębski, 1994, p. 14]. Any hierarchy underlying the canon was questioned in the 19th century and viewed as oppressive. It was pointed out that the division into the higher and the lower was a camouflaged form of an ideology of domination. A hierarchy has no right to exist, and only the different and odd may stay. However, oppression is not embedded in the canon itself. We cannot help it, as noted Jerzy Szacki, that neither Homer nor Shakespeare or Goethe, let alone the minor creators of culture, were not women or Africans [Szacki, op. cit., p. 19]. Culture may become the source of suffering not due to the existence of the canon, but due to lack of understanding and respect for the different being different. The present European culture is strongly pluralized, multi-dimensional. Ascertaining the fact that we face different currents of culture and different types of sensitivity and we have to respect choices made by each individual, cannot in my opinion excuse us from the obligation to defend the local canons in numerous domains of culture and science. Otherwise, forcing the students to learn the rules of grammar and orthography would be viewed as oppression. We would have to eliminate reviews, academic criticism, and the culture criticism, as everyone may feel differently, think differently and write differently. Prof. Barbara Skarga wrote in Borders of Historicity: “Are there indeed no such elements of thought, which would be a condition of its existence and development, and consequently a condition of development of our culture? Doesn’t the fact of seeking the truth and values alone say something about the essence of the human existence? Is the history of thought, never satisfied, always open and thus assuming the form of a question, only an expression of our limitation as an ‘existence aimed at death’, or the opposite – is it a testimony of an overwhelming wish to step out towards some-
tion excuses us from reflection and creative effort. Why remember, if we have memory discs? Why bother knowing who a Narcissus is, if we know what an MP3 is? I think that we are facing now a fundamental question about a canon of education. Thus, the opposition: internal spiritual development vs. culture, is no longer an alternative. There is no spiritual development without culture, as well as there is no culture without spiritual development. Finally, the last line of irremovable tension, which I would like to point out is connected with the title of the present Congress: “Culture counts” We may interpret this slogan in the form of a question: “Live by culture or live on culture?” Culture is disinterested. It is an extra to the basic human needs. Undoubtedly, we should live by culture. There is also no doubt, however, that culture must have its sources of financing. The people of culture live in constant dialectics between Nihil habentes omnia possedentes (Having nothing, owning everything) and Omnia habentes, nihil possedentes (Having everything, owning nothing). In this perspective we face two threats. On the one hand, a drive to total and full commercialization and marketing of culture. Culture cannot be in total marketed, as it is impossible to market the high values. It is impossible to market creative processes either. When I think, for example, about marketing of thinking, a poem by Rev. Jan Twardowski comes to my mind: “The thinker thought and did not think anything. And so he thought. Why did I think so much not to think anything. I could have not thought at all and I would have thought the same.” From the point of view of economy, such an effect means only a loss. However, from the point of view of reflection, it is a gain. Our inability to fully market culture does not mean that it should not be managed better, and the means designated for financing culture should not be managed in a more efficient way. The second threat is treating people of culture in the same way as Wawrzek treated once Rev. Tischner. When Wawrzek was raking the hay in Łopuszna, Rev. Tischner strolled along the path, lost in thought on his work “Philosophy of Drama” which he was writing. Answering Wawrzek’s question „Sir, what are you doing?” he answered “I’m thinking.” “Then you’re spoiling the air” responded Wawrzek. Thus, we cannot remove the dialectics: live by culture or live on culture. If it is impossible to remove the tension between the elements which constitute the field of culture and have been listed above, a question arises, what should we take into account while choosing between the elements of the presented alternatives? I come from the philosophical school
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
thing which exceeds us and our cultural rooting?” [Skarga, 2005, p. 235]. Summing up: in culture it is not possible to go beyond the dialectics of elitism – egalitarianism. Neither isolation of the elites is an alternative, as Petrarca tried to prove escaping from the nosy and uneducated crowd to his seclusion, nor accepting an axiological chaos and domination of the worst models. The next line of irremovable tension runs between the spiritual and the objective dimension of culture. Culture is a manifestation of a spiritual life of man, his deep spiritual reflection. The connection between culture and spiritual life is such, that through the works of culture, their depth and loftiness we recognize the depth and loftiness of the spiritual life of the nation and the individuals. Georg Simmel defined culture as a way of the soul to itself [Simmel, 2007, p. 29], to realization of the full and most own I, embedded in it but existing initially only as a possibility [ibid., p. 32]. This way of the soul must lead, however, through the external, objective world of culture. Beautiful pictures delight us, music moves us, poetry allows us to express the inexpressible, literature broadens our existence, as we become what we read. Delighted, moved, deepened, we ourselves give expression to our spiritual life. Culture, however, being the spiritual life, needs theatres, exhibition halls, libraries, concert halls, musical instruments; not only to be able to manifest itself in the public sphere, but because it is only direct commune with culture which allows us to develop spiritually. Without culture man dwarfs, and a dwarf is unable to create great culture. A paradox of the connection between spiritual life and the objective dimension of culture means also that the spiritual life may develop in the situation of oppression, in times of negativity, as Hegel described them, since the spirit becomes self-conscious when “it looks negativity straight into the eyes and stays with it”. Only those experience full freedom, who experience loosing it. We were fought against and we did not lose our souls. Freedom of development of culture, on the other hand, or an institutional possibility of expressing it, may not be in itself a sufficient guarantee of spiritual development. Stefan Chwin said in one of the interviews: presently the soul became cheaper. Then, do I have to long for the bygone time of negativity? We have to break free from the Hegel’s sting. It is not he who experiences fully freedom, who has experienced losing it; but he who is able to realize it in a responsible manner. We have never had such a chance of spiritual development as today. The point is, as Władysław Stróżewski noted, that the contemporary civilization of technical facilita-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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tion excuses us from reflection and creative effort. Why remember, if we have memory discs? Why bother knowing who a Narcissus is, if we know what an MP3 is? I think that we are facing now a fundamental question about a canon of education. Thus, the opposition: internal spiritual development vs. culture, is no longer an alternative. There is no spiritual development without culture, as well as there is no culture without spiritual development. Finally, the last line of irremovable tension, which I would like to point out is connected with the title of the present Congress: “Culture counts” We may interpret this slogan in the form of a question: “Live by culture or live on culture?” Culture is disinterested. It is an extra to the basic human needs. Undoubtedly, we should live by culture. There is also no doubt, however, that culture must have its sources of financing. The people of culture live in constant dialectics between Nihil habentes omnia possedentes (Having nothing, owning everything) and Omnia habentes, nihil possedentes (Having everything, owning nothing). In this perspective we face two threats. On the one hand, a drive to total and full commercialization and marketing of culture. Culture cannot be in total marketed, as it is impossible to market the high values. It is impossible to market creative processes either. When I think, for example, about marketing of thinking, a poem by Rev. Jan Twardowski comes to my mind: “The thinker thought and did not think anything. And so he thought. Why did I think so much not to think anything. I could have not thought at all and I would have thought the same.” From the point of view of economy, such an effect means only a loss. However, from the point of view of reflection, it is a gain. Our inability to fully market culture does not mean that it should not be managed better, and the means designated for financing culture should not be managed in a more efficient way. The second threat is treating people of culture in the same way as Wawrzek treated once Rev. Tischner. When Wawrzek was raking the hay in Łopuszna, Rev. Tischner strolled along the path, lost in thought on his work “Philosophy of Drama” which he was writing. Answering Wawrzek’s question „Sir, what are you doing?” he answered “I’m thinking.” “Then you’re spoiling the air” responded Wawrzek. Thus, we cannot remove the dialectics: live by culture or live on culture. If it is impossible to remove the tension between the elements which constitute the field of culture and have been listed above, a question arises, what should we take into account while choosing between the elements of the presented alternatives? I come from the philosophical school
12
thing which exceeds us and our cultural rooting?” [Skarga, 2005, p. 235]. Summing up: in culture it is not possible to go beyond the dialectics of elitism – egalitarianism. Neither isolation of the elites is an alternative, as Petrarca tried to prove escaping from the nosy and uneducated crowd to his seclusion, nor accepting an axiological chaos and domination of the worst models. The next line of irremovable tension runs between the spiritual and the objective dimension of culture. Culture is a manifestation of a spiritual life of man, his deep spiritual reflection. The connection between culture and spiritual life is such, that through the works of culture, their depth and loftiness we recognize the depth and loftiness of the spiritual life of the nation and the individuals. Georg Simmel defined culture as a way of the soul to itself [Simmel, 2007, p. 29], to realization of the full and most own I, embedded in it but existing initially only as a possibility [ibid., p. 32]. This way of the soul must lead, however, through the external, objective world of culture. Beautiful pictures delight us, music moves us, poetry allows us to express the inexpressible, literature broadens our existence, as we become what we read. Delighted, moved, deepened, we ourselves give expression to our spiritual life. Culture, however, being the spiritual life, needs theatres, exhibition halls, libraries, concert halls, musical instruments; not only to be able to manifest itself in the public sphere, but because it is only direct commune with culture which allows us to develop spiritually. Without culture man dwarfs, and a dwarf is unable to create great culture. A paradox of the connection between spiritual life and the objective dimension of culture means also that the spiritual life may develop in the situation of oppression, in times of negativity, as Hegel described them, since the spirit becomes self-conscious when “it looks negativity straight into the eyes and stays with it”. Only those experience full freedom, who experience loosing it. We were fought against and we did not lose our souls. Freedom of development of culture, on the other hand, or an institutional possibility of expressing it, may not be in itself a sufficient guarantee of spiritual development. Stefan Chwin said in one of the interviews: presently the soul became cheaper. Then, do I have to long for the bygone time of negativity? We have to break free from the Hegel’s sting. It is not he who experiences fully freedom, who has experienced losing it; but he who is able to realize it in a responsible manner. We have never had such a chance of spiritual development as today. The point is, as Władysław Stróżewski noted, that the contemporary civilization of technical facilita-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
which has always focused on man, together with his weakness and dignity. Since culture always is about values, then it is about man, his condition and dignity. Culture is responsible for man, is a place of this responsibility. The goal of culture is elevation of man, development of humanity, because culture concerns the human existence and what man is; and only in the second place, what he has. I would like to proceed now to the description of the internal structure of culture, to reflection on its place and the role in the contemporary world, and on its responsibility. The 20th century has been diagnosed by many thinkers as the age of crisis. Already in 1935, Edmund Husserl diagnosed a crisis of the European humanity. The human being, as he wrote, is a purposeful creature: “living in finiteness […] he direct his whole life to the poles of infinity” [On a Crisis, 1990, p. 20]. Science has forgotten about the spiritual world. Europe is tired. Thus, Husserl saw a danger not in relativization of values, but in indifference. Martin Heidegger defined the contemporary times as the times of folding down of metaphysics. Technology became the matrix of our existence. To a greater and greater degree we think in terms of effectiveness, and not in terms of values. We haven’t even noticed that the notion of “resource” which for Heidegger meant mineral deposits, was softly transformed into managing human resource. Professor Władysław Stróżewski diagnosed this crisis as a sort of detouring the values in the name of life made easier. “I do not believe in the crisis of values,” he wrote. “The world of values is an objective, autonomous domain of reality ruled by its own, well rooted and unalterable laws. Truth is truth, good is good, beauty is beauty. Perfection is perfection. In this respect a crisis is impossible. The crisis does not concern the values but our experiencing them. We lost sensitivity to values, we lost their taste. Particularly, we got lost in reading their proper hierarchy” [Stróżewski, 2002, p. 168]. In his Civilization on the dock, Leszek Kołakowski appealed: “Various traditional human ties, which make possible our group life, and without which our existence would be regulated exclusively by fear and greed, do not stand too much of a chance to survive without a taboo system…” [On a Crisis, 1990, p. 84]. Rev.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Józef Tischner’s diagnosis Thinking according to Values of 1978, also has not lost its persuasive power. The present time questioned hierarchy and preference – noted Tischner. According to me, the crisis defined by the thinkers does not lie in the fact that we develop the sphere of natural science, technology, or economy. Crisis lies in the fact that our life got limited more or less to the world of objects, to possessing, to the lowest values (hedonistic, utilitarian, vital). In this way the world of objects overshadows the world of higher, spiritual values (moral, aesthetic, religious). We live in a sort of an eclipse of the higher values which decide about who we are, and not about what we have. Thus, on the one hand we need a balanced economic growth, which makes our life easier and supplies many goods; and on the other hand we need culture, which decides about who we are. For this reason culture is not a luxury, but is a necessity. What is the use of mobile phones, more and more advanced technologically, if we have nothing to say. It is the lack of a balanced development, a radical domination of have over be, which became one of the main sources of the present economic crisis. Whenever having dominates being, life becomes a game. Rev. Tischner wrote in Poland is the homeland: “That we do not think yet, becomes quite evident also for a non-philosopher, by the consequences which arise from here: pollution of the natural environment, accumulation of nuclear weapons, division of the world into political blocks, poverty of ones and wealth of the others, pathology of the struggle for power. The player predicts the end of the game. This is where his fear comes from. The fear is the more painful that the player’s end of the game is always the opponent’s winning. The player is afraid not to lose, and at the same time he knows he has to lose. The only solution for him is to work out new strategies of conquering of the rebelling world and his opponents, that is to start a new game, a new fight and await new losers. Is there any way out of this madness? [...] Thus, we have no other choice as to exchange one reason for another one – a reason which does not take delight in winning the game, the reason which finds solace in the act of giving testimony” [Tischner, 1985, pp. 97, 102]. This act of testimony is culture.
13
which has always focused on man, together with his weakness and dignity. Since culture always is about values, then it is about man, his condition and dignity. Culture is responsible for man, is a place of this responsibility. The goal of culture is elevation of man, development of humanity, because culture concerns the human existence and what man is; and only in the second place, what he has. I would like to proceed now to the description of the internal structure of culture, to reflection on its place and the role in the contemporary world, and on its responsibility. The 20th century has been diagnosed by many thinkers as the age of crisis. Already in 1935, Edmund Husserl diagnosed a crisis of the European humanity. The human being, as he wrote, is a purposeful creature: “living in finiteness […] he direct his whole life to the poles of infinity” [On a Crisis, 1990, p. 20]. Science has forgotten about the spiritual world. Europe is tired. Thus, Husserl saw a danger not in relativization of values, but in indifference. Martin Heidegger defined the contemporary times as the times of folding down of metaphysics. Technology became the matrix of our existence. To a greater and greater degree we think in terms of effectiveness, and not in terms of values. We haven’t even noticed that the notion of “resource” which for Heidegger meant mineral deposits, was softly transformed into managing human resource. Professor Władysław Stróżewski diagnosed this crisis as a sort of detouring the values in the name of life made easier. “I do not believe in the crisis of values,” he wrote. “The world of values is an objective, autonomous domain of reality ruled by its own, well rooted and unalterable laws. Truth is truth, good is good, beauty is beauty. Perfection is perfection. In this respect a crisis is impossible. The crisis does not concern the values but our experiencing them. We lost sensitivity to values, we lost their taste. Particularly, we got lost in reading their proper hierarchy” [Stróżewski, 2002, p. 168]. In his Civilization on the dock, Leszek Kołakowski appealed: “Various traditional human ties, which make possible our group life, and without which our existence would be regulated exclusively by fear and greed, do not stand too much of a chance to survive without a taboo system…” [On a Crisis, 1990, p. 84]. Rev.
13
Józef Tischner’s diagnosis Thinking according to Values of 1978, also has not lost its persuasive power. The present time questioned hierarchy and preference – noted Tischner. According to me, the crisis defined by the thinkers does not lie in the fact that we develop the sphere of natural science, technology, or economy. Crisis lies in the fact that our life got limited more or less to the world of objects, to possessing, to the lowest values (hedonistic, utilitarian, vital). In this way the world of objects overshadows the world of higher, spiritual values (moral, aesthetic, religious). We live in a sort of an eclipse of the higher values which decide about who we are, and not about what we have. Thus, on the one hand we need a balanced economic growth, which makes our life easier and supplies many goods; and on the other hand we need culture, which decides about who we are. For this reason culture is not a luxury, but is a necessity. What is the use of mobile phones, more and more advanced technologically, if we have nothing to say. It is the lack of a balanced development, a radical domination of have over be, which became one of the main sources of the present economic crisis. Whenever having dominates being, life becomes a game. Rev. Tischner wrote in Poland is the homeland: “That we do not think yet, becomes quite evident also for a non-philosopher, by the consequences which arise from here: pollution of the natural environment, accumulation of nuclear weapons, division of the world into political blocks, poverty of ones and wealth of the others, pathology of the struggle for power. The player predicts the end of the game. This is where his fear comes from. The fear is the more painful that the player’s end of the game is always the opponent’s winning. The player is afraid not to lose, and at the same time he knows he has to lose. The only solution for him is to work out new strategies of conquering of the rebelling world and his opponents, that is to start a new game, a new fight and await new losers. Is there any way out of this madness? [...] Thus, we have no other choice as to exchange one reason for another one – a reason which does not take delight in winning the game, the reason which finds solace in the act of giving testimony” [Tischner, 1985, pp. 97, 102]. This act of testimony is culture.
14
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Literature Ingarden R., Książeczka o człowieku, Kraków 1987.
Jarzębski J., Metamorfozy kanonu, „Znak” 1994, № 470.
Tischner J., Myślenie według wartości, Kraków 1982.
Skarga B., Granice historyczności, Warszawa 2005.
Grygiel S, Naród i kultura, „Znak” 1982, № 329.
Simmel G., Filozofia kultury. Wybór esejów, Kraków
Osęka A., Po rewolucji artystycznej, na ruinach norm, „Znak” 1994, № 470. Stróżewski W., O wielkości, Kraków 2002. Makowski J., Media pełne głupot, „Gazeta Wyborcza”,
2007. Rozmowy w Castel Gandolfo. O kryzysie, ed. K. Michalski, Warszawa 1990. Tischner J., Polska jest Ojczyzną, Paris 1985.
15.04.2009.
15.04.2009. Stróżewski W., O wielkości, Kraków 2002. „Znak” 1994, № 470. Osęka A., Po rewolucji artystycznej, na ruinach norm,
Tischner J., Polska jest Ojczyzną, Paris 1985. ski, Warszawa 1990. Rozmowy w Castel Gandolfo. O kryzysie, ed. K. Michal2007. Simmel G., Filozofia kultury. Wybór esejów, Kraków
Grygiel S, Naród i kultura, „Znak” 1982, № 329.
Skarga B., Granice historyczności, Warszawa 2005.
Tischner J., Myślenie według wartości, Kraków 1982. Ingarden R., Książeczka o człowieku, Kraków 1987.
Literature
470. Jarzębski J., Metamorfozy kanonu, „Znak” 1994, № Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Makowski J., Media pełne głupot, „Gazeta Wyborcza”,
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Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
What is Cultural Policy?
In the current financial year 2010, the Federal Republic does not have means from the past at its disposal, means from the present by taxes will cover only three quarters of budget assumptions, and means from the future must cover the fourth quarter (new loans of 80 billion euros). The fundamental dysfunctionality of the social insurance system must be covered by state donations to the scarce pension fund at exactly this level (78 billion euros). The 2010 struggle for a fair order is burdened in half by the problems of previous generations (40 billion euros or one-sixth of current federal fiscal income goes towards the payment of interest of debts amounting today to 1,0 billion euros), and in half it may encumber the future generations that are not yet represented in Parliament.
2
In the Julius Tower at the Spandau citadel, actually neither the savings of the Reich nor of its predecessors were stored, but the French post-war contributions from 1871.
1
Matthias Theodor Vogt
L
iber, sonus, imago, ludus (book, sound, picture, play) are means of breadwinning, of cultivation, of delight or of indoctrination. One can not think about these means dissociating them from man (something like ars gratia artis – art for art’s sake – does not exist, but is a mere Hollywood invention; see below). Instead there are four dimensions associating Muses and man: Ars gratia culturae – art for culture’s sake: When we look to that field of culture which is inspired by the Muses, being the subject matter of the science of cultural policy, and when we choose a purely prosaic fiscal approach to artistic and humanistic activities, it turns out that in the Federal Republic of Germany this field contributes 44 billion euros (500 euros per inhabitant) resp. almost 2% of the GDP. Ars gratia libertatis – art for freeedom’s sake: Cultural expenditure constitutes 2% of private consumption. Politia gratia artis – policies for arts’ sake: Current efforts of German politics to create a framework for art and culture are of exemplary character within Europe. Ars gratia politiae – art for the sake of living together: The significance of artistic and humanistic activities for the common good is considerable, albeit it may be difficult to provide numerical estimation of their contribution. The following text aims to explain the situation taking examples from Germany and its specific positive law system. In all four dimensions, cultural policy is a genuine field for scientific research and debates.
Translation: Mathias Vogt and Agnieszka Jakubiec
A budget orientated approach
I
n a pragmatic first approach, cultural policy is what politics understands under this term when it appropriates funds in the budget. Our political system assumes that, within a nation, the populace is the sovereign, that its representative is the Parliament, and that the latter’s ‘royal’ privilege is the right to establish the budget. In a democratic system, the budget of a territorial entity constitutes the material substrate of the struggling for a fair order – within the frame of available budgetary resources. Different basic political assumptions will be represented by different parties eligible by the people. Their power play is mirrored in the diversity of priorities for specific areas of politics. Numerically, this diversity figures as the diversity of amounts designated for specific titles. For the purpose of financing the state budget, the following resources are at disposal: (1) reserves from the past through a brimmed state treasury, erroneously called ‘Tower of Julius’,1 (2) current revenue from taxes and other state income, and (3) financial settlements that burden the future. Whoever presumes, in the light of the extent of the latter2, that it would not matter whether the German federal level contributes 0,0031% of its general budget to culture or does so with another sum, the one forgets that vehemence in political debates does not depend on the number of zeros – debates concerning big and biggest sums tend to be conducted less vehemently. Within the specific logics of budget
iber, sonus, imago, ludus (book, sound, picture, play) are means of breadwinning, of cultivation, of delight or of indoctrination. One can not think about these means dissociating them from man (something like ars gratia artis – art for art’s sake – does not exist, but is a mere Hollywood invention; see below). Instead there are four dimensions associating Muses and man: Ars gratia culturae – art for culture’s sake: When we look to that field of culture which is inspired by the Muses, being the subject matter of the science of cultural policy, and when we choose a purely prosaic fiscal approach to artistic and humanistic activities, it turns out that in the Federal Republic of Germany this field contributes 44 billion euros (500 euros per inhabitant) resp. almost 2% of the GDP. Ars gratia libertatis – art for freeedom’s sake: Cultural expenditure constitutes 2% of private consumption. Politia gratia artis – policies for arts’ sake: Current efforts of German politics to create a framework for art and culture are of exemplary character within Europe. Ars gratia politiae – art for the sake of living together: The significance of artistic and humanistic activities for the common good is considerable, albeit it may be difficult to provide numerical estimation of their contribution. The following text aims to explain the situation taking examples from Germany and its specific positive law system. In all four dimensions, cultural policy is a genuine field for scientific research and debates.
L
Matthias Theodor Vogt 1
In the Julius Tower at the Spandau citadel, actually neither the savings of the Reich nor of its predecessors were stored, but the French post-war contributions from 1871.
2
In the current financial year 2010, the Federal Republic does not have means from the past at its disposal, means from the present by taxes will cover only three quarters of budget assumptions, and means from the future must cover the fourth quarter (new loans of 80 billion euros). The fundamental dysfunctionality of the social insurance system must be covered by state donations to the scarce pension fund at exactly this level (78 billion euros). The 2010 struggle for a fair order is burdened in half by the problems of previous generations (40 billion euros or one-sixth of current federal fiscal income goes towards the payment of interest of debts amounting today to 1,0 billion euros), and in half it may encumber the future generations that are not yet represented in Parliament.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
15
Matthias Theodor Vogt Professor of Cultural Policy and Cultural History in the Department of Economics at the University of Applied Sciences Zittau/Görlitz (since 1997). Currently Vice-Dean (since 2005) and Commissioner for Accreditation (since 2006). Founding Director of the Institute for Cultural Infrastructures Saxony. Visiting Professor at Technische Universität Dresden, Sociology Department (2001-2005); at Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Human Sciences (since 2002); at University of Wroclaw, German Department (2003). More than 100 Books and Articles authored, edited and co-edited. Author of conception, assertion and implementation of Saxonian Cultural Areas Act as amended on 20.01.1994 (1992-1995). Founder of the „Culture and Management“ Program Görlitz under the auspices of UNESCO (1997), trinational Institute for Advanced Study „Collegium PONTES Görlitz-ZgorzelecZhořelec“ in co-operation of University of Applied Sciences Zittau/ Görlitz, University of
n a pragmatic first approach, cultural policy is what politics understands under this term when it appropriates funds in the budget. Our political system assumes that, within a nation, the populace is the sovereign, that its representative is the Parliament, and that the latter’s ‘royal’ privilege is the right to establish the budget. In a democratic system, the budget of a territorial entity constitutes the material substrate of the struggling for a fair order – within the frame of available budgetary resources. Different basic political assumptions will be represented by different parties eligible by the people. Their power play is mirrored in the diversity of priorities for specific areas of politics. Numerically, this diversity figures as the diversity of amounts designated for specific titles. For the purpose of financing the state budget, the following resources are at disposal: (1) reserves from the past through a brimmed state treasury, erroneously called ‘Tower of Julius’,1 (2) current revenue from taxes and other state income, and (3) financial settlements that burden the future. Whoever presumes, in the light of the extent of the latter2, that it would not matter whether the German federal level contributes 0,0031% of its general budget to culture or does so with another sum, the one forgets that vehemence in political debates does not depend on the number of zeros – debates concerning big and biggest sums tend to be conducted less vehemently. Within the specific logics of budget
I
A budget orientated approach Translation: Mathias Vogt and Agnieszka Jakubiec
What is Cultural Policy?
Matthias Theodor Vogt Professor of Cultural Policy and Cultural History in the Department of Economics at the University of Applied Sciences Zittau/Görlitz (since 1997). Currently Vice-Dean (since 2005) and Commissioner for Accreditation (since 2006). Founding Director of the Institute for Cultural Infrastructures Saxony. Visiting Professor at Technische Universität Dresden, Sociology Department (2001-2005); at Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Human Sciences (since 2002); at University of Wroclaw, German Department (2003). More than 100 Books and Articles authored, edited and co-edited. Author of conception, assertion and implementation of Saxonian Cultural Areas Act as amended on 20.01.1994 (1992-1995). Founder of the „Culture and Management“ Program Görlitz under the auspices of UNESCO (1997), trinational Institute for Advanced Study „Collegium PONTES Görlitz-ZgorzelecZhořelec“ in co-operation of University of Applied Sciences Zittau/ Görlitz, University of
16 Wrocław, Charles University in Prague and Institute for Cultural Infrastructures Saxony (2001). Founder of the „International Arts’ Summer School GörlitzZgorzelec-Zhořelec“ (2003). Scientific interests include cultural transformation processes in Europe, art policy with emphasis on stratagematalogy, fundamental problems of cultural infrastructures.
with the question whether the giving body will perceive the receiving body as part of its own structure or whether it will see it as an Aliud. Administration tends to trust the first and to distrust the latter. The superior function 18 comprises a type of allocations called Zuweisungen with which an entity finances its own institution or an institution for which it is jointly responsible, such as e.g. the Bayreuth Wagner Festival. The superior function 19 comprises a type of allocations called Zuwendungen to third parties’ institutions or projects, and which are strictly regulated. This differentiation is specific to German administration language. In French and in English it might correspond to the difference of assignation versus donation, but both are not termini technici for a state’s action. The Berlin guidelines for public budgets state frankly: “Subsidies in the type of Zuwendungen are cash benefits which in principle depend on the administration’s discretion (ex gratia benefits). They serve to achieve specific goals in places beyond Berlin administration. They are financial benefits of public-law character connected with specific goals, which Berlin pays for in order to fulfill public tasks. The recipient does not hold a legal claim neither to the grounds not to the amount of allocated support before the funds are allocated. A direct exchange of services does not take place either. Funds are allocated to the recipient for the realization of tasks which Berlin is largely interested in supporting (and so realizing the goal). Funds can only be allocated in cases where this interest of Berlin cannot be satisfied without this fund or cannot be satisfied to a necessary extent”3. If one would dare to apply such guidelines in a strict manner, then the question of an optimal allocation – optimal from the point of view of national economy – ought to be examined independently of the interests of the respective entity and of operational interests. Actually, neither will such an analysis be undertaken, nor have the parameters sufficient for making such an evaluation been worked out. What type of culture politics is interested in, might be seen at the ‘Annex: The function plan overview’ to the Berlin ‘Guidelines on Elaborating the Pre-Plan to the Draft Budget Plan’. Thus, from an administrative point of view, e.g. circus art is not a subject matter of West German cultural policy, as it has been in national socialism or in the socialist countries, or as it is in the People’s Republic of China or in France.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
negotiations, it was wise to estimate the cost of rebuilding the Berlin Castle to an amount of five-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero (500 000 000) euros. This allowed to put aside the question of Why and What for of rebuilding. The preparations for the construction works are in progress, but for the time being (spring 2010) these questions are unanswered. In order to systematize the cameralistic manner of calculating the budget in the public administration, German administration worked out a uniform four-stage procedure which is used in the whole federation on all levels. It comprises: MM department plan (for cultural policy the significant plans are: “EP°04” = Unit Plan No. 4 concerning the Federal Chancellery, Chapter 04 05 = ‘Beauftragter für Kultur und Medien’ / Plenipotentiary for Culture and Media. Its abbreviation ‘BKM’ sounds almost like the abbreviation for a ‘BundesKulturMinister’, but a Federal Minister of Culture is [yet?] not allowed to exist ); MM grouping plan (‘GPI’; main groups 0-3 = types of income, main groups 4-9 = types of expenditure; in our case ‘Group 684 = subsidies for current purposes for social institutions and others similar to them’); MM employment plan (civil servant, white-collar worker, manual worker); MM and function plan – the one of interest to us. Within this system, the Bayreuth Richard Wagner Festival received in the budget year 2009 in ‘Chapter 04 05’, ‘Item 684 21’, ‘Function indicator 182’ the allocation of funds in the amount of 1.673 000 euros. This corresponds to a financial contribution by the Federal level of the state in the amount of 30,77% of public subsidies (which comprise 5.437 000 euros) or 12,54% of the festival budget (which comprise 13.341 000 euros). The function plan is based on function indicators. In the case of each budget item, after the item as such, there is a dash, and then, three numbers referring successively to main function, to superior function and to specific function. Within the system of function indicators, cultural policy is an item subordinate to the main function 1 (system of education, science, research, culture-related issues) comprising both superior function 18 (cultural institutions including management of culture) and superior function 19 (supporting culture, protection of monuments, church matters). The difference between these two superior functions is connected
16
[Senat of Berlin] Richtlinien für die Aufstellung der Voranschläge zum Entwurf des Haushaltsplans, (Haushaltstechnische Richtlinien - HtR) = Guidelines on Elaborating the Pre-Plan to the Draft Budget Plan, (Technical Budget Guidelines) of October 24th 2006 (DBl. I, p. 37).
[Senat of Berlin] Richtlinien für die Aufstellung der Voranschläge zum Entwurf des Haushaltsplans, (Haushaltstechnische Richtlinien - HtR) = Guidelines on Elaborating the Pre-Plan to the Draft Budget Plan, (Technical Budget Guidelines) of October 24th 2006 (DBl. I, p. 37).
3
with the question whether the giving body will perceive the receiving body as part of its own structure or whether it will see it as an Aliud. Administration tends to trust the first and to distrust the latter. The superior function 18 comprises a type of allocations called Zuweisungen with which an entity finances its own institution or an institution for which it is jointly responsible, such as e.g. the Bayreuth Wagner Festival. The superior function 19 comprises a type of allocations called Zuwendungen to third parties’ institutions or projects, and which are strictly regulated. This differentiation is specific to German administration language. In French and in English it might correspond to the difference of assignation versus donation, but both are not termini technici for a state’s action. The Berlin guidelines for public budgets state frankly: “Subsidies in the type of Zuwendungen are cash benefits which in principle depend on the administration’s discretion (ex gratia benefits). They serve to achieve specific goals in places beyond Berlin administration. They are financial benefits of public-law character connected with specific goals, which Berlin pays for in order to fulfill public tasks. The recipient does not hold a legal claim neither to the grounds not to the amount of allocated support before the funds are allocated. A direct exchange of services does not take place either. Funds are allocated to the recipient for the realization of tasks which Berlin is largely interested in supporting (and so realizing the goal). Funds can only be allocated in cases where this interest of Berlin cannot be satisfied without this fund or cannot be satisfied to a necessary extent”3. If one would dare to apply such guidelines in a strict manner, then the question of an optimal allocation – optimal from the point of view of national economy – ought to be examined independently of the interests of the respective entity and of operational interests. Actually, neither will such an analysis be undertaken, nor have the parameters sufficient for making such an evaluation been worked out. What type of culture politics is interested in, might be seen at the ‘Annex: The function plan overview’ to the Berlin ‘Guidelines on Elaborating the Pre-Plan to the Draft Budget Plan’. Thus, from an administrative point of view, e.g. circus art is not a subject matter of West German cultural policy, as it has been in national socialism or in the socialist countries, or as it is in the People’s Republic of China or in France.
3
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Wrocław, Charles University in Prague and Institute for Cultural Infrastructures Saxony (2001). Founder of the „International Arts’ Summer School GörlitzZgorzelec-Zhořelec“ (2003). Scientific interests include cultural transformation processes in Europe, art policy with emphasis on stratagematalogy, fundamental problems of cultural infrastructures.
negotiations, it was wise to estimate the cost of rebuilding the Berlin Castle to an amount of five-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero-zero (500 000 000) euros. This allowed to put aside the question of Why and What for of rebuilding. The preparations for the construction works are in progress, but for the time being (spring 2010) these questions are unanswered. In order to systematize the cameralistic manner of calculating the budget in the public administration, German administration worked out a uniform four-stage procedure which is used in the whole federation on all levels. It comprises: MM department plan (for cultural policy the significant plans are: “EP°04” = Unit Plan No. 4 concerning the Federal Chancellery, Chapter 04 05 = ‘Beauftragter für Kultur und Medien’ / Plenipotentiary for Culture and Media. Its abbreviation ‘BKM’ sounds almost like the abbreviation for a ‘BundesKulturMinister’, but a Federal Minister of Culture is [yet?] not allowed to exist ); MM grouping plan (‘GPI’; main groups 0-3 = types of income, main groups 4-9 = types of expenditure; in our case ‘Group 684 = subsidies for current purposes for social institutions and others similar to them’); MM employment plan (civil servant, white-collar worker, manual worker); MM and function plan – the one of interest to us. Within this system, the Bayreuth Richard Wagner Festival received in the budget year 2009 in ‘Chapter 04 05’, ‘Item 684 21’, ‘Function indicator 182’ the allocation of funds in the amount of 1.673 000 euros. This corresponds to a financial contribution by the Federal level of the state in the amount of 30,77% of public subsidies (which comprise 5.437 000 euros) or 12,54% of the festival budget (which comprise 13.341 000 euros). The function plan is based on function indicators. In the case of each budget item, after the item as such, there is a dash, and then, three numbers referring successively to main function, to superior function and to specific function. Within the system of function indicators, cultural policy is an item subordinate to the main function 1 (system of education, science, research, culture-related issues) comprising both superior function 18 (cultural institutions including management of culture) and superior function 19 (supporting culture, protection of monuments, church matters). The difference between these two superior functions is connected
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
A graver problem is that in the documents there is no column with the heading ‘Language policy’. Thus one of the central areas of cultural policy in Europe lacks, whether as a curio like the crypto-language in Portuguese Minde, or as an element of nation building like in Finland, or as supranationally registered ‘immaterial cultural heritage of mankind’ like the whistled language Silbo in La Gomera. On the basis of new developments in international law, linguistic policy towards national minorities is becoming a significant area of politics.4 The following abridgment of the Berlin budget shows the system of function indicators: 1 System of education, study, research, culture-related issues 18 Cultural institutions (including management of culture) Establishment, maintenance and management of own institutions, Support of institutions of third parties (does not include: supporting single theatrical plays, music festivals, poetry reading, etc., compare functions from 191 to 193; Cultural institutions abroad, compare function 024) 181 Theatres [Drama] theatres, opera houses 182 Institutions supporting music Professional orchestras (when not part of theatres), choirs, music halls 183 Museums, collections, exhibitions Museums, collections, permanent art exhibitions, archives dedicated to regional, literary and music items 184 Zoological and botanical gardens Zoological garden, aquariums, botanical garden (does not include: landscape parks, compare function 321) 185 Music schools Youth music schools (does not include vocational schools, compare function 127) 186 Non-scientific libraries Libraries, reading-rooms, youth libraries and touring libraries, library institutions, music libraries (does not include: scientific libraries, scientific archives, compare function 162, school media libraries, compare function 129) 187 Other cultural institutions Civic cinemas, centres of culture, astronomical observatories (if they are not research institutions), cinematographic institutions, institutions of homeland preservation, institutional support of circuses, institutional support of associations established
4
for the preservation and promotion of literary works (does not include: local centres of culture and rural centres of culture as well as urban halls, multifunctional halls, see function 439; sports halls compare function 323, collections and archives, compare functions from 162 to 183; artistic schools and similar institutions dealing with cultural pedagogy compare function 153 institutional support of associations whose primary role is running special cultural institutions such as theatres, museums or archives, compare functions from 181 to 186). 188 Administrative institutions for culture-related issues State offices for monument preservation, administration bodies of state-owned castles and gardens, (does not include: library institutions, compare function 186; administration bodies of nature protection, compare function 331; State Offices for monuments or administrative units of castles and state-owned palaces when the main scope of their activity is maintenance and management of castles, palaces and monuments, compare function 195) 19 Supporting culture, protection of monuments, church issues (does not include: issues connected with culture abroad, compare function 024) 191 Single activities in the field of theatre and cultivation of music Supporting theatrical festivals, music festivals, rock concerts, cultural theatrical and music awards, organizing single events in the field of theatre and cultivation of music for which there is a separate preliminary estimate. 192 Single events in the field of museums and exhibitions Supporting single exhibitions, fine arts, grants for artists at work, prizes, organization of single exhibitions for which there is a separate preliminary estimate. 193 Other single events in the field of culture Film promotions (cinema and TV films), supporting film festivals, festivals devoted to the homeland and its customs, as well as literary festivals, literary awards and general artistic awards, grants for writers, organizing single film festivals, festivals devoted to a homeland and customs for which there is a separate preliminary estimate. 195 Conservation and preservation of monuments Institutions: palaces and castles of important
For current research results see: Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (ed.): Der Fremde als Bereicherung. Schriften des Collegium Pontes, Vol V. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in print]. Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (ed.): Minderheiten als Mehrwert. Schriften des Collegium PONTES, Vol. VI. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in print].
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For current research results see: Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (ed.): Der Fremde als Bereicherung. Schriften des Collegium Pontes, Vol V. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in print]. Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (ed.): Minderheiten als Mehrwert. Schriften des Collegium PONTES, Vol. VI. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in print].
1 System of education, study, research, culture-related issues 18 Cultural institutions (including management of culture) Establishment, maintenance and management of own institutions, Support of institutions of third parties (does not include: supporting single theatrical plays, music festivals, poetry reading, etc., compare functions from 191 to 193; Cultural institutions abroad, compare function 024) 181 Theatres [Drama] theatres, opera houses 182 Institutions supporting music Professional orchestras (when not part of theatres), choirs, music halls 183 Museums, collections, exhibitions Museums, collections, permanent art exhibitions, archives dedicated to regional, literary and music items 184 Zoological and botanical gardens Zoological garden, aquariums, botanical garden (does not include: landscape parks, compare function 321) 185 Music schools Youth music schools (does not include vocational schools, compare function 127) 186 Non-scientific libraries Libraries, reading-rooms, youth libraries and touring libraries, library institutions, music libraries (does not include: scientific libraries, scientific archives, compare function 162, school media libraries, compare function 129) 187 Other cultural institutions Civic cinemas, centres of culture, astronomical observatories (if they are not research institutions), cinematographic institutions, institutions of homeland preservation, institutional support of circuses, institutional support of associations established A graver problem is that in the documents there is no column with the heading ‘Language policy’. Thus one of the central areas of cultural policy in Europe lacks, whether as a curio like the crypto-language in Portuguese Minde, or as an element of nation building like in Finland, or as supranationally registered ‘immaterial cultural heritage of mankind’ like the whistled language Silbo in La Gomera. On the basis of new developments in international law, linguistic policy towards national minorities is becoming a significant area of politics.4 The following abridgment of the Berlin budget shows the system of function indicators:
19 Supporting culture, protection of monuments, church issues (does not include: issues connected with culture abroad, compare function 024) 191 Single activities in the field of theatre and cultivation of music Supporting theatrical festivals, music festivals, rock concerts, cultural theatrical and music awards, organizing single events in the field of theatre and cultivation of music for which there is a separate preliminary estimate. 192 Single events in the field of museums and exhibitions Supporting single exhibitions, fine arts, grants for artists at work, prizes, organization of single exhibitions for which there is a separate preliminary estimate. 193 Other single events in the field of culture Film promotions (cinema and TV films), supporting film festivals, festivals devoted to the homeland and its customs, as well as literary festivals, literary awards and general artistic awards, grants for writers, organizing single film festivals, festivals devoted to a homeland and customs for which there is a separate preliminary estimate. 195 Conservation and preservation of monuments Institutions: palaces and castles of important for the preservation and promotion of literary works (does not include: local centres of culture and rural centres of culture as well as urban halls, multifunctional halls, see function 439; sports halls compare function 323, collections and archives, compare functions from 162 to 183; artistic schools and similar institutions dealing with cultural pedagogy compare function 153 institutional support of associations whose primary role is running special cultural institutions such as theatres, museums or archives, compare functions from 181 to 186). 188 Administrative institutions for culture-related issues State offices for monument preservation, administration bodies of state-owned castles and gardens, (does not include: library institutions, compare function 186; administration bodies of nature protection, compare function 331; State Offices for monuments or administrative units of castles and state-owned palaces when the main scope of their activity is maintenance and management of castles, palaces and monuments, compare function 195)
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Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3) Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
artistic and historical heritage, historical buildings, excavation sites, monuments and remembrance sites, donations for maintenance, renovation and reconstruction of architectural, archeological and cultural monuments (does not include: palaces and castles which serve as buildings for other institutions [e.g. research centres, compare functions from 162 to 165; places of continuing education, compare superior function 15]) 199 Church-related issues Subsidies for religious communities, supporting single events with religious purposes (does not include: subsidies for religious communities for establishing and maintenance of schools, compare functions from 112 to 127; for social institutions, compare superior functions 23/24; for health care providers, compare superior function 15)
18
Federation level, Länder level, Community level, Multicommunity level, Churches
Vogt, Matthias Theodor (2005): Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland. The Institute of the Cultural Infrastructure of Saxony upon request of the Enquete Commission ‘Culture in Germany’ of the German Bundestag. German Bundestag, K.-Drs. 15/414b.
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and are partners of a federation, so the level of lands or federal states. Within this text, the translation uses Federation level for ‘Bund’ or top level, and Lands level for the ‘Länder’ or regional level of the state. The question of superiority between these two state areas has remained open since the Nuremberg decree from 1356, later called the Golden Bull, when Charles IV could not go through with his plans to regulate the question of central power. On the contrary, Art. 5 Item 2 of this decree reads that the infringement of the law of ‘the Roman King’ will be investigated before Count Palatine of the Rhine, thus he himself might potentially become an object of earthly justice. Charles’s complaint placed at the very beginning sounds almost like a motto of a special federalist commission: “Omne regnum in se ipsum divisum desolabitur; nam principes eius facti sunt socii furum5/ Every kingdom divided shall be forsaken, because its counts have become thieves’ companions6.” In contemporary state practice the federation president (Unit plan 01) is a representative of the whole country; the federation parliament Bundestag or its president (Unit plan 02) has the priority for the records and for planning a budget before the federation council of the lands Bundesrat or its president (Unit plan 03). However, from the point of view of cultural policy, the superiority of lands is seen not only with reference to budget; the constitution seems to authorize the federation level only for the external cultural policy (but this is a misunderstanding; see below). Local territorial units (in the Golden Bull called ‘communitates civitatum’ – communites of citizens), below these two state levels, won over and preserved from the Middle Ages, beginning with Lombardy, the right to ‘regulate all matters of local community in accordance with the acts on their own responsibility’ (Art. 28 Item 2 of the German constitution; similarly the constitu-
Compare Vogt. Matthias Theodor (1997): Kulturräume in Sachsen, eine Dokumentation. With Bertram Kober’s photographic material and Fritz Ossenbühl’s legal examination. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band I, Universitätsverlag Leipzig, 1. issue. 1994, 2. issue. 1996, 3. issue. 1997.
ur first pragmatic approach to the question ‘What is cultural policy?’ assumed the fiction of omnicompetence of the state. In reality, the state is only a subsystem of public-law entities and it should be differentiated by separating regions and federal level. In Switzerland they are called cantons and federation (Kantone and Bund, Art. 5 Item 4 of the Swiss Constitution from 1999 et passim), in Austria – federal states and federation (Bundesländer and Bund, Art. 1 Item 1 and Art. 5 Item 1 of the Austrian Constitution from 1929 et passim), in Germany – lands and federation (Länder and Bund, Art. 10 in the German Constitution from 1949 et passim – in Germany there are no ‘federal states’). ‘Federal’ means in an American language use the proper level of a federal state (compare e.g. FBI); while ‘föderal’ in the European, not a fully logical language use, it means those entities which on a regional level are ‘federating’
7
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Karl ‘The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, emperor IV.’: The Golden Bull: a document reforming the system of the German Reich of Emperor Charles IV from 1356 [Akad. d. Wiss. d. DDR, Zentralinst. für Geschichte]. Translation into German: Wolfgang D. Fritz., certified historically by Eckhard Müller-Mertens, Weimar: Böhlau 1978, pp. 39-88. Also: http://pom.bbaw.de/ mgh/index.php.
Zeumer, Karl: Quellen und Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Deutschen Reiches in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Vol. II, Booklet 2. Die Goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV. Zweiter Teil: Text der Goldenen Bulle und Urkunden zu ihrer Geschichte und Erläuterung. Weimar 1908.
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Zeumer, Karl: Quellen und Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Deutschen Reiches in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Vol. II, Booklet 2. Die Goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV. Zweiter Teil: Text der Goldenen Bulle und Urkunden zu ihrer Geschichte und Erläuterung. Weimar 1908.
Karl ‘The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, emperor IV.’: The Golden Bull: a document reforming the system of the German Reich of Emperor Charles IV from 1356 [Akad. d. Wiss. d. DDR, Zentralinst. für Geschichte]. Translation into German: Wolfgang D. Fritz., certified historically by Eckhard Müller-Mertens, Weimar: Böhlau 1978, pp. 39-88. Also: http://pom.bbaw.de/ mgh/index.php.
5
7
ur first pragmatic approach to the question ‘What is cultural policy?’ assumed the fiction of omnicompetence of the state. In reality, the state is only a subsystem of public-law entities and it should be differentiated by separating regions and federal level. In Switzerland they are called cantons and federation (Kantone and Bund, Art. 5 Item 4 of the Swiss Constitution from 1999 et passim), in Austria – federal states and federation (Bundesländer and Bund, Art. 1 Item 1 and Art. 5 Item 1 of the Austrian Constitution from 1929 et passim), in Germany – lands and federation (Länder and Bund, Art. 10 in the German Constitution from 1949 et passim – in Germany there are no ‘federal states’). ‘Federal’ means in an American language use the proper level of a federal state (compare e.g. FBI); while ‘föderal’ in the European, not a fully logical language use, it means those entities which on a regional level are ‘federating’
Compare Vogt. Matthias Theodor (1997): Kulturräume in Sachsen, eine Dokumentation. With Bertram Kober’s photographic material and Fritz Ossenbühl’s legal examination. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band I, Universitätsverlag Leipzig, 1. issue. 1994, 2. issue. 1996, 3. issue. 1997.
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Federation level, Länder level, Community level, Multicommunity level, Churches
and are partners of a federation, so the level of lands or federal states. Within this text, the translation uses Federation level for ‘Bund’ or top level, and Lands level for the ‘Länder’ or regional level of the state. The question of superiority between these two state areas has remained open since the Nuremberg decree from 1356, later called the Golden Bull, when Charles IV could not go through with his plans to regulate the question of central power. On the contrary, Art. 5 Item 2 of this decree reads that the infringement of the law of ‘the Roman King’ will be investigated before Count Palatine of the Rhine, thus he himself might potentially become an object of earthly justice. Charles’s complaint placed at the very beginning sounds almost like a motto of a special federalist commission: “Omne regnum in se ipsum divisum desolabitur; nam principes eius facti sunt socii furum5/ Every kingdom divided shall be forsaken, because its counts have become thieves’ companions6.” In contemporary state practice the federation president (Unit plan 01) is a representative of the whole country; the federation parliament Bundestag or its president (Unit plan 02) has the priority for the records and for planning a budget before the federation council of the lands Bundesrat or its president (Unit plan 03). However, from the point of view of cultural policy, the superiority of lands is seen not only with reference to budget; the constitution seems to authorize the federation level only for the external cultural policy (but this is a misunderstanding; see below). Local territorial units (in the Golden Bull called ‘communitates civitatum’ – communites of citizens), below these two state levels, won over and preserved from the Middle Ages, beginning with Lombardy, the right to ‘regulate all matters of local community in accordance with the acts on their own responsibility’ (Art. 28 Item 2 of the German constitution; similarly the constitu-
Vogt, Matthias Theodor (2005): Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland. The Institute of the Cultural Infrastructure of Saxony upon request of the Enquete Commission ‘Culture in Germany’ of the German Bundestag. German Bundestag, K.-Drs. 15/414b.
artistic and historical heritage, historical buildings, excavation sites, monuments and remembrance sites, donations for maintenance, renovation and reconstruction of architectural, archeological and cultural monuments (does not include: palaces and castles which serve as buildings for other institutions [e.g. research centres, compare functions from 162 to 165; places of continuing education, compare superior function 15]) 199 Church-related issues Subsidies for religious communities, supporting single events with religious purposes (does not include: subsidies for religious communities for establishing and maintenance of schools, compare functions from 112 to 127; for social institutions, compare superior functions 23/24; for health care providers, compare superior function 15)
19
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
tions of all lands). Art. 28 Item 2, p. 2 German constitution states there are two types of local territorial units. On the one hand gemeindes (municipal boroughs in the 1888 British law, now municipality), on the other hand associations of gemeindes, which can either have a non specific range of tasks, the kreises (administrative counties in the 1888 British law, now county; Syndicat intercommunal à vocation multiple in the French law of 1959, now Communauté de communes), as well as a specific nature, e.g. matters of local public transport, rubbish collection, water supply, etc. In Saxony (Sachsen) every kreis must by law be a member of a regional Kulturraum (Syndicat intercommunal à vocation culturelle)7 which are obligatory associations financing culture. As far as the German cultural policy is concerned, public charges are split on all three levels: MM a sum total of 1 billion euros at the state level of the federation MM a sum total of 3,5 billion euros at the state level of lands MM a sum total of 3,5 billion euros at the community level (both gemeindes and kreises; most of it on charge of cities with more than 100.000 inhabitants. Subsidies of territorial legal entities for cultural policy annually amount to the total of 8 billion euros. Public entities are however not necessarily linked to a territory (territorial bodies) or to a wealth (real body). A public entity can also be made by a body of people which form a corporation (a corpus membrorum). In the field of German cultural policy, these are especially the Catholic and the Evangelical churches. They spend 4 billion euros annually on cultural tasks.8 These ecclesiastical subsidies are not included in the Financial Report on Cultural Issues of the Federal Statistical Office Wiesbaden and, consequently, they have to be added to the sum of 8 billion euros presented there. Thus, the total sum of expenses borne by German public institutions (territorial and corporation) is 12 billion euros annually.
The international union of states off the track?
T
he international union of states formulated a definition of culture which does not include any content functional from the point of view of politics, and thus remains fugitive. The World UNESCO Conference on cultural policy in 1982 in Mexico: “agrees: that in its widest sense, culture may now be said to be the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs”.9 In a way it is absurd that a conference dominated by representatives from the so-called Third World, quoted Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917). The ethnographer in 1871 established an order of cultures arranged progressively with Europe being the centre that was quoted at the came: “On the basis of the comparative analysis ethnographers are able to define an outline of the development of our civilization [sic]. With high probability it can be stated that races are arranged in the order of the cultures: Australian, Tahitian, Aztec, Chinese, Italian”.10 In the introduction to the same volume Primitive Culture it is written: “Culture or civilisation, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that whole complex which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of”.11 The UNESCO definition quote Tylor without his reference to ethnography and without Tylor’s equation of the notion of culture with the notion of civilization. This twin of terms was to make career within the western European languages, leading to severe conflicts.12 “When the goal is achieved, [...] all of a sudden culture comes to a halt, it becomes [...] civilization’ – according to Spengler, who claimed that Occident would have expired”13. The development of both notions was
9
World Conference on Cultural Policy. The final report of the international conference organised by UNESCO in Mexico from July 26th to August 6th. Ed. of the German Commission for UNESCO. Munich 1983 (Reports from the UNESCO Conference, No. 5), p. 121.
10
Tylor, Edward B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom, London 1871, p. 470.
11
Tylor: Primitive Culture, p. 1.
12
Fisch, Jörg: Lemma Zivilisation, Kultur. In: Brunner, Otto e.g. Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland. Published upon order of Arbeitskreis für Moderne Sozialgeschichte. Stuttgart. Vol. 7, pp. 679-774.
13
Spengler, Oswald: Der Untergang des Abendlandes. Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte. Vol. 1, 1918. Vol. 2, 1922.
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13
Spengler, Oswald: Der Untergang des Abendlandes. Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte. Vol. 1, 1918. Vol. 2, 1922. Fisch, Jörg: Lemma Zivilisation, Kultur. In: Brunner, Otto e.g. Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland. Published upon order of Arbeitskreis für Moderne Sozialgeschichte. Stuttgart. Vol. 7, pp. 679-774.
12
Tylor: Primitive Culture, p. 1.
11
Tylor, Edward B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom, London 1871, p. 470.
10
World Conference on Cultural Policy. The final report of the international conference organised by UNESCO in Mexico from July 26th to August 6th. Ed. of the German Commission for UNESCO. Munich 1983 (Reports from the UNESCO Conference, No. 5), p. 121.
9
tions of all lands). Art. 28 Item 2, p. 2 German constitution states there are two types of local territorial units. On the one hand gemeindes (municipal boroughs in the 1888 British law, now municipality), on the other hand associations of gemeindes, which can either have a non specific range of tasks, the kreises (administrative counties in the 1888 British law, now county; Syndicat intercommunal à vocation multiple in the French law of 1959, now Communauté de communes), as well as a specific nature, e.g. matters of local public transport, rubbish collection, water supply, etc. In Saxony (Sachsen) every kreis must by law be a member of a regional Kulturraum (Syndicat intercommunal à vocation culturelle)7 which are obligatory associations financing culture. As far as the German cultural policy is concerned, public charges are split on all three levels: MM a sum total of 1 billion euros at the state level of the federation MM a sum total of 3,5 billion euros at the state level of lands MM a sum total of 3,5 billion euros at the community level (both gemeindes and kreises; most of it on charge of cities with more than 100.000 inhabitants. Subsidies of territorial legal entities for cultural policy annually amount to the total of 8 billion euros. Public entities are however not necessarily linked to a territory (territorial bodies) or to a wealth (real body). A public entity can also be made by a body of people which form a corporation (a corpus membrorum). In the field of German cultural policy, these are especially the Catholic and the Evangelical churches. They spend 4 billion euros annually on cultural tasks.8 These ecclesiastical subsidies are not included in the Financial Report on Cultural Issues of the Federal Statistical Office Wiesbaden and, consequently, they have to be added to the sum of 8 billion euros presented there. Thus, the total sum of expenses borne by German public institutions (territorial and corporation) is 12 billion euros annually.
he international union of states formulated a definition of culture which does not include any content functional from the point of view of politics, and thus remains fugitive. The World UNESCO Conference on cultural policy in 1982 in Mexico: “agrees: that in its widest sense, culture may now be said to be the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs”.9 In a way it is absurd that a conference dominated by representatives from the so-called Third World, quoted Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917). The ethnographer in 1871 established an order of cultures arranged progressively with Europe being the centre that was quoted at the came: “On the basis of the comparative analysis ethnographers are able to define an outline of the development of our civilization [sic]. With high probability it can be stated that races are arranged in the order of the cultures: Australian, Tahitian, Aztec, Chinese, Italian”.10 In the introduction to the same volume Primitive Culture it is written: “Culture or civilisation, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that whole complex which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of”.11 The UNESCO definition quote Tylor without his reference to ethnography and without Tylor’s equation of the notion of culture with the notion of civilization. This twin of terms was to make career within the western European languages, leading to severe conflicts.12 “When the goal is achieved, [...] all of a sudden culture comes to a halt, it becomes [...] civilization’ – according to Spengler, who claimed that Occident would have expired”13. The development of both notions was
T
The international union of states off the track?
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Fisch 1978, p. 744.
15
Kroeber, Alfred; Kluckhohn, Clyde: Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47. 1952.- Various further works until contemporary times.
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extraordinarily complex and it proceeded differently in every European language. In 1952 Kroeber and Kluckhohn made a catalogue containing over 200 definitions of the notion of culture14 – in the 19th century “culture and civilization became the criterion of Europe’s leading position in the world”15. One of the most original definitions of culture was formulated by Bismarck: “It was only this means of transport [i.e. railway] that initiated the whole modern development, thus it is the railway, its executives and clerks – they are the proper subjects of culture”16. From the historical standpoint, one may support Jörg Fisch’s statement17, that ”man defines his/her own actions, his/her own achievements and their results [ ... ] as opposed to what one possesses naturally” – using for this purpose a pair of notions: ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ ‘in the broadest sense of the issue’. “From this perspective the issue itself constitutes an element of the human existence”18. (It would be nice if we could also trust yet another statement: “Similarly, consciousness of the above may be presumed as part of human conscience”19). When everything becomes culture, the notion of cultural policy ceases to be comprehensible. The ‘United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’ was to be first called ‘United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction’ (which would have been more appropriate in the linguistic sense: being a legal person, it cannot be cultural itself, but it can work for culture). However, upon suggestion of the United States of America, and also in the interest of science it was established in 1945 under the name UNESCO. Its predecessor was on the one hand a Genevian ‘Bureau international d’education’ (its head 1929-1967 was Jean Piaget), first and foremost subordinated to the League of Nations’‘Commission internationale de la coopération intellectuelle’ (later: ‘Organisation’; 1921-46; e.g. Henri
Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Paul Valery, Jules Romains). The organization worked for international peace. Similarly, also the UNESCO founding fathers wanted to maintain the organization ‘destinée à instituer une véritable culture de la paix’ whose goal was to ‘établir solidarité intellectuelle et morale de l’humanité et, ainsi, empêcher le déclenchement d’une nouvelle guerre mondiale20. Humanitas means here mankind, not humanitarianism; the notion ‘culture’ is one of the thousands of hyphenation one, namely culture of peace. Arts are a means to achieve the higher purpose of peace, they play the role of a ‘bastion of peace’. This is what UNESCO wants to achieve according to its mission: “That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed. // Que, les guerres prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes, c’est dans l’esprit des hommes que doivent être élevées les défenses de la paix. (Preambule: Introduction)”.21 // [The German translation translates erroneously: ‘[…] it is in the minds of men that peace must be constructed]. The statement that arts serve peace expresses hopes which may be respectable, but this is an incomplete description. Young people’s aggression is purposefully stirred by the latest types of arts such as TV games; early Hollywood guised patriotic mobilization under the veil of modern form of art, a bit later Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer followed suit under the guise of neo-Latin dictum ars gratia artis (1924); opera of the 19th century is primarily based on the idea of the march; heroic epics did never serve, nor do they now serve, pacifism. Man is not a lamb, how could his/her art be like that, and why should they? However, the fact that ars gratia politiae22, that by means of arts and languages normative, affirmative and at the same time pacifist
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Bismarck, Otto von: Ansprache an die Beamten der Altonaer und Hamburger Eisenbahnen (1.4.1890). FA Vol. 13 (1930), p. 407.
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16
In the classical Latin the word Politia – as a foreign word derived from the Greek word πολιτεία - denotes the constitution and administration of the state (politicus is, just as in the Greek language, only an adjectival derivative). In the Romanian language the word Politia has been preserved until today; in the German language the word was transformed into Polizey. Since the substantive was used already, Politik was coined referring to the adjective.
Fisch 1978, p. 679.
UNESCO: The presentation of the Statute. London – October 16th, 1945. The German translation was made later and is incorrect.
22
17
UNESCO: [self-presentation]. www.unesco.org.
21
Fisch 1978, ibid.
Fisch 1978, ibid.
20
18
Fisch 1978, ibid.
19
Fisch 1978, ibid.
Fisch 1978, p. 679.
18
19
Bismarck, Otto von: Ansprache an die Beamten der Altonaer und Hamburger Eisenbahnen (1.4.1890). FA Vol. 13 (1930), p. 407.
17
UNESCO: [self-presentation]. www.unesco.org.
Fisch 1978, p. 744.
16
20
15
UNESCO: The presentation of the Statute. London – October 16th, 1945. The German translation was made later and is incorrect.
Kroeber, Alfred; Kluckhohn, Clyde: Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47. 1952.- Various further works until contemporary times.
21
14
22
Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Paul Valery, Jules Romains). The organization worked for international peace. Similarly, also the UNESCO founding fathers wanted to maintain the organization ‘destinée à instituer une véritable culture de la paix’ whose goal was to ‘établir solidarité intellectuelle et morale de l’humanité et, ainsi, empêcher le déclenchement d’une nouvelle guerre mondiale20. Humanitas means here mankind, not humanitarianism; the notion ‘culture’ is one of the thousands of hyphenation one, namely culture of peace. Arts are a means to achieve the higher purpose of peace, they play the role of a ‘bastion of peace’. This is what UNESCO wants to achieve according to its mission: “That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed. // Que, les guerres prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes, c’est dans l’esprit des hommes que doivent être élevées les défenses de la paix. (Preambule: Introduction)”.21 // [The German translation translates erroneously: ‘[…] it is in the minds of men that peace must be constructed]. The statement that arts serve peace expresses hopes which may be respectable, but this is an incomplete description. Young people’s aggression is purposefully stirred by the latest types of arts such as TV games; early Hollywood guised patriotic mobilization under the veil of modern form of art, a bit later Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer followed suit under the guise of neo-Latin dictum ars gratia artis (1924); opera of the 19th century is primarily based on the idea of the march; heroic epics did never serve, nor do they now serve, pacifism. Man is not a lamb, how could his/her art be like that, and why should they? However, the fact that ars gratia politiae22, that by means of arts and languages normative, affirmative and at the same time pacifist
In the classical Latin the word Politia – as a foreign word derived from the Greek word πολιτεία - denotes the constitution and administration of the state (politicus is, just as in the Greek language, only an adjectival derivative). In the Romanian language the word Politia has been preserved until today; in the German language the word was transformed into Polizey. Since the substantive was used already, Politik was coined referring to the adjective.
extraordinarily complex and it proceeded differently in every European language. In 1952 Kroeber and Kluckhohn made a catalogue containing over 200 definitions of the notion of culture14 – in the 19th century “culture and civilization became the criterion of Europe’s leading position in the world”15. One of the most original definitions of culture was formulated by Bismarck: “It was only this means of transport [i.e. railway] that initiated the whole modern development, thus it is the railway, its executives and clerks – they are the proper subjects of culture”16. From the historical standpoint, one may support Jörg Fisch’s statement17, that ”man defines his/her own actions, his/her own achievements and their results [ ... ] as opposed to what one possesses naturally” – using for this purpose a pair of notions: ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ ‘in the broadest sense of the issue’. “From this perspective the issue itself constitutes an element of the human existence”18. (It would be nice if we could also trust yet another statement: “Similarly, consciousness of the above may be presumed as part of human conscience”19). When everything becomes culture, the notion of cultural policy ceases to be comprehensible. The ‘United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’ was to be first called ‘United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction’ (which would have been more appropriate in the linguistic sense: being a legal person, it cannot be cultural itself, but it can work for culture). However, upon suggestion of the United States of America, and also in the interest of science it was established in 1945 under the name UNESCO. Its predecessor was on the one hand a Genevian ‘Bureau international d’education’ (its head 1929-1967 was Jean Piaget), first and foremost subordinated to the League of Nations’‘Commission internationale de la coopération intellectuelle’ (later: ‘Organisation’; 1921-46; e.g. Henri
21
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
policy can be implemented and that they indeed constitute ‘the third pillar’ of politics (according to Willy Brandt recognizing interdependence of art and foreign policy)23, was obvious at least for the UNESCO founders. There is no data available concerning the sums which on the national, supranational and international scale were spent and are still being spent for these purposes.
Data according to the Commission for estimating financial demands of radio and TV stations 17. KEF-Bericht. Mainz 2009.
27
Basis unserer Arbeit ist nicht die Quote. Interview mit 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler zum 25-jährigen Bestehen des Drei-LänderKanals [2009]. In: Untergeschoß. Beobachtungen aus der Niederflurperspektive. ViSdP: Harald Keller, Berlin. http://untergeschoss. wordpress.com/2009/11/28/%E2%80%9Ebasis-unserer- arbeit-ist-nicht-die-quote%E2%80%9C/
26
Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: “The reflection over public culture-related tasks [radio stations and TV] must inevitably pose substantial questions. They are discovered anew only recently and it will take a long time before they can be answered in a convincing way. Providing explanation to cultural references of radio and television touches upon the issues which are fundamental not only for the understanding of the role of the radio and television, but also for their self-understanding and their formation in a legal sense. It begins as early as with the question about the status of the radio and television as a part of culture, which they at the same time jointly form and influence its development. It will be possible to perceive such radio and such television both as objects and subjects, their products are perceived as shaped by this culture and shaping this culture.” In: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Scientific booklets of the Institute for the Economics of the Radio at the University of Cologne, booklet 201. Cologne 2005. The paper Der Kulturauftrag des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks presented at the symposium on January 26th, 2005 organised by The Public Radio Initiative Group at the University of Cologne. Also in print: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge (Hrsg.): Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Münster, Hamburg, London 2005.
25
Verdicts of the Feredral Constitutional Court 12, 205, (260); 57, 295 (320); 73, 118 (152).
24
Radio and TV stations as ‘media and factors’ of culture
A
mong public bodies we find in Germany, as well as in many other countries, public-law radio and TV stations, too. They are under direct control of the state since the twenties of the 20th century (to avoid false information like the one transmitted on November 9th, 1918 that the communists would have seized power).They are financed through an obligatory payment by each household similar to the tax system. The Federal Constitutional Court argued that radio performs a ‘role as »a medium and element« of public communication’24. Within this logic, (1) the entire system of public-law radio and TV stations can be regarded as part of cultural policy, since it performs tasks within the scope of public good.25 Within another logic (2) and based on a differentiation introduced by the stations themselves, we can argue that part of cultural policy is not the entire system but only those parts of the programme which bear the title ‘culture and science’. There is yet a third logic (3): following Daniel Fiedler (3), a coordinator belonging to the public tv 3sat, it
can be argued: „Culture is not the question of the programme genre, but of mentality. The point is how our editorial staff approaches the issues of our times. Daily cultural and scientific programmes which deal currently with these issues, which take standpoints, which influence the course of debates, which are broadcasted in prime time, they manifest such a mental attitude.”26 The following paragraphs discuss these three types of possible relation between radio and cultural policy. We will see that cultural policy usually constitutes only a minor part within policy segments which severally are more highlighted in public apperception.
Supply orientation versus demand orientation?
E
xpenditure (1) on public-law regional stations which cooperate in the ARD (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Rundfunkanstalten Deutschlands – working group of German radio and TV stations), (2) on the second channel of the German public television Zweites Deutsche Fernsehen (ZDF) and (3) on the Deutschlandradio (Radio Germany) is approximately 8.398,0 mln euros annually. This is more or less the same amount as the sum of all public subsidies for culture and art according to the Federal financial report on culture-related issues. 85% of this radio and tv budget is financed from fees, and 5% comes from advertising.27 There is a Fee Collection Centre which collects subscription fees at a monthly base of 17,98 euros for ‘a TV set, a radio set and a new-type radio set’
23
Brandt, Willy: Bedeutung und Aufgaben der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik, in: Bulletin (the Press and Information Office of the Federal Government), No. 71, July 5th, 1967, pp. 613-614.- ‘It was exactly Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel, who in 1967 spoke about the state suport of international cultural relations as ‘the third pillar’ and ‘the girder’ of foreign policy. It would have an equivalent value beside the peace policy and the foreign trade policy.’ Hoffmann, Hilmar: „Dritte Säule“ der Außenpolitik. Zur aktuellen Diskussion um die auswärtige Kulturpolitik. In: Internationale Politik, 1996 (3).
24
Verdicts of the Feredral Constitutional Court 12, 205, (260); 57, 295 (320); 73, 118 (152).
25
Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: “The reflection over public culture-related tasks [radio stations and TV] must inevitably pose substantial questions. They are discovered anew only recently and it will take a long time before they can be answered in a convincing way. Providing explanation to cultural references of radio and television touches upon the issues which are fundamental not only for the understanding of the role of the radio and television, but also for their self-understanding and their formation in a legal sense. It begins as early as with the question about the status of the radio and television as a part of culture, which they at the same time jointly form and influence its development. It will be possible to perceive such radio and such television both as objects and subjects, their products are perceived as shaped by this culture and shaping this culture.” In: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Scientific booklets of the Institute for the Economics of the Radio at the University of Cologne, booklet 201. Cologne 2005. The paper Der Kulturauftrag des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks presented at the symposium on January 26th, 2005 organised by The Public Radio Initiative Group at the University of Cologne. Also in print: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge (Hrsg.): Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Münster, Hamburg, London 2005.
26
Basis unserer Arbeit ist nicht die Quote. Interview mit 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler zum 25-jährigen Bestehen des Drei-LänderKanals [2009]. In: Untergeschoß. Beobachtungen aus der Niederflurperspektive. ViSdP: Harald Keller, Berlin. http://untergeschoss. wordpress.com/2009/11/28/%E2%80%9Ebasis-unserer- arbeit-ist-nicht-die-quote%E2%80%9C/
27
Data according to the Commission for estimating financial demands of radio and TV stations 17. KEF-Bericht. Mainz 2009.
23
Brandt, Willy: Bedeutung und Aufgaben der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik, in: Bulletin (the Press and Information Office of the Federal Government), No. 71, July 5th, 1967, pp. 613-614.- ‘It was exactly Willy Brandt and Walter Scheel, who in 1967 spoke about the state suport of international cultural relations as ‘the third pillar’ and ‘the girder’ of foreign policy. It would have an equivalent value beside the peace policy and the foreign trade policy.’ Hoffmann, Hilmar: „Dritte Säule“ der Außenpolitik. Zur aktuellen Diskussion um die auswärtige Kulturpolitik. In: Internationale Politik, 1996 (3).
mong public bodies we find in Germany, as well as in many other countries, public-law radio and TV stations, too. They are under direct control of the state since the twenties of the 20th century (to avoid false information like the one transmitted on November 9th, 1918 that the communists would have seized power).They are financed through an obligatory payment by each household similar to the tax system. The Federal Constitutional Court argued that radio performs a ‘role as »a medium and element« of public communication’24. Within this logic, (1) the entire system of public-law radio and TV stations can be regarded as part of cultural policy, since it performs tasks within the scope of public good.25 Within another logic (2) and based on a differentiation introduced by the stations themselves, we can argue that part of cultural policy is not the entire system but only those parts of the programme which bear the title ‘culture and science’. There is yet a third logic (3): following Daniel Fiedler (3), a coordinator belonging to the public tv 3sat, it
A
Radio and TV stations as ‘media and factors’ of culture
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
21
policy can be implemented and that they indeed constitute ‘the third pillar’ of politics (according to Willy Brandt recognizing interdependence of art and foreign policy)23, was obvious at least for the UNESCO founders. There is no data available concerning the sums which on the national, supranational and international scale were spent and are still being spent for these purposes.
xpenditure (1) on public-law regional stations which cooperate in the ARD (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Rundfunkanstalten Deutschlands – working group of German radio and TV stations), (2) on the second channel of the German public television Zweites Deutsche Fernsehen (ZDF) and (3) on the Deutschlandradio (Radio Germany) is approximately 8.398,0 mln euros annually. This is more or less the same amount as the sum of all public subsidies for culture and art according to the Federal financial report on culture-related issues. 85% of this radio and tv budget is financed from fees, and 5% comes from advertising.27 There is a Fee Collection Centre which collects subscription fees at a monthly base of 17,98 euros for ‘a TV set, a radio set and a new-type radio set’
E
Supply orientation versus demand orientation? can be argued: „Culture is not the question of the programme genre, but of mentality. The point is how our editorial staff approaches the issues of our times. Daily cultural and scientific programmes which deal currently with these issues, which take standpoints, which influence the course of debates, which are broadcasted in prime time, they manifest such a mental attitude.”26 The following paragraphs discuss these three types of possible relation between radio and cultural policy. We will see that cultural policy usually constitutes only a minor part within policy segments which severally are more highlighted in public apperception.
‘lower strata of society’, the tele-precariat. From a democracy theory point of view, such a similarity of programs is a necessary condition for fulfilling the public purpose of public broadcast. Whoever thinks that public tv would – at least after 8 p.m., when commercials have to finish – be something like a ‘non-market space’, has not understood the system. TV advertisement is sold in units of 1.000 viewers as potential consumers reached within 30 seconds. Public tv can be said to be measured in units with 1000 potential election votes within 30 seconds. Looking on this structural identity between commercial radio and the public one, the co-excistence of both systems within German broadcast may be called a ’dual’ system, but truly dual it is not. The struggle for percentage share has led to a high level of comparability between the publiclaw stations with the offer of commercial stations. However, the latter ones do offer their services in a more efficient way. In other words, the commercial offer is more reasonable regarded from a national economic point of view. Thus, in the case of ARD, broadcasting of sports programmes is 19% of all first view program minutes, their share of costs is 25,2%. For fictional films this ratio is 12,8% (minutes) to 17,2% (costs). Exactly the other way round works the main duty of the public programs. Delivering information is usually realized cheaper than its share of first view program minutes: news Tagesschau/ Tagesthemen 14,4% to 6%; politics and society matters 13,9% to 5,2%; religious affairs 0,3% to 0,1%; music 0,2% to 0,1%. We can conclude that public stations do not comply with the idea behind the above-mentioned guidelines concerning subsidies: the goal of the fees could be realized better if services were provided in a more flexible way than it is the case now where the public system is responsible for both, organization of broadcast and production. Without bearing in mind the interests of politics, the ‘basic providing the society’ (cf. above the Federal Court), providing with feature films, talk-shows, etc, could be given to commercial tenderers. It would be even possible to finance the latter from the resources by public fees, under condition that they resign from advertising, that they integrate public good services, and that a system of qualitative indices would to be established. From the perspective of media policy and the theory of politics, however, the question of allocation would be in such a model as unsatisfactory as it is in the present state. From the point of view of cultural policy, the dual system (supply-orientation vs demand-orientation) introduced in 1984 was a failure not only in respect to optimal allocation. German public-law
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
from each household or place of work. In comparison with France (80 euros annually; without advertising) the sum is nearly three times higher. The offer of public-law stations includes in any minute of the year an average of 18,9 public TV channels (competing with over 500 commercial tv channels) and 61 public radio stations. The public offer reaches numbers which are not just astonishing, but truly astronomically. Germans will watch tv 2,4 trillion minutes a year or 6,6 billion minutes a day. These figures result (1) from a market share of public-law stations reaching 42,9% of the tv audiences, (2) at an average of 212 minutes of Germans watching TV every day from the age of 3 onward, and (3) with the use of TV by 88% of Germans. At peak viewing time, shortly after 9 p.m., in 2009 TV reached day for day an average of 37% of the entire population living in Germany, and public-law stations reached 16% of them. The average cost of a tv minute within the public broadcast system can be calculated at 804,35 euros, calculating on the basis of the ratio of 2,490 million of minutes of broadcasting of ZDF television and its seven thematic channels to the total cost of 2 billion euros borne by it annually (2008). However, the frequency of repetitions for instance within the channel ZDFtheaterkanal is 97% at clearly reduced costs. The average cost of a radio minute within this system can be calculated at 180,95 euros, calculating on the base of the ratio of 202 mln euros at Radio Germany with 1,1 mln minutes of broadcasting. Calculating total costs is not possible; since in their cost analysis the stations do differentiate between the share of the first minutes of broadcasting, and the share of own costs. However, without a logical allocation of remaining costs such as reserves for future retirement claims, property costs, administration, etc. to the first group of costs. A democracy lives from political participation of the whole populace. Therefore, a democracy must induce demand for political information also to people not vitally interested in such themes. If ZDF would not broadcast folk music, there would be hardly any viewer of its news programme heute. German politics controls German stations at the level of lands, despite the fact that the level of lands plays a rather ephemeral role in the public news programmes like tagesschau or heute. Democracy lives from the slugfest between political parties with their different opinions. Therefore public tv must gather broad strata of viewers in front of TV sets, when the parties do self-promote their goals. This works out only when the public program is similar to that of private stations which deliberately address themselves to the so-called
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
22
‘lower strata of society’, the tele-precariat. From a democracy theory point of view, such a similarity of programs is a necessary condition for fulfilling the public purpose of public broadcast. Whoever thinks that public tv would – at least after 8 p.m., when commercials have to finish – be something like a ‘non-market space’, has not understood the system. TV advertisement is sold in units of 1.000 viewers as potential consumers reached within 30 seconds. Public tv can be said to be measured in units with 1000 potential election votes within 30 seconds. Looking on this structural identity between commercial radio and the public one, the co-excistence of both systems within German broadcast may be called a ’dual’ system, but truly dual it is not. The struggle for percentage share has led to a high level of comparability between the publiclaw stations with the offer of commercial stations. However, the latter ones do offer their services in a more efficient way. In other words, the commercial offer is more reasonable regarded from a national economic point of view. Thus, in the case of ARD, broadcasting of sports programmes is 19% of all first view program minutes, their share of costs is 25,2%. For fictional films this ratio is 12,8% (minutes) to 17,2% (costs). Exactly the other way round works the main duty of the public programs. Delivering information is usually realized cheaper than its share of first view program minutes: news Tagesschau/ Tagesthemen 14,4% to 6%; politics and society matters 13,9% to 5,2%; religious affairs 0,3% to 0,1%; music 0,2% to 0,1%. We can conclude that public stations do not comply with the idea behind the above-mentioned guidelines concerning subsidies: the goal of the fees could be realized better if services were provided in a more flexible way than it is the case now where the public system is responsible for both, organization of broadcast and production. Without bearing in mind the interests of politics, the ‘basic providing the society’ (cf. above the Federal Court), providing with feature films, talk-shows, etc, could be given to commercial tenderers. It would be even possible to finance the latter from the resources by public fees, under condition that they resign from advertising, that they integrate public good services, and that a system of qualitative indices would to be established. From the perspective of media policy and the theory of politics, however, the question of allocation would be in such a model as unsatisfactory as it is in the present state. From the point of view of cultural policy, the dual system (supply-orientation vs demand-orientation) introduced in 1984 was a failure not only in respect to optimal allocation. German public-law
22
from each household or place of work. In comparison with France (80 euros annually; without advertising) the sum is nearly three times higher. The offer of public-law stations includes in any minute of the year an average of 18,9 public TV channels (competing with over 500 commercial tv channels) and 61 public radio stations. The public offer reaches numbers which are not just astonishing, but truly astronomically. Germans will watch tv 2,4 trillion minutes a year or 6,6 billion minutes a day. These figures result (1) from a market share of public-law stations reaching 42,9% of the tv audiences, (2) at an average of 212 minutes of Germans watching TV every day from the age of 3 onward, and (3) with the use of TV by 88% of Germans. At peak viewing time, shortly after 9 p.m., in 2009 TV reached day for day an average of 37% of the entire population living in Germany, and public-law stations reached 16% of them. The average cost of a tv minute within the public broadcast system can be calculated at 804,35 euros, calculating on the basis of the ratio of 2,490 million of minutes of broadcasting of ZDF television and its seven thematic channels to the total cost of 2 billion euros borne by it annually (2008). However, the frequency of repetitions for instance within the channel ZDFtheaterkanal is 97% at clearly reduced costs. The average cost of a radio minute within this system can be calculated at 180,95 euros, calculating on the base of the ratio of 202 mln euros at Radio Germany with 1,1 mln minutes of broadcasting. Calculating total costs is not possible; since in their cost analysis the stations do differentiate between the share of the first minutes of broadcasting, and the share of own costs. However, without a logical allocation of remaining costs such as reserves for future retirement claims, property costs, administration, etc. to the first group of costs. A democracy lives from political participation of the whole populace. Therefore, a democracy must induce demand for political information also to people not vitally interested in such themes. If ZDF would not broadcast folk music, there would be hardly any viewer of its news programme heute. German politics controls German stations at the level of lands, despite the fact that the level of lands plays a rather ephemeral role in the public news programmes like tagesschau or heute. Democracy lives from the slugfest between political parties with their different opinions. Therefore public tv must gather broad strata of viewers in front of TV sets, when the parties do self-promote their goals. This works out only when the public program is similar to that of private stations which deliberately address themselves to the so-called
23
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
stations have failed to understand the leap from the mere European Economic Community to a true Political Union, and to incorporate this leap into their programs. Instead of being federal, they are national. Instead of being European, they still are national. But one shouldn’t play the stations when one sees that a similar concern is true for the European Union itself. Expenditure on culture is here 0,07 euro annually per citizen. The public broadcast of the EU member states and even the wider grouping of the European Broadcast Union EBU28 fulfil its information duties still on national patterns. Its role as »a medium and factor« of social communication, or in this case of the Europeanization process, is fulfilled neither towards their own citizens nor towards the citizens of partner countries. The opportunities alongside the introduction of digital satellite systems received in the whole of the region, have not been taken up in a coordinated manner. Apart from such binational channels such as ARTE (whose German-Polish counterpart at Görlitz/Zgorzelec has not gone beyond the stage of planning), a real European TV landscape has not been realised in spite of the fact that the film production within Europe is in a way a cultural family. It could well contribute to the formation of tighter bonds.
Reports medium versus a proper medium of art
T
aken the First Channel of the ARD alone, the field of ‘culture and science’ has 7% of first view minutes ahd 2,5% of expenses. If one would hypothetically transfer these 2,5% to the budget of all stations and programmes within the ARD family of stations, the field of ‘culture and science’ would amount to 154 mln euros. This is just the double of resources for the Bavarian National Opera (78,7 mln euros; budget 2007). Art actually does not appear in the public TV news. The task of ‘basic providing with arts and cultural processes’ neglected. Exception make single reports on visually effective events such as the opening of the European capital of culture ‘Ruhr 2010’. The artistic production itself is excluded from prime time be it in in the
28
news or in any other format. Art, intellectual topics and problems how to produce sense and signification, appear on the screen only when an average working Smith has gone to bed. Transferring these programmes to thematic channels makes this dilemma even larger. Upon the establishment of 3sat, Dieter Stolte, the ZDF CEO, said to the director of the new channel: ‘If you exceed 3% in the evening, we will turn you off.’29 Culture is far from it. In 2009 the percentage share of 3sat on the market was 1,1%; ARTE 0,7%, and ZDFtheaterkanal even did not appear in the statistics of the working group regarding the research into German television. 30 From the point of view of cultural policy, one can not reduce the role of TV to making ‘reports on art’. As a platform of film, TV in itself is a medium of art. Therefore, the production of own fictional films and broadcasting the films produced by others, should be at least considered. Together with the telenovelas or soap operas, whose theatrical counterpart may be found the like on public or commercial stages, there is every day a considerable amount of time of fiction broadcasting. TV replaced cinema long ago – at least in its national economy dimensions. To be specific, TV considerably widened the space of drama which is no longer bound to the place where it is put on. When Daniel Barenboim arrived at the Bayreuth Festival in the mid 80s, he told me to be almost shocked about the fact that all the way he drove his car to the Green Hill, there had been a radio program with classical music. With its orchestras, choirs and studios of new music, the broadcast system in Germany, in Poland, the Czech Republic, in France, etc became one of the most productive and most perceived actors in the world’s cultural scene. But when items of media policy are discussed, the above-mentioned political aspects are in the focus, the cultural ones hardly appear.
TV as a manifestation of mentality
”C
ulture [as] a question […] of mentality” (Daniel Fiedler) is elusive. Within our perspective of cultural policy, we don’t need to talk about.
Cooperation within the framework of European Broadcasting Union (EBU) from 1950/1954; currently 75 members from 56 countries within the geographical boundaries of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin; other associate members from 5 continents: http:// www.ebu.ch
29
Quote according to http://www.taz.de/1/leben/medien/artikel/1/ich-sehe-was-was-du-nicht-siehst/
30
http://www.agf.de/daten/zuschauermarkt/marktanteile.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
23
http://www.agf.de/daten/zuschauermarkt/marktanteile.
30
Quote according to http://www.taz.de/1/leben/medien/artikel/1/ich-sehe-was-was-du-nicht-siehst/
29 28
Cooperation within the framework of European Broadcasting Union (EBU) from 1950/1954; currently 75 members from 56 countries within the geographical boundaries of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin; other associate members from 5 continents: http:// www.ebu.ch
aken the First Channel of the ARD alone, the field of ‘culture and science’ has 7% of first view minutes ahd 2,5% of expenses. If one would hypothetically transfer these 2,5% to the budget of all stations and programmes within the ARD family of stations, the field of ‘culture and science’ would amount to 154 mln euros. This is just the double of resources for the Bavarian National Opera (78,7 mln euros; budget 2007). Art actually does not appear in the public TV news. The task of ‘basic providing with arts and cultural processes’ neglected. Exception make single reports on visually effective events such as the opening of the European capital of culture ‘Ruhr 2010’. The artistic production itself is excluded from prime time be it in in the
T
Reports medium versus a proper medium of art stations have failed to understand the leap from the mere European Economic Community to a true Political Union, and to incorporate this leap into their programs. Instead of being federal, they are national. Instead of being European, they still are national. But one shouldn’t play the stations when one sees that a similar concern is true for the European Union itself. Expenditure on culture is here 0,07 euro annually per citizen. The public broadcast of the EU member states and even the wider grouping of the European Broadcast Union EBU28 fulfil its information duties still on national patterns. Its role as »a medium and factor« of social communication, or in this case of the Europeanization process, is fulfilled neither towards their own citizens nor towards the citizens of partner countries. The opportunities alongside the introduction of digital satellite systems received in the whole of the region, have not been taken up in a coordinated manner. Apart from such binational channels such as ARTE (whose German-Polish counterpart at Görlitz/Zgorzelec has not gone beyond the stage of planning), a real European TV landscape has not been realised in spite of the fact that the film production within Europe is in a way a cultural family. It could well contribute to the formation of tighter bonds.
ulture [as] a question […] of mentality” (Daniel Fiedler) is elusive. Within our perspective of cultural policy, we don’t need to talk about.
”C
TV as a manifestation of mentality news or in any other format. Art, intellectual topics and problems how to produce sense and signification, appear on the screen only when an average working Smith has gone to bed. Transferring these programmes to thematic channels makes this dilemma even larger. Upon the establishment of 3sat, Dieter Stolte, the ZDF CEO, said to the director of the new channel: ‘If you exceed 3% in the evening, we will turn you off.’29 Culture is far from it. In 2009 the percentage share of 3sat on the market was 1,1%; ARTE 0,7%, and ZDFtheaterkanal even did not appear in the statistics of the working group regarding the research into German television. 30 From the point of view of cultural policy, one can not reduce the role of TV to making ‘reports on art’. As a platform of film, TV in itself is a medium of art. Therefore, the production of own fictional films and broadcasting the films produced by others, should be at least considered. Together with the telenovelas or soap operas, whose theatrical counterpart may be found the like on public or commercial stages, there is every day a considerable amount of time of fiction broadcasting. TV replaced cinema long ago – at least in its national economy dimensions. To be specific, TV considerably widened the space of drama which is no longer bound to the place where it is put on. When Daniel Barenboim arrived at the Bayreuth Festival in the mid 80s, he told me to be almost shocked about the fact that all the way he drove his car to the Green Hill, there had been a radio program with classical music. With its orchestras, choirs and studios of new music, the broadcast system in Germany, in Poland, the Czech Republic, in France, etc became one of the most productive and most perceived actors in the world’s cultural scene. But when items of media policy are discussed, the above-mentioned political aspects are in the focus, the cultural ones hardly appear.
24
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3) Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The shaping of frameworks for the arts through the elaborating of legal norms
24
Y
Compare Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 [special print], of the same author: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [additional print]. In: Netzwerk Kulturarbeit, Kognos-Verlag Augsburg 12/1998, pp. 561 – 574, of the same author: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [additional print]. In: bühnengenossenschaft. Ed.: Hans Herdlein upon order of Genossenschaft der Deutschen Bühnenangehörigen. Hamburg. Part I Booklet 6-7/1998, pp. 15 - 21; Part II Booklet 5/1999, pp. 16 - 18; Part III Blooklet 6-7/1999, pp. 15 – 17, of the same author: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [additional print]. In: Kulturpolitische Umschau. Ed. Jörg-Dieter Gauger upon order of Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung. St. Augustin. Part I Booklet 2-3 / June 1998, pp. 74 - 84; Part II Booklet 4-5 / March 1990 pp. 90-105.
and pp. 292-321 to the issue of ‘Selected ‘areas of special significance requiring support’, e.g. the issue of supporting indigenous minorities. Take – at the difference to the practices used e.g. in France – book retail price maintenance, in force not only for bookshop chains, but also for the Internet sellers of books published in Germany. Take the reduced VAT on books. According to their advocates, by means of these two instruments, publishing houses, wholesalers and approximately five thousand trade bookstores which cooperate in the book traders association are systemically supported, without any public subsidies. Income from mega-sellers may be used for the purpose of printing poetry or special literature; metropolitan bookstores and those in small cities sell books at the same price as big chains. Suhrkamp Verlag publishing house has centred German intellectuals for many years. Its annual income turnover is 33 billion euros. This is less than subsidies of the land Baden-Württemberg intended for the National Theatre of Baden in Karlsruhe (37 mln euros plus 3,5 mln euros of own revenue). Risk-based and demand-oriented commercial enterprises in the field of culture prove to be very effective. Their turnover is three times higher than the one of public institutions in the field of culture which operate with a minimised risk and are supply-oriented. For social affairs all legal norms are collected within a Federal Social Security Statute Book. For building affairs, legal norms are collected within a Federal Building Code Book. A similar Federal Culture Code in which legal norms concerning culture and art would be collected has not been created yet. 32
32
Culture as an economic phenomenon
Lammert, Norbert: Vorwort. In: Deutscher Bundestag (ed.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, p. 89 next. p. 7
I
31
n order to capture the production in the field of art, beginning with preceding fields (e.g. musical instruments manufacturers) up to succeeding fields (organizers, users, distributors), one may refer to the instrumentarium of the European Union ‘Nomenclature statistique des Activites
n order to capture the production in the field of art, beginning with preceding fields (e.g. musical instruments manufacturers) up to succeeding fields (organizers, users, distributors), one may refer to the instrumentarium of the European Union ‘Nomenclature statistique des Activites
ou may remember that up to here we have been argued within a most pragmatic approach based on budget figures. We discussed the question ‘What is cultural policy?’, so far for the level of public territorial legal entities (lands, federation, gemeindes, gemeindeverbände), for the inter-national level, for legal bodies constituted by a group of people (Catholic and evangelical churches), for the level of public broadcast (ARD, ZDF, German radio). However, apart from budget statistics, politics affects the sphere of artistic activity and cultural services, also by means of a variety of legal norms, exerting influence not by means of the budget, yet having a direct pecuniary influence. Here is the second, in fact a truly political perspective for the analysis of the question ‘What is cultural policy?’ Designing these norms constitutes the central task of politics, which does not yet say anything about the purpose as such. Here we can leave alone the widely debated, and insofar questionable ‘cultural independence of lands’. This second perspective is primarily the task of the central government, the Federation. Unique among the EU countries was the establishment of a research commission ‘Culture in Germany’ (2003-05 and 2006-07; Gitta Connemann – the president) by the German Bundestag. In his foreword to the commission’s final report, Norbert Lammert, the president of Bundestag explains in some kind of politia gratia artis (policies for arts’ sake), and in a nearly too elegant reticence: “The state is not, in our understanding of the state and of culture, responsible for art and culture, but for the conditions under which they are created. It has no material competence regarding the forms and contents, in which art and culture unfold within a society. However, the state holds a cultural policy responsibility for the frameworks, which make such unfolding possible”31. Indeed, the commission devotes less than 10% of its 625-page main text, i.e. pp. 285-291, to the issue of ‘Supporting culture through the joint responsibility of state, civil society and enterprises’
I
Lammert, Norbert: Vorwort. In: Deutscher Bundestag (ed.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, p. 89 next. p. 7
Culture as an economic phenomenon
31
ou may remember that up to here we have been argued within a most pragmatic approach based on budget figures. We discussed the question ‘What is cultural policy?’, so far for the level of public territorial legal entities (lands, federation, gemeindes, gemeindeverbände), for the inter-national level, for legal bodies constituted by a group of people (Catholic and evangelical churches), for the level of public broadcast (ARD, ZDF, German radio). However, apart from budget statistics, politics affects the sphere of artistic activity and cultural services, also by means of a variety of legal norms, exerting influence not by means of the budget, yet having a direct pecuniary influence. Here is the second, in fact a truly political perspective for the analysis of the question ‘What is cultural policy?’ Designing these norms constitutes the central task of politics, which does not yet say anything about the purpose as such. Here we can leave alone the widely debated, and insofar questionable ‘cultural independence of lands’. This second perspective is primarily the task of the central government, the Federation. Unique among the EU countries was the establishment of a research commission ‘Culture in Germany’ (2003-05 and 2006-07; Gitta Connemann – the president) by the German Bundestag. In his foreword to the commission’s final report, Norbert Lammert, the president of Bundestag explains in some kind of politia gratia artis (policies for arts’ sake), and in a nearly too elegant reticence: “The state is not, in our understanding of the state and of culture, responsible for art and culture, but for the conditions under which they are created. It has no material competence regarding the forms and contents, in which art and culture unfold within a society. However, the state holds a cultural policy responsibility for the frameworks, which make such unfolding possible”31. Indeed, the commission devotes less than 10% of its 625-page main text, i.e. pp. 285-291, to the issue of ‘Supporting culture through the joint responsibility of state, civil society and enterprises’
32
Y
and pp. 292-321 to the issue of ‘Selected ‘areas of special significance requiring support’, e.g. the issue of supporting indigenous minorities. Take – at the difference to the practices used e.g. in France – book retail price maintenance, in force not only for bookshop chains, but also for the Internet sellers of books published in Germany. Take the reduced VAT on books. According to their advocates, by means of these two instruments, publishing houses, wholesalers and approximately five thousand trade bookstores which cooperate in the book traders association are systemically supported, without any public subsidies. Income from mega-sellers may be used for the purpose of printing poetry or special literature; metropolitan bookstores and those in small cities sell books at the same price as big chains. Suhrkamp Verlag publishing house has centred German intellectuals for many years. Its annual income turnover is 33 billion euros. This is less than subsidies of the land Baden-Württemberg intended for the National Theatre of Baden in Karlsruhe (37 mln euros plus 3,5 mln euros of own revenue). Risk-based and demand-oriented commercial enterprises in the field of culture prove to be very effective. Their turnover is three times higher than the one of public institutions in the field of culture which operate with a minimised risk and are supply-oriented. For social affairs all legal norms are collected within a Federal Social Security Statute Book. For building affairs, legal norms are collected within a Federal Building Code Book. A similar Federal Culture Code in which legal norms concerning culture and art would be collected has not been created yet. 32
Compare Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 [special print], of the same author: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [additional print]. In: Netzwerk Kulturarbeit, Kognos-Verlag Augsburg 12/1998, pp. 561 – 574, of the same author: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [additional print]. In: bühnengenossenschaft. Ed.: Hans Herdlein upon order of Genossenschaft der Deutschen Bühnenangehörigen. Hamburg. Part I Booklet 6-7/1998, pp. 15 - 21; Part II Booklet 5/1999, pp. 16 - 18; Part III Blooklet 6-7/1999, pp. 15 – 17, of the same author: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [additional print]. In: Kulturpolitische Umschau. Ed. Jörg-Dieter Gauger upon order of Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung. St. Augustin. Part I Booklet 2-3 / June 1998, pp. 74 - 84; Part II Booklet 4-5 / March 1990 pp. 90-105.
The shaping of frameworks for the arts through the elaborating of legal norms
25
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
economiques dans la Communaute Europeenne / The Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community / NACE Rev. 2, edition 2008’. The German classification of economic branches, in the current version ‘WZ 2008’, is based on this statistical classification. Upon request of the working group Cultural Economy of the Conference of Ministers of Economy, Michael Söndermann from the Cologne based Office of the Research on Cultural Economy, published at the end of 2009 a Manual to the establishment of a statistical database for Cultural Economy and of an international evaluation of Cultural Economy data.
The classification presented by Söndermann does not convince if one follows the notion of culture given in this article. A rubrication ‘Art and Entertainment related Economy’ seems more reasonable. It may be found adding 12 subbranches of the Söndermann Cultural and Creative Economy sector. Key data for Germany are: 72.904 enterprises and self-employed persons; achieving a cumulated turnover of 40.204 mln euros; 247.502 persons being employed, 174.599 employed persons obligatory subjects to social insurance; 162.000 euros of turnover per employed person.
Share in the National Economy
219.376
126.377
938.043
Turnover per employed person (5) In thousands of euros
Cultural and Creative Economy sector according to Söndermann subsectors No. 1.-12
Employed persons (3) Number
Economy branch
Turnover (2) In millions of euros
WZ 2003
Self-employment and enterprise (1) Number
Art and entertainment sectorsby submarkets (Federal Republic of Germany 2006)
Subject to obligatory social insurance (4) Number
Art and entertainment sectors
718.667
135
Museum shops (including commercial segments, estimated), exhibitions of art.
92.52.1
Art trade (estimated)
52.48.2**
Self-employed fine art artists
92.31.3
**2.003 8.039
3. Fine arts market 52.47.2
943 10.985 5.049
Retail sale of books
2.674
Book publishing company
22.11.1
Self-employed writers, authors
92.31.6
5.915
2. Book market
13.638
Retail trade in musical instruments and note scripts
52.45.3
*Other auxiliary services of culture and entertainment sector
92.32.5
*Running of theatres, opera houses, author’s theatres, etc.
92.32.2
*Theatrical plays/concerts organisers
92.32.1
Recorded sound carriers and music publishing companies
22.14.0
Music and dance groups
92.31.2
Self-employed musicians and composers
92.31.5
2.291 *1.358 *207 *1.268 1.478 1.859 2.337 10.798
1. Music sector
2,36%
Share in the National Economy Share in the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
33% 72.904
Remains: Art and entertainment sector
20.065
Step II: Sum of doubly counted branches
92.968
Step I: Cultural Economy, including double count Share in the National Economy
7,10%
Cultural and Creative Economy sector according to Söndermann subsectors No. 1.-12 WZ 2003
Economy branch
Art and entertainment sectorsby submarkets (Federal Republic of Germany 2006)
219.376 Self-employment and enterprise (1) Number
466 **588
**2.090 **3.670
713
9.489
1.767
15.249
3.993
32.182
10.294
43.136
456
6.179
14.743
81.497
1.051
5.920
*381 *334
*3.677 **3.347
*1.301
*7.046
1.867
5.155
214
7.368
244 5.392
2.471 34.984
0,83%
0,84%
32% 40.204
26% 247.502
3.369 43.572
33.526 281.028
2,60% 126.377 Turnover (2) In millions of euros
3,20% 938.043 Employed persons (3) Number
Art and entertainment sectors
economiques dans la Communaute Europeenne / The Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community / NACE Rev. 2, edition 2008’. The German classification of economic branches, in the current version ‘WZ 2008’, is based on this statistical classification. Upon request of the working group Cultural Economy of the Conference of Ministers of Economy, Michael Söndermann from the Cologne based Office of the Research on Cultural Economy, published at the end of 2009 a Manual to the establishment of a statistical database for Cultural Economy and of an international evaluation of Cultural Economy data.
The classification presented by Söndermann does not convince if one follows the notion of culture given in this article. A rubrication ‘Art and Entertainment related Economy’ seems more reasonable. It may be found adding 12 subbranches of the Söndermann Cultural and Creative Economy sector. Key data for Germany are: 72.904 enterprises and self-employed persons; achieving a cumulated turnover of 40.204 mln euros; 247.502 persons being employed, 174.599 employed persons obligatory subjects to social insurance; 162.000 euros of turnover per employed person.
**1.147 **1.667 1.450 4.264 27.133 40.462 264 67.859 3.629 *2.319 **3.140 *5.778 3.677 5.509 134 24.186 0,66% 24% 174.599 13.462 188.060 2,70% 718.667 Subject to obligatory social insurance (4) Number
223 *160 75 116 124 239 74 181 178 *104 *100 *185 362 29 99 154 -
162 -
135 Turnover per employed person (5) In thousands of euros
7,10%
2,60%
3,20%
2,70%
-
Step I: Cultural Economy, including double count
92.968
43.572
281.028
188.060
-
Step II: Sum of doubly counted branches
20.065
3.369
33.526
13.462
-
Remains: Art and entertainment sector
72.904
40.204
247.502
174.599
162
33%
32%
26%
24%
-
Share in the National Economy
2,36%
0,83%
0,84%
0,66%
-
1. Music sector
Share in the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
10.798
5.392
34.984
24.186
154
92.31.5
Self-employed musicians and composers
2.337
244
2.471
134
99
92.31.2
Music and dance groups
1.859
214
7.368
5.509
29
22.14.0
Recorded sound carriers and music publishing companies
1.478
1.867
5.155
3.677
362
92.32.1
*Theatrical plays/concerts organisers
*1.268
*1.301
*7.046
*5.778
*185
92.32.2
*Running of theatres, opera houses, author’s theatres, etc.
*207
*334
**3.347
**3.140
*100
92.32.5
*Other auxiliary services of culture and entertainment sector
*1.358
*381
*3.677
*2.319
*104
52.45.3
Retail trade in musical instruments and note scripts
2.291
1.051
5.920
3.629
178
13.638
14.743
81.497
67.859
181
2. Book market 92.31.6
Self-employed writers, authors
5.915
456
6.179
264
74
22.11.1
Book publishing company
2.674
10.294
43.136
40.462
239
52.47.2
Retail sale of books
5.049
3.993
32.182
27.133
124
10.985
1.767
15.249
4.264
116
8.039
713
9.489
1.450
75
**2.003
**588
**3.670
**1.667
*160
943
466
**2.090
**1.147
223
3. Fine arts market 92.31.3
Self-employed fine art artists
52.48.2**
Art trade (estimated)
92.52.1
Museum shops (including commercial segments, estimated), exhibitions of art.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
25
26
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Source: (*) Differentiation M. Vogt on the basis of Söndermann: Leitfaden (2009), this one based on: Statistical VAT data, Destatis, Statistical Data of the Federal Zmployment Agency, Own calculations by M.Söndermann. WZ 2003
Economy branch
Art and entertainment sectorsby submarkets (Federal Republic of Germany 2006) Art and entertainment sectors
Turnover per employed person (5) In thousands of euros
Employed persons (3) Number
Turnover (2) In millions of euros
Self-employment and enterprise (1) Number
Subject to obligatory social insurance (4) Number
141
36.196
53.850
7.609
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
17.654
26
4. Film sector
Source: (*) Differentiation M. Vogt on the basis of Söndermann: Leitfaden (2009), this one based on: Statistical VAT data, Destatis, Statistical Data of the Federal Zmployment Agency, Own calculations by M.Söndermann.
*73 66
*1.445
10.212
*10.369
13.576
*754
894
*8.924
3.364
*Self-employed stage artists
Carnies, amusement parks
92.31.7
92.33.0
123 271
24.082
**470
30.682
**770
3.788
209
6.600
300
Production of film, television and video film
Botanical and zoological gardens and nature reserves
92.11.0
92.53.0
445 128
2.496
**123
3.641
**188
1.621
24
1.145
65
Film rental facilities and tenderers of video software
Carriers of historical sites
92.12.0
92.52.2
158 19
8.173
**963
9.158
**1.037
1.446
20
985
74
Cinemas
Libraries, archives
92.13.0
92.51.0
214 51
22.803
1.405
40.307
2.671
8.623
136
Self-employed restorers
17.504
1.266
92.31.4
5. Radio and TV sector
70
*66
13.173
*1.559
18.242
*18.174
1.283
*1.197
5.069
12. Others
*16.615
0
*Self-employed journalists
0
92.40.2
0
336
0
**21.244
11. Software and games industry
**22.133
0
7.426
0
889
0
Radio, broadcasts, TV programmes organisers
0
92.20.0
10. Advertising market
113
0
19.579
0
36.899
0
4.155
0
17.320
9. Press market
6. Stage arts market
0
*73
0
*1.445
0
*10.369
0
*754
8. Architecture market
*8.924
0
* Self-employed stage artists
0
92.31.7
0
58
0
95
7. Design sector
626
153
36
3.575
531
6.774
Self-employed circus artists
1.036
92.31.8
3.199
33
Other culture/entertainment institutions (circus, acrobats, puppetry)
**1.125
92.34.2
**1.233
66
41
1.498
108
3.020
Theatrical ensemble
198
92.31.1
1.522
*185
Dance schools
*5.778
92.34.1
*7.046
*104
*1.301
*2.319
*1.268
*3.677
*Organizers of theatrical plays / concerts
*381
92.32.1
*1.358
*100
*Other auxiliary services of culture and entertainment sectors
**3.140
92.32.5
**3.347
92
*334
604
*207
807
*Carriers of theatres, opera houses, actors’ theatres, etc.
74
92.32.2
203
92
Varietes and smaller-scale performing arts
604
92.32.3
807
*100
74
**3.140
203
**3.347
Varietes and smaller-scale performing arts
*334
92.32.3
*207
*104
*Carriers of theatres, opera houses, actors’ theatres, etc.
*2.319
92.32.2
*3.677
*185
*381
*5.778
*1.358
*7.046
*Other auxiliary services of culture and entertainment sectors
*1.301
92.32.5
*1.268
66
*Organizers of theatrical plays / concerts
1.498
92.32.1
3.020
33
198
**1.125
1.522
**1.233
Dance schools
41
92.34.1
108
153
Theatrical ensemble
3.575
92.31.1
6.774
58
1.036
95
3.199
626
Other culture/entertainment institutions (circus, acrobats, puppetry)
36
92.34.2
531
0
Self-employed circus artists
0
92.31.8
0
*73
0
*1.445
7. Design sector
*10.369
0
*754
0
*8.924
0
* Self-employed stage artists
0
92.31.7
8. Architecture market
113
0
19.579
0
36.899
0
4.155
0
17.320
9. Press market
6. Stage arts market
0
336
0
**21.244
0
**22.133
0
7.426
10. Advertising market
889
0
Radio, broadcasts, TV programmes organisers
0
92.20.0
0
*66
0
*1.559
11. Software and games industry
*18.174
70
*1.197
13.173
*16.615
18.242
*Self-employed journalists
1.283
92.40.2
5.069
214
12. Others
22.803
51
40.307
1.405
8.623
2.671
17.504
136
5. Radio and TV sector
1.266
158
Self-employed restorers
8.173
92.31.4
9.158
19
1.446
**963
985
**1.037
Cinemas
20
92.13.0
74
445
Libraries, archives
2.496
92.51.0
3.641
128
1.621
**123
1.145
**188
Film rental facilities and tenderers of video software
24
92.12.0
65
123
Carriers of historical sites
24.082
92.52.2
30.682
271
3.788
**470
6.600
**770
Production of film, television and video film
209
92.11.0
300
*73
Botanical and zoological gardens and nature reserves
*1.445
92.53.0
*10.369
66
*754
10.212
*8.924
13.576
*Self-employed stage artists
894
92.31.7
3.364
141
Self-employment and enterprise (1) Number
36.196
Turnover (2) In millions of euros
53.850
Employed persons (3) Number
7.609
Subject to obligatory social insurance (4) Number
17.654
Economy branch
Turnover per employed person (5) In thousands of euros
4. Film sector
WZ 2003
Carnies, amusement parks
Art and entertainment sectorsby submarkets (Federal Republic of Germany 2006)
92.33.0
Art and entertainment sectors
27
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Suggestions according to Söndermann: (*) Data marked blue are assigned to a more than one submarket. Data marked red: Estimated value (**) Estimation of the art trade.. (1) ‘Enterprises subject to fiscal obligation’ comprise all entrepreneurs working on a freelance basis or on self-employ-
ment basis generating income subject to taxation (2) in the amount of at least 17.500 euros annually (3) ‘Employed persons’ comprise all self-employed persons and dependent employed, whose workposts are subject to the obligatory social insurance (4) except for so-called mini-jobs.
Other subsectors of the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
Source: see above. 72.20.0
Software manufacturers
35.719 17.679
Advertising companies / advertising agencies
74.40.2
*Communication design / advertising design
74.40.1
Magazine publishing house
22.13.0
Newspaper publishing house
22.12.0
Address book publisers
22.11.2
News agencyies
92.40.1
*Self-employed journalists
92.40.2
544.069
125
67%
68%
74%
76%
-
4,74%
1,77%
2,36%
2,04%
-
38.728
14.869
120.147
81.419
124
3.455
680
8.683
5.228
78
13.445
1.595
19.133
5.688
83
*21.828
*12.594
*92.331
*70.503
*136
8. Arichitectural market
39.737
7.286
99.626
59.889
73
Share in the National Economy
74.20.1
Architectural offices of building construction and interior design
34.124
6.246
84.251
50.127
74
Share in the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
74.20.2
Architectural offices of local, regional and country planning
3.132
626
9.425
6.293
66
Other subsectors of the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
74.20.3
Architectural offices of garden design and landscaping
2.481
414
5.950
3.469
70
9. Press market
22.917
27.311
124.360
101.443
220
92.40.2
*Self-employed journalists
*16.615
*1.197
*18.174
*1.559
*66
92.40.1
News agencyies
801
804
7.201
6.400
112
22.11.2
Address book publisers
169
1.102
3.701
3.532
298
22.12.0
Newspaper publishing house
700
10.617
50.971
50.271
208
22.13.0
Magazine publishing house
1.732
10.172
36.759
35.027
277
22.15.0
Other publishing activities
2.900
3.419
7.554
4.654
453
10. The advertising market
39.507
25.797
142.021
102.514
182
74.40.1
*Communication design / advertising design
*21.828
*12.594
*92.331
*70.503
*136
74.40.2
Advertising companies / advertising agencies
17.679
13.203
49.690
32.011
266
11. Software/games market
35.719
24.103
305.805
270.086
79
72.20.0
35.719
24.103
305.805
270.086
79
39.507 2.900 1.732 700 169 801 *16.615
9. Press market
22.917
Architectural offices of garden design and landscaping
74.20.3
Architectural offices of local, regional and country planning
74.20.2
Share in the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
Architectural offices of building construction and interior design
74.20.1
Share in the National Economy 7. Design sector
8. Arichitectural market *Communication / advertising design
74.40.1
74.20.6
Industrial design
Product / graphic design
74.87.4
74.87.4
Product / graphic design
Industrial design
74.20.6
74.40.1
*Communication / advertising design
Software manufacturers
Employed persons (3) Number
Turnover per employed person (5) In thousands of euros
Other publishing activities
22.15.0
690.541
Turnover (2) In millions of euros
*21.828
10. The advertising market
86.174
Economy branch
Self-employment and enterprise (1) Number
35.719
11. Software/games market
146.473
WZ 2003
Other subsectors of the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
3.132 34.124 39.737 *21.828 13.445 3.455
7. Design sector WZ 2003
2.481 38.728 4,74% 67% 146.473 Self-employment and enterprise (1) Number
Economy branch
Art and entertainment sectorsby submarkets (Federal Republic of Germany 2006)
24.103 24.103
305.805 305.805
13.203 *12.594 25.797
49.690 *92.331 142.021
3.419
7.554
10.172
36.759
10.617
50.971
1.102
3.701
804 *1.197 27.311
7.201 *18.174 124.360
414
5.950
626
9.425
6.246 7.286 *12.594
84.251 99.626 *92.331
1.595
19.133
680 14.869
8.683 120.147
1,77%
2,36%
68% 86.174 Turnover (2) In millions of euros
74% 690.541 Employed persons (3) Number
Other subsectors of the Cultural and Creative Economy sector
Suggestions according to Söndermann: (*) Data marked blue are assigned to a more than one submarket. Data marked red: Estimated value (**) Estimation of the art trade.. (1) ‘Enterprises subject to fiscal obligation’ comprise all entrepreneurs working on a freelance basis or on self-employ-
ment basis generating income subject to taxation (2) in the amount of at least 17.500 euros annually (3) ‘Employed persons’ comprise all self-employed persons and dependent employed, whose workposts are subject to the obligatory social insurance (4) except for so-called mini-jobs.
270.086 270.086 32.011 *70.503 102.514 4.654 35.027 50.271 3.532 6.400 *1.559 101.443 3.469 6.293 50.127 59.889 *70.503 5.688 5.228 81.419 2,04% 76% 544.069 Subject to obligatory social insurance (4) Number
79 79 266 *136 182 453 277 208 298 112 *66 220 70 66 74 73 *136 83 78 124 -
125 Turnover per employed person (5) In thousands of euros
Subject to obligatory social insurance (4) Number
Art and entertainment sectorsby submarkets (Federal Republic of Germany 2006)
Source: see above.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
27
28
parallelly to an economic process or lead to it. The economic process should not be seen here as simple fiscal estimation, but in a much broader sense”. In Peter Bendixen’s argument there is bipolarity of it: every economic process has also a cultural dimension, and every cultural process has an economic dimension. From the point of view of cultural policy, the notion of economy in the field of culture will not lead far if it is confused with the artificial term of creative economy. In order to get away from this debate, the term ‘Art and entertainment economic sectors’ was coined (see above). It comprises hardly one per cent of the national economic turnover and hardly one per cent of employed population. However, because of the small scale of most of the initiatives, there is almost a three times higher share of the number of enterprises and self-employed persons. Its core is the production and distribution of literary, musical, dramatical, fine art and film activities. This comprises a turnover of 29,8 billion of euros. Because of the dense interweaving within this sector, the ratio between turnover and GDP contribution to GDP might be 2:1. In economic and political respect, a noteworthy profitability of public expenditure on culture may be observed. The European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe (1954) did not have binding consequences for the self-image of its signatory countries and for their economic processes. Therefore it did not cause misunderstandings or resistance. The GATS negotiations showed a different behaviour. A strong opposition of all EU member states as well as of the EU formed itself against the American position. On October 20th, 2005, during the UNESCO general assembly, the UNESCO Cultural Diversity convention was adopted. It initiated a range of activities both on national as well as on international levels. 33 It can be stated that since that day cultural policy gained recognition as a constituent of economically significant politics, in the international arena, too.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Civil society
Compare www.unesco.de.
‘C
ultural education’ is a current catchphrase of cultural policy. However, from a logical point it is nothing but a hendiadys. When Cultura appeared in history for the first time (Cicero: disputationes tusculane, 45 B.C.), it targeted at the education of (young) people. Education is always a cultivating phenomenon specific for the place
ultural education’ is a current catchphrase of cultural policy. However, from a logical point it is nothing but a hendiadys. When Cultura appeared in history for the first time (Cicero: disputationes tusculane, 45 B.C.), it targeted at the education of (young) people. Education is always a cultivating phenomenon specific for the place
‘C
In the table ‘Art and entertainment sectors’ given above, a certain range of economy branches listed by Söndermann were not considered. They constitute between 67% a 75% of the total field of the Cultural and Creative Economy sector, and thus a majority. Their list reads as follows: The term ‘art and entertainment sector’ accepted above, makes it possible to define art in a more narrow sense and to define culture in a more broaden understanding, including even zoological gardens (on the world scale the most cherished communal field of culture with some 600 millions visitors a year), as well as circus and carnies, dance schools and the whole sector of radio and television. In comparison to this, the British term ‘creative industries’ comprises the communication branch (the Press, advertising, design), architectural offices except for underground construction, and particularly software / game industry. ‘Creative industries’ bundles all this into an artificial whole. The term creative is politically positive, but one its numerous problems is that from a logical point of view all other, necessarily ‘non-creative’ industries must be considered as ‘non-creative’. But this is obviously not true even for the British motor industry, not to mention British financial sector services. From the point of view of economy, the term’s appeal is that the branches of economy gathered here, mark Europe’s biggest growth indicators. They caught up with the car construction sector or the chemical industry and, consequently, they are the focal point of politics. At the German conference of ministers of economy in 2008 the following definition appeared: “The Culture and Creative Economy sector comprises those cultural and creative enterprises, which are predominantly income-oriented and deal with planning, production, distribution and / or medial distribution of cultural / creative goods and services.” The Federal commission ‘Culture in Germany’ attempted to use as a key the term ‘creative act’. However, as anthropological constant, it does constitute a basis for all human artifacts. Therefore it cannot be used in this isolated context. Be this as it stands. The debate around ‘Creative Industries’ has a side effect which is important for culture also in its narrower understanding, as well for the economy in general. Söndermann says: “It is [...] absolutely necessary to draw attention to the fact that the notion of the creative act in the concept of Cultural and Creative Economy must be interpreted as an economic category, too. The production of aesthetic contents must proceed
28
Civil society
Compare www.unesco.de.
33
parallelly to an economic process or lead to it. The economic process should not be seen here as simple fiscal estimation, but in a much broader sense”. In Peter Bendixen’s argument there is bipolarity of it: every economic process has also a cultural dimension, and every cultural process has an economic dimension. From the point of view of cultural policy, the notion of economy in the field of culture will not lead far if it is confused with the artificial term of creative economy. In order to get away from this debate, the term ‘Art and entertainment economic sectors’ was coined (see above). It comprises hardly one per cent of the national economic turnover and hardly one per cent of employed population. However, because of the small scale of most of the initiatives, there is almost a three times higher share of the number of enterprises and self-employed persons. Its core is the production and distribution of literary, musical, dramatical, fine art and film activities. This comprises a turnover of 29,8 billion of euros. Because of the dense interweaving within this sector, the ratio between turnover and GDP contribution to GDP might be 2:1. In economic and political respect, a noteworthy profitability of public expenditure on culture may be observed. The European Cultural Convention of the Council of Europe (1954) did not have binding consequences for the self-image of its signatory countries and for their economic processes. Therefore it did not cause misunderstandings or resistance. The GATS negotiations showed a different behaviour. A strong opposition of all EU member states as well as of the EU formed itself against the American position. On October 20th, 2005, during the UNESCO general assembly, the UNESCO Cultural Diversity convention was adopted. It initiated a range of activities both on national as well as on international levels. 33 It can be stated that since that day cultural policy gained recognition as a constituent of economically significant politics, in the international arena, too.
33
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
In the table ‘Art and entertainment sectors’ given above, a certain range of economy branches listed by Söndermann were not considered. They constitute between 67% a 75% of the total field of the Cultural and Creative Economy sector, and thus a majority. Their list reads as follows: The term ‘art and entertainment sector’ accepted above, makes it possible to define art in a more narrow sense and to define culture in a more broaden understanding, including even zoological gardens (on the world scale the most cherished communal field of culture with some 600 millions visitors a year), as well as circus and carnies, dance schools and the whole sector of radio and television. In comparison to this, the British term ‘creative industries’ comprises the communication branch (the Press, advertising, design), architectural offices except for underground construction, and particularly software / game industry. ‘Creative industries’ bundles all this into an artificial whole. The term creative is politically positive, but one its numerous problems is that from a logical point of view all other, necessarily ‘non-creative’ industries must be considered as ‘non-creative’. But this is obviously not true even for the British motor industry, not to mention British financial sector services. From the point of view of economy, the term’s appeal is that the branches of economy gathered here, mark Europe’s biggest growth indicators. They caught up with the car construction sector or the chemical industry and, consequently, they are the focal point of politics. At the German conference of ministers of economy in 2008 the following definition appeared: “The Culture and Creative Economy sector comprises those cultural and creative enterprises, which are predominantly income-oriented and deal with planning, production, distribution and / or medial distribution of cultural / creative goods and services.” The Federal commission ‘Culture in Germany’ attempted to use as a key the term ‘creative act’. However, as anthropological constant, it does constitute a basis for all human artifacts. Therefore it cannot be used in this isolated context. Be this as it stands. The debate around ‘Creative Industries’ has a side effect which is important for culture also in its narrower understanding, as well for the economy in general. Söndermann says: “It is [...] absolutely necessary to draw attention to the fact that the notion of the creative act in the concept of Cultural and Creative Economy must be interpreted as an economic category, too. The production of aesthetic contents must proceed
29
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
of its occurrence. With reference to the regularly intended connotation with Word and Art, it would be more appropriate to talk rather about ‘Museborn education’ (or, more precise, about ‘camenalic education’). The nine Muses are far less emphatically marked than the notion of ‘culture’. The latter may be used to ennoble jurisprudence, turning it into the Culture of Law, or the craft of hairdressing, transforming it into the Culture of the Head, or to call the second lowest need in the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs34 a Culture of Eating. According to Peez, the notion of ‘Muse-born education’ has a complex history. 35 In the first place, it refers to a formalized process of training: “Its key characteristics is the principle of holistic education of man, in which stress is put on the critical attitude to culture and appealing to the creative powers [note the plural] of man”. 36 The plural form of the expression ‘creative powers’ indicates that cultural or Muse-born education of man, initially does not focus on studying thoroughly the arts as an aim in itself. Instead, it focuses on the ability to develop the creative potentials of an individual and to help him/her achieve the ultimate Maslow self-realization (”What a man can be, he must be”37). A piano and a violin have been proven milestones on this road. According to recent research results38, several hours of mathematics less at school and several hours of music more help score better marks in mathematics. We can note at first a non-mediated
function ars gratia culturae (cultura understood as an individual process of maturation in the sense of Cicero,39 which always goes hand in hand with an enculturation into the beliefs of the surrounding society). Beyond this function, again it is not about the arts bearing an aim in themselves ars gratia artis, but it is about the anthropologically fundamental function ars gratia libertatis; when the arts stimulate the development of man as homo ludens40. According to Schiller, a man is fully a man only there where he or she plays.41 That sphere is the exact opposite of the middle-highGerman notion of ‘arebeit’, the toil and the worries for to satisfy man’s physiologic needs. Since the Greek era, the Muses have been at the core of the European self-conception of civil society, either by ascending through the arts as understood by the late burgher’s, or by being entertained by them, in a general social meaning, be it in a creative or a receptive way. The most recent research of Swiss scholars42 concerning cultural behavior of adults, indicates that 2/3 of the members of the society regularly (from one to six times a year) attend concerts, visit historic landmarks or go to the movies; half of the society goes to the museum, to the circus or to the theater; 1/3 takes part in festivals or goes to the library. Research conducted in other countries, shows similar results.43 Differences in age do not matter – contrary to the differences in education and income. Among the main obstacles to realization of cultural activity, the researchers list lack of time (depending on a
34
Maslow, Abraham H.: A Theory of Human Motivation. In: Psychological Review 50(4) (1943): 370-96.- The notion of the ‘pyramid’, quoted many times, does not appear here.
35
The notion was created within reformed pedagogy of the 20’s; its roots reach also to the youth movement. “[...] Since the late 60’s [...] in the sphere of social work, where it was able to survive till that time due to the general deficit of theory, the notion has been considered outdated. Here, the concepts of aesthetic education were adopted. Based on the political directives, the notion of ‘des Musischen’ – artistic, has been used again first of all in cultural work with young people since the mid 80’s – in such combination of words as „musisch-ästhetische Erziehung” (artistic-aesthetic education) or ‘musische Bildung und Medienerziehung’ (artistic education and upbringing in contact with the media) Peez, Georg: Musische Bildung. In: Fachlexikon der sozialen Arbeit. Frankfurt a. M. (Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private Fürsorge) 6. Ed. 2007, p. 662-663.
36
Peetz (2007), a.a.O.
37
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and personality. New York 1954, p. 91.
38
See. Bastian, Hans Günther: Musik(erziehung) und ihre Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner Grundschulen. Mainz 2000.
39
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Beitrag der Kultur zur Wohlfahrt. In Vogt, Matthias Theodor (Hrsg.): Kultur im ländlichen Raum. Das Beispiel Mittelsachsen. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band VIII. Leipzig, 2000.
40
Huizinga, Johan: Homo Ludens, proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur. Haarlem, 1938.
41
Schiller, Friedrich [o]: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795).
42
Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Eidgenössisches Deparement des Inneren, Bundesamt für Statistik: Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008. Erste Ergebnisse. Neuchätel, 2009.- Complete results will be presented in 2010.
43
Compare France, Austria, European Union and other. Donnat, O.: Les Pratiques culturelles des Frangais. Enquete 1997, La documentation frangaise, Paris 1998. IFES Institut für empirische Sozialforschung: Kultur- Monitoring. Bevölkerungsbefragung, Wien 2007. EUROSTAT: Participation of Europeans in cultural activities. Eurobarometer survey ordered by the European Commission, Brüssel 2002. Europäische Kommission: European cultural values. Special Eurobarometer 278, Brüssel 2007.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
29
Compare France, Austria, European Union and other. Donnat, O.: Les Pratiques culturelles des Frangais. Enquete 1997, La documentation frangaise, Paris 1998. IFES Institut für empirische Sozialforschung: Kultur- Monitoring. Bevölkerungsbefragung, Wien 2007. EUROSTAT: Participation of Europeans in cultural activities. Eurobarometer survey ordered by the European Commission, Brüssel 2002. Europäische Kommission: European cultural values. Special Eurobarometer 278, Brüssel 2007.
43
Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Eidgenössisches Deparement des Inneren, Bundesamt für Statistik: Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008. Erste Ergebnisse. Neuchätel, 2009.- Complete results will be presented in 2010.
42
Schiller, Friedrich [o]: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795).
41
Huizinga, Johan: Homo Ludens, proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur. Haarlem, 1938.
40
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Beitrag der Kultur zur Wohlfahrt. In Vogt, Matthias Theodor (Hrsg.): Kultur im ländlichen Raum. Das Beispiel Mittelsachsen. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band VIII. Leipzig, 2000.
39
See. Bastian, Hans Günther: Musik(erziehung) und ihre Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner Grundschulen. Mainz 2000.
38
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and personality. New York 1954, p. 91.
37
Peetz (2007), a.a.O.
36
The notion was created within reformed pedagogy of the 20’s; its roots reach also to the youth movement. “[...] Since the late 60’s [...] in the sphere of social work, where it was able to survive till that time due to the general deficit of theory, the notion has been considered outdated. Here, the concepts of aesthetic education were adopted. Based on the political directives, the notion of ‘des Musischen’ – artistic, has been used again first of all in cultural work with young people since the mid 80’s – in such combination of words as „musisch-ästhetische Erziehung” (artistic-aesthetic education) or ‘musische Bildung und Medienerziehung’ (artistic education and upbringing in contact with the media) Peez, Georg: Musische Bildung. In: Fachlexikon der sozialen Arbeit. Frankfurt a. M. (Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private Fürsorge) 6. Ed. 2007, p. 662-663.
35
Maslow, Abraham H.: A Theory of Human Motivation. In: Psychological Review 50(4) (1943): 370-96.- The notion of the ‘pyramid’, quoted many times, does not appear here.
34
of its occurrence. With reference to the regularly intended connotation with Word and Art, it would be more appropriate to talk rather about ‘Museborn education’ (or, more precise, about ‘camenalic education’). The nine Muses are far less emphatically marked than the notion of ‘culture’. The latter may be used to ennoble jurisprudence, turning it into the Culture of Law, or the craft of hairdressing, transforming it into the Culture of the Head, or to call the second lowest need in the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs34 a Culture of Eating. According to Peez, the notion of ‘Muse-born education’ has a complex history. 35 In the first place, it refers to a formalized process of training: “Its key characteristics is the principle of holistic education of man, in which stress is put on the critical attitude to culture and appealing to the creative powers [note the plural] of man”. 36 The plural form of the expression ‘creative powers’ indicates that cultural or Muse-born education of man, initially does not focus on studying thoroughly the arts as an aim in itself. Instead, it focuses on the ability to develop the creative potentials of an individual and to help him/her achieve the ultimate Maslow self-realization (”What a man can be, he must be”37). A piano and a violin have been proven milestones on this road. According to recent research results38, several hours of mathematics less at school and several hours of music more help score better marks in mathematics. We can note at first a non-mediated
function ars gratia culturae (cultura understood as an individual process of maturation in the sense of Cicero,39 which always goes hand in hand with an enculturation into the beliefs of the surrounding society). Beyond this function, again it is not about the arts bearing an aim in themselves ars gratia artis, but it is about the anthropologically fundamental function ars gratia libertatis; when the arts stimulate the development of man as homo ludens40. According to Schiller, a man is fully a man only there where he or she plays.41 That sphere is the exact opposite of the middle-highGerman notion of ‘arebeit’, the toil and the worries for to satisfy man’s physiologic needs. Since the Greek era, the Muses have been at the core of the European self-conception of civil society, either by ascending through the arts as understood by the late burgher’s, or by being entertained by them, in a general social meaning, be it in a creative or a receptive way. The most recent research of Swiss scholars42 concerning cultural behavior of adults, indicates that 2/3 of the members of the society regularly (from one to six times a year) attend concerts, visit historic landmarks or go to the movies; half of the society goes to the museum, to the circus or to the theater; 1/3 takes part in festivals or goes to the library. Research conducted in other countries, shows similar results.43 Differences in age do not matter – contrary to the differences in education and income. Among the main obstacles to realization of cultural activity, the researchers list lack of time (depending on a
42% 43% 44%
Attending other types of performances (circus etc.) Visiting historic museums, technical exhibitions etc. Going to the movies
49% 63% 66%
g national monuments and historic landmarks Visiting
67%
Attending concerts
(Switzerland 2008; % of adult population)
dance performances 20% to the library (work, education) 21% als (all types) 35% to the library (in free time) 36% to the theater 42% g art galleries, and art museums 43% ing other types of performances (circus etc.) 44% whereas the cost is g historic museums, technical exhibitions etc.filed between 50% and 70%), 49% to the movies 63% an obstacle only in 15% of cases. g national monuments and historic landmarks 66% ing concerts 67% CULTURAL BEHAVIOR
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Visiting art galleries, and art museums
30
36%
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/budget_en.html.
Going to the theater
49
35%
Many of the subjects taught at the universities (such as theology, jurisprudence or medicine) include elements, which do not qualify as science, but are rather part of the very different practical art of application in life. Fichte: Deduzierter Plan, § 22. Cp. Schelsky: Einsamkeit und Freiheit. Reinbek 1963, p. 88.
Going to the library (in free time)
I would like to thank Andreas Bracher, Harvard MA, for his unvaluable help in translating this paragraphe.
48
21%
47
Festivals (all types)
Böckenförde, Ernst Wolfgang: Die Entstehung des Staates als Vorgang der Säkularisation (1967), re-edited in: the same: Recht, Staat, Freiheit, Frankfurt am Main 1991. S. 111 bzw. 112.
20%
46
Ballet/dance performances
Burckhardt, Jacob: Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Band 20. Griechische Kulturgeschichte. Zweiter Band, Dritter Abschnitt: Religion und Kultus. II. Die Griechen und ihre Götter. München, Basel 2005. P. 67 column 24.
Going to the library (work, education)
45
80%
Pausanias IX, 29,2.- Comp. with further works Ettlinger, L. D.: Die Verwandlung der Musen in die sieben Freien Künste. In: Sitzungsberichte der Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft, Berlin 1960/61.
60%
44
40%
he Statistical Office of the European Union Eurostat (as well as other research investigating funds used for culture) regularly ignores one central resource of culture: the humanities. Within the EU this is systemic. It’s guiding principle is Fichte’s ‘practical art of application in
20%
T
0%
The humanities47
rmances
g to the theater
The single German’s expenses of for literature or the other forms of art – for cultural services or products to use the terminology of the ‘basket of products’ compiled by the Federal Statistical Office – amount to 344 euros per year; giving a total of 28 billion euros. The Beotian original trias of Muses44 – Melete, Mneme and Aoide – was translated by Burckhardt45 as Zeal (which is also the original meaning of studium), Memory and Singing. Indeed is μελετάω the central term which was available for the ancient Greeks for to define scientific practice, comprising quite a group of notions: consider, study, practice. Contemporary apprentices devote to these notions half of their time each week. In the era of lifelong learning these notions provide for Europe the decisive chance to develop its economic potential. The art of recollection Mneme characterizes the integration of historic thinking. Since the success of the national exhibition on Staufs (Stuttgart 1976), one can see that Mneme interests broader and broader parts of the society.
Source: Schweizerisches Bundesamt für Statistik (2009): Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008.
Source: Schweizerisches Bundesamt für Statistik (2009): Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008.
to the theater
80%
Finally, Aide is metonymic with the creative use of all that has been well thought-out and memorized, giving an artistic or humanistic form to the results of thinking and the historic reflection. The group of civil society’s activities referring to art may be treated in this sense as ‘Muse-born culture’. Its definition is sharp enough for to become a subject of study in cultural policy, being the segment of cultural policy outlined by the first actor of politics, namely the civil society. Πολιτεία means first of all an interaction of ‘more than two’ (πολύ) people and does not inescapably limit the art of common good merely to the constituted state or burgh. Understanding culture as a bastion of community has some tradition in Germany. Ernst Wolfgang Böckenförde, who became later a lecturer in Freiburg, formulated in 1967 the question: “What does a nation live on, where does it find the power which elevates it, guarantees unity, and where does it find the strength of regulating the freedom, which it needs?’ and he answered openly: ‘A free, secularized state lives on premises which it cannot provide on its own.”46 Tying in with 19th century workers associations, in nowadays Germany the so-called A lands (traditionally governed by left-wing SPD) call their administration ‘Ministries of Education and Culture’. In the so-called B lands (traditionally governed by right-wing CDU), the corresponding structures are called ‘Ministries of Education and Art’. In reality both ideas denote the same ‘Muse-born culture’ and the same function of arts in self-unfolding of society and of its members (ars gratia culturae).
60%
THE HUMANITIES47
40%
T
20%
he Statistical Office of the European Union Eurostat (as well as other research investigating funds used for culture) regularly ignores one central resource of culture: the humanities. Within the EU this is systemic. It’s guiding principle is Fichte’s ‘practical art of application in
0%
The single German’s expenses of for literature or the other forms of art – for cultural services or products to use the terminology of the ‘basket of products’ compiled by the Federal Statistical Office – amount to 344 euros per year; giving a total of 28 billion euros. The Beotian original trias of Muses44 – Melete, Mneme and Aoide – was translated by Burckhardt45 as Zeal (which is also the original meaning of studium), Memory and Singing. Indeed is μελετάω the central term which was available for the ancient Greeks for to define scientific practice, comprising quite a group of notions: consider, study, practice. Contemporary apprentices devote to these notions half of their time each week. In the era of lifelong learning these notions provide for Europe the decisive chance to develop its economic potential. The art of recollection Mneme characterizes the integration of historic thinking. Since the success of the national exhibition on Staufs (Stuttgart 1976), one can see that Mneme interests broader and broader parts of the society.
20%
rmances
Pausanias IX, 29,2.- Comp. with further works Ettlinger, L. D.: Die Verwandlung der Musen in die sieben Freien Künste. In: Sitzungsberichte der Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft, Berlin 1960/61.
Ballet/dance performances
44
35% 21%
Burckhardt, Jacob: Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Band 20. Griechische Kulturgeschichte. Zweiter Band, Dritter Abschnitt: Religion und Kultus. ii. Die Griechen und ihre Götter. München, Basel 2005. P. 67 column 24.
Festivals (all types) Going to the library (work, education)
45
42% 36%
Böckenförde, Ernst Wolfgang: Die Entstehung des Staates als Vorgang der Säkularisation (1967), re-edited in: the same: Recht, Staat, Freiheit, Frankfurt am Main 1991. S. 111 bzw. 112.
Going to the theater Going to the library (in free time)
46
43%
I would like to thank Andreas Bracher, Harvard MA, for his unvaluable help in translating this paragraphe.
44%
Visiting art galleries, and art museums
47
Attending other types of performances (circus etc.)
48
63% 49%
Many of the subjects taught at the universities (such as theology, jurisprudence or medicine) include elements, which do not qualify as science, but are rather part of the very different practical art of application in life. Fichte: Deduzierter Plan, § 22. Cp. Schelsky: Einsamkeit und Freiheit. Reinbek 1963, p. 88.
Going to the movies Visiting historic museums, technical exhibitions etc.
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/budget_en.html.
67% 66%
Finally, Aide is metonymic with the creative use of all that has been well thought-out and memorized, giving an artistic or humanistic form to the results of thinking and the historic reflection. The group of civil society’s activities referring to art may be treated in this sense as ‘Muse-born culture’. Its definition is sharp enough for to become a subject of study in cultural policy, being the segment of cultural policy outlined by the first actor of politics, namely the civil society. Πολιτεία means first of all an interaction of ‘more than two’ (πολύ) people and does not inescapably limit the art of common good merely to the constituted state or burgh. Understanding culture as a bastion of community has some tradition in Germany. Ernst Wolfgang Böckenförde, who became later a lecturer in Freiburg, formulated in 1967 the question: “What does a nation live on, where does it find the power which elevates it, guarantees unity, and where does it find the strength of regulating the freedom, which it needs?’ and he answered openly: ‘A free, secularized state lives on premises which it cannot provide on its own.”46 Tying in with 19th century workers associations, in nowadays Germany the so-called A lands (traditionally governed by left-wing SPD) call their administration ‘Ministries of Education and Culture’. In the so-called B lands (traditionally governed by right-wing CDU), the corresponding structures are called ‘Ministries of Education and Art’. In reality both ideas denote the same ‘Muse-born culture’ and the same function of arts in self-unfolding of society and of its members (ars gratia culturae).
49
Attending concerts g national monuments and historic landmarks Visiting
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(Switzerland 2008; % of adult population)
30
/dance performances 20% g to the library (work, education) 21% vals (all types) 35% g to the library (in free time) 36% g to the theater 42% ng art galleries, and art museums 43% ding other types of performances (circus etc.) 44% whereas the cost is ng historic museums, technical exhibitions etc.filed between 50% and 70%), 49% g to the movies 63% an obstacle only in 15% of cases. ng national monuments and historic landmarks 66% ding concerts 67% CULTURAL BEHAVIOR
31
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life’.48 According to the EU, the scienda, i.e. that, what one should know, is ’science’ and hence, already in this primary meaning it limits the canon of sciences to natural sciences, life sciences and technology. These three constitute 9 out of 10 topics in the 7th Framework Research Program (20072013). The expenditures on the ‘socio-economic sciences and the humanities’49 amount to 623 million euros or 1,9% out of the total of 32.413 million euros. This translates to a subsidy of 0,18 euro per citizen and year. The German version ‘Geistes- Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften’ (humanities, economy and social sciences) is overblown. The English version mentions only the narrow field of ‘socio-economic research’, i.e. human factors connected with economic development, and the humaniora.
What are the humaniora?
T
he term ‘humanities’ used in the EU derives from Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406), who in his later life was chancellor of the city of Florence. In a letter of condolence in 1369 he used the expression studia humanitatis. 50 In the Trecento, studying grammar, rhetoric, history, literature and moral philosophy (i.e. all of the commonly recognized disciplines at that time, apart from the three sciences of order [see below] and the natural sciences) was aimed at acquiring skills for performing Good Service in the society (et sibi et ceteris consulebat); not in order to be more “educated” (non quo doctiores efficiamur), but as a personal prerequisite of co-competence in governance in the seal of humanity (quo meliores [but not: melius] efficiamur). 51 It is not clearly distinguished however – the same is true for usage in contemporary French or English – whether humanitas refers to humanity or to humaneness (Menschheit oder Menschlichkeit); but the use of the Genitive case instead of the Dative suggests
rather the former. Studia, effort, is by no means aimed at acquiring knowledge alone, but at building one’s character. The divine order, the order of the world and the order of the body were in the medieval universities the subjects of the three higher faculties of theology, the two laws and medicine. Before one could go to order studies, you had to go to the faculty of liberal arts. In the Enlightenment epoch some centuries later, a specific function was ascribed to the arts’ faculty – many scholars still like to quote Immanuel Kant52 who argued: “The name of the lower [philosophical] faculty may be ascribed to that part of the university which deals exclusively with the disciplines of which the direction will not be determined at the order of a higher authority”. 53 To continue using the argumentation of Kant, it’s canon of subjects relates to the key task of conveying something beyond practicality. Standing in the tradition of Salutati, he clearly refers here to the concept of freedom (and thus to the foundation in late antiquity of the idea of studies and teaching as a way of the liberation and the self-realization of man): “Now, the ability to formulate judgments autonomously, i.e. freely (in accordance with the general principles of thinking) is called reason. Thus, the faculty of philosophy, since it has to stand in for the truthfulness of the teachings which it supports or concedes, must be thought to be in essence free and subject exclusively to the jurisdiction of reason, not of a government. At every university, also such a faculty has to be installed, that is the faculty of philosophy must exist. Looking at the upper three, it is designated to control them and in this way to become useful for them, as everything depends on truth (the most important and the first condition of learnedness); the utilitarian character, which the higher faculties promise to provide for the purposes of the government, is a secondary momentum”. 54
50
Salutati, Coluccio: Letter of condolence to Ugolino Orsini de’ Conti di Manupello on the occassion of his father’s death, whose character and whose efforts are highlighted. Epistolario I, Letter XVIII, Viterbii, pridie kalendas octobris [1369]: „Omnium consensu divinarum humanarumque rerum volumina, quasi Parnassus biceps pariter continens, utriusque sophie non sophistico, non ventoso sensu, sed vere realitatis solidam existentiam attingebat, et denique omnia humanitatis studia longa exercitatione complexus ad universas vite partes et sibi et ceteris consulebat.” In: Epistolario di Coluccio Salutati, a cura di Francesco Movati, Roma, 1891 (vol. I) 1893 (vol. II), 1896 (vol. III), 1905 (vol. IV/t), 1911 (vol. IV/2). Tutaj Vol. 1, S. 106. 51 The normative aspekt is even clearer in a letter of Salutatis’s of 1398.: „Alterum in quo tibi gratulor est, quod ad litterarum studia te convertas. nichil enim perseverantius nobiscum est quam habitus scientificus et humanitatis studia. habitum autem volo, non quo doctiores solum, sed quo meliores efficiamur, cuius magna pars philosophie moralis preceptis doctrinaque continetur.” Libro Nono [Brief] XXV. A Giovanni di Paoluccio Manzini della Motta di Fivizzano. Firenze, 3 dicembre 1398. Movati ecc.. Rom 1896. Vol. III, p. 330.
52
Gethmann, Carl Friedrich; Langewiesche, Dieter; Mittelstraß, Jürgen; Simon, Dieter; Stock, Günter: Manifest Geisteswissenschaft. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 2005.
53
Kant (1794): Der Streit der Facultäten in drei Abschnitten. Eingang des zweiten Abschnitts.
54
Ibid.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
31
Ibid.
54
Kant (1794): Der Streit der Facultäten in drei Abschnitten. Eingang des zweiten Abschnitts.
53
Gethmann, Carl Friedrich; Langewiesche, Dieter; Mittelstraß, Jürgen; Simon, Dieter; Stock, Günter: Manifest Geisteswissenschaft. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 2005.
52
Salutati, Coluccio: Letter of condolence to Ugolino Orsini de’ Conti di Manupello on the occassion of his father’s death, whose character and whose efforts are highlighted. Epistolario I, Letter XVIII, Viterbii, pridie kalendas octobris [1369]: „Omnium consensu divinarum humanarumque rerum volumina, quasi Parnassus biceps pariter continens, utriusque sophie non sophistico, non ventoso sensu, sed vere realitatis solidam existentiam attingebat, et denique omnia humanitatis studia longa exercitatione complexus ad universas vite partes et sibi et ceteris consulebat.” In: Epistolario di Coluccio Salutati, a cura di Francesco Movati, Roma, 1891 (vol. I) 1893 (vol. II), 1896 (vol. III), 1905 (vol. IV/t), 1911 (vol. IV/2). Tutaj Vol. 1, S. 106. 51 The normative aspekt is even clearer in a letter of Salutatis’s of 1398.: „Alterum in quo tibi gratulor est, quod ad litterarum studia te convertas. nichil enim perseverantius nobiscum est quam habitus scientificus et humanitatis studia. habitum autem volo, non quo doctiores solum, sed quo meliores efficiamur, cuius magna pars philosophie moralis preceptis doctrinaque continetur.” Libro Nono [Brief] XXV. A Giovanni di Paoluccio Manzini della Motta di Fivizzano. Firenze, 3 dicembre 1398. Movati ecc.. Rom 1896. Vol. III, p. 330.
50
he term ‘humanities’ used in the EU derives from Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406), who in his later life was chancellor of the city of Florence. In a letter of condolence in 1369 he used the expression studia humanitatis. 50 In the Trecento, studying grammar, rhetoric, history, literature and moral philosophy (i.e. all of the commonly recognized disciplines at that time, apart from the three sciences of order [see below] and the natural sciences) was aimed at acquiring skills for performing Good Service in the society (et sibi et ceteris consulebat); not in order to be more “educated” (non quo doctiores efficiamur), but as a personal prerequisite of co-competence in governance in the seal of humanity (quo meliores [but not: melius] efficiamur). 51 It is not clearly distinguished however – the same is true for usage in contemporary French or English – whether humanitas refers to humanity or to humaneness (Menschheit oder Menschlichkeit); but the use of the Genitive case instead of the Dative suggests
T
What are the humaniora? life’.48 According to the EU, the scienda, i.e. that, what one should know, is ’science’ and hence, already in this primary meaning it limits the canon of sciences to natural sciences, life sciences and technology. These three constitute 9 out of 10 topics in the 7th Framework Research Program (20072013). The expenditures on the ‘socio-economic sciences and the humanities’49 amount to 623 million euros or 1,9% out of the total of 32.413 million euros. This translates to a subsidy of 0,18 euro per citizen and year. The German version ‘Geistes- Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften’ (humanities, economy and social sciences) is overblown. The English version mentions only the narrow field of ‘socio-economic research’, i.e. human factors connected with economic development, and the humaniora.
rather the former. Studia, effort, is by no means aimed at acquiring knowledge alone, but at building one’s character. The divine order, the order of the world and the order of the body were in the medieval universities the subjects of the three higher faculties of theology, the two laws and medicine. Before one could go to order studies, you had to go to the faculty of liberal arts. In the Enlightenment epoch some centuries later, a specific function was ascribed to the arts’ faculty – many scholars still like to quote Immanuel Kant52 who argued: “The name of the lower [philosophical] faculty may be ascribed to that part of the university which deals exclusively with the disciplines of which the direction will not be determined at the order of a higher authority”. 53 To continue using the argumentation of Kant, it’s canon of subjects relates to the key task of conveying something beyond practicality. Standing in the tradition of Salutati, he clearly refers here to the concept of freedom (and thus to the foundation in late antiquity of the idea of studies and teaching as a way of the liberation and the self-realization of man): “Now, the ability to formulate judgments autonomously, i.e. freely (in accordance with the general principles of thinking) is called reason. Thus, the faculty of philosophy, since it has to stand in for the truthfulness of the teachings which it supports or concedes, must be thought to be in essence free and subject exclusively to the jurisdiction of reason, not of a government. At every university, also such a faculty has to be installed, that is the faculty of philosophy must exist. Looking at the upper three, it is designated to control them and in this way to become useful for them, as everything depends on truth (the most important and the first condition of learnedness); the utilitarian character, which the higher faculties promise to provide for the purposes of the government, is a secondary momentum”. 54
32
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When later, after 1800, the countries of continental Europe were collapsing under the pressure of Napoleon’s armies’ and required some kind of an intellectual defense-attack, a new university principle came into being, which today goes by the name of Wilhelm von Humboldt. According to this principle, the humanities occupy the central place – without them and without their state financed legitimization of the state no state any longer was willing or able to exist. The towers and crenels of the state edifices would give historic meaning and legitimacy to the external image of the state; the publication of the Nibelungenlied gave importance to its internal image. Germanic studies established the urgently needed connection with the old Germanic tribes; the historiography linked itself to the antique authors and the Weltgeist was shown to lead straight into Prussianism. Among the faculties, philosophy was usually ranked at the second position. Only theology did not yield and still occupied the first place. Partly even today it still occupies the place of a symbolic second. In the middle part of the following, the 20th century, a physicist, Charles Percy Snow, stated 1959 in a lecture at the University of Cambridge that there was an inability of a dialogue between the ‘literary intellectuals’ of the humanities on one side, and the representatives of science (the natural science recording objective results of research) on the other. Underlying his article in the press in 195655, his lecture and its publication in 195956 as well as an extended book of 196457, was
a defensive position: “Science [is] not understood or respected by the dominant culture [the literary intellectuals], to the detriment of all”58. The contrast defined by The Two Cultures derives from the creator of the concept of ‘Humanismus’ (humanism; 1808), the pedagogue, reformer of Bavarian schools and friend of Hegel’s, Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer (1766-1848). As the ‘dualism between the humanistic gymnasions and the ‘Realschulen’59, it shaped the whole of the 19th century. Its humanism was an ideal: building character with the ‘ideas of humanism’60 as the aim of education. The tradition of Niethammer’s concept is reflected directly in the concept of humanities in the United States. The National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act (1965) defines it’s target of funding in the following way: “The term ‘humanities’ includes, but is not limited to, the study of the following: language, both modern and classical; linguistics; literature; history; jurisprudence; philosophy; archeology; comparative religion; ethics; history, criticism and theory of art; those aspects of social sciences, which have humanistic values and employ humanistic methods; and the study and application of the humanities to the human environment with particular attention to reflecting our diverse heritage, traditions and history, and to the relevance of the humanities to the current conditions of the national life”.61 The demand for excellency (‘democracy demands wisdom’) of the National Endowment for the Humanities relates to Kant’s idea of something beyond practicality. This is however, not
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures. New Statesman, October 6, 1956.
32
55
Ibid.
56
National Endowment for the Humanities: Who We are http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html.
62
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The Rede Lecture 1959. 7 May 1959., Senate House, University of Cambridge. Published: Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1959 [p. 52]. Translated into German as Snow, C. P.: Die zwei Kulturen. 1959. In: Kreuzer, Helmut (ed.): Die zwei Kulturen. Literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz. C. P. Snows These in der Diskussion. dtv, München 1987.
Prantl, ibid.
61
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press 1964. [p. 100]
60
57
Compare Prantl, Carl: Artikel Niethammer, Friedrich Immanuel. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Publisher by the Historic Comission of the Bavarian Academy of Science, Vol. 23 (1886), pp. 689-691: “In 1808 Montgelas assigned him [Niethammer] to Munich and in the name of the Central School Council and the Higher Church Council ordered him to work out of a new plan of teaching for the ‘Gymnasien’; in order to prepare and justify his plan, he published A Controversy between Philantrophy and Humanism in the Theory of Education in our Times (1808), in which, based on the differentiation between the intellectual and the animal character of man, he discussed the importance of educating reason based on the ideals of humanism on the one hand, and of developing practical skills on the other. He generally emphasized the superior importance of the first task. [...] Now the dualism between the humanistic Gymnasien and the Realscul-Gymnasien was strictly put into reality and whereas in the former the stress was put on cultivating classical antiquity, in the latter the idealistic side of things was also included – namely, the higher grades were taught some philosophical disciplines (in his way N. could still in 1808 contribute to hiring Hegel for the Realygmnasium in Nurnberg).”
Quoted after: Are We Beyond the Two Cultures? May, 7, 2009. http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/are_we_beyond_the_ two_cultures/
59
58
Quoted after: Are We Beyond the Two Cultures? May, 7, 2009. http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/are_we_beyond_the_ two_cultures/
59
58
Prantl, ibid.
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press 1964. [p. 100]
Compare Prantl, Carl: Artikel Niethammer, Friedrich Immanuel. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Publisher by the Historic Comission of the Bavarian Academy of Science, Vol. 23 (1886), pp. 689-691: “In 1808 Montgelas assigned him [Niethammer] to Munich and in the name of the Central School Council and the Higher Church Council ordered him to work out of a new plan of teaching for the ‘Gymnasien’; in order to prepare and justify his plan, he published A Controversy between Philantrophy and Humanism in the Theory of Education in our Times (1808), in which, based on the differentiation between the intellectual and the animal character of man, he discussed the importance of educating reason based on the ideals of humanism on the one hand, and of developing practical skills on the other. He generally emphasized the superior importance of the first task. [...] Now the dualism between the humanistic Gymnasien and the Realscul-Gymnasien was strictly put into reality and whereas in the former the stress was put on cultivating classical antiquity, in the latter the idealistic side of things was also included – namely, the higher grades were taught some philosophical disciplines (in his way N. could still in 1808 contribute to hiring Hegel for the Realygmnasium in Nurnberg).”
57
60
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The Rede Lecture 1959. 7 May 1959., Senate House, University of Cambridge. Published: Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1959 [p. 52]. Translated into German as Snow, C. P.: Die zwei Kulturen. 1959. In: Kreuzer, Helmut (ed.): Die zwei Kulturen. Literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz. C. P. Snows These in der Diskussion. dtv, München 1987.
National Endowment for the Humanities: Who We are http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html.
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures. New Statesman, October 6, 1956.
56
61
55
Ibid.
a defensive position: “Science [is] not understood or respected by the dominant culture [the literary intellectuals], to the detriment of all”58. The contrast defined by The Two Cultures derives from the creator of the concept of ‘Humanismus’ (humanism; 1808), the pedagogue, reformer of Bavarian schools and friend of Hegel’s, Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer (1766-1848). As the ‘dualism between the humanistic gymnasions and the ‘Realschulen’59, it shaped the whole of the 19th century. Its humanism was an ideal: building character with the ‘ideas of humanism’60 as the aim of education. The tradition of Niethammer’s concept is reflected directly in the concept of humanities in the United States. The National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act (1965) defines it’s target of funding in the following way: “The term ‘humanities’ includes, but is not limited to, the study of the following: language, both modern and classical; linguistics; literature; history; jurisprudence; philosophy; archeology; comparative religion; ethics; history, criticism and theory of art; those aspects of social sciences, which have humanistic values and employ humanistic methods; and the study and application of the humanities to the human environment with particular attention to reflecting our diverse heritage, traditions and history, and to the relevance of the humanities to the current conditions of the national life”.61 The demand for excellency (‘democracy demands wisdom’) of the National Endowment for the Humanities relates to Kant’s idea of something beyond practicality. This is however, not
62
When later, after 1800, the countries of continental Europe were collapsing under the pressure of Napoleon’s armies’ and required some kind of an intellectual defense-attack, a new university principle came into being, which today goes by the name of Wilhelm von Humboldt. According to this principle, the humanities occupy the central place – without them and without their state financed legitimization of the state no state any longer was willing or able to exist. The towers and crenels of the state edifices would give historic meaning and legitimacy to the external image of the state; the publication of the Nibelungenlied gave importance to its internal image. Germanic studies established the urgently needed connection with the old Germanic tribes; the historiography linked itself to the antique authors and the Weltgeist was shown to lead straight into Prussianism. Among the faculties, philosophy was usually ranked at the second position. Only theology did not yield and still occupied the first place. Partly even today it still occupies the place of a symbolic second. In the middle part of the following, the 20th century, a physicist, Charles Percy Snow, stated 1959 in a lecture at the University of Cambridge that there was an inability of a dialogue between the ‘literary intellectuals’ of the humanities on one side, and the representatives of science (the natural science recording objective results of research) on the other. Underlying his article in the press in 195655, his lecture and its publication in 195956 as well as an extended book of 196457, was
33
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
true for the other part of it’s mission statement, the demands of the state (‘conveying the lessons of history to all Americans’), which is inspired by thoughts from the 19th century which are still alive on the other side of the Atlantic: “The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency created in 1965. [...] Because democracy demands wisdom, the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) serves and strengthens our Republic by promoting excellence in the humanities and conveying the lessons of history to all Americans.”62 What is considered ‘humanism’ now (and what really was no more such than Constantinople was ever Byzantine), was comparable to Washington’s ideology of practicality, and to Droysen’s63 concept of ‘Geisteswissenschaften’.64 While Leopold von Ranke made do with ‘what has happened’, Droysen demanded meaning: History should give orientation, co-create the future, or, put more sharply, should be politics by other means.65 Let us go back to Snow 1959. The main issue for him was another problem, also directed at Good Service: What can rich nations do to help the poorer ones? The sociologist Rudolf Stichweh, the present rector of the University in Lucerne, noted: “The one-sidedness of the solution, that he considers the only possible response to backwardness, is impressive: the training of a sufficient number of scientists and engineers. [ … ] This extreme narrowness of his view is connected with the fact that Snow does not in any way realize that the rich countries of the West do not differ from other regions of the world in the number of scientists and engineers, but in their social, legal and economic order, which cannot be recreated through the technological-scientific culture. [ . . . ] The function of social sciences according to him
boils down to reflecting in retrospect the results of the ‘industrial revolution’, which he sees as a mere consequence of breakthroughs in the technological-scientific domain.”66 Stichweh comes back to the idea of the ‘Third Culture’ signaled already by Snow and developed later by the others, and attributes predominance to his own, Stichweh’s discipline. Opposing John Brockmann67 he states: “A third culture, apart from the literary intelligence and the natural sciences […] – came into being in an impressive way in the last century in the systematic sciences of culture, in the economic sciences, in the legal sciences, and in the wide spectrum of social sciences. What we know thanks to this sphere and what is possible for us thanks to it in form of creative intervention, denies the reduction of the social world and the sphere of culture only to problems of application of the technologicalscientific progress. This reduction we find as an error of category in Snow, and we may later find it many times up to the politics of science of the early 21st century.”68 Thus, also here, although assuming a different point of view, we do not hear much about Snow’s ‘literary intellectuals’. If we would want to call them after Snow the ‘First Culture’, then on the one hand they are pressed hard by the ‘Second Culture’ – the canon of sciences – which gets the lion’s share of at least the European subsidies; whereas on the other hand the small remains would be claimed in most part by the ‘Third Culture’ of social and economic sciences, which do the scholarly discussion of Niethammer’s realia. Thus, where is ground for the philosophic faculty in the narrow sense? Where is there a place for Salutati’s ideal of humaneness and humanity (studia humanitatis), for Kant’s mediated sphere beyond practicality (the faculty of philosophy), for
63
§ 48. Relying on the individuals, working, the mankind creates the universe of the ethical word. Its creation would be mountains of unicellular organisms, without the tireless development and shaping of it’s moral community, without history. Its work would be infertile like sand dunes, and the play of wind without the consciousness of continuity – i.e. without history. It’s continuity would be only a repetitive motion of a wheel - without the certainty of it’s purposes and without the ultimate goal, without the theodicea of history. « Droysen, Johann Gustav: Historik. Rekonstruktion der ersten vollständigen Fassung der Vorlesungen (1857), outline of historicism in the first manuscript (1857/1858) and in the last printed version. Text edited by Peter Leyh, Stuttgart 1977, p. IX i 435 n.
64
Compare Nippel, Wilfried: Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. München 2008.
65
Schnyder, Caroline: Zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Wilfried Nippel entzaubert den Almeister Johann Gustav Droysen. NZZ Zürich 11.04.2008.
66
Stichweh, Rudolf: Die zwei Kulturen? Eine Korrektur. FAZ 2 December 2008.
67
Brockman, John: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster 1995.
68
Stichweh, ibid.
69
Compare Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was wir nicht wissen können und dennoch wissen müssen. Kulturpolitik als Ertüchtigung des Imaginärsinnes. In: Vogt, Matthias Theodor; Sokol, Jan; Ociepka, Beata; Pollack, Detlef; Mikotajczyk, Beata (ed.): Die Stärke der Schwäche. Pisma Collegium Pontes Vol 3. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2009, pp. 219-232.
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33
Compare Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was wir nicht wissen können und dennoch wissen müssen. Kulturpolitik als Ertüchtigung des Imaginärsinnes. In: Vogt, Matthias Theodor; Sokol, Jan; Ociepka, Beata; Pollack, Detlef; Mikotajczyk, Beata (ed.): Die Stärke der Schwäche. Pisma Collegium Pontes Vol 3. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2009, pp. 219-232.
69
Stichweh, ibid.
68
Brockman, John: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster 1995.
67
Stichweh, Rudolf: Die zwei Kulturen? Eine Korrektur. FAZ 2 December 2008.
66
Schnyder, Caroline: Zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Wilfried Nippel entzaubert den Almeister Johann Gustav Droysen. NZZ Zürich 11.04.2008.
65
Compare Nippel, Wilfried: Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. München 2008.
64
§ 48. Relying on the individuals, working, the mankind creates the universe of the ethical word. Its creation would be mountains of unicellular organisms, without the tireless development and shaping of it’s moral community, without history. Its work would be infertile like sand dunes, and the play of wind without the consciousness of continuity – i.e. without history. It’s continuity would be only a repetitive motion of a wheel - without the certainty of it’s purposes and without the ultimate goal, without the theodicea of history. « Droysen, Johann Gustav: Historik. Rekonstruktion der ersten vollständigen Fassung der Vorlesungen (1857), outline of historicism in the first manuscript (1857/1858) and in the last printed version. Text edited by Peter Leyh, Stuttgart 1977, p. IX i 435 n.
63
true for the other part of it’s mission statement, the demands of the state (‘conveying the lessons of history to all Americans’), which is inspired by thoughts from the 19th century which are still alive on the other side of the Atlantic: “The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency created in 1965. [...] Because democracy demands wisdom, the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) serves and strengthens our Republic by promoting excellence in the humanities and conveying the lessons of history to all Americans.”62 What is considered ‘humanism’ now (and what really was no more such than Constantinople was ever Byzantine), was comparable to Washington’s ideology of practicality, and to Droysen’s63 concept of ‘Geisteswissenschaften’.64 While Leopold von Ranke made do with ‘what has happened’, Droysen demanded meaning: History should give orientation, co-create the future, or, put more sharply, should be politics by other means.65 Let us go back to Snow 1959. The main issue for him was another problem, also directed at Good Service: What can rich nations do to help the poorer ones? The sociologist Rudolf Stichweh, the present rector of the University in Lucerne, noted: “The one-sidedness of the solution, that he considers the only possible response to backwardness, is impressive: the training of a sufficient number of scientists and engineers. [ … ] This extreme narrowness of his view is connected with the fact that Snow does not in any way realize that the rich countries of the West do not differ from other regions of the world in the number of scientists and engineers, but in their social, legal and economic order, which cannot be recreated through the technological-scientific culture. [ . . . ] The function of social sciences according to him
boils down to reflecting in retrospect the results of the ‘industrial revolution’, which he sees as a mere consequence of breakthroughs in the technological-scientific domain.”66 Stichweh comes back to the idea of the ‘Third Culture’ signaled already by Snow and developed later by the others, and attributes predominance to his own, Stichweh’s discipline. Opposing John Brockmann67 he states: “A third culture, apart from the literary intelligence and the natural sciences […] – came into being in an impressive way in the last century in the systematic sciences of culture, in the economic sciences, in the legal sciences, and in the wide spectrum of social sciences. What we know thanks to this sphere and what is possible for us thanks to it in form of creative intervention, denies the reduction of the social world and the sphere of culture only to problems of application of the technologicalscientific progress. This reduction we find as an error of category in Snow, and we may later find it many times up to the politics of science of the early 21st century.”68 Thus, also here, although assuming a different point of view, we do not hear much about Snow’s ‘literary intellectuals’. If we would want to call them after Snow the ‘First Culture’, then on the one hand they are pressed hard by the ‘Second Culture’ – the canon of sciences – which gets the lion’s share of at least the European subsidies; whereas on the other hand the small remains would be claimed in most part by the ‘Third Culture’ of social and economic sciences, which do the scholarly discussion of Niethammer’s realia. Thus, where is ground for the philosophic faculty in the narrow sense? Where is there a place for Salutati’s ideal of humaneness and humanity (studia humanitatis), for Kant’s mediated sphere beyond practicality (the faculty of philosophy), for
34
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Source: Federal Statistical Office: Bildung und Kultur. Personal an Hochschulen. Series 11 Row 4.4. Wiesbaden 2009. Own analysis. 537 335
Total number of personnel Humanities in German Hochschulen (2008)
61 860 Humanities
11,51%
44 567 Languages and culture studies
17 293 Art and art studies
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16 188
34
39 304
Source: Federal Statistical Office: Bildung und Kultur. Personal an Hochschulen. Series 11 Row 4.4. Wiesbaden 2009. Own analysis.
20,20%
25
55 492
4,35%
274 769
159
Total number of people employed as artists and scientists
3 657
Additional professional activity – total
6 135
9
21 889
63
15,16%
8,54%
28 024
63
184 797
738
Apprentices
As main profession, total
19
3 363
36
5 587
0,38%
23,21%
55
8 950
14 571
38 564
Trained personnel
Professors
-
136
1
757
0,00%
18,37%
1
893
59 798
4 862
Nursing personnel
Assistant professors and associate professors
121
1 729
425
12 724
1,11%
10,83%
546
14 453
49 293
133 497
Other personnel without higher grade
Art and science employees
2
907
28
2 821
2,20%
47,35%
30
3 728
1 362
Other personnel in the higher grade
7 874
435
Teachers for special assignments
455
10 053
1,71%
17 415
890
30,53%
51 986
Technical personnel without higher grade
27 468
8
89 972
12
As side profession – total
1,31%
59
20
65
1 527
30,92%
Technical personnel in the higher grade
124
44
401
387
Professors – visiting professors invited by the school
4,34%
33
431
217
9 924
27,32%
without higher grade
250
-
915
13
Retired professors, emeriti
1,67%
9 093
13
11 967
779
Library personnel in the higher grade
35,39%
415
21 060
3 580
59 516
6,62%
Lecturers
3 995
109
60 303
without higher grade
236
36
23,57%
129
345
1,91%
1 464
165
Honorary professors
8 628
Administrative personnel in the higher grade of civil service
54
1 080
1 141
5 129
19,11%
2,40%
1 195
6 209
6 252
258 909
Part time associate professors, part time professors, Privatdozenten
Basic type of professional activity – total
705
1 105
3 789
5 263
20,98%
2,43%
4 494
6 368
21 424
262 566
Research workers
Administrative and technical personnel, and others – total
1 105
705
5 263
3 789
2,43%
20,98%
6 368
4 494
262 566
21 424
Research workers
Administrative and technical personnel, and others – total
54
1 080
1 141
5 129
19,11%
2,40%
1 195
6 209
6 252
258 909
Part time associate professors, part time professors, Privatdozenten
Basic type of professional activity – total
109
36
236
129
23,57%
1,91%
345
165
1 464
8 628
Honorary professors
Administrative personnel in the higher grade of civil service
9 093
415
11 967
3 580
35,39%
6,62%
21 060
3 995
59 516
Lecturers
60 303
33
without higher grade
217
-
27,32%
13
250
1,67%
915
13
Retired professors, emeriti
779
59
Library personnel in the higher grade
65
44
30,92%
387
124
4,34%
401
431
Professors – visiting professors invited by the school
9 924
10 053
without higher grade
17 415
8
30,53%
12
27 468
1,31%
89 972
As side profession – total
20
907
1 527
2 821
Technical personnel in the higher grade
47,35%
435
3 728
455
7 874
Teachers for special assignments
1,71%
1 729
890
12 724
51 986
10,83%
Technical personnel without higher grade
14 453
2
133 497
Art and science employees
28
136
2,20%
757
30
18,37%
1 362
893
Other personnel in the higher grade
4 862
Assistant professors and associate professors
121
3 363
425
5 587
1,11%
23,21%
546
8 950
49 293
38 564
Other personnel without higher grade
6 135
-
21 889
1
15,16%
0,00%
28 024
1
184 797
59 798
As main profession, total
Nursing personnel
16 188
19
39 304
36
20,20%
0,38%
55 492
55
274 769
14 571
Total number of people employed as artists and scientists
Trained personnel
9
17 293
63
44 567
8,54%
11,51%
63
61 860
738
537 335
Apprentices
25
Total number of personnel
Professors
4,35%
Art and art studies
159
Humanities
3 657
Languages and culture studies
Additional professional activity – total
Humanities in German Hochschulen (2008)
35
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Niethammer’s building of character (humanism), for Snow’s ‘literary intellectuals’, for the ‘strengthens our Republic’ of the National Endowment (humanities), or for Droysen’s program of giving meaning (Geisteswissenschaften)? Where is there a place for the discussion of the idealia or maybe imaginaria69?
Expenses of German universities 2007
Expenses
Current expenses Investments
33.314.103 311,3%
30.611.346 309,8%
2.702.757 329,2%
Main facilities (excluding university clinics)
5.233.180
4.751.762
481.418
The humanities in the German system of higher education
Colleges – total excluding clinics
1.370.982
1.132.257
238.726
A
Main facilities of university clinics (only human medicine)
4.859.565
4.419.356
440.209
Groups of faculties – total
21.850.376 204,2%
20.307.971 205,6%
1.542.405 187,9%
Human medicine / health science
10.992.957 102,7%
10.289.224
703.733
157.082 1,5%
139.311
17.772
10.700.336 100%
9.879.436 100%
820.900 100%
1.475.096 13,8%
1.448.927 14,7%
26.169 3,2%
127.808 1,2%
117.826 1,2%
9.982 1,2%
Legal, economic and social sciences
1.858.943 17,4%
1.775.684 18,0%
83.259 10,1%
Mathematics, natural sciences
3.548.480 33,2%
3.154.315 31,9%
394.165 48,0%
366.701 3,4%
347.649 3,5%
19.053 2,3%
2.764.232 25,8%
2.527.580 25,6%
236.652 28,8%
559.076 5,2%
507.455 5,1%
51.621 6,3%
Humanities
2.034.172 19,0%
1.956.382 19,8%
77.790 9,5%
Share of main facilities and Schools of higher learning total
1.255.475 [19,0%]
1.165.187 [19,8%]
68.242 [9,5%]
Humanities including the share in main facilities
3.289.648 19,0%
3.121.569 19,8%
146.033 9,5%
ccording to the present analysis of the Federal Statistical Office in Wiesbaden on ‘language and culture studies’ and on ‘art and art studies’, the number of people employed in the domain of the humanities – which are here called by a different name – amounts to 61.860 persons. This constitutes 11,51% of the personnel of German academia.
Taken the average cost of 53.187,71 euro per position in the balance of expenditures for personell and for materials (2007)70, we come to a calculated expenditure of 3,3 billion euro per annum. But in fact the share of intensive teaching of the so-called ‘teachers for special assignments’, who are cheap in terms of costs, amounts not to 11% but to 47%, and the share of free guest professors without any costs to 31%. The share of the badly paid lecturers equals 35%. The development of the humanities in the last decades may be best tracked by looking at the number of emeriti, who constitute 27% as opposed to 23% of the active professors. This means that within half of a generation the number shrank by 20% and it indicates a weakening position of the humanities in the eyes of institutionalized society. Where is its Good Service beyond quoting Kant’s? Since the universities do not carry out full cost accounting, the real expenses for the humanities may be assessed only approximately. Out of 33,3 billion euros for the present public and private system of colleges we have to deduct first of all the costs for human medicine (15,8 billion euros) and for veterinary medicine (together 48%). It remains 17,0 billion euros for academia apart from medicine. Of these, the non-medical faculties obtain 10,7 billion euros, and the main facilities (in general the lecture halls, libraries, administration, etc.) get 6,6 billion euros. Of the first, the humanities have a share of 2,0 billion euros or 19%. If we project this percentage onto the main facilities we obtain a further 1,2 billion
70
Expenses – total
Veterinary medicine Groups of faculties excluding medicine Languages and cultural studies Sports
Agriculture, forestry, dietetics Engineering sciences Arts, art science
Source: Federal Statistical Office: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Series 11 Row 4.5. Wiesbaden 2009. Own analysis.
euros. In total, ‘languages and cultural studies’ together with ‘arts and art studies’ amount to 3,289 billion euros, which confirms the correctness of our previous calculation (3,3, bio.). That
Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al.: Serbian folk ensamble. Frankfurt 2009, p. 34.
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35
70
Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al.: Serbian folk ensamble. Frankfurt 2009, p. 34.
Taken the average cost of 53.187,71 euro per position in the balance of expenditures for personell and for materials (2007)70, we come to a calculated expenditure of 3,3 billion euro per annum. But in fact the share of intensive teaching of the so-called ‘teachers for special assignments’, who are cheap in terms of costs, amounts not to 11% but to 47%, and the share of free guest professors without any costs to 31%. The share of the badly paid lecturers equals 35%. The development of the humanities in the last decades may be best tracked by looking at the number of emeriti, who constitute 27% as opposed to 23% of the active professors. This means that within half of a generation the number shrank by 20% and it indicates a weakening position of the humanities in the eyes of institutionalized society. Where is its Good Service beyond quoting Kant’s? Since the universities do not carry out full cost accounting, the real expenses for the humanities may be assessed only approximately. Out of 33,3 billion euros for the present public and private system of colleges we have to deduct first of all the costs for human medicine (15,8 billion euros) and for veterinary medicine (together 48%). It remains 17,0 billion euros for academia apart from medicine. Of these, the non-medical faculties obtain 10,7 billion euros, and the main facilities (in general the lecture halls, libraries, administration, etc.) get 6,6 billion euros. Of the first, the humanities have a share of 2,0 billion euros or 19%. If we project this percentage onto the main facilities we obtain a further 1,2 billion ccording to the present analysis of the Federal Statistical Office in Wiesbaden on ‘language and culture studies’ and on ‘art and art studies’, the number of people employed in the domain of the humanities – which are here called by a different name – amounts to 61.860 persons. This constitutes 11,51% of the personnel of German academia.
A
The humanities in the German system of higher education Niethammer’s building of character (humanism), for Snow’s ‘literary intellectuals’, for the ‘strengthens our Republic’ of the National Endowment (humanities), or for Droysen’s program of giving meaning (Geisteswissenschaften)? Where is there a place for the discussion of the idealia or maybe imaginaria69?
euros. In total, ‘languages and cultural studies’ together with ‘arts and art studies’ amount to 3,289 billion euros, which confirms the correctness of our previous calculation (3,3, bio.). That Source: Federal Statistical Office: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Series 11 Row 4.5. Wiesbaden 2009. Own analysis. 3.289.648 19,0%
Humanities including the share in main facilities
1.165.187 [19,8%]
1.255.475 [19,0%]
Share of main facilities and Schools of higher learning total
1.956.382 19,8%
2.034.172 19,0%
Humanities
507.455 5,1%
559.076 5,2%
2.527.580 25,6%
2.764.232 25,8%
347.649 3,5%
366.701 3,4%
3.154.315 31,9%
3.548.480 33,2%
Mathematics, natural sciences
1.775.684 18,0%
1.858.943 17,4%
Legal, economic and social sciences
117.826 1,2%
127.808 1,2%
1.448.927 14,7%
1.475.096 13,8%
Arts, art science Engineering sciences Agriculture, forestry, dietetics Sports Languages and cultural studies Groups of faculties excluding medicine
10.700.336 100% 157.082 1,5%
Veterinary medicine
3.121.569 19,8% 9.879.436 100% 139.311 10.289.224
10.992.957 102,7%
Human medicine / health science
20.307.971 205,6%
21.850.376 204,2%
Groups of faculties – total Main facilities of university clinics (only human medicine)
4.859.565 1.370.982
Colleges – total excluding clinics
5.233.180
Main facilities (excluding university clinics) Expenses – total Expenses of German universities 2007
33.314.103 311,3% Expenses
4.419.356 1.132.257 4.751.762 30.611.346 309,8%
146.033 9,5% 68.242 [9,5%] 77.790 9,5% 51.621 6,3% 236.652 28,8% 19.053 2,3% 394.165 48,0% 83.259 10,1% 9.982 1,2% 26.169 3,2% 820.900 100% 17.772 703.733 1.542.405 187,9% 440.209 238.726 481.418 2.702.757 329,2%
Current expenses Investments
36 Languages and cultural studies English, American studies German studies (German, Germanic languages without English) Designing History Music, musicology Educational sciences Psychology Special needs pedagogy Humanities in the narrow sense Evangelical theology Catholic theology Pedagogy, Psychology Theology Humanities in a broader sense Expenses of German universities 2007
127.696 6,53% 71.499 56.197 398.934 20,39% 190.922 175.031 32.981 1.429.752 100% 218194 15,26% 164.372 11,50% 157.137 10,99% 114 772 8,03% 90.087 6,30% 83.690 5,85%
128.646 6,32% 72.090 56.556 408.412 20,08% 192.408 182.233 33.770 1.497.114 100% 235 845 15,75% 166.246 11,10% 158.840 10,61% 119 693 7,99% 90.883 6,07% 86.858 5,80% 2.034.172 Expenses
1.956.382 Current expenses
77.790 9,5% 950 1,22% 591 359 9.479 12,18% 1.486 7.202 790 67.362 100% 17 651 26,20% 1.874 2,78% 1.703 2,53% 4 921 7,31% 796 1,18% 3.169 4,70% Investments
Cultural policy as a subject of a science of cultural policy The expenditure on the “real” humanities (i.e. in the narrow sense), including the corresponding costs of main facilities, amounts to 2,4 billion euros or 14% of the total expenses on the German system of higher education excluding medicine. The main part of the expenditures comprises the training of teachers and is an investment in the future of ‘the artistic culture’ (ars gratia culturae). amounts to 19,5% of the total sum for the system of higher education (excluding medicine), but they only get 9,5% of the investments. The systematic of the Federal Statistical Office cannot satisfy us. It has its historic roots, but it is e.g. not entirely clear why psychology and pedagogy are not assigned to the social sciences. Moreover, both catholic and protestant theologies however small they are, for various reasons should be presented separately. Thus, the analysis may be more precise if we differentiate between the humanities in the broader and in the narrower sense. If we classify these subjects exclusively based on the costs, unexpectedly music takes the first place with 15% of expenditure (and 26% of investments). Language studies together amount to 42% of the humanities in the narrow sense, and the art studies to 22%.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
1.466 2,18% 1.384 2,05%
36
Source: Federal Statistical Office: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Series 11 Row 4.5.Wiesbaden 2009. Own analysis.
84.044 5,88% 73.693 5,15%
Share of the humanities (narrow sense) in main facilities Humanities (in the narrow sense) including main facilities
85.510 5,71% 75.076 5,01%
Cultural studies in a narrow sense
general General and comparative studies of literature and linguistics Other/non-European
Slavic, Baltic, Finnic Ugrian studies
language and cultural studies
Classical languages (classics)
N
126.456
Journalism
Stage art, film and television, theatre studies Romanic studies
2.281.288
Librarianship, documentation,
Philosophy
2.421.121 14,0%
Fine arts
Art, art studies, total
90 0,13% 356 0,53% 59.094
Art, art studies, total
ot the practice itself but the German term “Kulturpolitik” (‘cultural policy’) is relatively young. After the change of the political system 1918/19 from an empire into a presidential-democratic republic, Germany built ‘shrines of honor’ (as Richard Wagner said on an other occasion).71 On the one hand, it nationalized the institutions of the former royal or princely courts, and on the other hand, in the wave of a communalization of formerly private and privately financed theatres, museums and educational institutions, it created a nationwide cultural infrastructure. The now so-called Kulturpolitik (‘cultural policy’)72 was included in the party programs of the early Weimar Republic.73 Becker, a Prussian undersecretary of state and the later minister of culture, devoted to it a publication in 1919.74 Herder’s lexicon of the state defined in 1929 in a
Fine arts
25.433 1,78% 20.236 1,42% 851.535
Philosophy
N
14 662 21,77% 846 1,26% 1.229 1,82% 3 272 4,86% 11 116 16,50% 2.246 3,33%
25.523 1,70% 20.591 1,38% 924.007
Stage art, film and television, theatre studies Romanic studies
57 421 4,02% 70.963 4,96% 68.674 4,80% 66 542 4,65% 50 525 3,53% 49.182 3,44%
582 0,86%
language and cultural studies
Cultural policy as a subject of a science of cultural policy
72 084 4,81% 71.809 4,80% 69.903 4,67% 69 814 4,66% 61 641 4,12% 51.428 3,44%
34.786 2,43%
general General and comparative studies of literature and linguistics Other/non-European
Librarianship, documentation,
35.368 2,36%
Languages and cultural studies
Journalism
14 662 21,77% 846 1,26% 1.229 1,82% 3 272 4,86% 11 116 16,50% 2.246 3,33%
English, American studies
The expenditure on the “real” humanities (i.e. in the narrow sense), including the corresponding costs of main facilities, amounts to 2,4 billion euros or 14% of the total expenses on the German system of higher education excluding medicine. The main part of the expenditures comprises the training of teachers and is an investment in the future of ‘the artistic culture’ (ars gratia culturae).
582 0,86%
57 421 4,02% 70.963 4,96% 68.674 4,80% 66 542 4,65% 50 525 3,53% 49.182 3,44%
German studies (German, Germanic languages without English) Designing
34.786 2,43%
72 084 4,81% 71.809 4,80% 69.903 4,67% 69 814 4,66% 61 641 4,12% 51.428 3,44%
History
35.368 2,36%
1.466 2,18% 1.384 2,05%
Music, musicology
Classical languages (classics)
84.044 5,88% 73.693 5,15%
Educational sciences Psychology Special needs pedagogy Humanities in the narrow sense
Slavic, Baltic, Finnic Ugrian studies
85.510 5,71% 75.076 5,01%
Evangelical theology Catholic theology Pedagogy, Psychology
ot the practice itself but the German term “Kulturpolitik” (‘cultural policy’) is relatively young. After the change of the political system 1918/19 from an empire into a presidential-democratic republic, Germany built ‘shrines of honor’ (as Richard Wagner said on an other occasion).71 On the one hand, it nationalized the institutions of the former royal or princely courts, and on the other hand, in the wave of a communalization of formerly private and privately financed theatres, museums and educational institutions, it created a nationwide cultural infrastructure. The now so-called Kulturpolitik (‘cultural policy’)72 was included in the party programs of the early Weimar Republic.73 Becker, a Prussian undersecretary of state and the later minister of culture, devoted to it a publication in 1919.74 Herder’s lexicon of the state defined in 1929 in a
127.696 6,53% 71.499 56.197 398.934 20,39% 190.922 175.031 32.981 1.429.752 100% 218194 15,26% 164.372 11,50% 157.137 10,99% 114 772 8,03% 90.087 6,30% 83.690 5,85%
Cultural studies in a narrow sense
128.646 6,32% 72.090 56.556 408.412 20,08% 192.408 182.233 33.770 1.497.114 100% 235 845 15,75% 166.246 11,10% 158.840 10,61% 119 693 7,99% 90.883 6,07% 86.858 5,80%
90 0,13% 356 0,53% 59.094
Theology
77.790 9,5% 950 1,22% 591 359 9.479 12,18% 1.486 7.202 790 67.362 100% 17 651 26,20% 1.874 2,78% 1.703 2,53% 4 921 7,31% 796 1,18% 3.169 4,70%
25.433 1,78% 20.236 1,42% 851.535
1.956.382
25.523 1,70% 20.591 1,38% 924.007
2.034.172
Source: Federal Statistical Office: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Series 11 Row 4.5.Wiesbaden 2009. Own analysis.
Humanities in a broader sense
126.456
Investments
2.281.288
Current expenses
2.421.121 14,0%
Expenses
Share of the humanities (narrow sense) in main facilities Humanities (in the narrow sense) including main facilities
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Expenses of German universities 2007
amounts to 19,5% of the total sum for the system of higher education (excluding medicine), but they only get 9,5% of the investments. The systematic of the Federal Statistical Office cannot satisfy us. It has its historic roots, but it is e.g. not entirely clear why psychology and pedagogy are not assigned to the social sciences. Moreover, both catholic and protestant theologies however small they are, for various reasons should be presented separately. Thus, the analysis may be more precise if we differentiate between the humanities in the broader and in the narrower sense. If we classify these subjects exclusively based on the costs, unexpectedly music takes the first place with 15% of expenditure (and 26% of investments). Language studies together amount to 42% of the humanities in the narrow sense, and the art studies to 22%.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
strange division between spirit (Geist) and culture: ”Cultural policy is the use of intellectual [geistiger] and cultural instruments by the state”.75 In the era of National Socialism, art and the artists were called-up to serve the totalitarian state. After its all, the two partially independent ‘fragments of state’76 in the east and in the west, at least after the ‘hour zero’ in 1945, applied in a surprising unison the national-bourgeois models of interpretation of cultural life. Cultural policy attained almost a constitutional rank on October 3, 1990, in the unification treaty proclaiming in article 35, section 1: “In the times of division, culture and art, in spite of differences in the development of both countries in Germany, constituted the basis for maintaining unity of the German nation. They gave an invaluable and independent contribution to the process of the national unification of the Germans on it’s way to European unification. Apart from political aspects and it’s economic power, the position and recognition of the united Germany worldwide will depend on its importance as a state of culture.” We may refer to the Federal Republic of Germany as to a “state of culture” in two meanings of the term. Firstly, in a legal sense, due to not honoring the obligation to adopt a constitution according to article 146 of the old version of the fundamental law (Grundgesetz), the Einigungsvertrag of 1990 has acquired a constitutional status
and is a foundation for all further legal acts.’77 The Bundesverfassungsgericht (the German Supreme Court) already at many earlier occasions had stated and confirmed ‘culture as a basic policy objective of the national state’: According to some experts in state law, this means that the proposition of the German Bundestag’s Research Commission Culture in Germany to adopt an article 20b into the constitution becomes redundant (it was proposed to refer to the National Assembly at St. Paul’s Church in Frankfurt and to the Weimar Republic and to introduce a statement “the state guards and supports culture”).78 On the other hand, we have the financial point of view: as has been pointed out, the communities and states, as well as on the sidelines the federal government spend 8 billion euro of public means a year financing German culture. There are also public-law institutions of the two churches which spend estimated 4 billion euros, as well as exemption of taxes for the amount of 1,5 billion euros.79 Altogether, this sums up to 13,5 billion euros or 165 euros of public subsidies per capita. Private expenditure of citizens on cultural services or products (e.g. radio and TV subscription) amount to 344 euros per person, which gives a total of additional 28 billion euros. This sum can be added directly to the total given above (whereas the economical turnover of the cultural economy is a parallel calculation, which can mot be additionally included here).
71
Wagner, Richard: Rede zur Grundsteinlegung des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (May 22, 1872). In: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen. Vol. IX. Leipzig 1873, p. 392.
72
Lepenies refers to Fontane 1871 andi Bethmann Hollweg, who in 1913 in his famous letter to Lamprecht stressed the need for a ‘cultural policy of the grand style’. Lepenies, Wolf: Kultur und Politik. Deutsche Geschichten. Bonn 2006. In particular Chapter III „Deutscher Geist und Deutsches Reich“, p. 24.- Some hints as to the early history of the concept in the form of ‘Culturpolicey’ compare Bernd Wagner: Das Stichwort. Kulturpolitik (1). Der Begriff. In: Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen no 110, III/2005.
73
Aufruf und Leitsätze der Deutschen Zentrumspartei 1918; Görlitzer Programm of the SPD 1921, Heidelberger Programm of the SPD 1925, Deutsche Staatspartei Manifesto 1930. Issued by Wilhelm Mommsen: Deutsche Parteiprogramme. München 1960.- Only the extreme right wing parties did not follow this trend.
74
Becker, Carl Heinrichs: Kulturpolitische Aufgaben des Reiches. Eine dem Verfassungsausschuß der Nationalversammlung vorgelegte Denkschrift. Leipzig 1919. Compare with the present context of differentiating between education and the church, the report in Ernst Troeltsch: Kritische Gesamtausgabe: Ed. v. Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm / Albrecht, Christian / Drehsen, Volker / Hübinger, Gangolf / Rendtorff, Trutz. Band 15: Schriften zur Politik und Kulturphilosophie (1918-1923). Ed. v. Gangolf Hübinger in cooperation with Johannes Mikuteit. Berlin, New York 2002. Proposition of Beckera regarding creation of the Reich’s office of culture for both the internal and external policy including various internal reports, is still visible in the present federal policy.
75
Herders Staatslexikon. ed. Based on the work of many specialists ordered by Görres-Gesellschaft on supporting science in the catholic Germany by Julius Bachem. Vol. III, 5. issue., Freiburg. Br. 1929, p. 693.
76
Carlo Schmid in Parliamentary Council, 8 September 1948. Comp. Hertfelder, Thomas; Jürgen Hess (ed.), Streiten um das Staatsfragment. Theodor Heuss und Thomas Dehler berichten von der Entstehung des Grundgesetzes. With introduction by Michael F. Feldkamp, edited by Patrick Ostermann and Michael F. Feldkamp, (= foundation of the federal president -Theodor-Heuss-Haus, Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Vol. 1), Stuttgart 1999.
77
Compare Vogt, Matthias Theodor (1998): Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 et alt.
78
Deutscher Bundestag (ed.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, p. 89 next.
79
Estimate according to Söndermann, Michael: Öffentliche Kulturfinanzierung in Deutschland 2005. Ergebnisse aus der Kulturstatistik. In: Institut für Kulturpolitik (Hrsg.). Jahrbuch für Kulturpolitik 2006. Essen 2006.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
37
37
Estimate according to Söndermann, Michael: Öffentliche Kulturfinanzierung in Deutschland 2005. Ergebnisse aus der Kulturstatistik. In: Institut für Kulturpolitik (Hrsg.). Jahrbuch für Kulturpolitik 2006. Essen 2006.
79
Deutscher Bundestag (ed.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, p. 89 next.
78
Compare Vogt, Matthias Theodor (1998): Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 et alt.
77
Carlo Schmid in Parliamentary Council, 8 September 1948. Comp. Hertfelder, Thomas; Jürgen Hess (ed.), Streiten um das Staatsfragment. Theodor Heuss und Thomas Dehler berichten von der Entstehung des Grundgesetzes. With introduction by Michael F. Feldkamp, edited by Patrick Ostermann and Michael F. Feldkamp, (= foundation of the federal president -Theodor-Heuss-Haus, Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Vol. 1), Stuttgart 1999.
76
Herders Staatslexikon. ed. Based on the work of many specialists ordered by Görres-Gesellschaft on supporting science in the catholic Germany by Julius Bachem. Vol. III, 5. issue., Freiburg. Br. 1929, p. 693.
75
Becker, Carl Heinrichs: Kulturpolitische Aufgaben des Reiches. Eine dem Verfassungsausschuß der Nationalversammlung vorgelegte Denkschrift. Leipzig 1919. Compare with the present context of differentiating between education and the church, the report in Ernst Troeltsch: Kritische Gesamtausgabe: Ed. v. Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm / Albrecht, Christian / Drehsen, Volker / Hübinger, Gangolf / Rendtorff, Trutz. Band 15: Schriften zur Politik und Kulturphilosophie (1918-1923). Ed. v. Gangolf Hübinger in cooperation with Johannes Mikuteit. Berlin, New York 2002. Proposition of Beckera regarding creation of the Reich’s office of culture for both the internal and external policy including various internal reports, is still visible in the present federal policy.
74
Aufruf und Leitsätze der Deutschen Zentrumspartei 1918; Görlitzer Programm of the SPD 1921, Heidelberger Programm of the SPD 1925, Deutsche Staatspartei Manifesto 1930. Issued by Wilhelm Mommsen: Deutsche Parteiprogramme. München 1960.- Only the extreme right wing parties did not follow this trend.
73
Lepenies refers to Fontane 1871 andi Bethmann Hollweg, who in 1913 in his famous letter to Lamprecht stressed the need for a ‘cultural policy of the grand style’. Lepenies, Wolf: Kultur und Politik. Deutsche Geschichten. Bonn 2006. In particular Chapter III „Deutscher Geist und Deutsches Reich“, p. 24.- Some hints as to the early history of the concept in the form of ‘Culturpolicey’ compare Bernd Wagner: Das Stichwort. Kulturpolitik (1). Der Begriff. In: Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen no 110, III/2005.
72
Wagner, Richard: Rede zur Grundsteinlegung des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (May 22, 1872). In: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen. Vol. IX. Leipzig 1873, p. 392.
71
strange division between spirit (Geist) and culture: ”Cultural policy is the use of intellectual [geistiger] and cultural instruments by the state”.75 In the era of National Socialism, art and the artists were called-up to serve the totalitarian state. After its all, the two partially independent ‘fragments of state’76 in the east and in the west, at least after the ‘hour zero’ in 1945, applied in a surprising unison the national-bourgeois models of interpretation of cultural life. Cultural policy attained almost a constitutional rank on October 3, 1990, in the unification treaty proclaiming in article 35, section 1: “In the times of division, culture and art, in spite of differences in the development of both countries in Germany, constituted the basis for maintaining unity of the German nation. They gave an invaluable and independent contribution to the process of the national unification of the Germans on it’s way to European unification. Apart from political aspects and it’s economic power, the position and recognition of the united Germany worldwide will depend on its importance as a state of culture.” We may refer to the Federal Republic of Germany as to a “state of culture” in two meanings of the term. Firstly, in a legal sense, due to not honoring the obligation to adopt a constitution according to article 146 of the old version of the fundamental law (Grundgesetz), the Einigungsvertrag of 1990 has acquired a constitutional status
and is a foundation for all further legal acts.’77 The Bundesverfassungsgericht (the German Supreme Court) already at many earlier occasions had stated and confirmed ‘culture as a basic policy objective of the national state’: According to some experts in state law, this means that the proposition of the German Bundestag’s Research Commission Culture in Germany to adopt an article 20b into the constitution becomes redundant (it was proposed to refer to the National Assembly at St. Paul’s Church in Frankfurt and to the Weimar Republic and to introduce a statement “the state guards and supports culture”).78 On the other hand, we have the financial point of view: as has been pointed out, the communities and states, as well as on the sidelines the federal government spend 8 billion euro of public means a year financing German culture. There are also public-law institutions of the two churches which spend estimated 4 billion euros, as well as exemption of taxes for the amount of 1,5 billion euros.79 Altogether, this sums up to 13,5 billion euros or 165 euros of public subsidies per capita. Private expenditure of citizens on cultural services or products (e.g. radio and TV subscription) amount to 344 euros per person, which gives a total of additional 28 billion euros. This sum can be added directly to the total given above (whereas the economical turnover of the cultural economy is a parallel calculation, which can mot be additionally included here).
38
Feyerabend, Paul: Naturphilosphie. Ed. Helmut Heim i Eric Oberheim. Frankfurt a.M. 2009. Passim. will -let know, that man not live bread alone,chlebem, but lives by which [= opinion] from the mouth of Jehova.da poznaü, Īe does czáowiek niebyĪyje jedynie leczall,Īyje ze comes wszystkiego, co pochodzi [= opinia, I want to pogląd] thank Wolfgang Schulze.DziĊkujĊ Munich, for this comment. z ust Jahwe«.Wolfgangowi Schulze. München, za tĊ wskazówkĊ.
moĪna zebraü w jedną kulturalną i dla których analizy istnieją stosowne Fuchs, Max: Kulturpolitik. Elemente der Politik,infrastrukturĊ Herausgegeben von Hans-Georg Ehrhardt u.a. Wiesbayden 2007, p. 22. wymaga wieloĞci prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunków ramowych, które Comment [A3]: Soll gelöscht werden., da im gleichen Satz wiederholt sich.
Comment [A3]: Soll gelöscht werden., da im gleichen Satz wiederholt sich.
38
Feyerabend, Paul: Naturphilosphie. Ed. Helmut Heim i Eric Oberheim. Frankfurt a.M. 2009. Passim.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The humanities in the narrow sense of the term possible fields of political activity, cultural policy obtain 2,4 billion euros. The sector of culture in the is the last in terms of developing (political-) narrow sense publicly and privately financed thus scientific theories”.80 Klaus von Beyme summed up concerning his domain of political studies: comprises ca. 44 billion euros per annum, which is “The political sphere ‘art and culture’ plays [...] the equivalent of about 500 euros per capita. This cultural sector is the subject matter of the a marginal role”.81 The list of people employed podstawowej i dodatkowej dziaáalnoĞci zawodowej zajmują siĊ polityki kulturalną i studies of the politics of culture. If we understand in German academia, who within their core and towarzyszącymi zagadnieniami, jest which krótka i obejmuje jedynie 15 nazwisk. Przykáadowo culture as a sum ofjejevaluating decisions, additional professional duties deal with cultural is the typical definition in the cultural studies policy and the accompanying issues, is short and aktywnie dziaáa w tej dziedzinie Pedagogiczna Szkoáa WyĪsza w Ludwigsburgu w Badenii programs, our pragmatic way of understanding comprises but hardly 15 names. Fuchs also notes: Wirtembergii, posiadająca jedną that katedrĊ kierunek studiów magisterskich, culture is in line with that in the sense the 44 i jeden “This does not mean that the whole domain conbillion euros are a central evaluating decision of ducts its practical activity without thinking about it towarzyszących pracy zawodowej: „Zarządzanie kulturą”. Fuchs pisze ponadto: the Sovereign, the citizens, and their representa(although one can in fact notice a certain degree tive, the constituted policy. of thoughtless activism). Indeed there are many Nie oznacza to, Īe caáy ten obszar realizuje swoją praktyczną dziaáalnoĞü bez Referring to Clausewitz, we should differenreflections on art, culture, politics and education. gáĊbszego zastanowienia (mimo naleĪyThe stwierdziü pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). Istnieje tiate between purpose, aim, and Īe means. There are also discussions about the direction in purpose of the ars gratia politiae, cultivating the which society is heading. What is missing is an jak najbardziej wiele przemyĞleĔ na temat sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzone są arts for the benefit of the commonwealth, is the identifiable scientific community, possessing its takĪe debaty na kierunku, jakim zmierza nasze To, czego to even self-expression of temat the civic society w and its memown spoáeczeĔstwo. scientific publishing organs,brakuje, and maybe bers. For this we earlier spoke of ‘artistic culture’ opposing schools of thought und their respective moĪliwa do identyfikacji scientific community, dysponująca wáasnymi naukowymi organami (ars gratia culturae). The aim of ‘politia gratia artis’, followers. Now everybody who does research or a moĪesupport nawet szkoáami o sprzecznych i ich zwolennikami, ofpublikacyjnymi, the direct and indirect for the arts is writespoglądach in this field can immediately aby create his the strengthening of the condition of the society own tradition.”82 kaĪdy, kto porusza siĊ na tym polu badawczo i twórczo, mógá obecnie stworzyü wáasną internally and externally. It would be difficult to Ancient Rome in the course of it’s execution 80 find ars gratia artis, art for art’s sake, anywhere of power through beneficence used panem et tradycjĊ. beyond the sphere of pure imagination. Books, circenses ( Juvenal: Satires 10, 81) – bread for satW ramach swojego Rzym w ramach sounds, images, plays serve panowania professionalStaroĪytny work, isfyingstworzyá the physical needs dobroczynnoĞci and games for satisfyeducation, entertainment and indoctrination; ingchleba the symbolic of the masses. dla Our initial hasáo panem et circenses (Juvenal: Satyrythey 10, 81), tj. i igrzyskneeds – czyli poĪywienie cannot be understood in separation from man. statement on cultural policy studies calls for that at konkretnego zaspokojenia i rozrywka dla symbolicznego zaspokojenia mas. Reprezentowane The assessment of the rationales, the motivathe level of science the representatives of ‘bread’ tional of cultural policy at the level the representatives should start a przezstructures nas twierdzenie wyjĞciowe nauki o of polityceand kulturalnej jest takie, of Īe‘word’ na poziomie state, communities and civil society, the assessdialogue, to be able to commonly carry out a comnauki, przedstawiciele „chleba”ofi the przedstawiciele „sáowa” muszą nawiązaü ze sobą dialog, policy. ment of it’s goals and the criticism strategic prehensive analysis of the entity of cultural means, havewe been insufficient so far. Cultural Differentiation between a materialpolityki substrate and aby móc wspólnej analizie podjąü siĊ kompleksowego ujĊcia zjawiska policy is often reduced to what the Americans an immaterial world of symbols was in the notions kulturalnej. RozróĪnienie miĊdzy materialnym substratem a niematerialną interpretacją out za in the call bluntly advocacy, that is to an instrumental of ‘bread’ and ‘word’ already sketched repertoire for earning money and getting attenOld Testament and was picked up again in the New pomocą pojĊü „chleba” i „sáowa” zostaáo zrealizowane juĪ w Starym Testamencie i zostaáo tion, seen from a company-like perspective. The Testament (Dtn 8,3; comp. Mt 4,1-11): “man shall ponownie podjĊte w Nowym Testamencie (Dtn 8,3; por. Mt 4,1-11), przynajmniej w that disproportion between the amount of empirical not live by bread alone, but by every word data collected across Europe,táumaczeniu and the lackbrzmi of anto „Nie proceedeth of theĪyje mouth of God”.83lecz popularnym niemieckim samym out chlebem czáowiek, inductive development of theories from these If we stick to the example of circenses (or 81 kaĪdym sáowem pochodzącym z ustofBoga”. data is striking. Max Fuchs, president the Gerludi, the sphere of performing arts), then the man Cultural Council and director of Remscheid striking fact is the overlapping of hard facts and JeĪeli pozostaniemy przy przykáadzie circenses (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance), Academy, noted in 2007 that “probably among all soft values. On the one hand, theater requires to rzuca siĊ w oczy nakáadanie siĊ na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr
84
80
will -let know, that man not live bread alone,chlebem, but lives by which [= opinion] from the mouth of Jehova.da poznaü, Īe does czáowiek niebyĪyje jedynie leczall,Īyje ze comes wszystkiego, co pochodzi [= opinia, I want to pogląd] thank Wolfgang Schulze.DziĊkujĊ Munich, for this comment. z ust Jahwe«.Wolfgangowi Schulze. München, za tĊ wskazówkĊ.
Beyme, Klaus von: Die Kunst der Macht und die Gegenmacht der Kunst. Studien zum Spannungsverhältnis von Kunst und Politik. Frankfurt am Main 1998. Here: Ch. 1: Outline of political science of art.
Max: ibid.
Max: ibid.
Fuchs Max: ibid. W jĊzyku hebrajskim „sáowa” nie ‘word’ pojawia siĊnot bezpoĞrednio; Quoted King James Bible. InpojĊcie Hebrew the notion does appear directly;
81
81
Fuchs Max: ibid.
Fuchs 80
83
82
82
W jĊzyku hebrajskim „sáowa” nie ‘word’ pojawia siĊnot bezpoĞrednio; Quoted King James Bible. InpojĊcie Hebrew the notion does appear directly;
Beyme, Klaus von: Die Kunst der Macht und die Gegenmacht der Kunst. Studien zum Spannungsverhältnis von Kunst und Politik. Frankfurt am Main 1998. Here: Ch. 1: Outline of political science of art.
Fuchs 80
moĪna zebraü w jedną kulturalną i dla których analizy istnieją stosowne Fuchs, Max: Kulturpolitik. Elemente der Politik,infrastrukturĊ herausgegeben von Hans-Georg Ehrhardt u.a. Wiesbayden 2007, p. 22.
81
81
80
83
wymaga wieloĞci prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunków ramowych, które
84
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The humanities in the narrow sense of the term possible fields of political activity, cultural policy obtain 2,4 billion euros. The sector of culture in the is the last in terms of developing (political-) narrow sense publicly and privately financed thus scientific theories”.80 Klaus von Beyme summed up concerning his domain of political studies: comprises ca. 44 billion euros per annum, which is “The political sphere ‘art and culture’ plays [...] the equivalent of about 500 euros per capita. This cultural sector is the subject matter of the a marginal role”.81 The list of people employed podstawowej i dodatkowej dziaáalnoĞci zawodowej zajmują siĊ polityki kulturalną i studies of the politics of culture. If we understand in German academia, who within their core and towarzyszącymi zagadnieniami, jest which krótka i obejmuje jedynie 15 nazwisk. Przykáadowo culture as a sum ofjejevaluating decisions, additional professional duties deal with cultural is the typical definition in the cultural studies policy and the accompanying issues, is short and aktywnie dziaáa w tej dziedzinie Pedagogiczna Szkoáa WyĪsza w Ludwigsburgu w Badenii programs, our pragmatic way of understanding comprises but hardly 15 names. Fuchs also notes: Wirtembergii, posiadająca jedną that katedrĊ kierunek studiów magisterskich, culture is in line with that in the sense the 44 i jeden “This does not mean that the whole domain conbillion euros are a central evaluating decision of ducts its practical activity without thinking about it towarzyszących pracy zawodowej: „Zarządzanie kulturą”. Fuchs pisze ponadto: the Sovereign, the citizens, and their representa(although one can in fact notice a certain degree tive, the constituted policy. of thoughtless activism). Indeed there are many Nie oznacza to, Īe caáy ten obszar realizuje swoją praktyczną dziaáalnoĞü bez Referring to Clausewitz, we should differenreflections on art, culture, politics and education. gáĊbszego zastanowienia (mimo naleĪyThe stwierdziü pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). Istnieje tiate between purpose, aim, and Īe means. There are also discussions about the direction in purpose of the ars gratia politiae, cultivating the which society is heading. What is missing is an jak najbardziej wiele przemyĞleĔ na temat sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzone są arts for the benefit of the commonwealth, is the identifiable scientific community, possessing its takĪe debaty na kierunku, jakim zmierza nasze To, czego to even self-expression of temat the civic society w and its memown spoáeczeĔstwo. scientific publishing organs,brakuje, and maybe bers. For this we earlier spoke of ‘artistic culture’ opposing schools of thought und their respective moĪliwa do identyfikacji scientific community, dysponująca wáasnymi naukowymi organami (ars gratia culturae). The aim of ‘politia gratia artis’, followers. Now everybody who does research or a moĪesupport nawet szkoáami o sprzecznych i ich zwolennikami, ofpublikacyjnymi, the direct and indirect for the arts is writespoglądach in this field can immediately aby create his the strengthening of the condition of the society own tradition.”82 kaĪdy, kto porusza siĊ na tym polu badawczo i twórczo, mógá obecnie stworzyü wáasną internally and externally. It would be difficult to Ancient Rome in the course of it’s execution 80 find ars gratia artis, art for art’s sake, anywhere of power through beneficence used panem et tradycjĊ. beyond the sphere of pure imagination. Books, circenses ( Juvenal: Satires 10, 81) – bread for satW ramach swojego Rzym w ramach sounds, images, plays serve panowania professionalStaroĪytny work, isfyingstworzyá the physical needs dobroczynnoĞci and games for satisfyeducation, entertainment and indoctrination; they ing the symbolic needs of masses. dla Our initial hasáo panem et circenses (Juvenal: Satyry 10, 81), tj. chleba i igrzysk – czyli the poĪywienie cannot be understood in separation from man. statement on cultural policy studies calls for that at konkretnego zaspokojenia i rozrywka symbolicznego zaspokojenia mas.representatives Reprezentowane The assessment of the rationales, the dla motivathe level of science the of ‘bread’ tional structures of cultural policy at the level of and the representatives of ‘word’ should przez nas twierdzenie wyjĞciowe nauki o polityce kulturalnej jest takie, Īe na poziomie start a state, communities and civil society, the assessdialogue, to be able to commonly carry out a comnauki, przedstawiciele „chleba”ofi the przedstawiciele „sáowa” muszą nawiązaü ze sobą dialog, policy. ment of it’s goals and the criticism strategic prehensive analysis of the entity of cultural means, havewe been insufficient so far. Cultural Differentiation between a materialpolityki substrate and aby móc wspólnej analizie podjąü siĊ kompleksowego ujĊcia zjawiska policy is often reduced to what the Americans an immaterial world of symbols was in the notions kulturalnej. RozróĪnienie materialnym substratem niematerialną interpretacją za in the call bluntly advocacy, that ismiĊdzy to an instrumental of ‘bread’aand ‘word’ already sketched out repertoire for earning money and getting attenOld Testament and was picked up again in the New pomocą pojĊü „chleba” i „sáowa” zostaáo zrealizowane juĪ w Starym Testamencie i zostaáo tion, seen from a company-like perspective. The Testament (Dtn 8,3; comp. Mt 4,1-11): “man shall ponownie podjĊte Nowym 8,3;live por. 4,1-11), przynajmniej w that disproportion betweenwthe amountTestamencie of empirical (Dtn not by Mt bread alone, but by every word 83 data collected across Europe,táumaczeniu and the lackbrzmi of anto „Nie proceedeth of theĪyje mouth of God”. lecz popularnym niemieckim samym out chlebem czáowiek, inductive development of theories from these If we stick to the example of circenses (or 81 kaĪdym sáowem pochodzącym z ustofBoga”. data is striking. Max Fuchs, president the Gerludi, the sphere of performing arts), then the man Cultural Council and director of Remscheid striking fact is the overlapping of hard facts and JeĪeli pozostaniemy przy przykáadzie circenses (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance), Academy, noted in 2007 that “probably among all soft values. On the one hand, theater requires to rzuca siĊ w oczy nakáadanie siĊ na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
39
a framework of complex legal, economic and technical issues, which can be summarized as the cultural infrastructure and which can be analyzed in the social and economic sciences. Here at least partially we can operate with numerical data. On the other hand, theater is an example of man’s search for meaning in various societies. To understand this search for meaning and to be able to unlock it’s respective contexts, German studies evolved into the field of theater studies. Combined with philosophy, history and the multitude of studies investigating individual forms of art, they investigate texts and their interpretations and subject them to public discussion. That makes them part of the humanities. It is impossible to track here hidden numerical codes (comp. Paul
Feyerabend84 regarding the Parmenidean breakthrough); nevertheless the impact of the search for meaning can be investigated in relation to other social evaluating decisions and that may contribute to optimizing allocations beyond all kinds of technical reductionism. Almost a hundred years after the multiple emergence of the concept of cultural policy on the German language territory (1913; 1919), lately cultural policy studies have begun to develop as a fusion of the analysis of realia and imaginaria. Functionally, cultural policy studies are pragmatic not in the meaning of πρãξισ, i.e. as a given fact, but in the meaning of πρãγμα, i.e. as a productive act in connecting the humaniora with the social sciences.
a framework of complex legal, economic and technical issues, which can be summarized as the cultural infrastructure and which can be analyzed in the social and economic sciences. Here at least partially we can operate with numerical data. On the other hand, theater is an example of man’s search for meaning in various societies. To understand this search for meaning and to be able to unlock it’s respective contexts, German studies evolved into the field of theater studies. Combined with philosophy, history and the multitude of studies investigating individual forms of art, they investigate texts and their interpretations and subject them to public discussion. That makes them part of the humanities. It is impossible to track here hidden numerical codes (comp. Paul Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
39
Feyerabend84 regarding the Parmenidean breakthrough); nevertheless the impact of the search for meaning can be investigated in relation to other social evaluating decisions and that may contribute to optimizing allocations beyond all kinds of technical reductionism. Almost a hundred years after the multiple emergence of the concept of cultural policy on the German language territory (1913; 1919), lately cultural policy studies have begun to develop as a fusion of the analysis of realia and imaginaria. Functionally, cultural policy studies are pragmatic not in the meaning of πρãξισ, i.e. as a given fact, but in the meaning of πρãγμα, i.e. as a productive act in connecting the humaniora with the social sciences.
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This problem would be understood best by the Irish and Basque people who, dominated by other cultures, fight for their vanishing language.
3
The nations which were the least russified during the USSR period, for example: Armenians, Georgians, Estonians
40
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Belarus. Cultural Policy
This problem would be understood best by the Irish and Basque people who, dominated by other cultures, fight for their vanishing language.
3
Translation: Ewa Gabryś
Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), Minsk, Belarus.
The nations which were the least russified during the USSR period, for example: Armenians, Georgians, Estonians
Nastassia Chmiel
2
M
1
of Belarusian and of Russian language, which divide the culture activists into two groups. In my opinion, this fact hampers the development of the culture because the activists waste their strength and time and are unable to cooperate to their mutual advantage. What is the vision of culture nowadays, what culture would we like to see in the future, how is it presented in the world – these are undoubtedly important questions which cannot be answered by anyone (not in the form of declaration, but in the form of a concept, strategy, acting according to a realistic achievable plan) because for the state authorities culture is just a tool to maintain the existing status quo and the underground representatives are just inspired amateurs who do not have the right competence, they are the culture businessmen who treat culture in a vulgar way. “The one who pays chooses the music” – it is enough to listen to the local radio hits. The sphere of culture in the country is divided into: MM official culture, supported, financed, initiated [Smoleń, 2003], controlled by the central power (which is declared in the acts of law and other documents); MM unofficial culture, so a few NGO’s, underground, musical, literary and artistic creations of young people financed by them or by means of foreign grants, basing mainly on great enthusiasm and protest against official culture. Most commonly it has a form of creative teams which are rarely registered. MM Commercial culture (“culture industry”), though in case of Belarus the word “industry” sounds a bit bombastic as culture industry is typical for
of Belarusian and of Russian language, which divide the culture activists into two groups. In my opinion, this fact hampers the development of the culture because the activists waste their strength and time and are unable to cooperate to their mutual advantage. What is the vision of culture nowadays, what culture would we like to see in the future, how is it presented in the world – these are undoubtedly important questions which cannot be answered by anyone (not in the form of declaration, but in the form of a concept, strategy, acting according to a realistic achievable plan) because for the state authorities culture is just a tool to maintain the existing status quo and the underground representatives are just inspired amateurs who do not have the right competence, they are the culture businessmen who treat culture in a vulgar way. “The one who pays chooses the music” – it is enough to listen to the local radio hits. The sphere of culture in the country is divided into: MM official culture, supported, financed, initiated [Smoleń, 2003], controlled by the central power (which is declared in the acts of law and other documents); MM unofficial culture, so a few NGO’s, underground, musical, literary and artistic creations of young people financed by them or by means of foreign grants, basing mainly on great enthusiasm and protest against official culture. Most commonly it has a form of creative teams which are rarely registered. MM Commercial culture (“culture industry”), though in case of Belarus the word “industry” sounds a bit bombastic as culture industry is typical for
odern Belarus is a country which historically stands both in the West and in the East and this contradiction is one of the basic features shaping Belarusian mentality and culture. Church or Orthodox Church, the European Union or Russia, democracy or “Soviet renaissance”, free market exchange or state controlled economy, civil society or strong central power, Belarusian or Russian language – these are the choices which every Belarusian person has to make, but in fact, he or she has to agree with each option, trying to match those contradictory concepts in his or her consciousness. According to the sociologist Oleg Manajew1, Belarusian society has deeply split for the last 1015 years. The authorities and the opposition have been fighting to their own advantage. Whereas people combine two Belarusias in themselves – the one formed by the authorities and the other presented by the opposition in their projects. The basic issue which triggers spiritual and cultural life of a nation is defining this nation’s identity. In such circumstances, the culture of a given nation can be perceived as a comprehensive unique phenomenon and not as a heap of works of art which have been produced in that country or their author comes from that area. For the last 20 years almost all former Soviet republics have more or less managed to define their identity (if they needed to do it at all)2. However, Belarusian society still cannot decide what it means to be a Belarusian, if it is necessary for a Belarusian to speak Belarusian language3. The problem of language choice is especially visible in two, sometimes coexisting and sometimes hostile, directions of Belarusian culture: the cultures
odern Belarus is a country which historically stands both in the West and in the East and this contradiction is one of the basic features shaping Belarusian mentality and culture. Church or Orthodox Church, the European Union or Russia, democracy or “Soviet renaissance”, free market exchange or state controlled economy, civil society or strong central power, Belarusian or Russian language – these are the choices which every Belarusian person has to make, but in fact, he or she has to agree with each option, trying to match those contradictory concepts in his or her consciousness. According to the sociologist Oleg Manajew1, Belarusian society has deeply split for the last 1015 years. The authorities and the opposition have been fighting to their own advantage. Whereas people combine two Belarusias in themselves – the one formed by the authorities and the other presented by the opposition in their projects. The basic issue which triggers spiritual and cultural life of a nation is defining this nation’s identity. In such circumstances, the culture of a given nation can be perceived as a comprehensive unique phenomenon and not as a heap of works of art which have been produced in that country or their author comes from that area. For the last 20 years almost all former Soviet republics have more or less managed to define their identity (if they needed to do it at all)2. However, Belarusian society still cannot decide what it means to be a Belarusian, if it is necessary for a Belarusian to speak Belarusian language3. The problem of language choice is especially visible in two, sometimes coexisting and sometimes hostile, directions of Belarusian culture: the cultures
M
Nastassia Chmiel graduate from the Faculty of Scenic Art, Belarusian State University of Culture and Arts. Scholar of Lane Kirkland Scholarship Programme. Head of the youth band of ethnic music „Dżambibum”. Manager of the cultural events, inter alia workshop of the folk music. Scientific interests include culture management (especially development of the niche and non-commercial culture), culture animation, promotion of the cultural life on the province, traditional culture understood as a repertory of eco-tourism’s development.
Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), Minsk, Belarus.
Nastassia Chmiel graduate from the Faculty of Scenic Art, Belarusian State University of Culture and Arts. Scholar of Lane Kirkland Scholarship Programme. Head of the youth band of ethnic music „Dżambibum”. Manager of the cultural events, inter alia workshop of the folk music. Scientific interests include culture management (especially development of the niche and non-commercial culture), culture animation, promotion of the cultural life on the province, traditional culture understood as a repertory of eco-tourism’s development.
Translation: Ewa Gabryś
1
Nastassia Chmiel
2
Belarus. Cultural Policy
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Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3) Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
State’s attitude to culture
B
efore presenting the acts of law referring to cultural policy of the country, I would like to quote a few sentences which concern culture from the document titled: “Main Policy Rules of the Republic of Belarus”, which is included on the official web pages of the Belarusian president: “Main Policy rules of our country have been defined by the president of the Republic of Belarus, Aleksander Łukaszenko. Throughout the entire cadency of the president the rules of planning, cohesion and gradualism are expressed in the following way: MM In economy we start from the existing things: we do not demolish, scatter, destroy. MM Strong, successful state power, political stability of our country – these are the most important rules for maintaining public order in evolution and for achieving gradual development of national economy, gradual integration with the world economy. MM In the sphere of culture and social life, aggressive nationalism is not right for our Republic, but the state’s help to promote historical bilingualism of the country, spiritual rebirth, and cultivation of religious and artistic traditions in all forms. MM The country conducts consequent policy to maintain the national heritage of Belarus, the best characteristics of Belarusians: respect for the people of other nationalities and religions, tolerance, humanism and peace. MM The country and its budged are obliged to guarantee a financial support for culture and art development. The continuity of the cultural policy is expressed by maintaining the infrastructure of public, cultural and artistic institutions. MM The basis of the country’s policy is defining stable points of historical remembrance – a victory in the Great Patriotic War. Faithfulness
Belarus. Cultural Policy
Translation: Ewa Gabryś
Translation: Ewa Gabryś
Many examples of ignoring the “grass-roots” initiatives by the state undoubtedly show the paternalistic character of the authorities and are the answer to the question “why is the result so poor though we had such a good idea?” It is quite obvious: the people don’t like when somebody else thinks for them, when they have to do things which have been made up for them by other people, even if it is done “for their own good.” In such a case we have a formalized, bureaucratic culture. Whereas the main task of the country is to create the conditions which would support the development of the culture.
Nastassia Chmiel
efore presenting the acts of law referring to cultural policy of the country, I would like to quote a few sentences which concern culture from the document titled: “Main Policy Rules of the Republic of Belarus”, which is included on the official web pages of the Belarusian president: “Main Policy rules of our country have been defined by the president of the Republic of Belarus, Aleksander Łukaszenko. Throughout the entire cadency of the president the rules of planning, cohesion and gradualism are expressed in the following way: MM In economy we start from the existing things: we do not demolish, scatter, destroy. MM Strong, successful state power, political stability of our country – these are the most important rules for maintaining public order in evolution and for achieving gradual development of national economy, gradual integration with the world economy. MM In the sphere of culture and social life, aggressive nationalism is not right for our Republic, but the state’s help to promote historical bilingualism of the country, spiritual rebirth, and cultivation of religious and artistic traditions in all forms. MM The country conducts consequent policy to maintain the national heritage of Belarus, the best characteristics of Belarusians: respect for the people of other nationalities and religions, tolerance, humanism and peace. MM The country and its budged are obliged to guarantee a financial support for culture and art development. The continuity of the cultural policy is expressed by maintaining the infrastructure of public, cultural and artistic institutions. MM The basis of the country’s policy is defining stable points of historical remembrance – a victory in the Great Patriotic War. Faithfulness
Nastassia Chmiel
a free market exchange where demand and supply are regulated by market mechanisms, especially competition, where there are private (independent) media, publishing houses, recording companies which, most importantly, can invest in high quality products. There are no conditions which would enable this in Belarus. This division is disproportional as the biggest share belongs to the state because the state institutions tend to control all organizations which conduct cultural activity, including NGOs or commercial concert agencies. According to Monika Smoleń [Smoleń, 2003], the culture sector should be perceived as a system which is co-created by the institutions of culture financed by public funds, non-profit organizations and cultural enterprises which operate in agreement with free market rules – the culture industry. It is becoming increasingly impossible to separate these areas and such an action is negative for all the spheres because the areas are strongly interconnected and mutually dependent. In case of Belarus the first two ingredients, official and unofficial culture, are in fact in opposition to one another. Pro-European cultural underground unfortunately not with the help of the state but in opposition to it tries (quite successfully as far as it is possible in existing circumstances) to conduct alternative cultural policy. It must be added that, many NGOs and creative teams, feeling that this is not good for the development, want to cooperate with the state institutions, invite them to participate in projects and cultural events, offer their help in solving problems. For non-governmental organizations cultural institutions of the state are often very interesting as they have the right space and technical equipment at their disposal. But on a systemic level, centralization, hierarchy and subordination which define the reality in which the state institutions operate, in many cases make it impossible to start any cooperation as the massive bureaucratic apparatus lacks flexibility, quick reaction to possible changes. Mainly, there is an administrative way of taking decisions, which is characterized by a too big influence of clerks and a too small role of artists and culture creators. An average director of a community center is not a real manager of this institution but a person who fulfills the directives coming from “above”. He cannot even decide about such prosaic things as renting a concert hall, as the organizer must agree to that. That is why, to the proposition or an initiative of a director, nongovernment organization or a creative team, the answer usually is as follows: “this is a good idea, but I cannot help you because this event has not been included in an implementation plan, I am just a clerk, I cannot make such a decision.”
Belarus. Cultural Policy
a free market exchange where demand and supply are regulated by market mechanisms, especially competition, where there are private (independent) media, publishing houses, recording companies which, most importantly, can invest in high quality products. There are no conditions which would enable this in Belarus. This division is disproportional as the biggest share belongs to the state because the state institutions tend to control all organizations which conduct cultural activity, including NGOs or commercial concert agencies. According to Monika Smoleń [Smoleń, 2003], the culture sector should be perceived as a system which is co-created by the institutions of culture financed by public funds, non-profit organizations and cultural enterprises which operate in agreement with free market rules – the culture industry. It is becoming increasingly impossible to separate these areas and such an action is negative for all the spheres because the areas are strongly interconnected and mutually dependent. In case of Belarus the first two ingredients, official and unofficial culture, are in fact in opposition to one another. Pro-European cultural underground unfortunately not with the help of the state but in opposition to it tries (quite successfully as far as it is possible in existing circumstances) to conduct alternative cultural policy. It must be added that, many NGOs and creative teams, feeling that this is not good for the development, want to cooperate with the state institutions, invite them to participate in projects and cultural events, offer their help in solving problems. For non-governmental organizations cultural institutions of the state are often very interesting as they have the right space and technical equipment at their disposal. But on a systemic level, centralization, hierarchy and subordination which define the reality in which the state institutions operate, in many cases make it impossible to start any cooperation as the massive bureaucratic apparatus lacks flexibility, quick reaction to possible changes. Mainly, there is an administrative way of taking decisions, which is characterized by a too big influence of clerks and a too small role of artists and culture creators. An average director of a community center is not a real manager of this institution but a person who fulfills the directives coming from “above”. He cannot even decide about such prosaic things as renting a concert hall, as the organizer must agree to that. That is why, to the proposition or an initiative of a director, nongovernment organization or a creative team, the answer usually is as follows: “this is a good idea, but I cannot help you because this event has not been included in an implementation plan, I am just a clerk, I cannot make such a decision.”
41
B
State’s attitude to culture Many examples of ignoring the “grass-roots” initiatives by the state undoubtedly show the paternalistic character of the authorities and are the answer to the question “why is the result so poor though we had such a good idea?” It is quite obvious: the people don’t like when somebody else thinks for them, when they have to do things which have been made up for them by other people, even if it is done “for their own good.” In such a case we have a formalized, bureaucratic culture. Whereas the main task of the country is to create the conditions which would support the development of the culture.
lem of modern Belarus is the fact that the tradition and existing customs refer back to the past, to the closed society which created systemic crisis, whereas positive solution of this crisis requires exclusively other means, which belong to the future, to the open society. A general solution to this problem could be formulated with the words of the German philosopher Rudolf Hermann Lotze: “The thing which should be is the basis for the thing which there is.” In other words, the future is defined by the reality today, the things which come from the past are as if “non-existent.” The means mentioned by Mackiewicz are, according to him, humanitarian technologies which are about creating and introducing in the social life new rules of action, new ways of conduct, which, when successfully spread in a society, turn into tradition. Such practices are indispensible in the time of crisis, transformation and development when the traditional path does not fulfill the goals. But let us return to the official attitude to culture. Nowadays the cultural policy of the country is based on international rules included in the UNESCO conventions – Hague Conventions on protection of cultural goods in case of an armed conflict (1954), protection of world cultural and environmental heritage UNESCO (1972), protection of material cultural heritage (2003), on protection and promotion of various forms of cultural expression (2005). And also: MM national strategy for the balanced social and economic development of Belarus for the period until 2020 rectified by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus (report from 23/03/2004 number 12), MM act of the Republic of Belarus from 4th June 1991, №832-XII (ed. on 18th July 2007) “On the culture of the Belarusian countryside”, MM the program for the social and economic development of Belarus for the period between 2006–2010, MM integrated program of service’s development in the Republic of Belarus between 2006–2010, MM the country’s program “the Memory of Belarus”, MM the program “Maintenance and Development of Belarusian Culture for the Period of 2006–2010”, MM program for fulfilling defined tasks in the “Program of rebirth and development of countryside for the period between 2005–2010”, MM development program the Museum of the Belarusian Republic between 2005 and 2010 MM program for rebuilding and modernization of public theaters in the Republic of Belarus between 2004 and 2010. In December 2009, the concept of the program
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
to this remembrance led to the decision of the state authorities to introduce the school subject named “The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Nation”. MM The country has taken a stable course of shaping the ideology of Belarus, crystallization of Belarusian national idea. The deepest and concise national idea has been contained in the motto of the President of the Republic of Belarus: “For strong and blooming Belarus!“ I think that those who went through the era of communism will immediately recognize this characteristic, optimistic and demagogical style which we were addressed in from high podiums. It is difficult to criticize this style, everything seems to be written well, but between the lines the questions appear: what do the expressions like “strong, successful state power” really mean, what is this power really about? Does the chase to achieve “political stability” cause persecutions of, for example, the students who are the authors of the cartoon series where Łukaszenko is one of the characters? I do not know what an average European would understand from the sentence “in the sphere of culture and social life, aggressive nationalism is not right for our Republic” and why should the things which are not right be emphasized so much? An average Belarusian understands the message quite well – “Belaruskaga Adradżennia” (Belarusian Rebirth) introduced at the beginning of 1990’s, when Belarusian was the only language, was referred to in those words. The goal of this policy was the development and gradual implementation of this rebirth in all areas of social life. This would undoubtedly solve the problem of national identity of Belarusians as a separate European nation, and not a province of Russia. In other words, state policy, including cultural policy, is based on “stability”, “order” and on the idea of using “heritage” left by Soviet Union as a foundation for future development. On one hand destroying the old and trying to build something completely different is, as we know from the history, a road to nowhere, this unsuccessful experiment finished 20 years ago. But such an approach is not always right as the quality, virtues and vitality of this “heritage” create great doubts. And even if we could successfully preserve some forms of social functioning from previous times, how would we cope with such a nation’s development according to modern needs? Wladimir Mackiewicz [Mackiewicz, 2006], a Belarusian methodologist, the director of the Agency of Humanitarian Technologies, suggests other, or rather contrary, view on the basis for the culture development: “The basic social and cultural prob-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
42
lem of modern Belarus is the fact that the tradition and existing customs refer back to the past, to the closed society which created systemic crisis, whereas positive solution of this crisis requires exclusively other means, which belong to the future, to the open society. A general solution to this problem could be formulated with the words of the German philosopher Rudolf Hermann Lotze: “The thing which should be is the basis for the thing which there is.” In other words, the future is defined by the reality today, the things which come from the past are as if “non-existent.” The means mentioned by Mackiewicz are, according to him, humanitarian technologies which are about creating and introducing in the social life new rules of action, new ways of conduct, which, when successfully spread in a society, turn into tradition. Such practices are indispensible in the time of crisis, transformation and development when the traditional path does not fulfill the goals. But let us return to the official attitude to culture. Nowadays the cultural policy of the country is based on international rules included in the UNESCO conventions – Hague Conventions on protection of cultural goods in case of an armed conflict (1954), protection of world cultural and environmental heritage UNESCO (1972), protection of material cultural heritage (2003), on protection and promotion of various forms of cultural expression (2005). And also: MM national strategy for the balanced social and economic development of Belarus for the period until 2020 rectified by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus (report from 23/03/2004 number 12), MM act of the Republic of Belarus from 4th June 1991, №832-XII (ed. on 18th July 2007) “On the culture of the Belarusian countryside”, MM the program for the social and economic development of Belarus for the period between 2006–2010, MM integrated program of service’s development in the Republic of Belarus between 2006–2010, MM the country’s program “the Memory of Belarus”, MM the program “Maintenance and Development of Belarusian Culture for the Period of 2006–2010”, MM program for fulfilling defined tasks in the “Program of rebirth and development of countryside for the period between 2005–2010”, MM development program the Museum of the Belarusian Republic between 2005 and 2010 MM program for rebuilding and modernization of public theaters in the Republic of Belarus between 2004 and 2010. In December 2009, the concept of the program
42
to this remembrance led to the decision of the state authorities to introduce the school subject named “The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Nation”. MM The country has taken a stable course of shaping the ideology of Belarus, crystallization of Belarusian national idea. The deepest and concise national idea has been contained in the motto of the President of the Republic of Belarus: “For strong and blooming Belarus!“ I think that those who went through the era of communism will immediately recognize this characteristic, optimistic and demagogical style which we were addressed in from high podiums. It is difficult to criticize this style, everything seems to be written well, but between the lines the questions appear: what do the expressions like “strong, successful state power” really mean, what is this power really about? Does the chase to achieve “political stability” cause persecutions of, for example, the students who are the authors of the cartoon series where Łukaszenko is one of the characters? I do not know what an average European would understand from the sentence “in the sphere of culture and social life, aggressive nationalism is not right for our Republic” and why should the things which are not right be emphasized so much? An average Belarusian understands the message quite well – “Belaruskaga Adradżennia” (Belarusian Rebirth) introduced at the beginning of 1990’s, when Belarusian was the only language, was referred to in those words. The goal of this policy was the development and gradual implementation of this rebirth in all areas of social life. This would undoubtedly solve the problem of national identity of Belarusians as a separate European nation, and not a province of Russia. In other words, state policy, including cultural policy, is based on “stability”, “order” and on the idea of using “heritage” left by Soviet Union as a foundation for future development. On one hand destroying the old and trying to build something completely different is, as we know from the history, a road to nowhere, this unsuccessful experiment finished 20 years ago. But such an approach is not always right as the quality, virtues and vitality of this “heritage” create great doubts. And even if we could successfully preserve some forms of social functioning from previous times, how would we cope with such a nation’s development according to modern needs? Wladimir Mackiewicz [Mackiewicz, 2006], a Belarusian methodologist, the director of the Agency of Humanitarian Technologies, suggests other, or rather contrary, view on the basis for the culture development: “The basic social and cultural prob-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
“the Culture of Belarus (2011–2015)” was completed. According to it, the main goal of culture development is increasing its role in social and economic development, creating great spirituality in agreement with the historical, social and cultural values of the Belarusian nation and the world civilization. The national policy in this area is about keeping the cultural identity and national tradition of Belarusians, rebirth, maintaining the heritage and development, securing the availability of cultural goods for all the people, protection of intellectual and spiritual property, of cultural goods and of integration with global equal rights culture of the people involved in the global cultural processes. The country’s priorities in the area of culture (according to 3rd art. of the 10th act on the Culture of the Belarusian Republic) are: MM protection, development and promotion of the Belarusian culture and national language, MM creation, popularization and propagation of literature and art for children and young people, creating the conditions for children and young people’s esthetic education in the area of culture and art, MM promotion of classical literature and art as well as other esthetic and moral values of the nation and the world culture, MM preservation and development of culture in the countryside. The concept was based on the report on the state of culture, where the basic problems of the cultural sector in the country had been defined. If we compare them with the list of Polish “basic weaknesses appearing in the field of culture” [Report on the promotion of Poland through culture, 2009], which should be less numerous because Poland is undoubtedly a better developed country than Belarus, we learn that the number of Polish “weaknesses” is greater than the Belarusian ones which are mainly concentrated (and it is easy to guess) on the “lack of funds.” The National Strategy for the (Polish) Culture Development for the period 2004-2013 shows the following weak points in the area of culture (and it must be admitted that this diagnosis is still valid, even though bigger funds have improved the situation): MM lack of coherent and clear cultural policy in the country, MM lack of strategic planning (management) in the culture, MM low culture spendings for a single inhabitant in comparison to other countries of the European Union, MM debt of cultural institutions, MM bad condition of cultural infrastructure,
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
no quality assessment system for cultural institutions and no connection between the system of ministerial fund distribution with the system of quality assessment of the cultural institutions and projects, MM too great specialization of the institutions which popularize culture, MM no effective instruments which would motivate representatives of the private sector to invest in culture, MM great dependence of cultural institutions and their directors on the organizers of these institutions. The problems of Belarusian culture are presented in the following way in “the Culture of Belarus (2011–2015)”: “However, taking into consideration great progress in the area of culture in our country, it should be noted that the level of its development does not fulfill the demands of the increasing international competition in the economic, social, political and spiritual sphere. In the social and business sphere, culture is not considered an important paradigm of development. It is difficult to make people believe that moral and spiritual as well as ecological and economic rules have a key meaning in the process of balanced development. As a result, the society’s attitude to culture is mainly expressed in the funds devoted for its development. Financial limitations complicate the actions connected with protection and reinforcement of cultural institutions, logistics, availability and variety of services provided by cultural institutions to all the people. The potential of Belarusian culture is not used enough to build and reinforce the positive international image of the country. The sphere of culture is not adjusted well to the working conditions of the free market in the country, it goes through great financial problems. In accordance with the Act of Belarusian Republic “On Culture of the Republic of Belarus,” beginning with 2009, the amount of budgetary expenses for the maintenance and development of culture should equal 1,0% of GDP. Real culture spendings in 2008 (including funds for construction) equaled 0,83% GDP. In 2009 budgetary spendings were predicted to equal 0,62% of the expected PKB. In 2010 they are supposed to be, according to the GDP prognosis and previous spending data, around 0,5% GDP. Culture employees have one of the lowest salaries. According to the National Statistical Committee, an average salary of the art and culture sector employees equaled 656,1 thousand rubles in 2008 (74% of an average salary in the Republic). An average income of the culture employees from January till October 2008 has decreased from 73,6% to 73,2% between January and October 2009.” MM
43
“the Culture of Belarus (2011–2015)” was completed. According to it, the main goal of culture development is increasing its role in social and economic development, creating great spirituality in agreement with the historical, social and cultural values of the Belarusian nation and the world civilization. The national policy in this area is about keeping the cultural identity and national tradition of Belarusians, rebirth, maintaining the heritage and development, securing the availability of cultural goods for all the people, protection of intellectual and spiritual property, of cultural goods and of integration with global equal rights culture of the people involved in the global cultural processes. The country’s priorities in the area of culture (according to 3rd art. of the 10th act on the Culture of the Belarusian Republic) are: MM protection, development and promotion of the Belarusian culture and national language, MM creation, popularization and propagation of literature and art for children and young people, creating the conditions for children and young people’s esthetic education in the area of culture and art, MM promotion of classical literature and art as well as other esthetic and moral values of the nation and the world culture, MM preservation and development of culture in the countryside. The concept was based on the report on the state of culture, where the basic problems of the cultural sector in the country had been defined. If we compare them with the list of Polish “basic weaknesses appearing in the field of culture” [Report on the promotion of Poland through culture, 2009], which should be less numerous because Poland is undoubtedly a better developed country than Belarus, we learn that the number of Polish “weaknesses” is greater than the Belarusian ones which are mainly concentrated (and it is easy to guess) on the “lack of funds.” The National Strategy for the (Polish) Culture Development for the period 2004-2013 shows the following weak points in the area of culture (and it must be admitted that this diagnosis is still valid, even though bigger funds have improved the situation): MM lack of coherent and clear cultural policy in the country, MM lack of strategic planning (management) in the culture, MM low culture spendings for a single inhabitant in comparison to other countries of the European Union, debt of cultural institutions, bad condition of cultural infrastructure, MM MM
43 MM no quality assessment system for cultural institutions and no connection between the system of ministerial fund distribution with the system of quality assessment of the cultural institutions and projects, MM too great specialization of the institutions which popularize culture, MM no effective instruments which would motivate representatives of the private sector to invest in culture, MM great dependence of cultural institutions and their directors on the organizers of these institutions. The problems of Belarusian culture are presented in the following way in “the Culture of Belarus (2011–2015)”: “However, taking into consideration great progress in the area of culture in our country, it should be noted that the level of its development does not fulfill the demands of the increasing international competition in the economic, social, political and spiritual sphere. In the social and business sphere, culture is not considered an important paradigm of development. It is difficult to make people believe that moral and spiritual as well as ecological and economic rules have a key meaning in the process of balanced development. As a result, the society’s attitude to culture is mainly expressed in the funds devoted for its development. Financial limitations complicate the actions connected with protection and reinforcement of cultural institutions, logistics, availability and variety of services provided by cultural institutions to all the people. The potential of Belarusian culture is not used enough to build and reinforce the positive international image of the country. The sphere of culture is not adjusted well to the working conditions of the free market in the country, it goes through great financial problems. In accordance with the Act of Belarusian Republic “On Culture of the Republic of Belarus,” beginning with 2009, the amount of budgetary expenses for the maintenance and development of culture should equal 1,0% of GDP. Real culture spendings in 2008 (including funds for construction) equaled 0,83% GDP. In 2009 budgetary spendings were predicted to equal 0,62% of the expected PKB. In 2010 they are supposed to be, according to the GDP prognosis and previous spending data, around 0,5% GDP. Culture employees have one of the lowest salaries. According to the National Statistical Committee, an average salary of the art and culture sector employees equaled 656,1 thousand rubles in 2008 (74% of an average salary in the Republic). An average income of the culture employees from January till October 2008 has decreased from 73,6% to 73,2% between January and October 2009.”
Closer analysis shows that there is a too general approach to defining problems of Belarusian culture. On one hand, such attitude is the result of typically soviet thinking – a custom of talking only about “our victories” and making the impression that problems do not exist (though the officials from the Ministry of Culture are the authors of the report). On the other hand, it may be treated as a symptom of strategic management crisis in culture. Almost all the weaknesses mentioned in “the Report on Promoting Poland through Culture” are more or less adequate for Belarus, but apart from them there are other problems: MM ideological control of the country – as a typical element of the state model of the bureaucratic culture policy, according to M. Dragićević-Śeśić [Dragićević-Śeśić, 2000], it causes the following problems: the conditions for introducing innovation are limited and unfavorable. New ways of artistic and cultural activity, especially presented by young artists, are often rejected, MM brain drain – the most talented specialists, especially young ones, are going abroad as there are no satisfactory working conditions, no effective motivation for employees, low salaries and contract-based employment (the contract is usually signed for one year and the employer does not have to prolong it), MM low level of culture development in small cities and in the country, MM poor development of cultural tourism. It should be added that among the cultural entities which fulfill the policy of the country, there are social institutions established by the state and supported by the government. These are the heirs of the Soviet organization: pioneers (scouts) – once Young Pioneers’ Organization of the Republic of Belarus and the Communist Union of Youth – today Young People’s Association of the Republic of Belarus. In 2007, a new organization with a similar mission was established, though it has a different audience (adults) – “Biala Rus,” social organization of the Republic. It is characteristic that “voluntary” participation in this organization is unofficially required from all the employees of the state institutions (especially those connected with culture and education), students and pupils.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Non-governmental cultural institutions. Cultural Underground
44
B
eing on a festival in Moldavia in 2009, I heard someone comparing Belarus to Moldavia in the following way: “In your country everything is forbidden, but everyone does something. We are allowed to do everything but no one wants to
do anything”. It is true that dealing with culture in such difficult financial, ideological and legal conditions and in the atmosphere of crisis is very difficult. On the other hand, the history shows us that art is sometimes created in the most difficult situations and crisis often activates artists. So in these circumstances, we may even expect a certain bloom of culture, at least the culture of protest, which might be very important for the country and maybe also for entire Europe… The works of Emir Kusturica, a Serbian director well known all over the world, might be an example of that. Anatol Mialguj, Belarusian music critic, writes in his essay on young people’s music: “Ideological repression of the state against Belarusian alternative music makes it develop in the direction of the DIY-culture. The artists are not supported by their state and as they can rely only on themselves they move in the direction which is global for Belarus – the development of the national culture in the times of IT-technology. Locally, they also adopt the DIY rules: they create uncensored communication networks, independent publishing houses on their own cost and distributing structures which distribute CDs of underground bands, their productions, publications. Such organizations, which constitute an alternative for the “ideologically appropriate” culture, operate in Belarus facing obstacles which are unknown in Europe.” What kind of obstacles are those? Those might be “natural” obstacles which are caused by “life”: lack of free time, no funds for technical equipment (music instruments, computers), publishing books and records. The second type of obstacles are the “artificial” ones. They are caused by the paternalistic character of the state’s cultural policy, which A. Moles [Moles, 1973] describes as dogmatic, according to which the rights and the main culture distribution channels belong to the “administrative council.” Cultural policy which develops this way may be used to achieve the goals of a political party, religious association, or an entire country. If an organization operates contrary to the interest of the state, the clerks have many tools to block its activity, for example by: MM banning cultural events, MM blocking the activity due to various “legal” reasons – one of the very “popular” reasons includes declining the registration of a social organization, MM blocking the access to the audience – for example, issuing a directive stating that it is illegal to sell various papers at the post-offices and newsagents’, MM overcomplicated procedures of registration and activity (frequent inspections of finances, taxes, sanitary conditions, etc.) which discoura-
B
eing on a festival in Moldavia in 2009, I heard someone comparing Belarus to Moldavia in the following way: “In your country everything is forbidden, but everyone does something. We are allowed to do everything but no one wants to
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Non-governmental cultural institutions. Cultural Underground
do anything”. It is true that dealing with culture in such difficult financial, ideological and legal conditions and in the atmosphere of crisis is very difficult. On the other hand, the history shows us that art is sometimes created in the most difficult situations and crisis often activates artists. So in these circumstances, we may even expect a certain bloom of culture, at least the culture of protest, which might be very important for the country and maybe also for entire Europe… The works of Emir Kusturica, a Serbian director well known all over the world, might be an example of that. Anatol Mialguj, Belarusian music critic, writes in his essay on young people’s music: “Ideological repression of the state against Belarusian alternative music makes it develop in the direction of the DIY-culture. The artists are not supported by their state and as they can rely only on themselves they move in the direction which is global for Belarus – the development of the national culture in the times of IT-technology. Locally, they also adopt the DIY rules: they create uncensored communication networks, independent publishing houses on their own cost and distributing structures which distribute CDs of underground bands, their productions, publications. Such organizations, which constitute an alternative for the “ideologically appropriate” culture, operate in Belarus facing obstacles which are unknown in Europe.” What kind of obstacles are those? Those might be “natural” obstacles which are caused by “life”: lack of free time, no funds for technical equipment (music instruments, computers), publishing books and records. The second type of obstacles are the “artificial” ones. They are caused by the paternalistic character of the state’s cultural policy, which A. Moles [Moles, 1973] describes as dogmatic, according to which the rights and the main culture distribution channels belong to the “administrative council.” Cultural policy which develops this way may be used to achieve the goals of a political party, religious association, or an entire country. If an organization operates contrary to the interest of the state, the clerks have many tools to block its activity, for example by: MM banning cultural events, MM blocking the activity due to various “legal” reasons – one of the very “popular” reasons includes declining the registration of a social organization, MM blocking the access to the audience – for example, issuing a directive stating that it is illegal to sell various papers at the post-offices and newsagents’, MM overcomplicated procedures of registration and activity (frequent inspections of finances, taxes, sanitary conditions, etc.) which discoura-
44
Closer analysis shows that there is a too general approach to defining problems of Belarusian culture. On one hand, such attitude is the result of typically soviet thinking – a custom of talking only about “our victories” and making the impression that problems do not exist (though the officials from the Ministry of Culture are the authors of the report). On the other hand, it may be treated as a symptom of strategic management crisis in culture. Almost all the weaknesses mentioned in “the Report on Promoting Poland through Culture” are more or less adequate for Belarus, but apart from them there are other problems: MM ideological control of the country – as a typical element of the state model of the bureaucratic culture policy, according to M. Dragićević-Śeśić [Dragićević-Śeśić, 2000], it causes the following problems: the conditions for introducing innovation are limited and unfavorable. New ways of artistic and cultural activity, especially presented by young artists, are often rejected, MM brain drain – the most talented specialists, especially young ones, are going abroad as there are no satisfactory working conditions, no effective motivation for employees, low salaries and contract-based employment (the contract is usually signed for one year and the employer does not have to prolong it), MM low level of culture development in small cities and in the country, MM poor development of cultural tourism. It should be added that among the cultural entities which fulfill the policy of the country, there are social institutions established by the state and supported by the government. These are the heirs of the Soviet organization: pioneers (scouts) – once Young Pioneers’ Organization of the Republic of Belarus and the Communist Union of Youth – today Young People’s Association of the Republic of Belarus. In 2007, a new organization with a similar mission was established, though it has a different audience (adults) – “Biala Rus,” social organization of the Republic. It is characteristic that “voluntary” participation in this organization is unofficially required from all the employees of the state institutions (especially those connected with culture and education), students and pupils.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
ges potential founders of non-governmental organizations. These people have to choose between the fight with clerks which takes a lot of time and energy needed for the statutory activity and operating illegally which may lead to formal accusation in accordance with the existing law (p. 193., 1 KK RB). As a result, the citizens are discouraged to participate in the cultural institutions of the NGO sector, MM legal conditions, according to which non-governmental cultural institutions operate, allow censorship and ideological control of the country (Presidential Decree N259 since 13.05.2008). The result of such a policy is, for example the great festival of the Belarusian rock music “Be Free” in…. Ukraine because in their own country the organizers would never get “a permit to organize and conduct an entertaining activity on the territory of the Republic of Belarus” – the so called concert certificate, MM difficulty at obtaining alternative funds (sponsors) both from the domestic market and from abroad. In her article on the basic problems of culture development in the third sector of Belarus, L. Osmołowska [Osmołowska, 2008], while commenting on the Decree of the President of Belarus Number 24 “on receiving and using free help from abroad from 28th November 2003”, she concludes that this decree formalized and limited the process of receiving and using the free help from abroad which must be registered by a recipient in the Humanitarian Activity Department of the Belarusian President. In July, 2005, it was also decided that the help of domestic sponsors should also be controlled. The Decree of the President of Belarus from 1st July 2005 Number 300 “On presenting and using free help” establishes 12 causes for which the money obtained this way can be used. Allotting the money to a different cause, than the one defined in the decree, is only possible when the President of the Republic agrees. Art. 193.1 of the Belarusian Penalty Code includes a punishment of up to two years in prison for the activity of an unregistered company, religious organization or a fund. Passed shortly before the presidential elections in 2006, the act was used against the organizations which were inconvenient for the government – on the basis of this law 17 people have been prosecuted. The article 193.1 hampers the development of civil society in the country, especially while taking into consideration too complicated procedures of registering public associations (and these complications are artificial and not coincidental). According to this law any independent civil initiative may be treated as a crime. It violates the freedom
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
of association (art. 36 of the Belarusian Constitution), it works against the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other international legal obligations taken by the Republic of Belarus. The criminal responsibility for the activity of unregistered organization is also present in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, China and Northern Korea. As basic channels of culture distribution are hardly available for alternative artists, the Internet has become the only informative area where independent cultural life may be conducted. In this respect the country has also used the experience of China: at the end of 2009, a draft of presidential decree appeared, titled “on the funds in order to improve the usage of domestic segments of the global internet network”. According to this document, the control over the Internet resources in Belarus should be conducted in agreement with the decisions of the Council of Ministers which are taken after the consult of the special body – the Intelligence and Analysis Bureau of the President of Belarus. Point 1.5 constitutes a serious problem in the presidential directive. It has the following content: “the Internet service providers, on user’s request, provide the service of limiting the access to this information which is aimed at conducting extremist activities”, and so on. Apart from that the point explicitly stipulates: “An authorized Internet service provider is obliged to limit access to this information while providing services to […] state offices, public, educational and cultural institutions”. State policy of gradual limitation of civil liberties (as gradualism is one of the “main rules” of the country’s policy) has, unfortunately, proved successful in recent years. How will the society react, then, when the draft will finally be passed? Will it constitute the last straw of suffering? Or will we adjust to these “new conditions”? What is the meaning of that for the cultural sector? It seems that this is a typically political matter. But can culture, and especially art, exist outside politics? Yes, but in case of frustrated society, which for the last 20 years have been stuck in permanent crisis, apolitical art is rather entertainment (a holiday during the plague) or an escape from reality. As art is the most sensitive to lies and deception (Beethoven, Dostoyevsky), it (in the form of books, music, independent original works) may give hope for the better, protect against disappointment in the times when no one is sure of tomorrow. The cultural life in Belarus is quite closed, poorly integrated with the European processes. Promotion and distribution of cultural goods abroad does not have systematic character, it is rather a collection
45
ges potential founders of non-governmental organizations. These people have to choose between the fight with clerks which takes a lot of time and energy needed for the statutory activity and operating illegally which may lead to formal accusation in accordance with the existing law (p. 193., 1 KK RB). As a result, the citizens are discouraged to participate in the cultural institutions of the NGO sector, MM legal conditions, according to which non-governmental cultural institutions operate, allow censorship and ideological control of the country (Presidential Decree N259 since 13.05.2008). The result of such a policy is, for example the great festival of the Belarusian rock music “Be Free” in…. Ukraine because in their own country the organizers would never get “a permit to organize and conduct an entertaining activity on the territory of the Republic of Belarus” – the so called concert certificate, MM difficulty at obtaining alternative funds (sponsors) both from the domestic market and from abroad. In her article on the basic problems of culture development in the third sector of Belarus, L. Osmołowska [Osmołowska, 2008], while commenting on the Decree of the President of Belarus Number 24 “on receiving and using free help from abroad from 28th November 2003”, she concludes that this decree formalized and limited the process of receiving and using the free help from abroad which must be registered by a recipient in the Humanitarian Activity Department of the Belarusian President. In July, 2005, it was also decided that the help of domestic sponsors should also be controlled. The Decree of the President of Belarus from 1st July 2005 Number 300 “On presenting and using free help” establishes 12 causes for which the money obtained this way can be used. Allotting the money to a different cause, than the one defined in the decree, is only possible when the President of the Republic agrees. Art. 193.1 of the Belarusian Penalty Code includes a punishment of up to two years in prison for the activity of an unregistered company, religious organization or a fund. Passed shortly before the presidential elections in 2006, the act was used against the organizations which were inconvenient for the government – on the basis of this law 17 people have been prosecuted. The article 193.1 hampers the development of civil society in the country, especially while taking into consideration too complicated procedures of registering public associations (and these complications are artificial and not coincidental). According to this law any independent civil initiative may be treated as a crime. It violates the freedom
45
of association (art. 36 of the Belarusian Constitution), it works against the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other international legal obligations taken by the Republic of Belarus. The criminal responsibility for the activity of unregistered organization is also present in Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, China and Northern Korea. As basic channels of culture distribution are hardly available for alternative artists, the Internet has become the only informative area where independent cultural life may be conducted. In this respect the country has also used the experience of China: at the end of 2009, a draft of presidential decree appeared, titled “on the funds in order to improve the usage of domestic segments of the global internet network”. According to this document, the control over the Internet resources in Belarus should be conducted in agreement with the decisions of the Council of Ministers which are taken after the consult of the special body – the Intelligence and Analysis Bureau of the President of Belarus. Point 1.5 constitutes a serious problem in the presidential directive. It has the following content: “the Internet service providers, on user’s request, provide the service of limiting the access to this information which is aimed at conducting extremist activities”, and so on. Apart from that the point explicitly stipulates: “An authorized Internet service provider is obliged to limit access to this information while providing services to […] state offices, public, educational and cultural institutions”. State policy of gradual limitation of civil liberties (as gradualism is one of the “main rules” of the country’s policy) has, unfortunately, proved successful in recent years. How will the society react, then, when the draft will finally be passed? Will it constitute the last straw of suffering? Or will we adjust to these “new conditions”? What is the meaning of that for the cultural sector? It seems that this is a typically political matter. But can culture, and especially art, exist outside politics? Yes, but in case of frustrated society, which for the last 20 years have been stuck in permanent crisis, apolitical art is rather entertainment (a holiday during the plague) or an escape from reality. As art is the most sensitive to lies and deception (Beethoven, Dostoyevsky), it (in the form of books, music, independent original works) may give hope for the better, protect against disappointment in the times when no one is sure of tomorrow. The cultural life in Belarus is quite closed, poorly integrated with the European processes. Promotion and distribution of cultural goods abroad does not have systematic character, it is rather a collection
46
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
+
–
of single initiatives. As a result, on the global level, the Belarusian culture does not exist as a recognizable phenomenon. It may definitely be said that high quality artistic product is created in Belarus. There are brilliant artists who are well-known abroad, such as: etno-trio Troitsa (world-music), Old Olsa (folk, medieval music), jazz band Appletea, vocal band Kamerata, plastic theatre InZest, cameral orchestra Classic-avangard. But these areas of art are not as popular in the mass media of “the Global Village” as cinema or pop music. However, the domestic cultural movement is very lively, though mainly concentrated in Minsk. Many associations are created around numerous music and theatre groups, artists and writers, who promote the development of a given artistic area. Independent experts, art critics, journalists, cultural event organizers, music publishers support the artists in various ways. Often the product of their activity is not aimed at profit, because to get good money, it is enough to play cover versions at weddings and company parties. These works of art are, in the best case, the answer to the challenges of reality, an analysis of the situation, self-analysis of the creators as members of the society. In the worst case – just copies of the “stars”. They are, however, too quiet to be heard all over the world, but still quite precious, especially in the places where they were born. The table shows basic problems of the third sector in the area of culture and the ways they are being solved or what helps to neutralize the negative phenomena: Finally, I would like to present examples of the actions taken by non-governmental organizations which are connected with culture development. Social and cultural campaign “Budzma!”. The campaign was created to interest the inhabitants of Belarus with the culture of their country, to make them aware that it is their own commod-
ity and consequently to unite them. The event involves many cultural and educational action, such as: lectures about history and culture, concerts, literary meetings, presentations of books, magazines and musical projects. Experty.by – an Internet project created for a systematic browsing and assessment of Belarusian records representing various music styles. An annual ceremony “Prizes of Expert.by” are organized as part of this project. The jury comprises of music critics from Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Poland. The project was formed in 2008. The “Free Theatre” project. The tasks of the project are as follows: MM supporting the development of new drama in and outside Belarus, MM uniting the strength of young playwrights in search of new ideas, MM creating the communication channels between theatrical Belarus and the outside world, MM creating an alternative educational system for actors and directors, MM promoting ideas, freedom of creation and democratic rules in the theatre sphere of Belarus. Actions taken by the organizers of the project: MM workshops with the involvement of outstanding theatre activists, MM international contest of modern dramaturgy “Free Theatre”, publishing an anthology, MM public reading of works by Belarusian playwrights in Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and in Baltic states and on theatre festivals in Europe, MM translating dramas by young playwrights into foreign languages. Luckily, the number of such initiatives is growing. This is mainly due to the cultural integration, exchanging experiences with Europe – these actions slowly help to promote democratic transformation and culture management. In spite of all the problems, the most important fact is that Belarus has resources in the form of human capital, people who are not indifferent to the fate of culture in their country, who do “something” in the country where “everything is forbidden”.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Enthusiasm, artistic potential
46
Domination of amateur artists →
Participation in international events, organization of Belarusian days/weeks abroad
Cultural Industry
Confinement →
Competitions, criticism, prizes
Strategies of single artistic associations
Low level of workmanship →
Lack of management →
he production of cultural industry is not only a token of identity, values and meaning but also a factor of social and economic development. For a better protection and promotion of cultural diversity, people should support the development of cultural industries which may represent themselves either on a domestic or an international level.
Funds (to small extent), patronage (business, private people)
Creation of artistic associations which, among other things, teach new staff
T
Lack of money →
Lack of specialists →
Cultural Industry
T
Lack of money →
Funds (to small extent), patronage (business, private people)
Creation of artistic associations which, among other things, teach new staff
Competitions, criticism, prizes
Lack of specialists →
Low level of workmanship →
Strategies of single artistic associations
Enthusiasm, artistic potential
Lack of management →
Domination of amateur artists →
he production of cultural industry is not only a token of identity, values and meaning but also a factor of social and economic development. For a better protection and promotion of cultural diversity, people should support the development of cultural industries which may represent themselves either on a domestic or an international level.
+
Participation in international events, organization of Belarusian days/weeks abroad
–
ity and consequently to unite them. The event involves many cultural and educational action, such as: lectures about history and culture, concerts, literary meetings, presentations of books, magazines and musical projects. Experty.by – an Internet project created for a systematic browsing and assessment of Belarusian records representing various music styles. An annual ceremony “Prizes of Expert.by” are organized as part of this project. The jury comprises of music critics from Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Poland. The project was formed in 2008. The “Free Theatre” project. The tasks of the project are as follows: MM supporting the development of new drama in and outside Belarus, MM uniting the strength of young playwrights in search of new ideas, MM creating the communication channels between theatrical Belarus and the outside world, MM creating an alternative educational system for actors and directors, MM promoting ideas, freedom of creation and democratic rules in the theatre sphere of Belarus. Actions taken by the organizers of the project: MM workshops with the involvement of outstanding theatre activists, MM international contest of modern dramaturgy “Free Theatre”, publishing an anthology, MM public reading of works by Belarusian playwrights in Belarus, Ukraine, Russia and in Baltic states and on theatre festivals in Europe, MM translating dramas by young playwrights into foreign languages. Luckily, the number of such initiatives is growing. This is mainly due to the cultural integration, exchanging experiences with Europe – these actions slowly help to promote democratic transformation and culture management. In spite of all the problems, the most important fact is that Belarus has resources in the form of human capital, people who are not indifferent to the fate of culture in their country, who do “something” in the country where “everything is forbidden”.
Confinement →
of single initiatives. As a result, on the global level, the Belarusian culture does not exist as a recognizable phenomenon. It may definitely be said that high quality artistic product is created in Belarus. There are brilliant artists who are well-known abroad, such as: etno-trio Troitsa (world-music), Old Olsa (folk, medieval music), jazz band Appletea, vocal band Kamerata, plastic theatre InZest, cameral orchestra Classic-avangard. But these areas of art are not as popular in the mass media of “the Global Village” as cinema or pop music. However, the domestic cultural movement is very lively, though mainly concentrated in Minsk. Many associations are created around numerous music and theatre groups, artists and writers, who promote the development of a given artistic area. Independent experts, art critics, journalists, cultural event organizers, music publishers support the artists in various ways. Often the product of their activity is not aimed at profit, because to get good money, it is enough to play cover versions at weddings and company parties. These works of art are, in the best case, the answer to the challenges of reality, an analysis of the situation, self-analysis of the creators as members of the society. In the worst case – just copies of the “stars”. They are, however, too quiet to be heard all over the world, but still quite precious, especially in the places where they were born. The table shows basic problems of the third sector in the area of culture and the ways they are being solved or what helps to neutralize the negative phenomena: Finally, I would like to present examples of the actions taken by non-governmental organizations which are connected with culture development. Social and cultural campaign “Budzma!”. The campaign was created to interest the inhabitants of Belarus with the culture of their country, to make them aware that it is their own commod-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Belarus is a fairly small country with a small internal market – around 9.5 million inhabitants. During its short period of political independence, it did not achieve cultural independence and is still dominated by the Russian culture (mostly) and partially by the Western culture. The country which is in a difficult economic situation eagerly transfers a part of its cultural area to business structures controlling their activity by means of legal acts. Peter Bendixen [Bendixen, 2001] describes the process of changes resulting from the free market involvement: “Market economy, and more precisely, the capital which looks for profit and is hungry of investment, creates its own culture; the cultural activity with a commercial face, the cultural institution aiming at a “show”, whose effects of work are beginning to resemble the products from the stages of the shopping centers which are full of events”. Unfortunately, Belarusian “shopping center” is, in fact, just a branch of a huge “mall” of Moscow where the best “product” made in Belarus wants to be sold because big money is there, because Moscow opens a huge market. Of course, the product must be in Russian language. Monika Smoleń describes cultural industries as all the commercial initiatives in the area of culture whose main criterion is profit. For some commercial entities of cultural activity the profit is the only goal and no one cares what is sold as long as it brings profit. Others treat profit as a way to gain independence, a possibility to become a free artist who can create and promote “his own” type of art. So, when an artist from Belarus faces a dilemma – whether to create a product in Russian language which enables development in Moscow, or whether to operate on the domestic market, creating a Belarusian product – faithfulness to his or her own culture seldom wins with the profit. Theoretically, there is another way of development: introduction of Belarusian product into the world market in such a way that the Belarusian culture becomes a recognizable trend. An example of such a situation are, for example Spanish flamenco, Irish step-dance, belly dance, tea drinking ceremony from China, Japanese anime, Balkan-beat music, or even a Turkish Kebab are well known all over the world. Monika Smoleń comments on this fact in the following way: “The importance of the cultural industries, which emphasize the specific character of their countries, is raising together with the progressing process of globalization and the “demand” for cultural symbols which can distinguish our place in the “global village”. Undoubtedly, if the country is supposed to stop being irresolutely fulfilled in one place only,
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Belarus needs “a great victory”, its own “heroes” of culture who would promote the country globally, but at the same time who would help to unite the decomposed Belarusian society with a common pride. Nowadays, the actions taken in that direction limit to the annual dramatic participation of Belarus in the Eurovision contest. The competition as a mechanism which combines the nations in their common support works fine. But should Belarus be really promoted as a country in which pop stars jump around the stage in some unusual way or can seduce the audience with some magical technical tricks? In my opinion, the failure of Belarus is connected with the fact that it presents a product on a global market which copies popular trends – it is always a thing which our great competitors already have. Whereas, good quality, outstanding production which emphasizes the specific character of the country combined with a well planned marketing strategy has greater chances to win the external market and increase profits. The profit gained in the culture industry sector is connected with copying, altering, representing and distributing intellectual property. As a result, well functioning copyright protection system is an important factor here. According to the survey of IDC (International Data Corporation, USA), the level of copyright infringement in Belarus is very high – about 80% of digital production brought into the country. Such a high rate can also be observed in other former Soviet countries with an exception of Baltic states. The problem of copyright infringement is global and it has been fought for many years, but Belarus and other post-Soviet countries is only at the beginning of this road. In other words, though a need to protect intellectual property is enormous, no successful mechanisms which would help to solve this problem have been created. On the other hand, many artists (mostly musicians), who do not want to fight with the people braking the law, change their tactics: instead of going on tours to promote their new record the sales of which brings the biggest profit, they spread their new recordings on the Internet for free in order to promote them (sometimes they resign from making a new record completely) and they receive their profit from playing on concerts or company parties. They sometimes do it because they understand that unrestricted access to the recordings on the Internet, and even the sale of unlicensed records (which, as cheaper, are more available) is not “absolute evil”. The leader of the Belarusian band, “Lapis Trubieckoj” (“the band of 2009” according to Rock Alternative Music Prize, Russia) comments on
47
Belarus is a fairly small country with a small internal market – around 9.5 million inhabitants. During its short period of political independence, it did not achieve cultural independence and is still dominated by the Russian culture (mostly) and partially by the Western culture. The country which is in a difficult economic situation eagerly transfers a part of its cultural area to business structures controlling their activity by means of legal acts. Peter Bendixen [Bendixen, 2001] describes the process of changes resulting from the free market involvement: “Market economy, and more precisely, the capital which looks for profit and is hungry of investment, creates its own culture; the cultural activity with a commercial face, the cultural institution aiming at a “show”, whose effects of work are beginning to resemble the products from the stages of the shopping centers which are full of events”. Unfortunately, Belarusian “shopping center” is, in fact, just a branch of a huge “mall” of Moscow where the best “product” made in Belarus wants to be sold because big money is there, because Moscow opens a huge market. Of course, the product must be in Russian language. Monika Smoleń describes cultural industries as all the commercial initiatives in the area of culture whose main criterion is profit. For some commercial entities of cultural activity the profit is the only goal and no one cares what is sold as long as it brings profit. Others treat profit as a way to gain independence, a possibility to become a free artist who can create and promote “his own” type of art. So, when an artist from Belarus faces a dilemma – whether to create a product in Russian language which enables development in Moscow, or whether to operate on the domestic market, creating a Belarusian product – faithfulness to his or her own culture seldom wins with the profit. Theoretically, there is another way of development: introduction of Belarusian product into the world market in such a way that the Belarusian culture becomes a recognizable trend. An example of such a situation are, for example Spanish flamenco, Irish step-dance, belly dance, tea drinking ceremony from China, Japanese anime, Balkan-beat music, or even a Turkish Kebab are well known all over the world. Monika Smoleń comments on this fact in the following way: “The importance of the cultural industries, which emphasize the specific character of their countries, is raising together with the progressing process of globalization and the “demand” for cultural symbols which can distinguish our place in the “global village”. Undoubtedly, if the country is supposed to stop being irresolutely fulfilled in one place only,
47
Belarus needs “a great victory”, its own “heroes” of culture who would promote the country globally, but at the same time who would help to unite the decomposed Belarusian society with a common pride. Nowadays, the actions taken in that direction limit to the annual dramatic participation of Belarus in the Eurovision contest. The competition as a mechanism which combines the nations in their common support works fine. But should Belarus be really promoted as a country in which pop stars jump around the stage in some unusual way or can seduce the audience with some magical technical tricks? In my opinion, the failure of Belarus is connected with the fact that it presents a product on a global market which copies popular trends – it is always a thing which our great competitors already have. Whereas, good quality, outstanding production which emphasizes the specific character of the country combined with a well planned marketing strategy has greater chances to win the external market and increase profits. The profit gained in the culture industry sector is connected with copying, altering, representing and distributing intellectual property. As a result, well functioning copyright protection system is an important factor here. According to the survey of IDC (International Data Corporation, USA), the level of copyright infringement in Belarus is very high – about 80% of digital production brought into the country. Such a high rate can also be observed in other former Soviet countries with an exception of Baltic states. The problem of copyright infringement is global and it has been fought for many years, but Belarus and other post-Soviet countries is only at the beginning of this road. In other words, though a need to protect intellectual property is enormous, no successful mechanisms which would help to solve this problem have been created. On the other hand, many artists (mostly musicians), who do not want to fight with the people braking the law, change their tactics: instead of going on tours to promote their new record the sales of which brings the biggest profit, they spread their new recordings on the Internet for free in order to promote them (sometimes they resign from making a new record completely) and they receive their profit from playing on concerts or company parties. They sometimes do it because they understand that unrestricted access to the recordings on the Internet, and even the sale of unlicensed records (which, as cheaper, are more available) is not “absolute evil”. The leader of the Belarusian band, “Lapis Trubieckoj” (“the band of 2009” according to Rock Alternative Music Prize, Russia) comments on
48
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
As an authentic Deception, i.e. “being present”, has become a very important aspekt of the contemporary (youth) culture.
the copyright infringement in the following way: “Personally, I am interested in popularization: the more people hear our melody, the more often will it appear in films and TV series, the better will it be. Because we make our living at the concerts4. [...] I am not an idiom to fight the pirates. It is great hypocrisy, especially of the musicians from the former Soviet Union. Pirates are the distributors of fresh, trendy, lively and the most contemporary music, whereas record companies deal with just two types of modern mass culture – pop music and “chanson”5. From this perspective, pirates look a little bit like Robin Hood. The things they steal from the rich, they give to the poor. But still this is an offence. Such attitude of people to the intellectual property is mainly connected with their irresponsibility (why pay for something which we can get for free?) and lack of legal culture which is typical for countries with poorly developed civil society. To solve this problem, we should further adjust to the demands of the European Union and build a normal open society. Apart from the imperfect Act of Belarusian Republic from 16th May 1996 on copyright and related rights (the concept of the new Act from 2008 has not been rectified yet), acts on mass media, advertisement and cinematography, there are also other legal mechanisms which regulate the cultural industry: MM The Act of the Ministry of Information which sets the limit of 75% of the Belarusian music for the FM radio stations (1st January 2005), MM The act on the concert activity on the territory of Belarus (1st June 2008). The amount of 75% of the Belarusian music in the air was set on the initiative of the Ministry of Culture aiming at the popularization and development of local artists and young talents. The deputy head of the Ministry of Information, Aleksandr Słobodczuk, claimed that the amount was introduced because the country hoped for a “Belarusian boom” and the appearance of new stars and original music. The introduction of the 75% limit of Belarusian music has evoked great, though quite unsuccessful, resistance and outrage of commercial stations. Their attempts to decrease this limit to at least 50%6, after 5 years, have only led to decreasing the amount of time when the 75% limit is compulsory to nine hours a day.
Why don’t the commercial stations want to support the local product? The answer is because: MM Belarusian artists do not record enough good quality and right format music which could occupy ¾ of the broadcasting time, MM the 75% limit makes all the radio stations look similar, MM radio stations cease to be attractive both for the listeners and advertisers, MM lack of competition hampers the development of Belarusian artists. Undoubtedly, it is very important to support the local music industry, but such a great amount of local product in the country with such a small internal market is not the best idea. And the experience confirms this fact. The act on the concert activity on the territory of Belarus is aiming at the protection of the consumer rights. The main goals of this regulation on the territory of Belarus are as follows: MM avoiding cultural and entertaining activity which could harm national safety, public order, health and morality, rights and freedom of the citizens, MM securing high artistic standard of concerts, circus performances and other cultural and entertaining activity, MM promoting the best achievements of the domestic and international culture and art, MM meeting the spiritual, ideological, moral and esthetic needs, education of the society. According to the Act, while a cultural or entertaining event is being organized (both commercial and charity events, wedding receptions, company parties, discos), the organizer is obliged to report the event in the local culture department, which after being paid all the necessary charges, gives (or not) a “concert certificate.” Point 11 of the Act says that: “To support the quality controlling program of entertainment, the department of culture appoints committees (councils) of artists and experts who have the right to become acquainted with the audio-video content and printed materials of the cultural/entertaining events or to review the performances and provide their opinions concerning the agreement of the event’s content with main tasks of the Act.” Without any additional explanation, we can see that the Act complicates the activity of the concert agencies and other entities which deal
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
4
48
Russkij szanson – a Russian genre of Soviet music referring to the “romantic” life of criminals, their stay in prison and so on. Since 1990’s it has become an element of mass culture. Paradoxically, it is popular within the former Soviet Union.
Such a limit has been introduced in Ukraine where the music market is much bigger.
6
5
As an authentic Deception, i.e. “being present”, has become a very important aspekt of the contemporary (youth) culture.
Russkij szanson – a Russian genre of Soviet music referring to the “romantic” life of criminals, their stay in prison and so on. Since 1990’s it has become an element of mass culture. Paradoxically, it is popular within the former Soviet Union.
5
Such a limit has been introduced in Ukraine where the music market is much bigger.
4
Why don’t the commercial stations want to support the local product? The answer is because: MM Belarusian artists do not record enough good quality and right format music which could occupy ¾ of the broadcasting time, MM the 75% limit makes all the radio stations look similar, MM radio stations cease to be attractive both for the listeners and advertisers, MM lack of competition hampers the development of Belarusian artists. Undoubtedly, it is very important to support the local music industry, but such a great amount of local product in the country with such a small internal market is not the best idea. And the experience confirms this fact. The act on the concert activity on the territory of Belarus is aiming at the protection of the consumer rights. The main goals of this regulation on the territory of Belarus are as follows: MM avoiding cultural and entertaining activity which could harm national safety, public order, health and morality, rights and freedom of the citizens, MM securing high artistic standard of concerts, circus performances and other cultural and entertaining activity, MM promoting the best achievements of the domestic and international culture and art, MM meeting the spiritual, ideological, moral and esthetic needs, education of the society. According to the Act, while a cultural or entertaining event is being organized (both commercial and charity events, wedding receptions, company parties, discos), the organizer is obliged to report the event in the local culture department, which after being paid all the necessary charges, gives (or not) a “concert certificate.” Point 11 of the Act says that: “To support the quality controlling program of entertainment, the department of culture appoints committees (councils) of artists and experts who have the right to become acquainted with the audio-video content and printed materials of the cultural/entertaining events or to review the performances and provide their opinions concerning the agreement of the event’s content with main tasks of the Act.” Without any additional explanation, we can see that the Act complicates the activity of the concert agencies and other entities which deal
6
the copyright infringement in the following way: “Personally, I am interested in popularization: the more people hear our melody, the more often will it appear in films and TV series, the better will it be. Because we make our living at the concerts4. [...] I am not an idiom to fight the pirates. It is great hypocrisy, especially of the musicians from the former Soviet Union. Pirates are the distributors of fresh, trendy, lively and the most contemporary music, whereas record companies deal with just two types of modern mass culture – pop music and “chanson”5. From this perspective, pirates look a little bit like Robin Hood. The things they steal from the rich, they give to the poor. But still this is an offence. Such attitude of people to the intellectual property is mainly connected with their irresponsibility (why pay for something which we can get for free?) and lack of legal culture which is typical for countries with poorly developed civil society. To solve this problem, we should further adjust to the demands of the European Union and build a normal open society. Apart from the imperfect Act of Belarusian Republic from 16th May 1996 on copyright and related rights (the concept of the new Act from 2008 has not been rectified yet), acts on mass media, advertisement and cinematography, there are also other legal mechanisms which regulate the cultural industry: MM The Act of the Ministry of Information which sets the limit of 75% of the Belarusian music for the FM radio stations (1st January 2005), MM The act on the concert activity on the territory of Belarus (1st June 2008). The amount of 75% of the Belarusian music in the air was set on the initiative of the Ministry of Culture aiming at the popularization and development of local artists and young talents. The deputy head of the Ministry of Information, Aleksandr Słobodczuk, claimed that the amount was introduced because the country hoped for a “Belarusian boom” and the appearance of new stars and original music. The introduction of the 75% limit of Belarusian music has evoked great, though quite unsuccessful, resistance and outrage of commercial stations. Their attempts to decrease this limit to at least 50%6, after 5 years, have only led to decreasing the amount of time when the 75% limit is compulsory to nine hours a day.
49
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
with cultural events. It does not support the activity of individual entrepreneurs as, according to the 5th point of the Act, it limits the possibility to organize events on the stages which have not more than 150 places. Is the “cultural and entertaining activity which can harm national security, public order, health and morality, rights and freedom of the citizens” so dangerous that its content has to be checked by clerks? I doubt it. At least in every other part of the world the countries somehow cope with that… In spite of the alleged concern for a consumer, the Act of the President of Belarus on concert
7
In May, 2007, the organizers of the concert which was supposed to promote a new record of “Krama” band (a Belarusian-speaking rock band, one of the most popular ones in the country) were denied the concert certificate because of “the low artistic level”.
Literature Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i sztuki, Kraków, 2001. Culture management. Kulturmanagement. Zarządzanie kulturą, 2008, № 1. Mackiewicz W., Białoruś: wbrew oczywistości, Niewskij wyższym, Kraków, 2009.
prostor, 2006. Mialguj A., Muzyka rezystansu językowego, „Dziejaslou”
menedżerem. O zarządzaniu kulturą i szkolnictwem Orzechowski E., Dziś nawet żebrak musi być sprawnym
2008.
activity, introduces censorship and ideological control which blocks access of unwanted artists to their audience.7 In other words, cultural industries exist, operate and gain profits, they develop not with the help of the country but against it. And this is not an exception as the conditions for all branches of business are very hard in Belarus and trigger all kinds of uncivilized solutions (bribery, “grey market”). In such a way the discussion about the cultural policy in Belarus ends up with the discussion about political culture.
Problemy zarządzania. Sfera kultury i turystyki, ed. K. Mazurek-Łopacińska, Wrocław, 1999. Smoleń M., Przemysły kultury. Wpływ na rozwój miast, Kraków, 2003. Szulborska-Łukaszewicz J., Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie, Kraków, 2009. www.kimpress.by www.kultura.by www.president.gov.by
Orzechowski E., Dziś nawet żebrak musi być sprawnym
2008. Mialguj A., Muzyka rezystansu językowego, „Dziejaslou”
menedżerem. O zarządzaniu kulturą i szkolnictwem
prostor, 2006.
wyższym, Kraków, 2009.
Mackiewicz W., Białoruś: wbrew oczywistości, Niewskij kulturą, 2008, № 1. Culture management. Kulturmanagement. Zarządzanie tuki, Kraków, 2001. Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i sz-
Literature 7
In May, 2007, the organizers of the concert which was supposed to promote a new record of “Krama” band (a Belarusian-speaking rock band, one of the most popular ones in the country) were denied the concert certificate because of “the low artistic level”.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
49
with cultural events. It does not support the activity of individual entrepreneurs as, according to the 5th point of the Act, it limits the possibility to organize events on the stages which have not more than 150 places. Is the “cultural and entertaining activity which can harm national security, public order, health and morality, rights and freedom of the citizens” so dangerous that its content has to be checked by clerks? I doubt it. At least in every other part of the world the countries somehow cope with that… In spite of the alleged concern for a consumer, the Act of the President of Belarus on concert
www.president.gov.by www.kultura.by www.kimpress.by kowie, Kraków, 2009. Szulborska-Łukaszewicz J., Polityka kulturalna w KraKraków, 2003. Smoleń M., Przemysły kultury. Wpływ na rozwój miast, Mazurek-Łopacińska, Wrocław, 1999. Problemy zarządzania. Sfera kultury i turystyki, ed. K.
activity, introduces censorship and ideological control which blocks access of unwanted artists to their audience.7 In other words, cultural industries exist, operate and gain profits, they develop not with the help of the country but against it. And this is not an exception as the conditions for all branches of business are very hard in Belarus and trigger all kinds of uncivilized solutions (bribery, “grey market”). In such a way the discussion about the cultural policy in Belarus ends up with the discussion about political culture.
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Anda Laķe
50
Introduction. Rationale
ulture policy analyst John Hocks acknowledges that “the planning of social development, in fact, is the development, expression and application of those social values which the society considers essential for its identity” [ John Hocks, 2007]. Within the context of this thesis, the following question becomes topical: how can it be achieved that the values advocated by public policy makers precisely reflect those of the society they serve? The question can also be view from a different angle: how can it be ensured that the main principles of public policy making take roots in the attempts to solve the dominant social problems in accordance with the prevailing system of values? Inspired by the economic crisis, debates both on governmental functions in general and the quality of policy planning and development of particular sectors have become high-pitched. They contain harsh criticism of the irresponsible actions of policy and political decision makers, which have led the state to the risk of bankruptcy and have failed to provide a duly solution to fiscal and other crisis-related problems. Under the conditions of conflict between the government and the civil society, argumentation is an essential tool in the hands of the government that can ensure the required understanding between the policy makers and the public. Moreover, it is crucial that the government take into consideration that only a certain type of information
C
C
does actually facilitate the comprehension of the society and may be considered democratic and non-manipulative [Ījabs, 2007]. The idea of what values and arguments the policy makers have based their decisions on so far is becoming more topical and unclear. Yet, this has led to the following consequences: a drastic decrease in the state budget income in 2009 and the necessity for an international loan; the terms, on which the loan was granted, and the necessity for bringing the budget into balance require a decrease in the expenses of the state budget by 510 million LVL in 2010 if compared to the expenses in 2009. In the field of culture policy realisation, there is a 28.3 million LVL decrease in the financing of the Latvian Ministry of Culture, which forms one third of the Ministry’s budget in 2009. At the same time, in Latvia, there is a wide range of inter-related decrees that envisage governmental support of the sphere of culture. For instance, on May 12, 2009, Ministers of Culture from 27 EU member-states met and supported the European Council’s conclusion that culture serves as a catalyst for creativity and innovation. In the document, it is stressed that strategic investment in culture is of vital importance, as it ensures the dynamics and creativity of the EU society and provides work places. Investment in culture facilitates creativity as the driving force of innovation, which is necessary for economic growth and competitiveness [http://culturelablv. wordpress.com/category/radosas-industrijas]. However, not only compliance with the above principles and achievement of corresponding
Anda Laķe doctor degree student at Rīga Stradiņš University. Deputy Head of Culture Sociology and Management Department at Latvian Culture Academy. Member of Latvian Sociologist Association. Scientific interests include methodology of sociological research, interdisciplinarity in research, methodology of policy analysis, conservation of the cultural heritage. Leading researcher of the research Latvian youth concepts about the cultural canon. Ministry of Latvian culture (2008).
Introduction. Rationale
does actually facilitate the comprehension of the society and may be considered democratic and non-manipulative [Ījabs, 2007]. The idea of what values and arguments the policy makers have based their decisions on so far is becoming more topical and unclear. Yet, this has led to the following consequences: a drastic decrease in the state budget income in 2009 and the necessity for an international loan; the terms, on which the loan was granted, and the necessity for bringing the budget into balance require a decrease in the expenses of the state budget by 510 million LVL in 2010 if compared to the expenses in 2009. In the field of culture policy realisation, there is a 28.3 million LVL decrease in the financing of the Latvian Ministry of Culture, which forms one third of the Ministry’s budget in 2009. At the same time, in Latvia, there is a wide range of inter-related decrees that envisage governmental support of the sphere of culture. For instance, on May 12, 2009, Ministers of Culture from 27 EU member-states met and supported the European Council’s conclusion that culture serves as a catalyst for creativity and innovation. In the document, it is stressed that strategic investment in culture is of vital importance, as it ensures the dynamics and creativity of the EU society and provides work places. Investment in culture facilitates creativity as the driving force of innovation, which is necessary for economic growth and competitiveness [http://culturelablv. wordpress.com/category/radosas-industrijas]. However, not only compliance with the above principles and achievement of corresponding
Anda Laķe doctor degree student at Rīga Stradiņš University. Deputy Head of Culture Sociology and Management Department at Latvian Culture Academy. Member of Latvian Sociologist Association. Scientific interests include methodology of sociological research, interdisciplinarity in research, methodology of policy analysis, conservation of the cultural heritage. Leading researcher of the research Latvian youth concepts about the cultural canon. Ministry of Latvian culture (2008).
ulture policy analyst John Hocks acknowledges that “the planning of social development, in fact, is the development, expression and application of those social values which the society considers essential for its identity” [ John Hocks, 2007]. Within the context of this thesis, the following question becomes topical: how can it be achieved that the values advocated by public policy makers precisely reflect those of the society they serve? The question can also be view from a different angle: how can it be ensured that the main principles of public policy making take roots in the attempts to solve the dominant social problems in accordance with the prevailing system of values? Inspired by the economic crisis, debates both on governmental functions in general and the quality of policy planning and development of particular sectors have become high-pitched. They contain harsh criticism of the irresponsible actions of policy and political decision makers, which have led the state to the risk of bankruptcy and have failed to provide a duly solution to fiscal and other crisis-related problems. Under the conditions of conflict between the government and the civil society, argumentation is an essential tool in the hands of the government that can ensure the required understanding between the policy makers and the public. Moreover, it is crucial that the government take into consideration that only a certain type of information
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Anda Laķe
50
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment
Riga Cinema Museum to the Latvian Academy of Culture etc. [newspaper “Diena”, October 26, 2009, p. 4], but the policy makers do not disclose information on what problems remain unsolved within the framework of culture policy as a result of the decreased funding and what problems the culture policy makers will try to solve as top priority. Both the values and the goals of the government are incomprehensible [http://www.mk.gov.lv/lv/ aktuali/zinas/2009gads/09/300909-03-copy]. The society is unable to follow the rational argumentation for political decisions, which, according to the well-known classification of political decisionmaking models suggested by H. Simon, infers compliance with the following steps. Problem definition and objectives set to achieve in order to solve it: 1. Investigation and study of all strategies of alternative objective achievement. 2. Forecast of all important consequences resulting from a certain alternative. Assessment of probability of consequences. 3. Finally, the selection of a strategy that either solves the problem in the most successful way or proves to be the least costly solution. It is, of course, impossible to fully implement the principle of rationality in policy-making practice; however, approximate rationality would much contribute to the concept of preservation and activation of certain values in politics as well as identification, activation, and achievement of more precise political objectives. In many modern political systems, the use of political influence evaluation principles and evaluation research in particular are considered the most effective tools in policy rationalisation and quality improvement. The Research and Publications Data Base created by the Latvian State Secretariat [see http://petijumi.mk.gov. lv/ui/] has all the research that has ever been commissioned by the government. Political domain assessment is a type of research that serves as a criterion for the data base structure. 51 studies are included in this type of research category. All of them have been demanded by the European Commission. No research in the field of political influence assessment has been carried out on demand of any Latvian governmental institution. Moreover, the data base provides no information on any research that would qualify as political domain assessment and has been commissioned by the Ministry of Culture. This allows me to conclude that such a policy quality improvement tool as policy influence assessment alongside the assessment research, which has been much employed in the policy-making practice of many countries,
Anda Laķe
Riga Cinema Museum to the Latvian Academy of Culture etc. [newspaper “Diena”, October 26, 2009, p. 4], but the policy makers do not disclose information on what problems remain unsolved within the framework of culture policy as a result of the decreased funding and what problems the culture policy makers will try to solve as top priority. Both the values and the goals of the government are incomprehensible [http://www.mk.gov.lv/lv/ aktuali/zinas/2009gads/09/300909-03-copy]. The society is unable to follow the rational argumentation for political decisions, which, according to the well-known classification of political decisionmaking models suggested by H. Simon, infers compliance with the following steps. Problem definition and objectives set to achieve in order to solve it: 1. Investigation and study of all strategies of alternative objective achievement. 2. Forecast of all important consequences resulting from a certain alternative. Assessment of probability of consequences. 3. Finally, the selection of a strategy that either solves the problem in the most successful way or proves to be the least costly solution. It is, of course, impossible to fully implement the principle of rationality in policy-making practice; however, approximate rationality would much contribute to the concept of preservation and activation of certain values in politics as well as identification, activation, and achievement of more precise political objectives. In many modern political systems, the use of political influence evaluation principles and evaluation research in particular are considered the most effective tools in policy rationalisation and quality improvement. The Research and Publications Data Base created by the Latvian State Secretariat [see http://petijumi.mk.gov. lv/ui/] has all the research that has ever been commissioned by the government. Political domain assessment is a type of research that serves as a criterion for the data base structure. 51 studies are included in this type of research category. All of them have been demanded by the European Commission. No research in the field of political influence assessment has been carried out on demand of any Latvian governmental institution. Moreover, the data base provides no information on any research that would qualify as political domain assessment and has been commissioned by the Ministry of Culture. This allows me to conclude that such a policy quality improvement tool as policy influence assessment alongside the assessment research, which has been much employed in the policy-making practice of many countries,
Anda Laķe
goals are openly threatened in Latvia. The solution of a wide range of culture-related issues and the preservation of corresponding values are also under the threat. The situation requires making essential decisions on the priorities in the use of the funding from the budget, solving topical issues in the sphere without delay, as well as economic possibilities of structural development of the culture sphere. Previous policy planning documents (for example, Guidelines for the State Culture Policy in 2006–2015, National State etc.) certainly contain formal definitions of goals, values and priorities in the culture policy; however, under the existing circumstances, which imply reviewing of governmental functions within particular political domains, one has to admit that achieving all of these goals does not seem possible. On the one hand, certain existing goals will be top priority. On the other hand, there will unavoidably be such political goals that will be impossible to achieve. In order to optimize the creation of the new political priorities list and acting under active public pressure, the Latvian government has tried to evaluate the importance of functions of the ministries, taking the opinions of the public and social partners into consideration. The current 2010 financial perspective certainly envisages a thorough review and assessment of many culture policy programmes in order to justify their necessity. It is characteristic of Latvia that policy makers are incapable of providing clear and credible arguments for political decisions and alternative policy chosen even in cases when the policy has an enormous effect on the interests and needs of a certain social group. This causes tension between the policy makers and the society, which is based on public miscomprehension of the values and true goals of the policy makers. In the communication of policy makers with the public the main role is given to information on the chosen political alternative, rather than information on the arguments for one or another alternative. The society often lacks information on the chosen political alternative justification. This leaves space for free interpretation of a political issue, which results in both public scepticism about how democratic the government’s decisions are and provocative speculations about the government’s efforts to promote the interests of some unknown to the public lobby groups. For instance, from the information on the decrease in the funding of the culture sphere provided by the Latvian government, the public is able to find out about the merging of certain museums, the reduction of the National Cinema Centre functions, the annexation of the
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Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment
goals are openly threatened in Latvia. The solution of a wide range of culture-related issues and the preservation of corresponding values are also under the threat. The situation requires making essential decisions on the priorities in the use of the funding from the budget, solving topical issues in the sphere without delay, as well as economic possibilities of structural development of the culture sphere. Previous policy planning documents (for example, Guidelines for the State Culture Policy in 2006–2015, National State etc.) certainly contain formal definitions of goals, values and priorities in the culture policy; however, under the existing circumstances, which imply reviewing of governmental functions within particular political domains, one has to admit that achieving all of these goals does not seem possible. On the one hand, certain existing goals will be top priority. On the other hand, there will unavoidably be such political goals that will be impossible to achieve. In order to optimize the creation of the new political priorities list and acting under active public pressure, the Latvian government has tried to evaluate the importance of functions of the ministries, taking the opinions of the public and social partners into consideration. The current 2010 financial perspective certainly envisages a thorough review and assessment of many culture policy programmes in order to justify their necessity. It is characteristic of Latvia that policy makers are incapable of providing clear and credible arguments for political decisions and alternative policy chosen even in cases when the policy has an enormous effect on the interests and needs of a certain social group. This causes tension between the policy makers and the society, which is based on public miscomprehension of the values and true goals of the policy makers. In the communication of policy makers with the public the main role is given to information on the chosen political alternative, rather than information on the arguments for one or another alternative. The society often lacks information on the chosen political alternative justification. This leaves space for free interpretation of a political issue, which results in both public scepticism about how democratic the government’s decisions are and provocative speculations about the government’s efforts to promote the interests of some unknown to the public lobby groups. For instance, from the information on the decrease in the funding of the culture sphere provided by the Latvian government, the public is able to find out about the merging of certain museums, the reduction of the National Cinema Centre functions, the annexation of the
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The specific character of evaluation research
he specific character of evaluation research takes roots in the understanding of the concept “evaluation”. “Evaluation” is a systematic evaluation of the results of a policy or a programme or the results which are compared with clearly formulated or obscure, indirect standards in order to promote improvement of the programme or policy. On the one hand, evaluation concept is connected with a description of the essence of an action/accomplishment/performance, on the other hand, it is connected with the standards and criteria by which the specific action/accomplishment/ performance is evaluated [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. It is a type of socio-policy research directed to assessing the consequences, intended and unintended, of a new policy programme or an existing policy and practice, including measurement of the extent to which stated goals and objectives are being met and identification of effects displacement [Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, 1994]. The evaluation research methodology embraces a specific research logics used when a social or a policy action programme has to be evaluated. The evaluation research is an interdisciplinary research where the basic methodology principles of the sociological, politological, economic research are often used. Furthermore, evaluation researches are traditionally carried out together with common international or national standards in practice. The choice of methodology of evaluation research and a its design is connected with the following task of the research – to recognise the changes of specific variables in time by discovering to what extent the measures of the programme have affected them as well as to what extent the impact of the surrounding environment have affected the relevant variables. The objective of evaluation research is to calculate the impact. In evaluation research evaluation action or measures taken and tools are comprehensively called a “programme” and the effects made by measures are viewed in interrelations in a methodically controlled way as well as connection between the action objectives and their consequences are evaluated. In such researches it must be taken into consideration that any programme can be carried out only in a close connection with social environment, it can not be separated from surrounding impacts. The techniques of evaluation are very adaptive and it is possible to use them in the analysis of social and health policy, environmental, educational and culture policy. The described methodology has been successfully used to examine, evaluate and improve, for example, social programmes in
T
T
he specific character of evaluation research takes roots in the understanding of the concept “evaluation”. “Evaluation” is a systematic evaluation of the results of a policy or a programme or the results which are compared with clearly formulated or obscure, indirect standards in order to promote improvement of the programme or policy. On the one hand, evaluation concept is connected with a description of the essence of an action/accomplishment/performance, on the other hand, it is connected with the standards and criteria by which the specific action/accomplishment/ performance is evaluated [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. It is a type of socio-policy research directed to assessing the consequences, intended and unintended, of a new policy programme or an existing policy and practice, including measurement of the extent to which stated goals and objectives are being met and identification of effects displacement [Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, 1994]. The evaluation research methodology embraces a specific research logics used when a social or a policy action programme has to be evaluated. The evaluation research is an interdisciplinary research where the basic methodology principles of the sociological, politological, economic research are often used. Furthermore, evaluation researches are traditionally carried out together with common international or national standards in practice. The choice of methodology of evaluation research and a its design is connected with the following task of the research – to recognise the changes of specific variables in time by discovering to what extent the measures of the programme have affected them as well as to what extent the impact of the surrounding environment have affected the relevant variables. The objective of evaluation research is to calculate the impact. In evaluation research evaluation action or measures taken and tools are comprehensively called a “programme” and the effects made by measures are viewed in interrelations in a methodically controlled way as well as connection between the action objectives and their consequences are evaluated. In such researches it must be taken into consideration that any programme can be carried out only in a close connection with social environment, it can not be separated from surrounding impacts. The techniques of evaluation are very adaptive and it is possible to use them in the analysis of social and health policy, environmental, educational and culture policy. The described methodology has been successfully used to examine, evaluate and improve, for example, social programmes in
52
The specific character of evaluation research
is barely used in the Latvian policy-making and in culture policy-making specifically. In order to analyse the situation described above in detail, I would like to characterise the domain of social research in Latvia. Research themes of representatives of Latvian social science and the range of methods used in the research is expanding according social reality which is dynamic and imbued with innovations and in accordance with the range of the research problems requires it. In the democratic world one of the fields where social research is widely used is policy making sphere. In Latvia commissioners of social researches usually are international organizations, government administrations and administrative structures of municipalities. In the commissions one of the main interests of policy makers is often connected with a necessity to acquire information that would allow making evaluation of policy influence. In different political systems exist different traditions concerning the practice of evaluation of policy influence. Nevertheless, one of the research tools traditionally used in policy evaluation is the so-called evaluation research. Policymakers can acquire information through evaluation research that allows rationalizing political decision-taking in government administration, thus improving the quality of policy making and increasing the range of the problems solved by the help of policy. Irrespective of the theoretical necessity of evaluation of research data, policy makers and chief executives often lack information about the realization of certain policy/programme and knowledge how to achieve the highest indicators of realization. Researchers from many countries have noticed that policymakers not always consider promotion of the programme realization and the achievement of the required results (they are responsible themselves for) as a dominant priority. At the same time the demands of society are growing. Often governments are incapable to react appropriately to the problems or they react unskilfully and inefficiently [Wholey, Kathryn, 1989]. The basic research problem is the following. Previous research of the situation reveals that in systemic and conceptual sense there exist different practices in the administration of Latvia (e.g. ministries, their subordinate offices) concerning the realization of policy impact assessment and the application of methodology principles of evaluation research in it. Even more, the policy impact assessment neither fulfils its function to improve policy making nor stimulates integration of the appropriate problem solutions in political decisions or provides the policy succession.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
is barely used in the Latvian policy-making and in culture policy-making specifically. In order to analyse the situation described above in detail, I would like to characterise the domain of social research in Latvia. Research themes of representatives of Latvian social science and the range of methods used in the research is expanding according social reality which is dynamic and imbued with innovations and in accordance with the range of the research problems requires it. In the democratic world one of the fields where social research is widely used is policy making sphere. In Latvia commissioners of social researches usually are international organizations, government administrations and administrative structures of municipalities. In the commissions one of the main interests of policy makers is often connected with a necessity to acquire information that would allow making evaluation of policy influence. In different political systems exist different traditions concerning the practice of evaluation of policy influence. Nevertheless, one of the research tools traditionally used in policy evaluation is the so-called evaluation research. Policymakers can acquire information through evaluation research that allows rationalizing political decision-taking in government administration, thus improving the quality of policy making and increasing the range of the problems solved by the help of policy. Irrespective of the theoretical necessity of evaluation of research data, policy makers and chief executives often lack information about the realization of certain policy/programme and knowledge how to achieve the highest indicators of realization. Researchers from many countries have noticed that policymakers not always consider promotion of the programme realization and the achievement of the required results (they are responsible themselves for) as a dominant priority. At the same time the demands of society are growing. Often governments are incapable to react appropriately to the problems or they react unskilfully and inefficiently [Wholey, Kathryn, 1989]. The basic research problem is the following. Previous research of the situation reveals that in systemic and conceptual sense there exist different practices in the administration of Latvia (e.g. ministries, their subordinate offices) concerning the realization of policy impact assessment and the application of methodology principles of evaluation research in it. Even more, the policy impact assessment neither fulfils its function to improve policy making nor stimulates integration of the appropriate problem solutions in political decisions or provides the policy succession.
53
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all their significant aspects: in disclosing social problems, the conceptualisation of aims, implementation and administration of programmes, measuring the results and effectiveness [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. The logical structure of evaluation methodology prescribes the following research design: 1. Description of a programme (formulation of the problem, identification of aims, target groups, objectives, indicators of intervention and impact) 2. Creation of an evaluation preview (involvement of the interested parties, definition of the main aim of evaluation, formulation of the main research questions and identification of evaluation resources) 3. Development of evaluation design (precision of a design, choice of data collection methods and development of data collection tools) 4. Data collection 5. Data analysis and interpretation 6. Evaluation research data formatting and distribution Sourses: Round, R, Marshall, B, Horton, K. Planning for effective health promotion evaluation. Melbourne: Victorian Government Department of Human Services, 2005, p. 6. Some theoreticians believe that evaluation logic must be tied together with logic of programme development and they offer the following scheme of the levels of evaluation: 1. Problem defining. 2. Identification of problem solutions. 3. Testing innovations. 4. Intervention demonstration. 5. Intervention distribution. 6. Programme management. [Nutbeam, D. 1998] The specific of methodology is connected with the fact that the starting point and the point of reference is the programme which is being evaluated. Sometimes the concept “programme” is used as synonym for the concept “policy” denoting strategy, action plan, tactics stated in a policy document or resolution (e.g. university education policy). Complying with such understanding of the concepts, the common aim of a programme/policy is to change people’s knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviour or change the organizations they work in or institutions they are connected to or communities they live in. A common feature of all programs/policies is their purpose to build a better life. However, in order to ensure accurate data interpretation of a research result, it is necessary for the researchers to have a clear understanding of what the programme is about and how it must act in each particular
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
case in the framework of the research evaluation [Weiss, 1998]. The specific evaluating part in such an evaluation research is evaluation of the achieved success, consequences and results of the programme. The aims of a programme, consequently the intended effects of it are used as a measure for the evaluation of the programme results (success, consequences). The intended impacts can be carried out to a larger or lesser extent. The programme success is determined not according to the established changes but according to the benefits arising from the results of implementation of a programme. The programme is successful if measures taken affect the variables of the aim with sufficient intensity and in a planned way. Even in case of the most ineffective programme it is possible to have the changes of variables of the aim in a planned way, if environment of the programme works positively and vice versa, an effective programme can also create only minor changes of variables of the aim, if the impact of environment is negative. The types of evaluation researches commonly are focused on policy values and application, their task is not to simply collect information about intended or unintended results, their main mission is to check whether the result of policy is the result of actions taken in order to solve the problem. Evaluation research usually checks whether a policy has reached its aim.
Evaluation research as the part of evaluation system of policy impact
W
ithin the framework of politology evaluation of policy impact is viewed as one of the types of policy analysis whose methodological principles are tailored to the stages of policy process or the stages of decision making process. The evaluation logic of policy impact and its connection with the stages of policy process is described by Dunn W. N., Diamond L., Faulks K. and found in other works. The logical structure of policy impact evaluation expects to bring into effect the following sequence of actions: 1. Analysis and definition of social problems that have to be solved by the help of policy instruments 2. Defining of the aim of a policy 3. Choice of policy alternatives 4. Comparison of policy alternatives and the best choice of them 5. Taking a policy decision 6. Implementation of a policy
53
all their significant aspects: in disclosing social problems, the conceptualisation of aims, implementation and administration of programmes, measuring the results and effectiveness [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. The logical structure of evaluation methodology prescribes the following research design: 1. Description of a programme (formulation of the problem, identification of aims, target groups, objectives, indicators of intervention and impact) 2. Creation of an evaluation preview (involvement of the interested parties, definition of the main aim of evaluation, formulation of the main research questions and identification of evaluation resources) 3. Development of evaluation design (precision of a design, choice of data collection methods and development of data collection tools) 4. Data collection 5. Data analysis and interpretation 6. Evaluation research data formatting and distribution Sourses: Round, R, Marshall, B, Horton, K. Planning for effective health promotion evaluation. Melbourne: Victorian Government Department of Human Services, 2005, p. 6. Some theoreticians believe that evaluation logic must be tied together with logic of programme development and they offer the following scheme of the levels of evaluation: 1. Problem defining. 2. Identification of problem solutions. 3. Testing innovations. 4. Intervention demonstration. 5. Intervention distribution. 6. Programme management. [Nutbeam, D. 1998] The specific of methodology is connected with the fact that the starting point and the point of reference is the programme which is being evaluated. Sometimes the concept “programme” is used as synonym for the concept “policy” denoting strategy, action plan, tactics stated in a policy document or resolution (e.g. university education policy). Complying with such understanding of the concepts, the common aim of a programme/policy is to change people’s knowledge, attitudes, values, and behaviour or change the organizations they work in or institutions they are connected to or communities they live in. A common feature of all programs/policies is their purpose to build a better life. However, in order to ensure accurate data interpretation of a research result, it is necessary for the researchers to have a clear understanding of what the programme is about and how it must act in each particular
ithin the framework of politology evaluation of policy impact is viewed as one of the types of policy analysis whose methodological principles are tailored to the stages of policy process or the stages of decision making process. The evaluation logic of policy impact and its connection with the stages of policy process is described by Dunn W. N., Diamond L., Faulks K. and found in other works. The logical structure of policy impact evaluation expects to bring into effect the following sequence of actions: 1. Analysis and definition of social problems that have to be solved by the help of policy instruments 2. Defining of the aim of a policy 3. Choice of policy alternatives 4. Comparison of policy alternatives and the best choice of them 5. Taking a policy decision 6. Implementation of a policy
W
Evaluation research as the part of evaluation system of policy impact case in the framework of the research evaluation [Weiss, 1998]. The specific evaluating part in such an evaluation research is evaluation of the achieved success, consequences and results of the programme. The aims of a programme, consequently the intended effects of it are used as a measure for the evaluation of the programme results (success, consequences). The intended impacts can be carried out to a larger or lesser extent. The programme success is determined not according to the established changes but according to the benefits arising from the results of implementation of a programme. The programme is successful if measures taken affect the variables of the aim with sufficient intensity and in a planned way. Even in case of the most ineffective programme it is possible to have the changes of variables of the aim in a planned way, if environment of the programme works positively and vice versa, an effective programme can also create only minor changes of variables of the aim, if the impact of environment is negative. The types of evaluation researches commonly are focused on policy values and application, their task is not to simply collect information about intended or unintended results, their main mission is to check whether the result of policy is the result of actions taken in order to solve the problem. Evaluation research usually checks whether a policy has reached its aim.
54
7. Evaluation of policy in order to establish if the aim of policy has been reached and initially defined problem has been solved [Birkland, 2005], [Peters, 2006].
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
can find objectives that are connected with the formation of evaluation system of policy impact in Latvia, e.g., Guidelines on the system of results and performance indicators for 2008–2013), but practically (would also function within the framework of action policy). The declarative announcements of the government about the necessity of researches in policy making seem insufficient: “The Ministry of Education and Science underlines the necessity to strengthen a link among the conclusions of educational researches and a new policy initiative, the development of laws and regulations, changes in the educational content, development of methodological provision, organization of schoolwork and in other aspects. Scientifically based research results must be used to assess the results of educational policy initiative and to purposefully continue achieving the aims stipulated by legislation and policy planning documents [http://izm.izm.gov. lv/aktualitates/informacija-medijiem/2359.html]. The strengthening of evaluation system of policy impact in state policy making requires from the social science researchers conceptually more accurate awareness and usage of methodological principles of evaluation research in research practice.
very significant role in evaluating policy impact and implementation of evaluation researches is in policy spheres where a better problem solution and the choice of policy alternative would be connected with the interests of different social groups, their needs, gains and losses. It also refers to culture policy. One of the aims of culture policy that is topical and found in different-level policy documents [The State Culture Policy Guidelines 2006–2015. A National State, The Concept of Preservation of Non-material Culture Heritage] is about preservation of non-material culture heritage. Sociocultural changes stimulated by globalisation, the so-called cultural deterritorialization, create additional threats for preservation traditional culture and especially non-material culture heritage. Under such circumstances each community that lies claims to specific culture heritage and brings forward an aim to promote preservation of heritage, has to answer the question about the aspect of heritage content and what the most important eventually heritable values are. One of the specific culture policy instruments that The
The accurate definition of the aim of the programme as one of the conditions of successful realization of the programme and impact evaluation: case study in the context of Latvian cultural policy
A
A
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The accurate definition of the aim of the programme as one of the conditions of successful realization of the programme and impact evaluation: case study in the context of Latvian cultural policy
very significant role in evaluating policy impact and implementation of evaluation researches is in policy spheres where a better problem solution and the choice of policy alternative would be connected with the interests of different social groups, their needs, gains and losses. It also refers to culture policy. One of the aims of culture policy that is topical and found in different-level policy documents [The State Culture Policy Guidelines 2006–2015. A National State, The Concept of Preservation of Non-material Culture Heritage] is about preservation of non-material culture heritage. Sociocultural changes stimulated by globalisation, the so-called cultural deterritorialization, create additional threats for preservation traditional culture and especially non-material culture heritage. Under such circumstances each community that lies claims to specific culture heritage and brings forward an aim to promote preservation of heritage, has to answer the question about the aspect of heritage content and what the most important eventually heritable values are. One of the specific culture policy instruments that The
Of course, the logical structure of evaluation of policy impact differs slightly in different sources. Most of researchers highlight the role of problem analysis and precise defining in policy evaluation: because the most widespread disadvantage in impact evaluation is inability to identify initially defined problem to be solved in the procedure of evaluation of policy impact in order to check if a social problem has been solved by virtue of the achievement of policy aim. The so-called formal evaluation by specific performance indicators checks whether policy aim has been reached which consequently does not always mean the solution of the problem. An accurate definition of a problem to be politically solved, as well as corresponding policy aims is a significant step in strengthening quality of policy making. Although Latvian state administration structures carry out a comparatively broad practice of commissions of social researches, the acquired data is poorly integrated in political decisions; moreover, sometimes the opinions and recommendations expressed in social researches are claimed and brought under criticism of policy makers. It is essentially important to integrate the acquired data in political documents and decisions especially in cases when evaluation research is carried out. The question about more effective and more appropriate cooperation among researchers and policy makers, application of the appropriate methodology in realization of researches commissioned by policy makers and in policy making and evaluation system are becoming more topical. In Latvian sociopolitical space policy making processes and political decisions are often brought under a sharp criticism and they may cause different forms of political protest. Inability of state policymakers to take political decisions that would substantially promote more effective problem solving in economic, social and culture sector create harsh consequences in the present economic crises. Policymakers in different spheres receive growing reprimands that country has no strategic long-term aims and successive policy, which has led to the ineffective use of policy-financial instruments in policy making. One of the means that would promote the development of successive policy is the foundation of the conceptually precise evaluation system of policy impact. Thus, it is important to create a situation where evaluation system of policy impact would act not only formally (because in a lot of places in policy planning documents we
can find objectives that are connected with the formation of evaluation system of policy impact in Latvia, e.g., Guidelines on the system of results and performance indicators for 2008–2013), but practically (would also function within the framework of action policy). The declarative announcements of the government about the necessity of researches in policy making seem insufficient: “The Ministry of Education and Science underlines the necessity to strengthen a link among the conclusions of educational researches and a new policy initiative, the development of laws and regulations, changes in the educational content, development of methodological provision, organization of schoolwork and in other aspects. Scientifically based research results must be used to assess the results of educational policy initiative and to purposefully continue achieving the aims stipulated by legislation and policy planning documents [http://izm.izm.gov. lv/aktualitates/informacija-medijiem/2359.html]. The strengthening of evaluation system of policy impact in state policy making requires from the social science researchers conceptually more accurate awareness and usage of methodological principles of evaluation research in research practice.
Of course, the logical structure of evaluation of policy impact differs slightly in different sources. Most of researchers highlight the role of problem analysis and precise defining in policy evaluation: because the most widespread disadvantage in impact evaluation is inability to identify initially defined problem to be solved in the procedure of evaluation of policy impact in order to check if a social problem has been solved by virtue of the achievement of policy aim. The so-called formal evaluation by specific performance indicators checks whether policy aim has been reached which consequently does not always mean the solution of the problem. An accurate definition of a problem to be politically solved, as well as corresponding policy aims is a significant step in strengthening quality of policy making. Although Latvian state administration structures carry out a comparatively broad practice of commissions of social researches, the acquired data is poorly integrated in political decisions; moreover, sometimes the opinions and recommendations expressed in social researches are claimed and brought under criticism of policy makers. It is essentially important to integrate the acquired data in political documents and decisions especially in cases when evaluation research is carried out. The question about more effective and more appropriate cooperation among researchers and policy makers, application of the appropriate methodology in realization of researches commissioned by policy makers and in policy making and evaluation system are becoming more topical. In Latvian sociopolitical space policy making processes and political decisions are often brought under a sharp criticism and they may cause different forms of political protest. Inability of state policymakers to take political decisions that would substantially promote more effective problem solving in economic, social and culture sector create harsh consequences in the present economic crises. Policymakers in different spheres receive growing reprimands that country has no strategic long-term aims and successive policy, which has led to the ineffective use of policy-financial instruments in policy making. One of the means that would promote the development of successive policy is the foundation of the conceptually precise evaluation system of policy impact. Thus, it is important to create a situation where evaluation system of policy impact would act not only formally (because in a lot of places in policy planning documents we
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
7. Evaluation of policy in order to establish if the aim of policy has been reached and initially defined problem has been solved [Birkland, 2005], [Peters, 2006].
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Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Latvia uses to achieve the mentioned aim is the creation of the Latvian Culture Canon project. In the project the Ministry invited the expert committees in 7 fields of culture which agreed about certain amount of cultural values in each field to be included in Culture Canon. Policymakers have admitted that the main objective of making Culture Canon is to create the most outstanding and remarkable list of art works and cultural values that reflect the most important cultural achievements of Latvia. The creating of the list of the most significant cultural values is meant to increase awareness of the heritage, its activating and promoting succession. The lists of Culture Canon were made according to the opinions of experts-professionals in a particular field. However, the notions of cultural values of the society that would be eventual heiress of culture heritage were unknown while making the lists. Since one of the functions of culture canon is educational, namely, in the framework of multicultural environment to promote awareness of national cultural values of Latvia and inheritance, the attitude of the Latvian schools and studying youth towards cultural achievements of Latvia, their knowledge about them have become topical. During making the list of Culture Canon a research was carried out with a purpose to establish what the notions of Latvian youth about the most significant culture values are and what the opinion of the group about the values given by the experts in each sphere is. The research design was based on a mixed methodology. The research methods: quantitative research method: survey. The research target group and general body – Latvia’s students, planned sampling – 600 respondents, total sampling – 685 respondents. Qualitative research method: group discussion, target group: Latvia’s youth aged 18–25, selected by criterion: different culture interests; 10 focus groups. The research results in Latvia’s youth groups demonstrated low awareness about the value sets having been eventually identified to be included by the experts of Culture Canon in the lists of culture canon values. Moreover, the youth knowledge differs about specific values mentioned by the experts of different culture fields. The values the youth knew the best refer to Latvian traditions and customs and literature; the poorest knowledge was demonstrated in visual arts; only few values were known to youth in film art and the art of theatre. The acquired data allows seeing another problem connected with creating Culture Canon: being different in their cultural interests Latvia’s youth expressed incredulity about the necessity of making Culture Canon and one of the motives dominating in the argumentation was lack of un-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
derstanding of the aim of making Culture Canon. The policy product being evaluated by the policy target group this way can essentially complicate the opportunities of evaluating policy impact in the future if evaluation object is Culture Canon as the preserving instrument of culture heritage. In public space and the documentation of Culture Canon project several motives of making Culture Canon and its functions were updated, though united, systematic conception of the aim of the project and necessity of it was not made. Such ambiguous conceptualisation of the programme aim forbids correctly making ex-post evaluation. Culture Canon project is not the only example in the Latvian cultural policy where the policy programme has ambiguously and an abstractly defined aim and problem which needs to be solved through the project. Another example is the construction project of The National library of Latvia/ The Castle of Light. Despite the enormous costs of the project: for 135.2 million lats, including the VAT, mainly a manipulative not rational and explicit argumentation was used to support the project. Imprecision in a planning stage of cultural policy programme: problem analysis (which disclose values) and defining aims reduces the extent of rationality in policy making process and significantly limits the opportunities to evaluate policy and to improve it. Conceptually and communicatively clearly defined problems that need prior solving and logically corresponding policy aims would rationalize political communication and decrease the affective and manipulative element in it. It would be one of the steps how to overcome alienation between government and civil society which is especially dangerous with the onset of economic crises.
Conclusions
I
n Latvia realization of methodological principles of evaluation research in practice of policy making and evaluation is indefinite and differential; evaluation researches do not fulfill one of its functions – communicative: MM Successful realization of methodological principles of evaluation research in Latvia is determined by peculiarities of evaluation system of policy impact in state administration and by traditions of designing research. MM Essential role in the realization of policy evaluation is a precise development of the programme aims. MM Efficiency of Culture Canon project (inter alia the opportunities to carry out its evaluation in the future), would be increased by establishing the main functions and aims of Culture Canon.
55
Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Latvia uses to achieve the mentioned aim is the creation of the Latvian Culture Canon project. In the project the Ministry invited the expert committees in 7 fields of culture which agreed about certain amount of cultural values in each field to be included in Culture Canon. Policymakers have admitted that the main objective of making Culture Canon is to create the most outstanding and remarkable list of art works and cultural values that reflect the most important cultural achievements of Latvia. The creating of the list of the most significant cultural values is meant to increase awareness of the heritage, its activating and promoting succession. The lists of Culture Canon were made according to the opinions of experts-professionals in a particular field. However, the notions of cultural values of the society that would be eventual heiress of culture heritage were unknown while making the lists. Since one of the functions of culture canon is educational, namely, in the framework of multicultural environment to promote awareness of national cultural values of Latvia and inheritance, the attitude of the Latvian schools and studying youth towards cultural achievements of Latvia, their knowledge about them have become topical. During making the list of Culture Canon a research was carried out with a purpose to establish what the notions of Latvian youth about the most significant culture values are and what the opinion of the group about the values given by the experts in each sphere is. The research design was based on a mixed methodology. The research methods: quantitative research method: survey. The research target group and general body – Latvia’s students, planned sampling – 600 respondents, total sampling – 685 respondents. Qualitative research method: group discussion, target group: Latvia’s youth aged 18–25, selected by criterion: different culture interests; 10 focus groups. The research results in Latvia’s youth groups demonstrated low awareness about the value sets having been eventually identified to be included by the experts of Culture Canon in the lists of culture canon values. Moreover, the youth knowledge differs about specific values mentioned by the experts of different culture fields. The values the youth knew the best refer to Latvian traditions and customs and literature; the poorest knowledge was demonstrated in visual arts; only few values were known to youth in film art and the art of theatre. The acquired data allows seeing another problem connected with creating Culture Canon: being different in their cultural interests Latvia’s youth expressed incredulity about the necessity of making Culture Canon and one of the motives dominating in the argumentation was lack of un-
n Latvia realization of methodological principles of evaluation research in practice of policy making and evaluation is indefinite and differential; evaluation researches do not fulfill one of its functions – communicative: MM Successful realization of methodological principles of evaluation research in Latvia is determined by peculiarities of evaluation system of policy impact in state administration and by traditions of designing research. MM Essential role in the realization of policy evaluation is a precise development of the programme aims. MM Efficiency of Culture Canon project (inter alia the opportunities to carry out its evaluation in the future), would be increased by establishing the main functions and aims of Culture Canon.
I
Conclusions derstanding of the aim of making Culture Canon. The policy product being evaluated by the policy target group this way can essentially complicate the opportunities of evaluating policy impact in the future if evaluation object is Culture Canon as the preserving instrument of culture heritage. In public space and the documentation of Culture Canon project several motives of making Culture Canon and its functions were updated, though united, systematic conception of the aim of the project and necessity of it was not made. Such ambiguous conceptualisation of the programme aim forbids correctly making ex-post evaluation. Culture Canon project is not the only example in the Latvian cultural policy where the policy programme has ambiguously and an abstractly defined aim and problem which needs to be solved through the project. Another example is the construction project of The National library of Latvia/ The Castle of Light. Despite the enormous costs of the project: for 135.2 million lats, including the VAT, mainly a manipulative not rational and explicit argumentation was used to support the project. Imprecision in a planning stage of cultural policy programme: problem analysis (which disclose values) and defining aims reduces the extent of rationality in policy making process and significantly limits the opportunities to evaluate policy and to improve it. Conceptually and communicatively clearly defined problems that need prior solving and logically corresponding policy aims would rationalize political communication and decrease the affective and manipulative element in it. It would be one of the steps how to overcome alienation between government and civil society which is especially dangerous with the onset of economic crises.
56
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
komunikācija, ētika un kultūra. Latvijas Republikas 9. Saeimas vēlēšanās. 2007, Latvijas Universitāte.
komunikācija, ētika un kultūra. Latvijas Republikas 9. komunikācijā: diskursa teorijas perspektīva. Politiskā Ījabs, I. Argumentācija un manipulācija politiskajā valsts attīstības plānošanā. 2007, Culturelab. Hoks Dz. Ilgtspējīgas attīstības 4. pīlārs. Kultūras nozīme Saddle River. Weiss, C.H. 1998, Evaluation, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Services. ne: Victorian Government Department of Human Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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Saeimas vēlēšanās. 2007, Latvijas Universitāte. 56
Nutbeam, D. 1998, Evaluating health promotion – pro-
effective health promotion evaluation. Melbour-
gress, problems and solutions. Health promotion
Round, R, Marshall, B, Horton, K. 2005, Planning for
komunikācijā: diskursa teorijas perspektīva. Politiskā
international. Oxford University Press.
A Systematic Approach 6 ed. Thouthand Oaks.
Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press.
Rossi, P.H., Freeman, H. F., Lipsey M. W. 1999, Evaluation.
valsts attīstības plānošanā. 2007, Culturelab. Ījabs, I. Argumentācija un manipulācija politiskajā
Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. 1994, Ed. Marshall, G.
Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press.
Saddle River. Hoks Dz. Ilgtspējīgas attīstības 4. pīlārs. Kultūras nozīme
Rossi, P.H., Freeman, H. F., Lipsey M. W. 1999, Evaluation.
international. Oxford University Press. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology. 1994, Ed. Marshall, G.
A Systematic Approach 6 ed. Thouthand Oaks.
gress, problems and solutions. Health promotion
Services. Weiss, C.H. 1998, Evaluation, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Upper
effective health promotion evaluation. Melbour-
Nutbeam, D. 1998, Evaluating health promotion – pro-
ne: Victorian Government Department of Human
Round, R, Marshall, B, Horton, K. 2005, Planning for
Literature
57
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strategy Birgit-Katherine Seemann
D
iscussions about the relationship between culture and business have ever existed; since a few decades they have gained in momentum. Since Richard Florida’s Rise of the Creative Class (2002) the city has become the centre of interest whenever we discuss cultural development and social functions of culture.1 According to Richard Florida, three conditions encourage economic growth in the postindustrial economy of the cities: technology, talent, and tolerance. These elements are integrated in a new configuration of workforce that Florida calls the “creative class.” These are the scientists, engineers, architects, educators, writers, artists, and entertainers whose function it is to generate new ideas, technologies, and creative content. Florida´s basic thesis is that the economy is transforming, and that creativity is the most important force of production and a source of development in the 21st century. Creative occupations are growing and firms now orient themselves to attract the creative. The urban lesson of Florida´s book is that cities that want to succeed must aim at attracting the creative types. Florida’s assumptions and those by other authors support strategic the Management of Culture as a key issue in the competition among urban centres, i.e. cities (this is not true for agglomerations without a minimum of urban resources). The debate thrives both on practical and theoretical levels. However, we don’t have a generally accepted definition for the Management of culture. I am not going to discuss “culture”, because the range of cultural activities in cities is something that would meet broad agreement; but what
1
exactly can be managed within this segment of culture highly depends on different concepts of governance and the social environment. The academic discipline “Management of Culture” has become a degree-granting programme in German higher education since two decades. This is a clear effect from and condition for the professionalization of a differentiated field of professional activity. Indeed, the tight interplay of theory and practice is a necessary ingredient of the professionalization of the cultural field in society. For a long time, culture was ideologically seen as the opposite of a professional occupation, and still finds some idiosyncrasy in conservative accounts against the commodification of “all” culture. The Management of Culture is developing on both levels, an academic discipline and a segment of managerial practice [Klein, 2008]. Due to the interrelation between the two, as a discipline the Management of Culture is allocated between social science, economics, and the arts. Thus, it is interdisciplinary in nature; it designates a wide set of practices relating to the management of cultural organizations and cultural activities in order to achieve a variety of aims, such as production, distribution, exhibition, education. All sectors, for profit, non-profit and public, are affected. Philanthropy, charity and corporate cultural enterprises are the fields, where the changes occur. These fields take their methods, practices, and even their motivations from other fields according to the needs existing as determined by utilitarian measures of efficacy and success [Devereaux, 2009, p. 155]. Sometimes, they also take action against
Florida, Richard: The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, 2002. It is not selfevident that urban environments are the location for culture in perspective: previously such locations could be the nation, or the empire, or the church etc. The city as a product of modernity has gained special attention. This is a very “western” approach, because many of the mega-cities in developing countries are fasr from the qualities that we associate with city and urban environment. This urban quality is what culture implicates in our context.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
57
Birgit-Katharine Seemann director of Culture and Museums in the City of Potsdam. She is a historian, holding a PhD from the University of Hamburg. Her recently research includes Culture Management and the history of culture politics in Europe.
1
Florida, Richard: The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, 2002. It is not selfevident that urban environments are the location for culture in perspective: previously such locations could be the nation, or the empire, or the church etc. The city as a product of modernity has gained special attention. This is a very “western” approach, because many of the mega-cities in developing countries are fasr from the qualities that we associate with city and urban environment. This urban quality is what culture implicates in our context.
iscussions about the relationship between culture and business have ever existed; since a few decades they have gained in momentum. Since Richard Florida’s Rise of the Creative Class (2002) the city has become the centre of interest whenever we discuss cultural development and social functions of culture.1 According to Richard Florida, three conditions encourage economic growth in the postindustrial economy of the cities: technology, talent, and tolerance. These elements are integrated in a new configuration of workforce that Florida calls the “creative class.” These are the scientists, engineers, architects, educators, writers, artists, and entertainers whose function it is to generate new ideas, technologies, and creative content. Florida´s basic thesis is that the economy is transforming, and that creativity is the most important force of production and a source of development in the 21st century. Creative occupations are growing and firms now orient themselves to attract the creative. The urban lesson of Florida´s book is that cities that want to succeed must aim at attracting the creative types. Florida’s assumptions and those by other authors support strategic the Management of Culture as a key issue in the competition among urban centres, i.e. cities (this is not true for agglomerations without a minimum of urban resources). The debate thrives both on practical and theoretical levels. However, we don’t have a generally accepted definition for the Management of culture. I am not going to discuss “culture”, because the range of cultural activities in cities is something that would meet broad agreement; but what
D
exactly can be managed within this segment of culture highly depends on different concepts of governance and the social environment. The academic discipline “Management of Culture” has become a degree-granting programme in German higher education since two decades. This is a clear effect from and condition for the professionalization of a differentiated field of professional activity. Indeed, the tight interplay of theory and practice is a necessary ingredient of the professionalization of the cultural field in society. For a long time, culture was ideologically seen as the opposite of a professional occupation, and still finds some idiosyncrasy in conservative accounts against the commodification of “all” culture. The Management of Culture is developing on both levels, an academic discipline and a segment of managerial practice [Klein, 2008]. Due to the interrelation between the two, as a discipline the Management of Culture is allocated between social science, economics, and the arts. Thus, it is interdisciplinary in nature; it designates a wide set of practices relating to the management of cultural organizations and cultural activities in order to achieve a variety of aims, such as production, distribution, exhibition, education. All sectors, for profit, non-profit and public, are affected. Philanthropy, charity and corporate cultural enterprises are the fields, where the changes occur. These fields take their methods, practices, and even their motivations from other fields according to the needs existing as determined by utilitarian measures of efficacy and success [Devereaux, 2009, p. 155]. Sometimes, they also take action against
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strategy
Birgit-Katharine Seemann director of Culture and Museums in the City of Potsdam. She is a historian, holding a PhD from the University of Hamburg. Her recently research includes Culture Management and the history of culture politics in Europe.
3. To attain a better image on all levels – regional, national, international, e.g. as a C a p i t a l o f Culture, by implementing an effective cultural management in the governance structure. On international level this process turned out to be a perfect approach to maximize the economic value of culture. However, more often than not subsidizing the events proposed by the Management of Culture is more costly to the taxpayer than the returns for the public, while the managers and implementing agents will make profits. The economic narrowing of culture as an agent for location advantages and business supporter makes it an instrument for external appearance in the international competition of cities; this creates automatically a severe problem of internal positioning, because the external representation (of the city) does no longer include the benefit for the urban public. Unsurprisingly, in many cities there is opposition against this trend, often mixed with a critique of gentrification. An impressive example for this protest-movement was the occupation by artists of the so called „Gaenge”-Quarter in Hamburg in the Summer of 2009 [www.nzz.ch]. The cause for the uprising was the intention of the municipality to sell the area to an investor who had in mind to replace the old buildings and environments by a new development. The artists’ initiative was backed so strongly by the people of Hamburg that the city government had to retreat from their intention. Now, the area is going to be renovated and will be used for socio-cultural activities; and it will provide inexpensive space for living and work [www.das-gaengeviertel.info]. The criticism by the artists was, at the same time, a protest against the progressing commodification of culture. In a manifesto (“Hamburger Manifest”) we read: “A phantom arises in Europe, since US economist Richard Florida has presented his calculations that only those cities will dwell where the creative class likes to be… This policy means for Hamburg that our city is increasingly subordinate to an »image city«.”[www.gentrificationblog. wordpress.com]. Regarding the structure of inner cities increasingly many inhabitants become unsatisfied by their culture becoming reduced to tourist events and mainstream projects. This is true not only in Europe, but also in the US [Whyte, 2009]. Citizens demand their “cultural needs” to be accepted and recognized by the municipal administrations. This appears to be a challenge for the administration, because the needs of the urban public and the tourist projects are not necessarily the same. In order to meet the demands of both sides the cities must initiate new processes of participation where all stakeholders become involved. Here will
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
the utilitarian approach. Used as a frame by the city government, the Management of Culture can deliver a significant input for the development of city politics. Peter Bendixen widens the definition of the Management of Culture also in relation to the Internet: “The management of culture is the preparing the physical, cognitive and aesthetic access (to culture, B.S.) of the public. It is a form of shaping the social environments, i.e. of physical ambiance(s) in locations of performance and their local environment, but also in social environments, or scenes, networks and atmospheres (milieus); recently virtual ambiances of the internet’s electronic public [Bendixen, 2007, p. 4].” Florida narrows the value of culture for a city to an economic dimension only. If Management of Culture is to follow this approach, it has to serve the creation and enhancement of culture as a factor for strengthening the location and as an intensifier of business potentials; so called creative industries set the stage. A closer look easily shows that Florida’s approach is too superficial; it is not functional for municipal strategy in the middle and long range. Temporarily, however, there may be some successful effects to be gained by focusing on prestigious cultural projects. The prestige is enshrined in the effect itself, e.g. more tourists attracted by an event such as a big exhibition or a mega-concert. Thus, the functions of branding, marketing and public relations dominate the respective contents, their delineations become blurred, and the cultural context only orchestrates the economic ends. Because of the growing competition among cities culture is used as a tool (among others) for global positioning as an appeal to attract corporation, trade and well-off new citizens. Thus, culture is being increasingly legitimized by other aims; it is an economic booster, a polishing for the image of the city, or an attraction for tourists. All these goals are not illegitimate by themselves, but in this process there is a reverse relation between end and means: culture is stripped of its original value and social context. Many German cities rely upon cultural management initiated and led by the city administration itself, usually as a crossover task of the culture and marketing departments. Some cities in Germany, like Berlin, the nation’s capital, are building special offices outside the administration that are assigned only to the Management of municipal culture. According to Florida and others cities nowadays need 1. To strengthen the internal processes of cohesive identification. 2. To gain competitive advantage over other cities.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
58
3. To attain a better image on all levels – regional, national, international, e.g. as a C a p i t a l o f Culture, by implementing an effective cultural management in the governance structure. On international level this process turned out to be a perfect approach to maximize the economic value of culture. However, more often than not subsidizing the events proposed by the Management of Culture is more costly to the taxpayer than the returns for the public, while the managers and implementing agents will make profits. The economic narrowing of culture as an agent for location advantages and business supporter makes it an instrument for external appearance in the international competition of cities; this creates automatically a severe problem of internal positioning, because the external representation (of the city) does no longer include the benefit for the urban public. Unsurprisingly, in many cities there is opposition against this trend, often mixed with a critique of gentrification. An impressive example for this protest-movement was the occupation by artists of the so called „Gaenge”-Quarter in Hamburg in the Summer of 2009 [www.nzz.ch]. The cause for the uprising was the intention of the municipality to sell the area to an investor who had in mind to replace the old buildings and environments by a new development. The artists’ initiative was backed so strongly by the people of Hamburg that the city government had to retreat from their intention. Now, the area is going to be renovated and will be used for socio-cultural activities; and it will provide inexpensive space for living and work [www.das-gaengeviertel.info]. The criticism by the artists was, at the same time, a protest against the progressing commodification of culture. In a manifesto (“Hamburger Manifest”) we read: “A phantom arises in Europe, since US economist Richard Florida has presented his calculations that only those cities will dwell where the creative class likes to be… This policy means for Hamburg that our city is increasingly subordinate to an »image city«.”[www.gentrificationblog. wordpress.com]. Regarding the structure of inner cities increasingly many inhabitants become unsatisfied by their culture becoming reduced to tourist events and mainstream projects. This is true not only in Europe, but also in the US [Whyte, 2009]. Citizens demand their “cultural needs” to be accepted and recognized by the municipal administrations. This appears to be a challenge for the administration, because the needs of the urban public and the tourist projects are not necessarily the same. In order to meet the demands of both sides the cities must initiate new processes of participation where all stakeholders become involved. Here will
58
the utilitarian approach. Used as a frame by the city government, the Management of Culture can deliver a significant input for the development of city politics. Peter Bendixen widens the definition of the Management of Culture also in relation to the Internet: “The management of culture is the preparing the physical, cognitive and aesthetic access (to culture, B.S.) of the public. It is a form of shaping the social environments, i.e. of physical ambiance(s) in locations of performance and their local environment, but also in social environments, or scenes, networks and atmospheres (milieus); recently virtual ambiances of the internet’s electronic public [Bendixen, 2007, p. 4].” Florida narrows the value of culture for a city to an economic dimension only. If Management of Culture is to follow this approach, it has to serve the creation and enhancement of culture as a factor for strengthening the location and as an intensifier of business potentials; so called creative industries set the stage. A closer look easily shows that Florida’s approach is too superficial; it is not functional for municipal strategy in the middle and long range. Temporarily, however, there may be some successful effects to be gained by focusing on prestigious cultural projects. The prestige is enshrined in the effect itself, e.g. more tourists attracted by an event such as a big exhibition or a mega-concert. Thus, the functions of branding, marketing and public relations dominate the respective contents, their delineations become blurred, and the cultural context only orchestrates the economic ends. Because of the growing competition among cities culture is used as a tool (among others) for global positioning as an appeal to attract corporation, trade and well-off new citizens. Thus, culture is being increasingly legitimized by other aims; it is an economic booster, a polishing for the image of the city, or an attraction for tourists. All these goals are not illegitimate by themselves, but in this process there is a reverse relation between end and means: culture is stripped of its original value and social context. Many German cities rely upon cultural management initiated and led by the city administration itself, usually as a crossover task of the culture and marketing departments. Some cities in Germany, like Berlin, the nation’s capital, are building special offices outside the administration that are assigned only to the Management of municipal culture. According to Florida and others cities nowadays need 1. To strengthen the internal processes of cohesive identification. 2. To gain competitive advantage over other cities.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
be the right place for Management of Culture: it should help creating a cultural atmosphere that makes it worthwhile to live in a city and also to attract tourists and business. This is a complex endeavor, and it cannot be accomplished by traditional methods. Facing the challenge, many municipalities seek to include the Management of Culture in their strategies. They want to create participative and inclusive structures with a high potential for integrative and cohesive effects. Internal and external forces should be bound in a synergetic rather than antagonistic way; however, this implies a permanent adjustment, because a continuous emergence of conflicts within both internal and external interests and between them is like to arise. Bernd Wagner wants to see in such a change of perspective the shift from state-oriented cultural governance towards a pluralistic one [Wagner, 2008, p.108]. But, of course, municipalities and city governments have never been simply a lower level of the „state“. The new structures will transform the leaders of the municipal administration into intermediate actors that try to create cooperative, horizontal structures of governance, replacing the previous hierarchy. Of course, the power to shape the cultural features will be maintained, but enriched by the inclusion of further groups of actors. Such an approach could never have happened in the old hierarchies. It will be user-oriented, and the users are the citizens. User shall be seen different from client or consumer. Using urban culture requires a certain proficiency. Until now, however, the real options for citizens to participate in decisions and monitoring are limited. The Management of Culture can be part of a comprehensive reform, which would also lay some more accountability into the hands of the citizens, if they are prone to participate. The new Management of Culture will, at the same time, fulfil its economic role by creating better effectiveness and efficiency of ever scarcer resources for ever more demands in ever more diversified fields of urban culture, and its roles of governing and steering. Transparency, quality assurance and control will be needed in order to convince the citizens that their taxes are well allocated; on the other side, the Management of Culture must coordinate and add to the quality aspect by including the citizens in a broad debate and in participatory structures. It is not an easy goal to connect marketing instruments and the elaborate ways of participatory decision making in cultural affairs, especially on municipal level. The commitment of the citizens must be made sustainable and should be fixated on single issues [Ibid., p.111].
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
This approach does not marginalize business administration and modern marketing, but is inclusive and integrative in so far, as the Management of Culture cannot be separated from the cultural „contents“ and shall not be abused to reduce culture to a mere merchandise. However, we must also see the side of costs and expenditures for municipal strategies that aim at serving all citizens in the cultural sphere. The Management of Culture cannot avoid to be pivotal for the generation of income – otherwise culture will always be the first sector where cuts apply. It goes without saying that the need for legitimacy for cultural programs will be stressed more than in the past, when the administration simply decided upon a continuation or termination of institutions and projects. With so much diversity in the demands, the processes of deliberation and negotiation will gain in importance. Planning is still central, but not as the traditional development planning by the budget directors. The inclusion of citizens will make the results less predictable than previously, but also has one consequence: as sustainability is a condition for a stable and dynamic cultural environment, the accountability of the citizens and their responsibility for prioritizing cultural affairs above other urban agendas should be strengthened – not least by a successful cultural development. Such inclusive strategies are being tested in several German cities; inter alia Dresden, Oldenburg, Leipzig und Potsdam [www.dresden. de; www.oldenburg.de; www.leipzig.de; www. potsdam.de]. The priorities are being negotiated and decided upon in procedures that include the political and administrative actors, the cultural producers, the representatives of institutions and projects, and, of course, the committed citizens. The way the procedures are being implemented by facilitators and other convincing communication is very important. Modes for participative procedures are either traditional, such as assemblies, forums and testifying, or using new IT devices, such as internet and blog. The blend of virtual and real communication processes seems to be the way toward best practice. The planning of an obliging cultural strategy for a city needs the following main goals and guiding answers to key questions: Aims and ends: 1. Stock taking and analyses of strengths and weaknesses in the present status 2. Development of guidelines and visions 3. Communication among all stakeholders 4. Participative structures 5. Maximal transparency All five aims are rather interdependent and they will meet some obstacles in the social
59
be the right place for Management of Culture: it should help creating a cultural atmosphere that makes it worthwhile to live in a city and also to attract tourists and business. This is a complex endeavor, and it cannot be accomplished by traditional methods. Facing the challenge, many municipalities seek to include the Management of Culture in their strategies. They want to create participative and inclusive structures with a high potential for integrative and cohesive effects. Internal and external forces should be bound in a synergetic rather than antagonistic way; however, this implies a permanent adjustment, because a continuous emergence of conflicts within both internal and external interests and between them is like to arise. Bernd Wagner wants to see in such a change of perspective the shift from state-oriented cultural governance towards a pluralistic one [Wagner, 2008, p.108]. But, of course, municipalities and city governments have never been simply a lower level of the „state“. The new structures will transform the leaders of the municipal administration into intermediate actors that try to create cooperative, horizontal structures of governance, replacing the previous hierarchy. Of course, the power to shape the cultural features will be maintained, but enriched by the inclusion of further groups of actors. Such an approach could never have happened in the old hierarchies. It will be user-oriented, and the users are the citizens. User shall be seen different from client or consumer. Using urban culture requires a certain proficiency. Until now, however, the real options for citizens to participate in decisions and monitoring are limited. The Management of Culture can be part of a comprehensive reform, which would also lay some more accountability into the hands of the citizens, if they are prone to participate. The new Management of Culture will, at the same time, fulfil its economic role by creating better effectiveness and efficiency of ever scarcer resources for ever more demands in ever more diversified fields of urban culture, and its roles of governing and steering. Transparency, quality assurance and control will be needed in order to convince the citizens that their taxes are well allocated; on the other side, the Management of Culture must coordinate and add to the quality aspect by including the citizens in a broad debate and in participatory structures. It is not an easy goal to connect marketing instruments and the elaborate ways of participatory decision making in cultural affairs, especially on municipal level. The commitment of the citizens must be made sustainable and should be fixated on single issues [Ibid., p.111].
59
This approach does not marginalize business administration and modern marketing, but is inclusive and integrative in so far, as the Management of Culture cannot be separated from the cultural „contents“ and shall not be abused to reduce culture to a mere merchandise. However, we must also see the side of costs and expenditures for municipal strategies that aim at serving all citizens in the cultural sphere. The Management of Culture cannot avoid to be pivotal for the generation of income – otherwise culture will always be the first sector where cuts apply. It goes without saying that the need for legitimacy for cultural programs will be stressed more than in the past, when the administration simply decided upon a continuation or termination of institutions and projects. With so much diversity in the demands, the processes of deliberation and negotiation will gain in importance. Planning is still central, but not as the traditional development planning by the budget directors. The inclusion of citizens will make the results less predictable than previously, but also has one consequence: as sustainability is a condition for a stable and dynamic cultural environment, the accountability of the citizens and their responsibility for prioritizing cultural affairs above other urban agendas should be strengthened – not least by a successful cultural development. Such inclusive strategies are being tested in several German cities; inter alia Dresden, Oldenburg, Leipzig und Potsdam [www.dresden. de; www.oldenburg.de; www.leipzig.de; www. potsdam.de]. The priorities are being negotiated and decided upon in procedures that include the political and administrative actors, the cultural producers, the representatives of institutions and projects, and, of course, the committed citizens. The way the procedures are being implemented by facilitators and other convincing communication is very important. Modes for participative procedures are either traditional, such as assemblies, forums and testifying, or using new IT devices, such as internet and blog. The blend of virtual and real communication processes seems to be the way toward best practice. The planning of an obliging cultural strategy for a city needs the following main goals and guiding answers to key questions: Aims and ends: 1. Stock taking and analyses of strengths and weaknesses in the present status 2. Development of guidelines and visions 3. Communication among all stakeholders 4. Participative structures 5. Maximal transparency All five aims are rather interdependent and they will meet some obstacles in the social
4. If we have developed a vision of a city of culture, what must be done in order to develop it? Internal and external development must be coordinated, budget should not only concentrate on investment and new projects, but also consider the costs of maintenance and refreshing. Criteria for the termination of programs and projects must be as clearly mandated as criteria for getting new ones into the process of deliberation. The Management of City Culture can work successfully only if the actors understand it as an integrated model of planning. All actors should be included and adequate democratic structures of participation should be developed. It is not only the inclusion of stakeholders that is required, but the functional diversity of institutions – municipal, artistic, social etc. – should be considered by designing the composition of the discussion process. The main difference from earlier models is that planning does not stem from the institutions but emerges from the urban cultural landscape. This requires a complex understanding of culture – and needs informed and competent citizens: such is the way to become users. Economy and formal institutions shall be included, but culture must not become reduced to be their object. The urban discourse transgresses the model of creativity as asset for economic location by far, and it bears the potential for a humanization of our cities.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
structure of any community. E.g., not all citizens will want to participate in the process of discussion and deliberation, but nearly all of them will be affected by the outcome of the planning process. Their right to oppose this outcome must be respected, even if one can criticize their low engagement in the decision process. There are also some limitations simply set by the limited autonomy of municipal governments under state and federal prerogatives etc. But we can leave out these empirical aspects, because they only show the complexity of the problems, while they do not really endanger the principles. Guiding questions 1. How is the urban cultural profile of the city and in which direction do we want it to develop? E.g., more considerations for youth or multiethnic groups or women or classical arts etc. 2. Which potentials and synergies can be demonstrated within the existing structures and where do we need to amend or alter them? This is an important question, because in many cases the existing structures have stronger lobbies than innovative quests for new areas. 3. How do we define the functional priorities of culture for our community? This question will require certainly the most sophisticated and patient discussions: all parts of the social system will be affected. The cultural texture of a city is given, but not evident. The disclosure of it is part of the planning process.
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4. If we have developed a vision of a city of culture, what must be done in order to develop it? Internal and external development must be coordinated, budget should not only concentrate on investment and new projects, but also consider the costs of maintenance and refreshing. Criteria for the termination of programs and projects must be as clearly mandated as criteria for getting new ones into the process of deliberation. The Management of City Culture can work successfully only if the actors understand it as an integrated model of planning. All actors should be included and adequate democratic structures of participation should be developed. It is not only the inclusion of stakeholders that is required, but the functional diversity of institutions – municipal, artistic, social etc. – should be considered by designing the composition of the discussion process. The main difference from earlier models is that planning does not stem from the institutions but emerges from the urban cultural landscape. This requires a complex understanding of culture – and needs informed and competent citizens: such is the way to become users. Economy and formal institutions shall be included, but culture must not become reduced to be their object. The urban discourse transgresses the model of creativity as asset for economic location by far, and it bears the potential for a humanization of our cities.
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structure of any community. E.g., not all citizens will want to participate in the process of discussion and deliberation, but nearly all of them will be affected by the outcome of the planning process. Their right to oppose this outcome must be respected, even if one can criticize their low engagement in the decision process. There are also some limitations simply set by the limited autonomy of municipal governments under state and federal prerogatives etc. But we can leave out these empirical aspects, because they only show the complexity of the problems, while they do not really endanger the principles. Guiding questions 1. How is the urban cultural profile of the city and in which direction do we want it to develop? E.g., more considerations for youth or multiethnic groups or women or classical arts etc. 2. Which potentials and synergies can be demonstrated within the existing structures and where do we need to amend or alter them? This is an important question, because in many cases the existing structures have stronger lobbies than innovative quests for new areas. 3. How do we define the functional priorities of culture for our community? This question will require certainly the most sophisticated and patient discussions: all parts of the social system will be affected. The cultural texture of a city is given, but not evident. The disclosure of it is part of the planning process.
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Literature Bendixen P., Allgemeine Grundlagen des Kulturmanagements (Beitrag A 1.1.) [in:] „Kulturmanagement & Kulturpolitik”, 2007. Deveraux, C., Cultural Management and the Discourse of Practice [in:] Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, Sigrid et al., Forschen im Kulturmanagement. Jahrbuch für Kulturmanagement, Bielefeld, 2009, p.155-169. Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, New York, 2002. Whyte, Murray, Why Richard Florida´s Honeymoon is over, June 27, 2009, www.thestar.com/printaricle/656837. Wagner, Die Kultur von der Stadt her denken Eine neue
Phase der Reflexivität und kulturellen Planung [in:] Kulturmanagement der Zukunft“, 2008. www./gentrificationblog.wordpress.com/2009/10/30/ hamburg-manifest-gegen-gentrification/Klein, Armin, ed. (2008). Kompendium Kulturmanagement, München. www.das-gaengeviertel.info/gaengefiertel/entwicklungskonzept.html www.dresden.de/de/05/02/01/c_03.php www.leipzig.de/de/buerger/kultur/kep/ www.nzz.ch/nachrichten/kultur/kunst_architektur/ hausbesetzung_mit_beifall_1.4286252/ www.oldenburg.de/stadtol/index.php?id=375 www.potsdam.de/cms/dokumente/10011105_66476/ c25b9e54/Kulturpolitische%20Konzepte%20der%20 LHP%202008-2012.pdf
LHP%202008-2012.pdf Wagner, Die Kultur von der Stadt her denken Eine neue June 27, 2009, www.thestar.com/printaricle/656837. Whyte, Murray, Why Richard Florida´s Honeymoon is over, York, 2002. Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, New Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s turmanagement, Bielefeld, 2009, p.155-169. Forschen im Kulturmanagement. Jahrbuch für Kulof Practice [in:] Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, Sigrid et al., Deveraux, C., Cultural Management and the Discourse Kulturpolitik”, 2007. gements (Beitrag A 1.1.) [in:] „Kulturmanagement & Bendixen P., Allgemeine Grundlagen des Kulturmana-
Literature Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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c25b9e54/Kulturpolitische%20Konzepte%20der%20 www.potsdam.de/cms/dokumente/10011105_66476/ www.oldenburg.de/stadtol/index.php?id=375 hausbesetzung_mit_beifall_1.4286252/ www.nzz.ch/nachrichten/kultur/kunst_architektur/ www.leipzig.de/de/buerger/kultur/kep/ www.dresden.de/de/05/02/01/c_03.php klungskonzept.html www.das-gaengeviertel.info/gaengefiertel/entwicMünchen. min, ed. (2008). Kompendium Kulturmanagement, hamburg-manifest-gegen-gentrification/Klein, Arwww./gentrificationblog.wordpress.com/2009/10/30/ Kulturmanagement der Zukunft“, 2008. Phase der Reflexivität und kulturellen Planung [in:]
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Factory of Initiatives, Mine of Ideas – Employing Postindustrial Objects for Cultural Activity as an Impulse for Creative Management
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz
iscovering buildings and areas abandoned by the industry is not a new process or a phenomenon characteristic for one culture. A widespread fashion for adaptations of the objects of this type for business and living purposes has lasted for a long time and has accentuated its presence in the townscape created by and for the so-called creative class. The creator of this notion – Richard Florida, precisely defines the creative professions which are not necessarily connected with artistic work, but rather with seeking new ways of development of various domains and professional fields, from the media to management [Florida, 2002, p. 68]. The professionals of this type group in the cities which meet several criteria – are open, multi-ethnic and conscious of their history. Thus, scanning the list of the
Małgorzata Ćwikła
D
I
Foundations of activity
last decades resulted in a situation in which the cultural centers reanimating the old factories and workshops, thanks to interesting ideas become the cult places and respond to the expectations of the modern consumer to a greater extend than the traditional institutions. This study will discuss the factors stimulating creative development of the organizations functioning in the postindustrial areas, and will indicate several characteristic features guarantying a possibility of development in the jungle of cultural production.
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last decades resulted in a situation in which the cultural centers reanimating the old factories and workshops, thanks to interesting ideas become the cult places and respond to the expectations of the modern consumer to a greater extend than the traditional institutions. This study will discuss the factors stimulating creative development of the organizations functioning in the postindustrial areas, and will indicate several characteristic features guarantying a possibility of development in the jungle of cultural production.
Foundations of activity
nterest in creative management is a natural effect of social changes which underlined social evolution in the recent decades, changing industrial society into postindustrial one. According to Daniel Bell, transition from the economy focused on production to capitalism based on turnover of information had a clear effect on the model of employee, who either employs the vaster and vaster knowledge which he acquires, or renders services [Bell, 1994, p. 233]. In both cases stress is put on creation, present also in the process of production of everyday use objects or other actions which up till now have been considered far from creative work. Accumulation of such tendencies leaves its mark particularly strongly on cultural activity, which often is unable to keep pace with economic changes and needs years to adjust to them [Sadler, 1997, p. 7]. It happens, however, that the situation is opposite. Curiosity and courage in testing new paths of development of culture may lead to discovering new, innovative models of management. A fashion for revitalization of the abandoned postindustrial space for the purposes of artistic activity may be given as an example. In the light of the above, the claim seems justified, that from the perspective of the two processes – on the one hand the will to discover the postindustrial heritage, and highlighting a need of creative thinking in management on the other hand, an interesting symbiosis comes into being in the field of culture. The synchronization of the two phenomena which haven been observed in nearly the two
D
I
Małgorzata Ćwikła graduate from the Polish philology at the Wrocław University. She worked among other at the theatre Hebbel am Ufer (Berlin), the International Factory of Culture Kampnagel (Hamburg), Dramatic Theatre (Warszawa). Scholar of Robert Bosch Foundation (programme Robert Bosch Cultural Manager in Central and Eastern Europe 2008/2009). Trainee of Polish Embassy in Sarajevo.
Małgorzata Ćwikła graduate from the Polish philology at the Wrocław University. She worked among other at the theatre Hebbel am Ufer (Berlin), the International Factory of Culture Kampnagel (Hamburg), Dramatic Theatre (Warszawa). Scholar of Robert Bosch Foundation (programme Robert Bosch Cultural Manager in Central and Eastern Europe 2008/2009). Trainee of Polish Embassy in Sarajevo.
Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz
iscovering buildings and areas abandoned by the industry is not a new process or a phenomenon characteristic for one culture. A widespread fashion for adaptations of the objects of this type for business and living purposes has lasted for a long time and has accentuated its presence in the townscape created by and for the so-called creative class. The creator of this notion – Richard Florida, precisely defines the creative professions which are not necessarily connected with artistic work, but rather with seeking new ways of development of various domains and professional fields, from the media to management [Florida, 2002, p. 68]. The professionals of this type group in the cities which meet several criteria – are open, multi-ethnic and conscious of their history. Thus, scanning the list of the
Małgorzata Ćwikła
nterest in creative management is a natural effect of social changes which underlined social evolution in the recent decades, changing industrial society into postindustrial one. According to Daniel Bell, transition from the economy focused on production to capitalism based on turnover of information had a clear effect on the model of employee, who either employs the vaster and vaster knowledge which he acquires, or renders services [Bell, 1994, p. 233]. In both cases stress is put on creation, present also in the process of production of everyday use objects or other actions which up till now have been considered far from creative work. Accumulation of such tendencies leaves its mark particularly strongly on cultural activity, which often is unable to keep pace with economic changes and needs years to adjust to them [Sadler, 1997, p. 7]. It happens, however, that the situation is opposite. Curiosity and courage in testing new paths of development of culture may lead to discovering new, innovative models of management. A fashion for revitalization of the abandoned postindustrial space for the purposes of artistic activity may be given as an example. In the light of the above, the claim seems justified, that from the perspective of the two processes – on the one hand the will to discover the postindustrial heritage, and highlighting a need of creative thinking in management on the other hand, an interesting symbiosis comes into being in the field of culture. The synchronization of the two phenomena which haven been observed in nearly the two
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Factory of Initiatives, Mine of Ideas – Employing Postindustrial Objects for Cultural Activity as an Impulse for Creative Management
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factor influencing creative thinking is freedom of searching new solutions and moderation in attachment to logical thinking. Another important factor, whereas also the most frightening one, is a change [Proctor, 1998, p. 36]. Maybe it is so because in Poland a gap between traditional institutions and the new ones is so big. The latter naturally react to fast changes adjusting to the dynamics of the present times. On the other hand, the ‘rooted’ centers in most cases are equipped with a barrier repelling all novelties, and stubbornly defend themselves against external influences. Strong post-communist habits do not make work easier and do not help in facing challenges. For those who work for the new centers, the old habits are no longer the main reference, and this is why they may invest their energy in the tasks oriented to the future. Interestingly enough, the old postindustrial space offers shelter for institutions originating from the alternative scene, in many cases chaotic in their image and actions. It became evident that this kind of free-thinking penetrating into management may at its initial stage improve the process of creative work and lead to creation of the best ideas. The difficult part is to react in the right moment and to manage in such a way as to profit from a more ‘relaxed’ atmosphere in the organization, while remaining efficient and professional. Only then one may ‘stay’ on the market and do something new. It is equally important to understand the specificity of the space which has a major impact on understanding the city and its internal relations. While analyzing the problems of the contemporary metropolies Ewa Rewers noted that „the post-modern epoch being post-nihilistic at the same time, which was expected by Heidegger, manifested itself in the form of a reflexive postindustrial modernity, making living more and more complicated, and dependent upon technological innovations” [Rewers, 2005, p. 235]. These engineering novelties are indispensable in the European postindustrial convergence. They create the living and working environment and additionally influence the model of spending free time and selection of entertainment. Thanks to the technological development it was possible to put an end to the epoch of heavy industry, and next to adjust its heritage to contemporary needs – to the second life of the factories, supported in all parts of Europe. In spite of the obvious convergence, the common fashion for revitalizing the old postindustrial objects, viewed as an aspect of globalization, appears to be more complex. The difference between Eastern and Western Europe
Factory of Initiatives, Mine of Ideas – Employing Postindustrial Objects for Cultural Activity as an Impulse for Creative Management
Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz
Translation: Marek Wójcikiewicz
factor influencing creative thinking is freedom of searching new solutions and moderation in attachment to logical thinking. Another important factor, whereas also the most frightening one, is a change [Proctor, 1998, p. 36]. Maybe it is so because in Poland a gap between traditional institutions and the new ones is so big. The latter naturally react to fast changes adjusting to the dynamics of the present times. On the other hand, the ‘rooted’ centers in most cases are equipped with a barrier repelling all novelties, and stubbornly defend themselves against external influences. Strong post-communist habits do not make work easier and do not help in facing challenges. For those who work for the new centers, the old habits are no longer the main reference, and this is why they may invest their energy in the tasks oriented to the future. Interestingly enough, the old postindustrial space offers shelter for institutions originating from the alternative scene, in many cases chaotic in their image and actions. It became evident that this kind of free-thinking penetrating into management may at its initial stage improve the process of creative work and lead to creation of the best ideas. The difficult part is to react in the right moment and to manage in such a way as to profit from a more ‘relaxed’ atmosphere in the organization, while remaining efficient and professional. Only then one may ‘stay’ on the market and do something new. It is equally important to understand the specificity of the space which has a major impact on understanding the city and its internal relations. While analyzing the problems of the contemporary metropolies Ewa Rewers noted that „the post-modern epoch being post-nihilistic at the same time, which was expected by Heidegger, manifested itself in the form of a reflexive postindustrial modernity, making living more and more complicated, and dependent upon technological innovations” [Rewers, 2005, p. 235]. These engineering novelties are indispensable in the European postindustrial convergence. They create the living and working environment and additionally influence the model of spending free time and selection of entertainment. Thanks to the technological development it was possible to put an end to the epoch of heavy industry, and next to adjust its heritage to contemporary needs – to the second life of the factories, supported in all parts of Europe. In spite of the obvious convergence, the common fashion for revitalizing the old postindustrial objects, viewed as an aspect of globalization, appears to be more complex. The difference between Eastern and Western Europe
Małgorzata Ćwikła
Modes of functioning
Małgorzata Ćwikła
suitable cities created by the Florida’s team, one realizes an analogy – every such place uses its postindustrial traces and turns them into places of new functions. The space becomes adjusted to the needs of the new inhabitants and transforms. It is worthy of noting here that postindustrial objects may be found not only in urban areas. In spite of that, in our further discussion we will focus on the situation in the cities. It would be justified to work out a study devoted to smaller settlements also, this however, would require a further, detailed research. A potential connected with postindustrial heritage has been also noticed by the representatives of technical and economic domains, however, for another reason. Not always their interest conforms with the convictions of the defenders of such objects. For example, in Germany in the beginning of 2009 many old factories, mines and steelworks were endangered by demolition, since considering the prices of scrap metal, the owners would find it profitable to demolish a building, and cover the cost of demolition from the profit made on recycled material [http:// www.industrie-kultur.de. Paradoxically, a fact apparently so distant from culture as the prices of scrap metal in the recent months, made plans of this type unprofitable. We should note also that in some cases demolition is a cheaper solution than undertaking renovation works. The objects being under the care of the conservator need to be refurbished in a strictly controlled manner, which obviously generates costs. Anyway, the large financial investment necessary for diversification of the functions of the former factories dampen the enthusiasm for reanimating postindustrial landscapes. Apart from refurbishment costs, the expenditures on maintenance of large production facilities are also significant. One should also be acquainted with the regulations concerning functioning of institutions involved in organization of mass events. In spite of the difficulties, undertaking such a challenge in many cases turns out to be profitable. Due to a specificity of cultural activity, the profitability does not refer to concrete financial income, and as of today, it cannot provide an independent existence. It is, however, important for educational, social and development reasons, as the necessity to adjust to unusual conditions leads to many innovations, and testing new solutions. Maybe in the longer run similar methods may create optimum models of functioning of self-dependent institutions, applicable also to more traditional centers of culture. Presently, these two types differ significantly, and whatever causes stagnation in one of the models, triggers creative powers in the other one.
Factory of Initiatives, Mine of Ideas – Employing Postindustrial Objects for Cultural Activity as an Impulse for Creative Management
suitable cities created by the Florida’s team, one realizes an analogy – every such place uses its postindustrial traces and turns them into places of new functions. The space becomes adjusted to the needs of the new inhabitants and transforms. It is worthy of noting here that postindustrial objects may be found not only in urban areas. In spite of that, in our further discussion we will focus on the situation in the cities. It would be justified to work out a study devoted to smaller settlements also, this however, would require a further, detailed research. A potential connected with postindustrial heritage has been also noticed by the representatives of technical and economic domains, however, for another reason. Not always their interest conforms with the convictions of the defenders of such objects. For example, in Germany in the beginning of 2009 many old factories, mines and steelworks were endangered by demolition, since considering the prices of scrap metal, the owners would find it profitable to demolish a building, and cover the cost of demolition from the profit made on recycled material [http:// www.industrie-kultur.de. Paradoxically, a fact apparently so distant from culture as the prices of scrap metal in the recent months, made plans of this type unprofitable. We should note also that in some cases demolition is a cheaper solution than undertaking renovation works. The objects being under the care of the conservator need to be refurbished in a strictly controlled manner, which obviously generates costs. Anyway, the large financial investment necessary for diversification of the functions of the former factories dampen the enthusiasm for reanimating postindustrial landscapes. Apart from refurbishment costs, the expenditures on maintenance of large production facilities are also significant. One should also be acquainted with the regulations concerning functioning of institutions involved in organization of mass events. In spite of the difficulties, undertaking such a challenge in many cases turns out to be profitable. Due to a specificity of cultural activity, the profitability does not refer to concrete financial income, and as of today, it cannot provide an independent existence. It is, however, important for educational, social and development reasons, as the necessity to adjust to unusual conditions leads to many innovations, and testing new solutions. Maybe in the longer run similar methods may create optimum models of functioning of self-dependent institutions, applicable also to more traditional centers of culture. Presently, these two types differ significantly, and whatever causes stagnation in one of the models, triggers creative powers in the other one.
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A
Modes of functioning
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T
Culture bids
hanks to accession to the European Union, new opportunities of financing culture opened. Writing applications for grants and feverish observing the due dates of their settlement became a routine already, as well as organization of various projects in cooperation with foreign partners. An important element of each application is ability to ‘adjust’ it to expectations of a sponsor. Thus, a condition of success is creative approach to the topic and ability to use all of the convincing factors. In case of institutions functioning in postindustrial areas an additional advantage in the race for funds is highlighting of the potential of a given location, as was the case when Essen and the Ruhr District were competing for the title of the 2010 European Capital of Culture. Most of the European priorities of the recent years could be creatively assigned to places of unusual origin. Announcing 2009 the European Year of Creativeness and Innovation was a clear signal that promoting development in all fields, facilitates obtaining financial means and is in conformity with the program lines of the European Union. Such an attitude is presented by many organizations supporting art which regularly come into being all over Europe. Reviewing the programs, leaflets and web pages of the institutions
Culture bids
T
hanks to accession to the European Union, new opportunities of financing culture opened. Writing applications for grants and feverish observing the due dates of their settlement became a routine already, as well as organization of various projects in cooperation with foreign partners. An important element of each application is ability to ‘adjust’ it to expectations of a sponsor. Thus, a condition of success is creative approach to the topic and ability to use all of the convincing factors. In case of institutions functioning in postindustrial areas an additional advantage in the race for funds is highlighting of the potential of a given location, as was the case when Essen and the Ruhr District were competing for the title of the 2010 European Capital of Culture. Most of the European priorities of the recent years could be creatively assigned to places of unusual origin. Announcing 2009 the European Year of Creativeness and Innovation was a clear signal that promoting development in all fields, facilitates obtaining financial means and is in conformity with the program lines of the European Union. Such an attitude is presented by many organizations supporting art which regularly come into being all over Europe. Reviewing the programs, leaflets and web pages of the institutions
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
on didactics. Bigger events, however, are planned in advance. They attract the audience by wellknown names (usually this refers to concerts) or an attractive idea (innovative festivals). Thus, the complaints of the big state theaters reporting the lack of audience seem rather exaggerated, and they signal wrong approach to the contemporary viewers, who are spoiled by a vast selection, become capricious, and expect that one will make advances to them. Obviously, in spite of the best will and creative solutions, the peripheral institutions are always in a worse situation than those located in the center, which may attract viewers by means of spontaneous decisions. Definitely, this is why marketing strategies adopted by the organizations located on the outskirts are different. They are not based on repetitiveness, but rather on unique associations connected with each single project. It is visible in the graphic materials – the traditional centers stick to one template of printed design which has been used for years, whereas the new organizations, not only those located in the postindustrial objects, try to outdo one another in developing visually attractive advertisements and use all possible channels of the internet, and in particular the social networking web services.
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on didactics. Bigger events, however, are planned in advance. They attract the audience by wellknown names (usually this refers to concerts) or an attractive idea (innovative festivals). Thus, the complaints of the big state theaters reporting the lack of audience seem rather exaggerated, and they signal wrong approach to the contemporary viewers, who are spoiled by a vast selection, become capricious, and expect that one will make advances to them. Obviously, in spite of the best will and creative solutions, the peripheral institutions are always in a worse situation than those located in the center, which may attract viewers by means of spontaneous decisions. Definitely, this is why marketing strategies adopted by the organizations located on the outskirts are different. They are not based on repetitiveness, but rather on unique associations connected with each single project. It is visible in the graphic materials – the traditional centers stick to one template of printed design which has been used for years, whereas the new organizations, not only those located in the postindustrial objects, try to outdo one another in developing visually attractive advertisements and use all possible channels of the internet, and in particular the social networking web services.
becomes evident here, as well as the difference between the typically industrial cities and those of a different character. Particularly important is also location of a given object – usually peripheral, which to a great extent determines the scope of functions. The areas of this type are the focus of attention of the Institute of New Industrial Culture active in Poland and in Germany. The managers who revitalize the old industrial objects face the fundamental problem of the contemporary cultural activity – the necessity to compete with the modern media to attract an audience. The technological development mentioned before made possible some innovations, and shifted the fulcrum of the social life. Dependent on electronic communication, it became more anonymous and distant from the earlier tradition of direct participation in the events. According to Alvin Toffler, since the agrarian epoch (the first wave in the development of mankind) through the industrial epoch (the second wave), to the present postindustrial epoch (the third wave), the following model of binding the employees has prevailed: HOME –> FACTORY –> HOME [Toffler, 2006, p. 177]. This model implies that managing the cultural institution located in the old factory, one has to be in opposition to the existing social order and bring the people again to former factories – in order to engage them in the cultural life which is being organized there. The present advantage of telecommunication over transport obviously makes this task difficult. In this case a solution may be free transportation from the center to the institutions located on the outskirts of the city. This is offered more and more commonly. For example, the Promised Land directed by Jan Klata and put on by the Polish Theater in Wrocław is staged in the Świątniki pump station. The audience is transported there by special buses which adds a special additional valor to the visit in the theater. A particularly important element of work of the centers located in the ‘less fashionable’ quarters is a need to generate two different types of audience. On the one hand one must take into account the local public, usually less interested in artistic creations. It is a bequest from the earlier city planners who once defined the functions of the particular quarters. Only recently, due to social and economic gentrification these quarters begin to change and ‘move’, which may be exemplified by present Berlin. On the other hand, in order to be present on the cultural map of the city, one needs to offer events of far-reaching repercussions, if possible nationwide. Reviewing the repertoires we may note a specific tendency – the everyday offer is directed to the local community with stress put
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
becomes evident here, as well as the difference between the typically industrial cities and those of a different character. Particularly important is also location of a given object – usually peripheral, which to a great extent determines the scope of functions. The areas of this type are the focus of attention of the Institute of New Industrial Culture active in Poland and in Germany. The managers who revitalize the old industrial objects face the fundamental problem of the contemporary cultural activity – the necessity to compete with the modern media to attract an audience. The technological development mentioned before made possible some innovations, and shifted the fulcrum of the social life. Dependent on electronic communication, it became more anonymous and distant from the earlier tradition of direct participation in the events. According to Alvin Toffler, since the agrarian epoch (the first wave in the development of mankind) through the industrial epoch (the second wave), to the present postindustrial epoch (the third wave), the following model of binding the employees has prevailed: HOME –> FACTORY –> HOME [Toffler, 2006, p. 177]. This model implies that managing the cultural institution located in the old factory, one has to be in opposition to the existing social order and bring the people again to former factories – in order to engage them in the cultural life which is being organized there. The present advantage of telecommunication over transport obviously makes this task difficult. In this case a solution may be free transportation from the center to the institutions located on the outskirts of the city. This is offered more and more commonly. For example, the Promised Land directed by Jan Klata and put on by the Polish Theater in Wrocław is staged in the Świątniki pump station. The audience is transported there by special buses which adds a special additional valor to the visit in the theater. A particularly important element of work of the centers located in the ‘less fashionable’ quarters is a need to generate two different types of audience. On the one hand one must take into account the local public, usually less interested in artistic creations. It is a bequest from the earlier city planners who once defined the functions of the particular quarters. Only recently, due to social and economic gentrification these quarters begin to change and ‘move’, which may be exemplified by present Berlin. On the other hand, in order to be present on the cultural map of the city, one needs to offer events of far-reaching repercussions, if possible nationwide. Reviewing the repertoires we may note a specific tendency – the everyday offer is directed to the local community with stress put
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of culture located in postindustrial centers, we may often come across unknown logotypes of the sponsors, discover new programs or international networks of exchange. Such creative ‘spying’ and spreading necessary knowledge is particularly important for the managers of culture – often it is a quicker way to obtain information on the emerging new opportunities of financing than searching in the official sources. For example, two important institutions in Poland – Nowa Łaźnia Theatre and Fabryka Trzciny – belong to the Trans Europe Halles network, connecting independent centers of this type, from Moscow to Barcelona. Whenever new partners for the projects are sought, such networks are priceless, also for the non-members. Apart from that, while raising funds for realization of a project, by referring to a single page, one may find at least fifty examples of institutions together with links to concrete programs. This overzealousness of various foundations, often cursed by the Internet users, has its advantage for the society which is addicted to the information and the data. More freedom in the interdisciplinary initiatives allows the mangers to engage in projects of a social character, and to participate in the dialog in the most urgent issues. Proper approach in this case is a guarantee of success. The centers located in the postindustrial objects, thanks to their flexibility, discovered an important European priority – a richly subsidized environmental protection. Opposition to the negative role of industry in this respect casts an interesting light on the undertakings of this type, and as if at the core of the problem focuses on responsible thinking and stresses the necessity of urgent changes. The biggest independent European theatre center, in terms of the audience, the Hamburger Kampnagel located in the former port cranes plant, thanks to a subsidy granted in 2009 was able to install over a thousand square meters of solar cells. As a result, the operational costs reduced, it was possible to repair the roof, and the profit from production of electricity by means of the photovoltaic cells has since then supplemented the artistic budget of the theater. Moreover, the annual festival organized in the old factory includes the current topics, such as the changes of the climate or careful waste management. Didactic slogans do not diminish the artistic significance of the festival. The burning questions are discussed by means of the works of Christopher Schlingensfield, Needcompany or the Natural Theater of Oklahoma. Anyway, in the nearest future the artistic activities entangled with the environmental protection context will proliferate. Former factories offer the credible and suitable old decorations.
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Another dimension of corporation
C
ontinuing our search of convergences between modern management and sociological understanding of the changes occurring in the economy in the recent years, we may define the institutions of culture as knowledge-absorbing enterprises. The notion derived from the Bell’s and Drucker’s theories, was later transformed by Sadler into talent-absorbing, which matches even better the specificity of work in the artistic institutions [Sadler op., cit., p. 141]. Generalizing, we may conclude that the present approach to human resource management is a result of functioning in the postindustrial society, and stems from the need of adjusting oneself to the expectations of the more and more important participants of the employment dialogue – the employees themselves. It is easier to find an appropriate structure when we start from scratch than when we modify something – especially if it is the communist model which we adopt as a starting point. For that reason, the reborn organizations – which often originate from the third sector – may base their operational principles on the present models of functioning. The characteristic phenomenon is shortening of the communication routes and a more collegiate atmosphere. It is visible in organizing frequent meetings of the whole team and taking collective decisions, as well as open resolving of the problems, without a need to construct complex labyrinth of information flow. The priority in successive management is achieving of the common goal, which should unite all of the employees [Drucker, 2001, p. 173]. In case of some institutions functioning in the anachronistic way, not only a common goal is missing, but any purpose at all, which the organization would strive to achieve. Thus, before commencing operation it is important to define precisely the tasks and to undertake collective effort to realize them. Associations and foundations may achieve it easier, since in their statutes they have to define their plans and goals in a detailed way. This obvious element is equally important as other methods confirmed by experience of the recent years, such as: a principle of delaying assessment of the presented ideas, brainstorming or open space. Edward Nęcka lists some additional considerations which may in a given moment influence and stimulate the creative powers, which are: the sense of freedom and support, lack of fear for being ridiculous, free atmosphere of discussion, acceptance of reasonable risk, and presence of challenges [Nęcka, 2003, p. 151]. An example of an event which popped out from accumulation of all those elements is the festival “Underwater
65
of culture located in postindustrial centers, we may often come across unknown logotypes of the sponsors, discover new programs or international networks of exchange. Such creative ‘spying’ and spreading necessary knowledge is particularly important for the managers of culture – often it is a quicker way to obtain information on the emerging new opportunities of financing than searching in the official sources. For example, two important institutions in Poland – Nowa Łaźnia Theatre and Fabryka Trzciny – belong to the Trans Europe Halles network, connecting independent centers of this type, from Moscow to Barcelona. Whenever new partners for the projects are sought, such networks are priceless, also for the non-members. Apart from that, while raising funds for realization of a project, by referring to a single page, one may find at least fifty examples of institutions together with links to concrete programs. This overzealousness of various foundations, often cursed by the Internet users, has its advantage for the society which is addicted to the information and the data. More freedom in the interdisciplinary initiatives allows the mangers to engage in projects of a social character, and to participate in the dialog in the most urgent issues. Proper approach in this case is a guarantee of success. The centers located in the postindustrial objects, thanks to their flexibility, discovered an important European priority – a richly subsidized environmental protection. Opposition to the negative role of industry in this respect casts an interesting light on the undertakings of this type, and as if at the core of the problem focuses on responsible thinking and stresses the necessity of urgent changes. The biggest independent European theatre center, in terms of the audience, the Hamburger Kampnagel located in the former port cranes plant, thanks to a subsidy granted in 2009 was able to install over a thousand square meters of solar cells. As a result, the operational costs reduced, it was possible to repair the roof, and the profit from production of electricity by means of the photovoltaic cells has since then supplemented the artistic budget of the theater. Moreover, the annual festival organized in the old factory includes the current topics, such as the changes of the climate or careful waste management. Didactic slogans do not diminish the artistic significance of the festival. The burning questions are discussed by means of the works of Christopher Schlingensfield, Needcompany or the Natural Theater of Oklahoma. Anyway, in the nearest future the artistic activities entangled with the environmental protection context will proliferate. Former factories offer the credible and suitable old decorations.
ontinuing our search of convergences between modern management and sociological understanding of the changes occurring in the economy in the recent years, we may define the institutions of culture as knowledge-absorbing enterprises. The notion derived from the Bell’s and Drucker’s theories, was later transformed by Sadler into talent-absorbing, which matches even better the specificity of work in the artistic institutions [Sadler op., cit., p. 141]. Generalizing, we may conclude that the present approach to human resource management is a result of functioning in the postindustrial society, and stems from the need of adjusting oneself to the expectations of the more and more important participants of the employment dialogue – the employees themselves. It is easier to find an appropriate structure when we start from scratch than when we modify something – especially if it is the communist model which we adopt as a starting point. For that reason, the reborn organizations – which often originate from the third sector – may base their operational principles on the present models of functioning. The characteristic phenomenon is shortening of the communication routes and a more collegiate atmosphere. It is visible in organizing frequent meetings of the whole team and taking collective decisions, as well as open resolving of the problems, without a need to construct complex labyrinth of information flow. The priority in successive management is achieving of the common goal, which should unite all of the employees [Drucker, 2001, p. 173]. In case of some institutions functioning in the anachronistic way, not only a common goal is missing, but any purpose at all, which the organization would strive to achieve. Thus, before commencing operation it is important to define precisely the tasks and to undertake collective effort to realize them. Associations and foundations may achieve it easier, since in their statutes they have to define their plans and goals in a detailed way. This obvious element is equally important as other methods confirmed by experience of the recent years, such as: a principle of delaying assessment of the presented ideas, brainstorming or open space. Edward Nęcka lists some additional considerations which may in a given moment influence and stimulate the creative powers, which are: the sense of freedom and support, lack of fear for being ridiculous, free atmosphere of discussion, acceptance of reasonable risk, and presence of challenges [Nęcka, 2003, p. 151]. An example of an event which popped out from accumulation of all those elements is the festival “Underwater
C
Another dimension of corporation
of culture and business, so that economic pressure does not have to be the main issue, which overshadows the artistic content. In many former factories which have won worldwide recognition, we may see some interesting combinations – like renting attractive apartments and offices, conducting cultural activity, running fashionable boutiques, clubs or restaurants. Proper employment of the organizational, material, informative, and first of all human potential, makes possible organization of such periodical events as “Genius Loci” or “Sacrum Profanum”. They are aimed at confronting art with the postindustrial past visible in almost every city, and particularly in Central-Eastern Europe which witnessed an epoch of intensified industry in the 19th century and later in the times of communist domination. The buildings which date back to 1950s do not have any special material or historical value, they are also not particularly interesting in terms of engineering finesse, nevertheless even the post-war constructions become the focus of interest and their specific character is being highlighted to turn our attention to that chapter of the history of industry documented at present mainly by the architectural remnants. Alvin Toffler considered the fact of conquering the outer space and the oceans to be a testimony to the third phase of development of our civilization [Toffler, op. cit., p. 172]. In the long run also these places and actions are bound to become outdated, and who knows, maybe in the future the concerts and shows will be organized on the space stations. This vision requires now plenty of imagination, so maybe for this reason the best, the most creative managers should find it possible in due time. Similarly, 100 years ago the change of the function of industrial buildings was unimaginable. All these steps and divagations on new solutions are possible thanks to bold ideas and searching beyond the borders of the accepted convention. Presently, this is what is happening to the buildings erected for the purposes of industry and abandoned in the period when economic conditions have changed. There is still a lot to be done to the constructions falling into ruin, so that industry may flourish in them once more. This time it would be the cultural industry, to balance the progressive economic thinking – which may be considered a confirmed fact – equally important as the traditional one.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Wrocław” which was organized for the first time in 2008 in the Mieszczański Brewery in opposition to the big “Wrocław Non Stop” festival had been held for years. The event was of an alternative character, however, in spite of that it would meet the official criteria of creative activity – novelty and usefulness. The undertaking was risky because it was organized in a very short time by the artists ignored by the “Wrocław Non Stop”. No funds had been raised, and the information on the festival was spread unofficially employing improvised guerilla marketing. Nevertheless the event was a success. In 2009 “Wrocław Non Stop” was not organized, while “Underwater Wrocław” was held for the second time. This time the organizational conditions were different, the scale much bigger, and the city officials offered support. It is also worthy of note that at present the Mieszczański Brewery located outside the psychological borders of the city center (the actual distance is not so big in this case) attracts wider and wider audience, and various events take place there regularly, also in winter. Few years ago this would be a problem. Undoubtedly, the factor underlying the change is offering events from various fields – theatre plays, concerts, performances of DJs and multimedia artists. It adds color to the program but also gives the audience an opportunity to make frequent choices and changes in that artistic polyphony. Another example of a center functioning in this way is a former brewery in Berlin, a cult place of meetings – Kulturbrauerei. Over a million of visitors a year is a result not common for places cultivating independent culture. The vast area was arranged and put to use in a thoughtful way – many events are held simultaneously during one night, and one may walk around like in an amusement park. A real culture settlement grew close to the center that lives its own life, which is much appreciated by numerous fans. Summing up, we may state that the main advantage of the institutions located in postindustrial objects is their alternative character. Usually, in economic issues, this advantage turns out to be a disadvantage, since it diminishes a chance to get a state subsidy. However, thanks to adoption of the proper attitude this may be compensated in a different way, often more attractive. After overcoming initial difficulties, financing in various ways becomes possible, including cooperation
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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of culture and business, so that economic pressure does not have to be the main issue, which overshadows the artistic content. In many former factories which have won worldwide recognition, we may see some interesting combinations – like renting attractive apartments and offices, conducting cultural activity, running fashionable boutiques, clubs or restaurants. Proper employment of the organizational, material, informative, and first of all human potential, makes possible organization of such periodical events as “Genius Loci” or “Sacrum Profanum”. They are aimed at confronting art with the postindustrial past visible in almost every city, and particularly in Central-Eastern Europe which witnessed an epoch of intensified industry in the 19th century and later in the times of communist domination. The buildings which date back to 1950s do not have any special material or historical value, they are also not particularly interesting in terms of engineering finesse, nevertheless even the post-war constructions become the focus of interest and their specific character is being highlighted to turn our attention to that chapter of the history of industry documented at present mainly by the architectural remnants. Alvin Toffler considered the fact of conquering the outer space and the oceans to be a testimony to the third phase of development of our civilization [Toffler, op. cit., p. 172]. In the long run also these places and actions are bound to become outdated, and who knows, maybe in the future the concerts and shows will be organized on the space stations. This vision requires now plenty of imagination, so maybe for this reason the best, the most creative managers should find it possible in due time. Similarly, 100 years ago the change of the function of industrial buildings was unimaginable. All these steps and divagations on new solutions are possible thanks to bold ideas and searching beyond the borders of the accepted convention. Presently, this is what is happening to the buildings erected for the purposes of industry and abandoned in the period when economic conditions have changed. There is still a lot to be done to the constructions falling into ruin, so that industry may flourish in them once more. This time it would be the cultural industry, to balance the progressive economic thinking – which may be considered a confirmed fact – equally important as the traditional one.
66
Wrocław” which was organized for the first time in 2008 in the Mieszczański Brewery in opposition to the big “Wrocław Non Stop” festival had been held for years. The event was of an alternative character, however, in spite of that it would meet the official criteria of creative activity – novelty and usefulness. The undertaking was risky because it was organized in a very short time by the artists ignored by the “Wrocław Non Stop”. No funds had been raised, and the information on the festival was spread unofficially employing improvised guerilla marketing. Nevertheless the event was a success. In 2009 “Wrocław Non Stop” was not organized, while “Underwater Wrocław” was held for the second time. This time the organizational conditions were different, the scale much bigger, and the city officials offered support. It is also worthy of note that at present the Mieszczański Brewery located outside the psychological borders of the city center (the actual distance is not so big in this case) attracts wider and wider audience, and various events take place there regularly, also in winter. Few years ago this would be a problem. Undoubtedly, the factor underlying the change is offering events from various fields – theatre plays, concerts, performances of DJs and multimedia artists. It adds color to the program but also gives the audience an opportunity to make frequent choices and changes in that artistic polyphony. Another example of a center functioning in this way is a former brewery in Berlin, a cult place of meetings – Kulturbrauerei. Over a million of visitors a year is a result not common for places cultivating independent culture. The vast area was arranged and put to use in a thoughtful way – many events are held simultaneously during one night, and one may walk around like in an amusement park. A real culture settlement grew close to the center that lives its own life, which is much appreciated by numerous fans. Summing up, we may state that the main advantage of the institutions located in postindustrial objects is their alternative character. Usually, in economic issues, this advantage turns out to be a disadvantage, since it diminishes a chance to get a state subsidy. However, thanks to adoption of the proper attitude this may be compensated in a different way, often more attractive. After overcoming initial difficulties, financing in various ways becomes possible, including cooperation
67
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Literature Bell D., Kulturowe sprzeczności kapitalizmu, Warszawa, 1994. Drucker P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Warszawa, 2001. Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class, New York, 2002. http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?modu-
Nęcka E., Psychologia twórczości, Gdańsk, 2003. Proctor T., Zarządzanie twórcze, Warszawa, 1998. Rewers E., Post-polis. Wstęp do filozofii ponowoczesnego miasta, Kraków, 2005. Sadler P., Zarządzanie w społeczeństwie postindustrialnym, Kraków, 1997. Toffler A., Trzecia fala, Poznań, 2006.
le=html01pages&func=display&pid=159 (odczyt 30.11.2009).
30.11.2009). le=html01pages&func=display&pid=159 (odczyt http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?modu2002. Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class, New York, 2001. Drucker P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Warszawa, 1994. Bell D., Kulturowe sprzeczności kapitalizmu, Warszawa,
Literature Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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Toffler A., Trzecia fala, Poznań, 2006. nym, Kraków, 1997. Sadler P., Zarządzanie w społeczeństwie postindustrialgo miasta, Kraków, 2005. Rewers E., Post-polis. Wstęp do filozofii ponowoczesneProctor T., Zarządzanie twórcze, Warszawa, 1998. Nęcka E., Psychologia twórczości, Gdańsk, 2003.
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W
What is a museum?
What is a museum?
W
hen the Latvian State Authority on Museums was established in the late 1990s, one of our tasks was to draw up a comprehensive register of museums. We devised a registration form, distributed this and received a very rich, even surprising
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Stransky, justifying the necessity for the theoretical understanding of museum work says: „The present condition of mankind shows that it is no longer possible to be satisfied with superficial and random knowledge and experience related to the phenomenon which is so closely connected with human existence (that is, museums – J.G). Post liberal society will not be willing to invest in what will bring no benefit to it. If some museum professionals still have not understood this fact and think that the future will permit them to „just mind their own business”, both they and museums as such will pay for it.” [Zbynek, Stransky, 1995, p. 18]. In order to define and regulate the relationship between the State and the museum field, a legislative basis was created for the activities of Latvian museums. Its creation has been significant not just from a legal, but also a professional standpoint. By defining the basic concepts, identifying functions and determining mechanisms of management in the documents regulating museum activity, museological and museographical thinking has been stimulated, and boundaries and discussion points have been marked for the further development and activity of the Latvian museum field. It is probably quite risky to speak about museum boundaries at a time when the notions such as museums without boundaries and virtual museums are circulating amongst museum professionals. Nevertheless I do not think that this question had to be associated with a conservative understanding of processes in the contemporary museum world.
Jānis Garjāns
arious approaches can be used to describe Latvian museums. A historical survey would have to begin in 1773, when the Rīga City Council resolved to establish the first public museum in Rīga, after receiving N. Himzel’s donation of biology, art and history collections. This became the foundation for the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation and for other museums, which are still operational in Latvia today. Following the proclamation of Latvian independence in 1918, a national museum system was created that encompassed the most significant fields of study. The first period of independence in the 1920s-30s was characterised by the development of a network of state and local authority museums. After World War II the museum system was remodelled to reflect the standards of the USSR. Irrespective of ideological restrictions, until the renewing of independence in 1991, the museum network was expanded to include all of Latvia’s regions, and the themes of museums diversified. Socio-political processes in the early 1990s were reflected also in the museum system and the activities of these institutions. When describing the content of Latvia’s museums, it would be useful to examine their diversity of themes, in this way gaining an impression of the interests of Latvian society, its needs in terms of studying cultural heritage, as well as its motivations for reflecting the world with museums as middle men. A special phenomenon in Latvian museums is the large proportion of so-called memorial museums in both the publically-financed and private museum networks. Nevertheless, the most important aspect that characterises Latvian museums today is, to my mind, the questions that continue to persist in the examination of the nature of museums, not only as a result of empirical experience, but also with the assistance of theoretical conclusions. These questions have become pertinent due to a number of factors. The Czech museologist Z. Z.
Stransky, justifying the necessity for the theoretical understanding of museum work says: „The present condition of mankind shows that it is no longer possible to be satisfied with superficial and random knowledge and experience related to the phenomenon which is so closely connected with human existence (that is, museums – J.G). Post liberal society will not be willing to invest in what will bring no benefit to it. If some museum professionals still have not understood this fact and think that the future will permit them to „just mind their own business”, both they and museums as such will pay for it.” [Zbynek, Stransky, 1995, p. 18]. In order to define and regulate the relationship between the State and the museum field, a legislative basis was created for the activities of Latvian museums. Its creation has been significant not just from a legal, but also a professional standpoint. By defining the basic concepts, identifying functions and determining mechanisms of management in the documents regulating museum activity, museological and museographical thinking has been stimulated, and boundaries and discussion points have been marked for the further development and activity of the Latvian museum field. It is probably quite risky to speak about museum boundaries at a time when the notions such as museums without boundaries and virtual museums are circulating amongst museum professionals. Nevertheless I do not think that this question had to be associated with a conservative understanding of processes in the contemporary museum world.
V
V
hen the Latvian State Authority on Museums was established in the late 1990s, one of our tasks was to draw up a comprehensive register of museums. We devised a registration form, distributed this and received a very rich, even surprising
Jānis Garjāns head of the Division of Museums and Visual Arts in the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Latvia. From 1998 until 2009, Janis Garjans was Chief of the State Authority on Museums of Latvia. From 2000 Jānis Garjāns is lecturer of the theory and history of museology at the Latvian Academy of Culture.Jānis Garjāns works in the museum system since 1976. He worked as a scientific specialist and curator at the Andrejs Upits Memorial Museum. In the early 1990s, he became involved in the public activities of Latvian museum employees, and from 1993 until 1998, he chaired the Latvian Association of Museums. Jānis Garjāns is a member of ICOM since 1994. Jānis Garjāns was involved in elaboration of the legislation for Latvian museum sector. He has published scientific research articles on history of Latvian literature and museology in Latvian, English and Russian.Jānis Garjāns is a graduate of the Faculty of Philology of the University of Latvia
arious approaches can be used to describe Latvian museums. A historical survey would have to begin in 1773, when the Rīga City Council resolved to establish the first public museum in Rīga, after receiving N. Himzel’s donation of biology, art and history collections. This became the foundation for the Museum of the History of Riga and Navigation and for other museums, which are still operational in Latvia today. Following the proclamation of Latvian independence in 1918, a national museum system was created that encompassed the most significant fields of study. The first period of independence in the 1920s-30s was characterised by the development of a network of state and local authority museums. After World War II the museum system was remodelled to reflect the standards of the USSR. Irrespective of ideological restrictions, until the renewing of independence in 1991, the museum network was expanded to include all of Latvia’s regions, and the themes of museums diversified. Socio-political processes in the early 1990s were reflected also in the museum system and the activities of these institutions. When describing the content of Latvia’s museums, it would be useful to examine their diversity of themes, in this way gaining an impression of the interests of Latvian society, its needs in terms of studying cultural heritage, as well as its motivations for reflecting the world with museums as middle men. A special phenomenon in Latvian museums is the large proportion of so-called memorial museums in both the publically-financed and private museum networks. Nevertheless, the most important aspect that characterises Latvian museums today is, to my mind, the questions that continue to persist in the examination of the nature of museums, not only as a result of empirical experience, but also with the assistance of theoretical conclusions. These questions have become pertinent due to a number of factors. The Czech museologist Z. Z.
Jānis Garjāns
Jānis Garjāns head of the Division of Museums and Visual Arts in the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Latvia. From 1998 until 2009, Janis Garjans was Chief of the State Authority on Museums of Latvia. From 2000 Jānis Garjāns is lecturer of the theory and history of museology at the Latvian Academy of Culture.Jānis Garjāns works in the museum system since 1976. He worked as a scientific specialist and curator at the Andrejs Upits Memorial Museum. In the early 1990s, he became involved in the public activities of Latvian museum employees, and from 1993 until 1998, he chaired the Latvian Association of Museums. Jānis Garjāns is a member of ICOM since 1994. Jānis Garjāns was involved in elaboration of the legislation for Latvian museum sector. He has published scientific research articles on history of Latvian literature and museology in Latvian, English and Russian.Jānis Garjāns is a graduate of the Faculty of Philology of the University of Latvia
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian Experience
69
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian Experience
Latvia the discussion arises about how professional museum work can be possible if the museum only has one (and sometimes only part-time) employee. How can one person adequately implement all of the basic functions of a museum? We answer this question with another question – why does this have to only be a permanent member of staff of the museum? It is to be expected that the culture of volunteering in museums will begin to develop in our country, as well as the purchasing of outsourced services, in this way ensuring a qualitative product or service. The necessity for the services of museum consultants is imminent in Latvia, similar to the need in other countries. The only main task of the museum employee in this situation would be to ensure the function of communication – to work with the visitor. It is important to acknowledge that looking from a museological perspective, museums cover only part of that which is cultural heritage. Museality – a special quality which has been attributed to an object – can be possessed by, and is possessed by a much wider spectrum of cultural heritage than just museum collections. There are also other institutions and individuals which are associated with creating and identifying cultural heritage. In relation to the above-mentioned museums register, it became clear that there have been many collections established in Latvia, and there are a countless number of exhibitions to be seen. In the eyes of a simple visitor or in the comprehension of the consumer, phenomena associated with cultural heritage are often labelled as museums. This understanding is also often encountered in the managers and owners of the so-called museums – local council employees. And who can blame them? Perhaps we ourselves, museum specialists, have earned the blame – because, if comparing a museum with an iceberg, which boasts exhibitions, displays, celebrations and events for everyone to see above the waterline, we have spoken, demonstrated and explained too little to society about the unseen portion of the iceberg, which is its base: the foundation for implementing museum communication. Within the context of Latvian cultural heritage, the museum field is the most well-ordered and predictable in terms of law-making, alongside the immovable monuments sector. People who want to do something in the field of cultural heritage find their only reference points in the field of museums and try to join with this. For specialists in the field it is important not to lose the general view and to know how to draw a dividing line between that which is, and that which is not a museum. This is not because of arrogance, jealousy or any other similar reason. The realisation
Jānis Garjāns
Latvia the discussion arises about how professional museum work can be possible if the museum only has one (and sometimes only part-time) employee. How can one person adequately implement all of the basic functions of a museum? We answer this question with another question – why does this have to only be a permanent member of staff of the museum? It is to be expected that the culture of volunteering in museums will begin to develop in our country, as well as the purchasing of outsourced services, in this way ensuring a qualitative product or service. The necessity for the services of museum consultants is imminent in Latvia, similar to the need in other countries. The only main task of the museum employee in this situation would be to ensure the function of communication – to work with the visitor. It is important to acknowledge that looking from a museological perspective, museums cover only part of that which is cultural heritage. Museality – a special quality which has been attributed to an object – can be possessed by, and is possessed by a much wider spectrum of cultural heritage than just museum collections. There are also other institutions and individuals which are associated with creating and identifying cultural heritage. In relation to the above-mentioned museums register, it became clear that there have been many collections established in Latvia, and there are a countless number of exhibitions to be seen. In the eyes of a simple visitor or in the comprehension of the consumer, phenomena associated with cultural heritage are often labelled as museums. This understanding is also often encountered in the managers and owners of the so-called museums – local council employees. And who can blame them? Perhaps we ourselves, museum specialists, have earned the blame – because, if comparing a museum with an iceberg, which boasts exhibitions, displays, celebrations and events for everyone to see above the waterline, we have spoken, demonstrated and explained too little to society about the unseen portion of the iceberg, which is its base: the foundation for implementing museum communication. Within the context of Latvian cultural heritage, the museum field is the most well-ordered and predictable in terms of law-making, alongside the immovable monuments sector. People who want to do something in the field of cultural heritage find their only reference points in the field of museums and try to join with this. For specialists in the field it is important not to lose the general view and to know how to draw a dividing line between that which is, and that which is not a museum. This is not because of arrogance, jealousy or any other similar reason. The realisation
Jānis Garjāns
volume of information from a large cross-section of museums from all of Latvia’s regions. We received new information, previously unknown to us, from small local councils and private institutions – associations, foundations, and also private individuals. A register was developed, which we referred to when beginning museum accreditation, which had been prescribed in the Law on Museums. And this is when we ran into problems, related to the basic question – is the institution which wants to be accredited a museum? Without defined criteria – boundary markers – it is very difficult to answer this question and everybody can offer their own answer, which is not necessarily wrong. Museum accreditation was the practical stimulus, which made us consider these criteria. The definition of the concept of a museum in the Law on Museums ratified in 1997 was general and descriptive. It was created by taking the ICOM Statutes and the Code of Professional Ethics as a template. Nevertheless the definition did not help us much in problematic situations. This is why in 2006, when developing the revised edition of the Law on Museums, we decided to broaden the paragraph which referred to the functions of museums: “Museums have the following functions: 1) to collect, document and preserve material and intangible cultural and environmental heritage; 2) to research the museum collection and its associated information; 3) to educate society, and to popularise material and intangible cultural and natural heritage, through the development of exhibitions and displays, as well as utilising other methods of education and popularisation related to museum activities.” In order for an institution to be classified as a museum, it must be active in all of the abovementioned functions. I would like to emphasise, however, that the Law does not define how broad each of the functions should be. It is completely understandable and acceptable that the proportion of functions is different in various museums. This is particularly in relation to research. In a University Museum, research may be a dominating function, whereas in a regional studies museum research may be only undertaken when documenting collection items. Nevertheless if we recognise that all museum exhibitions and displays, or other forms of educational work are the result of research, then it is clear that without research it is not possible to provide the museum communication function in any museum, large or small. The Law also does not define who has to implement these museum functions. Occasionally in
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian Experience
volume of information from a large cross-section of museums from all of Latvia’s regions. We received new information, previously unknown to us, from small local councils and private institutions – associations, foundations, and also private individuals. A register was developed, which we referred to when beginning museum accreditation, which had been prescribed in the Law on Museums. And this is when we ran into problems, related to the basic question – is the institution which wants to be accredited a museum? Without defined criteria – boundary markers – it is very difficult to answer this question and everybody can offer their own answer, which is not necessarily wrong. Museum accreditation was the practical stimulus, which made us consider these criteria. The definition of the concept of a museum in the Law on Museums ratified in 1997 was general and descriptive. It was created by taking the ICOM Statutes and the Code of Professional Ethics as a template. Nevertheless the definition did not help us much in problematic situations. This is why in 2006, when developing the revised edition of the Law on Museums, we decided to broaden the paragraph which referred to the functions of museums: “Museums have the following functions: 1) to collect, document and preserve material and intangible cultural and environmental heritage; 2) to research the museum collection and its associated information; 3) to educate society, and to popularise material and intangible cultural and natural heritage, through the development of exhibitions and displays, as well as utilising other methods of education and popularisation related to museum activities.” In order for an institution to be classified as a museum, it must be active in all of the abovementioned functions. I would like to emphasise, however, that the Law does not define how broad each of the functions should be. It is completely understandable and acceptable that the proportion of functions is different in various museums. This is particularly in relation to research. In a University Museum, research may be a dominating function, whereas in a regional studies museum research may be only undertaken when documenting collection items. Nevertheless if we recognise that all museum exhibitions and displays, or other forms of educational work are the result of research, then it is clear that without research it is not possible to provide the museum communication function in any museum, large or small. The Law also does not define who has to implement these museum functions. Occasionally in
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and holds a doctorate in Philology (Dr. philol). He has developed his education in the field of museums studies in the Czech Republic, Canada and the Netherlands.
and holds a doctorate in Philology (Dr. philol). He has developed his education in the field of museums studies in the Czech Republic, Canada and the Netherlands.
of their own function and mission; the outwardly tedious, perhaps even bureaucratic record keeping, storage, and maintenance work have guaranteed that through tens and hundreds of years museums have managed to both preserve and utilise cultural heritage in the interests of society. And society values this. In Latvia’s case I would like to mention some instances which attest to the positive attitude of society to museums: the interest in developing new museums by various groups in society; the donation of unique art pieces and historical valuables to museums, often including family heirlooms; and rising museum visitor numbers. However, one cannot ignore the instances when, after the retirement of the history teacher, the so-called school museum did not find anyone to continue historical research on the local area, and already in a few years no-one remembered the location of the valuable documents or photographs which people had donated. For those working in the museum sector – it is important not to abuse the trust of society. This is also the main argument, why we consider it necessary to mark out a clear boundary between museums and other types of work which are associated with cultural heritage, so that with the help of museum standards we can attempt to guarantee professional, predictable and long-term attitude to cultural heritage.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
An Accredited Museum.
70
D
oes the Law on Museums, defining the concept of the museum and outlining functions which are characteristic of a museum guarantee that the word museum will be used only and exclusively by real museums? Of course not. Although a known defence mechanism of professional museums is museum accreditation, which is prescribed by Latvian legislation in the field of museums. An accredited museum, in other words, is a museum which has been recognised by the state. The status of an accredited museum is beginning to become more defined in the context of Latvian cultural life and it is becoming more important for museums to be accredited. For example, part of the national budget, which is apportioned through funding rounds by the State Culture Capital Foundation, is intended only for accredited museums. One of the criteria for a museum to be able to apply for Norwegian government funding which is intended for Latvian cultural heritage, is the status of an accredited museum. In society the conviction is growing stronger that accreditation is a guarantee of museum quality and professionalism.
The museum community also realises this. If accreditation is obligatory for state and local government museums, then private museums themselves have the right to decide if they wish to become accredited or not. Each year private museums also gain accredited status and I must say that they really are serious institutions, which think about their future and understand the meaning of professionalism. When delving into the mechanisms and criteria of museum accreditation, it is important to begin with the explanation that in Latvia a museum qualifies for accreditation if its operations fulfil the basic requirements, or minimal standards. When developing the accreditation scheme, of course we hoped to stimulate museum development and growth of professionalism with this process. Nevertheless we could not ignore the objective situation: the resources available for development of museums. This is why an accredited museum in Latvia is not something special, prominent or modern. It is a museum which fulfils its mission and honestly implements the functions of a museum. Museum accreditation, firstly, allows us to evaluate each institution and answer the aforementioned question – is it, or is it not a museum. Alongside this basic question it seemed important to not wait for the economic capacity of the nation to improve, when museums would be able to realise their ideas without limitations. We considered that the improvement of museums had to begin with improvement of ourselves, to work on that which was related to museum administration, specialists and service personnel. A significant component of accreditation is the self-analysis of museum work, the study of the existing situation and the formulation of a development strategy. The accreditation process revealed that the idea which was common amongst museum workers – „give us money and we will show you how to work” – is not always the case. Museum accreditation has existed in Latvia for ten years and the biggest satisfaction has come from the realisation of museum workers themselves, that accreditation has been an invaluable stimulus to become active, organised – therefore – to create the conditions for further development. What are the criteria to be able to gain the status of an accredited museum? The Law on Museums states: “(2) A museum can be accredited if it conforms to the following terms: 1. It possesses museum statutes which have been approved by the founder; 2. An inventory of the collection has been conducted;
D
oes the Law on Museums, defining the concept of the museum and outlining functions which are characteristic of a museum guarantee that the word museum will be used only and exclusively by real museums? Of course not. Although a known defence mechanism of professional museums is museum accreditation, which is prescribed by Latvian legislation in the field of museums. An accredited museum, in other words, is a museum which has been recognised by the state. The status of an accredited museum is beginning to become more defined in the context of Latvian cultural life and it is becoming more important for museums to be accredited. For example, part of the national budget, which is apportioned through funding rounds by the State Culture Capital Foundation, is intended only for accredited museums. One of the criteria for a museum to be able to apply for Norwegian government funding which is intended for Latvian cultural heritage, is the status of an accredited museum. In society the conviction is growing stronger that accreditation is a guarantee of museum quality and professionalism.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
An Accredited Museum.
The museum community also realises this. If accreditation is obligatory for state and local government museums, then private museums themselves have the right to decide if they wish to become accredited or not. Each year private museums also gain accredited status and I must say that they really are serious institutions, which think about their future and understand the meaning of professionalism. When delving into the mechanisms and criteria of museum accreditation, it is important to begin with the explanation that in Latvia a museum qualifies for accreditation if its operations fulfil the basic requirements, or minimal standards. When developing the accreditation scheme, of course we hoped to stimulate museum development and growth of professionalism with this process. Nevertheless we could not ignore the objective situation: the resources available for development of museums. This is why an accredited museum in Latvia is not something special, prominent or modern. It is a museum which fulfils its mission and honestly implements the functions of a museum. Museum accreditation, firstly, allows us to evaluate each institution and answer the aforementioned question – is it, or is it not a museum. Alongside this basic question it seemed important to not wait for the economic capacity of the nation to improve, when museums would be able to realise their ideas without limitations. We considered that the improvement of museums had to begin with improvement of ourselves, to work on that which was related to museum administration, specialists and service personnel. A significant component of accreditation is the self-analysis of museum work, the study of the existing situation and the formulation of a development strategy. The accreditation process revealed that the idea which was common amongst museum workers – „give us money and we will show you how to work” – is not always the case. Museum accreditation has existed in Latvia for ten years and the biggest satisfaction has come from the realisation of museum workers themselves, that accreditation has been an invaluable stimulus to become active, organised – therefore – to create the conditions for further development. What are the criteria to be able to gain the status of an accredited museum? The Law on Museums states: “(2) A museum can be accredited if it conforms to the following terms: 1. It possesses museum statutes which have been approved by the founder; 2. An inventory of the collection has been conducted;
70
of their own function and mission; the outwardly tedious, perhaps even bureaucratic record keeping, storage, and maintenance work have guaranteed that through tens and hundreds of years museums have managed to both preserve and utilise cultural heritage in the interests of society. And society values this. In Latvia’s case I would like to mention some instances which attest to the positive attitude of society to museums: the interest in developing new museums by various groups in society; the donation of unique art pieces and historical valuables to museums, often including family heirlooms; and rising museum visitor numbers. However, one cannot ignore the instances when, after the retirement of the history teacher, the so-called school museum did not find anyone to continue historical research on the local area, and already in a few years no-one remembered the location of the valuable documents or photographs which people had donated. For those working in the museum sector – it is important not to abuse the trust of society. This is also the main argument, why we consider it necessary to mark out a clear boundary between museums and other types of work which are associated with cultural heritage, so that with the help of museum standards we can attempt to guarantee professional, predictable and long-term attitude to cultural heritage.
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3. It has premises, equipment and security systems which guarantee the preservation of the museum collection; 4. Access to the collection for society is provided; 5. A museum work development strategy has been drawn up”. Therefore the accents in the basic requirements of accreditation are placed on the necessity for clarity in legal issues, the inventory of the museum collection, and security. The museum functions of research and communication are revealed through the way in which the museum provides the accessibility of its collection to society. As the museum is accredited for a defined period of time, its development strategy is important. The Law formulates these criteria in a fairly general way, similarly with museum functions. Occasionally the question arises, if the criteria are ideal to be able to evaluate any type of museum – whether it is a nationally significant museum, or a small, local municipality institution. From the very beginning of accreditation it was clear that another boundary marker was necessary – that was a definition of the museum mission. The term museum mission has surpassed the stage of discussion, lack of understanding, even aggressive opposition, and is currently widely used amongst Latvian museum workers and is acquiring a weightier content and meaning. When referring to a mission, we do not expect them to be beautiful, poetic, but instead general phrases. The definition of a museum mission is related to the nature of the particular museum in the most direct way and should provide answers to the following questions: 1. What is the museum’s theme (profile) and general aims? 2. What are the chronological and geographic boundaries of the museum? 3. What is the target audience of the museum? A well-considered and justified museum mission, which includes answers to the aforementioned questions, creates a clear picture as to why this museum is necessary for society. In turn, the practical work of the museum allows one to evaluate how museum-based functions are oriented in the particular institution and the implementation of their mission. The mission reveals if the museum has found its own special direction and unique niche amongst Latvian museums generally. Only those museums, which have undertaken serious analysis and planning, are able to define a mission which serves as an instrument and point of reference in various aspects of museum work, including museum accreditation.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The next boundary markers
hinking about boundary markers which have been set for museum activities by Latvian legislation, I have a growing conviction that they sooner act as road sings, rather than as an inhibiting frame. Museums themselves get to decide how each of the basic functions of the museum should be filled – what and how to collect, how to select research themes, which forms of communication can be used to address society. None else can define the museum’s mission in its place. If during initial accreditation our basic task was to determine if all of the functions characteristic of a museum were being implemented, then renewed accreditation moves museums to strengthen quality. Museums are expected to set working tasks which are associated with the priorities of national cultural policy. These priorities are the improvement of museum accessibility and their potential for long-term development. A particularly long-term development aim is associated with the professional activities of museums. Museums are invited to formulate and substantiate policy documents for the implementation of their basic functions. This time it is museums themselves which must mark out boundary markers and define criteria so that they themselves, their management institutions and, of course, society, would have clarity on the way collections work and research is carried out in the museum, and how communication is implemented. These documents help to stay focussed, to be purposeful and professional, so that the museum can implement its own social task – to encourage positive changes in society. The era in which we are living and in which our museums are operating demands precisely these kinds of qualities. Museums need reference-points which direct us towards effective work, rather than boundaries which isolate us from society. In Latvian museums the discussion about what we expect from museums is becoming more topical – a product, that is, an exhibition, lecture, event; or a result, meaning, the implementation of the museum’s main task – for example, knowledge which the visitor gains in a display. Speaking in the words of Stephen Weil: „Outcomes are those positive change in its target audiences – those impacts, those hearts and minds differences – that are the museum’s ultimate goal. Outcomes are the realisation of its institutional purpose.” [Weil, 2005] Of course, products are necessary to achieve this result. Nevertheless when creating our products, we too often forget the result that we wish to achieve, or examine if we have achieved it. Museum policy documents are the
T
71
3. It has premises, equipment and security systems which guarantee the preservation of the museum collection; 4. Access to the collection for society is provided; 5. A museum work development strategy has been drawn up”. Therefore the accents in the basic requirements of accreditation are placed on the necessity for clarity in legal issues, the inventory of the museum collection, and security. The museum functions of research and communication are revealed through the way in which the museum provides the accessibility of its collection to society. As the museum is accredited for a defined period of time, its development strategy is important. The Law formulates these criteria in a fairly general way, similarly with museum functions. Occasionally the question arises, if the criteria are ideal to be able to evaluate any type of museum – whether it is a nationally significant museum, or a small, local municipality institution. From the very beginning of accreditation it was clear that another boundary marker was necessary – that was a definition of the museum mission. The term museum mission has surpassed the stage of discussion, lack of understanding, even aggressive opposition, and is currently widely used amongst Latvian museum workers and is acquiring a weightier content and meaning. When referring to a mission, we do not expect them to be beautiful, poetic, but instead general phrases. The definition of a museum mission is related to the nature of the particular museum in the most direct way and should provide answers to the following questions: 1. What is the museum’s theme (profile) and general aims? 2. What are the chronological and geographic boundaries of the museum? 3. What is the target audience of the museum? A well-considered and justified museum mission, which includes answers to the aforementioned questions, creates a clear picture as to why this museum is necessary for society. In turn, the practical work of the museum allows one to evaluate how museum-based functions are oriented in the particular institution and the implementation of their mission. The mission reveals if the museum has found its own special direction and unique niche amongst Latvian museums generally. Only those museums, which have undertaken serious analysis and planning, are able to define a mission which serves as an instrument and point of reference in various aspects of museum work, including museum accreditation.
hinking about boundary markers which have been set for museum activities by Latvian legislation, I have a growing conviction that they sooner act as road sings, rather than as an inhibiting frame. Museums themselves get to decide how each of the basic functions of the museum should be filled – what and how to collect, how to select research themes, which forms of communication can be used to address society. None else can define the museum’s mission in its place. If during initial accreditation our basic task was to determine if all of the functions characteristic of a museum were being implemented, then renewed accreditation moves museums to strengthen quality. Museums are expected to set working tasks which are associated with the priorities of national cultural policy. These priorities are the improvement of museum accessibility and their potential for long-term development. A particularly long-term development aim is associated with the professional activities of museums. Museums are invited to formulate and substantiate policy documents for the implementation of their basic functions. This time it is museums themselves which must mark out boundary markers and define criteria so that they themselves, their management institutions and, of course, society, would have clarity on the way collections work and research is carried out in the museum, and how communication is implemented. These documents help to stay focussed, to be purposeful and professional, so that the museum can implement its own social task – to encourage positive changes in society. The era in which we are living and in which our museums are operating demands precisely these kinds of qualities. Museums need reference-points which direct us towards effective work, rather than boundaries which isolate us from society. In Latvian museums the discussion about what we expect from museums is becoming more topical – a product, that is, an exhibition, lecture, event; or a result, meaning, the implementation of the museum’s main task – for example, knowledge which the visitor gains in a display. Speaking in the words of Stephen Weil: „Outcomes are those positive change in its target audiences – those impacts, those hearts and minds differences – that are the museum’s ultimate goal. Outcomes are the realisation of its institutional purpose.” [Weil, 2005] Of course, products are necessary to achieve this result. Nevertheless when creating our products, we too often forget the result that we wish to achieve, or examine if we have achieved it. Museum policy documents are the
T
The next boundary markers
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Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Road signs outer stimulus for each professional museum to think not only about the product, but also about the results.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
W
72
invent our own wheel through practise, along empirical lines and become professionals of museum work. At the moment, return from the museum is expected immediately. And, if the museum is not able to offer this, then the question rings out: „Why are we wasting money on this?” For museums to exist and be fully effective in the social space, the importance of professionalism is becoming a deciding factor. In Latvia we have dedicated much energy to create a professional education system for museum workers. Since 2000 it is possible to gain a masters degree in Museology through the Latvian Academy of Culture. Those who work in museums are offered further education courses by the State Authority on Museums. There is a library of museological literature available at the State Authority on Museums for self-education, which contains monographs published abroad and also our own series „Museology Library”. A special education project is the „Baltic Museology School”, in which museum workers from Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia have the opportunity to meet with global museum authorities such as Steven Weil, Martin Scherer, Peter van Mensch, Francoise Mairesse, Anja Dauschek and others. What our museums are like, where they are heading, what boundaries or road signs we choose, is to a large degree dependent on the professionalism of museum employees. This is why in this situation, where ideas about museums without boundaries resound so freshly and innovatively, it is just as important to speak about the necessity for professionally justified boundary markers and reference points and their importance on the road to effective museum work in the interests of society.
seum News”, January/February, 2005.
Ustawa o Muzeach, Łotwa, 2006.
hat is it that outlines these boundary markers and road signs for Latvian museums? Firstly, it is the legislation which regulates activities in the field – the Law on Museums and the regulations issued by the Cabinet of Ministers derived from these, as well as national cultural policy, for example, the document „Nacionālā valsts”, ratified in 2006. It must be noted that specialists in the museum field have also actively participated in the development of this legislative base. It was the Latvian Council of Museums that suggested amendments to the Law on Museums, making it more appropriate to professional operations, including the recognition of museological and international museum practice. In the early 1990s, when our countries experienced significant political and economic shocks, the Law on Museums was created with the aim to protect the field from collapse and ramparts and boundaries were specifically erected within the law. Museums, the same as other cultural institutions are currently working in a fiercely competitive market. As public funding is the main source of subsistence for museums, museums are more often being questioned about the advantages that museums offer to today’s (and not the mystical future) society. I think that the time has passed where we could afford to donate years, even decades to
1995.
Weil S. E., A Success/Failure Matrix for Museums, „Mu-
Literature
Stransky Z., Wstęp do badań muzeologicznych, Brno,
seum News”, January/February, 2005.
Literature
Weil S. E., A Success/Failure Matrix for Museums, „Mu-
hat is it that outlines these boundary markers and road signs for Latvian museums? Firstly, it is the legislation which regulates activities in the field – the Law on Museums and the regulations issued by the Cabinet of Ministers derived from these, as well as national cultural policy, for example, the document „Nacionālā valsts”, ratified in 2006. It must be noted that specialists in the museum field have also actively participated in the development of this legislative base. It was the Latvian Council of Museums that suggested amendments to the Law on Museums, making it more appropriate to professional operations, including the recognition of museological and international museum practice. In the early 1990s, when our countries experienced significant political and economic shocks, the Law on Museums was created with the aim to protect the field from collapse and ramparts and boundaries were specifically erected within the law. Museums, the same as other cultural institutions are currently working in a fiercely competitive market. As public funding is the main source of subsistence for museums, museums are more often being questioned about the advantages that museums offer to today’s (and not the mystical future) society. I think that the time has passed where we could afford to donate years, even decades to
1995.
W
Stransky Z., Wstęp do badań muzeologicznych, Brno,
Road signs
invent our own wheel through practise, along empirical lines and become professionals of museum work. At the moment, return from the museum is expected immediately. And, if the museum is not able to offer this, then the question rings out: „Why are we wasting money on this?” For museums to exist and be fully effective in the social space, the importance of professionalism is becoming a deciding factor. In Latvia we have dedicated much energy to create a professional education system for museum workers. Since 2000 it is possible to gain a masters degree in Museology through the Latvian Academy of Culture. Those who work in museums are offered further education courses by the State Authority on Museums. There is a library of museological literature available at the State Authority on Museums for self-education, which contains monographs published abroad and also our own series „Museology Library”. A special education project is the „Baltic Museology School”, in which museum workers from Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia have the opportunity to meet with global museum authorities such as Steven Weil, Martin Scherer, Peter van Mensch, Francoise Mairesse, Anja Dauschek and others. What our museums are like, where they are heading, what boundaries or road signs we choose, is to a large degree dependent on the professionalism of museum employees. This is why in this situation, where ideas about museums without boundaries resound so freshly and innovatively, it is just as important to speak about the necessity for professionally justified boundary markers and reference points and their importance on the road to effective museum work in the interests of society.
Ustawa o Muzeach, Łotwa, 2006.
outer stimulus for each professional museum to think not only about the product, but also about the results.
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Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Further on I am going to use a fragment of the text by J. Kargul: Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić dylematy? [in:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, ed. J. Gajda and W. Żardecki, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2001
1
The Authority of an Animator of Culture Józef Kargul
I
n this article I will consider the issues of the authority of animators of culture from two perspectives. From the perspective of practical reality, in which one can notice various processes and phenomena in the sphere of dissemination of culture and social-cultural animation and from the perspective of theoretical reflection on the activity of animators of culture. At the beginning, however, a few words about authority as a notion category. I assume the dictionary meaning of this term. In The dictionary of the Polish language we can find an explanation of authority in two meanings: 1. Someone’s prestige, influence, importance which are generally recognized. 2. Man, institution, doctrine, magazine receiving wide recognition, esteem in some field or in the opinion of certain people [The dictionary of the Polish language, 1978, p. 102]. Sociologists consider the issues of authority in theories of a model, and in their frames in theories of an influence [see Merton, 1892] and/or in theories of power [see Sztompka, 2002]. In the situation when a subject exerts an influence on very diverse and various domains and its prestige is widely recognized, its importance is defined as polymorphic influences in sociological theories of influence. If, however, a subject exerts an influence in one limited domain and this influence does not reach other domains, it is a monomorphic influence [Merton, op.cit.] An authority considered in theories of power shows that an elementary variety of power is an influence, which if realised with consent and acceptance of another person, allows to gain the form of a personal authority. Power appears within a contact or interaction, it is based on personal attributes and is put to use spontaneously, in a way which
Translation: Marta Białecka
is unregulated in advance. However, in social relations it stems from the rules defining rights and duties of partners, one of whom gains power prerogatives depending on the social position (status) he has. Power is of legitimised character and an authority is not of personal character but it is an authority of position (status) [see Sztompka, op.cit., p. 374-375]. Educationists, on the other hand, when analysing an authority more often refer to philosophy. Katarzyna Olbrycht, for instance, points out that the mentioned sociological analyses do not have any references to axiology, which in her opinion is one of the foundations of an authority. In her analyses she refers with approval to W. Stróżewski’s views, who indicated the conditions which should be fulfilled by a person who is an authority. Thus, she says that: “The basic thing is joining a great skill in a given field and personality, competence and realized personal values. An authority must be an example of objective and uncommon features, which have reached such an outstanding level in him that he can be an exemplar, following of which guarantees acquiring definite values.” [Olbrycht, 2007, p. 31] I think that while talking about the authority of animators of culture this aspect should also be taken into account, but I suggest analysing it from the point of view of the place which can theoretically be determined for animators in a given space1. The first of them is the social space, defined by sociologists as a peculiar ‘market of interactions’, where individuals create social bonds. The network of dependencies and connections between individuals to a great extent gives individuals chances to improve their life situa-
Further on I am going to use a fragment of the text by J. Kargul: Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić dylematy? [in:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, ed. J. Gajda and W. Żardecki, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2001
1
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
73
Józef Kargul lecturer, androguge. Professor of University of Zielona Góra (since 1997), University of Lower Silesia (since 2006). Scientific interests include construction of the theory of popularization culture and social-culture animation and theory of entire life education. Author more than 200 publications, inter alia 10 books (7 as an author, 3 as a co-author). Manager and scientific head of the Young Andragogues Summer School (since 1999). Editor of cyclical scientific publication „Adult Education Discourses”. Member of many scientific institutions (PAN Committee on Pedagogical Sciences, 1993–2002; Wrocław Scientific Society; Academic Society for Andragogy (member of ZG) and editorial boards of scientific magazines. President of Scientific Counsil Adults’ Education.
n this article I will consider the issues of the authority of animators of culture from two perspectives. From the perspective of practical reality, in which one can notice various processes and phenomena in the sphere of dissemination of culture and social-cultural animation and from the perspective of theoretical reflection on the activity of animators of culture. At the beginning, however, a few words about authority as a notion category. I assume the dictionary meaning of this term. In The dictionary of the Polish language we can find an explanation of authority in two meanings: 1. Someone’s prestige, influence, importance which are generally recognized. 2. Man, institution, doctrine, magazine receiving wide recognition, esteem in some field or in the opinion of certain people [The dictionary of the Polish language, 1978, p. 102]. Sociologists consider the issues of authority in theories of a model, and in their frames in theories of an influence [see Merton, 1892] and/or in theories of power [see Sztompka, 2002]. In the situation when a subject exerts an influence on very diverse and various domains and its prestige is widely recognized, its importance is defined as polymorphic influences in sociological theories of influence. If, however, a subject exerts an influence in one limited domain and this influence does not reach other domains, it is a monomorphic influence [Merton, op.cit.] An authority considered in theories of power shows that an elementary variety of power is an influence, which if realised with consent and acceptance of another person, allows to gain the form of a personal authority. Power appears within a contact or interaction, it is based on personal attributes and is put to use spontaneously, in a way which
I
is unregulated in advance. However, in social relations it stems from the rules defining rights and duties of partners, one of whom gains power prerogatives depending on the social position (status) he has. Power is of legitimised character and an authority is not of personal character but it is an authority of position (status) [see Sztompka, op.cit., p. 374-375]. Educationists, on the other hand, when analysing an authority more often refer to philosophy. Katarzyna Olbrycht, for instance, points out that the mentioned sociological analyses do not have any references to axiology, which in her opinion is one of the foundations of an authority. In her analyses she refers with approval to W. Stróżewski’s views, who indicated the conditions which should be fulfilled by a person who is an authority. Thus, she says that: “The basic thing is joining a great skill in a given field and personality, competence and realized personal values. An authority must be an example of objective and uncommon features, which have reached such an outstanding level in him that he can be an exemplar, following of which guarantees acquiring definite values.” [Olbrycht, 2007, p. 31] I think that while talking about the authority of animators of culture this aspect should also be taken into account, but I suggest analysing it from the point of view of the place which can theoretically be determined for animators in a given space1. The first of them is the social space, defined by sociologists as a peculiar ‘market of interactions’, where individuals create social bonds. The network of dependencies and connections between individuals to a great extent gives individuals chances to improve their life situa-
Józef Kargul
The Authority of an Animator of Culture
Translation: Marta Białecka
Józef Kargul lecturer, androguge. Professor of University of Zielona Góra (since 1997), University of Lower Silesia (since 2006). Scientific interests include construction of the theory of popularization culture and social-culture animation and theory of entire life education. Author more than 200 publications, inter alia 10 books (7 as an author, 3 as a co-author). Manager and scientific head of the Young Andragogues Summer School (since 1999). Editor of cyclical scientific publication „Adult Education Discourses”. Member of many scientific institutions (PAN Committee on Pedagogical Sciences, 1993–2002; Wrocław Scientific Society; Academic Society for Andragogy (member of ZG) and editorial boards of scientific magazines. President of Scientific Counsil Adults’ Education.
74
tompka writes – elegant form. The animator exerts personal influence thanks to specific personality features, he can sell his intentions to another person, who appears to be susceptible to it, he can ask or persuade. In this case the animator’s authority has a monomorphic dimension, because it does not influence a big circle of people, but individuals or groups that are in some respect homogeneous. However, if the persuading abilities were so strong that the animator’s influence manifested itself in changes of behavior of the partners of the interaction in many spheres of their life, then we would deal with a polymorphic authority. The public space is another area where in my opinion the activity of an animator of culture can be placed. This space is defined by sociologists as an area where a game for an influence on public affairs, for control over public goods and resources takes place. ‘Public goods can be defined as those goods which are produced and consumed collectively, and from participation in which no individual can be excluded’ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., p. 33]. Activity in this space causes the most contradictions and dilemmas. Also an animator of culture may in his activity meet or even create situations which constitute dilemmas. The already mentioned attitude of an animator releasing abilities, enlivening, encouraging, kindling, boosting courage and strength for action, can release in particular people ambitions for realizing their own interests not only against but also at the cost of others. It can happen for example when an animator running a theatre group, thanks to his/her actions will discover and reveal artistic abilities of a shy boy, a member of the group, and he/she will realize in terror that this member, first outside the group and then in the group working with the animator becomes a ’star’ trying to dominate the others and even extracting congratulations on his magnitude from them. It will also happen when a girl with an attitude of a ‘grey mouse’ believes in her dancing talent and starts to demand aggressively from her animator to devote time only to her and provide intensive training, because she decided to win in a dancing contest or when an artistic group of young people become so much fascinated by work or even by spending time together in a centre of culture that they will unceremoniously demand from the management to eliminate the Seniors’ Club and give
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
tion [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., p. 28]. An animator of culture acts just in such a social space, stimulating social or cultural activity of particular people, helping them discover their creative resources. An animator of culture often does it creating at the same time conditions for establishing interpersonal interactions, which helps in creating the whole network of social interactions2. In this way resources of social relations increase, which can be a peculiar social capital. Contrary to the popular opinion, this capital allows to realize various, mainly noneconomic interests. Such interests are often the joy of creating which arises under the influence of an animator’s encouraement and it provides new, unknown experiences. Since even the very fact of establishing strong social bonds between people dealing with a given sphere of culture results in establishing friendly relationships, and for some people it is already an extremely important ‘interest’. The activity and the attitude of animators of culture harmonizes with the ‘free market’ in the sense that in contact with an animator people begin to believe in their talents, in their abilities, at the same time they often learn to fulfil their individual desires, which does not prevent from achieving a result which is favourable for a group. An animator who will enliven, prompt to act in various spheres of life, accept every idea, facilitate, encourage, but not judge, not take arbitrary decisions, not condemn, not subject to devastating criticism what a group or an individual person will spontaneously reveal, such an animator is an actor operating in the social space, who has rarely got a clearly formulated aim, and even more rarely a coherent intention, but he lets the partners of the interaction develop spontaneously and this it where his social power lies. The partners of the interaction cannot accuse him of manipulation since the self-confidence induced in them can make them take the proverbial ‘fishing rod’ in their hand willingly and they know what they need it for. Thus, if such a situation takes place and the participants of the interaction accept the animator’s spontaneous suggestions and make effort to change their behavior, we will deal with a personal authority. The animator, of course, also wields power here over an individual or a group, but it is wielding power in a soft, gentle, as P. Sz-
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It was discussed by A.Kargulowa and K. Ferenz, Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa 1991. For analyses of cultural-educational activity offered by community centres, the authors perhaps for the first time in literature suggest looking at these institutions as a place of wide and various influences and processes of an open and uncontrolled character, similar to the Greek agora.
It was discussed by A.Kargulowa and K. Ferenz, Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa 1991. For analyses of cultural-educational activity offered by community centres, the authors perhaps for the first time in literature suggest looking at these institutions as a place of wide and various influences and processes of an open and uncontrolled character, similar to the Greek agora.
2
tompka writes – elegant form. The animator exerts personal influence thanks to specific personality features, he can sell his intentions to another person, who appears to be susceptible to it, he can ask or persuade. In this case the animator’s authority has a monomorphic dimension, because it does not influence a big circle of people, but individuals or groups that are in some respect homogeneous. However, if the persuading abilities were so strong that the animator’s influence manifested itself in changes of behavior of the partners of the interaction in many spheres of their life, then we would deal with a polymorphic authority. The public space is another area where in my opinion the activity of an animator of culture can be placed. This space is defined by sociologists as an area where a game for an influence on public affairs, for control over public goods and resources takes place. ‘Public goods can be defined as those goods which are produced and consumed collectively, and from participation in which no individual can be excluded’ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., p. 33]. Activity in this space causes the most contradictions and dilemmas. Also an animator of culture may in his activity meet or even create situations which constitute dilemmas. The already mentioned attitude of an animator releasing abilities, enlivening, encouraging, kindling, boosting courage and strength for action, can release in particular people ambitions for realizing their own interests not only against but also at the cost of others. It can happen for example when an animator running a theatre group, thanks to his/her actions will discover and reveal artistic abilities of a shy boy, a member of the group, and he/she will realize in terror that this member, first outside the group and then in the group working with the animator becomes a ’star’ trying to dominate the others and even extracting congratulations on his magnitude from them. It will also happen when a girl with an attitude of a ‘grey mouse’ believes in her dancing talent and starts to demand aggressively from her animator to devote time only to her and provide intensive training, because she decided to win in a dancing contest or when an artistic group of young people become so much fascinated by work or even by spending time together in a centre of culture that they will unceremoniously demand from the management to eliminate the Seniors’ Club and give
2
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tion [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., p. 28]. An animator of culture acts just in such a social space, stimulating social or cultural activity of particular people, helping them discover their creative resources. An animator of culture often does it creating at the same time conditions for establishing interpersonal interactions, which helps in creating the whole network of social interactions2. In this way resources of social relations increase, which can be a peculiar social capital. Contrary to the popular opinion, this capital allows to realize various, mainly noneconomic interests. Such interests are often the joy of creating which arises under the influence of an animator’s encouraement and it provides new, unknown experiences. Since even the very fact of establishing strong social bonds between people dealing with a given sphere of culture results in establishing friendly relationships, and for some people it is already an extremely important ‘interest’. The activity and the attitude of animators of culture harmonizes with the ‘free market’ in the sense that in contact with an animator people begin to believe in their talents, in their abilities, at the same time they often learn to fulfil their individual desires, which does not prevent from achieving a result which is favourable for a group. An animator who will enliven, prompt to act in various spheres of life, accept every idea, facilitate, encourage, but not judge, not take arbitrary decisions, not condemn, not subject to devastating criticism what a group or an individual person will spontaneously reveal, such an animator is an actor operating in the social space, who has rarely got a clearly formulated aim, and even more rarely a coherent intention, but he lets the partners of the interaction develop spontaneously and this it where his social power lies. The partners of the interaction cannot accuse him of manipulation since the self-confidence induced in them can make them take the proverbial ‘fishing rod’ in their hand willingly and they know what they need it for. Thus, if such a situation takes place and the participants of the interaction accept the animator’s spontaneous suggestions and make effort to change their behavior, we will deal with a personal authority. The animator, of course, also wields power here over an individual or a group, but it is wielding power in a soft, gentle, as P. Sz-
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
them the quarters for their exclusive use. There are many similar dilemmas in social life, in an animator’s work, and their descriptions are provided both by observation and daily newspapers. The descriptions show that in this case the mechanism of the free market is the least effective in the sense that the market gives rise to demand for definite services, these services according to the law of the market are performed and thus the needs of certain individuals or social groups are fulfilled, but side effects of the process of fulfilling the needs lead to conflict situations. If an animator gained personal authority among these people, not only in a specialist field but also in the moral sphere, he will not have difficulties with solving conflicts. It will be not so if he/she has no such authority. Then the animator himself can experience a serious dilemma. He/she can use his domineering prerogatives resulting from the status, i.e. use the authority of the social position. Thus, by virtue of his/her competence or employment in some institution he/she ‘can decide for others, demand something from others, give them orders and when it is necessary force them to be obedient’ [Sztompka, op. cit., p. 375]. Having such prerogatives he/she can solve a conflict in a short time. However, the problem is that making use of them will undermine the idea of animation. How an animator will solve various everyday dilemmas will result in either strengthening of his/her personal authority or its weakening, and even losing. The issue of animators’ activity looks a little different if we place it in the institutional space. This space means an area in which consolidating of the rules of acting takes place. These rules are created in two ways, either on the macropolitical level and then more or less active individuals conform to them, or they are rules created in everyday practice of individuals, social groups and organizations. The institutional space gives individuals and groups possibilities of acting and also creates conditions limiting these possibilities. However, there is a fundamental difference between the role of institutions in the so-called stable periods and the periods of radical changes. ‘In the first situation institutions have a limiting role for playing games on various levels of social life. In the other situation a game is played for the shape of these games. Institutions leave their role of a limiting factor and a stabilizer for the game and assume the role of the subject and
3
the aim of this game’ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., p. 39]. Such games for the rules of the game, in the case of cultural animation took place in the first period of the system changes at the beginning of the 90s and have been lasting up till now. After 2002 we can still observe that the inherited system of institutional dissemination of culture in the form of community centres, clubs or common rooms regulating actors’ behaviour is still so strong that the employees of the mentioned institutions act there in a standard and routine way, organizing identical forms of participation in culture to those from the period of the People’s Republic of Poland, showing unchanged attitude to thier tasks at work3. But at the same time in these institutions there appear animators, who compete with other employees trying to gain approval and social reinforcement for their strategies and behaviour. Thus, a new quality of a cultural institution is being created, in which two behaviours take place – of one group of employees – expansion and steering the participants’ behaviours with strong tendencies of imposing, managing and controlling, and on the other hand – animators of culture. Interactions between the animators and the participants are based on respecting sovereignty of entities and recognition of their autonomy. These interactions assume the form of a discourse and the animator’s strategies of behaviour are of communicative character, which focus on inspiring, negotiating, supporting, co-operation, favouring [see Schindler, 2000]. Thus, one can say that in the present situation a permanent game for a game in culture institutions is still taking place and some actors want it to be a traditional community centre and others want to create a centre of social-cultural animation, which would be a place of creative activity rather than behaviourist training, supporting an individual development rather than collectivism of acting, emancipation of an individual rather than adjustment to the requirements of an external entity, participation in decision making rather than authoritative managing, readiness to react to individual needs rather than extracting people’ resignation from them in the name of ‘the common good’. Empirical evidence for the mentioned permanent ‘games for a game’, which nowadays are played by animators between each other, between them and the participants, between
Organizing big propaganda events for years realized according to one scenario, which have only different plots – the subjects of propaganda, can be a good example.
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3
75
Organizing big propaganda events for years realized according to one scenario, which have only different plots – the subjects of propaganda, can be a good example.
them the quarters for their exclusive use. There are many similar dilemmas in social life, in an animator’s work, and their descriptions are provided both by observation and daily newspapers. The descriptions show that in this case the mechanism of the free market is the least effective in the sense that the market gives rise to demand for definite services, these services according to the law of the market are performed and thus the needs of certain individuals or social groups are fulfilled, but side effects of the process of fulfilling the needs lead to conflict situations. If an animator gained personal authority among these people, not only in a specialist field but also in the moral sphere, he will not have difficulties with solving conflicts. It will be not so if he/she has no such authority. Then the animator himself can experience a serious dilemma. He/she can use his domineering prerogatives resulting from the status, i.e. use the authority of the social position. Thus, by virtue of his/her competence or employment in some institution he/she ‘can decide for others, demand something from others, give them orders and when it is necessary force them to be obedient’ [Sztompka, op. cit., p. 375]. Having such prerogatives he/she can solve a conflict in a short time. However, the problem is that making use of them will undermine the idea of animation. How an animator will solve various everyday dilemmas will result in either strengthening of his/her personal authority or its weakening, and even losing. The issue of animators’ activity looks a little different if we place it in the institutional space. This space means an area in which consolidating of the rules of acting takes place. These rules are created in two ways, either on the macropolitical level and then more or less active individuals conform to them, or they are rules created in everyday practice of individuals, social groups and organizations. The institutional space gives individuals and groups possibilities of acting and also creates conditions limiting these possibilities. However, there is a fundamental difference between the role of institutions in the so-called stable periods and the periods of radical changes. ‘In the first situation institutions have a limiting role for playing games on various levels of social life. In the other situation a game is played for the shape of these games. Institutions leave their role of a limiting factor and a stabilizer for the game and assume the role of the subject and
the aim of this game’ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., p. 39]. Such games for the rules of the game, in the case of cultural animation took place in the first period of the system changes at the beginning of the 90s and have been lasting up till now. After 2002 we can still observe that the inherited system of institutional dissemination of culture in the form of community centres, clubs or common rooms regulating actors’ behaviour is still so strong that the employees of the mentioned institutions act there in a standard and routine way, organizing identical forms of participation in culture to those from the period of the People’s Republic of Poland, showing unchanged attitude to thier tasks at work3. But at the same time in these institutions there appear animators, who compete with other employees trying to gain approval and social reinforcement for their strategies and behaviour. Thus, a new quality of a cultural institution is being created, in which two behaviours take place – of one group of employees – expansion and steering the participants’ behaviours with strong tendencies of imposing, managing and controlling, and on the other hand – animators of culture. Interactions between the animators and the participants are based on respecting sovereignty of entities and recognition of their autonomy. These interactions assume the form of a discourse and the animator’s strategies of behaviour are of communicative character, which focus on inspiring, negotiating, supporting, co-operation, favouring [see Schindler, 2000]. Thus, one can say that in the present situation a permanent game for a game in culture institutions is still taking place and some actors want it to be a traditional community centre and others want to create a centre of social-cultural animation, which would be a place of creative activity rather than behaviourist training, supporting an individual development rather than collectivism of acting, emancipation of an individual rather than adjustment to the requirements of an external entity, participation in decision making rather than authoritative managing, readiness to react to individual needs rather than extracting people’ resignation from them in the name of ‘the common good’. Empirical evidence for the mentioned permanent ‘games for a game’, which nowadays are played by animators between each other, between them and the participants, between
Then we face a question, whether an animator, even of a charismatic authority, who operates in an institutional space, should by all means try to shape this institution according to his vision, being convinced that only the spirit of animation actions and an animation attitude of every actor may provide each of the individual actors with authentic, active and creative participation in culture; or whether he should strive to secure for himself and his adherents a guaranteed place for being together, on a par with other social actors, whose actions may bring about equally valuable effects observed both in the sphere of personal feelings and experience, and in the social sphere. Should we at all costs try to realize the aim of animation which is supporting of an active role of man, who realizes himself in the social sphere by selecting values from a wide spectrum offered by the market and by searching for them his/her own means of expression, or should we rather accept the concept that there exist externallycontrolled people who may develop only when an external entity has not only indicated them a way of development but also clearly presented a strategy of covering each of its sections, and will systematically control whether the wanderer does not stray off the marked out path. Personally I opt for plurality of offers of cultural activity and I recognize the value of both the proposition presented by culture-educational employees, and by animators of culture. In the former case we are dealing with the existence of man in culture, in the latter one we are confronted with intensity of existence of an individual in a given culture, supported by an animator in fulfilling his/her subjective and active role, and realizing himself/herself through personal activity, as well as through the choices of values from among the available cultural repertoire, and finding for them their own forms of expression. I hope that such an understanding by animators of culture of their own social role will help them avoid getting entangled in the dilemma-type of situations.
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them and the representatives of the authorities, was provided by the research study, the results of which are presented in the monograph entitled With the stream and against the stream [Kargul, Słowińska, Gancarz, 2004]. The study shows that elaboration of the rules of a game is not always influenced by animators, who have personal authority but it is an authority of a monomorphic character, which does not mean a possibility to exert an influence on representatives of different institutions in local communities. The winners are people with personal authority of a polymorphic character, unless another person, not necessarily an animator, also exerting a polymorphic influence on a bigger community, appears. Then the animator has to measure swords with his/her rival, and the result of this confrontation is not always favourable for the animator. Unless the animator has a charismatic authority. Charisma is defined by sociologists as “defining and interpreting certain abilities, talents or skills of an individual as unusual, extraordinary, just superhuman. Certain virtues of an individual – moral, intellectual, organizing, managerial – are noticed, emphasized, idealized by the community, which becomes a social basis of charismas then. Nobody has a charisma in their own right but only when they find followers, advocates, fans, enthusiasts, the faithful. To gain charisma, one should carry away, attract, seduce others [...] win social resonance. Such attributing of charisma to an individual means giving him/her rights to decide for the community and at the same time being ready to comply with his/her decisions indiscriminately” [Sztompka, op. cit, p. 379]. In this connection K. Olbrycht makes a very apt remark, that: “However, at the same time one should remember that a charismatic authority is often suspected, and not without reason, of using in fact his/her own ‘hidden programme’ aiming at gaining power over other people, who easily get subordinated or avoid responsibility” [Olbrycht, op. cit, p. 31].
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Then we face a question, whether an animator, even of a charismatic authority, who operates in an institutional space, should by all means try to shape this institution according to his vision, being convinced that only the spirit of animation actions and an animation attitude of every actor may provide each of the individual actors with authentic, active and creative participation in culture; or whether he should strive to secure for himself and his adherents a guaranteed place for being together, on a par with other social actors, whose actions may bring about equally valuable effects observed both in the sphere of personal feelings and experience, and in the social sphere. Should we at all costs try to realize the aim of animation which is supporting of an active role of man, who realizes himself in the social sphere by selecting values from a wide spectrum offered by the market and by searching for them his/her own means of expression, or should we rather accept the concept that there exist externallycontrolled people who may develop only when an external entity has not only indicated them a way of development but also clearly presented a strategy of covering each of its sections, and will systematically control whether the wanderer does not stray off the marked out path. Personally I opt for plurality of offers of cultural activity and I recognize the value of both the proposition presented by culture-educational employees, and by animators of culture. In the former case we are dealing with the existence of man in culture, in the latter one we are confronted with intensity of existence of an individual in a given culture, supported by an animator in fulfilling his/her subjective and active role, and realizing himself/herself through personal activity, as well as through the choices of values from among the available cultural repertoire, and finding for them their own forms of expression. I hope that such an understanding by animators of culture of their own social role will help them avoid getting entangled in the dilemma-type of situations.
76
them and the representatives of the authorities, was provided by the research study, the results of which are presented in the monograph entitled With the stream and against the stream [Kargul, Słowińska, Gancarz, 2004]. The study shows that elaboration of the rules of a game is not always influenced by animators, who have personal authority but it is an authority of a monomorphic character, which does not mean a possibility to exert an influence on representatives of different institutions in local communities. The winners are people with personal authority of a polymorphic character, unless another person, not necessarily an animator, also exerting a polymorphic influence on a bigger community, appears. Then the animator has to measure swords with his/her rival, and the result of this confrontation is not always favourable for the animator. Unless the animator has a charismatic authority. Charisma is defined by sociologists as “defining and interpreting certain abilities, talents or skills of an individual as unusual, extraordinary, just superhuman. Certain virtues of an individual – moral, intellectual, organizing, managerial – are noticed, emphasized, idealized by the community, which becomes a social basis of charismas then. Nobody has a charisma in their own right but only when they find followers, advocates, fans, enthusiasts, the faithful. To gain charisma, one should carry away, attract, seduce others [...] win social resonance. Such attributing of charisma to an individual means giving him/her rights to decide for the community and at the same time being ready to comply with his/her decisions indiscriminately” [Sztompka, op. cit, p. 379]. In this connection K. Olbrycht makes a very apt remark, that: “However, at the same time one should remember that a charismatic authority is often suspected, and not without reason, of using in fact his/her own ‘hidden programme’ aiming at gaining power over other people, who easily get subordinated or avoid responsibility” [Olbrycht, op. cit, p. 31].
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Literature Giza-Poleszczuk A., Marody M., Rychard A., Strategie i system, Warszawa 2002. Kargul J. Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić dylematy? [in:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, ed. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2001. Kargul J., Słowińska S., Gancarz M., Z prądem i pod prąd. Lubuskie instytucje kultury w nowym ładzie społecznym, Oficyna Wydawnicza U.Z., Zielona Góra, 2004. Kargulowa A., Ferenz K., Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w dzia-
Merton R. K., Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna, PWN Warszawa, 1982. Olbrycht K., O roli przykładu, wzoru, autorytetu mistrza w wychowaniu osobowym, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń, 2007. Schindler A., O istocie animacji [in:] Animacja społeczno-kulturalna wobec przemian cywilizacyjnych. Animacja – animator i jego kształcenie, ed. K. Hrycyk, Wrocław, 2000. Słownik języka polskiego ed. M. Szymczaka, PWN Warszawa, 1978. Sztompka P., Socjologia. Analiza społeczeństwa, Wydawnictwo Znak, 2002.
łalności kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa, 1991.
łalności kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa, 1991. twa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w dziaKargulowa A., Ferenz K., Społeczny kontekst poradnicGóra, 2004. społecznym, Oficyna Wydawnicza U.Z., Zielona prąd. Lubuskie instytucje kultury w nowym ładzie Kargul J., Słowińska S., Gancarz M., Z prądem i pod Lublin 2001. ed. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS, dzić dylematy? [in:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, Kargul J. Czy działalność animatorów kultury może roi system, Warszawa 2002. Giza-Poleszczuk A., Marody M., Rychard A., Strategie
Literature Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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dawnictwo Znak, 2002. Sztompka P., Socjologia. Analiza społeczeństwa, WyWarszawa, 1978. Słownik języka polskiego ed. M. Szymczaka, PWN Wrocław, 2000. Animacja – animator i jego kształcenie, ed. K. Hrycyk, no-kulturalna wobec przemian cywilizacyjnych. Schindler A., O istocie animacji [in:] Animacja społeczMarszałek, Toruń, 2007. w wychowaniu osobowym, Wydawnictwo Adam Olbrycht K., O roli przykładu, wzoru, autorytetu mistrza PWN Warszawa, 1982. Merton R. K., Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna,
Major Aspects of Development of Music Management Education
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Ivars Bērziņš
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and within each of these groups there is a whole spectrum of users, beginning form notorious soup “burners” to true masters of the culinary art. Everyone cooks according to one’s individual understanding of the content of the book and one’s earlier experience. Similarly, for each method of teaching we may distinguish diversified ways of thinking requiring diversified instruction. Every way may lead to obtaining good results, however, knowledge or competence cannot be obtained by forcing only one method. Usually a success depends on finding a compromise. The profile of culture and music manager’s tasks also has not been clearly defined yet. Our society does not have any clean-cut image of this profession. This fact results from the country’s political and historical tradition, specific understanding of culture, etc. It is by no means an unfavourable situation, as it creates an opportunity to work out and use new variants and trends, and test them within concrete conceptions of programs of teaching. When, twelve years ago, we implemented in Latvia a syllabus in management of culture, we adopted a model by the well known teacher and manager of culture, Peter Bendixen – “teaching”, “training”, and “practice”. MM Teaching – is creation, didactic preparation and presentation of the fundamental knowledge indispensable for acquiring basic qualifications, MM Training – is an offer of further education aimed at strengthening or improving of the acquired skills (basic qualifications), or orientated to a concrete, usually practical area of application MM Practice – is an ability to obtain broader qualifications, designated for widening and deepening experience in the context of concrete activity. Inclusion of practical projects into the syllabus is very important. The digital media revolution has brought not only changes of conditions of art production in which a creator of music works but also enabled
O
rdering our knowledge of the world has always been the classical virtue of study and philosophy. Already Aristotle (ca. 384 BC–322 BC), the medieval scholastics represented by Thomas of Aquin (1225–1274), and others, like Arthur Schopenhauer (1778–1860), sought ways to convey knowledge to the society and to describe objects in a diversified manner, considering particular needs of an individual. We may best illustrate this by an overheard example of cookbooks. There are many types of cookbooks. They are written for various groups of readers, and depending on the personal preferences of the latter, they are either approved of or disapproved. MM Cookbooks for the theoreticians: written by physicists or chemists. These books focus on the physical processes undergoing during preparation and of food and its assimilation by the human body. Explanation of the physicalchemical nature of the processes allows the readers to prepare the meals based on the information which suits their way of thinking. MM Cookbooks for the formalists: focused on the rules governing cooking. It suffices to follow the algorithms to produce the “programmed” delicacies. This type of books is preferred by the cooks who consider rules as the key aspect of cooking. MM Cookbooks for the classifiers: focused not on the procedures of processing food, but on the ingredients. They concentrate not so much on the rules describing the process, but rather on the quantities. Cooks preferring this type of books think in terms of quantifying material. MM Cookbooks for the party animals: focused on events, such as birthdays, family gatherings, weekends spent together with friends, etc. This type of cookbooks are written to stimulate motivation. Those who use them are stimulated by compositions of food prepared for various occasions. Each type of cookbook has its own clientele,
Ivars Bērziņš graduate from the Latvian Academy of Music. He obtained his doctoral degree at the National Conservatoire in Sankt Petersburg. Graduated from Management of Culture at the Hamburg School of Music Theatre. In 2005 he obtained a doctoral degree at University in Münster on the subject of privatization in the cultural sphere on the example of Latvia. Since 2006 professor of Management of Culture at the Latvian Academy of Culture. Musician, conductor of the Latvian Radio Choir (1978–1986). Laureate of many international choir competitions in Finland, Latvia, Spain.
O
and within each of these groups there is a whole spectrum of users, beginning form notorious soup “burners” to true masters of the culinary art. Everyone cooks according to one’s individual understanding of the content of the book and one’s earlier experience. Similarly, for each method of teaching we may distinguish diversified ways of thinking requiring diversified instruction. Every way may lead to obtaining good results, however, knowledge or competence cannot be obtained by forcing only one method. Usually a success depends on finding a compromise. The profile of culture and music manager’s tasks also has not been clearly defined yet. Our society does not have any clean-cut image of this profession. This fact results from the country’s political and historical tradition, specific understanding of culture, etc. It is by no means an unfavourable situation, as it creates an opportunity to work out and use new variants and trends, and test them within concrete conceptions of programs of teaching. When, twelve years ago, we implemented in Latvia a syllabus in management of culture, we adopted a model by the well known teacher and manager of culture, Peter Bendixen – “teaching”, “training”, and “practice”. MM Teaching – is creation, didactic preparation and presentation of the fundamental knowledge indispensable for acquiring basic qualifications, MM Training – is an offer of further education aimed at strengthening or improving of the acquired skills (basic qualifications), or orientated to a concrete, usually practical area of application MM Practice – is an ability to obtain broader qualifications, designated for widening and deepening experience in the context of concrete activity. Inclusion of practical projects into the syllabus is very important. The digital media revolution has brought not only changes of conditions of art production in which a creator of music works but also enabled
Ivars Bērziņš graduate from the Latvian Academy of Music. He obtained his doctoral degree at the National Conservatoire in Sankt Petersburg. Graduated from Management of Culture at the Hamburg School of Music Theatre. In 2005 he obtained a doctoral degree at University in Münster on the subject of privatization in the cultural sphere on the example of Latvia. Since 2006 professor of Management of Culture at the Latvian Academy of Culture. Musician, conductor of the Latvian Radio Choir (1978–1986). Laureate of many international choir competitions in Finland, Latvia, Spain.
rdering our knowledge of the world has always been the classical virtue of study and philosophy. Already Aristotle (ca. 384 BC–322 BC), the medieval scholastics represented by Thomas of Aquin (1225–1274), and others, like Arthur Schopenhauer (1778–1860), sought ways to convey knowledge to the society and to describe objects in a diversified manner, considering particular needs of an individual. We may best illustrate this by an overheard example of cookbooks. There are many types of cookbooks. They are written for various groups of readers, and depending on the personal preferences of the latter, they are either approved of or disapproved. MM Cookbooks for the theoreticians: written by physicists or chemists. These books focus on the physical processes undergoing during preparation and of food and its assimilation by the human body. Explanation of the physicalchemical nature of the processes allows the readers to prepare the meals based on the information which suits their way of thinking. MM Cookbooks for the formalists: focused on the rules governing cooking. It suffices to follow the algorithms to produce the “programmed” delicacies. This type of books is preferred by the cooks who consider rules as the key aspect of cooking. MM Cookbooks for the classifiers: focused not on the procedures of processing food, but on the ingredients. They concentrate not so much on the rules describing the process, but rather on the quantities. Cooks preferring this type of books think in terms of quantifying material. MM Cookbooks for the party animals: focused on events, such as birthdays, family gatherings, weekends spent together with friends, etc. This type of cookbooks are written to stimulate motivation. Those who use them are stimulated by compositions of food prepared for various occasions. Each type of cookbook has its own clientele,
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Ivars Bērziņš
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Major Aspects of Development of Music Management Education
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
an easier access to new means of music manufacturing and distribution in market structures. The traditional distinction between musicians, producers and music agents is becoming increasingly blurred by the influence of the modern market structure and changing behavior of consumers. As a result, new professional profiles that have appeared are clearer and more specialized. For example, a music manager is one of those professions that are art, scientific activity and business at the same time. Artistic management of human resources on behalf of an artist is one of the music management key functions. Artistic management is both business, scientific activity, art and knowledge of relationships. In our opinion, the music manager profession nowadays becomes an increasing need of that part of society which wants to build their careers in business and music – in the music business environment. Various music professionals are needed in both private and public institutions operating in the field of music management and music production activities. Also a Bulgarian professor Lidia Varbanova talks about culture managers and their classification – administrators, representing interests of national organization and redistribution of government money, producers and agents, largely representing the private sector and NGO oriented to business, in the form of concert organizations, agencies etc. Due to this it appears that the music management becomes a professional industry and leads to the need for a music management education system. But before talking about management we should pay attention to the concept of music and its diversity. It is commonly known that there are different musical directions (such as academic music, popular music, folk music), each with its own history, goals and objectives. The question is whether they can be combined with one another or on the contrary – contrasted. Most frequently classical music is contrasted with popular music. A British cultural theoretician Paul Willis believes that the high-art culture represents everything which is serious and remote from everyday life, which means it should express the absolute nature of human existence values. Creating and understanding of such culture requires effort and a certain level of knowledge. For example, real music is deep, full of meanings, complex, sophisticated and disciplined art, which can be fully enjoyed and understood only if you are educated and properly brought up. On the other hand, popular music and particularly pop music, is only mild, catchy and melodious music. Classical music is art; pop music is just light entertainment.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Pop music is characterized by simplicity, accessibility and similarity of basic elements, which is supposed to be the result of mass production. It is a product of mass consumption. As I have already mentioned, popular music tends to be contrasted with classical music, which historically was the music of the elite and upper strata of society, and also with traditional folk music which was spread in non-commercial way. Thus, it is clear that popular culture is a massproduced commercial music while high-art is a result of individual creative work. Similarly, the culture as national identity, and cultural differences in each nation, which was mentioned in the theory of Johann Gottfried Herder in the second half of the 19th century, is undoubtedly an important factor in the music field. In Latvia’s situation more attention should be paid to the cultural heritage and national identity, which are strongly rooted in music and in various related non-material cultural traditions, such as the Song Festival included in the UNESCO non-material heritage list. This tradition is very strong factor of national identity so it should be part of the policy of national importance and one of the questions in its agenda. Rapid development and enlargement of the scope of the cultural sector in the last couple of decades, creates a strong need for managers of a specific range of activity. Also the music manager profession has its individual domain-specific operational details. Also significant changes are occurring in the national economy. The social and economic paradigms, so common in Europe, are changing and the idea of market liberalization becomes more and more popular. Countries review the functions of these paradigms, defining them from scratch. The central issue of the development of the sphere becomes funding, and possibilities of raising it. Today’s society is spoiled enough to know what it wants. Therefore, looking in the direction of music management would open broad opportunities for music and its creators, and also to organizational operatives of musical events – the music managers, whose task is to be able to target the above-mentioned development trends. All the decisions which are taken at present in various institutions, have impact on at least three elements: 1. Unfulfilled needs and desires of the society; 2. People who are capable of satisfying these needs and ready to do it; 3. Assets, necessary to address the social needs. This refers also to the whole non-profit sector. We no longer face a situation when the existence of the institutions of culture was taken for granted.
79
an easier access to new means of music manufacturing and distribution in market structures. The traditional distinction between musicians, producers and music agents is becoming increasingly blurred by the influence of the modern market structure and changing behavior of consumers. As a result, new professional profiles that have appeared are clearer and more specialized. For example, a music manager is one of those professions that are art, scientific activity and business at the same time. Artistic management of human resources on behalf of an artist is one of the music management key functions. Artistic management is both business, scientific activity, art and knowledge of relationships. In our opinion, the music manager profession nowadays becomes an increasing need of that part of society which wants to build their careers in business and music – in the music business environment. Various music professionals are needed in both private and public institutions operating in the field of music management and music production activities. Also a Bulgarian professor Lidia Varbanova talks about culture managers and their classification – administrators, representing interests of national organization and redistribution of government money, producers and agents, largely representing the private sector and NGO oriented to business, in the form of concert organizations, agencies etc. Due to this it appears that the music management becomes a professional industry and leads to the need for a music management education system. But before talking about management we should pay attention to the concept of music and its diversity. It is commonly known that there are different musical directions (such as academic music, popular music, folk music), each with its own history, goals and objectives. The question is whether they can be combined with one another or on the contrary – contrasted. Most frequently classical music is contrasted with popular music. A British cultural theoretician Paul Willis believes that the high-art culture represents everything which is serious and remote from everyday life, which means it should express the absolute nature of human existence values. Creating and understanding of such culture requires effort and a certain level of knowledge. For example, real music is deep, full of meanings, complex, sophisticated and disciplined art, which can be fully enjoyed and understood only if you are educated and properly brought up. On the other hand, popular music and particularly pop music, is only mild, catchy and melodious music. Classical music is art; pop music is just light entertainment.
79
Pop music is characterized by simplicity, accessibility and similarity of basic elements, which is supposed to be the result of mass production. It is a product of mass consumption. As I have already mentioned, popular music tends to be contrasted with classical music, which historically was the music of the elite and upper strata of society, and also with traditional folk music which was spread in non-commercial way. Thus, it is clear that popular culture is a massproduced commercial music while high-art is a result of individual creative work. Similarly, the culture as national identity, and cultural differences in each nation, which was mentioned in the theory of Johann Gottfried Herder in the second half of the 19th century, is undoubtedly an important factor in the music field. In Latvia’s situation more attention should be paid to the cultural heritage and national identity, which are strongly rooted in music and in various related non-material cultural traditions, such as the Song Festival included in the UNESCO non-material heritage list. This tradition is very strong factor of national identity so it should be part of the policy of national importance and one of the questions in its agenda. Rapid development and enlargement of the scope of the cultural sector in the last couple of decades, creates a strong need for managers of a specific range of activity. Also the music manager profession has its individual domain-specific operational details. Also significant changes are occurring in the national economy. The social and economic paradigms, so common in Europe, are changing and the idea of market liberalization becomes more and more popular. Countries review the functions of these paradigms, defining them from scratch. The central issue of the development of the sphere becomes funding, and possibilities of raising it. Today’s society is spoiled enough to know what it wants. Therefore, looking in the direction of music management would open broad opportunities for music and its creators, and also to organizational operatives of musical events – the music managers, whose task is to be able to target the above-mentioned development trends. All the decisions which are taken at present in various institutions, have impact on at least three elements: 1. Unfulfilled needs and desires of the society; 2. People who are capable of satisfying these needs and ready to do it; 3. Assets, necessary to address the social needs. This refers also to the whole non-profit sector. We no longer face a situation when the existence of the institutions of culture was taken for granted.
80
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The conditions for their functioning are not internal values, but external prospects of positive development, which these institutions may offer, both to individuals and to the whole society. Today a music success largely depends on creating music business and promoting it. The profession of a music manager is for young people that are eager to operate in the music industry, it is a way to develop and try to realize their vision thanks to the basic knowledge they acquired. Through various courses, seminars, work practices included in the educational programme, new music management professionals should be offered to learn variety of music business aspects, such as laws and rights, entrepreneurship basics, forms of contracts, copyright and related rights, artist management and the record industry, etc. Artists managers need basic understanding of the music industry. Without it the manager
will never be familiar with the possibilities that a customer might want. Attainment of business education is a traditional thing, especially in marketing, brand management and sale. Education with emphasis on customary industry may give a very wide and modern business vision that is a rarity in the music industry. Also a very important part is practice in a music management company that would provide an opportunity to develop understanding of management as a business and to build personal contacts in the sphere. Music managers without the basic knowledge are just as unthinkable as without practice. Moreover, the practice should take place directly in an institution related to a given music field or a music project. A manager’s own personal artistic experience is of particular importance. Experience in artistic creation is more effective than talks on the subject of art or terms of creative work. baden: Brockhaus 1972. pub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/49 [26.04.2009].
Werke wyd. przez Arthur Hübscher, 3rd Edition, Wies-
Reflections and new directions// http://moh.sage-
Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde. W: Sämtliche
Counterfactual history, management and organizations:
Schopenhauer, Arthur: Über die vierfache Wurzel des
Allen P. Artist management for the music business. – UK:
Anne Kelly, 1999 – Dublin.
Schopenhauer, Arthur: Über die vierfache Wurzel des
Counterfactual history, management and organizations:
Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde. W: Sämtliche
Reflections and new directions// http://moh.sage-
Werke wyd. przez Arthur Hübscher, 3rd Edition, Wies-
pub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/49 [26.04.2009].
Literature
Elsevier Inc., 2007.
Edition). Freiburg, Basel, Wien: Herder 1976.
& Culture Management. Ed. by Marian Fitzgibbon,
Aristoteles: Physikalische Vorlesung, Paul Gohlke ed.
Ninth edition. – New Yersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. Certo S. C. Modern management: adding digital focus.
Brugger, Walter (ed.): Philosophisches Wörterbuch (17
th
Paderborn: Schöningh 1956.
Clancy P. Skills and Competencies: The Cultural Manager // From Maestro to Manager. Critical issues in Arts
schaften, Wiesbaden 2006.
Bendixen, Peter: Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunst-
// From Maestro to Manager. Critical issues in Arts Clancy P. Skills and Competencies: The Cultural Manager
Ninth edition. – New Yersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.
management. 3rd Edition, VS Verlag für Sozialwissen-
management. 3 Edition, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenrd
& Culture Management. Ed. by Marian Fitzgibbon,
Paderborn: Schöningh 1956. Bendixen, Peter: Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunst-
Elsevier Inc., 2007. Certo S. C. Modern management: adding digital focus.
schaften, Wiesbaden 2006.
Anne Kelly, 1999 – Dublin.
Aristoteles: Physikalische Vorlesung, Paul Gohlke ed.
Edition). Freiburg, Basel, Wien: Herder 1976.
Allen P. Artist management for the music business. – UK:
Brugger, Walter (ed.): Philosophisches Wörterbuch (17th
Literature
baden: Brockhaus 1972.
will never be familiar with the possibilities that a customer might want. Attainment of business education is a traditional thing, especially in marketing, brand management and sale. Education with emphasis on customary industry may give a very wide and modern business vision that is a rarity in the music industry. Also a very important part is practice in a music management company that would provide an opportunity to develop understanding of management as a business and to build personal contacts in the sphere. Music managers without the basic knowledge are just as unthinkable as without practice. Moreover, the practice should take place directly in an institution related to a given music field or a music project. A manager’s own personal artistic experience is of particular importance. Experience in artistic creation is more effective than talks on the subject of art or terms of creative work. Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
The conditions for their functioning are not internal values, but external prospects of positive development, which these institutions may offer, both to individuals and to the whole society. Today a music success largely depends on creating music business and promoting it. The profession of a music manager is for young people that are eager to operate in the music industry, it is a way to develop and try to realize their vision thanks to the basic knowledge they acquired. Through various courses, seminars, work practices included in the educational programme, new music management professionals should be offered to learn variety of music business aspects, such as laws and rights, entrepreneurship basics, forms of contracts, copyright and related rights, artist management and the record industry, etc. Artists managers need basic understanding of the music industry. Without it the manager
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Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Management of Media in the System Approach Bogusław Nierenberg
Introduction
I
t seems that one of the most essential characteristics of the contemporary world is its mediality. Media is not only common but also omnipresent. It is an inseparable element of today’s culture. However, commonness of a phenomenon does not mean its essence is known. It does not mean knowing the laws that govern it, either. It seems that it is so with management of media. In the Polish reality there is no such sub-discipline of management at all, there is not even such a field of studying. Postgraduate studies offered here and there aim at teaching certain definite skills rather than conveying academic knowledge of management of media. The second degree studies of Management of media as a major in the field of Culture studies are introduced for the first time in Poland by the Institute of Culture of the Department of Management and Social Communication of the Jagiellonian University. Post-graduate studies in this field offered by this Institute are of similar academic character. These are the first steps, scientific and organizational, in order to catch up with the countries which are leading in this respect. Two statements of P. Drucker seem to be vital for understanding the essence of management of media: 1. information will be the basic resource of the 21st century; 2. the more common information is, the more valuable it is. While the first one seems to be quite commonly accepted, although the consequences of this statement are not always and not everywhere realized, the second one shakes the foundation of the commonly accepted knowledge concerning economic sciences. In classical economics it is assumed that the rarer a good is, the more precious and vice
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Translation: Marta Białecka
versa. The commonness of a given good lowers its price. Meanwhile P. Drucker turns upside down our traditional understanding of the most cardinal principles of economics, management of media. This apparent contradiction can be explained by the duality of media described already in 1989 by R. Picard and the formula of ‘information buttons’ suggested by the author of this article, which makes it possible to understand the paradox included in Drucker’s statement. It will be discussed in the following part. At the same time, to explain different phenomena referring to management of media, a system methodology was applied, according to which investigated phenomena should be perceived as a whole combined indirectly and directly, because – as it seems – this kind of a description of the reality makes it possible to render the essence of the problem and not only its structure. Unfortunately, many researchers call a description of structures a system, which seems to be an abuse, not only semantic but most of all methodological. Not to refer to negative examples, the author prefers to show a positive one. It is the monograph by Daniel C. Halin and Paolo Mancini entitled Media Systems. Its authors did not limit themselves only to a description of the analysed structures, they tried to get to the core of the essence of the investigated phenomena. A system research is arduous but it makes it possible to get to the core of the phenomenon and formulate conclusions as for its essence. Describing the investigated phenomena the author tried not to lose from the field of vision three key (from the point of view of system research) questions put by R. Ackoff: 1. Why do I see what I see? 2. Why are things such as they are? 3. Why do things change?
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Bogusław Nierenberg professor of the Opole University. Research worker, journalist, economist. He is the head of the Culture Institute, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University and the professor of Journalism and Social Communication at the Opole University. he runs unique in Poland Department of Management and Media Economics, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, JU. He specializes in media and culture economics, media management, trade communication and publicity. He is the author of 7 monographs and dozens scientific articles regarding media, publicity, management and trade communication as well as journalism and journalism and journalistic genres. He is the author of the poem’s volume “Dychotomia uczuć”.
t seems that one of the most essential characteristics of the contemporary world is its mediality. Media is not only common but also omnipresent. It is an inseparable element of today’s culture. However, commonness of a phenomenon does not mean its essence is known. It does not mean knowing the laws that govern it, either. It seems that it is so with management of media. In the Polish reality there is no such sub-discipline of management at all, there is not even such a field of studying. Postgraduate studies offered here and there aim at teaching certain definite skills rather than conveying academic knowledge of management of media. The second degree studies of Management of media as a major in the field of Culture studies are introduced for the first time in Poland by the Institute of Culture of the Department of Management and Social Communication of the Jagiellonian University. Post-graduate studies in this field offered by this Institute are of similar academic character. These are the first steps, scientific and organizational, in order to catch up with the countries which are leading in this respect. Two statements of P. Drucker seem to be vital for understanding the essence of management of media: 1. information will be the basic resource of the 21st century; 2. the more common information is, the more valuable it is. While the first one seems to be quite commonly accepted, although the consequences of this statement are not always and not everywhere realized, the second one shakes the foundation of the commonly accepted knowledge concerning economic sciences. In classical economics it is assumed that the rarer a good is, the more precious and vice
I
Introduction
versa. The commonness of a given good lowers its price. Meanwhile P. Drucker turns upside down our traditional understanding of the most cardinal principles of economics, management of media. This apparent contradiction can be explained by the duality of media described already in 1989 by R. Picard and the formula of ‘information buttons’ suggested by the author of this article, which makes it possible to understand the paradox included in Drucker’s statement. It will be discussed in the following part. At the same time, to explain different phenomena referring to management of media, a system methodology was applied, according to which investigated phenomena should be perceived as a whole combined indirectly and directly, because – as it seems – this kind of a description of the reality makes it possible to render the essence of the problem and not only its structure. Unfortunately, many researchers call a description of structures a system, which seems to be an abuse, not only semantic but most of all methodological. Not to refer to negative examples, the author prefers to show a positive one. It is the monograph by Daniel C. Halin and Paolo Mancini entitled Media Systems. Its authors did not limit themselves only to a description of the analysed structures, they tried to get to the core of the essence of the investigated phenomena. A system research is arduous but it makes it possible to get to the core of the phenomenon and formulate conclusions as for its essence. Describing the investigated phenomena the author tried not to lose from the field of vision three key (from the point of view of system research) questions put by R. Ackoff: 1. Why do I see what I see? 2. Why are things such as they are? 3. Why do things change?
Bogusław Nierenberg
Management of Media in the System Approach
Translation: Marta Białecka
Bogusław Nierenberg professor of the Opole University. Research worker, journalist, economist. He is the head of the Culture Institute, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, Jagiellonian University and the professor of Journalism and Social Communication at the Opole University. he runs unique in Poland Department of Management and Media Economics, Faculty of Management and Social Communication, JU. He specializes in media and culture economics, media management, trade communication and publicity. He is the author of 7 monographs and dozens scientific articles regarding media, publicity, management and trade communication as well as journalism and journalism and journalistic genres. He is the author of the poem’s volume “Dychotomia uczuć”.
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The scope and the subject of management of media
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
U
ccording to the theory of systems, every organisation takes from the environment four basic kinds of expenditures and resources [ibidem, p. 37]: 1. people 2. money 3. things 4. information. In this context one should decide which elements of business and public management would be appropriate for considerations connected with management of media. Research conducted within the economics of media entitles us to make a statement that all media, regardless of their character and carriers, have two functions to fulfil [Picard, op. cit., p. 17-18]: 1. Social mission; 2. Commercial. It should also be pointed out that media organisations provide not only definite goods or render definite services but also have the ability to focus attention on themselves, which is rare in the contemporary world. Because of this dualism one should treat a medial good as a specific market good (see drawing 1 Media as a market good or service). With a certain simplification we can assume that this dualism of media consists in offering the same product/service on two different markets at the same time [ibidem, p. 29-39]:
of media it would be a media good. This specific good is produced by a media enterprise. This good is of dual nature (this issue will be discussed in more detail further in the article). The pioneer of the research in this sphere is Robert G. Picard [see Picard, 1989]. In Poland the issues concerning the economics of media are dealt with first of all by Tadeusz Kowalski, Bogdan Jung and the author of this article [por. Kowalski 1998; T. Kowalski, Jung, 2006; Nierenberg, 2006; Nierenberg, 2007], and the issues of management in media are examined by the above-mentioned persons and Jan Beliczyński [Beliczyński, 2005; Nierenberg, 2007; Kowalski, 2008]. Other authors do it occasionally and these spheres do not constitute the main trend of their research studies. Thus, management of media would be a process in which this dual good would be subject to definite actions. According to Ricky Griffin it would be “a set of actions (comprising planning and taking decisions, organising, leading, i.e. managing people and controlling) directed to resources of the organisation (...) and performed with an intention of achieving the aims of the organisation in a efficient and effective way” [Griffin, 1999, p. 38].
A
A media good as a subject of management
82
A media good as a subject of management
A
sually the term management is associated with commercialism, with organizations expecting profit. Yet Frederic W. Taylor in his speech in the American Congress in 1912 speaking about management used the example of Elton Mayo’s clinic, an organization not expecting profit. And it was F. W. Taylor who was the creator of the notion scientific management. Also the notion principles of management was used for the first time in reference to an organization which did not have commercial features – the American army, and it was used by Elihu Root, secretary of war in Theodor Roosevelt’s government. In the USA the term management in the period of the great crisis had bad connotations. To avoid bad associations the term public administration was introduced – which in fact meant management in the public sector [Drucker, 2000, p. 6]. After World War II the term management came back to the commonly used terminology, although until now there exists a view that management refers first of all to business management. Yet according to P. Drucker “this thesis is wrong, and so is the statement that e.g. medicine is limited only to obstetrics” [ibidem, p. 7]. A contemporary manager should concentrate on efficiency and achieving results, and to do this he needs knowledge and skills from various disciplines [Drucker, 2002, p. 29], without particular wondering what the difference between business management and non-business management is. In Drucker’s opinion 90% of the problems which an organisation deals with are of a general nature, and the remaining 10% are determined by mission, history, culture and terminology specific for a given organisation [Drucker, 2000, p. 8]. Similar views are held also by other scholars [see Ansoff, 1985, p. 33; Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, 2004, p. 80; Krzyżanowski, 1992, p. 231-232]. Both public and commercial organisations offer private or public goods to present and potential consumers [por. Owsiak, 1997, p. 19-25; Bednarczyk, 2001, p. 18-22]. The simplest way to differentiate between them is to make an assumption that a private good is the one that can be consumed by one person and it cannot be consumed by someone else at the same time [Begg, Fischer, Dornbusch, 2003, p. 99-100] (e.g. a cake, a shirt or a bicycle), and a public good can be consumed by many people at the same time, without the detriment of any of them (the air we breathe with, the public health service or the country’s defences). Therefore we can state that the subject of management is some definite good. In the case
ccording to the theory of systems, every organisation takes from the environment four basic kinds of expenditures and resources [ibidem, p. 37]: 1. people 2. money 3. things 4. information. In this context one should decide which elements of business and public management would be appropriate for considerations connected with management of media. Research conducted within the economics of media entitles us to make a statement that all media, regardless of their character and carriers, have two functions to fulfil [Picard, op. cit., p. 17-18]: 1. Social mission; 2. Commercial. It should also be pointed out that media organisations provide not only definite goods or render definite services but also have the ability to focus attention on themselves, which is rare in the contemporary world. Because of this dualism one should treat a medial good as a specific market good (see drawing 1 Media as a market good or service). With a certain simplification we can assume that this dualism of media consists in offering the same product/service on two different markets at the same time [ibidem, p. 29-39]:
U
of media it would be a media good. This specific good is produced by a media enterprise. This good is of dual nature (this issue will be discussed in more detail further in the article). The pioneer of the research in this sphere is Robert G. Picard [see Picard, 1989]. In Poland the issues concerning the economics of media are dealt with first of all by Tadeusz Kowalski, Bogdan Jung and the author of this article [por. Kowalski 1998; T. Kowalski, Jung, 2006; Nierenberg, 2006; Nierenberg, 2007], and the issues of management in media are examined by the above-mentioned persons and Jan Beliczyński [Beliczyński, 2005; Nierenberg, 2007; Kowalski, 2008]. Other authors do it occasionally and these spheres do not constitute the main trend of their research studies. Thus, management of media would be a process in which this dual good would be subject to definite actions. According to Ricky Griffin it would be “a set of actions (comprising planning and taking decisions, organising, leading, i.e. managing people and controlling) directed to resources of the organisation (...) and performed with an intention of achieving the aims of the organisation in a efficient and effective way” [Griffin, 1999, p. 38].
sually the term management is associated with commercialism, with organizations expecting profit. Yet Frederic W. Taylor in his speech in the American Congress in 1912 speaking about management used the example of Elton Mayo’s clinic, an organization not expecting profit. And it was F. W. Taylor who was the creator of the notion scientific management. Also the notion principles of management was used for the first time in reference to an organization which did not have commercial features – the American army, and it was used by Elihu Root, secretary of war in Theodor Roosevelt’s government. In the USA the term management in the period of the great crisis had bad connotations. To avoid bad associations the term public administration was introduced – which in fact meant management in the public sector [Drucker, 2000, p. 6]. After World War II the term management came back to the commonly used terminology, although until now there exists a view that management refers first of all to business management. Yet according to P. Drucker “this thesis is wrong, and so is the statement that e.g. medicine is limited only to obstetrics” [ibidem, p. 7]. A contemporary manager should concentrate on efficiency and achieving results, and to do this he needs knowledge and skills from various disciplines [Drucker, 2002, p. 29], without particular wondering what the difference between business management and non-business management is. In Drucker’s opinion 90% of the problems which an organisation deals with are of a general nature, and the remaining 10% are determined by mission, history, culture and terminology specific for a given organisation [Drucker, 2000, p. 8]. Similar views are held also by other scholars [see Ansoff, 1985, p. 33; Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, 2004, p. 80; Krzyżanowski, 1992, p. 231-232]. Both public and commercial organisations offer private or public goods to present and potential consumers [por. Owsiak, 1997, p. 19-25; Bednarczyk, 2001, p. 18-22]. The simplest way to differentiate between them is to make an assumption that a private good is the one that can be consumed by one person and it cannot be consumed by someone else at the same time [Begg, Fischer, Dornbusch, 2003, p. 99-100] (e.g. a cake, a shirt or a bicycle), and a public good can be consumed by many people at the same time, without the detriment of any of them (the air we breathe with, the public health service or the country’s defences). Therefore we can state that the subject of management is some definite good. In the case
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The scope and the subject of management of media
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1. Media market, 2. Advertisement market. R. Picard’s economic view of media causes a reflex of objection in people who are not familiar with its essence. How is it possible – they say – that for example the BBC has apart from a social function also a commercial role, if it does not broadcast advertisements? Responding to such accusations one should use CTP (cost per thousand) index – the cost of getting to a thousand of recipients of a given advertisement. Let us imagine a programme broadcast by the BBC, which is being watched by three million viewers. Can these three millions watch a programme of the commercial television at the same time? Of course, they can’t. Therefore, if there were not this programme and the BBC, a part of the viewers – may be a considerable one – would probably watch the programme of the commercial television. Thereby its audience would increase, ergo the CTP index would go down. And this is what advertisers are vitally interested in. Thus, the BBC, although it does not broadcast commercials it has also a commercial role on the media market. The division suggested by R. Picard has farreaching consequences. Because it means that media are not ‘ordinary’ enterprises, which are only to bring profit to their owners. Therefore, it seems that some researchers claimed a little prematurely that “Mass media in the capitalist system, with few exceptions referring to public media, are normal production enterprises” [Goban-Klas, 1999, p. 151]. D. McQuail says straight: “Media are not a business like any other, because of the social interest” [McQuail, 2007, p. 242]. It also seems that the dualism of media, indicated by R. Picard, referring first of all to the content (content product) and the economic aspect (for advertisers) also lets us state that it is not a business like all the other ones. The dual depiction of the media market suggested by R. Picard, owing to new phenomena observed on the media market, should be – as it seems – modified. A more precise analysis of the media market directs us towards a more detailed distinction of the offered goods. It seems that the dual division of goods and services should be replaced by the three-part division (see drawing 2 Three-part division of the media market). If, in the case of commercial media enterprises, the basic issue is such management of the organisation that both the owners (shareholders) and the recipients’ interests should be retained and respected. It is sometimes an assumption difficult to put into practice, since there are situations when the social interest and the owners’ interest are divergent. It concerns especially small media enterprises, whose economic existence
83
in a given area. It can be both a territorial selfgovernment unit and the only enterprise acting in a given area. In the case of public media (usually there are electronic media) the basic management issue is making these media independent of political influence. In general the political interest is different from the social interest. D. C. Hallin and P. Mancini suggested the following system division of media models: 1. Mediterranean or of polarized pluralism; 2. North and Central European or of democratic corporationism; 3. North Atlantic or liberal [see Hallin, Mancini, 2007, p. 66-76]. It seems that the Polish media model is close to the Mediterranean model (of polarized pluralism), in which the model of management of electronic media is subordinate to a political process, characterized by strong influence of the government or the parliament on media [ibidem]. From the point of view of the issues considered here the problem which seems to be essential is whether in the situation of this organisational and Source: B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, p. 93.
Offering a media good or service
Offering a media good or service and an access for advertisers
Offering an access for advertisers
Market of media goods and services Drawing 2. Three-part division of the media market Source: R. G. Piccard, Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage Publications, Newbury Park – London – New Delhi 1989, p. 18; T. Kowalski, Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty działalności środków komunikowania masowego, Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX, Warszawa 1998, p. 30; B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, p. 92.
Access to recipients (for advertisers)
Media good – service (contents of media)
Market of media goods and services
depends for example only advertiser acting Drawing 1 Mediaonasthe a market good or service
1. Media market, 2. Advertisement market. R. Picard’s economic view of media causes a reflex of objection in people who are not familiar with its essence. How is it possible – they say – that for example the BBC has apart from a social function also a commercial role, if it does not broadcast advertisements? Responding to such accusations one should use CTP (cost per thousand) index – the cost of getting to a thousand of recipients of a given advertisement. Let us imagine a programme broadcast by the BBC, which is being watched by three million viewers. Can these three millions watch a programme of the commercial television at the same time? Of course, they can’t. Therefore, if there were not this programme and the BBC, a part of the viewers – may be a considerable one – would probably watch the programme of the commercial television. Thereby its audience would increase, ergo the CTP index would go down. And this is what advertisers are vitally interested in. Thus, the BBC, although it does not broadcast commercials it has also a commercial role on the media market. The division suggested by R. Picard has farreaching consequences. Because it means that media are not ‘ordinary’ enterprises, which are only to bring profit to their owners. Therefore, it seems that some researchers claimed a little prematurely that “Mass media in the capitalist system, with few exceptions referring to public media, are normal production enterprises” [Goban-Klas, 1999, p. 151]. D. McQuail says straight: “Media are not a business like any other, because of the social interest” [McQuail, 2007, p. 242]. It also seems that the dualism of media, indicated by R. Picard, referring first of all to the content (content product) and the economic aspect (for advertisers) also lets us state that it is not a business like all the other ones. The dual depiction of the media market suggested by R. Picard, owing to new phenomena observed on the media market, should be – as it seems – modified. A more precise analysis of the media market directs us towards a more detailed distinction of the offered goods. It seems that the dual division of goods and services should be replaced by the three-part division (see drawing 2 Three-part division of the media market). If, in the case of commercial media enterprises, the basic issue is such management of the organisation that both the owners (shareholders) and the recipients’ interests should be retained and respected. It is sometimes an assumption difficult to put into practice, since there are situations when the social interest and the owners’ interest are divergent. It concerns especially small media enterprises, whose economic existence
depends for example only advertiser acting Drawing 1 Mediaonasthe a market good or service Market of media goods and services
Media good – service (contents of media)
Access to recipients (for advertisers)
Source: R. G. Piccard, Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage Publications, Newbury Park – London – New Delhi 1989, p. 18; T. Kowalski, Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty działalności środków komunikowania masowego, Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX, Warszawa 1998, p. 30; B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, p. 92.
Drawing 2. Three-part division of the media market Market of media goods and services
Offering a media good or service and an access for advertisers
Offering a media good or service
Offering an access for advertisers
Source: B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, p. 93.
in a given area. It can be both a territorial selfgovernment unit and the only enterprise acting in a given area. In the case of public media (usually there are electronic media) the basic management issue is making these media independent of political influence. In general the political interest is different from the social interest. D. C. Hallin and P. Mancini suggested the following system division of media models: 1. Mediterranean or of polarized pluralism; 2. N orth and Central European or of democratic corporationism; 3. North Atlantic or liberal [see Hallin, Mancini, 2007, p. 66-76]. It seems that the Polish media model is close to the Mediterranean model (of polarized pluralism), in which the model of management of electronic media is subordinate to a political process, characterized by strong influence of the government or the parliament on media [ibidem]. From the point of view of the issues considered here the problem which seems to be essential is whether in the situation of this organisational and
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subjective dualism, management of a media enterprise (it concerns especially public enterprises) requires special forms and management tools. Its solving requires first of all defining tasks to do (the so-called mission) and understanding the essence of public management.
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Management in public media organisations
84
A
nalysing economic aspects of the activity of media and media organisations appeared earlier than studying the processes connected with management of media. It was similar with the classic science of management, which was codified only on the turn of the 19th century [Piotrowski, 2004, p. 621], although management processes are as old as the civilization itself [Pringle, Starr, 2006, p. 3]. The young, not fully crystallized research field which management of media is, appeared following economics of media. Some researchers dealing with these problems claim that connecting research on economics of media and management of media is beneficial [see Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2006, p. 2-7; Kowalski, 2008, p. 3638.], because “strict separation of economics from management is not possible” [Kowalski, 2008, p. 36]. This last statement is undisputed, however it seems that like scientific management separated from classic economics, similarly management of media should be separated from economics of media. It is necessary to create separate research tools and researchers, who will deal with this research field. Of course the borderline between management of media and economics of media will be blurred, but still it will exist. In Poland, additionally the separation of management of media and economics of media will be connected with the location of public media and problems accompanying them. It seems that Polish researchers dealing with economics of media, in some natural way will turn to commercial media, finding multitude of research problems there, and those who are interested in management problems will rather look for research areas in the sphere of public media. Maybe in a longer time perspective it will change, but the next years seem to determine such a differentiation of research areas. It also seems that in the sphere of management of public media one of the main tasks will be carrying out their basic tasks, which means what we call the mission of public media. Public organisations usually offer public goods. We can distinguish two categories of such subjects [Bednarczyk, 2001, p. 19.]: 1. Public institutions sensu stricto;
2. Public institutions sensu lato. Institutions of the first kind comprise: the state and self-government administration, the army, the police, etc. They offer public goods sensu stricto. Public goods sensu lato are offered by: schools, libraries, theatres, museums, health protection institutions, sports organisations, etc. However, in the case of media (some of them) we can speak only about their ‘quasi-public character’ [Kowalski, 1998, p. 32], because a public good as an economic category should fulfil three conditions [ibidem, p. 23]: 1. Consuming a public good by one person does not restrict its consumption by another person; 2. Consuming a public good by one person does not exclude its consumption by another person; 3. It is not possible to resign from consuming a public good. According to T. Kowalski, no media fulfil the third condition. And this is what determines a quasi-public character of media [ibidem, p. 32]. However, from the point of view of management of public institutions the most essential are sources of financing and sources of power. In the case of public institutions sensu stricto proceeds are constituted by public funds and a political mandate of the group who won the elections. In the case of public institutions sensu lato sources of financing can be mixed: public and/or private, and the source of power is ownership: public and/or private. From the point of view of the considered issues it is important to define the term ‘enterprise’, and to be exact a particular case which is a ‘public enterprise’. In the European Union’s law it has been assumed that an enterprise is: ‘a subject (entity) pursuing an activity for the purpose of the market’ [Emmerich, 1999, p. 666]. And it does not matter whether a given subject is subject to the public or private law [Dudzik, 2002, p. 137]. Pursuant to the union regulations, presumption of exerting dominant influence on an enterprise has been assumed as a cardinal rule. This rule is applied in one, two or three cases, each separately or together [ibidem, p. 174-175]: 1. Public authorities have a bigger part of the initial capital of the enterprise; 2. Public authorities control most of the votes falling to the stock (shares) issued by the enterprise; 3. Public authorities can appoint over a half of the members of the administrative, managing or supervising bodies of the enterprise. In the context of these regulations the institutions managing Polish public media, mentioned in articles 22-28 of the law on the radio and television [Law of 29.12.1992 on the radio and television
A
nalysing economic aspects of the activity of media and media organisations appeared earlier than studying the processes connected with management of media. It was similar with the classic science of management, which was codified only on the turn of the 19th century [Piotrowski, 2004, p. 621], although management processes are as old as the civilization itself [Pringle, Starr, 2006, p. 3]. The young, not fully crystallized research field which management of media is, appeared following economics of media. Some researchers dealing with these problems claim that connecting research on economics of media and management of media is beneficial [see Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2006, p. 2-7; Kowalski, 2008, p. 3638.], because “strict separation of economics from management is not possible” [Kowalski, 2008, p. 36]. This last statement is undisputed, however it seems that like scientific management separated from classic economics, similarly management of media should be separated from economics of media. It is necessary to create separate research tools and researchers, who will deal with this research field. Of course the borderline between management of media and economics of media will be blurred, but still it will exist. In Poland, additionally the separation of management of media and economics of media will be connected with the location of public media and problems accompanying them. It seems that Polish researchers dealing with economics of media, in some natural way will turn to commercial media, finding multitude of research problems there, and those who are interested in management problems will rather look for research areas in the sphere of public media. Maybe in a longer time perspective it will change, but the next years seem to determine such a differentiation of research areas. It also seems that in the sphere of management of public media one of the main tasks will be carrying out their basic tasks, which means what we call the mission of public media. Public organisations usually offer public goods. We can distinguish two categories of such subjects [Bednarczyk, 2001, p. 19.]: 1. Public institutions sensu stricto;
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Management in public media organisations
2. Public institutions sensu lato. Institutions of the first kind comprise: the state and self-government administration, the army, the police, etc. They offer public goods sensu stricto. Public goods sensu lato are offered by: schools, libraries, theatres, museums, health protection institutions, sports organisations, etc. However, in the case of media (some of them) we can speak only about their ‘quasi-public character’ [Kowalski, 1998, p. 32], because a public good as an economic category should fulfil three conditions [ibidem, p. 23]: 1. Consuming a public good by one person does not restrict its consumption by another person; 2. Consuming a public good by one person does not exclude its consumption by another person; 3. It is not possible to resign from consuming a public good. According to T. Kowalski, no media fulfil the third condition. And this is what determines a quasi-public character of media [ibidem, p. 32]. However, from the point of view of management of public institutions the most essential are sources of financing and sources of power. In the case of public institutions sensu stricto proceeds are constituted by public funds and a political mandate of the group who won the elections. In the case of public institutions sensu lato sources of financing can be mixed: public and/or private, and the source of power is ownership: public and/or private. From the point of view of the considered issues it is important to define the term ‘enterprise’, and to be exact a particular case which is a ‘public enterprise’. In the European Union’s law it has been assumed that an enterprise is: ‘a subject (entity) pursuing an activity for the purpose of the market’ [Emmerich, 1999, p. 666]. And it does not matter whether a given subject is subject to the public or private law [Dudzik, 2002, p. 137]. Pursuant to the union regulations, presumption of exerting dominant influence on an enterprise has been assumed as a cardinal rule. This rule is applied in one, two or three cases, each separately or together [ibidem, p. 174-175]: 1. Public authorities have a bigger part of the initial capital of the enterprise; 2. Public authorities control most of the votes falling to the stock (shares) issued by the enterprise; 3. Public authorities can appoint over a half of the members of the administrative, managing or supervising bodies of the enterprise. In the context of these regulations the institutions managing Polish public media, mentioned in articles 22-28 of the law on the radio and television [Law of 29.12.1992 on the radio and television
84
subjective dualism, management of a media enterprise (it concerns especially public enterprises) requires special forms and management tools. Its solving requires first of all defining tasks to do (the so-called mission) and understanding the essence of public management.
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( Journal of Law of 2004 no. 253, item 2531), art. 22-28] fulfil the requirements of public enterprises. Organisations of this kind do not usually expect profit. Their tasks are dictated by the owner i.e. the society, and on its behalf it should be done by the state agencies, which allocate public funds to carry out the tasks. However, it requires defining public media’s tasks, ergo public media themselves. Here is a very symptomatic example of a committee established by the British government to work out a conception of digitalisation of the BBC and define again the essence of the British public radio. The committee wrote in the final report: “During those six months we did not undertake the ambitious task that we had. When each of us tried to present some definition, familiar notions began to appear – information, education, broadening minds, impartiality, independence, general access, inclusiveness, service for minorities, lack of commercial motivation, etc. We came to a conclusion that we will not formulate a new definition but still we know what public media are” [ Jakubowicz, 2007, p. 27]. Karol Jakubowicz points out three main orientations concerning the degree of interference of the state in media [ibidem, p. 96]: 1. Minimalist – it can be observed in the countries where the content of commercial media is not regulated, public financing of public media does not exceed 30 dollars per one inhabitant (Italy, New Zeland, Portugal, Spain, the USA); 2. Media as a ‘cultural exception’ – commercial broadcast agencies’ duty is to produce programmes strengthening the national identity, public financing does not exceed 30 dollars per one inhabitant; 3. A big degree of interference – interference into the programme is justified by a public interest, public financing exceeds 50 dollars per one inhabitant (Germany, Holland, Sweden, Great Britain). It seems that in the case of management of public media one of the essential elements is a lack of commercial motivation. It is possible when public media do not have to look for means on the commercial market. In such countries as Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden or Japan the share of the public money in the incomes of public media institutions is almost 100% [ Jędrzejewski,
1
2003, p. 39]. In Poland public media enterprises have to look for sources of financing on the commercial market. The share of the public means in the realization of public tasks (the so-called mission) is on average about 27-28% a year (public television) to about 72-73% (public radio) [http:// www.krrit.gov.pl/], and in the case of TVP regional stations – almost 100%. Therefore, with the present regulatory environment1 management of Polish public media has to be a combination of two aims: commercial and public interest. Polish public media have a form of commercial law partnerships, which by nature expect profit. Such partnerships are expected by the minister of the state treasury, who has the ownership functions with reference to media partnerships. On the other hand however, Polish public media was subject to the law on the radio and television, in which the public interest (mission) [Act of 29.12.1992 r. on radio and television] was described. For many years different governments have been trying to square the circle, but it usually ends with announcements and taking over the influence on public media. K. Jakubowicz talks about a crisis of the validity of the existence of media. In surveys the recepients declare the need of their existence, and on the other hand they are disappointed with the practice of their functioning [ Jakubowicz, 2007, p. 252].
Information as a subject of management
P
. Drucker claimed that the 21st century would be a century of information [Drucker, 2000, p. 104-105]. It is information that will become the basic resource of the present century. Greed and a will to dominate others were the reason why in the past basic resources were always a target of desire, and as a result wars. First it was the land which – according to A. Smith – bore gold ducats in the process of exchange [see Smith, 2003, p. 213-235]. Then raw materials became such a resource. The contemporary world has seen not a few wars over energy carriers. If P. Drucker is right that information will be this basic resource in the 21st century, one day we will undoubtedly be witnesses of wars over information resources. And perhaps we already are
The description refers to the regulatory environment of the first half of 2010.
In the first case (2007 r.) it was moving the monument of the Bronze Soldier, commemorating the Soviet Red Army, from the 2 centre of Tallin to a cemetery; in the second case (2008 r.) – now a military one, during the Russian-Georgian war – over the border territories between Russia and Georgia. In both cases the servers of the Estonian and Georgian governments were attacked, and as a result for some time both governments were cut off the supply of information. The Russian government said it had nothing to do with it, that it was an attack of some anonymous hackers.
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In the first case (2007 r.) it was moving the monument of the Bronze Soldier, commemorating the Soviet Red Army, from the 2 centre of Tallin to a cemetery; in the second case (2008 r.) – now a military one, during the Russian-Georgian war – over the border territories between Russia and Georgia. In both cases the servers of the Estonian and Georgian governments were attacked, and as a result for some time both governments were cut off the supply of information. The Russian government said it had nothing to do with it, that it was an attack of some anonymous hackers. 1
The description refers to the regulatory environment of the first half of 2010.
( Journal of Law of 2004 no. 253, item 2531), art. 22-28] fulfil the requirements of public enterprises. Organisations of this kind do not usually expect profit. Their tasks are dictated by the owner i.e. the society, and on its behalf it should be done by the state agencies, which allocate public funds to carry out the tasks. However, it requires defining public media’s tasks, ergo public media themselves. Here is a very symptomatic example of a committee established by the British government to work out a conception of digitalisation of the BBC and define again the essence of the British public radio. The committee wrote in the final report: “During those six months we did not undertake the ambitious task that we had. When each of us tried to present some definition, familiar notions began to appear – information, education, broadening minds, impartiality, independence, general access, inclusiveness, service for minorities, lack of commercial motivation, etc. We came to a conclusion that we will not formulate a new definition but still we know what public media are” [ Jakubowicz, 2007, p. 27]. Karol Jakubowicz points out three main orientations concerning the degree of interference of the state in media [ibidem, p. 96]: 1. Minimalist – it can be observed in the countries where the content of commercial media is not regulated, public financing of public media does not exceed 30 dollars per one inhabitant (Italy, New Zeland, Portugal, Spain, the USA); 2. Media as a ‘cultural exception’ – commercial broadcast agencies’ duty is to produce programmes strengthening the national identity, public financing does not exceed 30 dollars per one inhabitant; 3. A big degree of interference – interference into the programme is justified by a public interest, public financing exceeds 50 dollars per one inhabitant (Germany, Holland, Sweden, Great Britain). It seems that in the case of management of public media one of the essential elements is a lack of commercial motivation. It is possible when public media do not have to look for means on the commercial market. In such countries as Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden or Japan the share of the public money in the incomes of public media institutions is almost 100% [ Jędrzejewski,
. Drucker claimed that the 21st century would be a century of information [Drucker, 2000, p. 104-105]. It is information that will become the basic resource of the present century. Greed and a will to dominate others were the reason why in the past basic resources were always a target of desire, and as a result wars. First it was the land which – according to A. Smith – bore gold ducats in the process of exchange [see Smith, 2003, p. 213-235]. Then raw materials became such a resource. The contemporary world has seen not a few wars over energy carriers. If P. Drucker is right that information will be this basic resource in the 21st century, one day we will undoubtedly be witnesses of wars over information resources. And perhaps we already are
P
Information as a subject of management 2003, p. 39]. In Poland public media enterprises have to look for sources of financing on the commercial market. The share of the public means in the realization of public tasks (the so-called mission) is on average about 27-28% a year (public television) to about 72-73% (public radio) [http:// www.krrit.gov.pl/], and in the case of TVP regional stations – almost 100%. Therefore, with the present regulatory environment1 management of Polish public media has to be a combination of two aims: commercial and public interest. Polish public media have a form of commercial law partnerships, which by nature expect profit. Such partnerships are expected by the minister of the state treasury, who has the ownership functions with reference to media partnerships. On the other hand however, Polish public media was subject to the law on the radio and television, in which the public interest (mission) [Act of 29.12.1992 r. on radio and television] was described. For many years different governments have been trying to square the circle, but it usually ends with announcements and taking over the influence on public media. K. Jakubowicz talks about a crisis of the validity of the existence of media. In surveys the recepients declare the need of their existence, and on the other hand they are disappointed with the practice of their functioning [ Jakubowicz, 2007, p. 252].
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media enterprise is, let us imagine two almost identical newspapers. Each of them contains a hundred information ‘buttons’. They are exactly the same. However, the first newspaper is issued in a circulation of a million copies, and the other one a thousand. The question which information ‘buttons’ are more valuable, those in the first or the ones in the second newspaper, is in fact a rhetoric question. This argumentation allows us to prove that information is really a resource which escapes the laws of traditional economics.
anagement of media is a young field of research with a relatively small scholarly achievements. It requires developing new research tools, creative adaptation of the existing notions to the research requirements, as well as defining a research scope of the new discipline, which management of media has a chance to become. It seems that the next few years will witness an increase of interest in management of media, both from the scholarly environment, present and potential researchers and students, and political and business circles. It has and will have its source in continuously increasing importance of media industries, in a broader sense ‘creative industries’. Nowadays half of the gross domestic product of the biggest world economy i.e. of the USA, is generated within creative industries. The problems included in this article seem to be an interesting research field, both in reference to commercial and public media. It seems that those who study commercial media should concentrate on identifying the issues which determine (will determine) the way they are managed, such as: information and its characteristics, digitalization, convergence, organizations of a network type. On the other hand, apart from the mentioned issues, the public media study should also take into consideration the fact that in the years to come they will rather depart from politics. Its position in the programmes will be taken by culture, understood as the sense and the essence of basic tasks of public media. Already today many culture or even artistic undertakings have their media dimension. A good example are virtual museums or libraries. This intermingling of culture and media will lead to appearance of new research areas. Tomasz Goban-Klas pointed out that electronic media were born as mass media “massaging the brains of mass recipients” [Media elektroniczne w procesie komunikacji rynkowej, 2005, p. 20], but the technological progress made “the one-way, standardized transmission
Summary
M
M
Summary
anagement of media is a young field of research with a relatively small scholarly achievements. It requires developing new research tools, creative adaptation of the existing notions to the research requirements, as well as defining a research scope of the new discipline, which management of media has a chance to become. It seems that the next few years will witness an increase of interest in management of media, both from the scholarly environment, present and potential researchers and students, and political and business circles. It has and will have its source in continuously increasing importance of media industries, in a broader sense ‘creative industries’. Nowadays half of the gross domestic product of the biggest world economy i.e. of the USA, is generated within creative industries. The problems included in this article seem to be an interesting research field, both in reference to commercial and public media. It seems that those who study commercial media should concentrate on identifying the issues which determine (will determine) the way they are managed, such as: information and its characteristics, digitalization, convergence, organizations of a network type. On the other hand, apart from the mentioned issues, the public media study should also take into consideration the fact that in the years to come they will rather depart from politics. Its position in the programmes will be taken by culture, understood as the sense and the essence of basic tasks of public media. Already today many culture or even artistic undertakings have their media dimension. A good example are virtual museums or libraries. This intermingling of culture and media will lead to appearance of new research areas. Tomasz Goban-Klas pointed out that electronic media were born as mass media “massaging the brains of mass recipients” [Media elektroniczne w procesie komunikacji rynkowej, 2005, p. 20], but the technological progress made “the one-way, standardized transmission
86
media enterprise is, let us imagine two almost identical newspapers. Each of them contains a hundred information ‘buttons’. They are exactly the same. However, the first newspaper is issued in a circulation of a million copies, and the other one a thousand. The question which information ‘buttons’ are more valuable, those in the first or the ones in the second newspaper, is in fact a rhetoric question. This argumentation allows us to prove that information is really a resource which escapes the laws of traditional economics.
(have been). The Russian-Lithuanian or the RussianGeorgian conflicts are very symptomatic here2. Contemporary man is devoid of humility. He seems to believe that it is him that creates the greatest and the most wonderful works, that it is him that created the information revolution. However, the present revolution is already the fourth one in the history. The first one was connected with the invention of printing in Mesopotamia about 5-6 thousand years ago. The second one began about 3,5 thousand years ago in China with the invention of the book. The third one was begun in 1456 by Gutenberg who invented the movable type [Drucker, 2000, p. 104-113]. P. Drucker indicates peculiar characteristics of information as a resource which escapes the basic economic laws: “If I sell some thing, e. g. a book, it means that I do not possess it any more. If I give information to somebody, I still have it. In fact the information becomes more precious because it is known to more people. The bigger the number of the recipients of the information is, the greater its value becomes” [ibidem, p. 27]. This property of information contradicts the basic law of economics, the law of demand (the demand for a given good decreases as a given good increases on the market). The explanation of this seeming contradiction requires reference to the dual nature of the market of media goods and services suggested by R. Picard (which was mentioned before), but also indication that media enterprises have such dual nature. However, not wanting to render the described issue trite, the author of this article would like to refer to an example which shows the essence of the argument. The author used this example once in his lecture to explain the students the line of reasoning. Let us assume that we have two enterprises: one of them produces ordinary buttons, the other one – information buttons (media enterprise). To explain the difference between the two, let us have another assumption that the author of this article is an exemplification of the enterprise producing ordinary buttons and the most famous Polish skier Adam Małysz epitomizes the media enterprise. If they both stood on a slope, Małysz’s ski suit would be covered by many advertisements and on the author’s suit there would not be any. The famous skier provides content in the form of outstanding sports achievements, by which he is able to focus on himself a rare good which is consumers’ attention (the media enterprise producing information buttons). The author of this article does not have this ability (the enterprise producing ordinary buttons). Since we know what the difference between an ordinary and a
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
(have been). The Russian-Lithuanian or the RussianGeorgian conflicts are very symptomatic here2. Contemporary man is devoid of humility. He seems to believe that it is him that creates the greatest and the most wonderful works, that it is him that created the information revolution. However, the present revolution is already the fourth one in the history. The first one was connected with the invention of printing in Mesopotamia about 5-6 thousand years ago. The second one began about 3,5 thousand years ago in China with the invention of the book. The third one was begun in 1456 by Gutenberg who invented the movable type [Drucker, 2000, p. 104-113]. P. Drucker indicates peculiar characteristics of information as a resource which escapes the basic economic laws: “If I sell some thing, e. g. a book, it means that I do not possess it any more. If I give information to somebody, I still have it. In fact the information becomes more precious because it is known to more people. The bigger the number of the recipients of the information is, the greater its value becomes” [ibidem, p. 27]. This property of information contradicts the basic law of economics, the law of demand (the demand for a given good decreases as a given good increases on the market). The explanation of this seeming contradiction requires reference to the dual nature of the market of media goods and services suggested by R. Picard (which was mentioned before), but also indication that media enterprises have such dual nature. However, not wanting to render the described issue trite, the author of this article would like to refer to an example which shows the essence of the argument. The author used this example once in his lecture to explain the students the line of reasoning. Let us assume that we have two enterprises: one of them produces ordinary buttons, the other one – information buttons (media enterprise). To explain the difference between the two, let us have another assumption that the author of this article is an exemplification of the enterprise producing ordinary buttons and the most famous Polish skier Adam Małysz epitomizes the media enterprise. If they both stood on a slope, Małysz’s ski suit would be covered by many advertisements and on the author’s suit there would not be any. The famous skier provides content in the form of outstanding sports achievements, by which he is able to focus on himself a rare good which is consumers’ attention (the media enterprise producing information buttons). The author of this article does not have this ability (the enterprise producing ordinary buttons). Since we know what the difference between an ordinary and a
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not only less effective but less and less popular. People look for new ways of interaction – mediamodified – but still interaction” [ibidem]. This in turn indicates the direction in which the processes connected with management in this area will go. Media become a kind of network [Castells, 2003, p. 11-12], and it means that steersmen of media can lose the monopoly for management. Manuel Castells pointed out advantages of social organizations of the network type (network society [Castels, 1996, p. 36]): “For the most part of the history of mankind, contrary to the biological
evolution, networks lost as a tool of management with organizations which could focus resources on the most important undertakings…” [ibidem, p. 12]. R. G. Picard thought that it is creation of values that should become the essence of media organizations in the 21st century. He wrote: ‘Journalism and media organizations (news organizations) are at the turning point of their existence. Those which will choose a change and opt for an increase of value for recipients - have a future; those which will continue their activity – are bound to wither [Picard, 2010, p. 158].
Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 1999 Griffin, R., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wyd. Opole, 2005.
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2004. i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Koźmiński, A. K., Zarządzanie [in:] Zarządzanie. Teoria Spraw Publicznych, no 1/2005.
Nierenberg, Wydawnictwo Instytut Śląski w Opolu,
Zarządzanie publiczne, Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu
procesie komunikacji rynkowej, ed. M. Duczmal, B.
Kożuch, B., Zarządzanie jako dyscyplina naukowa [in:]
waniu nowego rynku, [in:] Media elektroniczne w Goban-Klas, T., Nowe media elektroniczne w kształtoedition R. Skubisz, Warszawa, 1999. spodarcze Unii Europejskiej, ed. M. A. Dauses, Polish Emmerich, V., Prawo antymonopolowe [in:] Prawo goZakamycze, Kraków, 2002.
Literature Ansoff, H. I., Zarządzanie strategiczne, Wydawnictwo PWE, Warszawa, 1985. Bednarczyk, M., Organizacje publiczne. Zarządzanie konkurencyjnością, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa – Kraków, 2001. Begg, D., Fischer, S., Dornbusch, R., Mikroekonomia, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 2003. Beliczyński, J., Radio jako obiekt zarządzania, Ed. Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, Kraków, 2005. Castells, M., Galaktyka Internetu, Dom Wydawniczy Rebis, Poznań, 2003. Castells, M., The Rise of Network Society, Blackwell, Oxford, 1996. Chyliński, M., Russ-Mohl, S., Dziennikarstwo, Grupa Wydawnicza Polskapresse, Warszawa, 2007. Drucker, P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Wydawnictwo MT Biznes, Warszawa, 2002. Drucker, P., Zarządzanie w XXI wieku, Wydawnictwo Muza, Warszawa, 2000.
Gruszczyńska-Malec, G., Zasady organizacji i zarządzania [in:] Podstawy zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, ed. H. Bieniok, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Katowicach, Katowice, 1998. Hallin, D. C., Mancini, P., Systemy medialne. Trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków, 2007. Handbook of Media Management and Economics, (eds.) A. B. Albarran, S. M. Chan-Olmsted, M. O. Wirth, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 2006. Jakubowicz, K., Media publiczne. Początek końca czy nowy początek, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa, 2007. Jędrzejewski, S., Radio w komunikacji społecznej, Wydawnictwo Profi-Press, Warszawa, 2003. Kieżun, W., Sprawne zarządzanie organizacją. Zarys teorii i praktyki, Oficyna Wydawnicza Szkoły Głównej Handlowej, Warszawa, 1997. Kotarbiński, T., Traktat o dobrej robocie, Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków 1965.
Dudzik, S., Pomoc państwa dla przedsiębiorstw publicz-
Kowalski, T., Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty
nych w prawie Wspólnoty Europejskiej. Między neu-
działalności środków komunikowania masowego,
Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa, 2006. Kowalski, T., Jung, B., Media na rynku, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa, 2008. wadzenie do zarządzania mediami, Wydawnictwa Kowalski, T., Między twórczością a biznesem. WproEd. Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX.
tralnością, a zaangażowaniem, Kantor Wydawniczy
działalności środków komunikowania masowego,
nych w prawie Wspólnoty Europejskiej. Między neu-
Kowalski, T., Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty
Dudzik, S., Pomoc państwa dla przedsiębiorstw publiczMuza, Warszawa, 2000. Drucker, P., Zarządzanie w XXI wieku, Wydawnictwo MT Biznes, Warszawa, 2002. Drucker, P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Wydawnictwo Wydawnicza Polskapresse, Warszawa, 2007. Chyliński, M., Russ-Mohl, S., Dziennikarstwo, Grupa Oxford, 1996. Castells, M., The Rise of Network Society, Blackwell, Rebis, Poznań, 2003. Castells, M., Galaktyka Internetu, Dom Wydawniczy mii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, Kraków, 2005. Beliczyński, J., Radio jako obiekt zarządzania, Ed. AkadeWydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 2003. Begg, D., Fischer, S., Dornbusch, R., Mikroekonomia, – Kraków, 2001. konkurencyjnością, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa Bednarczyk, M., Organizacje publiczne. Zarządzanie PWE, Warszawa, 1985. Ansoff, H. I., Zarządzanie strategiczne, Wydawnictwo
Literature
Ossolineum, Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków 1965. Kotarbiński, T., Traktat o dobrej robocie, Wydawnictwo Handlowej, Warszawa, 1997. teorii i praktyki, Oficyna Wydawnicza Szkoły Głównej Kieżun, W., Sprawne zarządzanie organizacją. Zarys dawnictwo Profi-Press, Warszawa, 2003. Jędrzejewski, S., Radio w komunikacji społecznej, Wyfesjonalne, Warszawa, 2007. nowy początek, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i ProJakubowicz, K., Media publiczne. Początek końca czy Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey, 2006. A. B. Albarran, S. M. Chan-Olmsted, M. O. Wirth, Handbook of Media Management and Economics, (eds.) nictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków, 2007. mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym, WydawHallin, D. C., Mancini, P., Systemy medialne. Trzy modele w Katowicach, Katowice, 1998. H. Bieniok, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej [in:] Podstawy zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, ed. Gruszczyńska-Malec, G., Zasady organizacji i zarządzania
tralnością, a zaangażowaniem, Kantor Wydawniczy Zakamycze, Kraków, 2002. Emmerich, V., Prawo antymonopolowe [in:] Prawo gospodarcze Unii Europejskiej, ed. M. A. Dauses, Polish edition R. Skubisz, Warszawa, 1999. Goban-Klas, T., Nowe media elektroniczne w kształto-
Ed. Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX. Kowalski, T., Między twórczością a biznesem. Wprowadzenie do zarządzania mediami, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa, 2008. Kowalski, T., Jung, B., Media na rynku, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa, 2006.
waniu nowego rynku, [in:] Media elektroniczne w
Kożuch, B., Zarządzanie jako dyscyplina naukowa [in:]
procesie komunikacji rynkowej, ed. M. Duczmal, B.
Zarządzanie publiczne, Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu
Nierenberg, Wydawnictwo Instytut Śląski w Opolu, Opole, 2005. Griffin, R., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wyd. Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 1999
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Spraw Publicznych, no 1/2005. Koźmiński, A. K., Zarządzanie [in:] Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2004.
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not only less effective but less and less popular. People look for new ways of interaction – mediamodified – but still interaction” [ibidem]. This in turn indicates the direction in which the processes connected with management in this area will go. Media become a kind of network [Castells, 2003, p. 11-12], and it means that steersmen of media can lose the monopoly for management. Manuel Castells pointed out advantages of social organizations of the network type (network society [Castels, 1996, p. 36]): “For the most part of the history of mankind, contrary to the biological
evolution, networks lost as a tool of management with organizations which could focus resources on the most important undertakings…” [ibidem, p. 12]. R. G. Picard thought that it is creation of values that should become the essence of media organizations in the 21st century. He wrote: ‘Journalism and media organizations (news organizations) are at the turning point of their existence. Those which will choose a change and opt for an increase of value for recipients - have a future; those which will continue their activity – are bound to wither [Picard, 2010, p. 158].
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Krzyżanowski, L., Podstawy nauk o organizacji i zarządzaniu, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 1992. Looking tothe Future of Modern Media Management. Changes, Challenges, Opportunities, eds. Ch. Scholz, U. Eisenbeis, Media XXI, Lisboa, 2008. Nierenberg, B., Strategia publicznego przedsiębiorstwa medialnego, Wyd. Radio Opole, Opole, 2006.
Owsiak, S., Finanse publiczne. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 1997. Picard, R. G., Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage, London, 1989. Picard, R. G., Value Creation and the Future of news Organizations, Media XXI, Barcelona, 2010. Piotrowski, W., Organizacja i zarządzanie – kierunki,
Nierenberg, B., Udział mediów w rynku reklamowym po
koncepcje, punkty widzenia [in:] Zarządzanie. Teo-
akcesji Polski do Unii Europejskiej, [in:] Śląsk Opolski i
ria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski,
Opawski w kierunku standardów europejskich – Opol-
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2004.
ské a Opavské Selzsko ve směru evropských standar-
Pringle, P. K., Starr, M. F., Electronic Media Management,
dů Wyd. Slezska univerzita Opava, Opava, 2005.
Focal Press, Burlington – Oxford, 2006. Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 2004.
Laws, reports, internet addresses: http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/ spr2008/inf2008.pdf
The Future Funding of the BBC. Report of the Indepen-
and Sport, London 1999.
Law of 29.12.1992 on the radio and television.
dent Review Panel, Department for Culture, Media
dent Review Panel, Department for Culture, Media
and Sport, London 1999.
The Future Funding of the BBC. Report of the Indepen-
spr2008/inf2008.pdf http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/ Law of 29.12.1992 on the radio and television.
Laws, reports, internet addresses: Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 2004. Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Focal Press, Burlington – Oxford, 2006. Pringle, P. K., Starr, M. F., Electronic Media Management,
ské a Opavské Selzsko ve směru evropských standar-
Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2004.
Opawski w kierunku standardów europejskich – Opol-
ria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski,
akcesji Polski do Unii Europejskiej, [in:] Śląsk Opolski i
koncepcje, punkty widzenia [in:] Zarządzanie. Teo-
Nierenberg, B., Udział mediów w rynku reklamowym po medialnego, Wyd. Radio Opole, Opole, 2006. Nierenberg, B., Strategia publicznego przedsiębiorstwa U. Eisenbeis, Media XXI, Lisboa, 2008. Changes, Challenges, Opportunities, eds. Ch. Scholz, Looking tothe Future of Modern Media Management. dzaniu, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 1992. Krzyżanowski, L., Podstawy nauk o organizacji i zarzą-
Piotrowski, W., Organizacja i zarządzanie – kierunki, Organizations, Media XXI, Barcelona, 2010. Picard, R. G., Value Creation and the Future of news Sage, London, 1989. Picard, R. G., Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, dawnictwo PWN, Warszawa, 1997. Owsiak, S., Finanse publiczne. Teoria i praktyka, WyCulture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
dů Wyd. Slezska univerzita Opava, Opava, 2005.
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2 It is incredible that the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage did not invite a single representative of artistic circles to the team preparing the diagnosis. It discloses a patronizing approach to culture, whose creators and animators are not treated subjectively as partners in a dialog, but like objects of research and manipulation.
Cultural Revolution – yes, but What Kind of Revolution? About the Possible Directions of the Polish Cultural Policy1 Jan Sowa
Slaughter the culture
L
ast spring, 20 years from the beginning of the neoliberal social and economic transformation, Polish public opinion was confronted with an attempt to economically rationalize one of the last fields which have not been formatted according to the free market logic of the late capitalism: the culture. The, so called, Hausner’s Report (and then his plan) [see Pawłowski, 2002], announced as a kind of prequel to the Congress of Polish Culture, contained a diagnosis of a present situation in the culture and recommendations for its improvement, defined by a group of clerks and scholars (mainly economists)2. This over 100-page document [http://www.kongreskultury.pl/], in its general outline, does not say anything crucial about the social and economic reality, which we haven’t already heard in reference to other fields. But as a project of the culture reform, it constitutes a project of a radical revolution because it perceives the cultural production as a kind of industry – a type of activity and branch of economy which can be assessed and rationalized by means of the same tools and for the same purpose as, for example, a potato plantation or a production of household equipment. The project
1
2
Translation: Ewa Gabryś
tells us to apply in the field of culture the provisions of the Washington Consensus (also called the Washington Alliance), in other words the rules of the economic and social reform formed by American economists in 1980’s [Bresser, Maravall, Przeworski, 1993; Stiglitz, 2004; Sowa, 2008]. Its main three postulates – forming the Holy Trinity of neo-liberalism – are: privatization, liberalization and public spending cuts. The authors of the report propose to apply such rules in the field of culture and according to them reform its institutions. This reform would, amongst others, increase competition in culture by introducing equal status to private, public and third sector entities on the free market of donations, limit the number of public institutions in Poland by means of their privatization which is proposed in Poland in reference to hospitals (turning them into companies), limit the activity of trade unions which hamper the work of culture managers and “articulate expectations resulting from the demanding and short-sighted attitude which is typical for some employees of such institutions, especially the older ones” [Buczek et al., p. 29], and finally it would introduce a better use of culture as a branch of economy which brings good material profit. According to the authors of the
Right in the beginning of this text I feel obliged to define the point of view I have accepted. I do not want to adopt the role of an academic – so a person who wants to present a certain spectrum of problems in a neutral way – but as an intellectualist. The latter is a person who – as Julia Kristeva once said commenting on the life and works of Hanna Arendt – tries to accept a given position in the world, using thinking as the only tool.
It is incredible that the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage did not invite a single representative of artistic circles to the team preparing the diagnosis. It discloses a patronizing approach to culture, whose creators and animators are not treated subjectively as partners in a dialog, but like objects of research and manipulation.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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Jan Sowa he studied Polish philology, psychology and philology at Jagiellonian University (Cracow) and University of Paris III (Saint-Denis). Doctor of sociology. Theorist and practician of culture; he is a co-creator of Corporation Ha!art Foundation and Golden Poldex Cooperative. Scientific worker at the Chair of the Modern Culture, JU. Author of books Sezon w teatrze lalek (2004) and Ciesz się, późny wnuku. Kolonializm, globalizacja i demokracja radykalna” (2008). He published dozens articles in Poland and in aboard, inter alia „Modern Culture”, „Ha!art”, „Political Critic”, „Problems of Sociological Politics”, „Praesens”, „Philosophie Magazine”, „Circulation” and „Anarchistic Review”.
1
Right in the beginning of this text I feel obliged to define the point of view I have accepted. I do not want to adopt the role of an academic – so a person who wants to present a certain spectrum of problems in a neutral way – but as an intellectualist. The latter is a person who – as Julia Kristeva once said commenting on the life and works of Hanna Arendt – tries to accept a given position in the world, using thinking as the only tool.
ast spring, 20 years from the beginning of the neoliberal social and economic transformation, Polish public opinion was confronted with an attempt to economically rationalize one of the last fields which have not been formatted according to the free market logic of the late capitalism: the culture. The, so called, Hausner’s Report (and then his plan) [see Pawłowski, 2002], announced as a kind of prequel to the Congress of Polish Culture, contained a diagnosis of a present situation in the culture and recommendations for its improvement, defined by a group of clerks and scholars (mainly economists)2. This over 100-page document [http://www.kongreskultury.pl/], in its general outline, does not say anything crucial about the social and economic reality, which we haven’t already heard in reference to other fields. But as a project of the culture reform, it constitutes a project of a radical revolution because it perceives the cultural production as a kind of industry – a type of activity and branch of economy which can be assessed and rationalized by means of the same tools and for the same purpose as, for example, a potato plantation or a production of household equipment. The project
L
Slaughter the culture
Jan Sowa
tells us to apply in the field of culture the provisions of the Washington Consensus (also called the Washington Alliance), in other words the rules of the economic and social reform formed by American economists in 1980’s [Bresser, Maravall, Przeworski, 1993; Stiglitz, 2004; Sowa, 2008]. Its main three postulates – forming the Holy Trinity of neo-liberalism – are: privatization, liberalization and public spending cuts. The authors of the report propose to apply such rules in the field of culture and according to them reform its institutions. This reform would, amongst others, increase competition in culture by introducing equal status to private, public and third sector entities on the free market of donations, limit the number of public institutions in Poland by means of their privatization which is proposed in Poland in reference to hospitals (turning them into companies), limit the activity of trade unions which hamper the work of culture managers and “articulate expectations resulting from the demanding and short-sighted attitude which is typical for some employees of such institutions, especially the older ones” [Buczek et al., p. 29], and finally it would introduce a better use of culture as a branch of economy which brings good material profit. According to the authors of the
Translation: Ewa Gabryś
Cultural Revolution – yes, but What Kind of Revolution? About the Possible Directions of the Polish Cultural Policy1
Jan Sowa he studied Polish philology, psychology and philology at Jagiellonian University (Cracow) and University of Paris III (Saint-Denis). Doctor of sociology. Theorist and practician of culture; he is a co-creator of Corporation Ha!art Foundation and Golden Poldex Cooperative. Scientific worker at the Chair of the Modern Culture, JU. Author of books Sezon w teatrze lalek (2004) and Ciesz się, późny wnuku. Kolonializm, globalizacja i demokracja radykalna” (2008). He published dozens articles in Poland and in aboard, inter alia „Modern Culture”, „Ha!art”, „Political Critic”, „Problems of Sociological Politics”, „Praesens”, „Philosophie Magazine”, „Circulation” and „Anarchistic Review”.
90
B
Deconstructing Hausner report: “People do not notice the potential for development in the culture which, when activated, could constitute a mechanism of economic enlivenment and a way of coping with the crises. This does not only concern tourism. Creating a need for a new investment and consumption, so stimulating a new internal demand, seems a lot more important (my underlining – JS)” [ibidem, p. 27]. This short quotation shows the point of view accepted by the authors of the report. There, culture is treated instrumentally, as a thing which can be “activated,” so as a passive thing which can be manipulated by economists in order to “create a need for a new investment and consumption.” It should not be a surprise in this case that Hausner’s plan was largely criticized in artistic circles. The quintessence of this criticism is disclosed by the title of the article written by Maciej Nowak, the director of the Theatre Institute in Warsaw, one of the most important theatre critics: Hausner wants to slaughter the culture [Nowak, 2009]3.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
(an equivalent of Polish PKP), which has the most modern and efficient rail network in the world. The rail privatization in Great Britain, performed on the rising tide of Thatcherism, did not bring it any closer to the standards of French rail and even in some respects the quality of services has deteriorated. The best example of the high productivity of state ownership is Singapore, often set as an example of a dynamically developing economy and rich society4. It is not mentioned, however, that 70% of Singapore economy belongs to the state. The enterprises of the state sector which set the world standards in their fields include, for example Singapore Airlines or The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, which operates the biggest container port in the world. Also, the specialist literature emphasizes the meaning of state involvement in various fields of social life, especially in the areas where the time perspective for a project completion is very long. (These areas undoubtedly include culture, whose most interesting outcomes are the result of experiences and work which take a long time and one must sometimes wait a few generations to see the effects of an investment.) As Lester C. Thurow, an American economist and political scientist, a long-term director of MIT Sloan School of Management, points out, the time horizon in which private companies operate equals about five years, as a result the projects which take a longer time require state involvement [see Thurow, 1999, p. 380]. If we reduce this time, we are bound to participate in a chaotic game of market forces which only maximize their shortterm profits.
90
ehind the reforms postulated by Hausner – and Minister Zdrojewski has recently presented a similar proposition in the parliament – there is a number of assumptions which constitute a combination of the Washington Consensus and our Polish provincial reflection on the transformation of 1990’s and the experience of the Polish People’s Republic. They are worth quoting expressis verbis.
One of the strongest apologists of Singapore is Fareed Zakaria [see Zakaria, 2004; indebid, 1994].
Antagonism of state and economy
4
Check also other opinions on the matter, among others Joanna Warsza Kulturalna doktryna szoku and Jacek Żakowski By balon nie stał się ciałem. All articles on that subject are gathered on the portal of “Gazeta Wyborcza” on: http://wyborcza.pl/8,76842,6737667. html.
The belief that private ownership is absolutely superior to the public one
3
eoliberals eagerly and commonly use the schemes of thinking which are based on a juxtaposition of the productive free market and state forces whose intervention can only destroy this wonderfully operating mechanism. We often hear about the “invisible hand of the market” (the metaphor introduced by Adam Smith in his book, titled The Wealth of Nations), which deals with the problem of sharing economic reserves in the best possible way. The history of discussion on that subject is quite paradoxical in the economic theory of the 20th century. Namely, two Economy
N
N
t constitutes the core of neo-liberal doctrine and is often quoted as a justification for a wide privatization of all areas of social life. It is quite easy to support this opinion in a country like Poland, where many people experienced terrible functioning of public institution during the period of the Polish People’s Republic. However, it is not and was not the same everywhere. In many countries of the world state enterprises have functioned on a very high level both in reference to the quality of services and economic productivity. It is enough to bring the example of French SCNCF
I
I
eoliberals eagerly and commonly use the schemes of thinking which are based on a juxtaposition of the productive free market and state forces whose intervention can only destroy this wonderfully operating mechanism. We often hear about the “invisible hand of the market” (the metaphor introduced by Adam Smith in his book, titled The Wealth of Nations), which deals with the problem of sharing economic reserves in the best possible way. The history of discussion on that subject is quite paradoxical in the economic theory of the 20th century. Namely, two Economy
Antagonism of state and economy
t constitutes the core of neo-liberal doctrine and is often quoted as a justification for a wide privatization of all areas of social life. It is quite easy to support this opinion in a country like Poland, where many people experienced terrible functioning of public institution during the period of the Polish People’s Republic. However, it is not and was not the same everywhere. In many countries of the world state enterprises have functioned on a very high level both in reference to the quality of services and economic productivity. It is enough to bring the example of French SCNCF
The belief that private ownership is absolutely superior to the public one
3
ehind the reforms postulated by Hausner – and Minister Zdrojewski has recently presented a similar proposition in the parliament – there is a number of assumptions which constitute a combination of the Washington Consensus and our Polish provincial reflection on the transformation of 1990’s and the experience of the Polish People’s Republic. They are worth quoting expressis verbis.
Check also other opinions on the matter, among others Joanna Warsza Kulturalna doktryna szoku and Jacek Żakowski By balon nie stał się ciałem. All articles on that subject are gathered on the portal of “Gazeta Wyborcza” on: http://wyborcza.pl/8,76842,6737667. html.
B
One of the strongest apologists of Singapore is Fareed Zakaria [see Zakaria, 2004; indebid, 1994].
Deconstructing Hausner
(an equivalent of Polish PKP), which has the most modern and efficient rail network in the world. The rail privatization in Great Britain, performed on the rising tide of Thatcherism, did not bring it any closer to the standards of French rail and even in some respects the quality of services has deteriorated. The best example of the high productivity of state ownership is Singapore, often set as an example of a dynamically developing economy and rich society4. It is not mentioned, however, that 70% of Singapore economy belongs to the state. The enterprises of the state sector which set the world standards in their fields include, for example Singapore Airlines or The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, which operates the biggest container port in the world. Also, the specialist literature emphasizes the meaning of state involvement in various fields of social life, especially in the areas where the time perspective for a project completion is very long. (These areas undoubtedly include culture, whose most interesting outcomes are the result of experiences and work which take a long time and one must sometimes wait a few generations to see the effects of an investment.) As Lester C. Thurow, an American economist and political scientist, a long-term director of MIT Sloan School of Management, points out, the time horizon in which private companies operate equals about five years, as a result the projects which take a longer time require state involvement [see Thurow, 1999, p. 380]. If we reduce this time, we are bound to participate in a chaotic game of market forces which only maximize their shortterm profits.
4
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
report: “People do not notice the potential for development in the culture which, when activated, could constitute a mechanism of economic enlivenment and a way of coping with the crises. This does not only concern tourism. Creating a need for a new investment and consumption, so stimulating a new internal demand, seems a lot more important (my underlining – JS)” [ibidem, p. 27]. This short quotation shows the point of view accepted by the authors of the report. There, culture is treated instrumentally, as a thing which can be “activated,” so as a passive thing which can be manipulated by economists in order to “create a need for a new investment and consumption.” It should not be a surprise in this case that Hausner’s plan was largely criticized in artistic circles. The quintessence of this criticism is disclosed by the title of the article written by Maciej Nowak, the director of the Theatre Institute in Warsaw, one of the most important theatre critics: Hausner wants to slaughter the culture [Nowak, 2009]3.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Nobel Prizes have been granted: one for proving that Smith’s invisible hand really works – and more precisely that “allocation of resources in the state of the competitive equilibrium is optimal according to Pareto (redistribution of goods and production resources wouldn’t improve anyone’s situation without deteriorating the situation of at least one person) and also for stating, on the contrary, that every Pareto-optimal resources allocation can be realized in the state of competitive equilibrium” [Arrow, Debreu, 1954, p. 265]; and the other for proving that this law can only be referred to an ideal world in which, as Douglas C. North puts it, the economy is deprived of frictions (frictionless economy) [North, s.l.], whereas in the real world it does not ever work as the rules of perfect competition are not fulfilled. Joseph Stiglitz, the winner of the second of the two mentioned Nobel Prizes, comments it rightly: “The latest achievements of the theory of economy – paradoxically made in the period of the most uncompromising chase to realize the policy stemming from the Washington Consensus – have shown that whenever information is imperfect and the market incomplete, […] the activity of the invisible hand is greatly imperfect. […] Some government interventions which could improve the market’s effectiveness are desirable. These limits which are set on the conditions of market effectiveness are important – many key actions of the state could be understood as an answer to the market’s failure” [Stiglitz, 2004, pp. 78-79]. Also historians of capitalism prove that the capitalist economy developed and still works due to the involvement of state into the processes of economy [Arrighi, 1994; Braudel, 1979; Wallerstein, 1974]. We have directly observed how important the state is for capitalism: during the 2008/2009 financial crisis the economic stability was maintained only due to the intervention of the state. Of course, market fundamentalists are right to say that in a long-term perspective the market would have regulated itself, though social costs of such a regulation would have been enormous. John Maynard Keynes, great supporter of state’s intervention in economy, commented rightly a long time ago: “in a long-term perspective we will all be dead”.
The Polish People’s Republic as an example of all evil
H
ausner’s report was based on a negative opposition to the reality of the Polish People’s Republic. In the interview, given to Roman Pawłowski in June 2009, before the report was published, Hausner maintains that “culture is
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
the only area of public life which has not been fully reformed since 1989” [Pawłowski, 2009]. Of course such statement has a great rhetoric value. The nostalgia for the Polish People’s Republic is a still existing feeling in the Polish society, but just a few would adopt the patterns of institutional organization from that period. The People’s Republic is associated with apathy, bad quality, low efficiency, bureaucracy and so on. However, in the context of culture, demonizing the People’s Republic is at least unfortunate. It is hardly my intention to praise the People’s Republic here or in any other place, but this is an undeniable fact that culture was in a better condition in the enslaved Polish People’s Republic than in free 3rd Republic of Poland. After 1989 very few things have been produced by Polish culture – few things which could be compared to the achievements of the Polish theatre or cinema of the 1960’s or 70’s (the cinema undoubtedly went through its golden era at the time). The wild free market obviously does not positively influence the cultural production so, in my opinion, we can risk a statement that there is a negative correlation between the level of market facilitation and the quality of a given artistic area in the Third Republic. Polish visual arts, which are the least market dependent (not dependent on the market of viewers who “vote” with their money, as the supporters of the paradoxical creation called “market democracy” sometimes put it) are in good condition, which can be proved by the recognition which such artists as Mirosław Bałka, Zbigniew Libera, Krzysztof Wodiczko or Zofia Kulik receive abroad. Polish curators are also highly regarded. It is enough to mention Aneta Szyłak, Joanna Mytkowska or Adam Szymczyk. Polish theatre is not in such a good condition, though its international assessment is not bad (but not as good as in the times of Grotowski or Kantor). The worst situation is with the areas where market, business and private sector are of great importance: the literature (apart from a few young writers) and especially the cinema, which recently has been improving slightly due to the young directors such as Wojciech Smarzowski or Ksawery Żuławski, but in the 1990’s it went through its worst period when Pazura was chasing Linda and the other way round. Speaking of culture as the last unreformed area after 1989 is also ridiculous because, as Jarosław Suchan, the director of the Museum of Art in Łódź, remarked during one of the discussions on Housner’s Report, it would be difficult to point to an achievement of the Polish industry – mercilessly reformed at the very beginning of the transformation – which would have as good reputation as the contemporary Polish art.
91
ausner’s report was based on a negative opposition to the reality of the Polish People’s Republic. In the interview, given to Roman Pawłowski in June 2009, before the report was published, Hausner maintains that “culture is
H
The Polish People’s Republic as an example of all evil Nobel Prizes have been granted: one for proving that Smith’s invisible hand really works – and more precisely that “allocation of resources in the state of the competitive equilibrium is optimal according to Pareto (redistribution of goods and production resources wouldn’t improve anyone’s situation without deteriorating the situation of at least one person) and also for stating, on the contrary, that every Pareto-optimal resources allocation can be realized in the state of competitive equilibrium” [Arrow, Debreu, 1954, p. 265]; and the other for proving that this law can only be referred to an ideal world in which, as Douglas C. North puts it, the economy is deprived of frictions (frictionless economy) [North, s.l.], whereas in the real world it does not ever work as the rules of perfect competition are not fulfilled. Joseph Stiglitz, the winner of the second of the two mentioned Nobel Prizes, comments it rightly: “The latest achievements of the theory of economy – paradoxically made in the period of the most uncompromising chase to realize the policy stemming from the Washington Consensus – have shown that whenever information is imperfect and the market incomplete, […] the activity of the invisible hand is greatly imperfect. […] Some government interventions which could improve the market’s effectiveness are desirable. These limits which are set on the conditions of market effectiveness are important – many key actions of the state could be understood as an answer to the market’s failure” [Stiglitz, 2004, pp. 78-79]. Also historians of capitalism prove that the capitalist economy developed and still works due to the involvement of state into the processes of economy [Arrighi, 1994; Braudel, 1979; Wallerstein, 1974]. We have directly observed how important the state is for capitalism: during the 2008/2009 financial crisis the economic stability was maintained only due to the intervention of the state. Of course, market fundamentalists are right to say that in a long-term perspective the market would have regulated itself, though social costs of such a regulation would have been enormous. John Maynard Keynes, great supporter of state’s intervention in economy, commented rightly a long time ago: “in a long-term perspective we will all be dead”.
91
the only area of public life which has not been fully reformed since 1989” [Pawłowski, 2009]. Of course such statement has a great rhetoric value. The nostalgia for the Polish People’s Republic is a still existing feeling in the Polish society, but just a few would adopt the patterns of institutional organization from that period. The People’s Republic is associated with apathy, bad quality, low efficiency, bureaucracy and so on. However, in the context of culture, demonizing the People’s Republic is at least unfortunate. It is hardly my intention to praise the People’s Republic here or in any other place, but this is an undeniable fact that culture was in a better condition in the enslaved Polish People’s Republic than in free 3rd Republic of Poland. After 1989 very few things have been produced by Polish culture – few things which could be compared to the achievements of the Polish theatre or cinema of the 1960’s or 70’s (the cinema undoubtedly went through its golden era at the time). The wild free market obviously does not positively influence the cultural production so, in my opinion, we can risk a statement that there is a negative correlation between the level of market facilitation and the quality of a given artistic area in the Third Republic. Polish visual arts, which are the least market dependent (not dependent on the market of viewers who “vote” with their money, as the supporters of the paradoxical creation called “market democracy” sometimes put it) are in good condition, which can be proved by the recognition which such artists as Mirosław Bałka, Zbigniew Libera, Krzysztof Wodiczko or Zofia Kulik receive abroad. Polish curators are also highly regarded. It is enough to mention Aneta Szyłak, Joanna Mytkowska or Adam Szymczyk. Polish theatre is not in such a good condition, though its international assessment is not bad (but not as good as in the times of Grotowski or Kantor). The worst situation is with the areas where market, business and private sector are of great importance: the literature (apart from a few young writers) and especially the cinema, which recently has been improving slightly due to the young directors such as Wojciech Smarzowski or Ksawery Żuławski, but in the 1990’s it went through its worst period when Pazura was chasing Linda and the other way round. Speaking of culture as the last unreformed area after 1989 is also ridiculous because, as Jarosław Suchan, the director of the Museum of Art in Łódź, remarked during one of the discussions on Housner’s Report, it would be difficult to point to an achievement of the Polish industry – mercilessly reformed at the very beginning of the transformation – which would have as good reputation as the contemporary Polish art.
92
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Managerism
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
A
92
It is better defined by the rules of gift economy or the processes of symbolic interactionism [see Mauss, 2001, pp. 165-310]. Homo economicus, who constitutes anthropologic background of managerism, has small chances to create a surprising and lively culture. Its processes are better defined by such terms as potlatch, excess, meeting, transgression or process which economists do not know and understand. Another important matter is the weakness of methodology which is supposed to legitimize the attempts to measure the things which go on in culture. It is a key matter as one needs to have the right measuring tools which would check the effects of a given activity in order to manage something well. In this respect, culture is especially difficult as the value of its creation is measured on the basis of its historical influence, and therefore a retrospective ex post is formed. The history of art shows that the best works of art are those which managed to defy the conventions opening new perspectives which were later explored by future generations. Such achievements are often unrecognizable at the time of their creation. They deserve to be called the extremely rare incidents in a sense understood by, for example, Nicholas Taleb: firstly, they are outside any common possibility, which means that no one can reasonably predict that they will happen, secondly, they evoke great consequences and thirdly, post factum they are surrounded by a great number of theories which are supposed to make them understandable and predictable [Taleb, 2007, pp. XVI-XVII]. The specialists of culture management are using the categories which are not in agreement with the essence of culture as an area of value creation. They often refer to criteria which say little about the culture: an average cost of maintaining a square meter of a gallery or a museum, a number of visitors to one employee, an average cost of serving a customer, a number of books borrowed from a library in a given period of time, a number of visitors in a given period of time, a number of rentings between museums, a ratio of salaries to fixed costs, a ratio of amounts acquired by an institution to all the amounts acquired by it, an amount of events organized by a given institution in a given period of time, visitors’ satisfaction with the offer, the quality of service, the
It’s worth adding that SWOT analysis is presently questioned also in reference to the business management [see. http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304].
6
ccording to Hausner’s team, introducing the rules of professional management would greatly cure the condition of Polish culture. We can observe here the triumph of rationalization and reason, which theoreticians of modern times from Weber to Habermas were afraid of. The belief in managerism is presently a mental relict, a residue of market and business enthusiasm of the 1990’s, when the alleged Fukuyama’s “end of history” and a triumph of liberal capitalism over all forms of social and economic life pushed the world into the arms of managers: the specialists of ensuring efficiency in every area of life. Today this belief seems naïve as Hausner presents his proposal of neoliberal reform of Polish cultural at the time when neoliberalism has proved totally unsuccessful in its mother area, in which managers should have greater achievements: in the world of finance. Instead of success, we saw how an obsession to constantly increase all the possible rates and indexes (efficacy, turnout, volume of production, the number of sold products, and so on) has led the liberal capitalism into its structural collapse, whose tragic consequences were prevented by the intervention of governments. Neoliberal belief in managers has another weak point which is dramatically demonstrated when we talk about culture: the one-size-fits-all approach which means that the same methods, tools and cures are transformed from one area into the other. It brings to mind the behavior of the International Monetary Fund’s officials who travel from country to country with ready-made patterns of economic reforms in their laptops and just write in a space provided the name of the country they currently visit5. Whereas culture as an area of human activity cannot be managed with the same techniques, methods and criteria which were prepared for business management – whose most prominent example is SWOT analysis, omnipresent among the diagnoses prepared by culture managers, also those presented in Hausner’s Report [see Kultura w kryzysie..., pp. 86-111]6. This cannot be done, most importantly, because the cultural production cannot be at all defined in terms of precise steps which lead to goals and results which were pre-planned. Culture does not work according to the investment and profit rules.
The anecdote has it that one of the officials had forgotten to change the name of the country from his previous journey and presented the government of the country, he arrived to as a consultant, a document concerning reforms in a completely different part of the world. In his final version, apart from correcting this single mistake, he hardly changed anything else.
5
5
The anecdote has it that one of the officials had forgotten to change the name of the country from his previous journey and presented the government of the country, he arrived to as a consultant, a document concerning reforms in a completely different part of the world. In his final version, apart from correcting this single mistake, he hardly changed anything else.
ccording to Hausner’s team, introducing the rules of professional management would greatly cure the condition of Polish culture. We can observe here the triumph of rationalization and reason, which theoreticians of modern times from Weber to Habermas were afraid of. The belief in managerism is presently a mental relict, a residue of market and business enthusiasm of the 1990’s, when the alleged Fukuyama’s “end of history” and a triumph of liberal capitalism over all forms of social and economic life pushed the world into the arms of managers: the specialists of ensuring efficiency in every area of life. Today this belief seems naïve as Hausner presents his proposal of neoliberal reform of Polish cultural at the time when neoliberalism has proved totally unsuccessful in its mother area, in which managers should have greater achievements: in the world of finance. Instead of success, we saw how an obsession to constantly increase all the possible rates and indexes (efficacy, turnout, volume of production, the number of sold products, and so on) has led the liberal capitalism into its structural collapse, whose tragic consequences were prevented by the intervention of governments. Neoliberal belief in managers has another weak point which is dramatically demonstrated when we talk about culture: the one-size-fits-all approach which means that the same methods, tools and cures are transformed from one area into the other. It brings to mind the behavior of the International Monetary Fund’s officials who travel from country to country with ready-made patterns of economic reforms in their laptops and just write in a space provided the name of the country they currently visit5. Whereas culture as an area of human activity cannot be managed with the same techniques, methods and criteria which were prepared for business management – whose most prominent example is SWOT analysis, omnipresent among the diagnoses prepared by culture managers, also those presented in Hausner’s Report [see Kultura w kryzysie..., pp. 86-111]6. This cannot be done, most importantly, because the cultural production cannot be at all defined in terms of precise steps which lead to goals and results which were pre-planned. Culture does not work according to the investment and profit rules.
It’s worth adding that SWOT analysis is presently questioned also in reference to the business management [see. http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304].
A
It is better defined by the rules of gift economy or the processes of symbolic interactionism [see Mauss, 2001, pp. 165-310]. Homo economicus, who constitutes anthropologic background of managerism, has small chances to create a surprising and lively culture. Its processes are better defined by such terms as potlatch, excess, meeting, transgression or process which economists do not know and understand. Another important matter is the weakness of methodology which is supposed to legitimize the attempts to measure the things which go on in culture. It is a key matter as one needs to have the right measuring tools which would check the effects of a given activity in order to manage something well. In this respect, culture is especially difficult as the value of its creation is measured on the basis of its historical influence, and therefore a retrospective ex post is formed. The history of art shows that the best works of art are those which managed to defy the conventions opening new perspectives which were later explored by future generations. Such achievements are often unrecognizable at the time of their creation. They deserve to be called the extremely rare incidents in a sense understood by, for example, Nicholas Taleb: firstly, they are outside any common possibility, which means that no one can reasonably predict that they will happen, secondly, they evoke great consequences and thirdly, post factum they are surrounded by a great number of theories which are supposed to make them understandable and predictable [Taleb, 2007, pp. XVI-XVII]. The specialists of culture management are using the categories which are not in agreement with the essence of culture as an area of value creation. They often refer to criteria which say little about the culture: an average cost of maintaining a square meter of a gallery or a museum, a number of visitors to one employee, an average cost of serving a customer, a number of books borrowed from a library in a given period of time, a number of visitors in a given period of time, a number of rentings between museums, a ratio of salaries to fixed costs, a ratio of amounts acquired by an institution to all the amounts acquired by it, an amount of events organized by a given institution in a given period of time, visitors’ satisfaction with the offer, the quality of service, the
6
Managerism
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
convenience of location or working hours and so on7. These criteria have certain value, but they can only be used in reference to two types of cultural activity: the national heritage presentation and entertainment. They are useless while exploring the most current forms of cultural production, for example the area of visual or performing arts. These fields are too fluid and innovative to be analyzed from their formal perspective by means of standard economic, sociological or psychological methods (because this is what management, which is not a spontaneous and independent field of study but a collection of techniques borrowed from social sciences, really operates with). The second very important limitation of managerism refers to the second, opposite end of cultural production: at the side of the recipient. The question of participation in culture is one of the most important problems which must be solved by a person who wants to improve the functioning of culture8. Of course, this problem is present in dissertations on culture management but it is treated there in the same way as PR and marketing departments of commercial companies would treat it. It is emphasized there that the image of cultural institutions must be improved and their offer must be more available and attractive. Undoubtedly, something can be improved in this respect, but these are just cosmetic changes. The most basic problem of culture participation is the problem of symbolic capital distribution in the society. This capital especially refers to education which enables culture reception, and in the case of the most sophisticated forms of high culture, like conceptual art, to culture recognition. In the social reality we live in, the symbolic capital is unevenly distributed just like all other forms of capital. The change in this area is the basic condition of a successful reform of cultural functioning. This change, however, is completely outside the influence of cultural institutions, that is why culture management is here utterly helpless. More egalitarian redistribution of symbolic capital requires big changes in the way the society functions: in the work and production organization, which is oriented on maximal use of production capacity of an individual at an expense of his development in areas other than material, in the media which are bound to deliver cheap and stu-
7
8
pefying entertainment, in the educational process which is conducted more and more according to the work market diktat aiming at creating mindless consumer and passive, obedient employees but not conscious citizens. In other words: there will not be a better culture participation unless social relations, in general, will be reorganized. This is, however, impossible for the specialists of culture management. To sum up, managerism as a cultural approach is a dead end, because: firstly it does not have the right measuring tools which would adequately describe and measure the things it would like to manage and secondly, the tools and methods necessary to introduce changes other than cosmetic are completely unavailable for culture managers. The problem is even deeper. Managerism is not only unable to fulfill the challenges of cultural reform but also has a bad influence on the evolution of many institutions, especially the third sector institutions which constitute an important part of every democratic society. The research conducted by Robert Putman in Italy reveals that all kinds of associations are a mine of social capital, which is indispensible for a proper functioning of democratic power, [see Putnam, 1995] because civil organizations of the third sector base on enthusiasm, involvement and trust. However, during the last three decades we could observe an erosion of these forms of civil activity. This erosion goes hand in hand with professionalization, commercialization and governmentalization of the 3rd Sector [see Rymsza, 2005].The 3rd sector institutions are often managed by means of business-like methods, they stop being the structures of civil society and non-governmental organizations, they become, however, paracompanies which realize typical commercial activities or para-governmental organizations which are managed by authorities manipulating the system of grants’ distribution (defining grant priorities, indicating the favorable subjects, moderating the topics of cultural seasons, defining the social problems for which the 3rd sector receives the money, for example, overuse of alcohol and nicotine)9. The benefits which the society received from the 3rd sector organizations were not the result of the professionalism of its managers
See any study concerning basic culture management problems, for example G. Prawelska-Skrzypek, Polityka kulturalna polskich samorządów: wybrane zagadnienia, Kraków, 2003.
See data concerning Poles’ participation in various areas of culture and an interesting discussion on that topic in B. Fatyga, Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnictwo w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, no 12/2009. An interesting discussion on that topic has recently taken place in “Gazeta Wyborcza” [see Graff, 2010; Nowicka, 2010; Bodnar, Kucharczyk, 2010; Sadura, 2010].
9
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93
93
An interesting discussion on that topic has recently taken place in “Gazeta Wyborcza” [see Graff, 2010; Nowicka, 2010; Bodnar, Kucharczyk, 2010; Sadura, 2010].
9 8
See data concerning Poles’ participation in various areas of culture and an interesting discussion on that topic in B. Fatyga, Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnictwo w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, no 12/2009.
7
See any study concerning basic culture management problems, for example G. Prawelska-Skrzypek, Polityka kulturalna polskich samorządów: wybrane zagadnienia, Kraków, 2003.
convenience of location or working hours and so on7. These criteria have certain value, but they can only be used in reference to two types of cultural activity: the national heritage presentation and entertainment. They are useless while exploring the most current forms of cultural production, for example the area of visual or performing arts. These fields are too fluid and innovative to be analyzed from their formal perspective by means of standard economic, sociological or psychological methods (because this is what management, which is not a spontaneous and independent field of study but a collection of techniques borrowed from social sciences, really operates with). The second very important limitation of managerism refers to the second, opposite end of cultural production: at the side of the recipient. The question of participation in culture is one of the most important problems which must be solved by a person who wants to improve the functioning of culture8. Of course, this problem is present in dissertations on culture management but it is treated there in the same way as PR and marketing departments of commercial companies would treat it. It is emphasized there that the image of cultural institutions must be improved and their offer must be more available and attractive. Undoubtedly, something can be improved in this respect, but these are just cosmetic changes. The most basic problem of culture participation is the problem of symbolic capital distribution in the society. This capital especially refers to education which enables culture reception, and in the case of the most sophisticated forms of high culture, like conceptual art, to culture recognition. In the social reality we live in, the symbolic capital is unevenly distributed just like all other forms of capital. The change in this area is the basic condition of a successful reform of cultural functioning. This change, however, is completely outside the influence of cultural institutions, that is why culture management is here utterly helpless. More egalitarian redistribution of symbolic capital requires big changes in the way the society functions: in the work and production organization, which is oriented on maximal use of production capacity of an individual at an expense of his development in areas other than material, in the media which are bound to deliver cheap and stu-
pefying entertainment, in the educational process which is conducted more and more according to the work market diktat aiming at creating mindless consumer and passive, obedient employees but not conscious citizens. In other words: there will not be a better culture participation unless social relations, in general, will be reorganized. This is, however, impossible for the specialists of culture management. To sum up, managerism as a cultural approach is a dead end, because: firstly it does not have the right measuring tools which would adequately describe and measure the things it would like to manage and secondly, the tools and methods necessary to introduce changes other than cosmetic are completely unavailable for culture managers. The problem is even deeper. Managerism is not only unable to fulfill the challenges of cultural reform but also has a bad influence on the evolution of many institutions, especially the third sector institutions which constitute an important part of every democratic society. The research conducted by Robert Putman in Italy reveals that all kinds of associations are a mine of social capital, which is indispensible for a proper functioning of democratic power, [see Putnam, 1995] because civil organizations of the third sector base on enthusiasm, involvement and trust. However, during the last three decades we could observe an erosion of these forms of civil activity. This erosion goes hand in hand with professionalization, commercialization and governmentalization of the 3rd Sector [see Rymsza, 2005].The 3rd sector institutions are often managed by means of business-like methods, they stop being the structures of civil society and non-governmental organizations, they become, however, paracompanies which realize typical commercial activities or para-governmental organizations which are managed by authorities manipulating the system of grants’ distribution (defining grant priorities, indicating the favorable subjects, moderating the topics of cultural seasons, defining the social problems for which the 3rd sector receives the money, for example, overuse of alcohol and nicotine)9. The benefits which the society received from the 3rd sector organizations were not the result of the professionalism of its managers
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or the analysis of its effectiveness, but the way the trust and enthusiasm were institutionalized, which has more successfully convinced individuals to involve into social life. Managerism with its bureaucratic machinery of rationalization and its obsessive index monitoring is not able to help a lot, but can destroy much.
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Human element
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See information on that topic in the blog of the Committee to Promote Clear Cultural Policy in Krakow [http://inicjatywa2009. blogspot.com/].
H
10
recognized in Poland and abroad. It’s interesting that their level is not 100% correlated with the size of the city they operate in. Important and good quality galleries operate, for example in Białystok, Bytom or Zielona Góra. If we look closely at those good examples, we will see that the thing they have in common is not a given management technique, or a special way of acquiring funds, but a charismatic and competent director who, most importantly, does understand contemporary art, has been a specialist in this matter, has a vision of the institution’s development and has shaped its program not in reference to the tastes and expectations of the audience, which he learnt from questionnaires, but by making brave and experimental activity a priority. I think about the people like: Monika Szewczyk in Białymstok, Sebastian Cichocki in Bytom, Jarosław Suchan in Krakow, Wojciech Kozłowski in Zielona Góra or Aneta Szyłak in Gdańsk. Such a human element is a basis for every area of cultural production. Behind well recognized modern art institutions of a different than public sector, there is also an art specialist and not an outstanding manager or fundraiser, such as: Łukasz Gorczyca and Michał Kaczyński from Raster, Andrzej Przywara, Joanna Mytkowska and Adam Szymczyk from Fundacja Galeria Foksal czy Piotr Krajewski z WRO Center, to name just a few. It is not difficult to say, then, what should the basic positive change in the functioning of the cultural institutions be about: promoting democratic and clear mechanisms of directors’ nomination in cultural institutions, which is the only good way to guarantee that the managing posts will be filled by competent people. This mechanism does not even have to be specially created as it already exists – it is an open competition settled by a jury of experts. It should be used in reference to every cultural institution within the entire country. Unfortunately, the law nowadays gives a supervising body the right to establish a competition or to nominate a director in a discretionary way (some institutions covered by the special order of the Minister of Culture and the National Heritage are the exceptions to this rule). In spite of the request to announce a competition signed by over 400 representatives of the artistic circles, the president of Krakow has recently used his right to nominate the director of the newly created Museum of Contemporary Art10. Also, Minister Zdrojewski and local bodies of central government which have influence on the statute of the new museum – and more precisely Stanisław
ausner’s Report, though, in my opinion, going in a completely wrong direction, contains, an important and right point: changes in the way the directors of cultural institutions are nominated and organize their work. This human element is more important, in my opinion, than effectiveness, acquisition of funds, PR lifting, and so on. The empirical analysis has revealed that those institutions which constitute important points on the cultural map of Poland (and not only), are usually managed, not by skilful managers, but professionals with good factual knowledge at the highest level. For example, I recommend looking at one of the areas of modern culture: visual arts (also referred to as “plastic arts”, though “plastic” is in Polish a word used for an elementary school subject rather than an artistic discipline). Of all the areas of artistic work they have received the biggest recognition abroad. They are also a discipline which I know best because of my relations with Bunkier Sztuki (the Bunker of Art) in Krakow and my cooperation with other contemporary art institutions in Poland and abroad. That is why I chose visual arts for a brief analysis, though in my opinion, the conclusions could also be referred to other areas of culture. In Poland, after the local-government reform in 1999, a lot of institutions dealing with contemporary art were transferred to local governments. Before, a great majority of them were governed by the Bureau of Artistic Exhibitions or in some other way supervised by the central government. None of these institutions were outstanding or internationally recognized centers of contemporary art because in 1990’s only CSW Zamek Ujazdowski in Warsaw deserved to be called outstanding. A decade from the transfer to local governments, some of these institutions turned into unimportant provincial galleries showing the painting of the matter and leather sculptures by the representatives of the Polish Artists and Designers’ Association, others became ambitious institutions, well
ausner’s Report, though, in my opinion, going in a completely wrong direction, contains, an important and right point: changes in the way the directors of cultural institutions are nominated and organize their work. This human element is more important, in my opinion, than effectiveness, acquisition of funds, PR lifting, and so on. The empirical analysis has revealed that those institutions which constitute important points on the cultural map of Poland (and not only), are usually managed, not by skilful managers, but professionals with good factual knowledge at the highest level. For example, I recommend looking at one of the areas of modern culture: visual arts (also referred to as “plastic arts”, though “plastic” is in Polish a word used for an elementary school subject rather than an artistic discipline). Of all the areas of artistic work they have received the biggest recognition abroad. They are also a discipline which I know best because of my relations with Bunkier Sztuki (the Bunker of Art) in Krakow and my cooperation with other contemporary art institutions in Poland and abroad. That is why I chose visual arts for a brief analysis, though in my opinion, the conclusions could also be referred to other areas of culture. In Poland, after the local-government reform in 1999, a lot of institutions dealing with contemporary art were transferred to local governments. Before, a great majority of them were governed by the Bureau of Artistic Exhibitions or in some other way supervised by the central government. None of these institutions were outstanding or internationally recognized centers of contemporary art because in 1990’s only CSW Zamek Ujazdowski in Warsaw deserved to be called outstanding. A decade from the transfer to local governments, some of these institutions turned into unimportant provincial galleries showing the painting of the matter and leather sculptures by the representatives of the Polish Artists and Designers’ Association, others became ambitious institutions, well
H
See information on that topic in the blog of the Committee to Promote Clear Cultural Policy in Krakow [http://inicjatywa2009. blogspot.com/].
Human element
recognized in Poland and abroad. It’s interesting that their level is not 100% correlated with the size of the city they operate in. Important and good quality galleries operate, for example in Białystok, Bytom or Zielona Góra. If we look closely at those good examples, we will see that the thing they have in common is not a given management technique, or a special way of acquiring funds, but a charismatic and competent director who, most importantly, does understand contemporary art, has been a specialist in this matter, has a vision of the institution’s development and has shaped its program not in reference to the tastes and expectations of the audience, which he learnt from questionnaires, but by making brave and experimental activity a priority. I think about the people like: Monika Szewczyk in Białymstok, Sebastian Cichocki in Bytom, Jarosław Suchan in Krakow, Wojciech Kozłowski in Zielona Góra or Aneta Szyłak in Gdańsk. Such a human element is a basis for every area of cultural production. Behind well recognized modern art institutions of a different than public sector, there is also an art specialist and not an outstanding manager or fundraiser, such as: Łukasz Gorczyca and Michał Kaczyński from Raster, Andrzej Przywara, Joanna Mytkowska and Adam Szymczyk from Fundacja Galeria Foksal czy Piotr Krajewski z WRO Center, to name just a few. It is not difficult to say, then, what should the basic positive change in the functioning of the cultural institutions be about: promoting democratic and clear mechanisms of directors’ nomination in cultural institutions, which is the only good way to guarantee that the managing posts will be filled by competent people. This mechanism does not even have to be specially created as it already exists – it is an open competition settled by a jury of experts. It should be used in reference to every cultural institution within the entire country. Unfortunately, the law nowadays gives a supervising body the right to establish a competition or to nominate a director in a discretionary way (some institutions covered by the special order of the Minister of Culture and the National Heritage are the exceptions to this rule). In spite of the request to announce a competition signed by over 400 representatives of the artistic circles, the president of Krakow has recently used his right to nominate the director of the newly created Museum of Contemporary Art10. Also, Minister Zdrojewski and local bodies of central government which have influence on the statute of the new museum – and more precisely Stanisław
10
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or the analysis of its effectiveness, but the way the trust and enthusiasm were institutionalized, which has more successfully convinced individuals to involve into social life. Managerism with its bureaucratic machinery of rationalization and its obsessive index monitoring is not able to help a lot, but can destroy much.
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Kracik who dismissed the amendments of the City Council which obliged the museum to introduce the competition – preferred to support the feudal procedures similar to investiture rather than clear mechanisms of an open democratic country. Apart from competition, another important element should be the introduction of cadencies for all managing posts (right now museum directors are nominated for an undefined period of time, which usually means that they perform their function till the end of their lives). These postulates are included in Hausner’s Report [see Kultura w kryzysie, p. 37]. Unfortunately, it seems that Minister Zdrojewski is not going to enforce this part of the Report. In his expose, in January 2010, Zdrojewski mostly concentrated on the problems with finances and promotion. Such accent distribution does not reflect the essence of the problem. The size of the budged the culture receives is not the only thing that needs to be reformed. The money it receives is not that little, but it is shared not in the right way11. We can see that good quality things can be achieved in culture with little money, for example Spółdzielnia Goldex Poldex in Krakow. With a very small budged, supported by a group of enthusiasts from their private funds, this year, Spółdzielnia appeared among 100 institutions, events and people that are the most important for art, according to “Obieg” magazine, the most opinion shaping medium of Polish modern art [see http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954]. Overconcentration on financial and marketing matters is an epiphenomenon of managerism and shows that the perception of reality depends on the language we use. Every manipulation technique – and in this respect culture management is not much different from landing on the moon – puts emphasis on measurable factors because this helps, first of all, to define a problem we deal with and, second of all, to assess the success of the manipulation. That is why the financial matters of an institution, its organization, and promotion are more prominent in every management technique – either in business or anywhere else. The esthetic value is more difficult to grasp this way and it touches the limits of the things which can be operationalized at all, and the thing such as the meaning of a given enterprise in a general discourse of artistic production, and its potential breakthrough, is completely outside any possible measurement (also because some time must pass
11
before it becomes clear). Of course, people can feel and guess these matters, but it is mainly done by means of intuition and not standard measuring techniques. This is perhaps why outstanding art experts – curators, film directors, theatre and gallery directors, editors, and so on – have an advantage over other people. They can intuitively judge which directions of experimental explorations are promising and which results of this search deserve to be popularized. It’s doubtful weather culture managers can do similar things. Surely, no criteria used to measure effectiveness of cultural institutions are helpful here. Apart from discussing the finance of Polish culture and its promotion abroad, Minister Zdrojewski, in his parliament speech, also mentioned that there is a need for artistic education. It is a right way to go, because education is one of the main mechanisms of symbolic capital redistribution. However, the remedy the minister suggests and the achievements he boasted of are not especially adequate. Reintroduction of music and art in school curricula is of course right, but this is not enough to make contemporary culture more approachable for an average citizen. Currently, art in its every field has a conceptual character, which is the result of the avant-garde breakthrough that happened in art in the 20th century. Of course, aesthetic categories still count but a work of art without a conceptual element is today treated just as a design, entertainment or decoration. Therefore, teaching various terms and theory is more important for the reception of modern art than traditional approach to artistic education. Art and music at school will not help anyone to understand modern art. It would be much better to introduce philosophy as an obligatory subject at the school-living examination, just like France did. Nothing seems to show, however, that present authorities plan to introduce such changes in education. Their introduction depends little on the Ministry of Culture, which shows how bureaucratic divisions hamper reforms other than cosmetic.
Looking for an alternative
A
s I agree with an opinion that a constructive criticism, the one which indicates an alternative for the criticized solutions, has a higher value than purely negative criticism that only reveals a
For example: Festival Bureau in Krakow has a several-million-zloty budged though its activity mainly refers to organizing mass entertainment (for example, WOW! night. Music Square Session, so the New Year’s Eve party on the Market Square, which included “the biggest confetti show in Poland with the use of 80 kg of confetti” [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/]), whereas the Bunker of Art has to dismiss employees and limit its program because of low budged.
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11
For example: Festival Bureau in Krakow has a several-million-zloty budged though its activity mainly refers to organizing mass entertainment (for example, WOW! night. Music Square Session, so the New Year’s Eve party on the Market Square, which included “the biggest confetti show in Poland with the use of 80 kg of confetti” [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/]), whereas the Bunker of Art has to dismiss employees and limit its program because of low budged.
Kracik who dismissed the amendments of the City Council which obliged the museum to introduce the competition – preferred to support the feudal procedures similar to investiture rather than clear mechanisms of an open democratic country. Apart from competition, another important element should be the introduction of cadencies for all managing posts (right now museum directors are nominated for an undefined period of time, which usually means that they perform their function till the end of their lives). These postulates are included in Hausner’s Report [see Kultura w kryzysie, p. 37]. Unfortunately, it seems that Minister Zdrojewski is not going to enforce this part of the Report. In his expose, in January 2010, Zdrojewski mostly concentrated on the problems with finances and promotion. Such accent distribution does not reflect the essence of the problem. The size of the budged the culture receives is not the only thing that needs to be reformed. The money it receives is not that little, but it is shared not in the right way11. We can see that good quality things can be achieved in culture with little money, for example Spółdzielnia Goldex Poldex in Krakow. With a very small budged, supported by a group of enthusiasts from their private funds, this year, Spółdzielnia appeared among 100 institutions, events and people that are the most important for art, according to “Obieg” magazine, the most opinion shaping medium of Polish modern art [see http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954]. Overconcentration on financial and marketing matters is an epiphenomenon of managerism and shows that the perception of reality depends on the language we use. Every manipulation technique – and in this respect culture management is not much different from landing on the moon – puts emphasis on measurable factors because this helps, first of all, to define a problem we deal with and, second of all, to assess the success of the manipulation. That is why the financial matters of an institution, its organization, and promotion are more prominent in every management technique – either in business or anywhere else. The esthetic value is more difficult to grasp this way and it touches the limits of the things which can be operationalized at all, and the thing such as the meaning of a given enterprise in a general discourse of artistic production, and its potential breakthrough, is completely outside any possible measurement (also because some time must pass
s I agree with an opinion that a constructive criticism, the one which indicates an alternative for the criticized solutions, has a higher value than purely negative criticism that only reveals a
A
Looking for an alternative before it becomes clear). Of course, people can feel and guess these matters, but it is mainly done by means of intuition and not standard measuring techniques. This is perhaps why outstanding art experts – curators, film directors, theatre and gallery directors, editors, and so on – have an advantage over other people. They can intuitively judge which directions of experimental explorations are promising and which results of this search deserve to be popularized. It’s doubtful weather culture managers can do similar things. Surely, no criteria used to measure effectiveness of cultural institutions are helpful here. Apart from discussing the finance of Polish culture and its promotion abroad, Minister Zdrojewski, in his parliament speech, also mentioned that there is a need for artistic education. It is a right way to go, because education is one of the main mechanisms of symbolic capital redistribution. However, the remedy the minister suggests and the achievements he boasted of are not especially adequate. Reintroduction of music and art in school curricula is of course right, but this is not enough to make contemporary culture more approachable for an average citizen. Currently, art in its every field has a conceptual character, which is the result of the avant-garde breakthrough that happened in art in the 20th century. Of course, aesthetic categories still count but a work of art without a conceptual element is today treated just as a design, entertainment or decoration. Therefore, teaching various terms and theory is more important for the reception of modern art than traditional approach to artistic education. Art and music at school will not help anyone to understand modern art. It would be much better to introduce philosophy as an obligatory subject at the school-living examination, just like France did. Nothing seems to show, however, that present authorities plan to introduce such changes in education. Their introduction depends little on the Ministry of Culture, which shows how bureaucratic divisions hamper reforms other than cosmetic.
who were against the idea of culture privatization saying that these persons are afraid of people but trust the state. The suggestions of the Manifest do not tend to nationalize the culture but they want to socialize it, i.e. they want it to be controlled by the society itself and not an elite of chosen representatives. They are similar in this sense to the postulates formed by the Civic Committee of Public Media in reference to the media situation. What would it be like, then? Well, the early forms of such system have already worked in practice. Unfortunately, not in Poland, but in Vienna where since 2004, a social platform “NetzNetz” has operated. It is used to share funds allotted by the city of Vienna for a narrow field of artistic production: for digital culture (the art of the Internet, video art and other forms of new media in the culture). The process of sharing the funds is democratic and inclusive. The decisions concerning the way the money is going to be spent are taken not by clerks in the City Council, but collectively by the people interested who vote and allot points to the projects presented on the Internet forum. This way they manage the budged of about 500.000 euro (around 2 million PLN). Such an organization could be treated as an example of well functioning committees of art and culture whose competence should be defined more extensively and should also include the supervision of artistic schools [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netznetz]. In reference to 2. The problem of intellectual property is a topic for a completely different article. Present regulations do not work well for art, that is why many types of artistic creations (for example, found footage or mash-up) are by definition illegal. The Manifest demands equal rights in terms of legal regulations which would help to change this situation, for example open licenses of Creative Commons type [http://creativecommons.pl/]. In reference to 3. The way the funds are shared is more important than the problem of increasing the funds allotted to culture – for example, to 1% of GDP. Experimental enterprises are triggering the development of culture, but they are poorly financed in comparison to the amount of money devoted to conservation and promotion of national heritage (for example the Year of Chopin), spectacular festivals with the participation of great stars (the Festival Bureau of Krakow specializes in this type of events) and the events of purely entertaining nature. In many cases experimental projects are not expensive at all. In practice, their finances could be increased by the system of micro-grants (to the amount of 5 or 10 thousand) which would be directly allotted to artists and which would be devoted for quite
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
pathological character of the status quo, at the end, I would like to present one of the projects which could be treated as an alternative to the cultural reform suggested by Hausner, Polish Culture Congress and the parliament appearance of minister Zdrojewski. It has a character of a grass-roots social initiative. It was prepared by a group of people connected with the culture in a various ways which, except for me, also included: Roman Dziadkiewicz (an artist, the head of Fundacja 36,6), Grzegorz Jankowicz (philologist, editor of „Ha!art” Publishing House and the head of cultural department in the paper “Tygodnik Powszechny”), Zbigniew Libera (an artist, one of the most outstanding Polish modern artists) Ewa Majewska (a philosopher and feminist), Lidia Makowska (an activist, one of the runners of Indeks73 portal), Natalia Romik (a political scientist and a curator), Janek Simon (an artist, co-establisher of Spółdzielnia Goldex Poldex), Kuba Szreder (sociologist and a curator), Bogna Świątkowska ( a curator, the head of the New Culture Foundation Bęc Zmiana) and Joanna Warsza (a curator, runs Laura Palmer’s Foundation). The Manifest with the reform program announced in November 2009 on the page of the Committee to Promote Radical Changes in the Culture has been so far signed by several hundred people [http:// www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/]. As the full text of the Manifest is available on the Ineternet with an extensive commentary [ibidem], here I would only like to outline briefly its basic propositions and postulates. The starting point for the suggested changes is a critical assessment of the current situation and the reforms which have been proposed. The Manifest is against the four negative phenomena of the contemporary culture: against the rule of bureaucrats and economists, against commercialization, against instrumentalization and against liquidation or weakening of the public sector. As a remedy it suggests five radical changes: 1. Liquidation of the central, bureaucratic model of culture management and creation of social committees for cultural and artistic matters. 2. Equal rights, from the legal point of view, for all the forms of intellectual property. 3. Increasing public finances for the experimental activity. 4. Solving the problem of social security of (not only) the culture creators. 5. Elementary education in the area of contemporary culture. I would like to comment briefly on the proposals mentioned above. In reference to 1. During the Congress of Polish Culture in 2009, Leszek Balcerowicz criticized those
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who were against the idea of culture privatization saying that these persons are afraid of people but trust the state. The suggestions of the Manifest do not tend to nationalize the culture but they want to socialize it, i.e. they want it to be controlled by the society itself and not an elite of chosen representatives. They are similar in this sense to the postulates formed by the Civic Committee of Public Media in reference to the media situation. What would it be like, then? Well, the early forms of such system have already worked in practice. Unfortunately, not in Poland, but in Vienna where since 2004, a social platform “NetzNetz” has operated. It is used to share funds allotted by the city of Vienna for a narrow field of artistic production: for digital culture (the art of the Internet, video art and other forms of new media in the culture). The process of sharing the funds is democratic and inclusive. The decisions concerning the way the money is going to be spent are taken not by clerks in the City Council, but collectively by the people interested who vote and allot points to the projects presented on the Internet forum. This way they manage the budged of about 500.000 euro (around 2 million PLN). Such an organization could be treated as an example of well functioning committees of art and culture whose competence should be defined more extensively and should also include the supervision of artistic schools [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netznetz]. In reference to 2. The problem of intellectual property is a topic for a completely different article. Present regulations do not work well for art, that is why many types of artistic creations (for example, found footage or mash-up) are by definition illegal. The Manifest demands equal rights in terms of legal regulations which would help to change this situation, for example open licenses of Creative Commons type [http://creativecommons.pl/]. In reference to 3. The way the funds are shared is more important than the problem of increasing the funds allotted to culture – for example, to 1% of GDP. Experimental enterprises are triggering the development of culture, but they are poorly financed in comparison to the amount of money devoted to conservation and promotion of national heritage (for example the Year of Chopin), spectacular festivals with the participation of great stars (the Festival Bureau of Krakow specializes in this type of events) and the events of purely entertaining nature. In many cases experimental projects are not expensive at all. In practice, their finances could be increased by the system of micro-grants (to the amount of 5 or 10 thousand) which would be directly allotted to artists and which would be devoted for quite
96
pathological character of the status quo, at the end, I would like to present one of the projects which could be treated as an alternative to the cultural reform suggested by Hausner, Polish Culture Congress and the parliament appearance of minister Zdrojewski. It has a character of a grass-roots social initiative. It was prepared by a group of people connected with the culture in a various ways which, except for me, also included: Roman Dziadkiewicz (an artist, the head of Fundacja 36,6), Grzegorz Jankowicz (philologist, editor of „Ha!art” Publishing House and the head of cultural department in the paper “Tygodnik Powszechny”), Zbigniew Libera (an artist, one of the most outstanding Polish modern artists) Ewa Majewska (a philosopher and feminist), Lidia Makowska (an activist, one of the runners of Indeks73 portal), Natalia Romik (a political scientist and a curator), Janek Simon (an artist, co-establisher of Spółdzielnia Goldex Poldex), Kuba Szreder (sociologist and a curator), Bogna Świątkowska ( a curator, the head of the New Culture Foundation Bęc Zmiana) and Joanna Warsza (a curator, runs Laura Palmer’s Foundation). The Manifest with the reform program announced in November 2009 on the page of the Committee to Promote Radical Changes in the Culture has been so far signed by several hundred people [http:// www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/]. As the full text of the Manifest is available on the Ineternet with an extensive commentary [ibidem], here I would only like to outline briefly its basic propositions and postulates. The starting point for the suggested changes is a critical assessment of the current situation and the reforms which have been proposed. The Manifest is against the four negative phenomena of the contemporary culture: against the rule of bureaucrats and economists, against commercialization, against instrumentalization and against liquidation or weakening of the public sector. As a remedy it suggests five radical changes: 1. Liquidation of the central, bureaucratic model of culture management and creation of social committees for cultural and artistic matters. 2. Equal rights, from the legal point of view, for all the forms of intellectual property. 3. Increasing public finances for the experimental activity. 4. Solving the problem of social security of (not only) the culture creators. 5. Elementary education in the area of contemporary culture. I would like to comment briefly on the proposals mentioned above. In reference to 1. During the Congress of Polish Culture in 2009, Leszek Balcerowicz criticized those
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risky but potentially important projects. This way, instead of one festival of the Cracovian ArtBoom type, several hundred of experimental projects could be financed. Undoubtedly, it would give better results, also in reference to the aspect of promoting the city as a center of lively and well developing culture, which the municipal authorities cherish the most. In reference to 4. Solving the problem of social security for the creators of culture raises the biggest controversy and discussions. Interestingly, the solutions which introduce a type of minimal guaranteed income have worked well in various countries for quite some time now. For example, in France there is a special professional category Intermittent du spectacle since 1936, which refers to the culture creators without a full-time employment. In their cases the periods of being professionally active alternate with the periods without any income. If a person like that can prove that he or she has completed 507 hours of work (which equals about three months of full time work), this person will receive for the remaining time 75% of his or her monthly income, but not less than 787 euro [http://www.nidinfo. com/html/intermittent_spectacle.html.]. Such a solution works well for France. The fact that such
proposals meet with outraged comments, referring to the demanding attitudes of the artists, is a clear proof of our provincial thinking and limited imagination. In reference to 5. The proposals concerning education are different from those mentioned by Bohdan Zdrojewski in parliament. We shouldn’t talk about artistic education but about education concerning contemporary culture which would help to create competence indispensible for being able to deal with the modern artistic production. Such lessons should cover an entire period of education from kindergarten to secondary school. Their introduction is absolutely possible from the practical point of view. Nowadays the curriculum of elementary school includes 4 hours of PE education. Devoting one of these lessons to modern culture would definitely be the right choice as learning about culture is an important element of citizens’ education in modern democratic countries12. There should not be a problem with finding teachers of such a subject. Cultural studies are nowadays one of the most popular fields of study at the university level. Introduction of cultural education at schools would give the graduates of these studies a chance for a better career than the one of a waiter or a cleaner in Ireland.
Nota bene, obsessive physical exercises bring to mind totalitarian regimes of Nazi Germany or Maoistic China.
12
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Nota bene, obsessive physical exercises bring to mind totalitarian regimes of Nazi Germany or Maoistic China.
12
risky but potentially important projects. This way, instead of one festival of the Cracovian ArtBoom type, several hundred of experimental projects could be financed. Undoubtedly, it would give better results, also in reference to the aspect of promoting the city as a center of lively and well developing culture, which the municipal authorities cherish the most. In reference to 4. Solving the problem of social security for the creators of culture raises the biggest controversy and discussions. Interestingly, the solutions which introduce a type of minimal guaranteed income have worked well in various countries for quite some time now. For example, in France there is a special professional category Intermittent du spectacle since 1936, which refers to the culture creators without a full-time employment. In their cases the periods of being professionally active alternate with the periods without any income. If a person like that can prove that he or she has completed 507 hours of work (which equals about three months of full time work), this person will receive for the remaining time 75% of his or her monthly income, but not less than 787 euro [http://www.nidinfo. com/html/intermittent_spectacle.html.]. Such a solution works well for France. The fact that such
proposals meet with outraged comments, referring to the demanding attitudes of the artists, is a clear proof of our provincial thinking and limited imagination. In reference to 5. The proposals concerning education are different from those mentioned by Bohdan Zdrojewski in parliament. We shouldn’t talk about artistic education but about education concerning contemporary culture which would help to create competence indispensible for being able to deal with the modern artistic production. Such lessons should cover an entire period of education from kindergarten to secondary school. Their introduction is absolutely possible from the practical point of view. Nowadays the curriculum of elementary school includes 4 hours of PE education. Devoting one of these lessons to modern culture would definitely be the right choice as learning about culture is an important element of citizens’ education in modern democratic countries12. There should not be a problem with finding teachers of such a subject. Cultural studies are nowadays one of the most popular fields of study at the university level. Introduction of cultural education at schools would give the graduates of these studies a chance for a better career than the one of a waiter or a cleaner in Ireland.
98
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
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Manifest komitetu na rzecz radykalnych zmian w kultu-
Armstrong J. S., Don’t do SWOT: A Note on Marketing
Mauss M., Szkic o darze. Forma i podstawa wymiany
Planning, ManyWordls.com, http://manyworlds.com/
w społeczeństwach archaicznych, tłum. K. Pomian, [w:] tenże, Socjologia i antropologia, Warszawa, 2001.
Arrighi G., The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power
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and the Origins of our Times, London 1994, F. Braudel,
nomic Growth, Warszawa [b.r.], s. 6 (Distinguish
Arrow K.J., Debreu G., Existence of an Equilibrium for
borcza”, 8 maja 2009, wersja internetowa: http://
a Competitive Economy, „Econometrica” July 1954,
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Putnam R.D., Demokracja w działaniu. Tradycje obywa-
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telskie we współczesnych Włoszech, Kraków, 1995. Rymsza A., Partnerzy służby publicznej? Wyzwania
Stiglitz J.E., Globalizacja, Warszawa, 2004. Setka „Obiegu”, http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954. „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 3/2005.
Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego.
publiczną w świetle doświadczeń amerykańskich,
rze. Raport przygotowany na zlecenie Ministerstwa
współpracy sektora poza-rządowego z administracją
Buczek M. i in., Kultura w kryzysie czy kryzys w kultu-
Rymsza A., Partnerzy służby publicznej? Wyzwania telskie we współczesnych Włoszech, Kraków, 1995.
Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-
Putnam R.D., Demokracja w działaniu. Tradycje obywa-
Bresser Pereira L.C., Maravall J.M., Przeworski A.,
kultury.html
vol. 22, nr 3.
wyborcza.pl/1,75475,6582681,Plan_Hausnera_dla_
a Competitive Economy, „Econometrica” July 1954,
borcza”, 8 maja 2009, wersja internetowa: http://
Arrow K.J., Debreu G., Existence of an Equilibrium for XVIIIe Siècle, Paris, 1979.
Pawłowski R., Plan Hausnera dla kultury, „Gazeta WyLecures, no. 7).
Civilisation Matérielle, Économie Et Capitalisme XVe-
nomic Growth, Warszawa [b.r.], s. 6 (Distinguish
and the Origins of our Times, London 1994, F. Braudel,
North D.C., Undesrtanding Economic Change and Eco-
Arrighi G., The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power
tenże, Socjologia i antropologia, Warszawa, 2001.
exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304.
w społeczeństwach archaicznych, tłum. K. Pomian, [w:]
Planning, ManyWordls.com, http://manyworlds.com/
Mauss M., Szkic o darze. Forma i podstawa wymiany
Armstrong J. S., Don’t do SWOT: A Note on Marketing
Literature
rze, http://www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/. Manifest komitetu na rzecz radykalnych zmian w kultuCulture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Democratic Approach, Cambridge, 1993.
98
Fatyga B., Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnic-
at Home and Abroad, New York, 2004.
Taleb N. N., The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly
Zakaria F., The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy
two w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 12/2009.
html/intermittent_spectacle.html.
Impropabel, New York, 2007.
à l’heure de l’europe!, http://www.nidinfo.com/
Affairs, March/April, 1994.
tucjami kultury.
Les intermittents du spectacle: Une spécificité française
Zakaria F., A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew, Foreign
Hausner J., Raport o finansowaniu i zarządzaniu insty-
w%20kulturze_wpelna.pdf.
Agriculture and the Origins of the European WorldEconomy in the Sixteenth Century, New York 1974.
ekonomiczne kształtują świat jutra, Wrocław, 1999.
Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20czy%20kryzys%20
Wallerstein I., The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capitalist
Thurow L.C., Przyszłość kapitalizmu. Jak dzisiejsze siły
w%20kulturze_wpelna.pdf. http://www.kongreskultury.pl/library/File/Hausner/
Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20czy%20kryzys%20
ekonomiczne kształtują świat jutra, Wrocław, 1999.
http://www.kongreskultury.pl/library/File/Hausner/
Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20czy%20kryzys%20
Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-
http://www.kongreskultury.pl/library/File/Hausner/
Wallerstein I., The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capitalist
Impropabel, New York, 2007. Thurow L.C., Przyszłość kapitalizmu. Jak dzisiejsze siły
w%20kulturze_wpelna.pdf.
Taleb N. N., The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly
Economy in the Sixteenth Century, New York 1974.
tucjami kultury.
Stiglitz J.E., Globalizacja, Warszawa, 2004.
Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20czy%20kryzys%20
two w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 12/2009. Hausner J., Raport o finansowaniu i zarządzaniu insty-
http://www.kongreskultury.pl/library/File/Hausner/
Fatyga B., Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnic-
„Trzeci Sektor”, nr 3/2005. Setka „Obiegu”, http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954.
Affairs, March/April, 1994.
Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego.
Zakaria F., A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew, Foreign
publiczną w świetle doświadczeń amerykańskich,
w%20kulturze_wpelna.pdf.
współpracy sektora poza-rządowego z administracją
rze. Raport przygotowany na zlecenie Ministerstwa
Les intermittents du spectacle: Une spécificité française
Democratic Approach, Cambridge, 1993. Buczek M. i in., Kultura w kryzysie czy kryzys w kultu-
at Home and Abroad, New York, 2004.
vol. 22, nr 3.
Zakaria F., The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy
XVIIIe Siècle, Paris, 1979.
Lecures, no. 7). Pawłowski R., Plan Hausnera dla kultury, „Gazeta Wy-
à l’heure de l’europe!, http://www.nidinfo.com/
Civilisation Matérielle, Économie Et Capitalisme XVe-
html/intermittent_spectacle.html.
exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304.
rze, http://www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/.
99
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
Third Reality Levan Khetaguri
F
or centuries serious efforts of self perception have shown to be unsuccessful. Despite large number of schools and movements, generations of philosophers were unable to neither answer the questions of Antique period nor formulate new ones. Moving through labyrinths of time and history we haven’t opened a single new door – we were competing in giving names to the same events. More and more we kept diverging from the sacred and esoteric. More and more a considerable part of humanity was living a better life. More and more we kept stripping ourselves from spirituality. To be brief and specific we are in the XXI century – in the age when love is based on religion and in the era when the deficit for love has lead us on one hand to spiritual ice age and on the other to global warming. We live and exist, but where and in which dimension? Spanish Renaissance playwright Calderon made a following formulation of the historic riddle: Is life / existence / a mere dream? It is obvious that for centuries there was an idea between the two worlds, offering us paired dimensions. Existence – Dream Life – Death Paradise – Hell Although religion kept bringing in a third world in the face of purgatory as a third dimension. Calderon is formulating a question in regard to true reality and our true existence. Is it what we call life or is it what we call a dream? Where does our true meaning lie? When looking at it from a simple perspective, we can merely say that we physically exist in the so-called real life and our consciousness reveals itself in the realm of dreams – which is equally real for our consciousness. Where can the true essence of a man be found? An essence expressed in antique formulation – “Perceive yourself” or “Be who you are”. Here or there? In the so-called life or in a dream? Psychologists may very well say that it is only possible in a realm of dreams.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
A new dimension
D
evelopment of the world. Interactivity. Resembling the arts – towards stream of consciousness. From Postmodernism to Neo Intellectualism. Recently a friend of mine told me – “An era of Postmodernism associated with Steiner is coming to an end”… and an era of numerous neo-isms – what should we expect next? Post, Post? In the nineties a Spanish theatre scholar from Barcelona Jose Angel Gomez widely used and promoted a theory of “Post Theatre”. Hoping for a new theatre he wrote articles and books on Post Hamlet, Post Don Juan or the so – called Post Theatre issues. Art research is art philosophy. Contemporary art historians could already be considered as being culture anthropologists. From Interactivity to multimedia expression. Our perception is interactive, which ensures interactivity to be sustained in the process of our self expression – this can only be achieved through means of multimedia. We exist in number of realities at the same time – one of the most important amongst them is cyber reality – which requires the use of modern technologies as means of self expression. We listen, watch, reflect, write and read at the same time. In cyber world we tend to interact with several, maybe even ten people at once without them being aware of it. We tend to disguise ourselves in cyber world with fictional bios, borrowed individualities and faces. (Literally – if staring from Antique Theatre we were sublimating our desires through an actor or character on stage, today we are the only ones in charge of this process – cyber reality has given us an opportunity to become what we desire and make it not only imaginary but cyber materialistic). We are paying for a new life (second life – internet space for second reality) and thus our language of expression becomes cyber language – modern technologies of the world of numbers. Cyber world is a realm with no time and no boarders, no language and no reality. In a sense we exist in a dimension beyond time and reality. What does an art of this time look like, what are the means of its
99
Levan Khetaguri vice-rector of the Shota Rustaveli Georgian State University of Theatre and Film, Tbilisi. Coordinator and moderator of Georgian and international cultural programs, festivals, conferences, seminars, workshops and public lecturers. Producer and author of several TV programs. Author of over 80 scientific works and publications on Georgian, Russian, English, Azerbaijanian, Belarusian, Slovakian. Translator of several books. He is the laureate of many awards, inter alia Swedish Writers Guild award (2000), Soviet Union’s Academy of Science diploma (1985), Georgian Academy of Science award (1982). Member of many prestigious institutions. In 19961997 he was the head of International Cultural Programs in Ministry of Culture of Georgia; in 2008 member of European Cultural Parliament. Since 1986 he has been leader of MA and Doctoral programs at the Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film University as a theatrologist run lectures and participates in international conference and
or centuries serious efforts of self perception have shown to be unsuccessful. Despite large number of schools and movements, generations of philosophers were unable to neither answer the questions of Antique period nor formulate new ones. Moving through labyrinths of time and history we haven’t opened a single new door – we were competing in giving names to the same events. More and more we kept diverging from the sacred and esoteric. More and more a considerable part of humanity was living a better life. More and more we kept stripping ourselves from spirituality. To be brief and specific we are in the XXI century – in the age when love is based on religion and in the era when the deficit for love has lead us on one hand to spiritual ice age and on the other to global warming. We live and exist, but where and in which dimension? Spanish Renaissance playwright Calderon made a following formulation of the historic riddle: Is life / existence / a mere dream? It is obvious that for centuries there was an idea between the two worlds, offering us paired dimensions. Existence – Dream Life – Death Paradise – Hell Although religion kept bringing in a third world in the face of purgatory as a third dimension. Calderon is formulating a question in regard to true reality and our true existence. Is it what we call life or is it what we call a dream? Where does our true meaning lie? When looking at it from a simple perspective, we can merely say that we physically exist in the so-called real life and our consciousness reveals itself in the realm of dreams – which is equally real for our consciousness. Where can the true essence of a man be found? An essence expressed in antique formulation – “Perceive yourself” or “Be who you are”. Here or there? In the so-called life or in a dream? Psychologists may very well say that it is only possible in a realm of dreams.
F
Levan Khetaguri
Third Reality
evelopment of the world. Interactivity. Resembling the arts – towards stream of consciousness. From Postmodernism to Neo Intellectualism. Recently a friend of mine told me – “An era of Postmodernism associated with Steiner is coming to an end”… and an era of numerous neo-isms – what should we expect next? Post, Post? In the nineties a Spanish theatre scholar from Barcelona Jose Angel Gomez widely used and promoted a theory of “Post Theatre”. Hoping for a new theatre he wrote articles and books on Post Hamlet, Post Don Juan or the so – called Post Theatre issues. Art research is art philosophy. Contemporary art historians could already be considered as being culture anthropologists. From Interactivity to multimedia expression. Our perception is interactive, which ensures interactivity to be sustained in the process of our self expression – this can only be achieved through means of multimedia. We exist in number of realities at the same time – one of the most important amongst them is cyber reality – which requires the use of modern technologies as means of self expression. We listen, watch, reflect, write and read at the same time. In cyber world we tend to interact with several, maybe even ten people at once without them being aware of it. We tend to disguise ourselves in cyber world with fictional bios, borrowed individualities and faces. (Literally – if staring from Antique Theatre we were sublimating our desires through an actor or character on stage, today we are the only ones in charge of this process – cyber reality has given us an opportunity to become what we desire and make it not only imaginary but cyber materialistic). We are paying for a new life (second life – internet space for second reality) and thus our language of expression becomes cyber language – modern technologies of the world of numbers. Cyber world is a realm with no time and no boarders, no language and no reality. In a sense we exist in a dimension beyond time and reality. What does an art of this time look like, what are the means of its
D
A new dimension
Levan Khetaguri vice-rector of the Shota Rustaveli Georgian State University of Theatre and Film, Tbilisi. Coordinator and moderator of Georgian and international cultural programs, festivals, conferences, seminars, workshops and public lecturers. Producer and author of several TV programs. Author of over 80 scientific works and publications on Georgian, Russian, English, Azerbaijanian, Belarusian, Slovakian. Translator of several books. He is the laureate of many awards, inter alia Swedish Writers Guild award (2000), Soviet Union’s Academy of Science diploma (1985), Georgian Academy of Science award (1982). Member of many prestigious institutions. In 19961997 he was the head of International Cultural Programs in Ministry of Culture of Georgia; in 2008 member of European Cultural Parliament. Since 1986 he has been leader of MA and Doctoral programs at the Shota Rustaveli Theatre and Film University as a theatrologist run lectures and participates in international conference and
symposiums in Russia, Azerbaijan, Spain, Slovakia, Belorussia, UK, Germany. As a lecturer run courses at university: world theatre history, theory of drama, theory of criticism, XX century theatres, history of European civilization, performing arts management, sponsorship, international cooperation in art, cultural policy in Yerevan, Baku, Sophia, Bishkek, Vilnius, Kiev, Gorlitz, Gothenburg, St. Petersburg.
theatre and modern technologies. Light created colours scattered all over the stage, each corner is transformed into a place of projection – everywhere we see projections of our thoughts and images – we reach deep down into the processes of human’s soul – not through a narrative but through a mere gaze, through penetration in secret labyrinths. Theatre has never been so close to expressing the mystical world – theatre becomes global and at the same time very intimate – performance resembles a session of meditation and magnetism. Theatre starts to resemble a visual projection of a mystical world. Theatre starts creating an everyday ritual – theatre prays for the world through revealing human mind. Light, music, colour, noise they all become means of disguising a naked human body. Nowadays people express themselves through naked bodies instead of words. Today as never before theatre is in need of a new language and this language is a human being – an actor, who can be taken as a measurement unit for a thought transfer in space, a superlative value. A value of contemporary highly developed civilization – a human being has become an artwork for this very civilization and everything he comes into contact with can just as well become an artwork. A human being as a measurement unit for freedom, a human being as an example of beauty, a human being as means of nature’s and world’s self expression. In world culture – God is absolute, which unites all religions despite their name variations, people despite ethnic differences – today God is absolute – God is art, art in making, in process and result. Today realities are relative to each other. Timeline is replaced by one huge infinite dimension, without beginning and end, seconds and minutes are only part of infinity, digital infinity. Absolute is Zero and plus one, simple truth. Just one jump from Pythagoras to the Present. World is encircled by numbers. Base of the Universe is Absolute Harmony – Zero and everything undergoes change and creation by simply adding One. Universe is just Zero and One. Zero as an infinite Universe and One as every individual in it.
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
expression – Theatre – performance becomes a sole tool for the synthesis of arts, human thought and expression of man’s cyber apparitions. Nowadays as never before art is a synthesis. Process of self expression is limitless, deep and never ending. We are no longer in the world of news. We are in the world of a frozen second, where seconds become infinity. We are no longer in the world of finished works, but in a never ending world of movements, word, sound stretched into space. We are in an era of space sent messages. Traditional ways and forms of thinking die out as never before. Conflict of generations is severe as never before. Destruction of the world that started in Babylon – finds ways of restoration in cyber world. We are becoming citizens of cyber world. We have knowledge of new technologies if not technique – although technique is a single tool for our self expression. We might very well be at the end of the last decade of printed books – with environmental issues – all books will start dying off in cyber world and find birth in digital form. We will soon be born and die in cyber world – our existence will set off in space. Our existence will be infinite. What will the theatre look like now? Interactive Theatre. Theatre speaks every language at the same time, speaks to everyone without boarders, speaks a language everyone understands – through sound, noise, colour, movement, music, light and shadow; image, projection and live broadcasting, in number of directions at the same time, at the same time in entire space. There is no such thing as a theatre space anymore. Space has spread beyond theatre walls. It has become limitless. With high technologies, theatre becomes more secret and mystical. As never before theatre is closest to revealing spirit and thought… If in the past theatre was showing life and people living in it, now theatre is more focused on what is happening inside people through life. It reveals stream of consciousness with its rows of associations and ongoing processes in mind. Expression of dreams has become a reality, depiction of thought has become real – theatre can show our most hidden thoughts, our actions and what we desire to do. This is only possible through multimedia
Culture Management 2010, Vol 3 (3)
100
theatre and modern technologies. Light created colours scattered all over the stage, each corner is transformed into a place of projection – everywhere we see projections of our thoughts and images – we reach deep down into the processes of human’s soul – not through a narrative but through a mere gaze, through penetration in secret labyrinths. Theatre has never been so close to expressing the mystical world – theatre becomes global and at the same time very intimate – performance resembles a session of meditation and magnetism. Theatre starts to resemble a visual projection of a mystical world. Theatre starts creating an everyday ritual – theatre prays for the world through revealing human mind. Light, music, colour, noise they all become means of disguising a naked human body. Nowadays people express themselves through naked bodies instead of words. Today as never before theatre is in need of a new language and this language is a human being – an actor, who can be taken as a measurement unit for a thought transfer in space, a superlative value. A value of contemporary highly developed civilization – a human being has become an artwork for this very civilization and everything he comes into contact with can just as well become an artwork. A human being as a measurement unit for freedom, a human being as an example of beauty, a human being as means of nature’s and world’s self expression. In world culture – God is absolute, which unites all religions despite their name variations, people despite ethnic differences – today God is absolute – God is art, art in making, in process and result. Today realities are relative to each other. Timeline is replaced by one huge infinite dimension, without beginning and end, seconds and minutes are only part of infinity, digital infinity. Absolute is Zero and plus one, simple truth. Just one jump from Pythagoras to the Present. World is encircled by numbers. Base of the Universe is Absolute Harmony – Zero and everything undergoes change and creation by simply adding One. Universe is just Zero and One. Zero as an infinite Universe and One as every individual in it.
100
symposiums in Russia, Azerbaijan, Spain, Slovakia, Belorussia, UK, Germany. As a lecturer run courses at university: world theatre history, theory of drama, theory of criticism, XX century theatres, history of European civilization, performing arts management, sponsorship, international cooperation in art, cultural policy in Yerevan, Baku, Sophia, Bishkek, Vilnius, Kiev, Gorlitz, Gothenburg, St. Petersburg.
expression – Theatre – performance becomes a sole tool for the synthesis of arts, human thought and expression of man’s cyber apparitions. Nowadays as never before art is a synthesis. Process of self expression is limitless, deep and never ending. We are no longer in the world of news. We are in the world of a frozen second, where seconds become infinity. We are no longer in the world of finished works, but in a never ending world of movements, word, sound stretched into space. We are in an era of space sent messages. Traditional ways and forms of thinking die out as never before. Conflict of generations is severe as never before. Destruction of the world that started in Babylon – finds ways of restoration in cyber world. We are becoming citizens of cyber world. We have knowledge of new technologies if not technique – although technique is a single tool for our self expression. We might very well be at the end of the last decade of printed books – with environmental issues – all books will start dying off in cyber world and find birth in digital form. We will soon be born and die in cyber world – our existence will set off in space. Our existence will be infinite. What will the theatre look like now? Interactive Theatre. Theatre speaks every language at the same time, speaks to everyone without boarders, speaks a language everyone understands – through sound, noise, colour, movement, music, light and shadow; image, projection and live broadcasting, in number of directions at the same time, at the same time in entire space. There is no such thing as a theatre space anymore. Space has spread beyond theatre walls. It has become limitless. With high technologies, theatre becomes more secret and mystical. As never before theatre is closest to revealing spirit and thought… If in the past theatre was showing life and people living in it, now theatre is more focused on what is happening inside people through life. It reveals stream of consciousness with its rows of associations and ongoing processes in mind. Expression of dreams has become a reality, depiction of thought has become real – theatre can show our most hidden thoughts, our actions and what we desire to do. This is only possible through multimedia
kulturManagement kulturManagement
105
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
EinfÜhrung Emil Orzechowski
ie Artikel, die in der dritten Nummer der Zeitschrift präsentiert sind, wurden ein ganzes Jahr gesammelt. Im theoretischen Teil konzentrieren sie sich auf das scheinbar gründlich recherchierte Thema, d.h. Kulturpolitik. Die Problematik scheint es aber nur anscheinend gründlich besprochen zu sein, denn der Managementgrundsatz, d.h. das Unternehmensleitbild, gilt immer noch. Das Leitbild muss aus dem Nachdenken über eine Frage resultieren, die lange her in der äußerst kommunistischen Zeit im Krakauer Kabarett
D
„A
ller guten Dinge sind drei” wie ein alter Spruch sagt. Und das ist gerade dies dritte Mal, wenn unsere dreisprachige Fachzeitschrift ausgegeben wird. Sie widmet sich der Reflexion über theoretische Managementgrundlagen im Kulturbereich / Kulturmanagement wie auch über die Exemplifikation dieses Prozesses in Ost- und Südeuropa, denn dieses Gebiet scheint uns immer wieder äußerst interessant. Aus offensichtlich Gründen: wir kommen daher. Aber auch aus durchaus ernsthaften Gründen, z.B. wegen der Reflexion über die Position der Kultur in der Entwicklung von Zivilgesellschaften, die Erweiterung des Denkenshorizontes im Kontext der Europäischen Union, und die Mitkreierung einer neuen Karte von Wechselbeziehungen Westen-Osten, wo kulturbezogene Aspekte dank politischen Entscheidungen ermöglicht, und von denen gegebenenfalls überholt werden sollen. Die Länder östlich der Elbe und südlich der Ostsee waren immer die Kreuzung von Kulturen – und häufig geschah es in außergewöhnlich schmerzhaften Bedingungen. Daraus muss eine Lehre gezogen werden.
ller guten Dinge sind drei” wie ein alter Spruch sagt. Und das ist gerade dies dritte Mal, wenn unsere dreisprachige Fachzeitschrift ausgegeben wird. Sie widmet sich der Reflexion über theoretische Managementgrundlagen im Kulturbereich / Kulturmanagement wie auch über die Exemplifikation dieses Prozesses in Ost- und Südeuropa, denn dieses Gebiet scheint uns immer wieder äußerst interessant. Aus offensichtlich Gründen: wir kommen daher. Aber auch aus durchaus ernsthaften Gründen, z.B. wegen der Reflexion über die Position der Kultur in der Entwicklung von Zivilgesellschaften, die Erweiterung des Denkenshorizontes im Kontext der Europäischen Union, und die Mitkreierung einer neuen Karte von Wechselbeziehungen Westen-Osten, wo kulturbezogene Aspekte dank politischen Entscheidungen ermöglicht, und von denen gegebenenfalls überholt werden sollen. Die Länder östlich der Elbe und südlich der Ostsee waren immer die Kreuzung von Kulturen – und häufig geschah es in außergewöhnlich schmerzhaften Bedingungen. Daraus muss eine Lehre gezogen werden.
„A
D
ie Artikel, die in der dritten Nummer der Zeitschrift präsentiert sind, wurden ein ganzes Jahr gesammelt. Im theoretischen Teil konzentrieren sie sich auf das scheinbar gründlich recherchierte Thema, d.h. Kulturpolitik. Die Problematik scheint es aber nur anscheinend gründlich besprochen zu sein, denn der Managementgrundsatz, d.h. das Unternehmensleitbild, gilt immer noch. Das Leitbild muss aus dem Nachdenken über eine Frage resultieren, die lange her in der äußerst kommunistischen Zeit im Krakauer Kabarett
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
„Piwnica Pod Baranami“ gestellt wurde – „Wie leben wir? Zu welchem Zustand führten wir unsere Wohnungen?”. Das ist die grundsätzliche Frage. Sie ist nicht zu neutralisieren, dadurch dass die Diskussion in die Richtung von den anscheinend politisch korrekten Themen wie „Kulturdiplomatie“ adressiert wird. Erst müssen aber Fragen wie Was? Wofür? Warum? Weshalb? Für wen? etc. beantwortet werden, um die Skala von den höchsten Werten zu bestimmen, dann kann die Durchsetzung folgen.
I
n der vorliegenden Nummer wird diese Problematik in den Beiträgen analysiert, die die Sachen von größten Relevanz anbelangen, u.a. Kultur und Verantwortung von Tadeusz Gadacz und eine polemische Stimme der jungen Generation: Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik von Jan Sowa. Diese Beiträge sind die Folge des Kongresses für Polnische Kultur, der die Werte festlegen, wie auch neue Gesetzgebungsrahmen und moderne finanzielle Maßnahmen für den Kulturbereich vorschlagen sollte. In der darauffolgenden, vierten Ausgabe der Zeitschrift streben wir danach, uns mit diesen Bemühungen auseinander zu setzen und sie zu kommentieren – jetzt ist aber dafür zu früh; wir arbeiten noch daran.
I
ch unterstreiche die Bedeutung von diesen Texten, denn sie sind eine sehr ernsthafte Probe, die Rahmen zu bestimmen, in denen Kulturmenschen in unserem Weltteil agieren. Meiner Auffassung nach hat es die große Bedeutung nicht nur für Polen, aber es kann auch im Kontext von
105
Emil Orzechowski
EinfÜhrung
ch unterstreiche die Bedeutung von diesen Texten, denn sie sind eine sehr ernsthafte Probe, die Rahmen zu bestimmen, in denen Kulturmenschen in unserem Weltteil agieren. Meiner Auffassung nach hat es die große Bedeutung nicht nur für Polen, aber es kann auch im Kontext von
I
n der vorliegenden Nummer wird diese Problematik in den Beiträgen analysiert, die die Sachen von größten Relevanz anbelangen, u.a. Kultur und Verantwortung von Tadeusz Gadacz und eine polemische Stimme der jungen Generation: Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik von Jan Sowa. Diese Beiträge sind die Folge des Kongresses für Polnische Kultur, der die Werte festlegen, wie auch neue Gesetzgebungsrahmen und moderne finanzielle Maßnahmen für den Kulturbereich vorschlagen sollte. In der darauffolgenden, vierten Ausgabe der Zeitschrift streben wir danach, uns mit diesen Bemühungen auseinander zu setzen und sie zu kommentieren – jetzt ist aber dafür zu früh; wir arbeiten noch daran.
I
„Piwnica Pod Baranami“ gestellt wurde – „Wie leben wir? Zu welchem Zustand führten wir unsere Wohnungen?”. Das ist die grundsätzliche Frage. Sie ist nicht zu neutralisieren, dadurch dass die Diskussion in die Richtung von den anscheinend politisch korrekten Themen wie „Kulturdiplomatie“ adressiert wird. Erst müssen aber Fragen wie Was? Wofür? Warum? Weshalb? Für wen? etc. beantwortet werden, um die Skala von den höchsten Werten zu bestimmen, dann kann die Durchsetzung folgen.
106
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
B
Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management von Małgorzata Ćwikła. Die vorliegende Nummer schließt mit dem Beitrag Die dritte Wirklichkeit von Levan Khetaguri, der immer unabhängig von kurzzeitigen Modetrends ist. 106
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
der Präsidentschaft Polens in der Europäischen Union beachtenswert sein. Vorausgesetzt, dass die Polen können das zu popularisierende Wertesystem präzisieren. Die starke, effektive Aussage „Habt keine Angst!”, die bei der Gründung von der Gewerkschaft Solidarność und Berliner Mauer behilflich war, reicht es heutzutage nicht mehr. Aus diesem Grunde ist es wichtig, diese Anmerkungen durch die Beiträge von Matthias T. Vogt Was ist Kulturpolitik?, von Anda Lake Aspekte der Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik unter wirtschaftlich schwierigen Umständen: Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik, und durch einen herrlichen Versuch von Nastassia Chmiel Weißrussland. Kulturpolitik zu ergänzen.
ür alle Kommentare, neue Texte, und für die Zusammenarbeit zum Wohle der Kultur, die doch für jeden einzelnen und für jede Gemeinschaft den Unterschied macht, würden wir sehr dankbar sein.
E
F
eim Wählen der Texte für die dritte Nummer hielten wir uns an das am Anfang angenommene Prinzip. Die Zeitschrift schließt demzufolge die Artikel von anerkannten Akademikern, wie auch Doktoranden oder jungen Stipendiaten ein. Dieses Prinzip verwirklichen wir konsequent weiter. Trotz der erklärten akademischen Gleichheit von den öffentlichen und privaten Sektoren wie auch Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Universitäten und Hochschulen für Kunst und der von denen erklärten Zusammenarbeit, treffen wir uns mit der Abneigung seitens der Behörde von öffentlichen Hochschulen, gemeinsame Aktivitäten zu unterstützen. Unabhängig davon, nehmen wir keine Rücksicht auf solche Stimmen. Unsere Zeitschrift wird zu einer wirklichen Gemeinschaft für alle, denen Kulturmanagement am Herzen liegt.
eim Wählen der Texte für die dritte Nummer hielten wir uns an das am Anfang angenommene Prinzip. Die Zeitschrift schließt demzufolge die Artikel von anerkannten Akademikern, wie auch Doktoranden oder jungen Stipendiaten ein. Dieses Prinzip verwirklichen wir konsequent weiter. Trotz der erklärten akademischen Gleichheit von den öffentlichen und privaten Sektoren wie auch Nichtregierungsorganisationen, Universitäten und Hochschulen für Kunst und der von denen erklärten Zusammenarbeit, treffen wir uns mit der Abneigung seitens der Behörde von öffentlichen Hochschulen, gemeinsame Aktivitäten zu unterstützen. Unabhängig davon, nehmen wir keine Rücksicht auf solche Stimmen. Unsere Zeitschrift wird zu einer wirklichen Gemeinschaft für alle, denen Kulturmanagement am Herzen liegt.
F
s ist doch klar, dass etliche Bestimmungen der Kulturpolitik bilden nur gewisse Rahmenbedingungen. Diese sind von Kulturanimateuren und –manager zu erfüllen. Der nächste Abschnitt widmet sind deshalb den folgenden Texten: Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs von Józef Kargul, Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie von Birgit-Katharine Seemann. Hier befinden sich auch Beiträge, die die Realität einzelner Disziplinen analysieren, z.B. Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung von Ivars Bērziņš und Vita Stige, Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung von Jānis Garjāns, Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die
B
ür alle Kommentare, neue Texte, und für die Zusammenarbeit zum Wohle der Kultur, die doch für jeden einzelnen und für jede Gemeinschaft den Unterschied macht, würden wir sehr dankbar sein.
E
Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management von Małgorzata Ćwikła. Die vorliegende Nummer schließt mit dem Beitrag Die dritte Wirklichkeit von Levan Khetaguri, der immer unabhängig von kurzzeitigen Modetrends ist.
s ist doch klar, dass etliche Bestimmungen der Kulturpolitik bilden nur gewisse Rahmenbedingungen. Diese sind von Kulturanimateuren und –manager zu erfüllen. Der nächste Abschnitt widmet sind deshalb den folgenden Texten: Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs von Józef Kargul, Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie von Birgit-Katharine Seemann. Hier befinden sich auch Beiträge, die die Realität einzelner Disziplinen analysieren, z.B. Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung von Ivars Bērziņš und Vita Stige, Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung von Jānis Garjāns, Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die
der Präsidentschaft Polens in der Europäischen Union beachtenswert sein. Vorausgesetzt, dass die Polen können das zu popularisierende Wertesystem präzisieren. Die starke, effektive Aussage „Habt keine Angst!”, die bei der Gründung von der Gewerkschaft Solidarność und Berliner Mauer behilflich war, reicht es heutzutage nicht mehr. Aus diesem Grunde ist es wichtig, diese Anmerkungen durch die Beiträge von Matthias T. Vogt Was ist Kulturpolitik?, von Anda Lake Aspekte der Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik unter wirtschaftlich schwierigen Umständen: Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik, und durch einen herrlichen Versuch von Nastassia Chmiel Weißrussland. Kulturpolitik zu ergänzen.
107
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kultur und Verantwortung Tadeusz Gadacz
D
er Krakauer Philosoph Roman Ingarden schrieb in seinem Büchlein über den Menschen: „Was wir als Wert bezeichnen – das Gute, Schönheit, Richtigkeit, Gerechtigkeit usw., das befindet sich nicht in dem fremden physisch-biologischen Unterbau der menschlichen Welt, sondern tritt erst in eben jener von uns geschaffenen und dem Menschen eigenen, übergebauten Wirklichkeit auf.“ [Ingarden, 1987, S. 38] Diese neue, vom Menschen geschaffene Wirklichkeit, ist die Kultur. Die Kultur ist die Antwort des Menschen auf die innere Erfahrung, auf Werte, die bereits verwirklicht wurden oder solche, die nach Verwirklichung verlangen. Die Sphäre des menschlichen Lebens, die Sphäre der Kultur – das ist die Sphäre der Werte. Die menschliche Welt ist eine Welt, in der Vergnügen und Missvergnügen existieren, Funktionalität und Unfunktionalität, Schönheit und Hässlichkeit, Gerechtigkeit und Ungerechtigkeit, Weisheit und Dummheit. Von den Werten gibt es kein Entkommen. Wenn wir keine funktionellen Straßen bauen, sind sie unfunktionell. Wenn wir nicht die Schönheit wählen, sprechen wir uns für die Hässlichkeit aus. Wenn wir nicht gerecht handeln, sind wir ungerecht. Józef Tischner schrieb: „In unserer Welt, in der wir geboren werden und sterben, gibt es ein Haus und Unbehaustheit, Arbeit und fehlende Arbeitsplätze, eine Schule, eine Kirche, auch einen Friedhof, und dies alles stellt für uns eine bestimmte eigene Würde dar. In der Welt gibt es auch Hunger, es gibt Ungerechtigkeit, Mut und Tod, eine wichtige Sache, eine weniger wichtige. Wenn dies alles plötzlich für jemanden völlig gleichgültig würde, fragten wir uns beunruhigt: Was geht in diesem Menschen vor?“ [Tischner, 1982, S. 484]. Wenn wir leben, müssen wir auf Werte antworten, ob wir wollen oder nicht. Kultur und Verantwortung eint das Wort „Antwort“. Jedoch kann die Antwort des Menschen nicht einfach und eindeutig sein, denn die Kultur selbst ist innerlich komplex. Sie ist voller unaufhebbarer Spannungen, die häufig Ursache für Auseinandersetzungen sind. Weniger sichtbar und
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
bedeutsam sind sie in Zeiten der Repression, in geschlossenen Gesellschaften, die dem Druck der politischen Ideologie ausgesetzt sind. In offenen demokratischen Gesellschaften sind sie etwas Natürliches. Deshalb sollten sie eher Gegenstand des Dialogs sein als des Streits. Jede dieser Spannungen hat ihre eigene Besonderheit und ihr eigentümliches Gewicht. Ihr Koexistieren bildet das Feld der Verantwortung der Kultur. Ich versuche die wichtigsten unter ihnen zu skizzieren. Die erste Art einer unaufhebbaren Spannung ist verbunden mit dem Verhältnis der Kultur zur Zeit, zur Vergangenheit einerseits, andererseits zu Gegenwart und Zukunft, und das sowohl unter dem Aspekt der Volksgemeinschaft als auch des künstlerischen Schaffens. Kultur ist eine Form der Existenz eines Volkes, Grundlage seiner Identität. Johannes Paul II. sprach vor der UNESCO: „Ich bin der Sohn eines Volkes, das die schrecklichsten Erfahrungen der Geschichte ertragen hat, das wiederholt von seinen Nachbarn zum Tode verurteilt wurde – aber es hat überlebt und ist sich treu geblieben. Es hat seine eigene Identität bewahrt […], gestützt auf die eigene Kultur, die sich in diesem Fall als eine Macht erwiesen hat, die größer war als jene Mächte.“ (Rede am Sitz der UNESCO, 02. 06. 1980) Die Identität des Volks erstreckt sich in die Vergangenheit, aber sie muss sich auch der Zukunft zuwenden. Stanisław Grygiel sprach bei der Eröffnung des Polnischen Hauses in Rom in diesem Zusammenhang vom Gedächtnis und der Vorstellungskraft des Volkes: „Das Sich-Selbstbewusstsein des Volks wird aus dem gemeinschaftlichen Gedächtnis geboren und seiner gemeinschaftlichen Vorstellungskraft. Mit dem Gedächtnis umfasst das Volk das Vermächtnis der Väter, ihr Vermächtnis der Wahrheit und der damit verbundenen Freiheit. Dieses Vermächtnis muss ihm als Baustoff für das Schaffen seines Heute dienen. Mit der Vorstellungskraft hingegen, die sich erinnert, geht das Volk in die Zukunft, jene große Konsequenz der Wahrheit und Freiheit, um aus ihr die Idee des Heims zu nehmen, das es errichtet.“ [Grygiel 1982] Das Volk kann nicht ohne
107
Tadeusz Gadacz Pädagoge, Philosoph, Religionswissenschaftler. 1991-1995 war er Dekan am Fachbereich Philosophie der Päpstlichen Akademie für Theologie; 1996-1999 Leiter des Lehrstuhls für Religionsphilosophie am Fachbereich Philosophie der Universität Warschau. Seit 2002 arbeitet er im Institut für Philosophie und Soziologie der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, seit 1998 leitet er den Lehrstuhl für Philosophie in Collegium Civitas. 2003-2007 war er Vorsitzender des Komitees der philosophischen Wissenschaften der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Der Preisträger von zahlreichen Auszeichnungen, u.a. von der sog. Professorsubvention der Stiftung für Polnische Wissenschaft (1998), vom Preis des Präsidenten von Warschau für den besten akademischen Lehrer (2002), Preis des Kulturministers, der Nationalbibliothek und der literarischen Zeitschrift Nowe Książki (Neue Bücher) für den besten Autor des Jahres 2003 für die wissenschaftliche Redaktion
er Krakauer Philosoph Roman Ingarden schrieb in seinem Büchlein über den Menschen: „Was wir als Wert bezeichnen – das Gute, Schönheit, Richtigkeit, Gerechtigkeit usw., das befindet sich nicht in dem fremden physisch-biologischen Unterbau der menschlichen Welt, sondern tritt erst in eben jener von uns geschaffenen und dem Menschen eigenen, übergebauten Wirklichkeit auf.“ [Ingarden, 1987, S. 38] Diese neue, vom Menschen geschaffene Wirklichkeit, ist die Kultur. Die Kultur ist die Antwort des Menschen auf die innere Erfahrung, auf Werte, die bereits verwirklicht wurden oder solche, die nach Verwirklichung verlangen. Die Sphäre des menschlichen Lebens, die Sphäre der Kultur – das ist die Sphäre der Werte. Die menschliche Welt ist eine Welt, in der Vergnügen und Missvergnügen existieren, Funktionalität und Unfunktionalität, Schönheit und Hässlichkeit, Gerechtigkeit und Ungerechtigkeit, Weisheit und Dummheit. Von den Werten gibt es kein Entkommen. Wenn wir keine funktionellen Straßen bauen, sind sie unfunktionell. Wenn wir nicht die Schönheit wählen, sprechen wir uns für die Hässlichkeit aus. Wenn wir nicht gerecht handeln, sind wir ungerecht. Józef Tischner schrieb: „In unserer Welt, in der wir geboren werden und sterben, gibt es ein Haus und Unbehaustheit, Arbeit und fehlende Arbeitsplätze, eine Schule, eine Kirche, auch einen Friedhof, und dies alles stellt für uns eine bestimmte eigene Würde dar. In der Welt gibt es auch Hunger, es gibt Ungerechtigkeit, Mut und Tod, eine wichtige Sache, eine weniger wichtige. Wenn dies alles plötzlich für jemanden völlig gleichgültig würde, fragten wir uns beunruhigt: Was geht in diesem Menschen vor?“ [Tischner, 1982, S. 484]. Wenn wir leben, müssen wir auf Werte antworten, ob wir wollen oder nicht. Kultur und Verantwortung eint das Wort „Antwort“. Jedoch kann die Antwort des Menschen nicht einfach und eindeutig sein, denn die Kultur selbst ist innerlich komplex. Sie ist voller unaufhebbarer Spannungen, die häufig Ursache für Auseinandersetzungen sind. Weniger sichtbar und
D
Tadeusz Gadacz
bedeutsam sind sie in Zeiten der Repression, in geschlossenen Gesellschaften, die dem Druck der politischen Ideologie ausgesetzt sind. In offenen demokratischen Gesellschaften sind sie etwas Natürliches. Deshalb sollten sie eher Gegenstand des Dialogs sein als des Streits. Jede dieser Spannungen hat ihre eigene Besonderheit und ihr eigentümliches Gewicht. Ihr Koexistieren bildet das Feld der Verantwortung der Kultur. Ich versuche die wichtigsten unter ihnen zu skizzieren. Die erste Art einer unaufhebbaren Spannung ist verbunden mit dem Verhältnis der Kultur zur Zeit, zur Vergangenheit einerseits, andererseits zu Gegenwart und Zukunft, und das sowohl unter dem Aspekt der Volksgemeinschaft als auch des künstlerischen Schaffens. Kultur ist eine Form der Existenz eines Volkes, Grundlage seiner Identität. Johannes Paul II. sprach vor der UNESCO: „Ich bin der Sohn eines Volkes, das die schrecklichsten Erfahrungen der Geschichte ertragen hat, das wiederholt von seinen Nachbarn zum Tode verurteilt wurde – aber es hat überlebt und ist sich treu geblieben. Es hat seine eigene Identität bewahrt […], gestützt auf die eigene Kultur, die sich in diesem Fall als eine Macht erwiesen hat, die größer war als jene Mächte.“ (Rede am Sitz der UNESCO, 02. 06. 1980) Die Identität des Volks erstreckt sich in die Vergangenheit, aber sie muss sich auch der Zukunft zuwenden. Stanisław Grygiel sprach bei der Eröffnung des Polnischen Hauses in Rom in diesem Zusammenhang vom Gedächtnis und der Vorstellungskraft des Volkes: „Das Sich-Selbstbewusstsein des Volks wird aus dem gemeinschaftlichen Gedächtnis geboren und seiner gemeinschaftlichen Vorstellungskraft. Mit dem Gedächtnis umfasst das Volk das Vermächtnis der Väter, ihr Vermächtnis der Wahrheit und der damit verbundenen Freiheit. Dieses Vermächtnis muss ihm als Baustoff für das Schaffen seines Heute dienen. Mit der Vorstellungskraft hingegen, die sich erinnert, geht das Volk in die Zukunft, jene große Konsequenz der Wahrheit und Freiheit, um aus ihr die Idee des Heims zu nehmen, das es errichtet.“ [Grygiel 1982] Das Volk kann nicht ohne
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Kultur und Verantwortung
Tadeusz Gadacz Pädagoge, Philosoph, Religionswissenschaftler. 1991-1995 war er Dekan am Fachbereich Philosophie der Päpstlichen Akademie für Theologie; 1996-1999 Leiter des Lehrstuhls für Religionsphilosophie am Fachbereich Philosophie der Universität Warschau. Seit 2002 arbeitet er im Institut für Philosophie und Soziologie der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, seit 1998 leitet er den Lehrstuhl für Philosophie in Collegium Civitas. 2003-2007 war er Vorsitzender des Komitees der philosophischen Wissenschaften der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Der Preisträger von zahlreichen Auszeichnungen, u.a. von der sog. Professorsubvention der Stiftung für Polnische Wissenschaft (1998), vom Preis des Präsidenten von Warschau für den besten akademischen Lehrer (2002), Preis des Kulturministers, der Nationalbibliothek und der literarischen Zeitschrift Nowe Książki (Neue Bücher) für den besten Autor des Jahres 2003 für die wissenschaftliche Redaktion
sein Gedächtnis leben, aber es kann auch nicht leben ohne schöpferische Vorstellungen. Gedächtnis und große Vorstellungen lassen sich nicht voneinander trennen. Vor etwas über zwanzig Jahren war für die polnische Solidarność-Bewegung eine solche große Vorstellung die Idee der Freiheit. Sie eröffnete eine neue Etappe in der Geschichte Polens. Über die vergangenen zwanzig Jahre hinweg begannen wir, unser Gedächtnis zurückzugewinnen. In dieses Gedächtnis ist wiederholt die Politik eingedrungen mit Auseinandersetzungen und Streitigkeiten. Wozu aber dient das Gedächtnis? Ist es ein Baustoff bei der Erschaffung unserer Gegenwart und Zukunft, oder ist es nur eine politische Revanche? Friedhöfe sind Orte, die wir besuchen, aber keine Wohnorte. Unaufhebbar ist also die Spannung zwischen dem romantischen und dem positivistischen Paradigma, denn wir können das Volk nicht einfach nur im Gedächtnis der von ihm erbrachten Opfer einschließen oder nur im Raum seiner zivilisatorischen Transformationen. Wir stehen demnach nicht vor der Alternative, ob wir uns auf die Friedhöfe konzentrieren sollen oder Autobahnen bauen, ob wir ein Museum des Zweiten Weltkriegs bauen sollen oder ein Museum der modernen Kunst. Wenn die große Vorstellung der polnischen Solidarność einst die Idee der Freiheit war, dann sollte heute eine solche Vorstellung, die uns das Tor zur Zukunft öffnet, die Idee der Verantwortung sein. In unterschiedlichem Grade müssen wir sowohl für unser Gedächtnis verantwortlich sein als auch für unsere Zukunft. Ein anderer Ausdruck dieser unaufhebbaren Spannung zwischen dem, was vergangen ist, und der Gegenwart und Zukunft, ist das Verhältnis zwischen Tradition und Neuerung. Die historische Tradition ist ein Ort, an dem einige Werke den Status klassischer Werke erhalten und zu einem Erbe werden, um das wir uns kümmern und das wir pflegen. Nicht alle jedoch teilen diese Überzeugung. Es gibt nämlich auch beschränkende und sogar erdrückende Formen der Tradition, die wir überschreiten oder von denen wir uns befreien müssen. Andrzej Osęka hat einmal geschrieben: „Ich gehöre zu jener Generationen von Fanatikern der Freiheit in der Kunst. Die Ablehnung der Doktrin des Sozrealismus, die genau damals erfolgte, als ich begann, aktiv am Kulturleben teilzunehmen, bedeutete damals auch eine Ablehnung der Tradition.“ [Osęka, 1994, S. 28] „Für viele Künstler verband sich die Freiheit, ohne dass sie auf längere Sicht aufgehört hätte, die Grundlage einer neuen, schönen Ordnung zu sein, vor allem mi Zerstörung, Niederreißen – ganz im Sinne der Leninschen Maxime: Um ein Omelett zu machen, muss man Eier zerschlagen. Galerien, Kunstfestivals, Museen wurden für Jahrzehnte zur Bühne
eines einzigen großen Eierzerschlagens.“ [Ebenda, S. 25] „Mit den Jahren ließ der revolutionäre Eifer nach. Er genügte nicht mehr, um die Hoffnung auf ihn zu gründen.“ [Ebenda, S. 27] Wenn die Kultur sich nicht einzig und allein auf die Kultivierung der Tradition beschränken kann, darf das Maß ihres Werts auch nicht allein ihre Neuartigkeit sein. Noch einmal Andrzej Osęka: „Ein Fluch der Gegenwartskultur und ein persönliches Unglück vieler ihrer Schöpfer ist eben die Beliebigkeit bei der Wahl der Form, der Konvention, der Tradition. Als öffnete sich auf verschiedenen Seiten ein Katalog für Inneneinrichtung: Man kann die Räume modern einrichten, klassisch, rustikal oder auch kitschig. Oder so, als ginge man ins Restaurant: in ein altpolnisches, ein ungarisches oder ein chinesisches. Man kann dieses probieren und jenes, es so machen oder anders. […] Zur Illustration dieses Phänomens betitelte ein Kritiker seinen Text: Kann man Chinese werden? So richtig und ganz – wohl nicht, dennoch tun es viele: Sie werden Chinesen, indianische Schamanen, Sexaholics, Mystiker eines unbestimmten Bekenntnisses [Ebenda, S. 28]. Über eine ähnliche Erfahrung schrieb Prof. Władysław Stróżewski. In der Kunst haben wir aufgehört, uns am Ideal der Vollkommenheit auszurichten und begonnen, uns nach dem Ideal der Neuheit zu orientieren. „Es ist auch nicht von Bedeutung, ob etwas tatsächlich gelungen ist. Wichtig ist, dass es neu ist, verblüffend, schockierend. Die Neuheit hat die Vollkommenheit verdrängt.“ [Stróżewski, 2002, S. 174] In hohem Maße hat dazu auch die Kommerzialisierung der Kultur beigetragen. Die Geschäfte benötigen ständig neue und frische Ware. Ihr kurzes Haltbarkeitsdatum bewirkt einen Druck der Erwartung auf eine neue Lieferung, die nur deshalb besser ist (wertvoller), weil sie frisch ist. Einen großen Einfluss haben auch die Medien, denen die Neuigkeit tägliche Nahrung ist. Wir können aber die Dialektik dieser beiden Glieder nicht beseitigen: Gedächtnis und zukunftsgestaltende Vorstellungen, Tradition und Neuheit. Wenn wir zu schnell in die Zukunft vorauseilen oder experimentieren, beginnen wir uns auf das Gedächtnis und die Vergangenheit zu berufen. Wenn Gedächtnis und Vergangenheit uns zu stark belasten, beginnen wir, in die Zukunft zu eilen und zu experimentieren. Eine andere Demarkationslinie zwischen solchen unaufhebbaren Spannungen verläuft zwischen der Elitarität der Kultur und ihrer massenhaften Ausbreitung. Die Hochkultur war immer elitär. Sie erforderte hohe Kompetenzen, Fähigkeiten und Anstrengung, sowohl bei der Kreation als auch der Rezeption. Sie erforderte Bildung. Die von der Aufklärung geprägte Idee der Gleichheit (alle haben wir die gleiche Vernunft) hat in die
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
von der 10-bändigen Enzyklopädie Religia (Religion) (2004), vom Preis für den besten Dozent von Collegium Civitas (2008). Er war Stipendiat der Louvainla-Neuve Universität in Belgien, Catholic University of America in Washington, Hebrew University in Jerusalem, des Wiener Instituts für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen. Als Autor verfasste er über 130 polnischer und ausländischer Fachpublikationen. Er war Mitherausgeber der Serie „Teksty Filozoficzne” („Philosophische Beiträge“), in der u.a. Übersetzungen von E. Husserl, J. Patočka, E. Lévinas, M. Heidegger veröffentlicht wurden. Zur Zeit gibt er die Serie „Klasyka Filozofii” („Klassik der Philosophie“) im Institut für Philosophie und Soziologie der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften sheraus. Der Autor von Historia filozofii XX wieku (Philosophiegeschichte des 20. Jhs.). Sein Forschungsbereich umfasst Philosophiegeschichte des 20. Jh., Philosophie des Gottes und Religion, Metaphysik, Philosophie des Menschen und Bildung.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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eines einzigen großen Eierzerschlagens.“ [Ebenda, S. 25] „Mit den Jahren ließ der revolutionäre Eifer nach. Er genügte nicht mehr, um die Hoffnung auf ihn zu gründen.“ [Ebenda, S. 27] Wenn die Kultur sich nicht einzig und allein auf die Kultivierung der Tradition beschränken kann, darf das Maß ihres Werts auch nicht allein ihre Neuartigkeit sein. Noch einmal Andrzej Osęka: „Ein Fluch der Gegenwartskultur und ein persönliches Unglück vieler ihrer Schöpfer ist eben die Beliebigkeit bei der Wahl der Form, der Konvention, der Tradition. Als öffnete sich auf verschiedenen Seiten ein Katalog für Inneneinrichtung: Man kann die Räume modern einrichten, klassisch, rustikal oder auch kitschig. Oder so, als ginge man ins Restaurant: in ein altpolnisches, ein ungarisches oder ein chinesisches. Man kann dieses probieren und jenes, es so machen oder anders. […] Zur Illustration dieses Phänomens betitelte ein Kritiker seinen Text: Kann man Chinese werden? So richtig und ganz – wohl nicht, dennoch tun es viele: Sie werden Chinesen, indianische Schamanen, Sexaholics, Mystiker eines unbestimmten Bekenntnisses [Ebenda, S. 28]. Über eine ähnliche Erfahrung schrieb Prof. Władysław Stróżewski. In der Kunst haben wir aufgehört, uns am Ideal der Vollkommenheit auszurichten und begonnen, uns nach dem Ideal der Neuheit zu orientieren. „Es ist auch nicht von Bedeutung, ob etwas tatsächlich gelungen ist. Wichtig ist, dass es neu ist, verblüffend, schockierend. Die Neuheit hat die Vollkommenheit verdrängt.“ [Stróżewski, 2002, S. 174] In hohem Maße hat dazu auch die Kommerzialisierung der Kultur beigetragen. Die Geschäfte benötigen ständig neue und frische Ware. Ihr kurzes Haltbarkeitsdatum bewirkt einen Druck der Erwartung auf eine neue Lieferung, die nur deshalb besser ist (wertvoller), weil sie frisch ist. Einen großen Einfluss haben auch die Medien, denen die Neuigkeit tägliche Nahrung ist. Wir können aber die Dialektik dieser beiden Glieder nicht beseitigen: Gedächtnis und zukunftsgestaltende Vorstellungen, Tradition und Neuheit. Wenn wir zu schnell in die Zukunft vorauseilen oder experimentieren, beginnen wir uns auf das Gedächtnis und die Vergangenheit zu berufen. Wenn Gedächtnis und Vergangenheit uns zu stark belasten, beginnen wir, in die Zukunft zu eilen und zu experimentieren. Eine andere Demarkationslinie zwischen solchen unaufhebbaren Spannungen verläuft zwischen der Elitarität der Kultur und ihrer massenhaften Ausbreitung. Die Hochkultur war immer elitär. Sie erforderte hohe Kompetenzen, Fähigkeiten und Anstrengung, sowohl bei der Kreation als auch der Rezeption. Sie erforderte Bildung. Die von der Aufklärung geprägte Idee der Gleichheit (alle haben wir die gleiche Vernunft) hat in die
108
von der 10-bändigen Enzyklopädie Religia (Religion) (2004), vom Preis für den besten Dozent von Collegium Civitas (2008). Er war Stipendiat der Louvainla-Neuve Universität in Belgien, Catholic University of America in Washington, Hebrew University in Jerusalem, des Wiener Instituts für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen. Als Autor verfasste er über 130 polnischer und ausländischer Fachpublikationen. Er war Mitherausgeber der Serie „Teksty Filozoficzne” („Philosophische Beiträge“), in der u.a. Übersetzungen von E. Husserl, J. Patočka, E. Lévinas, M. Heidegger veröffentlicht wurden. Zur Zeit gibt er die Serie „Klasyka Filozofii” („Klassik der Philosophie“) im Institut für Philosophie und Soziologie der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften sheraus. Der Autor von Historia filozofii XX wieku (Philosophiegeschichte des 20. Jhs.). Sein Forschungsbereich umfasst Philosophiegeschichte des 20. Jh., Philosophie des Gottes und Religion, Metaphysik, Philosophie des Menschen und Bildung.
sein Gedächtnis leben, aber es kann auch nicht leben ohne schöpferische Vorstellungen. Gedächtnis und große Vorstellungen lassen sich nicht voneinander trennen. Vor etwas über zwanzig Jahren war für die polnische Solidarność-Bewegung eine solche große Vorstellung die Idee der Freiheit. Sie eröffnete eine neue Etappe in der Geschichte Polens. Über die vergangenen zwanzig Jahre hinweg begannen wir, unser Gedächtnis zurückzugewinnen. In dieses Gedächtnis ist wiederholt die Politik eingedrungen mit Auseinandersetzungen und Streitigkeiten. Wozu aber dient das Gedächtnis? Ist es ein Baustoff bei der Erschaffung unserer Gegenwart und Zukunft, oder ist es nur eine politische Revanche? Friedhöfe sind Orte, die wir besuchen, aber keine Wohnorte. Unaufhebbar ist also die Spannung zwischen dem romantischen und dem positivistischen Paradigma, denn wir können das Volk nicht einfach nur im Gedächtnis der von ihm erbrachten Opfer einschließen oder nur im Raum seiner zivilisatorischen Transformationen. Wir stehen demnach nicht vor der Alternative, ob wir uns auf die Friedhöfe konzentrieren sollen oder Autobahnen bauen, ob wir ein Museum des Zweiten Weltkriegs bauen sollen oder ein Museum der modernen Kunst. Wenn die große Vorstellung der polnischen Solidarność einst die Idee der Freiheit war, dann sollte heute eine solche Vorstellung, die uns das Tor zur Zukunft öffnet, die Idee der Verantwortung sein. In unterschiedlichem Grade müssen wir sowohl für unser Gedächtnis verantwortlich sein als auch für unsere Zukunft. Ein anderer Ausdruck dieser unaufhebbaren Spannung zwischen dem, was vergangen ist, und der Gegenwart und Zukunft, ist das Verhältnis zwischen Tradition und Neuerung. Die historische Tradition ist ein Ort, an dem einige Werke den Status klassischer Werke erhalten und zu einem Erbe werden, um das wir uns kümmern und das wir pflegen. Nicht alle jedoch teilen diese Überzeugung. Es gibt nämlich auch beschränkende und sogar erdrückende Formen der Tradition, die wir überschreiten oder von denen wir uns befreien müssen. Andrzej Osęka hat einmal geschrieben: „Ich gehöre zu jener Generationen von Fanatikern der Freiheit in der Kunst. Die Ablehnung der Doktrin des Sozrealismus, die genau damals erfolgte, als ich begann, aktiv am Kulturleben teilzunehmen, bedeutete damals auch eine Ablehnung der Tradition.“ [Osęka, 1994, S. 28] „Für viele Künstler verband sich die Freiheit, ohne dass sie auf längere Sicht aufgehört hätte, die Grundlage einer neuen, schönen Ordnung zu sein, vor allem mi Zerstörung, Niederreißen – ganz im Sinne der Leninschen Maxime: Um ein Omelett zu machen, muss man Eier zerschlagen. Galerien, Kunstfestivals, Museen wurden für Jahrzehnte zur Bühne
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
europäische Kultur die Ideen der allgemeinen Schulbildung und der Breitenwirkung eingeführt. Gefestigt wurde sie durch die Idee der Demokratie, die allen Bürgern gleiche Berechtigungen verleiht. Die allgemeine Zugänglichkeit von Bildung an sich ist ein wesentlicher Wert. Eine zweifellose Errungenschaft der polnischen Kultur – nicht nur des Schulwesens, sondern auch der Kultur – ist der Anstieg der Zahl der Studierenden und Akademiker in den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren um ein Mehrfaches. Der Preis dafür aber ist die radikale Senkung des Bildungsniveaus. An die Hochschulen drängen immer schlechter vorbereitete Kandidaten mit immer höheren Ansprüchen. Dies betrifft nicht nur ihr Wissen und ihre Kompetenzen, sondern auch Manieren und Kultiviertheit. Als ich 1982 meine Lehrtätigkeit begann, konnte ich mich mit den Studierenden ohne Probleme über die Ilias unterhalten oder mich auf viele andere Codes der klassischen Bildung beziehen. Heute versteht die Mehrheit der Studenten nicht mehr die Bitte, den Namen auf dem Prüfungsbogen in Majuskeln zu schreiben. Und von einer Studentin wurde ich gar belehrt, das heiße Caps lock. Einen großen Teil der Schuld an der entstandenen Situation tragen die Hochschulen selbst – ein Teil der nichtstaatlichen, aber nicht nur der nichtstaatlichen, Lehranstalten. Das Gewinnstreben bewirkt einen immer größeren Qualitätsrückgang der Lehre und der Anforderungen, die den Studierenden gestellt werden. Hochschulen waren immer Tempel des Wissens und der Kultur. Heute haben sich einige von ihnen in Fließbänder zur Herstellung von Diplomen verwandelt. Zuweilen kommt es zu regelrecht pathologischen Erscheinungen. Auch an die enorme Verschlechterung des Niveaus wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten haben wir uns gewöhnt. Manchmal befällt mich der Eindruck, dass sich die polnische Geisteswissenschaft in einem Zustand des Ausbrennens befindet. Auf ähnliche Weise hat die massenhafte Verbreitung der Kultur zu einem Ludismus geführt, einer Tabloidisierung der Presse, wo den niedrigsten Geschmäckern geschmeichelt wird und die grundlegenden Normen des guten Anstands verletzt werden. Jarosław Makowski schrieb: „Stellen wir uns vor, nach Polen kommt ein Intellektueller, der nichts über unser Land weiß, aber schnell etwas herausfinden möchte. Erlaubt mir, eine Woche lang eure publizistischen Programme anzuschauen und eure Zeitungen zu lesen – schlägt er vor – und ich sage euch, in was für einem Land ihr lebt. Und wenn dieser Intellektuelle ehrlich sein wollte, dann müsste er wohl, fürchte ich, nach dieser Woche feststellen: Das ist kein Land für denkende Menschen.“ [Makowski, 2009, S. 2]
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Ich möchte damit nicht sagen, dass sowohl die Kultur als auch die Bildung wieder elitär werden sollten. Bildung ist ein unveräußerliches Recht eines jeden Menschen. Jede Art von Bildung ist ein Wert, mag sie auch noch so bruchstückhaft und oberflächlich sein. Es ist besser, wenn ein Studierender im Hörsaal einer Vorlesung beiwohnt, die er in großen Teilen nicht begreift, da er nicht zu intellektueller Anstrengung fähig oder willens ist, als dass er sich in die Schlange der Arbeitslosen einreiht. Das darf jedoch nicht Anlass für einen gänzlichen Verzicht auf die Standards der Sprachkultur und des Wissens sein. Der neue Massencharakter der Bildung darf nicht zu axiologischem Chaos und einem Verschwinden der Vorbilder führen. Die Kultur braucht Eliten. Die Demokratie steht nicht im Widerspruch zum Elitarismus, denn die Elite hebt ja nicht die Gleichheit in Menschlichkeit und Bildungschancen auf. Es gibt solche Bereiche der Kultur, die per se elitär sind. Man kann nicht Musiker werden, ohne über ein entsprechend feines Gehör zu verfügen. Ich träume jedoch von einer solchen Form des Elitarismus, in der die Fähigkeit zum korrekten Gebrauch der polnischen Sprache Voraussetzung etwa für ein Jurastudium wäre. Die Verantwortung von Menschen der Wissenschaft und Kultur beruht also nicht nur auf der Ausbildung der Masse, sondern auch der Bildung der Elite – Personen mit hohen Kompetenzen in verschiedenen Bereichen des Wissens und der Kultur. Ähnlich wie die „Vermassung“ der Bildung ist auch die Vermassung der Kultur ein Wert. Werte sind geistreiches Kabarett, unterhaltsame Quizsendungen, ein Popkonzert. Die Vermassung der Kultur darf jedoch nicht zu einer Infragestellung der moralischen Kultur führen. Sie darf auch nicht zu der Überzeugung führen, dass das ganze menschliche Leben reine Unterhaltung sei. Die Aufrechterhaltung der Unterteilung zwischen Elitarismus und Massenhaftigkeit wird durch die für die Gegenwartskultur kennzeichnende Aufweichung des Kulturkanons erschwert. Dieser Kanon nämlich verteidigt die Standards und legt Werte fest. Professor Jerzy Jarzębski meldete seine Zweifel an, ob ein solcher Kanon überhaupt noch existiert: „Der zur Ware degradierte Kanon ist zur Tatsache geworden. Seine Vermarktung hat sehr rasch zum Verlust oder wenigstens zu einer Verwischung seiner inneren Struktur geführt. Gefördert wird dies nicht nur durch den stets nach Neuheiten lechzenden Kommerz, sondern auch durch die Mechanismen der Demokratie einerseits, andererseits – die Idee der Toleranz, die befiehlt, jede Art von Inhalten und Werten zu akzeptieren, wenn sich nur eine größere Gruppe darunter unterschreibt. Zu diesen Faktoren
109
europäische Kultur die Ideen der allgemeinen Schulbildung und der Breitenwirkung eingeführt. Gefestigt wurde sie durch die Idee der Demokratie, die allen Bürgern gleiche Berechtigungen verleiht. Die allgemeine Zugänglichkeit von Bildung an sich ist ein wesentlicher Wert. Eine zweifellose Errungenschaft der polnischen Kultur – nicht nur des Schulwesens, sondern auch der Kultur – ist der Anstieg der Zahl der Studierenden und Akademiker in den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren um ein Mehrfaches. Der Preis dafür aber ist die radikale Senkung des Bildungsniveaus. An die Hochschulen drängen immer schlechter vorbereitete Kandidaten mit immer höheren Ansprüchen. Dies betrifft nicht nur ihr Wissen und ihre Kompetenzen, sondern auch Manieren und Kultiviertheit. Als ich 1982 meine Lehrtätigkeit begann, konnte ich mich mit den Studierenden ohne Probleme über die Ilias unterhalten oder mich auf viele andere Codes der klassischen Bildung beziehen. Heute versteht die Mehrheit der Studenten nicht mehr die Bitte, den Namen auf dem Prüfungsbogen in Majuskeln zu schreiben. Und von einer Studentin wurde ich gar belehrt, das heiße Caps lock. Einen großen Teil der Schuld an der entstandenen Situation tragen die Hochschulen selbst – ein Teil der nichtstaatlichen, aber nicht nur der nichtstaatlichen, Lehranstalten. Das Gewinnstreben bewirkt einen immer größeren Qualitätsrückgang der Lehre und der Anforderungen, die den Studierenden gestellt werden. Hochschulen waren immer Tempel des Wissens und der Kultur. Heute haben sich einige von ihnen in Fließbänder zur Herstellung von Diplomen verwandelt. Zuweilen kommt es zu regelrecht pathologischen Erscheinungen. Auch an die enorme Verschlechterung des Niveaus wissenschaftlicher Arbeiten haben wir uns gewöhnt. Manchmal befällt mich der Eindruck, dass sich die polnische Geisteswissenschaft in einem Zustand des Ausbrennens befindet. Auf ähnliche Weise hat die massenhafte Verbreitung der Kultur zu einem Ludismus geführt, einer Tabloidisierung der Presse, wo den niedrigsten Geschmäckern geschmeichelt wird und die grundlegenden Normen des guten Anstands verletzt werden. Jarosław Makowski schrieb: „Stellen wir uns vor, nach Polen kommt ein Intellektueller, der nichts über unser Land weiß, aber schnell etwas herausfinden möchte. Erlaubt mir, eine Woche lang eure publizistischen Programme anzuschauen und eure Zeitungen zu lesen – schlägt er vor – und ich sage euch, in was für einem Land ihr lebt. Und wenn dieser Intellektuelle ehrlich sein wollte, dann müsste er wohl, fürchte ich, nach dieser Woche feststellen: Das ist kein Land für denkende Menschen.“ [Makowski, 2009, S. 2]
109
Ich möchte damit nicht sagen, dass sowohl die Kultur als auch die Bildung wieder elitär werden sollten. Bildung ist ein unveräußerliches Recht eines jeden Menschen. Jede Art von Bildung ist ein Wert, mag sie auch noch so bruchstückhaft und oberflächlich sein. Es ist besser, wenn ein Studierender im Hörsaal einer Vorlesung beiwohnt, die er in großen Teilen nicht begreift, da er nicht zu intellektueller Anstrengung fähig oder willens ist, als dass er sich in die Schlange der Arbeitslosen einreiht. Das darf jedoch nicht Anlass für einen gänzlichen Verzicht auf die Standards der Sprachkultur und des Wissens sein. Der neue Massencharakter der Bildung darf nicht zu axiologischem Chaos und einem Verschwinden der Vorbilder führen. Die Kultur braucht Eliten. Die Demokratie steht nicht im Widerspruch zum Elitarismus, denn die Elite hebt ja nicht die Gleichheit in Menschlichkeit und Bildungschancen auf. Es gibt solche Bereiche der Kultur, die per se elitär sind. Man kann nicht Musiker werden, ohne über ein entsprechend feines Gehör zu verfügen. Ich träume jedoch von einer solchen Form des Elitarismus, in der die Fähigkeit zum korrekten Gebrauch der polnischen Sprache Voraussetzung etwa für ein Jurastudium wäre. Die Verantwortung von Menschen der Wissenschaft und Kultur beruht also nicht nur auf der Ausbildung der Masse, sondern auch der Bildung der Elite – Personen mit hohen Kompetenzen in verschiedenen Bereichen des Wissens und der Kultur. Ähnlich wie die „Vermassung“ der Bildung ist auch die Vermassung der Kultur ein Wert. Werte sind geistreiches Kabarett, unterhaltsame Quizsendungen, ein Popkonzert. Die Vermassung der Kultur darf jedoch nicht zu einer Infragestellung der moralischen Kultur führen. Sie darf auch nicht zu der Überzeugung führen, dass das ganze menschliche Leben reine Unterhaltung sei. Die Aufrechterhaltung der Unterteilung zwischen Elitarismus und Massenhaftigkeit wird durch die für die Gegenwartskultur kennzeichnende Aufweichung des Kulturkanons erschwert. Dieser Kanon nämlich verteidigt die Standards und legt Werte fest. Professor Jerzy Jarzębski meldete seine Zweifel an, ob ein solcher Kanon überhaupt noch existiert: „Der zur Ware degradierte Kanon ist zur Tatsache geworden. Seine Vermarktung hat sehr rasch zum Verlust oder wenigstens zu einer Verwischung seiner inneren Struktur geführt. Gefördert wird dies nicht nur durch den stets nach Neuheiten lechzenden Kommerz, sondern auch durch die Mechanismen der Demokratie einerseits, andererseits – die Idee der Toleranz, die befiehlt, jede Art von Inhalten und Werten zu akzeptieren, wenn sich nur eine größere Gruppe darunter unterschreibt. Zu diesen Faktoren
Die nächste Trennlinie zwischen den unaufhebbaren Spannungen verläuft zwischen der geistigen und der objektiven Dimension der Kultur. Die Kultur ist Ausdruck des geistigen Erlebens des Menschen, seines tiefen geistigen Nachdenkens. Der Zusammenhang zwischen der Kultur und dem geistigen Leben ist dergestalt, dass wir an den Werken der Kultur, an ihrer Tiefe und Erhabenheit, die Tiefe und Erhabenheit des Lebens des Volkes und des Einzelnen erkennen. Georg Simmel bezeichnete die Kultur als „Weg der Seele zu sich selbst“ [Simmel, 2007, S. 29], „zur Verwirklichung des ihr eingeschriebenen jedoch zunächst nur als Möglichkeit existierenden, vollkommensten und eigentümlichsten Ich“ [Ebenda, S. 32]. Dieser Weg der Seele muss jedoch durch die äußere, objektive Welt der Kultur führen. Schöne Bilder wecken unsere Begeisterung, Musik rührt uns an, Dichtung ermöglicht das auszudrücken, was sich nicht ausdrücken lässt, Literatur erweitert unsere Existenz, denn wir werden zu dem, was wir gelesen haben. Begeistert, berührt, vertieft verleihen wir selbst unserem geistigen Leben Ausdruck. Die Kultur als geistiges Leben braucht jedoch Bühnen, Ausstellungssäle, Bibliotheken, Konzerthäuser, Musikinstrumente. Nicht nur, um im öffentlichen Raum zu existieren, sondern auch deshalb, weil erst der lebendige Umgang mit Kultur die Möglichkeit zur geistigen Entwicklung eröffnet. Ohne Kultur schrumpft der Mensch und verliert die Fähigkeit, große Kultur zu Schaffen. Das Paradox des Zusammenhangs zwischen geistigem Leben und der objektiven Dimension der Kultur beruht darauf, dass das geistige Leben sich in einer Situation der Bedrängnis entwickeln kann, in Zeiten der – um es mit den Worten Hegel zu sagen – Negativität, denn der Geist erlangt dann Bewusstsein, wenn er der „Negativität direkt ins Auge blickt und bei ihr anhält.“ Nur derjenige empfindet die Freiheit vollkommen, der ihren Verlust erlitten hat. Man hat uns bekämpft, aber wir haben unsere Seelen nicht verloren. Dagegen muss die Freiheit der Entwicklung der Kultur oder die institutionelle Möglichkeit ihres Ausdrucks an sich kein ausreichender Garant der geistigen Entwicklung sein. Stefan Chwin sagt in einem Interview: „Heute ist die Seele billiger geworden.“ Müssen wir uns also nach der vergangenen Zeit der Negativität sehnen? Nein, wir müssen uns von der Hegelschen Versuchung befreien. Nicht derjenige empfindet die Freiheit vollkommen, der sie verloren hat, sondern derjenige, dem die Möglichkeit ihrer Verwirklichung in Verantwortung gegeben ist. Nie zuvor hatten wir eine solche Chance zur geistigen Entwicklung wie heute. Leider ist es jedoch so, dass, wie Władysław Stróżewski schreibt, die Zivilisation der Gegenwart mit ihren
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
kam schließlich noch die postmoderne Krise der Hierarchien, der Sieg der Oberflächlichkeit über die Tiefe, der Beliebigkeit über die Exklusivität des Ausgewählten.“ [ Jarzębski, 1994, S. 14] Jede Art von Hierachiebildung, wie sie die Grundlage für die Entstehung eines Kanons ist, wurde im 20. Jahrhundert als autoritär in Frage gestellt. Man argumentierte, dass eine Entscheidung von Höherem und Niederem in sich die Ideologie der Dominanz trage. Der autoritäre Druck liegt jedoch nicht nur im Kanon selbst begründet. Wir können nichts dagegen tun, wie Jerzy Szacki schrieb, dass weder Homer noch Shakespeare noch Goethe und noch nicht einmal die etwas weniger bedeutenden großen Kulturschöpfer Frauen waren oder Schwarze [Szacki, Ebenda, S. 19]. Nicht durch das Vorhandensein eines Kanons kann die Kultur zur Quelle von Leiden werden, sondern durch das Fehlen von Verständnis und Anerkennung für die Andersartigkeit des Anderen. Die heutige europäische Kultur ist stark pluralisiert, vieldimensional. Akzeptanz für die Tatsache, dass wir es mit verschiedenen Kulturströmungen und verschiedenen Empfindlichkeiten zu tun haben, Respekt für die Wahlentscheidungen eines jeden Menschen, darf jedoch nach meiner Überzeugung nicht die Notwendigkeit der Verteidigung des Kanons in verschiedenen Bereichen der Wissenschaft und Kultur oder in verschiedenen Gegenden der Welt aufheben. Ansonsten werden wir es bald für autoritär halten, wenn wir die Schüler dazu anhalten, die Regeln der Grammatik und Literatur zu erlernen. Wir werden Rezensionen ertragen müssen, wissenschaftliche Kritik und die Kritik der Kultur. Denn jeder kann anders empfinden, anders denken und anders schreiben. Prof. Barbara Skarga schrieb in den Grenzen der Historizität: „Sollte es wirklich keine solchen Elemente des Geistes geben, die Voraussetzung seiner Existenz und Entwicklung wären, und damit auch der Entwicklung unserer Kultur? Sollte allein die Tatsache der Suche nach Wahrheit und Werten nichts über das Wesen des Menschseins aussagen? Sollte die Geistesgeschichte, immer ungesättigt, immer offen und daher die Form der Frage annehmend, nur Ausdruck unserer Beschränktheit als „Sein zum Tode“ sein, oder umgekehrt, Beweis des uns stets erfüllenden Verlangens, Auf-etwas-Zugehens, was uns und unsere historische Verwurzeltheit überschreitet?“ [Skarga, 2005, S. 235]. Zusammenfassend: Die Dialektik von Elitarität und Egalitarität lässt sich in der Kultur nicht überwinden. Eine Alternative ist weder der Elfenbeinturm der Eliten, wie im Falle des vor der neugierigen, ungebildeten Menge in die Abgeschiedenheit flüchtenden Petrarca, noch in der Billigung von axiologischem Chaos und der Dominanz schlechtester Vorbilder.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
110
Die nächste Trennlinie zwischen den unaufhebbaren Spannungen verläuft zwischen der geistigen und der objektiven Dimension der Kultur. Die Kultur ist Ausdruck des geistigen Erlebens des Menschen, seines tiefen geistigen Nachdenkens. Der Zusammenhang zwischen der Kultur und dem geistigen Leben ist dergestalt, dass wir an den Werken der Kultur, an ihrer Tiefe und Erhabenheit, die Tiefe und Erhabenheit des Lebens des Volkes und des Einzelnen erkennen. Georg Simmel bezeichnete die Kultur als „Weg der Seele zu sich selbst“ [Simmel, 2007, S. 29], „zur Verwirklichung des ihr eingeschriebenen jedoch zunächst nur als Möglichkeit existierenden, vollkommensten und eigentümlichsten Ich“ [Ebenda, S. 32]. Dieser Weg der Seele muss jedoch durch die äußere, objektive Welt der Kultur führen. Schöne Bilder wecken unsere Begeisterung, Musik rührt uns an, Dichtung ermöglicht das auszudrücken, was sich nicht ausdrücken lässt, Literatur erweitert unsere Existenz, denn wir werden zu dem, was wir gelesen haben. Begeistert, berührt, vertieft verleihen wir selbst unserem geistigen Leben Ausdruck. Die Kultur als geistiges Leben braucht jedoch Bühnen, Ausstellungssäle, Bibliotheken, Konzerthäuser, Musikinstrumente. Nicht nur, um im öffentlichen Raum zu existieren, sondern auch deshalb, weil erst der lebendige Umgang mit Kultur die Möglichkeit zur geistigen Entwicklung eröffnet. Ohne Kultur schrumpft der Mensch und verliert die Fähigkeit, große Kultur zu Schaffen. Das Paradox des Zusammenhangs zwischen geistigem Leben und der objektiven Dimension der Kultur beruht darauf, dass das geistige Leben sich in einer Situation der Bedrängnis entwickeln kann, in Zeiten der – um es mit den Worten Hegel zu sagen – Negativität, denn der Geist erlangt dann Bewusstsein, wenn er der „Negativität direkt ins Auge blickt und bei ihr anhält.“ Nur derjenige empfindet die Freiheit vollkommen, der ihren Verlust erlitten hat. Man hat uns bekämpft, aber wir haben unsere Seelen nicht verloren. Dagegen muss die Freiheit der Entwicklung der Kultur oder die institutionelle Möglichkeit ihres Ausdrucks an sich kein ausreichender Garant der geistigen Entwicklung sein. Stefan Chwin sagt in einem Interview: „Heute ist die Seele billiger geworden.“ Müssen wir uns also nach der vergangenen Zeit der Negativität sehnen? Nein, wir müssen uns von der Hegelschen Versuchung befreien. Nicht derjenige empfindet die Freiheit vollkommen, der sie verloren hat, sondern derjenige, dem die Möglichkeit ihrer Verwirklichung in Verantwortung gegeben ist. Nie zuvor hatten wir eine solche Chance zur geistigen Entwicklung wie heute. Leider ist es jedoch so, dass, wie Władysław Stróżewski schreibt, die Zivilisation der Gegenwart mit ihren
110
kam schließlich noch die postmoderne Krise der Hierarchien, der Sieg der Oberflächlichkeit über die Tiefe, der Beliebigkeit über die Exklusivität des Ausgewählten.“ [ Jarzębski, 1994, S. 14] Jede Art von Hierachiebildung, wie sie die Grundlage für die Entstehung eines Kanons ist, wurde im 20. Jahrhundert als autoritär in Frage gestellt. Man argumentierte, dass eine Entscheidung von Höherem und Niederem in sich die Ideologie der Dominanz trage. Der autoritäre Druck liegt jedoch nicht nur im Kanon selbst begründet. Wir können nichts dagegen tun, wie Jerzy Szacki schrieb, dass weder Homer noch Shakespeare noch Goethe und noch nicht einmal die etwas weniger bedeutenden großen Kulturschöpfer Frauen waren oder Schwarze [Szacki, Ebenda, S. 19]. Nicht durch das Vorhandensein eines Kanons kann die Kultur zur Quelle von Leiden werden, sondern durch das Fehlen von Verständnis und Anerkennung für die Andersartigkeit des Anderen. Die heutige europäische Kultur ist stark pluralisiert, vieldimensional. Akzeptanz für die Tatsache, dass wir es mit verschiedenen Kulturströmungen und verschiedenen Empfindlichkeiten zu tun haben, Respekt für die Wahlentscheidungen eines jeden Menschen, darf jedoch nach meiner Überzeugung nicht die Notwendigkeit der Verteidigung des Kanons in verschiedenen Bereichen der Wissenschaft und Kultur oder in verschiedenen Gegenden der Welt aufheben. Ansonsten werden wir es bald für autoritär halten, wenn wir die Schüler dazu anhalten, die Regeln der Grammatik und Literatur zu erlernen. Wir werden Rezensionen ertragen müssen, wissenschaftliche Kritik und die Kritik der Kultur. Denn jeder kann anders empfinden, anders denken und anders schreiben. Prof. Barbara Skarga schrieb in den Grenzen der Historizität: „Sollte es wirklich keine solchen Elemente des Geistes geben, die Voraussetzung seiner Existenz und Entwicklung wären, und damit auch der Entwicklung unserer Kultur? Sollte allein die Tatsache der Suche nach Wahrheit und Werten nichts über das Wesen des Menschseins aussagen? Sollte die Geistesgeschichte, immer ungesättigt, immer offen und daher die Form der Frage annehmend, nur Ausdruck unserer Beschränktheit als „Sein zum Tode“ sein, oder umgekehrt, Beweis des uns stets erfüllenden Verlangens, Auf-etwas-Zugehens, was uns und unsere historische Verwurzeltheit überschreitet?“ [Skarga, 2005, S. 235]. Zusammenfassend: Die Dialektik von Elitarität und Egalitarität lässt sich in der Kultur nicht überwinden. Eine Alternative ist weder der Elfenbeinturm der Eliten, wie im Falle des vor der neugierigen, ungebildeten Menge in die Abgeschiedenheit flüchtenden Petrarca, noch in der Billigung von axiologischem Chaos und der Dominanz schlechtester Vorbilder.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
technischen Erleichterungen uns von Nachdenken und schöpferischer Anstrengung befreit. Wozu soll man etwas im Gedächtnis behalten, wenn es doch Speicherplatten gibt? Wozu sollen wir wissen, wer Narziss war, wenn wir wissen, was MP3 ist? Wir stehen heute, wie ich meine, vor der wichtigen Frage nach dem Bildungskanon. Soll er nur EDVund Englisch-Kenntnisse enthalten? Demnach besteht also nicht die Alternative: entweder innere geistige Entwicklung oder Kultur. Es gibt keine geistige Entwicklung ohne Kultur, wie es auch keine Kultur ohne geistige Entwicklung gibt. Die letzte Trennlinie schließlich zwischen den unaufhebbaren Spannungen, auf die ich zu sprechen kommen möchte, steht in Verbindung mit dem Titel des derzeit stattfindenden Kongresses: „Kultur zählt“. Dieser Slogan lässt sich auch als Frage auffassen: Kultur leben oder von Kultur leben? Kultur ist selbstlos. Sie ist ein Zuschlag zu den menschlichen Grundbedürfnissen. Es besteht kein Zweifel, dass wir Kultur leben sollten. Es besteht jedoch ebenso kein Zweifel, dass Kultur ihre Finanzierungsquellen haben muss. Kulturschaffende stehen in der ständigen Dialektik zwischen Nihil habentes omnia possedentes (Nichts habend, alles besitzend) und Omnia habentes, nihil possedentes (Alles habend, nichts besitzend). In dieser Hinsicht drohen uns zwei Gefahren. Einerseits der Drang zur völligen Kommerzialisierung und Vermarktung der Kultur. Kultur lässt sich nicht völlig den Gesetzen des Marktes unterwerfen, denn hohe Werte sind nicht marktfähig. Auch schöpferische Prozesse passen nicht in die Logik des Marktes. Wenn ich zum Beispiel an die Vermarktung des Denkens denke, kommt mir ein Gedicht von Jan Twardowski in den Sinn: „Es dachte der Denker und dachte nichts aus. Und so dachte er vor sich hin. Wozu habe ich so viel gedacht, um doch nichts auszudenken. Ich hätte schließlich nicht so viel denken können und ebenso viel ausgedacht.“ In wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht wären das lauter Verluste. Aber im Hinblick auf das Nachdenken ist es lauterer Gewinn. Die Unmöglichkeit, die Kultur vollkommen den Marktprinzipien zu unterwerfen, bedeutet jedoch nicht, dass es nicht hieße, besser und effizienter mit den für die Kultur aufgebrachten Geldmitteln umzugehen. Eine zweite Gefahr besteht darin, Kulturschaffende so zu behandeln wie einst Wawrzek den Professor Józef Tischner. Als Wawrzek im Dorf Łopuszna Heu harkte, kam Tischner vorbei, während er gerade über seine Philosophie des Dramas nachdachte, an der er gerade arbeitete. Auf Wawrzeks Frage, was der Herr denn tue, antwortete er: Ich denke. Darauf Wawrzek: Das heißt, Ihr verderbt die Luft. Es lässt sich also auch diese Dialektik nicht beseitigen: Kultur leben oder von der Kultur leben.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Wenn es nicht möglich ist, die Spannungen zwischen den hier genannte Elementen aufzuheben, die das Feld der Kultur bilden, erhebt sich die Frage, wonach wir uns bei den Wahlen der Glieder der genannten Alternativen richten sollen. Ich entstamme einer philosophischen Schule, in deren Zentrum immer der Mensch stand, mit seiner Schwäche und seiner Würde. Da es in der Kultur immer um Werte geht, geht es auch immer um den Menschen, seine Kondition und seine Würde. Die Kultur ist verantwortlich für den Menschen, sie ist der Ort dieser Verantwortung. Das Ziel der Kultur ist es, den Menschen zu erheben, die Entwicklung seiner Menschlichkeit. Denn die Kultur betrifft die Existenz des Menschen, das, was er ist, und erst in zweiter Linie das, was er besitzt. Ich möchte jetzt übergehen von der Beschreibung der inneren Struktur der Kultur zum Nachdenken über ihren Platz und ihre Rolle in der Welt von heute, wie auch über ihre Verantwortung. Das 20. Jahrhundert wurde von vielen Denkern zum Jahrhundert der Krisen erklärt. Schon 1935 diagnostizierte Edmund Husserl eine Krise der europäischen Menschlichkeit. Der Mensch, so schrieb er, ist ein zielgerichtetes Wesen: „In der Endlichkeit lebend […] richtet er sich mit seinem ganzen Leben nach den Polen der Unendlichkeit.“ [Über die Krise, 1990, S. 20] Die Wissenschaft hat jedoch die Welt des Geistes vergessen. Europa ist ermüdet. Also nicht in der Relativierung der Werte sah Husserl die Gefahr, sondern in der Gleichgültigkeit. Martin Heidegger bezeichnete unsere Zeit als Zeit des Abbruchs der Metaphysik. Zur Matrize unserer Existenz wurde die Technik. In immer größerem Maße denken wir in den Kategorien der Effizienz, nicht denen der Werte. Wir haben nicht einmal bemerkt, dass der Begriff der „Ressourcen“, der bei Heidegger noch geologische Lagerstätten bedeutete, sich in den Bereich der Verwaltung menschlicher Leistung eingeschlichen hat. Prof. Władysław Stróżewski hat diese Krise als eine Art „Umgehung“ der Werte im Namen des Ideals des erleichterten Lebens disagnostiziert. „Ich glaube nicht an die Wertekrise“, schrieb er, „die Welt der Werte ist ein objektiver, autonomer Bereich der Wirklichkeit, der sich nach seinen eigenen, gut begründeten und unangreifbaren Gesetzen regiert. Wahrheit ist Wahrheit, das Gute das Gute und Vollkommenheit Vollkommenheit. In diesem Bereich ist eine Krise unmöglich. Die Krise betrifft nicht die Werte, sondern unser Erleben der Werte. Wir haben die Empfindlichkeit für Werte verloren, ihren Geschmack vergessen. Vor allem haben wir uns verirrt bei der Entschlüsselung ihrer eigentlichen Hierarchie.“ [Stróżewski, 2002, S. 168] Leszek Kołakowski appellierte in seiner Zivilisation
111
technischen Erleichterungen uns von Nachdenken und schöpferischer Anstrengung befreit. Wozu soll man etwas im Gedächtnis behalten, wenn es doch Speicherplatten gibt? Wozu sollen wir wissen, wer Narziss war, wenn wir wissen, was MP3 ist? Wir stehen heute, wie ich meine, vor der wichtigen Frage nach dem Bildungskanon. Soll er nur EDVund Englisch-Kenntnisse enthalten? Demnach besteht also nicht die Alternative: entweder innere geistige Entwicklung oder Kultur. Es gibt keine geistige Entwicklung ohne Kultur, wie es auch keine Kultur ohne geistige Entwicklung gibt. Die letzte Trennlinie schließlich zwischen den unaufhebbaren Spannungen, auf die ich zu sprechen kommen möchte, steht in Verbindung mit dem Titel des derzeit stattfindenden Kongresses: „Kultur zählt“. Dieser Slogan lässt sich auch als Frage auffassen: Kultur leben oder von Kultur leben? Kultur ist selbstlos. Sie ist ein Zuschlag zu den menschlichen Grundbedürfnissen. Es besteht kein Zweifel, dass wir Kultur leben sollten. Es besteht jedoch ebenso kein Zweifel, dass Kultur ihre Finanzierungsquellen haben muss. Kulturschaffende stehen in der ständigen Dialektik zwischen Nihil habentes omnia possedentes (Nichts habend, alles besitzend) und Omnia habentes, nihil possedentes (Alles habend, nichts besitzend). In dieser Hinsicht drohen uns zwei Gefahren. Einerseits der Drang zur völligen Kommerzialisierung und Vermarktung der Kultur. Kultur lässt sich nicht völlig den Gesetzen des Marktes unterwerfen, denn hohe Werte sind nicht marktfähig. Auch schöpferische Prozesse passen nicht in die Logik des Marktes. Wenn ich zum Beispiel an die Vermarktung des Denkens denke, kommt mir ein Gedicht von Jan Twardowski in den Sinn: „Es dachte der Denker und dachte nichts aus. Und so dachte er vor sich hin. Wozu habe ich so viel gedacht, um doch nichts auszudenken. Ich hätte schließlich nicht so viel denken können und ebenso viel ausgedacht.“ In wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht wären das lauter Verluste. Aber im Hinblick auf das Nachdenken ist es lauterer Gewinn. Die Unmöglichkeit, die Kultur vollkommen den Marktprinzipien zu unterwerfen, bedeutet jedoch nicht, dass es nicht hieße, besser und effizienter mit den für die Kultur aufgebrachten Geldmitteln umzugehen. Eine zweite Gefahr besteht darin, Kulturschaffende so zu behandeln wie einst Wawrzek den Professor Józef Tischner. Als Wawrzek im Dorf Łopuszna Heu harkte, kam Tischner vorbei, während er gerade über seine Philosophie des Dramas nachdachte, an der er gerade arbeitete. Auf Wawrzeks Frage, was der Herr denn tue, antwortete er: Ich denke. Darauf Wawrzek: Das heißt, Ihr verderbt die Luft. Es lässt sich also auch diese Dialektik nicht beseitigen: Kultur leben oder von der Kultur leben.
111
Wenn es nicht möglich ist, die Spannungen zwischen den hier genannte Elementen aufzuheben, die das Feld der Kultur bilden, erhebt sich die Frage, wonach wir uns bei den Wahlen der Glieder der genannten Alternativen richten sollen. Ich entstamme einer philosophischen Schule, in deren Zentrum immer der Mensch stand, mit seiner Schwäche und seiner Würde. Da es in der Kultur immer um Werte geht, geht es auch immer um den Menschen, seine Kondition und seine Würde. Die Kultur ist verantwortlich für den Menschen, sie ist der Ort dieser Verantwortung. Das Ziel der Kultur ist es, den Menschen zu erheben, die Entwicklung seiner Menschlichkeit. Denn die Kultur betrifft die Existenz des Menschen, das, was er ist, und erst in zweiter Linie das, was er besitzt. Ich möchte jetzt übergehen von der Beschreibung der inneren Struktur der Kultur zum Nachdenken über ihren Platz und ihre Rolle in der Welt von heute, wie auch über ihre Verantwortung. Das 20. Jahrhundert wurde von vielen Denkern zum Jahrhundert der Krisen erklärt. Schon 1935 diagnostizierte Edmund Husserl eine Krise der europäischen Menschlichkeit. Der Mensch, so schrieb er, ist ein zielgerichtetes Wesen: „In der Endlichkeit lebend […] richtet er sich mit seinem ganzen Leben nach den Polen der Unendlichkeit.“ [Über die Krise, 1990, S. 20] Die Wissenschaft hat jedoch die Welt des Geistes vergessen. Europa ist ermüdet. Also nicht in der Relativierung der Werte sah Husserl die Gefahr, sondern in der Gleichgültigkeit. Martin Heidegger bezeichnete unsere Zeit als Zeit des Abbruchs der Metaphysik. Zur Matrize unserer Existenz wurde die Technik. In immer größerem Maße denken wir in den Kategorien der Effizienz, nicht denen der Werte. Wir haben nicht einmal bemerkt, dass der Begriff der „Ressourcen“, der bei Heidegger noch geologische Lagerstätten bedeutete, sich in den Bereich der Verwaltung menschlicher Leistung eingeschlichen hat. Prof. Władysław Stróżewski hat diese Krise als eine Art „Umgehung“ der Werte im Namen des Ideals des erleichterten Lebens disagnostiziert. „Ich glaube nicht an die Wertekrise“, schrieb er, „die Welt der Werte ist ein objektiver, autonomer Bereich der Wirklichkeit, der sich nach seinen eigenen, gut begründeten und unangreifbaren Gesetzen regiert. Wahrheit ist Wahrheit, das Gute das Gute und Vollkommenheit Vollkommenheit. In diesem Bereich ist eine Krise unmöglich. Die Krise betrifft nicht die Werte, sondern unser Erleben der Werte. Wir haben die Empfindlichkeit für Werte verloren, ihren Geschmack vergessen. Vor allem haben wir uns verirrt bei der Entschlüsselung ihrer eigentlichen Hierarchie.“ [Stróżewski, 2002, S. 168] Leszek Kołakowski appellierte in seiner Zivilisation
112
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Tischner, J., Myślenie według wartości, Kraków 1982. Ingarden, R., Książeczka o człowieku, Kraków 1987.
Literatur: auf der Anklagebank: „Verschiedene traditionelle menschliche Bindungen, die ein gemeinschaftliches Leben ermöglichen und ohne die unser Dasein ausschließlich von Angst und Neid regiert wäre, haben wenig Überlebenschancen in einem System ohne Tabu.“ [Über die Krise, 1990, S. 84] Nichts von seiner Überzeugungskraft hat auch die Diagnose Józef Tischners aus seinem Wertedenken von 1978 verloren: Die Moderne hat Hierarchie und Präferenz in Frage gestellt. Die von diesen Denkern skizzierte Krise beruht meiner Auffassung nach nicht darauf, dass wir die Sphäre der naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung, der Technik, Volks- und Betriebswirtschaft vorantreiben. Die Krise beruht darauf, dass unser Leben sich weitgehend auf die materielle Welt beschränkt hat, den Besitz, die niedrigsten Werte (hedonistische, utilitaristische, vitale). Auf diese Weise verschleiert uns die materielle Welt die Welt der höheren, geistigen (moralischen, ästhetischen, religiösen) Werte. Wir leben in einer gewissen Verfinsterung der höheren Werte, die darüber entscheiden, wer wir sind, und nicht, was wir besitzen. Wir benötigen also eine nachhaltige Entwicklung der Wirtschaft einerseits, die uns das Leben erleichtert und vielfältige Güter liefert, und der Kultur auf der anderen Seite, die darüber entscheidet, wer wir sind. Deshalb eben ist die Kultur kein Luxus, sondern Notwendigkeit. Wozu brauchen wir Mobiltelefone der immer wieder
Skarga, B., Granice historyczności, Warszawa 2005. 470. Jarzębski, J., Metamorfozy kanonu, „Znak” 1994, Nr.
neuesten Generation, wenn wir uns nichts zu sagen haben. Eben das Fehlen einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung, die radikale Überlegenheit des Habens über das Sein, ist eine der wichtigsten Quellen der heutigen Finanzkrise. Wenn das Haben das Sein dominiert, wird das Leben zum Spiel. Józef Tischner schrieb in Polen ist Vaterland: „Dass wir jedoch noch nicht denken, wird deutlich genug auch für Nichtphilosophen durch die Folgen, die sich daraus ergeben: Umweltverschmutzung, Atomrüstung, Spaltung der Welt in politische Blöcke, Armut der einen und Reichtum der anderen, krankhafter Machtkampf. Der Spieler sieht das Spielende voraus. Daher seine Angst. Es ist eine umso schmerzhaftere Angst, als das Ende des Spiels für den Spieler immer den Sieg des Gegners bedeutet. Der Spieler fürchtet sich zu verlieren und weiß gleichzeitig, dass er verlieren muss. Es bleibt ihm nichts anderes übrig, als stets neue Strategien zur Beherrschung der sich auflehnenden Welt auszudenken, also ein neues Spiel einzugehen, einen neuen Kampf und das Erwarten erneuter Niederlagen. Gibt es einen Ausweg aus diesem Wahnsinn? […] Wir haben keinen anderen Ausweg als eine Vernunft durch eine andere zu ersetzen – eine Vernunft, deren Lust das Gewinnen des Spiels ist, eine Vernunft, die Trost findet im Akt des Bezeugens“ [Tischner, 1985, S. 97, 102]. Dieser Akt des Bezeugens ist die Kultur.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
2007.
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Simmel, G., Filozofia kultury. Wybór esejów, Kraków
15.04.2009.
Grygiel, S., Naród i kultura, „Znak” 1982, Nr. 329.
Makowski, J., Media pełne głupot, „Gazeta Wyborcza”,
Warszawa 1990. Tischner, J., Polska jest Ojczyzną, Paris 1985.
Rozmowy w Castel Gandolfo. O kryzysie, K. Michalski,
Stróżewski, W., O wielkości, Kraków 2002.
2007. Rozmowy w Castel Gandolfo. O kryzysie, K. Michalski,
Osęka, A., Po rewolucji artystycznej, na ruinach norm,
„Znak” 1994, Nr. 470.
Simmel, G., Filozofia kultury. Wybór esejów, Kraków
Warszawa 1990.
Osęka, A., Po rewolucji artystycznej, na ruinach norm,
„Znak” 1994, Nr. 470.
Grygiel, S., Naród i kultura, „Znak” 1982, Nr. 329.
Tischner, J., Polska jest Ojczyzną, Paris 1985.
Tischner, J., Myślenie według wartości, Kraków 1982.
470. Skarga, B., Granice historyczności, Warszawa 2005.
Stróżewski, W., O wielkości, Kraków 2002.
Ingarden, R., Książeczka o człowieku, Kraków 1987.
Jarzębski, J., Metamorfozy kanonu, „Znak” 1994, Nr.
Makowski, J., Media pełne głupot, „Gazeta Wyborcza”,
Literatur:
neuesten Generation, wenn wir uns nichts zu sagen haben. Eben das Fehlen einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung, die radikale Überlegenheit des Habens über das Sein, ist eine der wichtigsten Quellen der heutigen Finanzkrise. Wenn das Haben das Sein dominiert, wird das Leben zum Spiel. Józef Tischner schrieb in Polen ist Vaterland: „Dass wir jedoch noch nicht denken, wird deutlich genug auch für Nichtphilosophen durch die Folgen, die sich daraus ergeben: Umweltverschmutzung, Atomrüstung, Spaltung der Welt in politische Blöcke, Armut der einen und Reichtum der anderen, krankhafter Machtkampf. Der Spieler sieht das Spielende voraus. Daher seine Angst. Es ist eine umso schmerzhaftere Angst, als das Ende des Spiels für den Spieler immer den Sieg des Gegners bedeutet. Der Spieler fürchtet sich zu verlieren und weiß gleichzeitig, dass er verlieren muss. Es bleibt ihm nichts anderes übrig, als stets neue Strategien zur Beherrschung der sich auflehnenden Welt auszudenken, also ein neues Spiel einzugehen, einen neuen Kampf und das Erwarten erneuter Niederlagen. Gibt es einen Ausweg aus diesem Wahnsinn? […] Wir haben keinen anderen Ausweg als eine Vernunft durch eine andere zu ersetzen – eine Vernunft, deren Lust das Gewinnen des Spiels ist, eine Vernunft, die Trost findet im Akt des Bezeugens“ [Tischner, 1985, S. 97, 102]. Dieser Akt des Bezeugens ist die Kultur.
15.04.2009.
auf der Anklagebank: „Verschiedene traditionelle menschliche Bindungen, die ein gemeinschaftliches Leben ermöglichen und ohne die unser Dasein ausschließlich von Angst und Neid regiert wäre, haben wenig Überlebenschancen in einem System ohne Tabu.“ [Über die Krise, 1990, S. 84] Nichts von seiner Überzeugungskraft hat auch die Diagnose Józef Tischners aus seinem Wertedenken von 1978 verloren: Die Moderne hat Hierarchie und Präferenz in Frage gestellt. Die von diesen Denkern skizzierte Krise beruht meiner Auffassung nach nicht darauf, dass wir die Sphäre der naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung, der Technik, Volks- und Betriebswirtschaft vorantreiben. Die Krise beruht darauf, dass unser Leben sich weitgehend auf die materielle Welt beschränkt hat, den Besitz, die niedrigsten Werte (hedonistische, utilitaristische, vitale). Auf diese Weise verschleiert uns die materielle Welt die Welt der höheren, geistigen (moralischen, ästhetischen, religiösen) Werte. Wir leben in einer gewissen Verfinsterung der höheren Werte, die darüber entscheiden, wer wir sind, und nicht, was wir besitzen. Wir benötigen also eine nachhaltige Entwicklung der Wirtschaft einerseits, die uns das Leben erleichtert und vielfältige Güter liefert, und der Kultur auf der anderen Seite, die darüber entscheidet, wer wir sind. Deshalb eben ist die Kultur kein Luxus, sondern Notwendigkeit. Wozu brauchen wir Mobiltelefone der immer wieder
113
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Was ist Kulturpolitik?
Im aktuellen Bundeshaushaltsjahr 2010 stehen erstere nicht zur Verfügung, reichen zweitere nur für drei Viertel der Haushaltsansatzes hin (Nettokreditaufnahme 80 Mrd. EUR) und muß drittens in eben dieser Größenordnung (78 Mrd. EUR) die grundsätzliche Dysfunktionalität des Sozialversicherungssystems durch Zuschüsse des Staates zur defizitären Rentenkasse kompensiert werden. Das Ringen um eine gerechte Ordnung ist je zur Hälfte belastet durch Probleme früherer Generationen (40 Mrd. EUR oder ein Sechstel der aktuellen Bundessteuereinnahmen werden auf Zinsen für derzeit 1,0 Bio. EUR Schulden verwandt) bzw. wird zu Lasten der im Parlament nicht vertretenen künftigen Generationen ausgetragen.
2
In der Spandauer Zitadelle lagerten keine Ersparnisse des Reiches oder seiner Vorgänger, sondern die französischen Kontributionen von 1871.
1
Matthias Theodor Vogt
B
uch, Klang, Bild, Spiel sind Mittel des Broterwerbs, der Bildung, der Freude oder der Indoktrination; sie sind nicht losgelöst vom Menschen (ars gratia artis) zu denken. In einer bewußt nüchternen Annäherung an kunstbezogene sowie geisteswissenschaftliche Aktivitäten, dem Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft, zeigt sich, daß die »musische Kultur« jährlich rund 44 Mrd. EUR entsprechend gut 500 EUR pro Einwohner bzw. knapp 2% zum Bruttoinlandsprodukt der Bundesrepublik Deutschland beiträgt (ars gratia culturae). Auf kulturelle Aufwendungen entfallen 2% des privaten Konsums (ars gratia libertatis). Singulär in Europa sind die derzeitigen Bemühungen der deutschen Politik um die Rahmenbedingungen von Kunst und Kultur (politia gratia artis). Schwer zu beziffern, jedoch auf seine Weise besonders erheblich ist der Beitrag der kunstbezogenen sowie geisteswissenschaftlichen Aktivitäten zum Gemeinwohl (ars gratia politiae). Von allen vier Dimensionen her ist Deutschland ein genuiner Standort für die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit Kulturpolitik.
1. Haushaltsansätze
I
n einem pragmatischen ersten Ansatz ist Kulturpolitik dasjenige, was die Politik ausweislich ihrer Haushaltsansätze darunter versteht. Unser Normensystem geht von der Grundannahme aus, daß Souverän das Volk sei, sein Agent das Parla-
ment und dessen Königsrecht das Haushaltsrecht. In einer freiheitlich-demokratischen Grundordnung ist der Haushalt einer Territorialkörperschaft das materielle Substrat des Ringens um eine gerechte Ordnung im Rahmen der verfügbaren Haushaltsmittel. Das Kräftespiel der politischen Grundannahmen, repräsentiert durch die vom Volk gewählten Parteien, spiegelt sich wieder in deren unterschiedlicher Prioritätensetzung für die einzelnen Politikbereiche und wird in Zahlenform faßbar in der Höhe der Ansätze für die Einzeltitel. Zur Finanzierung verfügbar sind (1) Rücklagen aus der Vergangenheit, im Fachjargon fälschlicherweise1als »Juliusturm« bezeichnet, (2) aktuelle Steuer- und andere Erträge sowie (3) Belastungen der Zukunft. Wer angesichts der Dimensionen letzterer2 für die Kulturpolitik annimmt, es sei unerheblich, ob der Bund 0,0031% seines Gesamtetats oder eine andere Summe als Kulturförderung aufbringt, der verkennt, daß die Verve der politischen Auseinandersetzung unabhängig ist von der Zahl der Nullen – die Debatte um hohe und höchste Beträge wird tendenziell eher weniger scharf geführt. Innerhalb der spezifischen Logik von Haushaltsverhandlungen war es insofern angemessen, für den Wiederaufbau des Berliner Schlosses 500.000.000,00 EUR zu veranschlagen und die Suche nach Inhalten hintanzustellen. Die Bauvorbereitung läuft, die Suche ist derzeit (Frühjahr 2010) keineswegs abgeschlossen. Zur kameralistischen Systematisierung von Haushaltsveranschlagungen hat die deutsche Verwaltung ein bundeseinheitlich angewandtes Vierfachverfahren entwickelt. Es besteht aus:
n einem pragmatischen ersten Ansatz ist Kulturpolitik dasjenige, was die Politik ausweislich ihrer Haushaltsansätze darunter versteht. Unser Normensystem geht von der Grundannahme aus, daß Souverän das Volk sei, sein Agent das Parla-
I
1. Haushaltsansätze uch, Klang, Bild, Spiel sind Mittel des Broterwerbs, der Bildung, der Freude oder der Indoktrination; sie sind nicht losgelöst vom Menschen (ars gratia artis) zu denken. In einer bewußt nüchternen Annäherung an kunstbezogene sowie geisteswissenschaftliche Aktivitäten, dem Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft, zeigt sich, daß die »musische Kultur« jährlich rund 44 Mrd. EUR entsprechend gut 500 EUR pro Einwohner bzw. knapp 2% zum Bruttoinlandsprodukt der Bundesrepublik Deutschland beiträgt (ars gratia culturae). Auf kulturelle Aufwendungen entfallen 2% des privaten Konsums (ars gratia libertatis). Singulär in Europa sind die derzeitigen Bemühungen der deutschen Politik um die Rahmenbedingungen von Kunst und Kultur (politia gratia artis). Schwer zu beziffern, jedoch auf seine Weise besonders erheblich ist der Beitrag der kunstbezogenen sowie geisteswissenschaftlichen Aktivitäten zum Gemeinwohl (ars gratia politiae). Von allen vier Dimensionen her ist Deutschland ein genuiner Standort für die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit Kulturpolitik.
B
ment und dessen Königsrecht das Haushaltsrecht. In einer freiheitlich-demokratischen Grundordnung ist der Haushalt einer Territorialkörperschaft das materielle Substrat des Ringens um eine gerechte Ordnung im Rahmen der verfügbaren Haushaltsmittel. Das Kräftespiel der politischen Grundannahmen, repräsentiert durch die vom Volk gewählten Parteien, spiegelt sich wieder in deren unterschiedlicher Prioritätensetzung für die einzelnen Politikbereiche und wird in Zahlenform faßbar in der Höhe der Ansätze für die Einzeltitel. Zur Finanzierung verfügbar sind (1) Rücklagen aus der Vergangenheit, im Fachjargon fälschlicherweise1als »Juliusturm« bezeichnet, (2) aktuelle Steuer- und andere Erträge sowie (3) Belastungen der Zukunft. Wer angesichts der Dimensionen letzterer2 für die Kulturpolitik annimmt, es sei unerheblich, ob der Bund 0,0031% seines Gesamtetats oder eine andere Summe als Kulturförderung aufbringt, der verkennt, daß die Verve der politischen Auseinandersetzung unabhängig ist von der Zahl der Nullen – die Debatte um hohe und höchste Beträge wird tendenziell eher weniger scharf geführt. Innerhalb der spezifischen Logik von Haushaltsverhandlungen war es insofern angemessen, für den Wiederaufbau des Berliner Schlosses 500.000.000,00 EUR zu veranschlagen und die Suche nach Inhalten hintanzustellen. Die Bauvorbereitung läuft, die Suche ist derzeit (Frühjahr 2010) keineswegs abgeschlossen. Zur kameralistischen Systematisierung von Haushaltsveranschlagungen hat die deutsche Verwaltung ein bundeseinheitlich angewandtes Vierfachverfahren entwickelt. Es besteht aus:
Matthias Theodor Vogt 1
In der Spandauer Zitadelle lagerten keine Ersparnisse des Reiches oder seiner Vorgänger, sondern die französischen Kontributionen von 1871.
2
Im aktuellen Bundeshaushaltsjahr 2010 stehen erstere nicht zur Verfügung, reichen zweitere nur für drei Viertel der Haushaltsansatzes hin (Nettokreditaufnahme 80 Mrd. EUR) und muß drittens in eben dieser Größenordnung (78 Mrd. EUR) die grundsätzliche Dysfunktionalität des Sozialversicherungssystems durch Zuschüsse des Staates zur defizitären Rentenkasse kompensiert werden. Das Ringen um eine gerechte Ordnung ist je zur Hälfte belastet durch Probleme früherer Generationen (40 Mrd. EUR oder ein Sechstel der aktuellen Bundessteuereinnahmen werden auf Zinsen für derzeit 1,0 Bio. EUR Schulden verwandt) bzw. wird zu Lasten der im Parlament nicht vertretenen künftigen Generationen ausgetragen.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
113
Matthias Theodor Vogt Professor für Kulturpolitik und Kulturgeschichte am Fachbereich Wirtschaftswissenschaften der Hochschule Zittau/ Görlitz (seit 1997). Er ist seit 2005 Studiendekan, seit 2006 Akkreditierungsbeauftragter. Der Gründungsdirektor des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen (2001). Er war bzw. ist Gastdozent an der Technischen Universität Dresden, an der Karls-Universität Prag und Universität Breslau. Er verfasste über 100 Bücher und Aufsätze als Autor, Herausgeber und Mitherausgeber. Er war federführend am Konzept und dessen Durchsetzung und Umsetzung des sächsischen Kulturraumgesetzes (SächsKRG) vom 20. Januar 1994. Er ist der Gründer des Studienganges „Kultur und Management“ in Görlitz unter der UNESCO Schirmherrschaft (1997), des trinationalen Wissenschaftskollegs „Collegium PONTES Görlitz-ZgorzelecZhořelec“ in Trägerschaft der Hochschule Zittau/ Görlitz, der Universität Breslau, und KarlsUniversität Prag sowie der Internationalen
Was ist Kulturpolitik?
Matthias Theodor Vogt Professor für Kulturpolitik und Kulturgeschichte am Fachbereich Wirtschaftswissenschaften der Hochschule Zittau/ Görlitz (seit 1997). Er ist seit 2005 Studiendekan, seit 2006 Akkreditierungsbeauftragter. Der Gründungsdirektor des Instituts für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen (2001). Er war bzw. ist Gastdozent an der Technischen Universität Dresden, an der Karls-Universität Prag und Universität Breslau. Er verfasste über 100 Bücher und Aufsätze als Autor, Herausgeber und Mitherausgeber. Er war federführend am Konzept und dessen Durchsetzung und Umsetzung des sächsischen Kulturraumgesetzes (SächsKRG) vom 20. Januar 1994. Er ist der Gründer des Studienganges „Kultur und Management“ in Görlitz unter der UNESCO Schirmherrschaft (1997), des trinationalen Wissenschaftskollegs „Collegium PONTES Görlitz-ZgorzelecZhořelec“ in Trägerschaft der Hochschule Zittau/ Görlitz, der Universität Breslau, und KarlsUniversität Prag sowie der Internationalen
Sommerschule der Künste Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (2003). Er widmet sich der Forschung auf den folgenden Gebieten: kulturelle Transformationsprozesse Europas, Kunstpolitik mit Schwerpunkt Strategematalogie, Grundsatzprobleme der kulturellen Infrastruktur.
MM Ressortplan (für die Kulturpolitik relevant zum Beispiel »EPº04« Einzelplan Bundeskanzleramt, »Kapitel 04 05« Beauftragter für Kultur und Medien BKM, was schon fast wie »Bundeskulturminister« klingt, es aber [noch?] nicht sein darf), MM Gruppierungsplan (»GPI«; Hauptgruppen 0-3 Einnahmearten, Hauptgruppen 4-9 Ausgabenarten; hier »Gruppe 684 – Zuschüsse für laufende Zwecke an soziale oder ähnliche Einrichtungen«), MM Stellenplan (Beamte, Angestelle, Arbeiter) und den hier interessierenden Funktionenplan (»FPI«). So erhielten im Jahr 2009 die Bayreuther Richard Wagner-Festspiele unter »Kapitel 0405« im »Titel 684 21, Funktionskennziffer 182« eine Zuweisung von 1.673 TEUR. Dies entspricht einem Finanzierungsanteil des Bundes von 30,77% der öff. Zuwendungen (5.437 TEUR) bzw. 12,54% des Budgets (13.341 TEUR). Der Funktionenplan läuft über Funktionskennziffern. Bei jeder Haushaltsstelle folgen der Angabe der Stelle selbst ein Bindestrich und drei Ziffern für Hauptfunktion, Oberfunktion und die eigentliche Funktion. Gemäß dem System der Funktionskennziffern ist Kulturpolitik eine Untergliederung der Hauptfunktion 1 (Bildungswesen, Wissenschaft, Forschung, kulturelle Angelegenheiten) mit den beiden Oberfunktionen 18 (Kultureinrichtungen einschließlich Kulturverwaltung) und 19 (Kulturförderung, Denkmalschutz, Kirchliche Angelegenheiten). Der Unterschied der beiden Oberfunktionen liegt darin, ob die betreffende Körperschaft im Empfänger ein Eigenes oder ein Aliud sieht, die dementsprechend durch ihre Verwaltung mit Vertrauen oder mit Mißtrauen zu behandeln ist. Oberfunktion 18 beinhaltet Zuweisungen, mit der die Körperschaft eine eigene Einrichtung oder eine anteilig mitgetragene Einrichtung wie die Bayreuther Festspiele finanziert; die Oberfunktion 19 Zuwendungen, mit denen die Körperschaft Einrichtungen oder Vorhaben Dritter finanziert und die streng reglementiert sind (hier die Berliner Vorgaben). Zuwendungen sind Leistungen, die grundsätzlich im Ermessen der Verwaltung stehen (freiwillige Leistungen), an Stellen außerhalb der Verwaltung Berlins zur Erfüllung bestimmter Zwecke, also grundsätzlich zweckgebundene Geldleistungen öffentlichrechtlicher Art, die Berlin zur Erfüllung öffentlicher Aufgaben erbringt, ohne
dass der Empfänger vor der Bewilligung einen dem Grunde und der Höhe nach bestimmten Rechtsanspruch hat und ohne dass ein unmittelbarer Leistungsaustausch stattfindet. Sie werden dem Empfänger zur Erfüllung seiner Aufgaben gewährt, an deren Förderung (Zweckerfüllung) Berlin ein erhebliches Interesse hat, das ohne die Zuwendung nicht oder nicht im notwendigen Umfang befriedigt werden kann. 3 Bei einer strengen Interpretation der Vorgaben für öffentliche Haushalte müßte die Frage einer volkswirtschaftlich optimalen Allokation jenseits von Träger- und Betriebsinteressen intensiv geprüft werden; weder findet dies nicht statt noch sind hinreichende Parameter für eine solche Bewertung entwickelt. Aus der »Anlage: Übersicht zum Funktionenplan« zu den »Richtlinien für die Aufstellung der Voranschläge zum Entwurf des Haushaltsplans«, hier ebenfalls des Landes Berlin, läßt sich erkennen, welcher Art von Kultur die Politik Interesse entgegenbringt. Beispielsweise sind Artistik und zirzenische Künste – anders als im Nationalsozialismus, den sozialistischen Staaten, der Volksrepublik China oder in Frankreich – verwaltungstechnisch nicht Gegenstand westdeutscher Kulturpolitik. Weit gravierender ist, daß das Rubrum »Sprachpolitik« fehlt und damit eines der zentralen Kulturpolitik-Felder in Europa, ob nun als Kuriosum wie die Geheimsprache im portugiesischen Minde oder als Element der Nationalwerdung wie in Finnland oder als überstaatlich eingetragenes »immaterielles Kulturerbe der Menschheit« wie die Pfeifsprache Silbo auf Gomera. Aufgrund der neueren Entwicklung des Völkerrechts ist die Sprachpolitik gegenüber nationalen Minderheiten auch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland zu einem gewichtigen Politikfeld geworden.4 1 Bildungswesen, Wissenschaft, Forschung, kulturelle Angelegenheiten 18 Kultureinrichtungen (einschließlich Kulturverwaltung) Einrichtung, Unterhaltung und Betrieb von eigenen Einrichtungen, Förderung von Einrichtungen Dritter (nicht enthalten: Förderung einzelner Theateraufführungen, Musikfestivals, Lesungen usw., vgl. Funktionen 191 bis 193; Kultureinrichtungen im Ausland, vgl. Funktion 024) 181 Theater Theater, Opernhäuser
[Berliner] Richtlinien für die Aufstellung der Voranschläge zum Entwurf des Haushaltsplans, (Haushaltstechnische Richtlinien HtR) vom 24. Oktober 2006 (DBl. I S. 37).
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
[Berliner] Richtlinien für die Aufstellung der Voranschläge zum Entwurf des Haushaltsplans, (Haushaltstechnische Richtlinien HtR) vom 24. Oktober 2006 (DBl. I S. 37).
3
114 3
1 Bildungswesen, Wissenschaft, Forschung, kulturelle Angelegenheiten 18 Kultureinrichtungen (einschließlich Kulturverwaltung) Einrichtung, Unterhaltung und Betrieb von eigenen Einrichtungen, Förderung von Einrichtungen Dritter (nicht enthalten: Förderung einzelner Theateraufführungen, Musikfestivals, Lesungen usw., vgl. Funktionen 191 bis 193; Kultureinrichtungen im Ausland, vgl. Funktion 024) 181 Theater Theater, Opernhäuser dass der Empfänger vor der Bewilligung einen dem Grunde und der Höhe nach bestimmten Rechtsanspruch hat und ohne dass ein unmittelbarer Leistungsaustausch stattfindet. Sie werden dem Empfänger zur Erfüllung seiner Aufgaben gewährt, an deren Förderung (Zweckerfüllung) Berlin ein erhebliches Interesse hat, das ohne die Zuwendung nicht oder nicht im notwendigen Umfang befriedigt werden kann. 3 Bei einer strengen Interpretation der Vorgaben für öffentliche Haushalte müßte die Frage einer volkswirtschaftlich optimalen Allokation jenseits von Träger- und Betriebsinteressen intensiv geprüft werden; weder findet dies nicht statt noch sind hinreichende Parameter für eine solche Bewertung entwickelt. Aus der »Anlage: Übersicht zum Funktionenplan« zu den »Richtlinien für die Aufstellung der Voranschläge zum Entwurf des Haushaltsplans«, hier ebenfalls des Landes Berlin, läßt sich erkennen, welcher Art von Kultur die Politik Interesse entgegenbringt. Beispielsweise sind Artistik und zirzenische Künste – anders als im Nationalsozialismus, den sozialistischen Staaten, der Volksrepublik China oder in Frankreich – verwaltungstechnisch nicht Gegenstand westdeutscher Kulturpolitik. Weit gravierender ist, daß das Rubrum »Sprachpolitik« fehlt und damit eines der zentralen Kulturpolitik-Felder in Europa, ob nun als Kuriosum wie die Geheimsprache im portugiesischen Minde oder als Element der Nationalwerdung wie in Finnland oder als überstaatlich eingetragenes »immaterielles Kulturerbe der Menschheit« wie die Pfeifsprache Silbo auf Gomera. Aufgrund der neueren Entwicklung des Völkerrechts ist die Sprachpolitik gegenüber nationalen Minderheiten auch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland zu einem gewichtigen Politikfeld geworden.4
114
Sommerschule der Künste Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (2003). Er widmet sich der Forschung auf den folgenden Gebieten: kulturelle Transformationsprozesse Europas, Kunstpolitik mit Schwerpunkt Strategematalogie, Grundsatzprobleme der kulturellen Infrastruktur.
Ressortplan (für die Kulturpolitik relevant zum Beispiel »EPº04« Einzelplan Bundeskanzleramt, »Kapitel 04 05« Beauftragter für Kultur und Medien BKM, was schon fast wie »Bundeskulturminister« klingt, es aber [noch?] nicht sein darf), MM Gruppierungsplan (»GPI«; Hauptgruppen 0-3 Einnahmearten, Hauptgruppen 4-9 Ausgabenarten; hier »Gruppe 684 – Zuschüsse für laufende Zwecke an soziale oder ähnliche Einrichtungen«), MM Stellenplan (Beamte, Angestelle, Arbeiter) und den hier interessierenden Funktionenplan (»FPI«). So erhielten im Jahr 2009 die Bayreuther Richard Wagner-Festspiele unter »Kapitel 0405« im »Titel 684 21, Funktionskennziffer 182« eine Zuweisung von 1.673 TEUR. Dies entspricht einem Finanzierungsanteil des Bundes von 30,77% der öff. Zuwendungen (5.437 TEUR) bzw. 12,54% des Budgets (13.341 TEUR). Der Funktionenplan läuft über Funktionskennziffern. Bei jeder Haushaltsstelle folgen der Angabe der Stelle selbst ein Bindestrich und drei Ziffern für Hauptfunktion, Oberfunktion und die eigentliche Funktion. Gemäß dem System der Funktionskennziffern ist Kulturpolitik eine Untergliederung der Hauptfunktion 1 (Bildungswesen, Wissenschaft, Forschung, kulturelle Angelegenheiten) mit den beiden Oberfunktionen 18 (Kultureinrichtungen einschließlich Kulturverwaltung) und 19 (Kulturförderung, Denkmalschutz, Kirchliche Angelegenheiten). Der Unterschied der beiden Oberfunktionen liegt darin, ob die betreffende Körperschaft im Empfänger ein Eigenes oder ein Aliud sieht, die dementsprechend durch ihre Verwaltung mit Vertrauen oder mit Mißtrauen zu behandeln ist. Oberfunktion 18 beinhaltet Zuweisungen, mit der die Körperschaft eine eigene Einrichtung oder eine anteilig mitgetragene Einrichtung wie die Bayreuther Festspiele finanziert; die Oberfunktion 19 Zuwendungen, mit denen die Körperschaft Einrichtungen oder Vorhaben Dritter finanziert und die streng reglementiert sind (hier die Berliner Vorgaben). Zuwendungen sind Leistungen, die grundsätzlich im Ermessen der Verwaltung stehen (freiwillige Leistungen), an Stellen außerhalb der Verwaltung Berlins zur Erfüllung bestimmter Zwecke, also grundsätzlich zweckgebundene Geldleistungen öffentlichrechtlicher Art, die Berlin zur Erfüllung öffentlicher Aufgaben erbringt, ohne MM
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
115
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
182 Einrichtungen der Musikpflege Berufsorchester (soweit nicht Teil eines Theaters), Chöre, Musikhallen 183 Museen, Sammlungen, Ausstellungen Museen, Sammlungen, permanente Kunstausstellungen, Heimat-, Literatur- und Musikarchive 184 Zoologische und botanische Gärten Tierparks, Aquarien, Botanische Gärten (nicht enthalten: Landschaftsparks, vgl. Funktion 321) 185 Musikschulen Jugendmusikschulen (nicht enthalten: berufsbildende Schulen, vgl. Funktion 127) 186 Nichtwissenschaftliche Bibliotheken Büchereien, Lesehallen, Jugend- und Wanderbüchereien, Einrichtungen des Bibliothekswesens, Musikbibliotheken (nicht enthalten: wissenschaftliche Bibliotheken, wissenschaftliche Archive, vgl. Funktion 162; Medienstellen der Schulen, vgl. Funktion 129) 187 Sonstige Kultureinrichtungen Kommunale Kinos, Kulturzentren, Sternwarten (soweit nicht Forschungseinrichtungen), Einrichtungen des Filmwesens, Einrichtungen der Heimatpflege, institutionelle Förderung von Zirkussen, institutionelle Förderung von Gesellschaften zur Pflege und Verbreitung des Werkes von Literaten (nicht enthalten: Dorf- und Gemeinschaftshäuser sowie Stadt- und Mehrzweckhallen, vgl. Funktion 439; Sporthallen, vgl. Funktion 323; Sammlungen und Archive, vgl. Funktionen 162 bis 183; Kunstschulen u. ä. kulturpädagogische Einrichtungen, vgl. Funktion 153; institutionelle Förderung von Gesellschaften, deren primäre Aufgabe es ist, spezielle Kultureinrichtungen wie Theater, Museen oder Archive zu betreiben, vgl. Funktionen 181 bis 186) 188 Verwaltung für kulturelle Angelegenheiten Landesämter für Denkmalpflege, Verwaltung staatlicher Schlösser und Gärten, (nicht enthalten: Einrichtungen des Bibliothekswesens, vgl. Funktion 186; Naturschutzverwaltung, vgl. Funktion 331;Landesdenkmalämter und Verwaltungsstellen staatlicher Schlösser, wenn der Schwerpunkt bei der Unterhaltung und Bewirtschaftung der Schlösser und Denkmale liegt, vgl. Funktion 195) 19 Kulturförderung, Denkmalschutz, Kirchliche Angelegenheiten (nicht enthalten: kulturelle Angelegenheiten im Ausland, vgl. Funktion 024)
4
191 Einzelmaßnahmen im Bereich Theater und Musikpflege Förderung von Theaterfestivals, Musikfestspielen, Rockkonzerten, Kulturpreise für Theater und Musik, Durchführung gesondert veranschlagter Einzelmaßnahmen im Bereich Theater und Musikpflege 192 Einzelmaßnahmen im Bereich Museen und Ausstellungen Förderung einzelner Ausstellungen, Förderung der bildenden Künste, Arbeitsstipendien und Kunstpreise für bildende Künstler, Durchführung gesondert veranschlagter Einzelausstellungen 193 Andere Einzelmaßnahmen der Kulturpflege Filmförderung (Kino- und Fernsehfilm), Förderung von Filmfestivals, Heimat-, Brauchtumsfesten und der Literatur, Literatur- und allgemeine Kunstpreise, Arbeitsstipendien für Schriftsteller, Durchführung gesondert veranschlagter Filmfestivals, Heimat- und Brauchtumsfeste 195 Denkmalschutz und –pflege Einrichtungen: Schlösser und Burgen mit künstlerischer und historischer Bedeutung, Denkmale, Ausgrabungsstätten, Mahnmale und Gedenkstätten, Zuschüsse für die Erhaltung, die Restaurierung und den Wiederaufbau von Bau-, Boden- und Kunstdenkmalen (nicht enthalten: Schlösser, die als Gebäude für andere Einrichtungen dienen [z. B. Forschungsinstitut, vgl. Funktionen 162 bis 165;Weiterbildungsstätte, vgl. Oberfunktion 15]) 199 Kirchliche Angelegenheiten Zuschüsse an Religionsgemeinschaften, Förderung von Einzelmaßnahmen für religiöse Zwecke (nichtenthalten: Zuschüsse an Religionsgemeinschaften für Errichtung u. Unterhaltung v. Schulen, vgl. Funktionen 112 bis 127; für Sozialeinrichtungen, vgl. Oberfunktionen 23/24; für Gesundheitseinrichtungen, vgl. Oberfunktion 31)
2. Bund, Länder, Gemeinden, Gemeindeverbände, Kirchen
U
nsere erste pragmatische Annäherung an die Frage „Was ist Kulturpolitik?“ ging von der Fiktion einer Allzuständigkeit des Staates aus. Schon der Staat ist jedoch nur ein Teilsystem der öffentlichen Hand und wäre seinerseits zu differenzieren in Regionen und Gesamtstaat. Diese nennen wir in der Schweiz Kantone und Bund (Art. 5 Abs. 4 BV1999
Vgl. zu aktuellen Forschungserkenntnissen Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (Hrsg.): Der Fremde als Bereicherung. Schriften des Collegium PONTES Band V. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in Druck]. Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (Hrsg.): Minderheiten als Mehrwert. Schriften des Collegium PONTES Band VI. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in Druck].
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
115
4
Vgl. zu aktuellen Forschungserkenntnissen Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (Hrsg.): Der Fremde als Bereicherung. Schriften des Collegium PONTES Band V. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in Druck]. Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (Hrsg.): Minderheiten als Mehrwert. Schriften des Collegium PONTES Band VI. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [in Druck].
19 Kulturförderung, Denkmalschutz, Kirchliche Angelegenheiten (nicht enthalten: kulturelle Angelegenheiten im Ausland, vgl. Funktion 024) 182 Einrichtungen der Musikpflege Berufsorchester (soweit nicht Teil eines Theaters), Chöre, Musikhallen 183 Museen, Sammlungen, Ausstellungen Museen, Sammlungen, permanente Kunstausstellungen, Heimat-, Literatur- und Musikarchive 184 Zoologische und botanische Gärten Tierparks, Aquarien, Botanische Gärten (nicht enthalten: Landschaftsparks, vgl. Funktion 321) 185 Musikschulen Jugendmusikschulen (nicht enthalten: berufsbildende Schulen, vgl. Funktion 127) 186 Nichtwissenschaftliche Bibliotheken Büchereien, Lesehallen, Jugend- und Wanderbüchereien, Einrichtungen des Bibliothekswesens, Musikbibliotheken (nicht enthalten: wissenschaftliche Bibliotheken, wissenschaftliche Archive, vgl. Funktion 162; Medienstellen der Schulen, vgl. Funktion 129) 187 Sonstige Kultureinrichtungen Kommunale Kinos, Kulturzentren, Sternwarten (soweit nicht Forschungseinrichtungen), Einrichtungen des Filmwesens, Einrichtungen der Heimatpflege, institutionelle Förderung von Zirkussen, institutionelle Förderung von Gesellschaften zur Pflege und Verbreitung des Werkes von Literaten (nicht enthalten: Dorf- und Gemeinschaftshäuser sowie Stadt- und Mehrzweckhallen, vgl. Funktion 439; Sporthallen, vgl. Funktion 323; Sammlungen und Archive, vgl. Funktionen 162 bis 183; Kunstschulen u. ä. kulturpädagogische Einrichtungen, vgl. Funktion 153; institutionelle Förderung von Gesellschaften, deren primäre Aufgabe es ist, spezielle Kultureinrichtungen wie Theater, Museen oder Archive zu betreiben, vgl. Funktionen 181 bis 186) 188 Verwaltung für kulturelle Angelegenheiten Landesämter für Denkmalpflege, Verwaltung staatlicher Schlösser und Gärten, (nicht enthalten: Einrichtungen des Bibliothekswesens, vgl. Funktion 186; Naturschutzverwaltung, vgl. Funktion 331;Landesdenkmalämter und Verwaltungsstellen staatlicher Schlösser, wenn der Schwerpunkt bei der Unterhaltung und Bewirtschaftung der Schlösser und Denkmale liegt, vgl. Funktion 195)
nsere erste pragmatische Annäherung an die Frage „Was ist Kulturpolitik?“ ging von der Fiktion einer Allzuständigkeit des Staates aus. Schon der Staat ist jedoch nur ein Teilsystem der öffentlichen Hand und wäre seinerseits zu differenzieren in Regionen und Gesamtstaat. Diese nennen wir in der Schweiz Kantone und Bund (Art. 5 Abs. 4 BV1999
U
2. Bund, Länder, Gemeinden, Gemeindeverbände, Kirchen 191 Einzelmaßnahmen im Bereich Theater und Musikpflege Förderung von Theaterfestivals, Musikfestspielen, Rockkonzerten, Kulturpreise für Theater und Musik, Durchführung gesondert veranschlagter Einzelmaßnahmen im Bereich Theater und Musikpflege 192 Einzelmaßnahmen im Bereich Museen und Ausstellungen Förderung einzelner Ausstellungen, Förderung der bildenden Künste, Arbeitsstipendien und Kunstpreise für bildende Künstler, Durchführung gesondert veranschlagter Einzelausstellungen 193 Andere Einzelmaßnahmen der Kulturpflege Filmförderung (Kino- und Fernsehfilm), Förderung von Filmfestivals, Heimat-, Brauchtumsfesten und der Literatur, Literatur- und allgemeine Kunstpreise, Arbeitsstipendien für Schriftsteller, Durchführung gesondert veranschlagter Filmfestivals, Heimat- und Brauchtumsfeste 195 Denkmalschutz und –pflege Einrichtungen: Schlösser und Burgen mit künstlerischer und historischer Bedeutung, Denkmale, Ausgrabungsstätten, Mahnmale und Gedenkstätten, Zuschüsse für die Erhaltung, die Restaurierung und den Wiederaufbau von Bau-, Boden- und Kunstdenkmalen (nicht enthalten: Schlösser, die als Gebäude für andere Einrichtungen dienen [z. B. Forschungsinstitut, vgl. Funktionen 162 bis 165;Weiterbildungsstätte, vgl. Oberfunktion 15]) 199 Kirchliche Angelegenheiten Zuschüsse an Religionsgemeinschaften, Förderung von Einzelmaßnahmen für religiöse Zwecke (nichtenthalten: Zuschüsse an Religionsgemeinschaften für Errichtung u. Unterhaltung v. Schulen, vgl. Funktionen 112 bis 127; für Sozialeinrichtungen, vgl. Oberfunktionen 23/24; für Gesundheitseinrichtungen, vgl. Oberfunktion 31)
116
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
116
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
bewahren können. Die Kommunen sind gegliedert in Gemeinden und Gemeindeverbände (Art. 28 Abs. 2 S. 2GG; insbesondere die Landkreise als Gemeindeverbände mit unspezifischem Auftrag sowie spezifische Zweckverbände für den öffentlichen Personennahverkehr, den Müll, die Wasserversorgung etc., in Sachsen auch die Kulturräume7 als kreislich getragene Kulturfinanzierungspflichtzweckverbände). Im Bereich der deutschen Kulturpolitik verteilen sich die Lasten zwischen diesen drei Ebenen mit: MM rund 1,0 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr auf die Bundesebene MM rund 3,5 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr auf die Länderebene MM rund 3,5 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr auf die Kommunalebene, hierunter insbesondere die Großstädte ab 100.000 Einwohnern. Zusammen wenden die Gebietskörperschaften rund 8 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr für Kulturpolitikauf. Öffentlich aber sind neben diesen vier Typen von Gebietskörperschaften auch eine Reihe von Personalkörperschaften. Im Bereich Kulturpolitik sind dies insbesondere die katholische und evangelische Kirche mit vermutlich rund 4 Mrd. EUR rund Jahr für kulturspezifische Aufgaben.8 Diese kirchlichen Aufwendungen werden vom Kulturfinanzbericht des statischen Bundesamtes Wiesbaden nicht erfaßt – und müssenden dort genannten 8 Mrd. EUR folglich hinzugerechnet werden, so daß die Summe der von öffentlichen Körperschaften (territorial und personal) geleisteten Aufwendungen sich auf rund 12 Mrd. EUR rund Jahr beläuft.
Weltkonferenz über Kulturpolitik. Schlussbericht der von der UNESCO vom 26. Juli bis 6. August 1982 in Mexiko-Stadt veranstalteten internationalen Konferenz. Hrsg. von der Deutschen UNESCO-Kommission. München 1983 (UNESCO-Konferenzberichte, Nr. 5). S. 121.
3. Die internationale Staatengemeinschaft auf dem Holzweg?
9
D
Vogt, Matthias Theodor (2005): Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland. Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen im Auftrag der Enquete-Kommission „Kultur in Deutschland“ des Deutschen Bundestages. Deutscher Bundestag, K.-Drs. 15/414b.
ie internationale Staatengemeinschaft hat einen Kulturbegriff entwickelt, der keinen politisch fungiblen Kern enthält und damit diffus
8
et passim), in Österreich Bundesländer und Bund (Art. 1 Abs. 1 und Art. 5 Abs. 1B-VG 1929 et passim), in Deutschland Länder und Bund (Art. 10 GG 1949 et passim; »Bundesländer« gibt es in Deutschland nicht). »Federal« meint im US-amerikanischen Sprachgebrauch die eigentliche Bundesebene (vgl. etwa das FBI); »föderal« dagegen im europäischen, nicht ganz logischen, Sprachgebrauch die Regionaloder Länderebene. Die Frage des Supremats zwischen diesen beiden Staatsebenen ist seit dem Nürnberger Gesetzbuch von 1356, der später so genannten »Goldenen Bulle«, offen, als Karl IV. seine Pläne zur Regelung der Zentralmacht nicht durchbringen konnte. Im Gegenteilregelt Art. 5 Abs. 2 desselben, daß Rechtsverstöße des »Königs der Römer« vor dem Pfalzgraf bei Rhein zu verhandeln seien, auch jener also Objekt irdischer Gerechtigkeit werden kann. Karls Klage im Vorwort liest sich wie ein Motto der Föderalismuskommission: »Omne regnum in se ipsum divisum desolabitur; namprincipes eius facti sunt socii furum5 / Jedes Reich, das in sich selbst zerspalten ist, wird veröden, denn seine Fürsten sind Gefährten der Diebe geworden.6« In der heutigen Staatspraxis ist der Bundespräsident (Einzelplan 01) Vertreter des Staatsganzen, für das Protokoll und den Haushaltsaufbau geht der Bundestag (EP 02) bzw. sein Präsident dem Bundesrat (EP 03) bzw. dessen Präsidenten vor. Kulturpolitisch dagegen liegt nicht nur haushaltsmäßig das Supremat bei den Ländern; eine Ermächtigung des Bundes zu einschlägigem Handeln sieht das Grundgesetz scheinbar (siehe unten) nur für die Außenkulturpolitik vor. Unterhalb dieser staatlichen Doppelebene haben sich die Kommunen – die »communitates civitatum« der Goldenen Bulle – seit dem Hochmittelalter und ausgehend von der Lombardei das Recht, »alle Angelegenheiten der örtlichen Gemeinschaft im Rahmen der Gesetze in eigener Verantwortung zu regeln« (Art. 28Abs. 2 GG; analog alle Länderverfassungen), erkämpfen und
Vgl. Vogt. Matthias Theodor (1997): Kulturräume in Sachsen, eine Dokumentation. Mit einer photographischen Annäherung von Bertram Kober und dem Rechtsgutachten von Fritz Ossenbühl. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band I, Universitätsverlag Leipzig, 1. Aufl. 1994, 2. erw. Aufl. 1996, 3. Aufl. 1997.
Zeumer, Karl: Quellen und Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Deutschen Reiches in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Band II, Heft 2. Die Goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV. Zweiter Teil: Text der Goldenen Bulle und Urkunden zu ihrer Geschichte und Erläuterung. Weimar 1908.
7
5
Karl <Römisch-Deutsches Reich, Kaiser, IV.>: Die Goldene Bulle: d. Reichsgesetz Kaiser Karls IV. vom Jahre 1356 [Akad. d. Wiss. d. DDR, Zentralinst. für Geschichte]. Dt. Übers. von Wolfgang D. Fritz. Geschichtl. Würdigung von Eckhard Müller-Mertens, Weimar: Böhlau 1978, S. 39-88. Auch <http://pom.bbaw.de/mgh/index.php>.
6
6
Karl <Römisch-Deutsches Reich, Kaiser, IV.>: Die Goldene Bulle: d. Reichsgesetz Kaiser Karls IV. vom Jahre 1356 [Akad. d. Wiss. d. DDR, Zentralinst. für Geschichte]. Dt. Übers. von Wolfgang D. Fritz. Geschichtl. Würdigung von Eckhard Müller-Mertens, Weimar: Böhlau 1978, S. 39-88. Auch <http://pom.bbaw.de/mgh/index.php>.
Zeumer, Karl: Quellen und Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Deutschen Reiches in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Band II, Heft 2. Die Goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV. Zweiter Teil: Text der Goldenen Bulle und Urkunden zu ihrer Geschichte und Erläuterung. Weimar 1908.
7
5
Vgl. Vogt. Matthias Theodor (1997): Kulturräume in Sachsen, eine Dokumentation. Mit einer photographischen Annäherung von Bertram Kober und dem Rechtsgutachten von Fritz Ossenbühl. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band I, Universitätsverlag Leipzig, 1. Aufl. 1994, 2. erw. Aufl. 1996, 3. Aufl. 1997.
ie internationale Staatengemeinschaft hat einen Kulturbegriff entwickelt, der keinen politisch fungiblen Kern enthält und damit diffus
8
D
Vogt, Matthias Theodor (2005): Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland. Institut für kulturelle Infrastruktur Sachsen im Auftrag der Enquete-Kommission „Kultur in Deutschland“ des Deutschen Bundestages. Deutscher Bundestag, K.-Drs. 15/414b.
3. Die internationale Staatengemeinschaft auf dem Holzweg?
Weltkonferenz über Kulturpolitik. Schlussbericht der von der UNESCO vom 26. Juli bis 6. August 1982 in Mexiko-Stadt veranstalteten internationalen Konferenz. Hrsg. von der Deutschen UNESCO-Kommission. München 1983 (UNESCO-Konferenzberichte, Nr. 5). S. 121.
bewahren können. Die Kommunen sind gegliedert in Gemeinden und Gemeindeverbände (Art. 28 Abs. 2 S. 2GG; insbesondere die Landkreise als Gemeindeverbände mit unspezifischem Auftrag sowie spezifische Zweckverbände für den öffentlichen Personennahverkehr, den Müll, die Wasserversorgung etc., in Sachsen auch die Kulturräume7 als kreislich getragene Kulturfinanzierungspflichtzweckverbände). Im Bereich der deutschen Kulturpolitik verteilen sich die Lasten zwischen diesen drei Ebenen mit: MM rund 1,0 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr auf die Bundesebene MM rund 3,5 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr auf die Länderebene MM rund 3,5 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr auf die Kommunalebene, hierunter insbesondere die Großstädte ab 100.000 Einwohnern. Zusammen wenden die Gebietskörperschaften rund 8 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr für Kulturpolitikauf. Öffentlich aber sind neben diesen vier Typen von Gebietskörperschaften auch eine Reihe von Personalkörperschaften. Im Bereich Kulturpolitik sind dies insbesondere die katholische und evangelische Kirche mit vermutlich rund 4 Mrd. EUR rund Jahr für kulturspezifische Aufgaben.8 Diese kirchlichen Aufwendungen werden vom Kulturfinanzbericht des statischen Bundesamtes Wiesbaden nicht erfaßt – und müssenden dort genannten 8 Mrd. EUR folglich hinzugerechnet werden, so daß die Summe der von öffentlichen Körperschaften (territorial und personal) geleisteten Aufwendungen sich auf rund 12 Mrd. EUR rund Jahr beläuft.
9
et passim), in Österreich Bundesländer und Bund (Art. 1 Abs. 1 und Art. 5 Abs. 1B-VG 1929 et passim), in Deutschland Länder und Bund (Art. 10 GG 1949 et passim; »Bundesländer« gibt es in Deutschland nicht). »Federal« meint im US-amerikanischen Sprachgebrauch die eigentliche Bundesebene (vgl. etwa das FBI); »föderal« dagegen im europäischen, nicht ganz logischen, Sprachgebrauch die Regionaloder Länderebene. Die Frage des Supremats zwischen diesen beiden Staatsebenen ist seit dem Nürnberger Gesetzbuch von 1356, der später so genannten »Goldenen Bulle«, offen, als Karl IV. seine Pläne zur Regelung der Zentralmacht nicht durchbringen konnte. Im Gegenteilregelt Art. 5 Abs. 2 desselben, daß Rechtsverstöße des »Königs der Römer« vor dem Pfalzgraf bei Rhein zu verhandeln seien, auch jener also Objekt irdischer Gerechtigkeit werden kann. Karls Klage im Vorwort liest sich wie ein Motto der Föderalismuskommission: »Omne regnum in se ipsum divisum desolabitur; namprincipes eius facti sunt socii furum5 / Jedes Reich, das in sich selbst zerspalten ist, wird veröden, denn seine Fürsten sind Gefährten der Diebe geworden.6« In der heutigen Staatspraxis ist der Bundespräsident (Einzelplan 01) Vertreter des Staatsganzen, für das Protokoll und den Haushaltsaufbau geht der Bundestag (EP 02) bzw. sein Präsident dem Bundesrat (EP 03) bzw. dessen Präsidenten vor. Kulturpolitisch dagegen liegt nicht nur haushaltsmäßig das Supremat bei den Ländern; eine Ermächtigung des Bundes zu einschlägigem Handeln sieht das Grundgesetz scheinbar (siehe unten) nur für die Außenkulturpolitik vor. Unterhalb dieser staatlichen Doppelebene haben sich die Kommunen – die »communitates civitatum« der Goldenen Bulle – seit dem Hochmittelalter und ausgehend von der Lombardei das Recht, »alle Angelegenheiten der örtlichen Gemeinschaft im Rahmen der Gesetze in eigener Verantwortung zu regeln« (Art. 28Abs. 2 GG; analog alle Länderverfassungen), erkämpfen und
117
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
bleibt. Die UNESCO-Weltkonferenz über Kulturpolitik definierte 1982 in Mexiko-Stadt: Die Kultur kann in ihrem weitesten Sinne als die Gesamtheit der einzigartigen geistigen, materiellen, intellektuellen und emotionalen Aspekte angesehen werden, die eine Gesellschaft oder eine soziale Gruppe kennzeichnen. Dies schließt nicht nur Kunst und Literatur ein, sondern auch Lebensformen, die Grundrechte des Menschen, Wertsysteme, Traditionen und Glaubensrichtungen.9 Es ist einigermaßen absurd, daß eine mehrheitlich aus der sog. Dritten Welt beschickte Konferenz auf den Ethnographen Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) zurückgreift. Dieser stellte 1871 eine Ordnung der Kulturen in aufsteigender Reihenfolge mit Richtungszentrum Europa auf: Thus, on the definite basis of compared facts, ethnographers are able to set up at least a rough scale of civilization [sic]. Few would dispute that the following races are arranged rightly in order of culture – Australian, Tahitian, Aztec, Chinese, Italian.10 Im gleichen Band Primitive Culture heißt es eingangs: Culture or civilisation, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that whole complex which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.11 In der Zitierung durch die UNESCO-Definition fehlt Tylors Bezug auf die Ethnographie sowie Tylors Gleichsetzung des Begriffspaares Kultur und Zivilisation. Dieses sollte in den westeuropäischen Sprachen ungleiche und konfliktfördernde Karrieren machen.12 »Ist das Ziel erreicht, […] so erstarrt die Kultur plötzlich, sie […] wird zur Zivilisation«, heißt es bei Spengler, der meinte, damit sei das Abendland untergegangen.13 In
einer außerordentlich komplexen, und in den einzelnen europäischen Sprachen je andersverlaufenden Entwicklung beider Begriffe – Kroeber und Kluckhohn stellten 1952 einen Katalog mit gut 200 Kulturdefinitionen zusammen14 – wurden im 19. Jahrhundert »Kultur und Zivilisation zum Maßstab der europäischen Führungsstellung in der Welt«.15 Eine der originellsten Kulturdefinitionen findet sich bei Bismarck: »Erst durch dieses Beförderungsmittel [sc. die Eisenbahn] ist die ganze moderne Entwicklung bewirkt worden, und so sind die Eisenbahnen, ihre Leiter und Beamten, die eigentlichen Träger der Kultur.«16 Historisch kann mit Jörg Fisch17 festgehalten werden, daß der Mensch» sein eigenes Wirken, seine eigenen Leistungen und deren Resultate […], in Abhebung von dem, was von Natur aus vorhanden ist«, mit dem Begriffspaar ›Kultur‹ und ›Zivilisation‹ »im weitesten Sinne der Gegenstandsbereiche« bezeichnet. »So verstanden gehört die Sache selber also zum Menschsein überhaupt.«18 (Schön wäre es, wenn wir auch der folgenden Aussage unseren Glauben schenken könnten: »Ebenso kann ein Bewußtsein von ihr geradezu als Teil des menschlichen Bewußtseins unterstellt werden«19). Wenn alles Kultur ist, ist Kulturpolitik nicht mehr faßbar. Die »United Nations Educational, Scientifical and Cultural Organization« sollte zunächst (sprachlich angemessener: als juristische Person kann sie selbst nicht kulturell sein) »United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction« heißen, wurde dann aber auf amerikanischen Benennungsvorschlag und im Interesse der science im November 1945 als UNESCO gegründet. Ihr Vorläufer war einerseits das Genfer »Bureau international d‘education« (Direktor 1929-1967 Jean Piaget), vor allem aber die dem Völkerbund zugeordnete »Commission
10
Tylor, Edward B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom. London 1871, S. 470.
11
Tylor: Primitive Culture. S. 1.
12
Fisch, Jörg: Lemma Zivilisation, Kultur. In: Brunner, Otto u.a.: Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politischsozialen Sprache in Deutschland. Herausgegeben im Auftr. d. Arbeitskreises für Moderne Sozialgeschichte. Suttgart. Bd. 7, S. 679-774.
13
Spengler, Oswald: Der Untergang des Abendlandes. Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte. Bd. 1, 1918. Bd. 2, 1922.
14
Kroeber, Alfred; Kluckhohn, Clyde: Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47. 1952.- Verschiedene weitere Aufstellungen bis in die Gegenwart.
15 16
Fisch 1978, S. 744. Bismarck, Otto von: Ansprache an die Beamten der Altonaer und Hamburger Eisenbahnen (1.4.1890). FA Bd. 13 (1930). S. 407.
17
Fisch 1978. S. 679.
18
Fisch 1978, ibid.
19
Fisch 1978, ibid.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
117
Fisch 1978, ibid.
19
Fisch 1978, ibid.
18
Fisch 1978. S. 679.
17
16 Bismarck, Otto von: Ansprache an die Beamten der Altonaer und Hamburger Eisenbahnen (1.4.1890). FA Bd. 13 (1930). S. 407.
Fisch 1978, S. 744.
15
Kroeber, Alfred; Kluckhohn, Clyde: Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47. 1952.- Verschiedene weitere Aufstellungen bis in die Gegenwart.
14
Spengler, Oswald: Der Untergang des Abendlandes. Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte. Bd. 1, 1918. Bd. 2, 1922.
13
Fisch, Jörg: Lemma Zivilisation, Kultur. In: Brunner, Otto u.a.: Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politischsozialen Sprache in Deutschland. Herausgegeben im Auftr. d. Arbeitskreises für Moderne Sozialgeschichte. Suttgart. Bd. 7, S. 679-774.
12
Tylor: Primitive Culture. S. 1.
11
Tylor, Edward B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom. London 1871, S. 470.
10
bleibt. Die UNESCO-Weltkonferenz über Kulturpolitik definierte 1982 in Mexiko-Stadt: Die Kultur kann in ihrem weitesten Sinne als die Gesamtheit der einzigartigen geistigen, materiellen, intellektuellen und emotionalen Aspekte angesehen werden, die eine Gesellschaft oder eine soziale Gruppe kennzeichnen. Dies schließt nicht nur Kunst und Literatur ein, sondern auch Lebensformen, die Grundrechte des Menschen, Wertsysteme, Traditionen und Glaubensrichtungen.9 Es ist einigermaßen absurd, daß eine mehrheitlich aus der sog. Dritten Welt beschickte Konferenz auf den Ethnographen Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) zurückgreift. Dieser stellte 1871 eine Ordnung der Kulturen in aufsteigender Reihenfolge mit Richtungszentrum Europa auf: Thus, on the definite basis of compared facts, ethnographers are able to set up at least a rough scale of civilization [sic]. Few would dispute that the following races are arranged rightly in order of culture – Australian, Tahitian, Aztec, Chinese, Italian.10 Im gleichen Band Primitive Culture heißt es eingangs: Culture or civilisation, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that whole complex which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.11 In der Zitierung durch die UNESCO-Definition fehlt Tylors Bezug auf die Ethnographie sowie Tylors Gleichsetzung des Begriffspaares Kultur und Zivilisation. Dieses sollte in den westeuropäischen Sprachen ungleiche und konfliktfördernde Karrieren machen.12 »Ist das Ziel erreicht, […] so erstarrt die Kultur plötzlich, sie […] wird zur Zivilisation«, heißt es bei Spengler, der meinte, damit sei das Abendland untergegangen.13 In
einer außerordentlich komplexen, und in den einzelnen europäischen Sprachen je andersverlaufenden Entwicklung beider Begriffe – Kroeber und Kluckhohn stellten 1952 einen Katalog mit gut 200 Kulturdefinitionen zusammen14 – wurden im 19. Jahrhundert »Kultur und Zivilisation zum Maßstab der europäischen Führungsstellung in der Welt«.15 Eine der originellsten Kulturdefinitionen findet sich bei Bismarck: »Erst durch dieses Beförderungsmittel [sc. die Eisenbahn] ist die ganze moderne Entwicklung bewirkt worden, und so sind die Eisenbahnen, ihre Leiter und Beamten, die eigentlichen Träger der Kultur.«16 Historisch kann mit Jörg Fisch17 festgehalten werden, daß der Mensch» sein eigenes Wirken, seine eigenen Leistungen und deren Resultate […], in Abhebung von dem, was von Natur aus vorhanden ist«, mit dem Begriffspaar ›Kultur‹ und ›Zivilisation‹ »im weitesten Sinne der Gegenstandsbereiche« bezeichnet. »So verstanden gehört die Sache selber also zum Menschsein überhaupt.«18 (Schön wäre es, wenn wir auch der folgenden Aussage unseren Glauben schenken könnten: »Ebenso kann ein Bewußtsein von ihr geradezu als Teil des menschlichen Bewußtseins unterstellt werden«19). Wenn alles Kultur ist, ist Kulturpolitik nicht mehr faßbar. Die »United Nations Educational, Scientifical and Cultural Organization« sollte zunächst (sprachlich angemessener: als juristische Person kann sie selbst nicht kulturell sein) »United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction« heißen, wurde dann aber auf amerikanischen Benennungsvorschlag und im Interesse der science im November 1945 als UNESCO gegründet. Ihr Vorläufer war einerseits das Genfer »Bureau international d‘education« (Direktor 1929-1967 Jean Piaget), vor allem aber die dem Völkerbund zugeordnete »Commission
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
4. Rundfunkanstalten als ›Medium und Faktor‹ der Kultur Politik (so der kunstaffine Willy Brandt in Bezug auf die Außenpolitik)23 darstellen, das war zumindest den Gründern der UNESCO deutlich. Welche Summen hierfür intranational, multinational und international ausgegeben wurden und werden, ist nicht erfaßt.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Öffentlich sind in Deutschland und zahlreichen weiteren Ländern auch bestimmte Anstalten – insbesondere die öffentlich–rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten, die seit den 20er Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts (nach dem Schrecken der Falschmeldung vom 9.11.1918 über eine Machtergreifung durch die USPD) staatsunmittelbar kontrolliert werden. Sie werden über ein steuerähnliches Gebühreneinzugsverfahren finanziert. Mit dem Bundesverfassungsgericht, das von einer »Funktion des Rundfunks als ›Medium und Faktor‹ gesellschaftlicher Kommunikation«24 sprach, können (ad 1) die dem Auftrag eines public good verpflichteten öffentlich–rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten insgesamt der Kulturpolitik zugerechnet werden. 25 Mit einer von den Anstalten selbst vorgenommenen Differenzierung kann (ad 2) der Programmbereich »Kultur und Wissenschaft« isoliert betrachtet werden. Mit dem 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler kann (ad 3) argumentiert werden: »Kultur ist für uns nicht eine Frage des Programmgenres, sondern eine der Geisteshaltung. Es geht darum, wie unsere Redaktionen die Fragen der Zeit betrachten. Tägliche Kultur- und Wissenschaftsmagazine, die sich aktuell diesen Fragen stellen, auch Position beziehen, die Debatten prägen, und die zur besten Sendezeit ausgestrahlt werden, sind Ausdruck einer solchen Haltung.«26 Am Beispiel des folgenden Exkurses zum Verhältnis von Medien- und Kulturpolitik sei gezeigt, daß Kulturpolitik in der Regel ein Teilbereich gesellschaftlich stärker wahrgenommener Politiksegmente ist.
118
internationale de la coopération intellectuelle» (später: »Organisation«; 1921-46; u.a. Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Paul Valéry, Jules Romains). Diese hatte sich der Arbeit an einem internationalen Frieden verschrieben. Analog wollten die Gründerväter der UNESCO eine Organisation »destinée à instituer une véritable culture de la paix« mit der Aufgabe »établir solidarité intellectuelle et morale de l’humanité et, ainsi, empêcher ledéclenchement d’une nouvelle guerre mondiale«20. Humanitas ist hier Menschheit, nicht Humanität; ›Kultur‹ ist eine Bindestrich-, nämlich die Friedenskultur; die Künste sind Mittel zu derem höheren Zweck als »Schutzwehr des Friedens«. Einer solchen gilt die Mission der UNESCO: That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed. // Que, les guerres prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes, c’est dans l’esprit des hommes que doivent être élevées les défenses de la paix. // [Da Kriege im Geist der Menschenentstehen, muss auch der Frieden {lies: die Schutzwehr des Friedens} im Geist der Menschen verankert werden.] (Präambel: Einleitung).21 Daß die Künste dem Frieden dienen, ist eine ehrenwerte Hoffnung und unvollständige Beschreibung. Agressionen junger Menschen werden durch deren jüngste Vertreter wie die Videospiele vorsätzlich geschürt; das frühe Hollywood steht für patriotische Mobilmachung durch eine neuartige Kunstform, etwas später bei MetroGoldwyn-Mayer unter dem neo-lateinischen Wahlspruch »ars gratia artis« (1924) verdeckt; die Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts basiert wesentlich auf dem Marsch; Heldenepen dienten und dienen nicht gerade dem Pazifismus. Der Mensch ist kein Lamm, wie könnten es seine Künste da sein und warum sollten sie es sein? Daß aber »ars gratia politiae22«, daß mit Künsten und Sprachen normative, affirmative und eben auch pazifikatorische Politik zu machen ist, und daß sie in der Tat eine »Dritte Säule« der
BVerfGE 12, 205, (260); 57, 295 (320); 73, 118 (152).
UNESCO: [Selbstdarstellung]. <www.unesco.org>.
24
20
Brandt, Willy: Bedeutung und Aufgaben der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik, in: Bulletin (Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung), Nr. 71, 5.7.1967, S. 613–614.- »Es waren Willy Brandt und Walter Scheel, die 1967 von der staatlichen Förderung internationaler Kulturbeziehungen als der „dritten Säule“ und einem „tragfähigen Pfeiler“ der Außenpolitik gesprochen haben. Sie rangiere gleichwertig neben der Friedens- und Außenhandelspolitik.« Hoffmann, Hilmar: »Dritte Säule« der Außenpolitik. Zur aktuellen Diskussion um die auswärtige Kulturpolitik. In: Internationale Politik, 1996 (3).
UNESCO: Präambel der Gründungskonstitution. London 16.11.1945. Dt. Überstzung später und falsch.
23
21
Im klassischen Latein bezeichnet politia als Fremdwort von griechisch πολιτεία Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung (politicus ist wie im Griechischen lediglich die Adjektivableitung). Im Rumnäischen hat sich politia bis heute erhalten; im Deutschen wurde daraus die Polizey, daher der Rückgriff von Politik auf das Adjektiv.
22
UNESCO: Präambel der Gründungskonstitution. London 16.11.1945. Dt. Überstzung später und falsch.
22
Im klassischen Latein bezeichnet politia als Fremdwort von griechisch πολιτεία Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung (politicus ist wie im Griechischen lediglich die Adjektivableitung). Im Rumnäischen hat sich politia bis heute erhalten; im Deutschen wurde daraus die Polizey, daher der Rückgriff von Politik auf das Adjektiv.
UNESCO: [Selbstdarstellung]. <www.unesco.org>.
21
23
20
Brandt, Willy: Bedeutung und Aufgaben der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik, in: Bulletin (Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung), Nr. 71, 5.7.1967, S. 613–614.- »Es waren Willy Brandt und Walter Scheel, die 1967 von der staatlichen Förderung internationaler Kulturbeziehungen als der „dritten Säule“ und einem „tragfähigen Pfeiler“ der Außenpolitik gesprochen haben. Sie rangiere gleichwertig neben der Friedens- und Außenhandelspolitik.« Hoffmann, Hilmar: »Dritte Säule« der Außenpolitik. Zur aktuellen Diskussion um die auswärtige Kulturpolitik. In: Internationale Politik, 1996 (3).
Öffentlich sind in Deutschland und zahlreichen weiteren Ländern auch bestimmte Anstalten – insbesondere die öffentlich–rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten, die seit den 20er Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts (nach dem Schrecken der Falschmeldung vom 9.11.1918 über eine Machtergreifung durch die USPD) staatsunmittelbar kontrolliert werden. Sie werden über ein steuerähnliches Gebühreneinzugsverfahren finanziert. Mit dem Bundesverfassungsgericht, das von einer »Funktion des Rundfunks als ›Medium und Faktor‹ gesellschaftlicher Kommunikation«24 sprach, können (ad 1) die dem Auftrag eines public good verpflichteten öffentlich–rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten insgesamt der Kulturpolitik zugerechnet werden. 25 Mit einer von den Anstalten selbst vorgenommenen Differenzierung kann (ad 2) der Programmbereich »Kultur und Wissenschaft« isoliert betrachtet werden. Mit dem 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler kann (ad 3) argumentiert werden: »Kultur ist für uns nicht eine Frage des Programmgenres, sondern eine der Geisteshaltung. Es geht darum, wie unsere Redaktionen die Fragen der Zeit betrachten. Tägliche Kultur- und Wissenschaftsmagazine, die sich aktuell diesen Fragen stellen, auch Position beziehen, die Debatten prägen, und die zur besten Sendezeit ausgestrahlt werden, sind Ausdruck einer solchen Haltung.«26 Am Beispiel des folgenden Exkurses zum Verhältnis von Medien- und Kulturpolitik sei gezeigt, daß Kulturpolitik in der Regel ein Teilbereich gesellschaftlich stärker wahrgenommener Politiksegmente ist.
BVerfGE 12, 205, (260); 57, 295 (320); 73, 118 (152).
4. Rundfunkanstalten als ›Medium und Faktor‹ der Kultur
24
Politik (so der kunstaffine Willy Brandt in Bezug auf die Außenpolitik)23 darstellen, das war zumindest den Gründern der UNESCO deutlich. Welche Summen hierfür intranational, multinational und international ausgegeben wurden und werden, ist nicht erfaßt.
118
internationale de la coopération intellectuelle» (später: »Organisation«; 1921-46; u.a. Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Paul Valéry, Jules Romains). Diese hatte sich der Arbeit an einem internationalen Frieden verschrieben. Analog wollten die Gründerväter der UNESCO eine Organisation »destinée à instituer une véritable culture de la paix« mit der Aufgabe »établir solidarité intellectuelle et morale de l’humanité et, ainsi, empêcher ledéclenchement d’une nouvelle guerre mondiale«20. Humanitas ist hier Menschheit, nicht Humanität; ›Kultur‹ ist eine Bindestrich-, nämlich die Friedenskultur; die Künste sind Mittel zu derem höheren Zweck als »Schutzwehr des Friedens«. Einer solchen gilt die Mission der UNESCO: That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed. // Que, les guerres prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes, c’est dans l’esprit des hommes que doivent être élevées les défenses de la paix. // [Da Kriege im Geist der Menschenentstehen, muss auch der Frieden {lies: die Schutzwehr des Friedens} im Geist der Menschen verankert werden.] (Präambel: Einleitung).21 Daß die Künste dem Frieden dienen, ist eine ehrenwerte Hoffnung und unvollständige Beschreibung. Agressionen junger Menschen werden durch deren jüngste Vertreter wie die Videospiele vorsätzlich geschürt; das frühe Hollywood steht für patriotische Mobilmachung durch eine neuartige Kunstform, etwas später bei MetroGoldwyn-Mayer unter dem neo-lateinischen Wahlspruch »ars gratia artis« (1924) verdeckt; die Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts basiert wesentlich auf dem Marsch; Heldenepen dienten und dienen nicht gerade dem Pazifismus. Der Mensch ist kein Lamm, wie könnten es seine Künste da sein und warum sollten sie es sein? Daß aber »ars gratia politiae22«, daß mit Künsten und Sprachen normative, affirmative und eben auch pazifikatorische Politik zu machen ist, und daß sie in der Tat eine »Dritte Säule« der
119
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
4.1. Angebotsorientiert versus nachfrageorientiert? Die Aufwendungen für die in der »Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland« zusammenwirkenden Regionalanstalten (ARD), für das Zweite Deutsche Fernsehen (ZDF) und für das Deutschlandradio liegen bei 8.398,0 Mio EUR p.a., also in der gleichen Größenordnung wie vom Kulturfinanzbericht für den Bereich Kunst und Kultur ermittelt. Dieses Budget ist zu rund 85% gebühren- und zu rund 5% werbefinanziert. 27 Die Gebühreneinzugszentrale (GEZ) erhebt eine Monatsgebühr für »Fernsehgerät, Radio und neuartiges Rundfunkgerät« an Haushalt oder Arbeitsplatz von derzeit 17,98 EUR. Dies ist im Vergleich mit Frankreich (80 Euro pro Jahr; werbefrei) fast das Dreifache. Das öffentlich-rechtliche Angebot umfaßt in jeder Minute des Jahres durchschnittlich 18,9 TV-Programme (in Konkurrenz zu rund 500 kommerziellen Programmen) sowie 61 Radioprogramme. Bei einem Marktanteil von 42,9% der öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten, bei durchschnittlich 212 Sehminuten pro Tag der Deutschen ab 3 Jahren und bei einer Fernsehnutzung von 88% der Deutschen ergeben sich für diese Anstalten 6,6 Mrd. Sehminuten am Tag und die kaum mehr vorstellbare Summe von 2,4 Bio. Sehminutenim Jahr. Beim peak kurz nach 21:00 Uhr erreichte 2009 das Fernsehen durchschnittlich37% und die öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten 16% der deutschen Wohnbevölkerung. Aus dem Verhältnis der jährlich 2,490 Mio. Sendeminuten des ZDF und seiner sieben Spartenkanäle zu dessen Gesamtaufwendungen von 2,0 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr (2008) lassen sich durchschnittliche Kosten der ausgestrahlten öffentlich-rechtlichen Sendeminute von 804,35 EUR errechnen; allerdings beträgt die Wiederholungsrate etwa im ZDFtheaterkanal 97%. Aus
den Kosten des Deutschlandradios von 202 Mio EUR bei1,1 Mio Sendeminuten ergibt sich ein Betrag von 180,95 EUR pro Rundfunksendeminute. Eine Vollkostenrechnung ist nicht greifbar; die Anstalten differenzieren zwar bei den Programmkosten nach Erstsendeminutenanteil und Selbstkostenanteil, ohne aber die sonstigen Kosten wie Pensionsrückstellungen, Immobilien, Verwaltung etc. ersteren schlüssig zuzuordnen. Die Nachfrage nach politischer Information muß induziert werden; ohne Volksmusik im ZDF kein Publikum für das heute-Journal. Im Interesse der Politik – die die deutschen Anstalten auf Länderebene kontrolliert, ohne daß bei tagesschau oder heute die Länderebene eine wesentliche Rolle spielt – liegt es daher, durch eine Senderbindung breiter Publikumsschichten die Selbstdarstellung der Parteien zu unterstützen und ihre Anliegen breit zu kommunizieren; die Nähe zum in der Diskussion gelegentlich sogenannte »Unterschichtenfernsehen« der Privatanstalten ist daher auch demokratietheoretisch immanent. Der »marktfreie Raum« nach 20 Uhr bleibt Fiktion. Das werbefinanzierte Fernsehen mißt sich Tag für Tag in Einheiten von je 1.000 innert 30 Sekunden erreichten Zuschauern als Grundnorm für den Verkauf von Werbung; das gebührenfinanzierte Fernsehen mißt sich gewissermaßen in Einheiten von je 1.000 potentieller Wählerstimmen; aufgrund dieser strukturellen Ähnlichkeit kann von einem »Dualen« System nicht eigentlich die Rede sein. Die »Quotenjagd« hat zu einer überwiegenden Vergleichbarkeit der hauptsächlichen Sendeanteile der öffentlich-rechtlichen Sender mit dem Angebot kommerzieller Anstalten geführt. Diese bieten ihre Leistungen jedoch ungleich effizienter und damit volkswirtschaftlich betrachtet sinnvoller an. So liegt in der ARD der Erstsendeminutenateil für Sportsendungen bei 19,0%, ihr Selbstkostenanteil jedoch bei 25,2%; bei den Spielfilmen sind es 12,8% zu 17,2%.
25
Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: »Die grundlegenden Fragen, zu denen das Nachdenken über einen öffentlichrechtlichen Kulturauftrag [der Rundfunkanstalten]unvermeidlich führen muss, werden erst in jüngerer Zeit wieder entdeckt, sie sind einer überzeugenden Beantwortung noch fern. Die Klärung der Kulturbezüge des Rundfunks berührt Fragen, die für das Verständnis der Funktion des Rundfunks, aber auch für sein Selbstverständnis und seine rechtliche Ausgestaltung, grundlegend sind. Das beginnt schon mit der Frage nach dem Status des Rundfunks als Teil der Kultur, die er zugleich mit formt und deren Entwicklung er mit beeinflusst. Man wird diesen Rundfunk wohl als Objekt und Subjekt zugleich, seine Hervorbringungen als gleichermaßen kulturgeprägt und kulturprägend zu sehen haben«. In: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Arbeitspapiere des Instituts für Rundfunkökonomie an der Universität zu Köln, Heft 201. Köln 2005. Referat auf dem vom Initiativkreis öffentlicher Rundfunk Köln am 26. Januar 2005 veranstalteten Symposion Der Kulturauftrag des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks. Auch abgedruckt in Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge (Hrsg.): Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlichrechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Münster, Hamburg, London 2005.
26
Basis unserer Arbeit ist nicht die Quote. Interview mit 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler zum 25-jährigen Bestehen des Drei-LänderKanals [2009]. In: Untergeschoß. Beobachtungen aus der Niederflurperspektive. ViSdP: Harald Keller, Berlin. http://untergeschoss. wordpress.com/2009/11/28/%E2%80%9Ebasis-unsererarbeit-ist-nicht-die-quote%E2%80%9C/
27
Angaben nach: Kommission zur Ermittlung des Finanzbedarfs der Rundfunkanstalten: 17. KEF-Bericht. Mainz 2009.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
119
27
Angaben nach: Kommission zur Ermittlung des Finanzbedarfs der Rundfunkanstalten: 17. KEF-Bericht. Mainz 2009. Basis unserer Arbeit ist nicht die Quote. Interview mit 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler zum 25-jährigen Bestehen des Drei-LänderKanals [2009]. In: Untergeschoß. Beobachtungen aus der Niederflurperspektive. ViSdP: Harald Keller, Berlin. http://untergeschoss. wordpress.com/2009/11/28/%E2%80%9Ebasis-unsererarbeit-ist-nicht-die-quote%E2%80%9C/
26
Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: »Die grundlegenden Fragen, zu denen das Nachdenken über einen öffentlichrechtlichen Kulturauftrag [der Rundfunkanstalten]unvermeidlich führen muss, werden erst in jüngerer Zeit wieder entdeckt, sie sind einer überzeugenden Beantwortung noch fern. Die Klärung der Kulturbezüge des Rundfunks berührt Fragen, die für das Verständnis der Funktion des Rundfunks, aber auch für sein Selbstverständnis und seine rechtliche Ausgestaltung, grundlegend sind. Das beginnt schon mit der Frage nach dem Status des Rundfunks als Teil der Kultur, die er zugleich mit formt und deren Entwicklung er mit beeinflusst. Man wird diesen Rundfunk wohl als Objekt und Subjekt zugleich, seine Hervorbringungen als gleichermaßen kulturgeprägt und kulturprägend zu sehen haben«. In: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Arbeitspapiere des Instituts für Rundfunkökonomie an der Universität zu Köln, Heft 201. Köln 2005. Referat auf dem vom Initiativkreis öffentlicher Rundfunk Köln am 26. Januar 2005 veranstalteten Symposion Der Kulturauftrag des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks. Auch abgedruckt in Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge (Hrsg.): Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlichrechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Münster, Hamburg, London 2005.
25
Die Aufwendungen für die in der »Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland« zusammenwirkenden Regionalanstalten (ARD), für das Zweite Deutsche Fernsehen (ZDF) und für das Deutschlandradio liegen bei 8.398,0 Mio EUR p.a., also in der gleichen Größenordnung wie vom Kulturfinanzbericht für den Bereich Kunst und Kultur ermittelt. Dieses Budget ist zu rund 85% gebühren- und zu rund 5% werbefinanziert. 27 Die Gebühreneinzugszentrale (GEZ) erhebt eine Monatsgebühr für »Fernsehgerät, Radio und neuartiges Rundfunkgerät« an Haushalt oder Arbeitsplatz von derzeit 17,98 EUR. Dies ist im Vergleich mit Frankreich (80 Euro pro Jahr; werbefrei) fast das Dreifache. Das öffentlich-rechtliche Angebot umfaßt in jeder Minute des Jahres durchschnittlich 18,9 TV-Programme (in Konkurrenz zu rund 500 kommerziellen Programmen) sowie 61 Radioprogramme. Bei einem Marktanteil von 42,9% der öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten, bei durchschnittlich 212 Sehminuten pro Tag der Deutschen ab 3 Jahren und bei einer Fernsehnutzung von 88% der Deutschen ergeben sich für diese Anstalten 6,6 Mrd. Sehminuten am Tag und die kaum mehr vorstellbare Summe von 2,4 Bio. Sehminutenim Jahr. Beim peak kurz nach 21:00 Uhr erreichte 2009 das Fernsehen durchschnittlich37% und die öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten 16% der deutschen Wohnbevölkerung. Aus dem Verhältnis der jährlich 2,490 Mio. Sendeminuten des ZDF und seiner sieben Spartenkanäle zu dessen Gesamtaufwendungen von 2,0 Mrd. EUR pro Jahr (2008) lassen sich durchschnittliche Kosten der ausgestrahlten öffentlich-rechtlichen Sendeminute von 804,35 EUR errechnen; allerdings beträgt die Wiederholungsrate etwa im ZDFtheaterkanal 97%. Aus
4.1. Angebotsorientiert versus nachfrageorientiert?
den Kosten des Deutschlandradios von 202 Mio EUR bei1,1 Mio Sendeminuten ergibt sich ein Betrag von 180,95 EUR pro Rundfunksendeminute. Eine Vollkostenrechnung ist nicht greifbar; die Anstalten differenzieren zwar bei den Programmkosten nach Erstsendeminutenanteil und Selbstkostenanteil, ohne aber die sonstigen Kosten wie Pensionsrückstellungen, Immobilien, Verwaltung etc. ersteren schlüssig zuzuordnen. Die Nachfrage nach politischer Information muß induziert werden; ohne Volksmusik im ZDF kein Publikum für das heute-Journal. Im Interesse der Politik – die die deutschen Anstalten auf Länderebene kontrolliert, ohne daß bei tagesschau oder heute die Länderebene eine wesentliche Rolle spielt – liegt es daher, durch eine Senderbindung breiter Publikumsschichten die Selbstdarstellung der Parteien zu unterstützen und ihre Anliegen breit zu kommunizieren; die Nähe zum in der Diskussion gelegentlich sogenannte »Unterschichtenfernsehen« der Privatanstalten ist daher auch demokratietheoretisch immanent. Der »marktfreie Raum« nach 20 Uhr bleibt Fiktion. Das werbefinanzierte Fernsehen mißt sich Tag für Tag in Einheiten von je 1.000 innert 30 Sekunden erreichten Zuschauern als Grundnorm für den Verkauf von Werbung; das gebührenfinanzierte Fernsehen mißt sich gewissermaßen in Einheiten von je 1.000 potentieller Wählerstimmen; aufgrund dieser strukturellen Ähnlichkeit kann von einem »Dualen« System nicht eigentlich die Rede sein. Die »Quotenjagd« hat zu einer überwiegenden Vergleichbarkeit der hauptsächlichen Sendeanteile der öffentlich-rechtlichen Sender mit dem Angebot kommerzieller Anstalten geführt. Diese bieten ihre Leistungen jedoch ungleich effizienter und damit volkswirtschaftlich betrachtet sinnvoller an. So liegt in der ARD der Erstsendeminutenateil für Sportsendungen bei 19,0%, ihr Selbstkostenanteil jedoch bei 25,2%; bei den Spielfilmen sind es 12,8% zu 17,2%.
120
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
120
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
4.2. Berichterstattung und Kunstmedium
Zitiert nach <http://www.taz.de/1/leben/medien/artikel/1/ich-sehe-was-was-du-nicht-siehst/>.
D
29
er Bereich »Kultur und Wissenschaft« umfaßt im Ersten Programm der ARD 7,0% Erstsendeminutenanteil und 2,5% Selbstkostenanteil. Hypothetisch umgelegt auf den Gesamtetat aller ARD-Anstalten und -Programme würde dieser Anteil von 2,5% rechnerisch 154 Mio. EUR ergeben oder das Doppelte der Bayerischen Staatsoper (78,7 Mio EUR; Budget 2007).Was den öffentlichen Auftrag einer »kulturellen Grundversorgung« im Sinne einer Information über kulturelle Prozesse angeht, so finden die Künste in den Fernsehnachrichten grundsätzlich nicht statt, von Einzelberichterstattungen überbildwirksame Events wie die Kulturhauptstadteröffnung »Ruhr 2010« etc abgesehen. Die künstlerische Produktion selbst wird weder dort noch an anderer Stelle in der prime time thematisiert. Kunst, geistige Probleme und Themen der Sinnproduktion finden erst ein Fenster, wenn der durchschnittliche Arbeitnehmer den Weg ins Bett gefunden hat. Durch die Verlagerung in Spartenkanäle vergrößert sich das Dilemma noch. Bei der Gründung von 3sat gab der Intendant des ZDF, Dieter Stolte, den neuen Senderchefs mit auf den Weg: »Wenn ihr am Abend mehr als 3 Prozent holt, schalten wir euch ab!«29 Davon ist die Kultur weit entfernt. 2009 betrug der Marktanteil von 3sat 1,1%; der von ARTE 0,7%; der ZDFtheaterkanal taucht in der Statistik der Arbeitsgemeinschaft deutscher Fernsehforschung erst gar nicht auf.30 Kulturpolitisch ist eine Verkürzung der Leistung des Fernsehens auf eine »Berichterstattung über Kunst« jedoch nicht zulässig, da das Fernsehen als Plattform des Filmes selbst ein Kunstmedium darstellt. Mithin müssen zumindest die Produktion eigener und die Ausstrahlung weiterer Spielfilme Berücksichtigung finden. Einschließlich der telenovelas – deren Theaterpendant ja ebenfalls in öffentlich und frei finanzierten Bühnen zu finden ist – ergibt dies täglich eine beträchtliche Sendezeit für fiction. Das Fernsehen hat das Kino seit langem zumindest in seiner volkswirtschaftlichen Dimension abgelöst, genauer gesagt: den Raum des nicht an einen Aufführungsort gebundenen Dramas beträchtlich erweitert. Mit seinen Orchester, Chören und Studios Neuer Musik ist der Rundfunk in Deutschland, in Polen, Tschechien, Frankreich etc. einer der produktivsten und teil-
Zusammenwirken in der European Broadcasting Union (EBU) seit 1950/1954; derzeit 75 Mitglieder aus 56 Staaten des geographischen Europas und Teilen des Mittelmeerraums; weitere Assozierte Mitglieder aus 5 Kontinenten <http://www.ebu.ch>.
Umgekehrt wird der genuine Informationsauftrag regelmäßig preiswerter erfüllt als ausweislich des Erstsendeminutenanteils zu erwarten: Tagesschau/Tagessthemen 14,4% (ESMA) zu 6% (SKA), Politik und Gesellschaft 13,9% zu 5,2%, Religion 0,3% zu 0,1%, Musik 0,2% zu 0,1%. Von den öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten wird der Sinn der oben genannten Zuwendungsrichtlinien der öffentlichen Verwaltung insofern nicht erfüllt, als der (Gebühren-)Zweck durch eine offenere Leistungserbringung besser erfüllt werden könnte. Ohne Berücksichtigung der Interessen der Politik könnte die sogenannte »Grundversorgung der Bevölkerung« mit Spielfilmen, Talkshows etc. kommerziellen Anbietern überlassen werden; bei Verzicht letzterer auf Werbung und Integration von Leistungen aus dem öffentlichen Rundfunkauftrag wäre eine Vergütung aus den Gebührenfonds eine denkbare Hypothese. Medienpolitisch und politiktheoretisch wäre die Allokationsfrage in einem solchen Modell allerdings mindestens ebenso unbefriedigend wie der Ist-Stand. Kulturpolitisch betrachtet, ist das 1984 eingeführte Duale System (angebotsorientiert versus nachfrageorientiert) auch insofern gescheitert, als die öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten den Quantensprung von einer Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft zu einer Poltischen Union bislang nicht nachvollzogen haben. Dies gilt für die Europäische Unionselbst in mindestens gleichem Maße; u.a. betragen hier die Kulturausgaben 0,07 EUR p.a. pro Einwohner. Die Gruppe28 der öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten ihrer Mitgliedsstaaten erbringt ihren Informationsauftrag nach wie vor in nationalen Mustern und erfüllt die oben angesprochene »Funktion des Rundfunks als ›Medium und Faktor‹ gesellschaftlicher Kommunikation« bzw. hier des Europäisierungsprozesses gegenüber den eigenen sowie den Bürgern der Partnerländer nicht. Die Chance der Einführung digitaler Satellitensysteme mit Abstrahlung über die gesamte EU-Region wurde nicht koordiniert genutzt; jenseits binationaler Programme wie ARTE (dessen deutsch-polnisches Pendant über Ansätze nicht hinauskam) ist eine genuin europäische Fernsehlandschaft nicht entwickelt worden, obwohl die innereuropäische Filmproduktion so etwas wie eine kulturelle Familie darstellt und Nähe transportieren könnte.
28
Zusammenwirken in der European Broadcasting Union (EBU) seit 1950/1954; derzeit 75 Mitglieder aus 56 Staaten des geographischen Europas und Teilen des Mittelmeerraums; weitere Assozierte Mitglieder aus 5 Kontinenten <http://www.ebu.ch>.
er Bereich »Kultur und Wissenschaft« umfaßt im Ersten Programm der ARD 7,0% Erstsendeminutenanteil und 2,5% Selbstkostenanteil. Hypothetisch umgelegt auf den Gesamtetat aller ARD-Anstalten und -Programme würde dieser Anteil von 2,5% rechnerisch 154 Mio. EUR ergeben oder das Doppelte der Bayerischen Staatsoper (78,7 Mio EUR; Budget 2007).Was den öffentlichen Auftrag einer »kulturellen Grundversorgung« im Sinne einer Information über kulturelle Prozesse angeht, so finden die Künste in den Fernsehnachrichten grundsätzlich nicht statt, von Einzelberichterstattungen überbildwirksame Events wie die Kulturhauptstadteröffnung »Ruhr 2010« etc abgesehen. Die künstlerische Produktion selbst wird weder dort noch an anderer Stelle in der prime time thematisiert. Kunst, geistige Probleme und Themen der Sinnproduktion finden erst ein Fenster, wenn der durchschnittliche Arbeitnehmer den Weg ins Bett gefunden hat. Durch die Verlagerung in Spartenkanäle vergrößert sich das Dilemma noch. Bei der Gründung von 3sat gab der Intendant des ZDF, Dieter Stolte, den neuen Senderchefs mit auf den Weg: »Wenn ihr am Abend mehr als 3 Prozent holt, schalten wir euch ab!«29 Davon ist die Kultur weit entfernt. 2009 betrug der Marktanteil von 3sat 1,1%; der von ARTE 0,7%; der ZDFtheaterkanal taucht in der Statistik der Arbeitsgemeinschaft deutscher Fernsehforschung erst gar nicht auf.30 Kulturpolitisch ist eine Verkürzung der Leistung des Fernsehens auf eine »Berichterstattung über Kunst« jedoch nicht zulässig, da das Fernsehen als Plattform des Filmes selbst ein Kunstmedium darstellt. Mithin müssen zumindest die Produktion eigener und die Ausstrahlung weiterer Spielfilme Berücksichtigung finden. Einschließlich der telenovelas – deren Theaterpendant ja ebenfalls in öffentlich und frei finanzierten Bühnen zu finden ist – ergibt dies täglich eine beträchtliche Sendezeit für fiction. Das Fernsehen hat das Kino seit langem zumindest in seiner volkswirtschaftlichen Dimension abgelöst, genauer gesagt: den Raum des nicht an einen Aufführungsort gebundenen Dramas beträchtlich erweitert. Mit seinen Orchester, Chören und Studios Neuer Musik ist der Rundfunk in Deutschland, in Polen, Tschechien, Frankreich etc. einer der produktivsten und teil-
28
D
Zitiert nach <http://www.taz.de/1/leben/medien/artikel/1/ich-sehe-was-was-du-nicht-siehst/>.
4.2. Berichterstattung und Kunstmedium
29
Umgekehrt wird der genuine Informationsauftrag regelmäßig preiswerter erfüllt als ausweislich des Erstsendeminutenanteils zu erwarten: Tagesschau/Tagessthemen 14,4% (ESMA) zu 6% (SKA), Politik und Gesellschaft 13,9% zu 5,2%, Religion 0,3% zu 0,1%, Musik 0,2% zu 0,1%. Von den öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten wird der Sinn der oben genannten Zuwendungsrichtlinien der öffentlichen Verwaltung insofern nicht erfüllt, als der (Gebühren-)Zweck durch eine offenere Leistungserbringung besser erfüllt werden könnte. Ohne Berücksichtigung der Interessen der Politik könnte die sogenannte »Grundversorgung der Bevölkerung« mit Spielfilmen, Talkshows etc. kommerziellen Anbietern überlassen werden; bei Verzicht letzterer auf Werbung und Integration von Leistungen aus dem öffentlichen Rundfunkauftrag wäre eine Vergütung aus den Gebührenfonds eine denkbare Hypothese. Medienpolitisch und politiktheoretisch wäre die Allokationsfrage in einem solchen Modell allerdings mindestens ebenso unbefriedigend wie der Ist-Stand. Kulturpolitisch betrachtet, ist das 1984 eingeführte Duale System (angebotsorientiert versus nachfrageorientiert) auch insofern gescheitert, als die öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten den Quantensprung von einer Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft zu einer Poltischen Union bislang nicht nachvollzogen haben. Dies gilt für die Europäische Unionselbst in mindestens gleichem Maße; u.a. betragen hier die Kulturausgaben 0,07 EUR p.a. pro Einwohner. Die Gruppe28 der öffentlich-rechtlichen Anstalten ihrer Mitgliedsstaaten erbringt ihren Informationsauftrag nach wie vor in nationalen Mustern und erfüllt die oben angesprochene »Funktion des Rundfunks als ›Medium und Faktor‹ gesellschaftlicher Kommunikation« bzw. hier des Europäisierungsprozesses gegenüber den eigenen sowie den Bürgern der Partnerländer nicht. Die Chance der Einführung digitaler Satellitensysteme mit Abstrahlung über die gesamte EU-Region wurde nicht koordiniert genutzt; jenseits binationaler Programme wie ARTE (dessen deutsch-polnisches Pendant über Ansätze nicht hinauskam) ist eine genuin europäische Fernsehlandschaft nicht entwickelt worden, obwohl die innereuropäische Filmproduktion so etwas wie eine kulturelle Familie darstellt und Nähe transportieren könnte.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
nehmerstärksten Kulturakteure überhaupt. Innerhalb der Medienpolitik werden diese Aspekte weniger stark als die o.g. politischen diskutiert.
4.3. Fernsehen als Geisteshaltung
»K
ultur [als] eine Frage […] der Geisteshaltung« (Daniel Fiedler) ist kulturpolitisch nichtgreifbar.
5. Gestaltung von Rahmenbedingungen durch Normen
B
islang hatten wir – in einem pragmatischen, von Haushaltszahlen ausgehenden Ansatzauf die Frage »Was ist Kulturpolitik?« – die Ebene der öffentlichen Territorialkörperschaften (Länder, Bund, Gemeinden, Gemeindeverbände) und die internationale Ebene diskutiert, die Ebene der Personalkörperschaften (evangelische undkatholische Kirche), die Ebene der öffentlichen Anstalten (ARD, ZDF, Deutschland-Radio). Von der Politik beeinflusst wird der Bereich künstlerische Produktion und kulturelle Dienstleistung aber auch – dies der zweite, eigentlich politische Ansatz auf die Frage »Was ist Kulturpolitik?« – durch eine große Anzahl nicht haushaltswirksamer, wohl aber unmittelbar monetär wirksamer Normen. In ihrer Gestaltung liegt die eigentlich zentrale Aufgabe von Politik, womit über den Zweck noch nichts ausgesagt ist. Ungeachtet der vieldiskutierten und insofern fragwürdigen »Kulturhoheit der Länder« ist dies in erster Linie Aufgabe des Zentralstaats. Innerhalb der EU-Staaten singulär war die Einsetzung der Enquete-Kommission »Kultur in Deutschland« durch den Deutschen Bundestag (2003-05 und 2006-07; Vorsitz Gitta Connemann). In seinem Vorwort zu derem Schlußbericht führt Bundestagspräsident Norbert Lammert in einer Art »politia gratiaartis« und in fast zu vornehmer Zurückhaltung aus: Der Staat ist nach unserem Staats- und unserem Kulturverständnis nicht für Kunst und Kultur zuständig, sondern für die Bedingungen,
unter denen sie stattfinden. Er hat keine materielle Zuständigkeit für die Inhalte und Formen, in denen sich Kunst und Kultur in einer Gesellschaft entfalten. Aber der Staat hat eine kulturpolitische Verantwortung für die Rahmenbedingungen, die eine solche Entfaltung überhaupt erst ermöglichen. 31 Die Kommission widmet denn auch von 625 Seiten Haupttext weniger als 10%, nämlich die Seiten 285-291 der »Kulturförderung in gemeinsamer Verantwortung von Staat, Zivilgesellschaft und Wirtschaft« sowie die Seiten 292-321 ausgewählten »Förderbereichen von besonderer Bedeutung«, etwa der Förderung der autochthonen Minderheiten. Man denke – im Unterschied etwa zur Praxis in Frankreich – an die Buchpreisbindung in Deutschland, die nicht nur für Buchhandelsketten, sondern auch für Internetanbieter in Deutschland verlegter Bücher gilt. Man denke an die reduzierte Mehrwertsteuer für Bücher. Nach Darstellung ihrer Befürworter werden mit diesen beiden Elementen ohne jeden Zuschuß die im Börsenverein für den deutschen Buchhandel zusammenwirkenden Verlage, Grossisten und rund 5.000 Sortimentsbuchhandlungen systemisch unterstützt. Erlöse aus Megasellern können für den Druck von Lyrik oder Spezialliteratur aufgewandt werden; Großstadtbuchhandlungen verkaufen zum gleichen Preis wie die großen Ketten. Der Suhrkamp Verlag kann als seit Jahrzehnten wichtigste Sammeladresse der bundesrepublikanischen Intellektuellen gelten. Sein Jahresumsatz von 33 Mio. Euro ist kleiner als die Zuweisungen des Landes BadenWürttemberg an das Badische Staatstheater Karlsruhe (37,8 Mio EUR zzgl. 3,5 Mio EUR Eigenerlöse). Der risikobasierte und nachfrageorientierte Kulturbetrieb entfaltet hohe Wirkungen; in Deutschlandüberwiegt er den risikominimierten und angebotsorientierten öffentlichen Kulturbetrieb im Verhältnis drei zu eins. Ein »Kulturgesetzbuch«, in dem diese Rahmenbedingungen für Kunst und Kultur analog zum Sozialgesetzbuch oder zum Baugesetzbuch zusammengefaßt und kohärent normiert wären, liegt nicht vor. 32
30
http://www.agf.de/daten/zuschauermarkt/marktanteile.
31
Lammert, Norbert: Vorwort. In: Deutscher Bundestag (Hrsg.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, S. 89ff.S. 7
32
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 [Sonderdruck]. Ders.: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [Nachdruck]. In: Netzwerk Kulturarbeit, Kognos-Verlag Augsburg 12/1998. S. 561 – 574. Ders.: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [Nachdruck]. In: bühnengenossenschaft. Hrsg.: Hans Herdlein im Auftrag der Genossenschaft der Deutschen Bühnenangehörigen. Hamburg. Teil I Heft 6-7/1998. S. 15 – 21; Teil II Heft 5/1999, S. 16 – 18; Teil III Heft 6-7/1999, S. 15 – 17. Ders.: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [Nachdruck]. In: Kulturpolitische Umschau. Hrsg. Jörg-Dieter Gauger im Auftrag der Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung. St. Augustin. Teil I Heft 2-3 / Juni 1998, S. 74 – 84; Teil II Heft 4-5 / März 1990 S. 90–105.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
121
121
32 Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 [Sonderdruck]. Ders.: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [Nachdruck]. In: Netzwerk Kulturarbeit, Kognos-Verlag Augsburg 12/1998. S. 561 – 574. Ders.: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [Nachdruck]. In: bühnengenossenschaft. Hrsg.: Hans Herdlein im Auftrag der Genossenschaft der Deutschen Bühnenangehörigen. Hamburg. Teil I Heft 6-7/1998. S. 15 – 21; Teil II Heft 5/1999, S. 16 – 18; Teil III Heft 6-7/1999, S. 15 – 17. Ders.: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [Nachdruck]. In: Kulturpolitische Umschau. Hrsg. Jörg-Dieter Gauger im Auftrag der Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung. St. Augustin. Teil I Heft 2-3 / Juni 1998, S. 74 – 84; Teil II Heft 4-5 / März 1990 S. 90–105.
Lammert, Norbert: Vorwort. In: Deutscher Bundestag (Hrsg.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, S. 89ff.S. 7
31
http://www.agf.de/daten/zuschauermarkt/marktanteile.
30
islang hatten wir – in einem pragmatischen, von Haushaltszahlen ausgehenden Ansatzauf die Frage »Was ist Kulturpolitik?« – die Ebene der öffentlichen Territorialkörperschaften (Länder, Bund, Gemeinden, Gemeindeverbände) und die internationale Ebene diskutiert, die Ebene der Personalkörperschaften (evangelische undkatholische Kirche), die Ebene der öffentlichen Anstalten (ARD, ZDF, Deutschland-Radio). Von der Politik beeinflusst wird der Bereich künstlerische Produktion und kulturelle Dienstleistung aber auch – dies der zweite, eigentlich politische Ansatz auf die Frage »Was ist Kulturpolitik?« – durch eine große Anzahl nicht haushaltswirksamer, wohl aber unmittelbar monetär wirksamer Normen. In ihrer Gestaltung liegt die eigentlich zentrale Aufgabe von Politik, womit über den Zweck noch nichts ausgesagt ist. Ungeachtet der vieldiskutierten und insofern fragwürdigen »Kulturhoheit der Länder« ist dies in erster Linie Aufgabe des Zentralstaats. Innerhalb der EU-Staaten singulär war die Einsetzung der Enquete-Kommission »Kultur in Deutschland« durch den Deutschen Bundestag (2003-05 und 2006-07; Vorsitz Gitta Connemann). In seinem Vorwort zu derem Schlußbericht führt Bundestagspräsident Norbert Lammert in einer Art »politia gratiaartis« und in fast zu vornehmer Zurückhaltung aus: Der Staat ist nach unserem Staats- und unserem Kulturverständnis nicht für Kunst und Kultur zuständig, sondern für die Bedingungen,
B
5. Gestaltung von Rahmenbedingungen durch Normen ultur [als] eine Frage […] der Geisteshaltung« (Daniel Fiedler) ist kulturpolitisch nichtgreifbar.
»K
4.3. Fernsehen als Geisteshaltung nehmerstärksten Kulturakteure überhaupt. Innerhalb der Medienpolitik werden diese Aspekte weniger stark als die o.g. politischen diskutiert.
unter denen sie stattfinden. Er hat keine materielle Zuständigkeit für die Inhalte und Formen, in denen sich Kunst und Kultur in einer Gesellschaft entfalten. Aber der Staat hat eine kulturpolitische Verantwortung für die Rahmenbedingungen, die eine solche Entfaltung überhaupt erst ermöglichen. 31 Die Kommission widmet denn auch von 625 Seiten Haupttext weniger als 10%, nämlich die Seiten 285-291 der »Kulturförderung in gemeinsamer Verantwortung von Staat, Zivilgesellschaft und Wirtschaft« sowie die Seiten 292-321 ausgewählten »Förderbereichen von besonderer Bedeutung«, etwa der Förderung der autochthonen Minderheiten. Man denke – im Unterschied etwa zur Praxis in Frankreich – an die Buchpreisbindung in Deutschland, die nicht nur für Buchhandelsketten, sondern auch für Internetanbieter in Deutschland verlegter Bücher gilt. Man denke an die reduzierte Mehrwertsteuer für Bücher. Nach Darstellung ihrer Befürworter werden mit diesen beiden Elementen ohne jeden Zuschuß die im Börsenverein für den deutschen Buchhandel zusammenwirkenden Verlage, Grossisten und rund 5.000 Sortimentsbuchhandlungen systemisch unterstützt. Erlöse aus Megasellern können für den Druck von Lyrik oder Spezialliteratur aufgewandt werden; Großstadtbuchhandlungen verkaufen zum gleichen Preis wie die großen Ketten. Der Suhrkamp Verlag kann als seit Jahrzehnten wichtigste Sammeladresse der bundesrepublikanischen Intellektuellen gelten. Sein Jahresumsatz von 33 Mio. Euro ist kleiner als die Zuweisungen des Landes BadenWürttemberg an das Badische Staatstheater Karlsruhe (37,8 Mio EUR zzgl. 3,5 Mio EUR Eigenerlöse). Der risikobasierte und nachfrageorientierte Kulturbetrieb entfaltet hohe Wirkungen; in Deutschlandüberwiegt er den risikominimierten und angebotsorientierten öffentlichen Kulturbetrieb im Verhältnis drei zu eins. Ein »Kulturgesetzbuch«, in dem diese Rahmenbedingungen für Kunst und Kultur analog zum Sozialgesetzbuch oder zum Baugesetzbuch zusammengefaßt und kohärent normiert wären, liegt nicht vor. 32
122
ür die Erfassung der Kunstproduktion einschl. der vorgelagerten Bereiche (etwa die Musikinstrumentenhersteller) und der nachgelagerten Bereiche (Veranstalter, Verwerter, Verbreiter) kann auf ein Instrumentarium der Europäischen Union, die »Nomenclature statistique des Activités économiques dans la Communauté Européenne / Statistische Systematik der Wirtschaftszweige in der Europäischen Gemeinschaft / NACE Rev. 2, Ausgabe 2008« zurückgegriffen werden. Auf ihr basiert die aktuelle »WZ 2008«, die Deutsche Klassifikation der Wirtschaftszweige von 2008. Im Auftrag der Arbeitsgruppe Kulturwirtschaft der Wirtschaftsministerkonferenz hat Ende 2009 Michael Söndermann, Büro für Kulturwirtschaftsfor-
F
6. Kultur als Wirtschaftsphänomen
schung Köln, einen »Leitfaden zur Erstellung einer statistischen Datengrundlage für die Kulturwirtschaft und eine länderübergreifende Auswertung kulturwirtschaftlicher Daten« vorgelegt. Die dort gegebene Gruppierung überzeugt nicht für den vorliegenden Ausführungen zugrundegelegten Kulturbegriff. Sinnvoller erscheint uns eine Rubrizierung von »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft«. Eine solche läßt sich aus der bei Söndermann enthaltenen Aufstellung von 12 der Kultur-und Kreativwirtschaft zugerechneten Wirtschaftszweigen nach Teilmärkten für das Bundesgebiet gewinnen. Ihre Eckdaten sind 72.904Selbstständige u. Unternehmen; 40.204 Mio EUR Umsatz; 247.502 Erwerbstätige; 174.599 sozialversicherungspflichtige Beschäftigte; 162 TEUR Umsatz jeErwerbstätigem.
Umsatz je Erwerbstätigem (5) In TEUR
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft
Sozialversicherungspflichtige Beschäftigte(4) Anzahl
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft nach Teilmärkten (Bundesgebiet 2006)
Erwerbstätige (3) Anzahl
Wirtschaftszweig
Umsatz (2) In Mio EUR
WZ 2003
Selbstständige u. Unternehmen (1) Anzahl
135
718.667
938.043
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
126.377
122
219.376
124
Kultur-und Kreativwirtschaft Nr.1.-12 nach Söndermann
27.133
-
32.182
2,70%
3.993
3,20%
5.049
2,60%
Einzelhandel mit Büchern
7,10%
52.47.2
Anteil an Gesamtwirtschaft
239
-
40.462
188.060
43.136
281.028
10.294
43.572
2.674
92.968
Buchverlag
Schritt I: Kulturwirtschaft Summe einschl. doppelter Zählung
22.11.1
-
74
13.462
264
33.526
6.179
3.369
456
20.065
5.915
Schritt II: Summe der doppelt gezählten Wirtschaftszweige
Selbstständige Schriftsteller, Autoren
162
92.31.6
174.599
181
247.502
67.859
40.204
81.497
72.904
14.743
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft
13.638
2. Buchmarkt
178
24%
3.629
26%
5.920
32%
1.051
33%
2.291
Anteil an Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft
Einzelhandel mit Musikinstrumenten u. Musikalien
-
52.45.3
0,66%
104
0,84%
*2.319
0,83%
*3.677
2,36%
*381
Anteil an Gesamtwirtschaft
*1.358
154
*Sonstige Hilfsdienste des Kultur-und Unterhaltungswesens
24.186
92.32.5
34.984
100
5.392
*3.140
10.798
**3.347
1. Musikwirtschaft
*334
99
*207
134
*Betrieb von Theatern, Opern, Schauspielhäusern etc
2.471
92.32.2
244
185
2.337
*5.778
Selbstständige Musiker, Komponisten
*7.046
92.31.5
*1.301
29
*1.268
5.509
*Theater-/Konzertveranstalter
7.368
292.32.1
214
36
1.859
3.677
Musik-und Tanzensembles
5.155
92.31.2
1.867
36
1.478
3.677
Verlag von bespielten Tonträgern u. Musikverlage
5.155
22.14.0
1.867
29
1.478
5.509
Verlag von bespielten Tonträgern u. Musikverlage
7.368
22.14.0
214
185
1.859
*5.778
Musik-und Tanzensembles
*7.046
92.31.2
*1.301
99
*1.268
134
*Theater-/Konzertveranstalter
2.471
292.32.1
244
100
2.337
*3.140
Selbstständige Musiker, Komponisten
**3.347
92.31.5
*334
154
*207
24.186
*Betrieb von Theatern, Opern, Schauspielhäusern etc
34.984
92.32.2
5.392
104
10.798
*2.319
1. Musikwirtschaft
*3.677
-
*381
0,66%
*1.358
0,84%
*Sonstige Hilfsdienste des Kultur-und Unterhaltungswesens
0,83%
92.32.5
2,36%
178
Anteil an Gesamtwirtschaft
3.629
-
5.920
24%
1.051
26%
2.291
32%
Einzelhandel mit Musikinstrumenten u. Musikalien
33%
52.45.3
Anteil an Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft
181
162
67.859
174.599
81.497
247.502
14.743
40.204
13.638
72.904
2. Buchmarkt
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft
74
-
264
13.462
6.179
33.526
456
3.369
5.915
20.065
Selbstständige Schriftsteller, Autoren
Schritt II: Summe der doppelt gezählten Wirtschaftszweige
92.31.6
-
239
188.060
40.462
281.028
43.136
43.572
10.294
92.968
2.674
Schritt I: Kulturwirtschaft Summe einschl. doppelter Zählung
Buchverlag
-
22.11.1
2,70%
124
3,20%
27.133
2,60%
32.182
7,10%
Anteil an Gesamtwirtschaft
3.993
135
5.049
718.667
Kultur-und Kreativwirtschaft Nr.1.-12 nach Söndermann
Einzelhandel mit Büchern
938.043
Wirtschaftszweig
52.47.2
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
126.377
WZ 2003
Selbstständige u. Unternehmen (1) Anzahl
219.376
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft nach Teilmärkten (Bundesgebiet 2006)
Umsatz (2) In Mio EUR
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft
Erwerbstätige (3) Anzahl
ür die Erfassung der Kunstproduktion einschl. der vorgelagerten Bereiche (etwa die Musikinstrumentenhersteller) und der nachgelagerten Bereiche (Veranstalter, Verwerter, Verbreiter) kann auf ein Instrumentarium der Europäischen Union, die »Nomenclature statistique des Activités économiques dans la Communauté Européenne / Statistische Systematik der Wirtschaftszweige in der Europäischen Gemeinschaft / NACE Rev. 2, Ausgabe 2008« zurückgegriffen werden. Auf ihr basiert die aktuelle »WZ 2008«, die Deutsche Klassifikation der Wirtschaftszweige von 2008. Im Auftrag der Arbeitsgruppe Kulturwirtschaft der Wirtschaftsministerkonferenz hat Ende 2009 Michael Söndermann, Büro für Kulturwirtschaftsfor-
Sozialversicherungspflichtige Beschäftigte(4) Anzahl
F
schung Köln, einen »Leitfaden zur Erstellung einer statistischen Datengrundlage für die Kulturwirtschaft und eine länderübergreifende Auswertung kulturwirtschaftlicher Daten« vorgelegt. Die dort gegebene Gruppierung überzeugt nicht für den vorliegenden Ausführungen zugrundegelegten Kulturbegriff. Sinnvoller erscheint uns eine Rubrizierung von »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft«. Eine solche läßt sich aus der bei Söndermann enthaltenen Aufstellung von 12 der Kultur-und Kreativwirtschaft zugerechneten Wirtschaftszweigen nach Teilmärkten für das Bundesgebiet gewinnen. Ihre Eckdaten sind 72.904Selbstständige u. Unternehmen; 40.204 Mio EUR Umsatz; 247.502 Erwerbstätige; 174.599 sozialversicherungspflichtige Beschäftigte; 162 TEUR Umsatz jeErwerbstätigem.
Umsatz je Erwerbstätigem (5) In TEUR
6. Kultur als Wirtschaftsphänomen
123
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft 3. Kunstmarkt
10.985
1.767
15.249
4.264
116
8.039
713
9.489
1.450
75
*2.003
*588
*3.670
*1.667
**160
943
466
*2.090
*1.147
223
4. Filmwirtschaft
17.654
7.609
53.850
36.196
141
92.31.7
*Selbstständige Bühnenkünstler
*8.924
*754
*10.369
*1.445
*73
92.11.0
Film-/TV-und Videofilmherstellung
6.600
3.788
30.682
24.082
123
92.12.0
Filmverleih-und Videoprogrammanbieter
1.145
1.621
3.641
2.496
445
92.13.0
Kinos
985
1.446
9.158
8.173
158
5. Rundfunkwirtschaft
17.504
8.623
40.307
22.803
214
92.40.2
*Selbstständige Journalisten
16.615
1.197
18.174
1.559
66
92.20.0
Rundfunkveranst., H.v.-Hörfunk-,TVprogr.
889
7.426
22.133
21.244
336
17.320
4.155
36.899
19.579
113
8.924
754
10.369
1.445
73
92.31.3
Selbstständige bildende Künstler
52.48.2**
Kunsthandel (Schätzung)
92.52.1
Museumsshops (mit privatwirtschaftlichen Betriebsteilen, Schätzung) Kunstausst.
6. Markt für darstellende Künste 92.31.7
*Selbstständige Bühnenkünstler
92.31.8
Selbstständige Artist/innen
531
36
626
95
58
92.31.1
Theaterensembles
108
41
1.233
1.125
33
92.32.1
*Theater-/Konzertveranstalter
1.268
1.301
7.046
5.778
185
92.32.2
*Betrieb von Theatern, Opern, Schauspielhäusern etc
207
334
3.347
3.140
100
92.32.3
Varietes u. Kleinkunstbühnen
203
74
807
604
92
92.32.5
*Sonstige Hilfsdienste des Kultur-und Unterhaltungswesens
1.358
381
3.677
2.319
104
92.34.1
Tanzschulen
1.522
198
3.020
1.498
66
92.34.2
Weitere Kultur-/Unterhaltungseinrichtungen (Zirkus, Akrobaten, Puppentheater)
3.199
1.036
6.774
3.575
153
7. Designwirtschaft
0
0
0
0
8. Architekturmarkt
0
0
0
0
9. Pressemarkt
0
0
0
0
10. Werbemarkt
0
0
0
0
11. Software-/ Games-Industrie
0
0
0
0
5.069
1.283
18.242
13.173
70
1.266
136
2.671
1.405
51
12. Sonstiges 92.31.4
Selbstständige Restauratoren
92.51.0
Bibliotheken/Archive
74
20
1.037
963
19
92.52.2
Betrieb von Denkmalstätten
65
24
188
123
128
92.53.0
Botanische u. zoologische Gärten sowie Naturparks
300
209
770
470
271
92.33.0
Schaustellergewerbe und Vergnügungsparks
3.364
894
13.576
10.212
66
Quelle: Abgrenzung M. Vogt auf der Grundlage von Söndermann: Leitfaden (2009), dieser basierend auf Umsatzsteuerstatistik, Destatis, Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit, Berechnungen M. Söndermann. Hinweise nach Söndermann: (*): mehreren Teilmärkten zugeordnet. (**) Schätzwerte Schätzung Kunsthandel. (1) Steuerpflichtige Unternehmen umfassen alle freiberuflichen undselbstständigen Unternehmer/innen mit einem steuerbaren Umsatz (2) von mindestens 17.500 EUR im Jahr. (3) Erwerbstätige umfassen alle Selbstständigen und abhängig Beschäftigten mit sozialversicherungspflichtigen Arbeitsplätzen (4) ohne Minijobs
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
123
Quelle: Abgrenzung M. Vogt auf der Grundlage von Söndermann: Leitfaden (2009), dieser basierend auf Umsatzsteuerstatistik, Destatis, Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit, Berechnungen M. Söndermann. Hinweise nach Söndermann: (*): mehreren Teilmärkten zugeordnet. (**) Schätzwerte Schätzung Kunsthandel. (1) Steuerpflichtige Unternehmen umfassen alle freiberuflichen undselbstständigen Unternehmer/innen mit einem steuerbaren Umsatz (2) von mindestens 17.500 EUR im Jahr. (3) Erwerbstätige umfassen alle Selbstständigen und abhängig Beschäftigten mit sozialversicherungspflichtigen Arbeitsplätzen (4) ohne Minijobs Schaustellergewerbe und Vergnügungsparks
92.33.0
Botanische u. zoologische Gärten sowie Naturparks
92.53.0
Betrieb von Denkmalstätten
92.52.2
Bibliotheken/Archive
92.51.0
Selbstständige Restauratoren
92.31.4 12. Sonstiges
3.364 300 65 74 1.266 5.069 0
11. Software-/ Games-Industrie
0
10. Werbemarkt
0
9. Pressemarkt
0
8. Architekturmarkt
0
7. Designwirtschaft 92.34.2 92.34.1 92.32.5 92.32.3 92.32.2 92.32.1
Weitere Kultur-/Unterhaltungseinrichtungen (Zirkus, Akrobaten, Puppentheater) Tanzschulen *Sonstige Hilfsdienste des Kultur-und Unterhaltungswesens Varietes u. Kleinkunstbühnen *Betrieb von Theatern, Opern, Schauspielhäusern etc *Theater-/Konzertveranstalter Theaterensembles
92.31.1
Selbstständige Artist/innen
92.31.8
*Selbstständige Bühnenkünstler
92.31.7
6. Markt für darstellende Künste Rundfunkveranst., H.v.-Hörfunk-,TVprogr.
92.20.0
*Selbstständige Journalisten
92.40.2
5. Rundfunkwirtschaft Kinos
92.13.0
Filmverleih-und Videoprogrammanbieter
92.12.0
Film-/TV-und Videofilmherstellung
92.11.0
*Selbstständige Bühnenkünstler
92.31.7
4. Filmwirtschaft Museumsshops (mit privatwirtschaftlichen Betriebsteilen, Schätzung) Kunstausst.
92.52.1
Kunsthandel (Schätzung)
52.48.2**
Selbstständige bildende Künstler
92.31.3 3. Kunstmarkt
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft
3.199 1.522 1.358 203 207 1.268 108 531 8.924 17.320 889 16.615 17.504 985 1.145 6.600 *8.924 17.654 943 *2.003 8.039 10.985
894 209 24 20 136 1.283 0 0 0 0 0 1.036 198 381 74 334 1.301 41 36 754 4.155 7.426 1.197 8.623 1.446 1.621 3.788 *754 7.609 466 *588 713 1.767
13.576 770 188 1.037 2.671 18.242 0 0 0 0 0 6.774 3.020 3.677 807 3.347 7.046 1.233 626 10.369 36.899 22.133 18.174 40.307 9.158 3.641 30.682 *10.369 53.850 *2.090 *3.670 9.489 15.249
10.212 470 123 963 1.405 13.173
66 271 128 19 51 70
0 0 0 0 0 3.575 1.498 2.319 604 3.140 5.778 1.125 95 1.445 19.579 21.244 1.559 22.803 8.173 2.496 24.082 *1.445 36.196 *1.147 *1.667 1.450 4.264
153 66 104 92 100 185 33 58 73 113 336 66 214 158 445 123 *73 141 223 **160 75 116
124 WZ 2003
Wirtschaftszweig
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft nach Teilmärkten (Bundesgebiet 2006)
125
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft nach Teilmärkten
In der obigen Tabelle »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft« sind gegenüber der von Söndermann im Auftrag der Wirtschaftsministerkonferenz gegebenen Aufstellung eine Reihe von Wirtschaftszweigen nicht berücksichtigt worden. Sie machen zwischen 67% und 75% des Gesamtbereichs »Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft« aus, also die Mehrzahl:
Mit dem oben gewählten Begriff »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft« lassen sich Kunst in einer engeren und Kultur durchaus in einer weiteren Definition bis hin zu Zoologischen Gärten (im Weltmaßstab die meistgepflegte kommunale Kultursparte), dem Zirkus und dem Schaustellergewerbe, den Tanzschulen und dem gesamten Rundfunkbetrieb fassen. Demgegenüber bündelt
Umsatz je Erwerbstätigem (5) In TEUR
Sozialversicherungspflichtige Beschäftigte(4) Anzahl
Erwerbstätige (3) Anzahl
Umsatz (2) In Mio EUR
Selbstständige u. Unternehmen (1) Anzahl
544.069
690.541
86.174
146.473
Sonstige Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
-
124
76%
79
74%
270.086
68%
305.805
67%
24.103
Anteil an Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft
35.719
Softwarehäuser
-
72.20.0
2,04%
79
2,36%
270.086
1,77%
305.805
4,74%
24.103
Anteil an Gesamtwirtschaft
35.719
124
11. Software-/ Games-Industrie
81.419
266
120.147
32.011
14.869
49.690
38.728
13.203
7. Designwirtschaft
17.679
78
Werbung/ Werbevermittlung
5.228
74.40.2
8.683
*136
680
*70.503
3.455
*92.331
Industriedesign
*12.594
74.20.6
*21.828
83
*Kommunikationsdesign/Werbegestaltung
5.688
74.40.1
19.133
182
1.595
102.514
13.445
142.021
Produkt-/Grafikdesign
25.797
74.87.4
39.507
*136
10. Werbemarkt
*70.503
453
*92.331
4.654
*12.594
7.554
*21.828
3.419
*Kommunikationsdesign/Werbegestaltung
2.900
74.40.1
Sonstiges Verlagswesen
73
22.15.0
59.889
277
99.626
35.027
7.286
36.759
39.737
10.172
8. Architekturmarkt
1.732
74
Zeitschriftenverlag
50.127
22.13.0
84.251
208
6.246
50.271
34.124
50.971
Architekturbüros f. Hochbau u. Innenarchitektur
10.617
74.20.1
700
66
Zeitungsverlag
6.293
22.12.0
9.425
298
626
3.532
3.132
3.701
Architekturbüros für Orts-, Regional-u. Landesplanung
1.102
74.20.2
169
70
Verlegen von Adressbüchern
3.469
22.11.2
5.950
112
414
6.400
2.481
7.201
Architekturbüros für Garten-u. Landschaftsgestaltung
804
74.20.3
801
220
Korrespondenz- und Nachrichtenbüros
101.443
92.40.1
124.360
*66
27.311
*1.559
22.917
*18.174
9. Pressemarkt
*1.197
*66
*16.615
*1.559
*Selbstständige Journalisten
*18.174
92.40.2
*1.197
220
*16.615
101.443
*Selbstständige Journalisten
124.360
92.40.2
27.311
112
22.917
6.400
9. Pressemarkt
7.201
70
804
3.469
801
5.950
Korrespondenz- und Nachrichtenbüros
414
92.40.1
2.481
298
Architekturbüros für Garten-u. Landschaftsgestaltung
3.532
74.20.3
3.701
66
1.102
6.293
169
9.425
Verlegen von Adressbüchern
626
22.11.2
3.132
208
Architekturbüros für Orts-, Regional-u. Landesplanung
50.271
74.20.2
50.971
74
10.617
50.127
700
84.251
Zeitungsverlag
6.246
22.12.0
34.124
277
Architekturbüros f. Hochbau u. Innenarchitektur
35.027
74.20.1
36.759
73
10.172
59.889
1.732
99.626
Zeitschriftenverlag
7.286
22.13.0
39.737
453
8. Architekturmarkt
4.654
*136
7.554
*70.503
3.419
*92.331
2.900
*12.594
*Kommunikationsdesign/Werbegestaltung
Sonstiges Verlagswesen
*21.828
74.40.1
22.15.0
83
182
5.688
102.514
19.133
142.021
1.595
Produkt-/Grafikdesign
25.797
13.445
74.87.4
39.507
78
10. Werbemarkt
5.228
*136
8.683
*70.503
680
Industriedesign
*92.331
3.455
74.20.6
*12.594
124
*21.828
81.419
*Kommunikationsdesign/Werbegestaltung
120.147
74.40.1
14.869
266
38.728
32.011
7. Designwirtschaft
49.690
-
13.203
2,04%
17.679
2,36%
Werbung/ Werbevermittlung
1,77%
74.40.2
4,74%
79
Anteil an Gesamtwirtschaft
270.086
-
305.805
76%
24.103
74%
35.719
68%
11. Software-/ Games-Industrie
67%
Anteil an Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft
Selbstständige u. Unternehmen (1) Anzahl
125
Umsatz (2) In Mio EUR
544.069
Erwerbstätige (3) Anzahl
690.541
Sozialversicherungspflichtige Beschäftigte(4) Anzahl
86.174
Umsatz je Erwerbstätigem (5) In TEUR
146.473
79
Sonstige Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft
270.086
Wirtschaftszweig
305.805
WZ 2003
24.103
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft nach Teilmärkten (Bundesgebiet 2006)
35.719
Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft nach Teilmärkten
Softwarehäuser
Mit dem oben gewählten Begriff »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft« lassen sich Kunst in einer engeren und Kultur durchaus in einer weiteren Definition bis hin zu Zoologischen Gärten (im Weltmaßstab die meistgepflegte kommunale Kultursparte), dem Zirkus und dem Schaustellergewerbe, den Tanzschulen und dem gesamten Rundfunkbetrieb fassen. Demgegenüber bündelt
72.20.0
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
In der obigen Tabelle »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft« sind gegenüber der von Söndermann im Auftrag der Wirtschaftsministerkonferenz gegebenen Aufstellung eine Reihe von Wirtschaftszweigen nicht berücksichtigt worden. Sie machen zwischen 67% und 75% des Gesamtbereichs »Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft« aus, also die Mehrzahl:
125
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
der britische Begriff der »creative industries« Kommunikationsbranche (Presse, Werbung, Design), Architektur ohne Tiefbau sowie insbesondere Software-/ Games-Industrie zu einem künstlichen Ganzen. Eines der zahlreichen Probleme der politically positive besetzten Vokabel creative ist, daß alle anderen un-»kreativen« Industrien logischerweise als »unkreativ« gelten müssen. Dies aber kann so selbst für die britische Automobilindustrie nicht gelten. Von den britischen Dienstleistungen für die Finanzbranche zu schweigen. Der Charme der Vokabel liegt aus Wirtschaftssicht darin, daß die hier zusammengefaßten Wirtschaftszweige europaweit die größten Wachstumsindikatoren aufweisen, den KFZ-Bau oder die Chemieindustrie wesentlich eingeholt haben und demzufolge im besonderen Blick der Politik stehen. Die deutsche Wirtschaftsministerkonferenz definierte 2008: »Unter Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaftwerden diejenigen Kultur- und Kreativunternehmen erfasst, welche überwiegend erwerbswirtschaftlich orientiert sind und sich mit der Schaffung, Produktion, Verteilung und/oder medialen Verbreitung von kulturellen/ kreativen Gütern und Dienstleistungen befassen«. Die Enquetekommission »Kultur in Deutschland« versuchte es mit dem Schlüsselbegriff des »schöpferischen Aktes«. Dieser liegt als anthropologische Konstanten jedoch sämtlichen Artefakten des Menschen zugrunde und kann hier nichtisoliert herangezogen werden. Die Debatte hat jedoch sowohl für die Kultur im engeren Sinne wie für die Wirtschafteinen wichtigen Nebeneffekt. Söndermann bemerkt: »Es ist […] mit Nachdruck darauf hinzuweisen, dass der Begriff des schöpferischen Aktes im Konzept der Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft zusätzlich auch als eine wirtschaftliche Kategorie zu interpretieren ist. Denn die ästhetische Inhalteproduktion muss mit einem wirtschaftlichen Prozess einhergehen oder zu diesem hinführen. Der wirtschaftliche Prozess ist nicht als einfache steuerrechtliche Einschätzung zu verstehen, sondern im umfassenden Sinne«. Dies läßt sich mit Peter Bendixen zwiefach sehen: jeder wirtschaftliche Prozeß hat auch eine kulturelle Dimension, jede kulturelle eine wirtschaftliche. Kulturpolitisch führt der Begriff der Kulturwirtschaft nicht weit, wenn er mit dem künstlichen der Kreativwirtschaft vermengt wird. Zur Abgrenzung von dieser Debatte wurde oben der Begriff
»Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft« geprägt. Dieser umfaßt ein knappes Prozent des gesamtwirtschaflichen Umsatzes und der Erwerbstätigen, aber aufgrund der Kleinheit der Initiativen einen fast dreimal so hohen Ansatz an der Zahl der Unternehmen und Selbständigen. Sein harter Kern, die Produktion und Vermittlung desliterarischen, musikalischen, dramatischen, bildkünstlerischen und filmischen Schaffens, umfaßt noch immer 29,8 Mrd. EUR Umsatz, wobei aufgrund der vielfältigen Verflechtungen allgemein von einer Relation Umsatz zu BIP-Beitrag 2:1 ausgegangen werden kann. Wirtschaftspolitisch liegt damit eine bemerkenswerte Rentabilität der öffentlichen Kulturaufwendungen vor. Während das Europäische Kulturabkommen des Europarats (1954) keine verbindlichen Auswirkungen auf das Selbstverständnis der SignatarStaaten und deren Wirtschaftsprozesse beinhaltete und daher nicht zu Friktionen führte, hat sich im Zusammenhang der GATS-Verhandlungen eine Phalanx sämtlicher EU-Mitgliedsstaaten sowie der Europäische Union zusammengefunden. Die UNESCO-Konvention CulturalDiversity / Kulturelle Vielfalt wurde am 20. Oktober 2005 von der UNESCO-Vollversammlung beschlossen und hat eine Reihe von sowohl nationalen wieinternationalen Aktivitäten ausgelöst. 33 Kulturpolitik als Bestandteil von wirtschaftlichrelevanter Politik kann auf internationaler Ebene als etabliert gelten.
7. Zivilgesellschaft
»K
ulturelle Bildung« ist ein aktuelles kulturpolitisches Schlagwort, logisch jedoch ein bloßes Hendiadyoin. Cultura zielte schon beim ersten geschichtlichen Auftreten (Cicero: disputationes tusculane, 45 v.Chr.) auf den Bildungsprozeß (junger) Menschen ab; Bildung ist immer sowohl ein kultivierendes wie ein raumspezifisches Phänomen. Angemessen wäre es aufgrund des regelmäßig intendierten Zusammenhangs mit Wort und Kunst von »musischer Bildung« zu sprechen. Indessen sind die neun Musen weit weniger emphatisch aufgeladen als der rundumpositiv besetzte Terminus »Kultur«. Mit ihm läßt sich die Jurisprudenz zur Rechtskulturveredeln, das Friseurhandwerk zur Kopfkultur, das zweitunterste Bedürfnis in Maslows hierarchy of needs34 zur Eßkultur. Ihrerseits hat »musische Bildung«
33
Vgl. www.unesco.de.
34
Maslow, Abraham H.: A Theory of Human Motivation. In: Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96.- Der vielzitierte Begriff »Pyramide« taucht hier nicht auf.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
125
Maslow, Abraham H.: A Theory of Human Motivation. In: Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96.- Der vielzitierte Begriff »Pyramide« taucht hier nicht auf.
34
Vgl. www.unesco.de.
33
der britische Begriff der »creative industries« Kommunikationsbranche (Presse, Werbung, Design), Architektur ohne Tiefbau sowie insbesondere Software-/ Games-Industrie zu einem künstlichen Ganzen. Eines der zahlreichen Probleme der politically positive besetzten Vokabel creative ist, daß alle anderen un-»kreativen« Industrien logischerweise als »unkreativ« gelten müssen. Dies aber kann so selbst für die britische Automobilindustrie nicht gelten. Von den britischen Dienstleistungen für die Finanzbranche zu schweigen. Der Charme der Vokabel liegt aus Wirtschaftssicht darin, daß die hier zusammengefaßten Wirtschaftszweige europaweit die größten Wachstumsindikatoren aufweisen, den KFZ-Bau oder die Chemieindustrie wesentlich eingeholt haben und demzufolge im besonderen Blick der Politik stehen. Die deutsche Wirtschaftsministerkonferenz definierte 2008: »Unter Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaftwerden diejenigen Kultur- und Kreativunternehmen erfasst, welche überwiegend erwerbswirtschaftlich orientiert sind und sich mit der Schaffung, Produktion, Verteilung und/oder medialen Verbreitung von kulturellen/ kreativen Gütern und Dienstleistungen befassen«. Die Enquetekommission »Kultur in Deutschland« versuchte es mit dem Schlüsselbegriff des »schöpferischen Aktes«. Dieser liegt als anthropologische Konstanten jedoch sämtlichen Artefakten des Menschen zugrunde und kann hier nichtisoliert herangezogen werden. Die Debatte hat jedoch sowohl für die Kultur im engeren Sinne wie für die Wirtschafteinen wichtigen Nebeneffekt. Söndermann bemerkt: »Es ist […] mit Nachdruck darauf hinzuweisen, dass der Begriff des schöpferischen Aktes im Konzept der Kultur- und Kreativwirtschaft zusätzlich auch als eine wirtschaftliche Kategorie zu interpretieren ist. Denn die ästhetische Inhalteproduktion muss mit einem wirtschaftlichen Prozess einhergehen oder zu diesem hinführen. Der wirtschaftliche Prozess ist nicht als einfache steuerrechtliche Einschätzung zu verstehen, sondern im umfassenden Sinne«. Dies läßt sich mit Peter Bendixen zwiefach sehen: jeder wirtschaftliche Prozeß hat auch eine kulturelle Dimension, jede kulturelle eine wirtschaftliche. Kulturpolitisch führt der Begriff der Kulturwirtschaft nicht weit, wenn er mit dem künstlichen der Kreativwirtschaft vermengt wird. Zur Abgrenzung von dieser Debatte wurde oben der Begriff
ulturelle Bildung« ist ein aktuelles kulturpolitisches Schlagwort, logisch jedoch ein bloßes Hendiadyoin. Cultura zielte schon beim ersten geschichtlichen Auftreten (Cicero: disputationes tusculane, 45 v.Chr.) auf den Bildungsprozeß (junger) Menschen ab; Bildung ist immer sowohl ein kultivierendes wie ein raumspezifisches Phänomen. Angemessen wäre es aufgrund des regelmäßig intendierten Zusammenhangs mit Wort und Kunst von »musischer Bildung« zu sprechen. Indessen sind die neun Musen weit weniger emphatisch aufgeladen als der rundumpositiv besetzte Terminus »Kultur«. Mit ihm läßt sich die Jurisprudenz zur Rechtskulturveredeln, das Friseurhandwerk zur Kopfkultur, das zweitunterste Bedürfnis in Maslows hierarchy of needs34 zur Eßkultur. Ihrerseits hat »musische Bildung«
»K
7. Zivilgesellschaft »Kunst- und Unterhaltungswirtschaft« geprägt. Dieser umfaßt ein knappes Prozent des gesamtwirtschaflichen Umsatzes und der Erwerbstätigen, aber aufgrund der Kleinheit der Initiativen einen fast dreimal so hohen Ansatz an der Zahl der Unternehmen und Selbständigen. Sein harter Kern, die Produktion und Vermittlung desliterarischen, musikalischen, dramatischen, bildkünstlerischen und filmischen Schaffens, umfaßt noch immer 29,8 Mrd. EUR Umsatz, wobei aufgrund der vielfältigen Verflechtungen allgemein von einer Relation Umsatz zu BIP-Beitrag 2:1 ausgegangen werden kann. Wirtschaftspolitisch liegt damit eine bemerkenswerte Rentabilität der öffentlichen Kulturaufwendungen vor. Während das Europäische Kulturabkommen des Europarats (1954) keine verbindlichen Auswirkungen auf das Selbstverständnis der SignatarStaaten und deren Wirtschaftsprozesse beinhaltete und daher nicht zu Friktionen führte, hat sich im Zusammenhang der GATS-Verhandlungen eine Phalanx sämtlicher EU-Mitgliedsstaaten sowie der Europäische Union zusammengefunden. Die UNESCO-Konvention CulturalDiversity / Kulturelle Vielfalt wurde am 20. Oktober 2005 von der UNESCO-Vollversammlung beschlossen und hat eine Reihe von sowohl nationalen wieinternationalen Aktivitäten ausgelöst. 33 Kulturpolitik als Bestandteil von wirtschaftlichrelevanter Politik kann auf internationaler Ebene als etabliert gelten.
126
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Peetz (2007), a.a.O.
35 »Der Begriff wurde innerhalb der reformpädagogik der 1920er-Jahre geprägt; seine Wurzeln liegen u. a. in der Jugendbewegung. […] Seit ende der 1960er-Jahre gilt sie […] im Bereich der sozialen arbeit, in dem sie sich angesichts allgemeiner theoriedefizite bis dahin halten konnte, als überholt. Hier setzten die konzepte der Ästhetischen erziehung an. aufgrund politischer Vorgaben wird aber der Begriff des Musischen vor allem in der Jugendkulturarbeit seit Mitte der 1980er-Jahre wiederverwendet in Wortkombinationen, wie ›musisch ästhetische erziehung‹ oder ›musische Bildung und Medienerziehung‹.« Peez, georg: Musische Bildung. in: Fachlexikon der sozialen Arbeit. frankfurt a. M. (Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private fürsorge) 6. auflage 2007, S. 662-663.
Quelle: Schweizerisches Bundesamt für Statistik (2009): Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008.
eine komplexeBegriffsgeschichte, 35 wie Peez ausführt und bezieht sich zunächst einmal auf einen formalisierten Schulungsvorgang: »ihr zentrales Merkmal ist das Prinzip einer ganzheitlichen Menschenbildung, bei der eine kulturkritische einstellung und die Berufung auf die [sic!] schöpferischen Vermögen des Menschen im Vordergrundstehen.«36 Wie der schöne Plural »die schöpferischen Vermögen« zeigt, geht es bei der kulturellen oder Musischen Bildung zunächst nicht um die
künste als Selbstzweck, sondern um deren fähigkeit, die kreativen anlagen des individuums zu entfalten und ihm an die Spitze von Maslows self-actualization (»What a man can be, he must be.«37) zu verhelfen. klavier oder geige sind bewährte Pfadfinder auf diesem Weg. Wie jüngst eine reihe von Studien38 darlegen konnte, sind ein paar Schulstunden Mathematik weniger und ein paar Musikstunden mehr ein treffliches Mittel für bessere Mathematiknoten. Jenseits dieser unvermittelten funktion »ars gratia culturae« geht es dann wiederum nicht um die künste als Selbstzweck »ars gratia artis«, sondern um ihre anthropologische Spitzenfunktion »ars gratia libertatis«, dann nämlich wenn sie den Menschen als homo ludens39 entfalten, der mit Schiller nur dort ganz Menschen ist, wo er spielt.40 ihre Sphäre ist der gegenbegriff zum mittelhochdeutschen »arebeit«, der not und Mühe um die Befriedigung physiologischer Bedürfnisse. Ob auf erhebung durch kunst im spätbürgerlichen Verständnis zielend oder auf unterhaltung in einemgesamtgesellschaftlichen Verständnis, ob eigenschöpferisch oder rezeptiv genossen, die Musen bilden seit den griechen ein kernstück des europäischen Selbstverständnisses von Zivilgesellschaft. Die jüngste Schweizer Studie41 zum kulturverhalten der erwachsenen Bevölkerung zeigt, daß rund zwei Drittel der Bevölkerung regelmäßig (einbis sechsmal im Jahr) konzerte, historische Stätten oder kinos besuchen; die Hälfte der Bevölkerung in Museen, Zirkus oder theater geht; ein Drittel festivals und Bibliotheken aufsucht. Studien in anderen ländern zeigen ähnliche ergebnisse.42 Hierbei sind unterschiede im alter relativ insignifikant, die von Bildung und einkommen signifikant. als wichtigste Hindernisse für die ausübung kultureller
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
36
126
Maslow, abraham. Motivation and personality. new York 1954. S. 91.
Vgl. zu Frankreich, Österreich, Europäische Union u.a. Donnat, O.: Les Pratiques culturelles des Français. Enquête 1997, La documentation française, Paris 1998. IFES Institut für empirische Sozialforschung: Kultur-Monitoring. Bevölkerungsbefragung, Wien 2007. EUROSTAT: Die Beteiligung der Europäer an kulturellen Aktivitäten. Eine Eurobarometer-Befragung im Auftrag der europäischen Kommission, Brüssel 2002. Europäische Kommission: European cultural values. Special Eurobarometer 278, Brüssel 2007.
37
42
Vgl. Bastian, Hans günther: Musik(erziehung) und ihre Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner Grundschulen. Mainz 2000.
Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Eidgenössisches Deparement des Inneren, Bundesamt für Statistik: Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008. Erste Ergebnisse. Neuchâtel, 2009.- Die Gesamtergebnisse sollen 2010 vorgelegt werden.
38
Schiller, Friedrich [von]: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795).
41
Huizinga, Johan: Homo Ludens, proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur. Haarlem, 1938.
Huizinga, Johan: Homo Ludens, proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur. Haarlem, 1938.
40
39
Vgl. Bastian, Hans Günther: Musik(erziehung) und ihre Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner Grundschulen. Mainz 2000.
39
Schiller, friedrich [von]: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795).
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and personality. New York 1954. S. 91.
38
40
Peetz (2007), a.a.O.
37
Schweizerische eidgenossenschaft, eidgenössisches Deparement des inneren, Bundesamt für Statistik: Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008. Erste Ergebnisse. neuchâtel, 2009.- Die gesamtergebnisse sollen 2010 vorgelegt werden.
36
41
35 »Der Begriff wurde innerhalb der Reformpädagogik der 1920er-Jahre geprägt; seine Wurzeln liegen u. a. in der Jugendbewegung. […] Seit Ende der 1960er-Jahre gilt sie […] im Bereich der sozialen Arbeit, in dem sie sich angesichts allgemeiner Theoriedefizite bis dahin halten konnte, als überholt. Hier setzten die Konzepte der Ästhetischen Erziehung an. Aufgrund politischer Vorgaben wird aber der Begriff des Musischen vor allem in der Jugendkulturarbeit seit Mitte der 1980er-Jahre wiederverwendet in Wortkombinationen, wie ›musisch ästhetische Erziehung‹ oder ›musische Bildung und Medienerziehung‹.« Peez, Georg: Musische Bildung. In: Fachlexikon der sozialen Arbeit. Frankfurt a. M. (Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private Fürsorge) 6. Auflage 2007, S. 662-663.
42
Quelle: Schweizerisches Bundesamt für Statistik (2009): Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008.
Künste als Selbstzweck, sondern um deren Fähigkeit, die kreativen Anlagen des Individuums zu entfalten und ihm an die Spitze von Maslows self-actualization (»What a man can be, he must be.«37) zu verhelfen. Klavier oder Geige sind bewährte Pfadfinder auf diesem Weg. Wie jüngst eine Reihe von Studien38 darlegen konnte, sind ein paar Schulstunden Mathematik weniger und ein paar Musikstunden mehr ein treffliches Mittel für bessere Mathematiknoten. Jenseits dieser unvermittelten Funktion »ars gratia culturae« geht es dann wiederum nicht um die Künste als Selbstzweck »ars gratia artis«, sondern um ihre anthropologische Spitzenfunktion »ars gratia libertatis«, dann nämlich wenn sie den Menschen als homo ludens39 entfalten, der mit Schiller nur dort ganz Menschen ist, wo er spielt.40 Ihre Sphäre ist der Gegenbegriff zum mittelhochdeutschen »arebeit«, der Not und Mühe um die Befriedigung physiologischer Bedürfnisse. Ob auf Erhebung durch Kunst im spätbürgerlichen Verständnis zielend oder auf Unterhaltung in einemgesamtgesellschaftlichen Verständnis, ob eigenschöpferisch oder rezeptiv genossen, die Musen bilden seit den Griechen ein Kernstück des europäischen Selbstverständnisses von Zivilgesellschaft. Die jüngste Schweizer Studie41 zum Kulturverhalten der erwachsenen Bevölkerung zeigt, daß rund zwei Drittel der Bevölkerung regelmäßig (einbis sechsmal im Jahr) Konzerte, historische Stätten oder Kinos besuchen; die Hälfte der Bevölkerung in Museen, Zirkus oder Theater geht; ein Drittel Festivals und Bibliotheken aufsucht. Studien in anderen Ländern zeigen ähnliche Ergebnisse.42 Hierbei sind Unterschiede im Alter relativ insignifikant, die von Bildung und Einkommen signifikant. Als wichtigste Hindernisse für die Ausübung kultureller
Vgl. zu frankreich, Österreich, europäische union u.a. Donnat, O.: Les Pratiques culturelles des Français. enquête 1997, la documentation française, Paris 1998. ifeS institut für empirische Sozialforschung: Kultur-Monitoring. Bevölkerungsbefragung, Wien 2007. eurOStat: Die Beteiligung der europäer an kulturellen aktivitäten. eine eurobarometer-Befragung im auftrag der europäischen kommission, Brüssel 2002. europäische kommission: european cultural values. Special eurobarometer 278, Brüssel 2007.
eine komplexeBegriffsgeschichte, 35 wie Peez ausführt und bezieht sich zunächst einmal auf einen formalisierten Schulungsvorgang: »Ihr zentrales Merkmal ist das Prinzip einer ganzheitlichen Menschenbildung, bei der eine kulturkritische Einstellung und die Berufung auf die [sic!] schöpferischen Vermögen des Menschen im Vordergrundstehen.«36 Wie der schöne Plural »die schöpferischen Vermögen« zeigt, geht es bei der Kulturellen oder Musischen Bildung zunächst nicht um die
127
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Aktivitäten werden zeitliche Rahmenbedingungen genannt (je nach Feld zwischen 50% und 70%), die Kosten dagegen stellen lediglich ein Hindernis von durchschnittlich 15% dar. Jeder Deutsche gibt für seine Beschäftigung mit Literatur und den weiteren Künsten –kulturelle Dienstleistungen oder Produkte in der Terminologie des Warenkorbs desStatistischen Bundesamt – 344,- EUR pro Jahr aus; dies sind zusammen 28 Mrd. EUR. Die ursprüngliche böotische Trias43 der Musen Melete, Mneme und Aoide übersetzt Burckhardt44 mit Eifer [im Sinne von studium], Erinnerung und Gesang. In der Tat ist der zentrale Begriff, der den alten Griechischen für wissenschaftliche Praxis zur Verfügung stand, der der Wortgruppe μελετάω: Überdenken, Studieren, Üben. Ihnen widmen schon die heutigen Lehrlinge die Hälfte ihrer Woche, im Zeitalter des life long learning bilden sie Europas entscheidende Chance für Wirtschaftspotenz. Mit der Erinnerungskunst Mneme kann der Einbezug historischen Denkens charakterisiert werden, wie er seit dem Erfolg der Stuttgarter Staufer-Landesausstellung 1976 immer breitere Bevölkerungskreise interessiert. Die Metapher Aoide schließlich steht für die kreative Umsetzung des Gedachten und Erinnerten, mit der die Ergebnisse von Überdenken und historischer Reflexion in künstlerische oder geisteswissenschaftliche Form gebracht werden. Die Gruppe der kunstbezogenen Aktivitäten der Zivilgesellschaft kann in diesem Sinn als »musische Kultur« angesprochen werden. Sie bildet in einer hinreichend scharfen Definition den Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft für jenes Segment der Kulturpolitik, das vom ersten Akteur von Politik ausgeht, der Zivilgesellschaft. Πολιτείαmeint ja zunächst die Interaktion von »mehr als zwei« (πολύ) Menschen und beschränkt die Kunst des Gemeinwohls nicht notwendigerweise auf die verfaßte Staats- undKommunalebene. Das Verständnis von Kultur als Schutzwehr des Gemeinwesens hat in Deutschland Tradition. Der spätere Freiburger Universitätslehrer Ernst
Wolfgang Böckenförde stellte 1967 die Frage »Woraus lebt der Staat, worin findet er die ihn tragende, homogenitätsverbürgende Kraft und inneren Regulierungskräfte der Freiheit, deren er bedarf?“ und antwortete offen: »Der freiheitliche, säkularisierte Staat lebt von Voraussetzungen, die er selbst nicht garantieren kann.«45 Anknüpfend an die Arbeiterbildungsvereine des 19. Jahrhunderts fungieren in den sogenannten A-Ländern (traditionell SPD-regiert) die zuständigen Ressorts als »Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kultur«. In den sogenannten B-Ländern (traditionell CDU-regiert) dominiert der Begriff »Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst«. Faktisch zielen beide auf die gleiche »musische Kultur« und die Funktion der Künste für die Selbstentfaltung der Gesellschaft und ihrer Mitglieder (ars gratia culturae).
8. Geisteswissenschaften
D
as Statistikamt der Europäischen Union Eurostat (und die weiteren Berechnungen zum Kulturaufwand) übersieht regelmäßig eine zentrale Ressource der Kultur: die Geisteswissenschaften. Dies ist bei der EU systemimmanent. Ihr Richtschnur ist Fichtes »praktische Kunst der Anwendung im Leben«.46 Sie benennt die scienda, das was man wissen muß, mit »science« und reduziert so schon im primären Sprachverständnis den Kanon der Wissenschaften auf Natur-, Lebensund Technikwissenschaften. Diesen gelten im 7. Forschungsrahmenprogramm (2007-2013) neun von zehn topics. Auf die »socio-economic sciences and the humanities«47 entfallen 623 Mio. EUR oder 1,9% von 32.413 Mio EUR. Dies entspricht einer Fördergröße von 0,18 EUR pro Einwohner und Jahr. Die deutsche Fassung »Geistes-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften« übertreibt; die englische spricht nur vom Teilgebiet der »Sozioökononomischen Forschung«, also den humanogenen Faktoren innerhalb der Wirtschaftsentwicklung, und eben den humaniora.
43
Pausanias IX, 29,2.- Vgl. zur weiteren Entwicklung Ettlinger, L. D.: Die Verwandlung der Musen in die sieben Freien Künste. In: Sitzungsberichte der Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft, Berlin 1960/61.
44
Burckhardt, Jacob: Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Band 20. Griechische Kulturgeschichte. Zweiter Band, Dritter Abschnitt: Religion und Kultus. II. Die Griechen und ihre Götter. München, Basel 2005. Rn. zu S. 67 Sp. 24.
45
Böckenförde, Ernst Wolfgang: Die Entstehung des Staates als Vorgang der Säkularisation (1967), wieder veröffentlicht in: ders., Recht, Staat, Freiheit, Frankfurt am Main 1991. S. 111 bzw. 112.
46
»Ferner haben mehrere bisher an den Universitäten bearbeitete Fächer (als die soeben erwähnte Theologie, die Jurisprudenz, die Medizin) einen Teil, der nicht zur wissenschaftlichen Kunst, sondern zu der sehr verschiedenen praktischen Kunst der Anwendung im Leben gehört.« Fichte: Deduzierter Plan, § 22. Vgl. Schelsky: Einsamkeit und Freiheit. Reinbek 1963, S. 88.
47
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/budget_en.html.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
127
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/budget_en.html.
47
»Ferner haben mehrere bisher an den Universitäten bearbeitete Fächer (als die soeben erwähnte Theologie, die Jurisprudenz, die Medizin) einen Teil, der nicht zur wissenschaftlichen Kunst, sondern zu der sehr verschiedenen praktischen Kunst der Anwendung im Leben gehört.« Fichte: Deduzierter Plan, § 22. Vgl. Schelsky: Einsamkeit und Freiheit. Reinbek 1963, S. 88.
46
Böckenförde, Ernst Wolfgang: Die Entstehung des Staates als Vorgang der Säkularisation (1967), wieder veröffentlicht in: ders., Recht, Staat, Freiheit, Frankfurt am Main 1991. S. 111 bzw. 112.
45
Burckhardt, Jacob: Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Band 20. Griechische Kulturgeschichte. Zweiter Band, Dritter Abschnitt: Religion und Kultus. II. Die Griechen und ihre Götter. München, Basel 2005. Rn. zu S. 67 Sp. 24.
44
Pausanias IX, 29,2.- Vgl. zur weiteren Entwicklung Ettlinger, L. D.: Die Verwandlung der Musen in die sieben Freien Künste. In: Sitzungsberichte der Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft, Berlin 1960/61.
43
Aktivitäten werden zeitliche Rahmenbedingungen genannt (je nach Feld zwischen 50% und 70%), die Kosten dagegen stellen lediglich ein Hindernis von durchschnittlich 15% dar. Jeder Deutsche gibt für seine Beschäftigung mit Literatur und den weiteren Künsten –kulturelle Dienstleistungen oder Produkte in der Terminologie des Warenkorbs desStatistischen Bundesamt – 344,- EUR pro Jahr aus; dies sind zusammen 28 Mrd. EUR. Die ursprüngliche böotische Trias43 der Musen Melete, Mneme und Aoide übersetzt Burckhardt44 mit Eifer [im Sinne von studium], Erinnerung und Gesang. In der Tat ist der zentrale Begriff, der den alten Griechischen für wissenschaftliche Praxis zur Verfügung stand, der der Wortgruppe μελετάω: Überdenken, Studieren, Üben. Ihnen widmen schon die heutigen Lehrlinge die Hälfte ihrer Woche, im Zeitalter des life long learning bilden sie Europas entscheidende Chance für Wirtschaftspotenz. Mit der Erinnerungskunst Mneme kann der Einbezug historischen Denkens charakterisiert werden, wie er seit dem Erfolg der Stuttgarter Staufer-Landesausstellung 1976 immer breitere Bevölkerungskreise interessiert. Die Metapher Aoide schließlich steht für die kreative Umsetzung des Gedachten und Erinnerten, mit der die Ergebnisse von Überdenken und historischer Reflexion in künstlerische oder geisteswissenschaftliche Form gebracht werden. Die Gruppe der kunstbezogenen Aktivitäten der Zivilgesellschaft kann in diesem Sinn als »musische Kultur« angesprochen werden. Sie bildet in einer hinreichend scharfen Definition den Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft für jenes Segment der Kulturpolitik, das vom ersten Akteur von Politik ausgeht, der Zivilgesellschaft. Πολιτείαmeint ja zunächst die Interaktion von »mehr als zwei« (πολύ) Menschen und beschränkt die Kunst des Gemeinwohls nicht notwendigerweise auf die verfaßte Staats- undKommunalebene. Das Verständnis von Kultur als Schutzwehr des Gemeinwesens hat in Deutschland Tradition. Der spätere Freiburger Universitätslehrer Ernst
as Statistikamt der Europäischen Union Eurostat (und die weiteren Berechnungen zum Kulturaufwand) übersieht regelmäßig eine zentrale Ressource der Kultur: die Geisteswissenschaften. Dies ist bei der EU systemimmanent. Ihr Richtschnur ist Fichtes »praktische Kunst der Anwendung im Leben«.46 Sie benennt die scienda, das was man wissen muß, mit »science« und reduziert so schon im primären Sprachverständnis den Kanon der Wissenschaften auf Natur-, Lebensund Technikwissenschaften. Diesen gelten im 7. Forschungsrahmenprogramm (2007-2013) neun von zehn topics. Auf die »socio-economic sciences and the humanities«47 entfallen 623 Mio. EUR oder 1,9% von 32.413 Mio EUR. Dies entspricht einer Fördergröße von 0,18 EUR pro Einwohner und Jahr. Die deutsche Fassung »Geistes-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften« übertreibt; die englische spricht nur vom Teilgebiet der »Sozioökononomischen Forschung«, also den humanogenen Faktoren innerhalb der Wirtschaftsentwicklung, und eben den humaniora.
D
8. Geisteswissenschaften Wolfgang Böckenförde stellte 1967 die Frage »Woraus lebt der Staat, worin findet er die ihn tragende, homogenitätsverbürgende Kraft und inneren Regulierungskräfte der Freiheit, deren er bedarf?“ und antwortete offen: »Der freiheitliche, säkularisierte Staat lebt von Voraussetzungen, die er selbst nicht garantieren kann.«45 Anknüpfend an die Arbeiterbildungsvereine des 19. Jahrhunderts fungieren in den sogenannten A-Ländern (traditionell SPD-regiert) die zuständigen Ressorts als »Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kultur«. In den sogenannten B-Ländern (traditionell CDU-regiert) dominiert der Begriff »Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst«. Faktisch zielen beide auf die gleiche »musische Kultur« und die Funktion der Künste für die Selbstentfaltung der Gesellschaft und ihrer Mitglieder (ars gratia culturae).
128
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
8.1. Was sind die humaniora?
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
D
128
mit Kant zu argumentieren, der hier, durchaus in der Tradition Salutatis, explizit auf den Begriff der Freiheit und damit auf die spätantike Begründung von Lehre und Forschung als Befreiung des Menschen zu sich selbst rekurriert: Nun nennt man das Vermögen, nach der Autonomie, d.i. frei (Principien des Denkens überhaupt gemäß), zu urtheilen, die Vernunft. Also wird die philosophische Facultät darum, weil sie für die Wahrheit der Lehren, die sie aufnehmen oder auch nur einräumen soll, stehen muß, in so fern als frei und nur unter der Gesetzgebung der Vernunft, nicht der der Regierung stehendgedacht werden müssen. Auf einer Universität muß aber auch ein solches Departement gestiftet, d.i. es muß eine philosophische Facultät sein. In Ansehung der drei obern dient sie dazu, sie zu controlliren und ihnen eben dadurch nützlich zu werden, weil auf Wahrheit (die wesentliche und erste Bedingung der Gelehrsamkeit überhaupt) alles ankommt; die Nützlichkeit aber, welche die oberen Facultäten zum Behuf der Regierung versprechen, nur ein Moment vom zweiten Range ist. 52 Als dann nach 1800 die Länder Kontinentaleuropas unter Napoleons Armeen zusammengebrochen waren und einer geistigen Vorwärtsverteidigung bedurften, setzte sich ein neues Prinzip der Universität durch, das wir heute nach Wilhelm von Humboldt benennen. In ihm kam den Geisteswissenschaften eine zentrale Funktion zu – ohne sie und ihre staatsfinanzierte Legitimation des Staates konnte und wollte derselbe nichtmehr auskommen. Die Zinnen der Staatsbauten gaben dem Außenbild des Staates historisches Gewicht und Legitimität; die Edition des Nibelungenliedes gab dem Innenbild Gewicht. Die Germanistik schuf den so dringend benötigten Konnex zu den Germanen; die Geschichtsschreibung knüpfte an antike Autoren an und ließ den Weltgeist direkt ins Preußentum
ibid.
er von der EU benutzte Terminus »humanities« geht zurück auf den späteren Florentiner Stadtkanzler Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406). In einem Beileidsbrief spricht er 1369 von studia humanitatis.48 Die Befassung mit Grammatik, Rhetorik, Geschichte, Literatur und Moralphilosophie (also allen damals gängigen Disziplinen außerhalb der drei Ordnungs- und der Naturwissenschaften) diente im Trecento der Befähigung zum Guten Dienst am Gemeinwesen (et sibi et ceteris consulebat); nicht um gebildeter zu werden (non quo doctiores efficiamur), sondern als personale Voraussetzung für Mitgestaltungskompetenz unter dem Siegel der Menschlichkeit (quo meliores [eben nicht: melius] efficiamur).49 Unscharf – wie im heutigen Französischen oder Englischen – bleibt, ob humanitas auf Menschheit oder Menschlichkeit zielt; da Genetiv statt Dativgewählt wurde, ist ersteres anzunehmen. Die studia, die Bemühungen, zielen in jedem Fall nicht auf reinen Wissenserwerb, sondern auf Charakteroptimierung. Der Ordnung Gottes, der Ordnung der Welt und der Ordnung des Körpers galten in den mittelalterlichen Universitäten die drei oberen Fakultäten von Theologie, beiden Rechten und Medizin. Ihnen studientechnisch vorgelagert war die Fakultät der Freien Künste. In den Augen der Aufklärung sollte ihr – mit dem diesbezüglich noch heute gern zitierten50 Immanuel Kant zu sprechen – eine spezifische Funktion zukommen: Man kann die untere [philosophische] Facultät diejenige Klasse der Universität nennen, die oder so fern sie sich nur mit Lehren beschäftigt, welche nicht auf den Befehl eines Oberen zur Richtschnur angenommen werden. 51 Ihr Fächerkanon steht für die zentrale Aufgabe einer vermittelten Übernützlichkeit, um nochmals
Kant (1794): Der Streit der Facultäten in drei Abschnitten. Eingang des zweiten Abschnitts.
52
48
51
Salutati, Coluccio: Beileidsbrief an Ugolino Orsini de’ Conti di Manupello anläßlich des Tods seines Vaters, dessen Wesen und Wirken herausgestellt wird. Epistolario I, Brief XVIII, Viterbii, pridie kalendas octobris [1369]: »Omnium consensu divinarum humanarumque rerum volumina, quasi Parnassus biceps pariter continens, utriusque sophie non sophistico, non ventoso sensu, sed vere realitatis solidam existentiam attingebat, et denique omnia humanitatis studia longa exercitatione complexus ad universas vite partes et sibi et ceteris consulebat.« In: Epistolario di Coluccio Salutati, a cura di Francesco Movati, Roma, 1891 (vol. I) 1893 (vol. II), 1896 (vol. III), 1905 (vol. IV/t), 1911 (vol. IV/2). Hier Vol. 1, S. 106.
Gethmann, Carl Friedrich; Langewiesche, Dieter; Mittelstraß, Jürgen; Simon, Dieter; Stock, Günter: Manifest Geisteswissenschaft. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 2005.
49
50
Der normative Aspekt wird noch deutlicher in einem Brief Salutatis von 1398: »Alterum in quo tibi gratulor est, quod ad litterarum studia te convertas. nichil enim perseverantius nobiscum est quam habitus scientificus et humanitatis studia. habitum autem volo, non quo doctiores solum, sed quo meliores efficiamur, cuius magna pars philosophie moralis preceptis doctrinaque continetur.« Libro Nono [Brief] XXV. A Giovanni di Paoluccio Manzini della Motta di Fivizzano. Firenze, 3 dicembre 1398. Movati ecc.. Rom 1896. Vol. III, S. 330.
Der normative Aspekt wird noch deutlicher in einem Brief Salutatis von 1398: »Alterum in quo tibi gratulor est, quod ad litterarum studia te convertas. nichil enim perseverantius nobiscum est quam habitus scientificus et humanitatis studia. habitum autem volo, non quo doctiores solum, sed quo meliores efficiamur, cuius magna pars philosophie moralis preceptis doctrinaque continetur.« Libro Nono [Brief] XXV. A Giovanni di Paoluccio Manzini della Motta di Fivizzano. Firenze, 3 dicembre 1398. Movati ecc.. Rom 1896. Vol. III, S. 330.
Gethmann, Carl Friedrich; Langewiesche, Dieter; Mittelstraß, Jürgen; Simon, Dieter; Stock, Günter: Manifest Geisteswissenschaft. Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 2005.
49
50
Salutati, Coluccio: Beileidsbrief an Ugolino Orsini de’ Conti di Manupello anläßlich des Tods seines Vaters, dessen Wesen und Wirken herausgestellt wird. Epistolario I, Brief XVIII, Viterbii, pridie kalendas octobris [1369]: »Omnium consensu divinarum humanarumque rerum volumina, quasi Parnassus biceps pariter continens, utriusque sophie non sophistico, non ventoso sensu, sed vere realitatis solidam existentiam attingebat, et denique omnia humanitatis studia longa exercitatione complexus ad universas vite partes et sibi et ceteris consulebat.« In: Epistolario di Coluccio Salutati, a cura di Francesco Movati, Roma, 1891 (vol. I) 1893 (vol. II), 1896 (vol. III), 1905 (vol. IV/t), 1911 (vol. IV/2). Hier Vol. 1, S. 106.
Kant (1794): Der Streit der Facultäten in drei Abschnitten. Eingang des zweiten Abschnitts.
48
51
er von der EU benutzte Terminus »humanities« geht zurück auf den späteren Florentiner Stadtkanzler Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406). In einem Beileidsbrief spricht er 1369 von studia humanitatis.48 Die Befassung mit Grammatik, Rhetorik, Geschichte, Literatur und Moralphilosophie (also allen damals gängigen Disziplinen außerhalb der drei Ordnungs- und der Naturwissenschaften) diente im Trecento der Befähigung zum Guten Dienst am Gemeinwesen (et sibi et ceteris consulebat); nicht um gebildeter zu werden (non quo doctiores efficiamur), sondern als personale Voraussetzung für Mitgestaltungskompetenz unter dem Siegel der Menschlichkeit (quo meliores [eben nicht: melius] efficiamur).49 Unscharf – wie im heutigen Französischen oder Englischen – bleibt, ob humanitas auf Menschheit oder Menschlichkeit zielt; da Genetiv statt Dativgewählt wurde, ist ersteres anzunehmen. Die studia, die Bemühungen, zielen in jedem Fall nicht auf reinen Wissenserwerb, sondern auf Charakteroptimierung. Der Ordnung Gottes, der Ordnung der Welt und der Ordnung des Körpers galten in den mittelalterlichen Universitäten die drei oberen Fakultäten von Theologie, beiden Rechten und Medizin. Ihnen studientechnisch vorgelagert war die Fakultät der Freien Künste. In den Augen der Aufklärung sollte ihr – mit dem diesbezüglich noch heute gern zitierten50 Immanuel Kant zu sprechen – eine spezifische Funktion zukommen: Man kann die untere [philosophische] Facultät diejenige Klasse der Universität nennen, die oder so fern sie sich nur mit Lehren beschäftigt, welche nicht auf den Befehl eines Oberen zur Richtschnur angenommen werden. 51 Ihr Fächerkanon steht für die zentrale Aufgabe einer vermittelten Übernützlichkeit, um nochmals
ibid.
D
mit Kant zu argumentieren, der hier, durchaus in der Tradition Salutatis, explizit auf den Begriff der Freiheit und damit auf die spätantike Begründung von Lehre und Forschung als Befreiung des Menschen zu sich selbst rekurriert: Nun nennt man das Vermögen, nach der Autonomie, d.i. frei (Principien des Denkens überhaupt gemäß), zu urtheilen, die Vernunft. Also wird die philosophische Facultät darum, weil sie für die Wahrheit der Lehren, die sie aufnehmen oder auch nur einräumen soll, stehen muß, in so fern als frei und nur unter der Gesetzgebung der Vernunft, nicht der der Regierung stehendgedacht werden müssen. Auf einer Universität muß aber auch ein solches Departement gestiftet, d.i. es muß eine philosophische Facultät sein. In Ansehung der drei obern dient sie dazu, sie zu controlliren und ihnen eben dadurch nützlich zu werden, weil auf Wahrheit (die wesentliche und erste Bedingung der Gelehrsamkeit überhaupt) alles ankommt; die Nützlichkeit aber, welche die oberen Facultäten zum Behuf der Regierung versprechen, nur ein Moment vom zweiten Range ist. 52 Als dann nach 1800 die Länder Kontinentaleuropas unter Napoleons Armeen zusammengebrochen waren und einer geistigen Vorwärtsverteidigung bedurften, setzte sich ein neues Prinzip der Universität durch, das wir heute nach Wilhelm von Humboldt benennen. In ihm kam den Geisteswissenschaften eine zentrale Funktion zu – ohne sie und ihre staatsfinanzierte Legitimation des Staates konnte und wollte derselbe nichtmehr auskommen. Die Zinnen der Staatsbauten gaben dem Außenbild des Staates historisches Gewicht und Legitimität; die Edition des Nibelungenliedes gab dem Innenbild Gewicht. Die Germanistik schuf den so dringend benötigten Konnex zu den Germanen; die Geschichtsschreibung knüpfte an antike Autoren an und ließ den Weltgeist direkt ins Preußentum
52
8.1. Was sind die humaniora?
129
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
münden. In der Zählung der Fakultäten belegte die philosophische – nur die Theologie blieb unangefochten auf Platz 1 – in der Regel die Nummer 2. Teilweise blieb es bis heute beim Rang eines symbolischen Sekundats. In der Mitte des folgenden Jahrhunderts konstatierte der Physiker Charles Percy Snow1959 in einer Vorlesung an der Universität von Cambridge ein Gesprächsunvermögen zwischen den „literary intellectuals“ der humanities einerseits, den Vertreter der science, der objektive Befunde notierenden Naturwissenschaft, andererseits. Der Zeitungsartikel von 1956,53 die Vorlesung bzw. deren Druck von 195954 und das erweiterte Buch von 196455 waren aus einer Verteidigungshaltung heraus entstanden: »Science [is] not understood or respected by the dominant culture [der literary intellectuals], to the detriment of all.«56 Die Kontrastierung der Two Cultures geht zurück auf den Erfinder des Begriffs »Humanismus« (1808), den Erziehungstheoretiker, bayrischen Schulreformator und Hegelfreund Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer (1766-1848). Als »Dualismus zwischenhumanistischen Gymnasien und Realgymnasien«57 sollte er das lange 19. Jahrhundert wesentlich prägen. Sein Humanismus war ein Idealbild: Charakterprägung durch die »Ideale der Humanität«58 als Ziel von Erziehung. Unmittelbar in der Niethammerschen Begriffsstradition stehen die humanities in den USA. Der National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act (1965) definiert sein Fördergebiet:
The term ‘humanities’ includes, but is not limited to, the study of the following: language, both modern and classical; linguistics; literature; history; jurisprudence; philosophy; archaeology; comparative religion; ethics; the history, criticism and theory of the arts; those aspects of social sciences which have humanistic content and employ humanistic methods; and the study and application of the humanities to the human environment with particular attention to reflecting our diverse heritage, traditions, and history and to the relevance of the humanities to the current conditions of national life. 59 An Kants vermittelte Übernützlichkeit der betreffenden Fächer knüpft der Exzellenzauftrag (»democracy demands wisdom«), nicht aber der national fixierte Staatsauftrag (»conveying the lessons of history to all Americans«) des National Endowment for the Humanities an, der deutlich aus dem jenseits des Atlantiks eben immer noch durchaus lebendigen Gedankengut des 19. Jahrhunderts stammt: The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency created in 1965. […] Because democracy demands wisdom, the National Endowment for the Humanities serves and strengthens our Republic by promoting excellence in the humanities and conveying the lessons of history to all Americans.60 Was als ›Humanismus‹ gilt (und es so wenig war wie Konstantinopel byzantinisch), war im Anspruch vergleichbar mit dem Nützlichkeitsdenken Washing-
53
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures. New Statesman, 6 October 1956.
54
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The Rede Lecture 1959. 7. Mai 1959, Senate House, University of Cambridge. Publiziert umgehend: Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1959. [52 S.] Deutsche Übersetzung als Snow, C. P.: Die zwei Kulturen. 1959. In: Kreuzer, Helmut (Hrsg.): Die zwei Kulturen. Literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz. C. P. Snows These in der Diskussion. dtv, München 1987.
55
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press1964. [100 S.]
56
Zit. nach: Are We Beyond the Two Cultures? May 7, 2009. http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/are_we_beyond_the_two_cultures/
57
Vgl. Prantl, Carl: Artikel Niethammer, Friedrich Immanuel. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, herausgegeben von der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Band 23 (1886), S. 689–691: „Im J. 1808 wurde er [Niethammer] von Montgelas nach München berufen und als Centralschulrath und Oberkirchenrath mit der Ausarbeitung eines neuen Lehrplanes für die Gymnasien beauftragt; zur Vorbereitung und Rechtfertigung desselben veröffentlichte er seine bedeutsame Schrift „Der Streit des Philanthropismus und Humanismus in der Theorie des Erziehungsunterrichtes unserer Zeit“ (1808), worin er auf Grund der Unterscheidung der geistigen und der animalischen Seite des Menschen einerseits die Vernunftbildung zum Ideale der Humanität und andrerseits die Heranbildung zu realistischen Fertigkeiten mit grundsätzlicher Betonung des Uebergewichtes der ersteren Richtung erörterte. […] Es wurde nun der Dualismus zwischen humanistischen Gymnasien und Realgymnasien streng durchgeführt, und während an ersteren es sich um eine gesteigerte Pflege des classischen Alterthums handelte, fand auch an letzteren die ideale Seite ihre Berücksichtigung, indem in den höheren Classen derselben einige philosophische Disciplinen Unterrichtsgegenstand wurden (so konnte N. noch 1808 die Berufung Hegel’s an das Nürnberger Realgymnasium erwirken).“
58
Prantl, ibid.
59
National Endowment for the Humanities: Who We are <http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html>.
ibid.
60
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
129
ibid.
60
National Endowment for the Humanities: Who We are <http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html>.
59
Prantl, ibid.
58
Vgl. Prantl, Carl: Artikel Niethammer, Friedrich Immanuel. In: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, herausgegeben von der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Band 23 (1886), S. 689–691: „Im J. 1808 wurde er [Niethammer] von Montgelas nach München berufen und als Centralschulrath und Oberkirchenrath mit der Ausarbeitung eines neuen Lehrplanes für die Gymnasien beauftragt; zur Vorbereitung und Rechtfertigung desselben veröffentlichte er seine bedeutsame Schrift „Der Streit des Philanthropismus und Humanismus in der Theorie des Erziehungsunterrichtes unserer Zeit“ (1808), worin er auf Grund der Unterscheidung der geistigen und der animalischen Seite des Menschen einerseits die Vernunftbildung zum Ideale der Humanität und andrerseits die Heranbildung zu realistischen Fertigkeiten mit grundsätzlicher Betonung des Uebergewichtes der ersteren Richtung erörterte. […] Es wurde nun der Dualismus zwischen humanistischen Gymnasien und Realgymnasien streng durchgeführt, und während an ersteren es sich um eine gesteigerte Pflege des classischen Alterthums handelte, fand auch an letzteren die ideale Seite ihre Berücksichtigung, indem in den höheren Classen derselben einige philosophische Disciplinen Unterrichtsgegenstand wurden (so konnte N. noch 1808 die Berufung Hegel’s an das Nürnberger Realgymnasium erwirken).“
57
Zit. nach: Are We Beyond the Two Cultures? May 7, 2009. http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/are_we_beyond_the_two_cultures/
56
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press1964. [100 S.]
55
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The Rede Lecture 1959. 7. Mai 1959, Senate House, University of Cambridge. Publiziert umgehend: Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1959. [52 S.] Deutsche Übersetzung als Snow, C. P.: Die zwei Kulturen. 1959. In: Kreuzer, Helmut (Hrsg.): Die zwei Kulturen. Literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz. C. P. Snows These in der Diskussion. dtv, München 1987.
54
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures. New Statesman, 6 October 1956.
53
münden. In der Zählung der Fakultäten belegte die philosophische – nur die Theologie blieb unangefochten auf Platz 1 – in der Regel die Nummer 2. Teilweise blieb es bis heute beim Rang eines symbolischen Sekundats. In der Mitte des folgenden Jahrhunderts konstatierte der Physiker Charles Percy Snow1959 in einer Vorlesung an der Universität von Cambridge ein Gesprächsunvermögen zwischen den „literary intellectuals“ der humanities einerseits, den Vertreter der science, der objektive Befunde notierenden Naturwissenschaft, andererseits. Der Zeitungsartikel von 1956,53 die Vorlesung bzw. deren Druck von 195954 und das erweiterte Buch von 196455 waren aus einer Verteidigungshaltung heraus entstanden: »Science [is] not understood or respected by the dominant culture [der literary intellectuals], to the detriment of all.«56 Die Kontrastierung der Two Cultures geht zurück auf den Erfinder des Begriffs »Humanismus« (1808), den Erziehungstheoretiker, bayrischen Schulreformator und Hegelfreund Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer (1766-1848). Als »Dualismus zwischenhumanistischen Gymnasien und Realgymnasien«57 sollte er das lange 19. Jahrhundert wesentlich prägen. Sein Humanismus war ein Idealbild: Charakterprägung durch die »Ideale der Humanität«58 als Ziel von Erziehung. Unmittelbar in der Niethammerschen Begriffsstradition stehen die humanities in den USA. Der National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act (1965) definiert sein Fördergebiet:
The term ‘humanities’ includes, but is not limited to, the study of the following: language, both modern and classical; linguistics; literature; history; jurisprudence; philosophy; archaeology; comparative religion; ethics; the history, criticism and theory of the arts; those aspects of social sciences which have humanistic content and employ humanistic methods; and the study and application of the humanities to the human environment with particular attention to reflecting our diverse heritage, traditions, and history and to the relevance of the humanities to the current conditions of national life. 59 An Kants vermittelte Übernützlichkeit der betreffenden Fächer knüpft der Exzellenzauftrag (»democracy demands wisdom«), nicht aber der national fixierte Staatsauftrag (»conveying the lessons of history to all Americans«) des National Endowment for the Humanities an, der deutlich aus dem jenseits des Atlantiks eben immer noch durchaus lebendigen Gedankengut des 19. Jahrhunderts stammt: The National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) is an independent federal agency created in 1965. […] Because democracy demands wisdom, the National Endowment for the Humanities serves and strengthens our Republic by promoting excellence in the humanities and conveying the lessons of history to all Americans.60 Was als ›Humanismus‹ gilt (und es so wenig war wie Konstantinopel byzantinisch), war im Anspruch vergleichbar mit dem Nützlichkeitsdenken Washing-
130
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
61
tons und mit der der von Droysen61 geprägten Begrifflichkeit »Geisteswissenschaften«.62 Während Leopold von Ranke sich mit dem begnügte, ›was geschehen ist‹, verlangte Droysen Sinn: Geschichte sollte Orientierung geben, die Zukunft mitgestalten, zugespitzt gesagt, Politik mit anderen Mitteln sein.63 Zurück zu Snow 1959. Seine Hauptfrage war nämlich eigentlich eine andere, eine ebenfalls am Guten Dienst orientierte: Was können die reichen Nationen tun, um den ärmeren zu helfen? Der Soziologe Rudolf Stichweh, jetziger Rektor der Universität Luzern, notiert hierzu: Es beeindruckt die Einseitigkeit der Lösung, die er als einzig mögliche Antwortauf Unterentwicklung sieht: die Ausbildung von hinreichend vielen Naturwissenschaftlern und Ingenieuren. […] Diese extreme Sichtbeschränkung hat damit zu tun, dass Snow nicht einen Augenblick auf die Idee kommt, dass sich die reichen Länder des Westens nicht durch die Zahl von Ingenieuren und Naturwissenschaftlern von anderen Weltregionen unterscheiden, sondern durch ihre Sozial-, Rechtsund Wirtschaftsordnungen, die man nicht mittels der szientifisch-technischen Kultur zu errichten imstande ist. […] Die Funktion der Sozialwissenschaften [besteht] für ihn nur darin, nachträglich die Folgen jener‚ industriellen Revolution’ zu reflektieren, deren Heraufkunft wir ihm zufolge allein den technisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Umbrüchen verdanken.64 Stichweh greift die schon bei Snow angeklungene und später von anderen aufgegriffenen Idee einer »Third Culture« auf, und schreibt seiner eigenen Disziplin das Primat zu. Gegen John Brockmann65 notiert er: [Eine] dritte Kultur jenseits literarischer Intelligenz und Naturwissenschaft […] ist in den syste-
matischen Wissenschaften der Kultur, in den Wirtschafts- und in den Rechtswissenschaften und in dem breiten Spektrum der Sozialwissenschaften in den letzten einhundert Jahren auf eindrucksvolle Weiseentstanden. Das, was wir dank ihrer wissen und was uns dank ihrer an gestaltendem Eingriff möglich ist, verbietet die Reduktion des Sozialen und der Kultur auf Anwendungsprobleme des technisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fortschritts, eine Reduktion, die wir als Kategorienfehler bei Snow beobachten und die wir danach bis in die Wissenschaftspolitik des frühen 21. Jahrhunderts hinein immer wieder finden.66 Auch hier also ist, wenn auch aus anderer Warte, von Snows »literary intellectuals« kaum mehr etwas zu hören. Wenn man dieselben mit Snow als »First Culture« bezeichnen will, werden sie auf der einen Seite von der »Second Culture«, dem Fächerkanon der science, bedrängt, die den Löwenanteil zumindest der europäischen Fördermittel beansprucht. Der kärgliche Rest wiederum wird zu einem wesentlichen Teil von der »Third Culture« der Sozialwissenschaften einschl. der Wirtschaftswissenschaftenbeansprucht, denen die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit Niethammers Realia obliegt. Wo also ist noch Platz für die philosophische Fächer im engeren Sinne? Für Salutatis Menschlichkeits- -und Menschheits-Auftrag (studia humanitatis), für Kants vermittelte Übernützlichkeit (philosophische Fakultät), für Niethammers Charakterbildung (Humanismus), für Snows »literary intellectuells«, für das »strengthens our Republic« des National Endowment (humanities), für Droysens Sinngebungsprogramm (Geisteswissenschaften)? Für die Auseinandersetzung mit den Idealia oder vielleicht besser Imaginaria67?
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
»§ 48. In ihren Individuen bauend und formend, im Arbeiten werdend, schafft die Menschheit den Kosmosder sittlichen Welt. Ihr Werk würde wie ein Gebirge von Infusorienschalen sein ohne das rastlose Wachsen und Werden ihrer sittlichen Gemeinsamkeiten, ohne Geschichte. Ihre Arbeit würde wie Dünensand unfruchtbar und ein Spiel der Winde sein ohne das Bewußtsein der Kontinuität, ohne Geschichte. Ihre Kontinuität würde eine nur sich wiederholende Kreisbewegung sein ohne die Gewißheit der Zwecke und des höchsten Zweckes, ohne die Theodizee der Geschichte.« Droysen, Johann Gustav: Historik. Rekonstruktion der ersten vollständigen Fassung der Vorlesungen (1857), Grundriß der Historik in der ersten handschriftlichen (1857/1858) und in der letzten gedruckten Fassung. Textausgabe von Peter Leyh, Stuttgart 1977, S. IX und 435 f.
130
Vgl. Nippel, Wilfried: Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. München 2008.
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was wir nicht wissen können und dennoch wissen müssen. Kulturpolitik als Ertüchtigung des Imaginärsinnes. In: Vogt, Matthias Theodor; Sokol, Jan; Ociepka, Beata; Pollack, Detlef; Mikołajczyk, Beata (Hrsg.): Die Stärke der Schwäche. Schriften des Collegium PONTES Band 3. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2009. S. 219-232.
62
Stichweh, ibid..
67
Schnyder, Caroline: Zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Wilfried Nippel entzaubert den Almeister Johann Gustav Droysen. NZZ Zürich 11.04.2008.
Brockman, John: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster 1995.
66
63
Stichweh, Rudolf: Die zwei Kulturen? Eine Korrektur. FAZ 2. Dezember 2008.
65
Stichweh, Rudolf: Die zwei Kulturen? Eine Korrektur. FAZ 2. Dezember 2008.
64
64
Schnyder, Caroline: Zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Wilfried Nippel entzaubert den Almeister Johann Gustav Droysen. NZZ Zürich 11.04.2008.
Brockman, John: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster 1995.
Vgl. Nippel, Wilfried: Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. München 2008.
63
65
62
Stichweh, ibid..
»§ 48. In ihren Individuen bauend und formend, im Arbeiten werdend, schafft die Menschheit den Kosmosder sittlichen Welt. Ihr Werk würde wie ein Gebirge von Infusorienschalen sein ohne das rastlose Wachsen und Werden ihrer sittlichen Gemeinsamkeiten, ohne Geschichte. Ihre Arbeit würde wie Dünensand unfruchtbar und ein Spiel der Winde sein ohne das Bewußtsein der Kontinuität, ohne Geschichte. Ihre Kontinuität würde eine nur sich wiederholende Kreisbewegung sein ohne die Gewißheit der Zwecke und des höchsten Zweckes, ohne die Theodizee der Geschichte.« Droysen, Johann Gustav: Historik. Rekonstruktion der ersten vollständigen Fassung der Vorlesungen (1857), Grundriß der Historik in der ersten handschriftlichen (1857/1858) und in der letzten gedruckten Fassung. Textausgabe von Peter Leyh, Stuttgart 1977, S. IX und 435 f.
66
61
67
matischen Wissenschaften der Kultur, in den Wirtschafts- und in den Rechtswissenschaften und in dem breiten Spektrum der Sozialwissenschaften in den letzten einhundert Jahren auf eindrucksvolle Weiseentstanden. Das, was wir dank ihrer wissen und was uns dank ihrer an gestaltendem Eingriff möglich ist, verbietet die Reduktion des Sozialen und der Kultur auf Anwendungsprobleme des technisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fortschritts, eine Reduktion, die wir als Kategorienfehler bei Snow beobachten und die wir danach bis in die Wissenschaftspolitik des frühen 21. Jahrhunderts hinein immer wieder finden.66 Auch hier also ist, wenn auch aus anderer Warte, von Snows »literary intellectuals« kaum mehr etwas zu hören. Wenn man dieselben mit Snow als »First Culture« bezeichnen will, werden sie auf der einen Seite von der »Second Culture«, dem Fächerkanon der science, bedrängt, die den Löwenanteil zumindest der europäischen Fördermittel beansprucht. Der kärgliche Rest wiederum wird zu einem wesentlichen Teil von der »Third Culture« der Sozialwissenschaften einschl. der Wirtschaftswissenschaftenbeansprucht, denen die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit Niethammers Realia obliegt. Wo also ist noch Platz für die philosophische Fächer im engeren Sinne? Für Salutatis Menschlichkeits- -und Menschheits-Auftrag (studia humanitatis), für Kants vermittelte Übernützlichkeit (philosophische Fakultät), für Niethammers Charakterbildung (Humanismus), für Snows »literary intellectuells«, für das »strengthens our Republic« des National Endowment (humanities), für Droysens Sinngebungsprogramm (Geisteswissenschaften)? Für die Auseinandersetzung mit den Idealia oder vielleicht besser Imaginaria67?
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was wir nicht wissen können und dennoch wissen müssen. Kulturpolitik als Ertüchtigung des Imaginärsinnes. In: Vogt, Matthias Theodor; Sokol, Jan; Ociepka, Beata; Pollack, Detlef; Mikołajczyk, Beata (Hrsg.): Die Stärke der Schwäche. Schriften des Collegium PONTES Band 3. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2009. S. 219-232.
tons und mit der der von Droysen61 geprägten Begrifflichkeit »Geisteswissenschaften«.62 Während Leopold von Ranke sich mit dem begnügte, ›was geschehen ist‹, verlangte Droysen Sinn: Geschichte sollte Orientierung geben, die Zukunft mitgestalten, zugespitzt gesagt, Politik mit anderen Mitteln sein.63 Zurück zu Snow 1959. Seine Hauptfrage war nämlich eigentlich eine andere, eine ebenfalls am Guten Dienst orientierte: Was können die reichen Nationen tun, um den ärmeren zu helfen? Der Soziologe Rudolf Stichweh, jetziger Rektor der Universität Luzern, notiert hierzu: Es beeindruckt die Einseitigkeit der Lösung, die er als einzig mögliche Antwortauf Unterentwicklung sieht: die Ausbildung von hinreichend vielen Naturwissenschaftlern und Ingenieuren. […] Diese extreme Sichtbeschränkung hat damit zu tun, dass Snow nicht einen Augenblick auf die Idee kommt, dass sich die reichen Länder des Westens nicht durch die Zahl von Ingenieuren und Naturwissenschaftlern von anderen Weltregionen unterscheiden, sondern durch ihre Sozial-, Rechtsund Wirtschaftsordnungen, die man nicht mittels der szientifisch-technischen Kultur zu errichten imstande ist. […] Die Funktion der Sozialwissenschaften [besteht] für ihn nur darin, nachträglich die Folgen jener‚ industriellen Revolution’ zu reflektieren, deren Heraufkunft wir ihm zufolge allein den technisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Umbrüchen verdanken.64 Stichweh greift die schon bei Snow angeklungene und später von anderen aufgegriffenen Idee einer »Third Culture« auf, und schreibt seiner eigenen Disziplin das Primat zu. Gegen John Brockmann65 notiert er: [Eine] dritte Kultur jenseits literarischer Intelligenz und Naturwissenschaft […] ist in den syste-
131
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
[Geisteswissenschaften]
Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft
Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft
Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt: Bildung und Kultur. Personal an Hochschulen. Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.4. Wiesbaden 2009. Eigene Zusammenstellung. Geisteswissenschaften an deutschen Hochschulen (2008)
Nebenberuflich zusammen Praktikanten
3 657 738 14 571
Auszubildende
59 798
Pflegepersonal
49 293
SP ohne höheren Dienst Sonstiges Personal im höheren Dienst TP ohne höheren Dienst
1 362 51 986 1 527
Technisches Personal im höheren Dienst
9 924
ohne höheren Dienst Bibliothekspersonal im höheren Dienst ohne höheren Dienst Verwaltungspersonal im höheren Dienst
779 60 303 8 628 258 909
Hauptberuflich zusammen
262 566
Verwaltungs-, technisches und sonstiges Personal zusammen Wissenschaftliche Hilfskräfte Privatdozenten, außerplanmäßige Professoren Honorarprofessoren Lehrbeauftragte
21 424 6 252 1 464 59 516 915
Emeriti, Professoren im Ruhestand
401
Gastprofessoren Nebenberuflich zusammen Lehrkräfte für besondere Aufgaben Wissenschaftliche und künstlerische Mitarbeiter Dozenten und Assistenten Professoren
89 972 7 874 133 497 4 862 38 564 184 797
Hauptberuflich zusammen
274 769
Wissenschaftliches und künstlerisches Personal zusammen
537 335
Personal insgesamt
537 335
61 860
11,51%
44 567
17 293
Wissenschaftliches und künstlerisches Personal zusammen
274 769
55 492
20,20%
39 304
16 188
Hauptberuflich zusammen
184 797
28 024
15,16%
21 889
6 135
38 564
8 950
23,21%
5 587
3 363
4 862
893
18,37%
757
136
133 497
14 453
10,83%
12 724
1 729
7 874
3 728
47,35%
2 821
907
89 972
27 468
30,53%
17 415
10 053
Gastprofessoren
401
124
30,92%
65
59
Emeriti, Professoren im Ruhestand
915
250
27,32%
217
33
59 516
21 060
35,39%
11 967
9 093
Honorarprofessoren
1 464
345
23,57%
236
109
Privatdozenten, außerplanmäßige Professoren
6 252
1 195
19,11%
1 141
54
21 424
4 494
20,98%
3 789
705
Verwaltungs-, technisches und sonstiges Personal zusammen
262 566
6 368
2,43%
5 263
1 105
Hauptberuflich zusammen
258 909
6 209
2,40%
5 129
1 080
8 628
165
1,91%
129
36
60 303
3 995
6,62%
3 580
415
779
13
1,67%
13
-
ohne höheren Dienst
9 924
431
4,34%
387
44
Technisches Personal im höheren Dienst
1 527
20
1,31%
12
8
51 986
890
1,71%
455
435
1 362
30
2,20%
28
2
SP ohne höheren Dienst
49 293
546
1,11%
425
121
Pflegepersonal
59 798
1
0,00%
1
-
Auszubildende
14 571
55
0,38%
36
19
738
63
8,54%
63
9
3 657
159
4,35%
Professoren Dozenten und Assistenten Wissenschaftliche und künstlerische Mitarbeiter Lehrkräfte für besondere Aufgaben Nebenberuflich zusammen
Lehrbeauftragte
Wissenschaftliche Hilfskräfte
Verwaltungspersonal im höheren Dienst ohne höheren Dienst Bibliothekspersonal im höheren Dienst
TP ohne höheren Dienst Sonstiges Personal im höheren Dienst
Praktikanten Geisteswissenschaften an deutschen Hochschulen (2008)
159 63 55 1 546 30 890 20 431 13 3 995 165 6 209 6 368 4 494 1 195 345 21 060 250 124 27 468 3 728 14 453 893 8 950 28 024 55 492 61 860 [Geisteswissenschaften]
4,35% 8,54% 0,38%
25 63 36
0,00% 1,11% 2,20% 1,71% 1,31% 4,34% 1,67% 6,62% 1,91% 2,40% 2,43% 20,98% 19,11% 23,57% 35,39% 27,32% 30,92% 30,53% 47,35% 10,83% 18,37% 23,21% 15,16% 20,20% 11,51%
9 19
1 425
121
28 455
2 435
12 387
8 44 -
13 3 580 129 5 129 5 263 3 789 1 141 236 11 967 217 65 17 415 2 821 12 724 757 5 587 21 889 39 304 44 567 Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft
415 36 1 080 1 105 705 54 109 9 093 33 59 10 053 907 1 729 136 3 363 6 135 16 188 17 293 Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft
Personal insgesamt
Nebenberuflich zusammen
25
Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt: Bildung und Kultur. Personal an Hochschulen. Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.4. Wiesbaden 2009. Eigene Zusammenstellung.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
131
132
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
30.611.346 309,8%
33.314.103 311,3%
Hochschulausgaben insgesamt Ausgaben der Hochschulen 2007
Ausgaben
Laufende Ausgaben
2.702.757 329,2% Investitionen
N
8.2. Die humaniora im deutschen Hochschulsystem
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
481.418
132
4.751.762
Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.5.Wiesbaden 2009. Eigene Zusammenstellung.
5.233.180
146.033 9,5%
Zentrale Einrichtungen (ohne HS-Kliniken)
3.121.569 19,8%
238.726
3.289.648 19,0%
1.132.257
Geisteswissenschaften einschl. Anteil an Zentralen Einrichtungen
1.370.982
68.242 [9,5%]
Hochschule insgesamt ohne Kliniken
1.165.187 [19,8%]
440.209
1.255.475 [19,0%]
4.419.356
Anteilig zentrale Einrichtungen und “HS insgesamt”
4.859.565
77.790 9,5%
Zentrale Einrichtungen der Hochschulkliniken (nur Humanmedizin)
1.956.382 19,8%
1.542.405 187,9%
2.034.172 19,0%
Geisteswissenschaften
20.307.971 205,6%
51.621 6,3%
21.850.376 204,2%
507.455 5,1%
Fächergruppen insgesamt
559.076 5,2%
Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft
703.733
236.652 28,8%
10.289.224
2.527.580 25,6%
10.992.957 102,7%
2.764.232 25,8%
Ingenieurwissenschaften
Humanmedizin / Gesundheitswissenschaften
19.053 2,3%
17.772
347.649 3,5%
139.311
366.701 3,4%
Agrar-, Forst- und Ernährungswissenschaften
157.082 1,5%
394.165 48,0%
Veterinärmedizin
3.154.315 31,9%
820.900 100%
3.548.480 33,2%
9.879.436 100%
Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften
10.700.336 100%
83.259 10,1%
Fächergruppen ohne Medizin
1.775.684 18,0%
26.169 3,2%
1.858.943 17,4%
1.448.927 14,7%
Rechts-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften
1.475.096 13,8%
9.982 1,2%
Sprach- u. Kulturwissenschaften
117.826 1,2%
9.982 1,2%
127.808 1,2%
Sport
117.826 1,2%
26.169 3,2%
127.808 1,2%
1.448.927 14,7%
Sport
1.475.096 13,8%
83.259 10,1%
Sprach- u. Kulturwissenschaften
1.775.684 18,0%
820.900 100%
1.858.943 17,4%
9.879.436 100%
Rechts-, Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften
10.700.336 100%
394.165 48,0%
Fächergruppen ohne Medizin
3.154.315 31,9%
17.772
3.548.480 33,2%
139.311
Mathematik, Naturwissenschaften
157.082 1,5%
Veterinärmedizin
19.053 2,3%
703.733
347.649 3,5%
10.289.224
366.701 3,4%
10.992.957 102,7%
Agrar-, Forst- und Ernährungswissenschaften
Humanmedizin / Gesundheitswissenschaften
236.652 28,8%
1.542.405 187,9%
2.527.580 25,6%
20.307.971 205,6%
2.764.232 25,8%
21.850.376 204,2%
Ingenieurwissenschaften
Fächergruppen insgesamt
51.621 6,3%
440.209
507.455 5,1%
4.419.356
559.076 5,2%
4.859.565
Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft
Zentrale Einrichtungen der Hochschulkliniken (nur Humanmedizin)
77.790 9,5%
238.726
1.956.382 19,8%
1.132.257
2.034.172 19,0%
1.370.982
Geisteswissenschaften
Hochschule insgesamt ohne Kliniken
68.242 [9,5%]
481.418
1.165.187 [19,8%]
4.751.762
1.255.475 [19,0%]
5.233.180
Anteilig zentrale Einrichtungen und “HS insgesamt”
Zentrale Einrichtungen (ohne HS-Kliniken)
146.033 9,5%
2.702.757 329,2%
3.121.569 19,8%
30.611.346 309,8%
ach der aktuellen Aufstellung des Statistischen Bundesamtes Wiesbaden für »SprachundKulturwissenschaft« sowie »Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft« arbeiten zusammen 61.860 Personen in den hier nicht so benannten Geisteswissenschaften. Dies sind 11,51% des Personals deutscher Hochschulen. Bei bundesdeutschen Durchschnittskosten von 53.187,71 EUR pro Stelle im Saldo von Personalund Sachaufwand (2007)68 ergibt sich rechnerisch ein Aufwand von rund 3,3Mrd. EUR p.a. Indessen beträgt der Anteil der lehrintensiven und daher kostengünstigen »Lehrkräfte für besondere Aufgaben« nicht ebenfalls 11%, sondern 47%. Der der kostenfreien Gastprofessoren 31%. Der der kostenarmen Lehrbeauftragten 35%. Die Entwicklung der Geisteswissenschaften in den letzten Jahrzehnten läßt sich am besten ablesen bei der Zahl der Emeriti, die 27% gegenüber 23% der aktiven Professoren umfaßt. Dies bedeutet eine Abschmelzung von 20% in etwa einer halben Generation und deutet auf eine abnehmende Funktion der Geisteswissenschaften in den Augen der verfaßten Gesellschaft. Wo ist ihr Guter Dienst jenseits von Kantzitaten? Da die Hochschulen keine Vollkostenrechnung durchführen, läßt sich der tatsächliche Aufwand für die Geisteswissenschaften nur annähernd ermitteln. Von den 33,3 Mrd. EUR des derzeitigen staatlichen und privaten Hochschulsystems sind zunächst die Kosten der Humanmedizin (15,8 Mrd EUR) und der Veterinärmedizin abzuziehen (48%). Es verbleiben 17,0 Mrd. EUR für die Hochschulen ohne Medizin. Die Fächergruppen ohne Medizin kommen auf 10,7 Mrd, die zentralen Einrichtungen (allg. Hörsäle, Bibliotheken, Verwaltung etc.) auf 6,6 Mrd. An ersteren kommen die Geisteswissenschaften auf 2,0Mrd. EUR oder 19%. Dieser Prozentsatz umgelegt auf die Zentralen Einrichtungen, ergeben sich weitere 1,2 Mrd. EUR. Gemeinsam kommen »Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft« sowie »Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft« auf 3,289 Mrd. EUR; also rechtexakt die auch oben ermittelte Summe. Sie entspricht 19,5% des Gesamthochschulsystems (ohne Medizin), aber nur 9,5% der Investitionen. Die Systematik des Statistischen Bundesamtes kann nicht befriedigen. Sie ist historisch gewachsen, aber es ist beispielsweise nicht völlig einsichtig, warum Psychologie und Pädagogik nicht den Sozialwissenschaften zugeordnet werden. Ebenfalls sind die beiden Theologien zwar klein, aber aus vielen Gründen selbständig zu stellen. Die Aufstellung läßt sich damit näher unterteilen
3.289.648 19,0%
33.314.103 311,3%
N
Geisteswissenschaften einschl. Anteil an Zentralen Einrichtungen
Hochschulausgaben insgesamt
Investitionen
ach der aktuellen Aufstellung des Statistischen Bundesamtes Wiesbaden für »SprachundKulturwissenschaft« sowie »Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft« arbeiten zusammen 61.860 Personen in den hier nicht so benannten Geisteswissenschaften. Dies sind 11,51% des Personals deutscher Hochschulen. Bei bundesdeutschen Durchschnittskosten von 53.187,71 EUR pro Stelle im Saldo von Personalund Sachaufwand (2007)68 ergibt sich rechnerisch ein Aufwand von rund 3,3Mrd. EUR p.a. Indessen beträgt der Anteil der lehrintensiven und daher kostengünstigen »Lehrkräfte für besondere Aufgaben« nicht ebenfalls 11%, sondern 47%. Der der kostenfreien Gastprofessoren 31%. Der der kostenarmen Lehrbeauftragten 35%. Die Entwicklung der Geisteswissenschaften in den letzten Jahrzehnten läßt sich am besten ablesen bei der Zahl der Emeriti, die 27% gegenüber 23% der aktiven Professoren umfaßt. Dies bedeutet eine Abschmelzung von 20% in etwa einer halben Generation und deutet auf eine abnehmende Funktion der Geisteswissenschaften in den Augen der verfaßten Gesellschaft. Wo ist ihr Guter Dienst jenseits von Kantzitaten? Da die Hochschulen keine Vollkostenrechnung durchführen, läßt sich der tatsächliche Aufwand für die Geisteswissenschaften nur annähernd ermitteln. Von den 33,3 Mrd. EUR des derzeitigen staatlichen und privaten Hochschulsystems sind zunächst die Kosten der Humanmedizin (15,8 Mrd EUR) und der Veterinärmedizin abzuziehen (48%). Es verbleiben 17,0 Mrd. EUR für die Hochschulen ohne Medizin. Die Fächergruppen ohne Medizin kommen auf 10,7 Mrd, die zentralen Einrichtungen (allg. Hörsäle, Bibliotheken, Verwaltung etc.) auf 6,6 Mrd. An ersteren kommen die Geisteswissenschaften auf 2,0Mrd. EUR oder 19%. Dieser Prozentsatz umgelegt auf die Zentralen Einrichtungen, ergeben sich weitere 1,2 Mrd. EUR. Gemeinsam kommen »Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaft« sowie »Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft« auf 3,289 Mrd. EUR; also rechtexakt die auch oben ermittelte Summe. Sie entspricht 19,5% des Gesamthochschulsystems (ohne Medizin), aber nur 9,5% der Investitionen. Die Systematik des Statistischen Bundesamtes kann nicht befriedigen. Sie ist historisch gewachsen, aber es ist beispielsweise nicht völlig einsichtig, warum Psychologie und Pädagogik nicht den Sozialwissenschaften zugeordnet werden. Ebenfalls sind die beiden Theologien zwar klein, aber aus vielen Gründen selbständig zu stellen. Die Aufstellung läßt sich damit näher unterteilen
Laufende Ausgaben
Ausgaben
Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.5.Wiesbaden 2009. Eigene Zusammenstellung.
Ausgaben der Hochschulen 2007
8.2. Die humaniora im deutschen Hochschulsystem
133
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
in Geisteswissenschaften im weiteren und solche im engeren Sinne. Ordnet man diese Fächer nun nach ihren Kosten, steht überraschenderweise die Musik mit 15% der Ausgaben (und 26% der Investitionen) an der Spitze, gefolgt von der Geschichte mit 11% der Ausgaben (und 3% der Investitionen). Die Philologien umfassen zusammen 42% der Geisteswissenschaften im engeren Sinne, die Wissenschaften von den Künsten 22%. Einschl. der zugeordneten Kosten der zentralen Einrichtungen ergibt sich für die Geisteswissenschaften im engeren Sinne ein Aufwand von 2,4 Mrd. EUR oder 14% desdeutschen Hochschulsystems ohne Medizin. Ein wesentlicher Teil dieser Ausgaben umfaßt die Lehrerausbildung und stellt eine Investition in die Zukunft der »musischen Kultur« (ars gratia culturae) dar.
71
Investitionen
2.034.172
1.956.382
77.790 9,5%
128.646 6,32%
127.696 6,53%
950 1,22%
Evangelische Theologie
72.090
71.499
591
Katholische Theologie
56.556
56.197
359
Pädagogik, Psychologie
408.412 20,08%
398.934 20,39%
9.479 12,18%
Erziehungswissenschaften
192.408
190.922
1.486
Psychologie
182.233
175.031
7.202
Theologie
32.981
790
1.429.752 100%
67.362 100%
Musik, Musikwissenschaft
235 845 15,75%
218 194 15,26%
17 651 26,20%
Geschichte
166.246 11,10%
164.372 11,50%
1.874 2,78%
Germanistik (Deutsch, german. Sprachen ohne Anglistik)
158.840 10,61%
157.137 10,99%
1.703 2,53%
Gestaltung
119 693 7,99%
114 772 8,03%
4 921 7,31%
Anglistik, Amerikanistik
90.883 6,07%
90.087 6,30%
796 1,18%
Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaften allgemein
86.858 5,80%
83.690 5,85%
3.169 4,70%
Allgemeine und vergleichende Literatur u. Sprachwissensch.
85.510 5,71%
84.044 5,88%
1.466 2,18%
Sonstige/Außereuropäische Sprach- u. Kulturwissensch.
75.076 5,01%
73.693 5,15%
1.384 2,05%
Darstellende Kunst, Film und Fersehen,Theaterwissenschaft
72 084 4,81%
57 421 4,02%
14 662 21,77%
Romanistik
71.809 4,80%
70.963 4,96%
846 1,26%
Philosophie
69.903 4,67%
68.674 4,80%
1.229 1,82%
Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft allgemein Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al.: Serbski ludowy ansambl. Frankfurt 2009, S. 34.
69 814 4,66%
66 542 4,65%
3 272 4,86%
Bildende Kunst
Wagner, Richard: Rede zur Grundsteinlegung des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (22. Mai 1872). In: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen. Band IX. Leipzig 1873, S. 392.
61 641 4,12%
50 525 3,53%
11 116 16,50%
Bibliothekswissenschaft, Dokumentation, Publizistik
51.428 3,44%
49.182 3,44%
2.246 3,33%
Altphilologie (klassische Philologie)
35.368 2,36%
34.786 2,43%
582 0,86%
Slawistik, Baltistik, Finno-Ugristik
25.523 1,70%
25.433 1,78%
90 0,13%
Kulturwissenschaften i.e.S
20.591 1,38%
20.236 1,42%
356 0,53%
924.007
851.535
59.094
2.421.121 14,0%
2.281.288
126.456
N
70
Laufende Ausgaben
33.770
icht die Praxis, aber der deutsche Terminus »Kulturpolitik« ist jung. Nach dem politischen Systemwechsel 1918/19 vom Kaiserreich zur präsidial-demokratischen Republik baute Deutschland »Tempel seiner Ehre« (Richard Wagner).69 Einerseits verstaatlichte es die Hofeinrichtungen, andererseits schuf es eine praktisch flächendeckende kulturelle Infrastruktur in einer Welle von Kommunalisierungen zuvor privatrechtlicher und unmittelbar bürgerlich getragener Theater-, Museums- und Volksbildungseinrichtungen. Die nun als solche bezeichnete »Kulturpolitik« 70 findet Eingang in die Parteiprogramme der frühen Weimarer Republik.71 Der preußische Unterstaatssekretär und spätere Kultusminister Becker widmet ihr 1919 eine eigene Publikati-
69
Geisteswissenschaften i.w.S.
Ausgaben
1.497.114 100%
9. Kulturpolitik als Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft
68
Ausgaben der Hochschulen 2007
Lepenies verweist auf Fontane 1871 und Bethmann Hollweg, der 1913 in seinem bekannten Brief an Lamprecht auf eine »Kulturpolitik großen Stils« dringt. Lepenies, Wolf: Kultur und Politik. Deutsche Geschichten. Bonn ²2006. Bes. Kapitel III „Deutscher Geist und Deutsches Reich“. S. 24f.- Zu einigen Hinweisen auf die Vorgeschichte des Begriffs als „Culturpolicey“ vgl. Bernd Wagner: Das Stichwort. Kulturpolitik (1). Der Begriff. In: Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen Nr. 110, III/2005. Aufruf und Leitsätze der Deutschen Zentrumspartei 1918; Görlitzer Programm der SPD 1921, Heidelberger Programm der SPD 1925, Deutsche Staatspartei Manifest 1930. Abgedruckt in Wilhelm Mommsen: Deutsche Parteiprogramme. München 1960.- Eine Ausnahme bildete nur die extreme Rechte.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Sonderpädagogik Geisteswissenschaften i.e.S.
Anteil Geisteswissenschaften i.e.S. an Zentralen Einrichtungen Geisteswissenschaften i.e.S. einschl. Zentralen Einrichtungen
Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.5.Wiesbaden 2009. Eigene Zusammenstellung. 133
71
Aufruf und Leitsätze der Deutschen Zentrumspartei 1918; Görlitzer Programm der SPD 1921, Heidelberger Programm der SPD 1925, Deutsche Staatspartei Manifest 1930. Abgedruckt in Wilhelm Mommsen: Deutsche Parteiprogramme. München 1960.- Eine Ausnahme bildete nur die extreme Rechte. Lepenies verweist auf Fontane 1871 und Bethmann Hollweg, der 1913 in seinem bekannten Brief an Lamprecht auf eine »Kulturpolitik großen Stils« dringt. Lepenies, Wolf: Kultur und Politik. Deutsche Geschichten. Bonn ²2006. Bes. Kapitel III „Deutscher Geist und Deutsches Reich“. S. 24f.- Zu einigen Hinweisen auf die Vorgeschichte des Begriffs als „Culturpolicey“ vgl. Bernd Wagner: Das Stichwort. Kulturpolitik (1). Der Begriff. In: Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen Nr. 110, III/2005.
70
Wagner, Richard: Rede zur Grundsteinlegung des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (22. Mai 1872). In: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen. Band IX. Leipzig 1873, S. 392.
69 68
Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al.: Serbski ludowy ansambl. Frankfurt 2009, S. 34.
Quelle: Statistisches Bundesamt: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Fachserie 11 Reihe 4.5.Wiesbaden 2009. Eigene Zusammenstellung. Geisteswissenschaften i.e.S. einschl. Zentralen Einrichtungen Anteil Geisteswissenschaften i.e.S. an Zentralen Einrichtungen Kulturwissenschaften i.e.S Slawistik, Baltistik, Finno-Ugristik Altphilologie (klassische Philologie) Bibliothekswissenschaft, Dokumentation, Publizistik Bildende Kunst Kunst, Kunstwissenschaft allgemein
icht die Praxis, aber der deutsche Terminus »Kulturpolitik« ist jung. Nach dem politischen Systemwechsel 1918/19 vom Kaiserreich zur präsidial-demokratischen Republik baute Deutschland »Tempel seiner Ehre« (Richard Wagner).69 Einerseits verstaatlichte es die Hofeinrichtungen, andererseits schuf es eine praktisch flächendeckende kulturelle Infrastruktur in einer Welle von Kommunalisierungen zuvor privatrechtlicher und unmittelbar bürgerlich getragener Theater-, Museums- und Volksbildungseinrichtungen. Die nun als solche bezeichnete »Kulturpolitik« 70 findet Eingang in die Parteiprogramme der frühen Weimarer Republik.71 Der preußische Unterstaatssekretär und spätere Kultusminister Becker widmet ihr 1919 eine eigene Publikati-
N
9. Kulturpolitik als Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaft in Geisteswissenschaften im weiteren und solche im engeren Sinne. Ordnet man diese Fächer nun nach ihren Kosten, steht überraschenderweise die Musik mit 15% der Ausgaben (und 26% der Investitionen) an der Spitze, gefolgt von der Geschichte mit 11% der Ausgaben (und 3% der Investitionen). Die Philologien umfassen zusammen 42% der Geisteswissenschaften im engeren Sinne, die Wissenschaften von den Künsten 22%. Einschl. der zugeordneten Kosten der zentralen Einrichtungen ergibt sich für die Geisteswissenschaften im engeren Sinne ein Aufwand von 2,4 Mrd. EUR oder 14% desdeutschen Hochschulsystems ohne Medizin. Ein wesentlicher Teil dieser Ausgaben umfaßt die Lehrerausbildung und stellt eine Investition in die Zukunft der »musischen Kultur« (ars gratia culturae) dar.
Philosophie
2.421.121 14,0%
2.281.288 851.535
924.007
20.236 1,42%
20.591 1,38%
25.433 1,78%
25.523 1,70%
34.786 2,43%
35.368 2,36% 51.428 3,44% 61 641 4,12%
49.182 3,44% 50 525 3,53% 66 542 4,65%
69 814 4,66%
68.674 4,80%
69.903 4,67% 71.809 4,80%
Romanistik
72 084 4,81%
Darstellende Kunst, Film und Fersehen,Theaterwissenschaft
75.076 5,01%
Sonstige/Außereuropäische Sprach- u. Kulturwissensch.
85.510 5,71%
Allgemeine und vergleichende Literatur u. Sprachwissensch.
83.690 5,85%
86.858 5,80%
Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaften allgemein
90.087 6,30%
90.883 6,07%
114 772 8,03%
119 693 7,99%
Gestaltung
157.137 10,99%
158.840 10,61%
Germanistik (Deutsch, german. Sprachen ohne Anglistik)
164.372 11,50%
166.246 11,10%
218 194 15,26%
235 845 15,75%
1.429.752 100%
1.497.114 100%
Anglistik, Amerikanistik Geschichte Musik, Musikwissenschaft Geisteswissenschaften i.e.S. Sonderpädagogik Psychologie
33.770 182.233
70.963 4,96% 57 421 4,02% 73.693 5,15% 84.044 5,88% 32.981 175.031 190.922
192.408
Erziehungswissenschaften
398.934 20,39%
408.412 20,08%
Pädagogik, Psychologie
56.556
Katholische Theologie
71.499
72.090
Evangelische Theologie
127.696 6,53%
128.646 6,32%
Theologie Geisteswissenschaften i.w.S. Ausgaben der Hochschulen 2007
2.034.172 Ausgaben
56.197 1.956.382 Laufende Ausgaben
126.456 59.094 356 0,53% 90 0,13% 582 0,86% 2.246 3,33% 11 116 16,50% 3 272 4,86% 1.229 1,82% 846 1,26% 14 662 21,77% 1.384 2,05% 1.466 2,18% 3.169 4,70% 796 1,18% 4 921 7,31% 1.703 2,53% 1.874 2,78% 17 651 26,20% 67.362 100% 790 7.202 1.486 9.479 12,18% 359 591 950 1,22% 77.790 9,5% Investitionen
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
(vorgeschlagen wird die auf die Paulskirche und die WRV zurückgehende Formulierung »Der Staat schützt und fördert die Kultur«).76Andererseits finanziell: wie dargestellt geben Kommunen und Länder sowie am Rande der Bund jährlich gut 8 Mrd. EUR für den öffentlich finanzierten Kulturbetrieb Deutschlands aus, hinzu kommen die öffentlich-rechtlichen Körperschaften der beiden Kirchen mit voraussichtlich weiteren 4 Mrd. EUR sowie ein Steuerverzicht von 1,5 Mrd.EUR.77 Dies sind zusammen 13,5 Mrd. EUR oder 165,- EUR öffentliche Aufwendungen pro Einwohner. Die privaten Aufwendungen der Bürger für kulturelle Dienstleistungen oder Produkte (beispielsweise der GEZ-Gebühren für den Rundfunk) belaufen sich auf 344,- EUR pro Kopf, dies sind weitere 28 Mrd. EUR. Sie können direkt zu den obigen Beträgen addiert werden (demgegenüber stellt der Umsatz der Kulturwirtschaft einen dazu parallelen und demgemäß hier nicht additiv zu berücksichtigenden Ansatz dar). Für die Geisteswissenschaften im engeren Sinne ergibt sich ein Aufwand von 2,4 Mrd. EUR. Zusammen umfassen öffentlicher und privat finanzierter Kulturbetrieb im engeren Sinne also rund 44 Mrd. EUR p.a. bzw. gut 500,- EUR pro Einwohner. Dieser Kulturbetrieb ist der Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaften. Mit der in den Kulturwissenschaften üblichen Definition von Kultur als Summe von Wertentscheidungenhat der hier gewählte pragmatische Ansatz insofern unmittelbar zu tun, als diese 44Mrd. EUR eine zentrale Wertentscheidung des Souveräns, nämlich der Bürger, und seines Agenten, der verfaßten Politik, darstellen. Mit Clausewitz wäre in absteigender Rangfolge zwischen Zweck, Ziel und Mittel zu differenzieren. Zweck der »ars gratia politiae«, der Ausübung
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
on.72 Herders Staatslexikon definiert 1929 in einer merkwürdigen Auseinandernahme von Geist und Kultur: »Kulturpolitik ist der Einsatz geistiger Mittel und kultureller Mittel durch den Staat.73 In den Dienst eines totalitären Staates gestellt wurden Kunst und Künstler in der NS-Zeit. Die beiden halbsouveränen »Staatsfragmente«74 in West und Ost applizierten, jedenfalls nach der ›Stunde Null‹ von 1945, in erstaunlicher Übereinstimmung die bürgerlich-nationalen Deutungsmuster des Kulturbetriebes. Quasi-Verfassungsrangerreichte die Kulturpolitik zum 3. Oktober 1990 mit dem Einigungsvertrag, der in Art. 35Abs. 1 behauptete: In den Jahren der Teilung waren Kunst und Kultur – trotz unterschiedlicher Entwicklung der beiden Staaten in Deutschland – eine Grundlage der fortbestehenden Einheit der deutschen Nation. Sie leisten im Prozeß der staatlichen Einheit der Deutschen auf dem Weg zur europäischen Einigung einen eigenständigen und unverzichtbaren Beitrag. Stellung und Ansehen eines vereinten Deutschlands in der Welt hängen außer von seinem politischen Gewicht und seiner wirtschaftlichen Leistungskraft ebenso von seiner Bedeutung als Kulturstaat ab. Als »Kulturstaat« kann die Bundesrepublik Deutschland in doppelter Weise angesprochen werden. Einerseits rechtlich: mangels Einlösung des Verfassungsgebungsauftrages von Art. 146 alte Fassung Grundgesetz kommt dem Verfassungsrang zu, da er alle nachfolgenden Gesetze verpflichtet.75 Schon zuvor hatte das Bundesverfassungsgericht bei verschiedenen Gelegenheiten das »Staatsziel Kultur« bestätigt. Nach Ansicht einiger Staatsrechtler erübrigt sich damit die von der Enquete-Kommission Kultur in Deutschland des Deutschen Bundestages vorgeschlagene Aufnahme eines Art. 20b in das Grundgesetz
134
72
Schätzung nach Söndermann, Michael: Öffentliche Kulturfinanzierung in Deutschland 2005. Ergebnisse aus der Kulturstatistik. In: Institut für Kulturpolitik (Hrsg.). Jahrbuch für Kulturpolitik 2006. Essen 2006.
Becker, Carl Heinrichs: Kulturpolitische Aufgaben des Reiches. Eine dem Verfassungsausschuß der Nationalversammlung vorgelegte Denkschrift. Leipzig 1919. Vgl. zum zeitgeschichtlichen Zusammenhang der Trennung von Unterricht und Kirche den editorischen Bericht in Ernst Troeltsch: Kritische Gesamtausgabe: Hrsg. v. Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm / Albrecht, Christian / Drehsen, Volker / Hübinger, Gangolf / Rendtorff, Trutz. Band 15: Schriften zur Politik und Kulturphilosophie (1918-1923). Hrsg. v. Gangolf Hübinger in Zusammenarb. mit Johannes Mikuteit. Berlin, New York 2002. Beckers Vorschlag einer Reichskulturbehörde sowohl für die innere wie die äußere Politik unter Zusammenfassung der verschiedenen Ressortreferate zeigt Spuren bis in die aktuelle Bundespolitik.
Deutscher Bundestag (Hrsg.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, S. 89FF
77
Herders Staatslexikon. Unter Mitw. zahlr. Fachleute hrsg. im Auftr. der Görres-Gesellschaft zur Pflege der Wissenschaft im katholischen Deutschland von Julius Bachem. Bd. III, 5. Aufl., Freiburg i. Br. 1929, Spalte 693.
76
73
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor (1998): Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 et alt.
74
75
Carlo Schmid im Parlamentarischen Rat, 8. September 1948. Vgl. Hertfelder, Thomas; Jürgen Hess (Hrsg.), Streiten um das Staatsfragment. Theodor Heuss und Thomas Dehler berichten von der Entstehung des Grundgesetzes. Mit einer Einleitung von Michael F. Feldkamp, bearb. von Patrick Ostermann und Michael F. Feldkamp, (= Stiftung Bundespräsident-Theodor-Heuss-Haus, Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Bd. 1), Stuttgart 1999.
Carlo Schmid im Parlamentarischen Rat, 8. September 1948. Vgl. Hertfelder, Thomas; Jürgen Hess (Hrsg.), Streiten um das Staatsfragment. Theodor Heuss und Thomas Dehler berichten von der Entstehung des Grundgesetzes. Mit einer Einleitung von Michael F. Feldkamp, bearb. von Patrick Ostermann und Michael F. Feldkamp, (= Stiftung Bundespräsident-Theodor-Heuss-Haus, Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Bd. 1), Stuttgart 1999.
Vgl. Vogt, Matthias Theodor (1998): Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 et alt.
74
75
Herders Staatslexikon. Unter Mitw. zahlr. Fachleute hrsg. im Auftr. der Görres-Gesellschaft zur Pflege der Wissenschaft im katholischen Deutschland von Julius Bachem. Bd. III, 5. Aufl., Freiburg i. Br. 1929, Spalte 693.
Deutscher Bundestag (Hrsg.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, S. 89FF
73
76
Becker, Carl Heinrichs: Kulturpolitische Aufgaben des Reiches. Eine dem Verfassungsausschuß der Nationalversammlung vorgelegte Denkschrift. Leipzig 1919. Vgl. zum zeitgeschichtlichen Zusammenhang der Trennung von Unterricht und Kirche den editorischen Bericht in Ernst Troeltsch: Kritische Gesamtausgabe: Hrsg. v. Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm / Albrecht, Christian / Drehsen, Volker / Hübinger, Gangolf / Rendtorff, Trutz. Band 15: Schriften zur Politik und Kulturphilosophie (1918-1923). Hrsg. v. Gangolf Hübinger in Zusammenarb. mit Johannes Mikuteit. Berlin, New York 2002. Beckers Vorschlag einer Reichskulturbehörde sowohl für die innere wie die äußere Politik unter Zusammenfassung der verschiedenen Ressortreferate zeigt Spuren bis in die aktuelle Bundespolitik.
Schätzung nach Söndermann, Michael: Öffentliche Kulturfinanzierung in Deutschland 2005. Ergebnisse aus der Kulturstatistik. In: Institut für Kulturpolitik (Hrsg.). Jahrbuch für Kulturpolitik 2006. Essen 2006.
72
77
(vorgeschlagen wird die auf die Paulskirche und die WRV zurückgehende Formulierung »Der Staat schützt und fördert die Kultur«).76Andererseits finanziell: wie dargestellt geben Kommunen und Länder sowie am Rande der Bund jährlich gut 8 Mrd. EUR für den öffentlich finanzierten Kulturbetrieb Deutschlands aus, hinzu kommen die öffentlich-rechtlichen Körperschaften der beiden Kirchen mit voraussichtlich weiteren 4 Mrd. EUR sowie ein Steuerverzicht von 1,5 Mrd.EUR.77 Dies sind zusammen 13,5 Mrd. EUR oder 165,- EUR öffentliche Aufwendungen pro Einwohner. Die privaten Aufwendungen der Bürger für kulturelle Dienstleistungen oder Produkte (beispielsweise der GEZ-Gebühren für den Rundfunk) belaufen sich auf 344,- EUR pro Kopf, dies sind weitere 28 Mrd. EUR. Sie können direkt zu den obigen Beträgen addiert werden (demgegenüber stellt der Umsatz der Kulturwirtschaft einen dazu parallelen und demgemäß hier nicht additiv zu berücksichtigenden Ansatz dar). Für die Geisteswissenschaften im engeren Sinne ergibt sich ein Aufwand von 2,4 Mrd. EUR. Zusammen umfassen öffentlicher und privat finanzierter Kulturbetrieb im engeren Sinne also rund 44 Mrd. EUR p.a. bzw. gut 500,- EUR pro Einwohner. Dieser Kulturbetrieb ist der Gegenstand der Kulturpolitikwissenschaften. Mit der in den Kulturwissenschaften üblichen Definition von Kultur als Summe von Wertentscheidungenhat der hier gewählte pragmatische Ansatz insofern unmittelbar zu tun, als diese 44Mrd. EUR eine zentrale Wertentscheidung des Souveräns, nämlich der Bürger, und seines Agenten, der verfaßten Politik, darstellen. Mit Clausewitz wäre in absteigender Rangfolge zwischen Zweck, Ziel und Mittel zu differenzieren. Zweck der »ars gratia politiae«, der Ausübung
134
on.72 Herders Staatslexikon definiert 1929 in einer merkwürdigen Auseinandernahme von Geist und Kultur: »Kulturpolitik ist der Einsatz geistiger Mittel und kultureller Mittel durch den Staat.73 In den Dienst eines totalitären Staates gestellt wurden Kunst und Künstler in der NS-Zeit. Die beiden halbsouveränen »Staatsfragmente«74 in West und Ost applizierten, jedenfalls nach der ›Stunde Null‹ von 1945, in erstaunlicher Übereinstimmung die bürgerlich-nationalen Deutungsmuster des Kulturbetriebes. Quasi-Verfassungsrangerreichte die Kulturpolitik zum 3. Oktober 1990 mit dem Einigungsvertrag, der in Art. 35Abs. 1 behauptete: In den Jahren der Teilung waren Kunst und Kultur – trotz unterschiedlicher Entwicklung der beiden Staaten in Deutschland – eine Grundlage der fortbestehenden Einheit der deutschen Nation. Sie leisten im Prozeß der staatlichen Einheit der Deutschen auf dem Weg zur europäischen Einigung einen eigenständigen und unverzichtbaren Beitrag. Stellung und Ansehen eines vereinten Deutschlands in der Welt hängen außer von seinem politischen Gewicht und seiner wirtschaftlichen Leistungskraft ebenso von seiner Bedeutung als Kulturstaat ab. Als »Kulturstaat« kann die Bundesrepublik Deutschland in doppelter Weise angesprochen werden. Einerseits rechtlich: mangels Einlösung des Verfassungsgebungsauftrages von Art. 146 alte Fassung Grundgesetz kommt dem Verfassungsrang zu, da er alle nachfolgenden Gesetze verpflichtet.75 Schon zuvor hatte das Bundesverfassungsgericht bei verschiedenen Gelegenheiten das »Staatsziel Kultur« bestätigt. Nach Ansicht einiger Staatsrechtler erübrigt sich damit die von der Enquete-Kommission Kultur in Deutschland des Deutschen Bundestages vorgeschlagene Aufnahme eines Art. 20b in das Grundgesetz
kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
der Künste um des Gemeinwesens willens, ist Das bedeutet nicht, daß das gesamte Feld die Selbstentfaltung der Zivilgesellschaft und unreflektiert seine Praxis betreibt (obwohl man ihrer Mitglieder. Hierfür wurde oben der Begriff durchaus einen gewissen Praktizismus feststellen der »musischen Kultur« (ars gratia culturae) ins muß). Es gibt vielmehr viele Reflexionen über Spielgebracht. Ziel der »politia gratia artis«, der Kunst, Kultur, Politik und Bildung. Es gibt durchdirekten und vor allem der indirekten politischen aus auch Debatten darüber, wohin sich unsere podstawowej i dodatkowej dziaáalnoĞci zawodowej zajmująbewegt. siĊ polityki kulturalnąfehlt, i ist Förderung der Künste, ist die Stärkung der GeGesellschaft Was allerdings sellschaftsverfassung nach innen wie außen. eine identifizierbare scientific community mit towarzyszącymi jej zagadnieniami, jest krótka i obejmuje jedynie 15 nazwisk. Przykáadowo Eine »ars gratia artis«, eine Kunst um ihrer selbst eigenen wissenschaftlichen Publikationsorganen, aktywnie dziaáa tejimaginierte dziedzinie wohl Pedagogiczna WyĪsza Ludwigsburgu w Badenii willen, wäre als nichtwnur schwer Szkoáa vielleicht sogarwmit widerstreitenden Schulen und zu finden. Buch, Klang, Bild, Spiel sind Mittel Anhängern, so daß jeder, der sich forschend und Wirtembergii, posiadająca jedną katedrĊ i jeden kierunek studiów magisterskich, des Broterwerbs, der Bildung, der Freude oder schreibend auf dieses Feld begibt, zur Zeit eine zawodowej: „Zarządzanie kulturą”. Fuchs pisze ponadto:kann.80 dertowarzyszących Indoktrination, pracy sie sind nicht losgelöst vom eigene Tradition begründen Menschen zu denken. Im Rahmen seiner euergetischen Herrschaft Nie oznacza to, Īe caáy ten obszar realizuje swoją praktyczną bezpanem Die Erfassung der rationales, der kulturpolidurch Wohltätigkeit setzte dziaáalnoĞü das Alte Rom tischen Begründungszusammenhänge auf den et circenses ( Juvenal: Satiren 10, 81) ein – Brot zur gáĊbszego zastanowienia (mimo Īe naleĪy stwierdziü pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). Istnieje Ebenen von Staat, Kommune und Zivilgesellkonkreten Befriedigung und Spiele zur symbojak najbardziej wiele przemyĞleĔ na tematund sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzone są hier schaft, die Erfassung ihrer Zwecksetzungen lischen Befriedung der Massen. Die von uns die Kritik ihrer strategischen Mittel ist bislang vertretene Ausgangsbehauptung der KulturpolitiktakĪe debaty na temat kierunku, w jakim zmierza nasze spoáeczeĔstwo. To, czego brakuje, to unzureichend geleistet worden. Kulturpolitik wird wissenschaft ist die, daß auf der Ebene der WismoĪliwa do identyfikacji community, dysponująca wáasnymi organami häufig reduziert auf, wie es scientific im Amerikanischen senschaft die Vertreternaukowymi von „Brot“ und die Vertreter so unverblümt heißt, advocacy, auf ein instruvon „Wort“ miteinander ins Gespräch kommen publikacyjnymi, a moĪe nawet szkoáami o sprzecznych poglądach i ich zwolennikami, aby mentelles Repertoire für die Akquise von Geld müssen, um die Komplexität des Phänomens undkaĪdy, Aufmerksamkeit betriebsgebunhinreichend kto poruszaaus siĊ einer na tym polu badawczo i Kulturpolitikgemeinsam twórczo, mógá obecnie analytisch stworzyü wáasną denen Perspektive. Auffällig ist das Mißverhältnis zu erfassen. Die Differenzierung von materiellem 80 tradycjĊ. zwischen der Fülle an europaweit gesammelten Substrat und immaterieller Deutungswelt ist mit empirischen Daten und dem Fehlen induktiver Begriffen »Brot« und »Wort« schon im W ramach swojego panowania StaroĪytny den Rzym stworzyávon w ramach dobroczynnoĞci Theoriegewinnung aus eben diesen Daten. »VerAlten Testament vorgezeichnet und wird ihrerseits hasáo panem et 2007 circenses Satyry 10, 81), vom tj. chleba i igrzysk – czyli poĪywienie dla (Dtn mutlich«, schreibt Max (Juvenal: Fuchs, Vorsitzender Neuen Testament wieder aufgegriffen deskonkretnego Deutschen Kulturrats und Direktor der Aka8,3; vgl. Mt 4,1-11) – zumindest in der gängigen zaspokojenia i rozrywka dla symbolicznego zaspokojenia mas. Reprezentowane demieRemscheid, »ist unter allen denkbaren deutschen Übersetzung als »Der Mensch lebt nicht przez nas twierdzenie nauki o polityce kulturalnej takie,von Īejedem na poziomie Politikfeldern der Bereich wyjĞciowe der Kulturpolitikdervom Brot allein,jest sondern Wort, das aus 81 jenige, der am wenigstens über eine (politik-) dem Munde Gottes kommt«. nauki, przedstawiciele „chleba” i przedstawiciele „sáowa” muszą nawiązaü ze sobą dialog, wissenschaftliche Theoriebildungverfügt«.78 Klaus Bleibt man beim Beispiel der circenses (oder mócresümiert we wspólnej analizie podjąü siĊ kompleksowego zjawiska polityki vonaby Beyme für sein Fach Politikwissenludi, dem BereichujĊcia der performativen Künste), so schaft: »Das Politikfeld‚ Kunst und Kultur’materialnym spielt […] substratem wird das Ineinanderverwobensein von hard kulturalnej. RozróĪnienie miĊdzy a niematerialną interpretacją za facts eine marginale Rolle«.79 Die Liste der an deutschen und soft values unmittelbar augenfällig. Einerseits pomocą pojĊü „chleba” i „sáowa” zostaáo zrealizowane w Theater Starym Testamencie i zostaáo Hochschulen hauptoder nebenberuflich mit KulbedarfjuĪdas einer Vielzahl rechtlicher, turpolitik und ihren Nebengebieten Befaßten ist ökonomischer undtechnischer von Rahmenbeponownie podjĊte w Nowym Testamencie (Dtn 8,3; por. Mt 4,1-11), przynajmniej w kurz: es handelt sich um kaum 15 Namen. Aktiv dingungen, die sich als kulturelle Infrastrukturniemieckimisttáumaczeniu brzmi to „Nie samym chlebem Īyjeund czáowiek, z.B.popularnym in Baden-Württemberg die Pädagogische zusammenfassen lassen für derenlecz Analyse 81 Hochschule Ludwigsburg mit einemzLehrstuhl und die Sozial- einschl. der Wirtschaftswissenschaften kaĪdym sáowem pochodzącym ust Boga”. einem berufsbegleitenden Masterstudiengang stehen. Hier läßt sich mindestens teilweise mit JeĪeli pozostaniemy przy przykáadzie circenses (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance), »Kulturmanagement«. Fuchs weiter: Zahlen operieren.
to rzuca siĊ w oczy nakáadanie siĊ na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr wymaga wieloĞci prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunków ramowych, które 78
Fuchs, Max: Kulturpolitik. Elemente der Politik, herausgegeben von Hans-Georg Ehrhardt u.a. Wiesbayden 2007, S. 22.
79
Beyme, Klaus von: Die Kunst der Macht und die Gegenmacht der Kunst. Studien zum Spannungsverhältnis von Kunst und Politik. Frankfurt am Main 1998. Hier: Kap. 1: Umriß einer Kunstpolitologie.
80
Fuchs Max: ibid.
81
Im 81 Hebräischen kommt der Begriff »Wort« unmittelbar nicht vor;
moĪna zebraü w jedną kulturalną infrastrukturĊ i dla których analizy istnieją stosowne
80
Fuchs Max: ibid. W jĊzyku hebrajskim pojĊcie „sáowa” nie pojawia siĊ bezpoĞrednio;
-
da poznaü, Īe czáowiek nie Īyje jedynie chlebem, lecz Īyje ze wszystkiego, co pochodzi [= opinia,
- »auf dass erpogląd] dich wissen dassDziĊkujĊ der Mensch nicht vom Brot allein München, lebt, sondern derr Mensch lebt von all dem was heraus z ust lässt, Jahwe«.Wolfgangowi Schulze. za tĊ wskazówkĊ. kommt aus [= Äußerung] dem Mund Yehovas«.- Ich danke Wolfgang Schulze. München, für den Hinweis.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
135
Comment [A3]: Soll gelöscht werden., da im gleichen Satz wiederholt sich.
135
- »auf dass erpogląd] dich wissen dassDziĊkujĊ der Mensch nicht vom Brot allein München, lebt, sondern derr Mensch lebt von all dem was heraus z ust lässt, Jahwe«.Wolfgangowi Schulze. za tĊ wskazówkĊ. kommt aus [= Äußerung] dem Mund Yehovas«.- ich danke Wolfgang Schulze. München, für den Hinweis.
-
da poznaü, Īe czáowiek nie Īyje jedynie chlebem, lecz Īyje ze wszystkiego, co pochodzi [= opinia,
Fuchs Max: ibid. W jĊzyku hebrajskim pojĊcie „sáowa” nie pojawia siĊ bezpoĞrednio;
im 81 Hebräischen kommt der Begriff »Wort« unmittelbar nicht vor;
81
fuchs Max: ibid.
80
Beyme, klaus von: Die Kunst der Macht und die Gegenmacht der Kunst. Studien zum Spannungsverhältnis von Kunst und Politik. frankfurt am Main 1998. Hier: kap. 1: umriß einer kunstpolitologie.
79
fuchs, Max: Kulturpolitik. Elemente der Politik, herausgegeben von Hans-georg ehrhardt u.a. Wiesbayden 2007, S. 22.
78
80
moĪna zebraü w jedną kulturalną infrastrukturĊ i dla których analizy istnieją stosowne
wymaga wieloĞci prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunków ramowych, które to rzuca siĊ w oczy nakáadanie siĊ na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr turpolitik und podjĊte ihren nebengebieten Befaßten ist (Dtnökonomischer von rahmenbeponownie w Nowym Testamencie 8,3; por. Mtundtechnischer 4,1-11), przynajmniej w kurz: es handelt sich um kaum 15 namen. aktiv dingungen, die sich als kulturelle infrastrukturniemieckimisttáumaczeniu brzmi to „Nie samym chlebem Īyjeund czáowiek, z.B.popularnym in Baden-Württemberg die Pädagogische zusammenfassen lassen für derenlecz analyse 81 Hochschule ludwigsburg mit einemzlehrstuhl und die Sozial- einschl. der Wirtschaftswissenschaften kaĪdym sáowem pochodzącym ust Boga”. einem berufsbegleitenden Masterstudiengang stehen. Hier läßt sich mindestens teilweise mit JeĪeli pozostaniemy przy przykáadzie circenses (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance), »kulturmanagement«. fuchs weiter: Zahlen operieren.
der künste um des gemeinwesens willens, ist Das bedeutet nicht, daß das gesamte feld die Selbstentfaltung der Zivilgesellschaft und unreflektiert seine Praxis betreibt (obwohl man ihrer Mitglieder. Hierfür wurde oben der Begriff durchaus einen gewissen Praktizismus feststellen der »musischen kultur« (ars gratia culturae) ins muß). es gibt vielmehr viele reflexionen über Spielgebracht. Ziel der »politia gratia artis«, der kunst, kultur, Politik und Bildung. es gibt durchdirekten und vor allem der indirekten politischen aus auch Debatten darüber, wohin sich unsere podstawowej i dodatkowej dziaáalnoĞci zawodowej zajmująbewegt. siĊ polityki kulturalnąfehlt, i ist förderung der künste, ist die Stärkung der gegesellschaft Was allerdings sellschaftsverfassung nach innen wie außen. eine identifizierbare scientific community mit towarzyszącymi jej zagadnieniami, jest krótka i obejmuje jedynie 15 nazwisk. Przykáadowo eine »ars gratia artis«, eine kunst um ihrer selbst eigenen wissenschaftlichen Publikationsorganen, aktywnie dziaáa tejimaginierte dziedzinie wohl Pedagogiczna WyĪsza Ludwigsburgu w Badenii willen, wäre als nichtwnur schwer Szkoáa vielleicht sogarwmit widerstreitenden Schulen und zu finden. Buch, Klang, Bild, Spiel sind Mittel anhängern, so daß jeder, der sich forschend und Wirtembergii, posiadająca jedną katedrĊ i jeden kierunek studiów magisterskich, des Broterwerbs, der Bildung, der freude oder schreibend auf dieses feld begibt, zur Zeit eine zawodowej: „Zarządzanie kulturą”. Fuchs pisze ponadto:kann.80 dertowarzyszących indoktrination, pracy sie sind nicht losgelöst vom eigene tradition begründen Menschen zu denken. im rahmen seiner euergetischen Herrschaft Nie oznacza to, Īe caáy ten obszar realizuje swoją praktyczną bezpanem Die erfassung der rationales, der kulturpolidurch Wohltätigkeit setzte dziaáalnoĞü das alte rom tischen Begründungszusammenhänge auf den et circenses ( Juvenal: Satiren 10, 81) ein – Brot zur gáĊbszego zastanowienia (mimo Īe naleĪy stwierdziü pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). Istnieje ebenen von Staat, kommune und Zivilgesellkonkreten Befriedigung und Spiele zur symbojak najbardziej wiele przemyĞleĔ na tematund sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzone są hier schaft, die erfassung ihrer Zwecksetzungen lischen Befriedung der Massen. Die von uns die kritik ihrer strategischen Mittel ist bislang vertretene ausgangsbehauptung der kulturpolitiktakĪe debaty na temat kierunku, w jakim zmierza nasze spoáeczeĔstwo. To, czego brakuje, to unzureichend geleistet worden. kulturpolitik wird wissenschaft ist die, daß auf der ebene der WismoĪliwa do identyfikacji community, dysponująca wáasnymi organami häufig reduziert auf, wie es scientific im amerikanischen senschaft die Vertreternaukowymi von „Brot“ und die Vertreter so unverblümt heißt, advocacy, auf ein instruvon „Wort“ miteinander ins gespräch kommen publikacyjnymi, a moĪe nawet szkoáami o sprzecznych poglądach i ich zwolennikami, aby mentelles repertoire für die akquise von geld müssen, um die komplexität des Phänomens undkaĪdy, aufmerksamkeit betriebsgebunhinreichend kto poruszaaus siĊ einer na tym polu badawczo i kulturpolitikgemeinsam twórczo, mógá obecnie analytisch stworzyü wáasną denen Perspektive. auffällig ist das Mißverhältnis zu erfassen. Die Differenzierung von materiellem tradycjĊ.80 zwischen der fülle an europaweit gesammelten Substrat und immaterieller Deutungswelt ist mit empirischen dem fehlen induktiver Begriffen »Brot« und »Wort« schon im W Daten ramachund swojego panowania StaroĪytny den Rzym stworzyávon w ramach dobroczynnoĞci theoriegewinnung aus eben diesen Daten. »Veralten testament vorgezeichnet und wird ihrerseits hasáo panem et circenses (Juvenal: Satyry 10, 81), tj. chleba i igrzysk – czyli poĪywienie dla (Dtn mutlich«, schreibt 2007 Max fuchs, Vorsitzender vom neuen testament wieder aufgegriffen deskonkretnego Deutschen kulturrats undi Direktor 8,3; vgl.zaspokojenia Mt 4,1-11) – mas. zumindest in der gängigen zaspokojenia rozrywkader dlaakasymbolicznego Reprezentowane demieremscheid, »ist unter allen denkbaren deutschen Übersetzung als »Der Mensch lebt nicht przez nas twierdzenie wyjĞciowe nauki o polityce kulturalnej jest takie, Īejedem na poziomie Politikfeldern der Bereich der kulturpolitikdervom Brot allein, sondern von Wort, das aus 81 jenige, am wenigstens über eine (politik-) dem Munde gottes kommt«. nauki,derprzedstawiciele „chleba” i przedstawiciele „sáowa” muszą nawiązaü ze sobą dialog, wissenschaftliche theoriebildungverfügt«.78 klaus Bleibt man beim Beispiel der circenses (oder mócresümiert we wspólnej analizie podjąü siĊ kompleksowego zjawiska polityki vonaby Beyme für sein fach Politikwissenludi, dem BereichujĊcia der performativen künste), so schaft: »Das Politikfeld‚ kunst und kultur’materialnym spielt […] substratem wird das ineinanderverwobensein von hard kulturalnej. RozróĪnienie miĊdzy a niematerialną interpretacją za facts eine marginale rolle«.79 Die liste der an deutschen und soft values unmittelbar augenfällig. einerseits pomocą pojĊü „chleba” i „sáowa” zostaáo zrealizowane w theater Starym Testamencie i zostaáo Hochschulen hauptoder nebenberuflich mit kulbedarfjuĪdas einer Vielzahl rechtlicher,
Comment [A3]: Soll gelöscht werden., da im gleichen Satz wiederholt sich.
anderen gesellschaftlichen Wertentscheidungen untersucht und kann gegebenenfalls zu einer Optimierung von Allokationen jenseits technizistischer Reduktionen beigetragen werden. Knapp hundert Jahre nach dem gehäuften Auftauchen des Begriffs Kulturpolitik im deutschen Sprachraum (1913; 1919) beginnt sich seit einiger Zeit die Kulturpolitikwissenschaft als Verbindung einer Analyse von Realia und Imaginaria zu entwickeln. Funktional ist die Kulturpolitikwissenschaft pragmatisch nicht im Sinne vonπρãξισ als gegebener Tatsache, sondern von πρãγμα als fruchtbringender Tat im Brückenschlag von humaniora und Sozialwissenschaften.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Andererseits jedoch steht das Theater exemplarisch für die Sinnsuche des Menschen in unterschiedlichen Gesellschaften. Um diese Sinnsuche begreiflich zu machen und ihren jeweiligen Kontext zu erschließen, hat sich aus der Germanistik die Theaterwissenschaft entwickelt, die, im Verein mit Philosophie, Geschichtswissenschaft und den vielfältigen Wissenschaften von den Einzelkünsten, Text und Interpretation untersucht und in den öffentlichen Diskurs stellt; kurz: Geisteswissenschaft ist. Hier lassen sich keine verborgenen Zahlensysteme (vgl. Paul Feyerabend82 zur parmenidischen Wende) herauslesen; wohl aber kann der impact der Sinnsuche in Relation zu
136
Feyerabend, Paul: Naturphilosphie. Hrsg. und mit einem Vorw. v. Helmut Heim und Eric Oberheim. Frankfurt a.M. 2009. Passim.
Feyerabend, Paul: Naturphilosphie. Hrsg. und mit einem Vorw. v. Helmut Heim und Eric Oberheim. Frankfurt a.M. 2009. Passim.
82
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3) 82
anderen gesellschaftlichen Wertentscheidungen untersucht und kann gegebenenfalls zu einer Optimierung von Allokationen jenseits technizistischer Reduktionen beigetragen werden. Knapp hundert Jahre nach dem gehäuften Auftauchen des Begriffs Kulturpolitik im deutschen Sprachraum (1913; 1919) beginnt sich seit einiger Zeit die Kulturpolitikwissenschaft als Verbindung einer Analyse von Realia und Imaginaria zu entwickeln. Funktional ist die Kulturpolitikwissenschaft pragmatisch nicht im Sinne vonπρãξισ als gegebener Tatsache, sondern von πρãγμα als fruchtbringender Tat im Brückenschlag von humaniora und Sozialwissenschaften.
136
Andererseits jedoch steht das Theater exemplarisch für die Sinnsuche des Menschen in unterschiedlichen Gesellschaften. Um diese Sinnsuche begreiflich zu machen und ihren jeweiligen Kontext zu erschließen, hat sich aus der Germanistik die Theaterwissenschaft entwickelt, die, im Verein mit Philosophie, Geschichtswissenschaft und den vielfältigen Wissenschaften von den Einzelkünsten, Text und Interpretation untersucht und in den öffentlichen Diskurs stellt; kurz: Geisteswissenschaft ist. Hier lassen sich keine verborgenen Zahlensysteme (vgl. Paul Feyerabend82 zur parmenidischen Wende) herauslesen; wohl aber kann der impact der Sinnsuche in Relation zu
137
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Weißrussland. Kulturpolitik Nastassia Chmiel
D
as heutige Weißrussland ist ein Land, das mit einem Bein im Westen steht und mit dem anderen im Osten. Dieser Widerspruch ist eine der grundsätzlichen Eigenschaften, von denen die weißrussische Mentalität und Kultur geprägt ist. Katholische oder orthodoxe Kirche, Europäische Union oder Anbindung an Russland, Demokratie oder „sowjetische Renaissance“, marktwirtschaftlicher Austausch oder staatliche Planwirtschaft, Zivilgesellschaft oder eine starke Obrigkeit, Russisch oder Weißrussisch – diese Entscheidungen treffen alle Weißrussen sowieso, aber in Wirklichkeit müssen sie sich auf das eine wie das andere einlassen und in ihrem Bewusstsein diese gegensätzlichen Pole miteinander vereinbaren. In den vergangenen zehn bis vierzehn Jahren hat, wie der Soziologe Oleg Manajew1 behauptet, die weißrussische Gesellschaft eine tiefe Spaltung erfahren. Die Regierung „zieht die Decke zu sich“, die Opposition zu sich. Dabei verbinden die Menschen zwei weißrussische Projekte – ein Weißrussland, das von der Regierung errichtet wird, und ein solches, das die Vertreter der Opposition entwerfen. Das grundlegende Problem, mit dessen Lösung das geistige und kulturelle leben der Nation beginnt, ist die Definition seiner Identität. Dann erst ist es möglich die Kultur des jeweiligen Volks als ganzheitliches, unwiederholbares Phänomen zu betrachten und nicht nur als Summe einzelner Kunstwerke, die in diesem Land produziert wurden oder deren Autor jemand ist, der aus diesem Territorium stammt. In den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren haben sich beinahe alle Republiken der ehemaligen So-
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim wjetunion in größerem oder geringerem Ausmaß mit der Definition ihrer eigenen Identität auseinandersetzen müssen (soweit sie überhaupt solch ein Bedürfnis hatten). 2 Die weißrussische Gesellschaft hingegen kann sich nach wie vor nicht entscheiden, was es bedeutet Weißrusse zu sein, ob für einen Weißrussen der gebrauch der weißrussischen Sprache unabdingbar ist. 3 Am deutlichsten ist das Problem der Wahl der Sprache in gestalt zweier teils koexistierender, zuweilen aber auch einander feindlicher Linien der weißrussischen Kultur: der weißrussisch- und der russischsprachigen, welche die Kulturschaffenden in zwei Lager spalten, was meiner Ansicht nach zu einer Hemmung ihrer Entwicklung führt, da es ihr Kraft und Zeit entzieht und eine Zusammenarbeit mit beiderseitigem Nutzen verhindert. Wie sieht die Vision der Kultur heute aus, wie möchten wir sie in der Zukunft sehen, wie präsentiert sie sich in der Welt – das sind zweifellos Fragen, auf die (nicht als pure Deklaration, sondern in Form von Konzepten, Strategien, Maßnahmen nach einem realistischen, umsetzbaren Plan) niemand so recht zu antworten vermag, denn für die Regierung ist Kultur eines der Instrumente der Aufrechterhaltung des Status quo, während die Vertreter des Underground zumeist nur inspirierte Amateure sind, die nicht über entsprechende Kompetenzen verfügen, Geschäftsleute für Kultur, welche dieselbe auf vulgäre Art behandeln. „Wer zahlt, wählt die Musik“ – es genügt, die örtlichen Radiohits zu hören. Die Kultursphäre in Weißrussland unterteilt sich in:
1
Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), Minsk, Weißrussland.
2
Solche Völker, die in der Zeit der Sowjetunion am wenigsten russifiziert wurden. z. B. Armenier, Georgier, Esten.
3
Dieses Problem würden wohl am besten die Iren oder Basken verstehen, die von einer stärkeren fremden Kultur dominiert werden und um ihre eigene verschwindende Sprache kämpfen.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
137
Nastassia Chmiel Stipendiatin des LaneKirkland-Programms, Absolventin des Fachbereiches Bühnenschaffen der Staatlichen Universität für Kultur und Kunst in Belarus. Sie ist Managerin von „Dschambibum“ Jugendmusikband, Veranstalterin von Kulturereignissen, u.a. Volksmusikwerkstätten. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Kulturmanagement mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Möglichkeiten von Nischenkulturentwicklung, Kulturanimation, Aktivierung des kulturellen Lebens am Lande, traditionelle Kultur verstanden als Chance für die Entwicklung von Ökotourismus.
Dieses Problem würden wohl am besten die Iren oder Basken verstehen, die von einer stärkeren fremden Kultur dominiert werden und um ihre eigene verschwindende Sprache kämpfen.
3
Solche Völker, die in der Zeit der Sowjetunion am wenigsten russifiziert wurden. z. B. Armenier, Georgier, Esten.
2
Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), Minsk, Weißrussland.
1
as heutige Weißrussland ist ein Land, das mit einem Bein im Westen steht und mit dem anderen im Osten. Dieser Widerspruch ist eine der grundsätzlichen Eigenschaften, von denen die weißrussische Mentalität und Kultur geprägt ist. Katholische oder orthodoxe Kirche, Europäische Union oder Anbindung an Russland, Demokratie oder „sowjetische Renaissance“, marktwirtschaftlicher Austausch oder staatliche Planwirtschaft, Zivilgesellschaft oder eine starke Obrigkeit, Russisch oder Weißrussisch – diese Entscheidungen treffen alle Weißrussen sowieso, aber in Wirklichkeit müssen sie sich auf das eine wie das andere einlassen und in ihrem Bewusstsein diese gegensätzlichen Pole miteinander vereinbaren. In den vergangenen zehn bis vierzehn Jahren hat, wie der Soziologe Oleg Manajew1 behauptet, die weißrussische Gesellschaft eine tiefe Spaltung erfahren. Die Regierung „zieht die Decke zu sich“, die Opposition zu sich. Dabei verbinden die Menschen zwei weißrussische Projekte – ein Weißrussland, das von der Regierung errichtet wird, und ein solches, das die Vertreter der Opposition entwerfen. Das grundlegende Problem, mit dessen Lösung das geistige und kulturelle leben der Nation beginnt, ist die Definition seiner Identität. Dann erst ist es möglich die Kultur des jeweiligen Volks als ganzheitliches, unwiederholbares Phänomen zu betrachten und nicht nur als Summe einzelner Kunstwerke, die in diesem Land produziert wurden oder deren Autor jemand ist, der aus diesem Territorium stammt. In den vergangenen zwanzig Jahren haben sich beinahe alle Republiken der ehemaligen So-
D
Nastassia Chmiel
Weißrussland. Kulturpolitik
wjetunion in größerem oder geringerem Ausmaß mit der Definition ihrer eigenen Identität auseinandersetzen müssen (soweit sie überhaupt solch ein Bedürfnis hatten). 2 Die weißrussische Gesellschaft hingegen kann sich nach wie vor nicht entscheiden, was es bedeutet Weißrusse zu sein, ob für einen Weißrussen der gebrauch der weißrussischen Sprache unabdingbar ist. 3 Am deutlichsten ist das Problem der Wahl der Sprache in gestalt zweier teils koexistierender, zuweilen aber auch einander feindlicher Linien der weißrussischen Kultur: der weißrussisch- und der russischsprachigen, welche die Kulturschaffenden in zwei Lager spalten, was meiner Ansicht nach zu einer Hemmung ihrer Entwicklung führt, da es ihr Kraft und Zeit entzieht und eine Zusammenarbeit mit beiderseitigem Nutzen verhindert. Wie sieht die Vision der Kultur heute aus, wie möchten wir sie in der Zukunft sehen, wie präsentiert sie sich in der Welt – das sind zweifellos Fragen, auf die (nicht als pure Deklaration, sondern in Form von Konzepten, Strategien, Maßnahmen nach einem realistischen, umsetzbaren Plan) niemand so recht zu antworten vermag, denn für die Regierung ist Kultur eines der Instrumente der Aufrechterhaltung des Status quo, während die Vertreter des Underground zumeist nur inspirierte Amateure sind, die nicht über entsprechende Kompetenzen verfügen, Geschäftsleute für Kultur, welche dieselbe auf vulgäre Art behandeln. „Wer zahlt, wählt die Musik“ – es genügt, die örtlichen Radiohits zu hören. Die Kultursphäre in Weißrussland unterteilt sich in:
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Nastassia Chmiel Stipendiatin des LaneKirkland-Programms, Absolventin des Fachbereiches Bühnenschaffen der Staatlichen Universität für Kultur und Kunst in Belarus. Sie ist Managerin von „Dschambibum“ Jugendmusikband, Veranstalterin von Kulturereignissen, u.a. Volksmusikwerkstätten. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Kulturmanagement mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Möglichkeiten von Nischenkulturentwicklung, Kulturanimation, Aktivierung des kulturellen Lebens am Lande, traditionelle Kultur verstanden als Chance für die Entwicklung von Ökotourismus.
MM die offizielle, geförderte, bezuschusste, initiierte Kultur [Smoleń, 2003], kontrolliert durch die Regierung (was sich in Gesetzen und anderen Dokumenten niederschlägt; MM die inoffizielle Kultur, also die wenigen NGO, Underground, Musik, Kunst, Literatur der Jugend, finanziert aus eigenen Mitteln oder Zuschüssen aus dem Ausland, gestützt hauptsächlich auf Enthusiasmus und Protest gegen die offizielle Kultur, zumeist in Form von Künstlergruppen, die nur selten registriert sind; MM die kommerzielle Kultur („Kulturindustrie“), wenn auch im Fall von Weißrussland der Begriff „Industrie“ zu pathetisch klingt, da tatsächlich die Kulturindustrie ein Phänomen der Marktwirtschaft ist, wo das Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage gilt und Wettbewerb herrscht, wo private (unabhängige) Medien, Verlage, Tonstudios existieren, die in der Lage sind, in hochwertige Produkte zu investieren. Derartige Bedingungen gibt es in Weißrussland nicht. Diese Einteilung ist nicht gleichmäßig gewichtet, denn die größten Einflüsse gehören dem Staat, denn die staatlichen Institutionen streben nach Kontrolle über alle Organisationen, die eine Kulturarbeit betreiben, selbst wenn es sich um NGO oder kommerzielle Konzertagenturen handelt. Wie Monika Smoleń unterstreicht [Smoleń, 2003], ist der Kultursektor unter den Kategorien des Systems zu betrachten, das gemeinsam von aus öffentlichen Mitteln finanzierten Kulturinstitutionen, gemeinnützigen Vereinen und im Bereich der Kultur tätigen Unternehmen gebildet wird. Die Unterscheidung dieser Bereiche wir immer häufiger unmöglich und trägt negative Folgen für alle Sphären, umso mehr als sie mit starken Banden verknüpft und stark voneinander abhängig sind. Im Fall von Weißrussland stehen die ersten beiden Bestandteile, die offizielle und die inoffizielle Kultur, im Grunde genommen in Opposition zueinander. Der proeuropäische Kultur-Underground versucht, leider nicht mit der Hilfe des Staats, sondern dem Staat zum Trotz dennoch recht erfolgreich, sofern das unter den gegebenen Bedingungen überhaupt möglich ist) eine alternative Kulturpolitik zu betreiben. Dabei versuchen viele NGO und Künstlergruppen, die begreifen, dass eine solche Isolation der Entwicklung nicht förderlich ist, mit den staatlichen Institutionen zusammenzuarbeiten, sie zur Beteiligung an Projekten und Events einzuladen, ihre Hilfe bei der Lösung von Problemen anzubieten. Für die NGO sind die staatlichen Kulturinstitutionen häufig Gegenstand des Interesses aufgrund der Tatsache, dass sie über Räumlichkeiten und technische
Ausstattung verfügen. Aber auf der Systemebene verhindern Zentralisierung, Hierarchie und Unterordnung, die die Wirklichkeit definieren, in der die staatlichen Institutionen wirken, in vielen Fällen eine solche Zusammenarbeit, da es dem massiven bürokratischen Apparat an Flexibilität, schneller Reaktion auf mögliche Veränderungen mangelt. Es dominiert eine administrative Methode der Entscheidungsfindung, bei der zu große Einflussnahme der Beamten festzustellen ist, wie auch eine zu geringe Rolle der Künstler und Kulturschaffenden. Der durchschnittliche Direktor eines Kulturhauses ist nicht der wahre Leiter seiner Einrichtung, eher Vollstrecker der Anordnungen „von oben“. Er kann selbstständig nicht einmal über eine so „prosaische“ Frage entscheiden wie die Vermietung seines Konzertsaals, sondern muss dafür die Einwilligung des Veranstalters erwirken. Deshalb kommt es vor, dass, wenn sich eine NGO oder eine Künstlergruppe sich mit einer Initiative an den Direktor wendet, die antwort lautet: Das ist eine gute Idee, aber ich kann dabei nicht helfen, denn das steht nicht im Plan, ich bin nur ein Beamter und kann eine solche Entscheidung nicht treffen. Beispiele für das ignorieren solcher initiativen „von unten“, von denen es viele gibt, durch den Staat zeigen den zweifellosen Paternalismus der Regierung und sind eine Antwort auf die Frage, „warum es so schlecht ist, wo wir doch so gut gedacht haben“. Offensichtlich ist: Den Menschen gefällt es nicht, wenn jemand für sie denkt, wenn sie etwas tun sollen, was jemand für sie ausgedacht hat, selbst „zu ihrem eigenen Wohl“. In einem solchen fall haben wir es mit formalisierter, bürokratischer Kultur zu tun. Die Hauptaufgabe des Staates hingegen ist die Schaffung von günstigen Rahmenbedingungen für die Entwicklung der Kultur.
Die Stellung des Staats gegenüber der Kultur
V
or der Beschäftigung mit den Rechtsgrundlagen der Kulturpolitik möchte ich einige diesbezügliche Sätze aus dem text Die Leitprinzipien der Staatspolitik Weißrusslands auf der offiziellen Webseite des Staatspräsidenten zitieren: Die Leitprinzipien der staatlichen Politik in unserem Land werden vom Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland Alexander Lukaschenko vorgegeben. Während der gesamten Amtszeit des Präsidenten werden die Prinzipien der Planung, der Kohärenz, der Kontinuität und der Gradualität auf folgende Weise ausgedrückt:
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
or der Beschäftigung mit den Rechtsgrundlagen der Kulturpolitik möchte ich einige diesbezügliche Sätze aus dem text Die Leitprinzipien der Staatspolitik Weißrusslands auf der offiziellen Webseite des Staatspräsidenten zitieren: Die Leitprinzipien der staatlichen Politik in unserem Land werden vom Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland Alexander Lukaschenko vorgegeben. Während der gesamten Amtszeit des Präsidenten werden die Prinzipien der Planung, der Kohärenz, der Kontinuität und der Gradualität auf folgende Weise ausgedrückt:
V
Die Stellung des Staats gegenüber der Kultur Ausstattung verfügen. Aber auf der Systemebene verhindern Zentralisierung, Hierarchie und Unterordnung, die die Wirklichkeit definieren, in der die staatlichen Institutionen wirken, in vielen Fällen eine solche Zusammenarbeit, da es dem massiven bürokratischen Apparat an Flexibilität, schneller Reaktion auf mögliche Veränderungen mangelt. Es dominiert eine administrative Methode der Entscheidungsfindung, bei der zu große Einflussnahme der Beamten festzustellen ist, wie auch eine zu geringe Rolle der Künstler und Kulturschaffenden. Der durchschnittliche Direktor eines Kulturhauses ist nicht der wahre Leiter seiner Einrichtung, eher Vollstrecker der Anordnungen „von oben“. Er kann selbstständig nicht einmal über eine so „prosaische“ Frage entscheiden wie die Vermietung seines Konzertsaals, sondern muss dafür die Einwilligung des Veranstalters erwirken. Deshalb kommt es vor, dass, wenn sich eine NGO oder eine Künstlergruppe sich mit einer Initiative an den Direktor wendet, die antwort lautet: Das ist eine gute Idee, aber ich kann dabei nicht helfen, denn das steht nicht im Plan, ich bin nur ein Beamter und kann eine solche Entscheidung nicht treffen. Beispiele für das ignorieren solcher initiativen „von unten“, von denen es viele gibt, durch den Staat zeigen den zweifellosen Paternalismus der Regierung und sind eine Antwort auf die Frage, „warum es so schlecht ist, wo wir doch so gut gedacht haben“. Offensichtlich ist: Den Menschen gefällt es nicht, wenn jemand für sie denkt, wenn sie etwas tun sollen, was jemand für sie ausgedacht hat, selbst „zu ihrem eigenen Wohl“. In einem solchen fall haben wir es mit formalisierter, bürokratischer Kultur zu tun. Die Hauptaufgabe des Staates hingegen ist die Schaffung von günstigen Rahmenbedingungen für die Entwicklung der Kultur.
138
138
die offizielle, geförderte, bezuschusste, initiierte Kultur [Smoleń, 2003], kontrolliert durch die Regierung (was sich in Gesetzen und anderen Dokumenten niederschlägt; MM die inoffizielle Kultur, also die wenigen NGO, Underground, Musik, Kunst, Literatur der Jugend, finanziert aus eigenen Mitteln oder Zuschüssen aus dem Ausland, gestützt hauptsächlich auf Enthusiasmus und Protest gegen die offizielle Kultur, zumeist in Form von Künstlergruppen, die nur selten registriert sind; MM die kommerzielle Kultur („Kulturindustrie“), wenn auch im Fall von Weißrussland der Begriff „Industrie“ zu pathetisch klingt, da tatsächlich die Kulturindustrie ein Phänomen der Marktwirtschaft ist, wo das Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage gilt und Wettbewerb herrscht, wo private (unabhängige) Medien, Verlage, Tonstudios existieren, die in der Lage sind, in hochwertige Produkte zu investieren. Derartige Bedingungen gibt es in Weißrussland nicht. Diese Einteilung ist nicht gleichmäßig gewichtet, denn die größten Einflüsse gehören dem Staat, denn die staatlichen Institutionen streben nach Kontrolle über alle Organisationen, die eine Kulturarbeit betreiben, selbst wenn es sich um NGO oder kommerzielle Konzertagenturen handelt. Wie Monika Smoleń unterstreicht [Smoleń, 2003], ist der Kultursektor unter den Kategorien des Systems zu betrachten, das gemeinsam von aus öffentlichen Mitteln finanzierten Kulturinstitutionen, gemeinnützigen Vereinen und im Bereich der Kultur tätigen Unternehmen gebildet wird. Die Unterscheidung dieser Bereiche wir immer häufiger unmöglich und trägt negative Folgen für alle Sphären, umso mehr als sie mit starken Banden verknüpft und stark voneinander abhängig sind. Im Fall von Weißrussland stehen die ersten beiden Bestandteile, die offizielle und die inoffizielle Kultur, im Grunde genommen in Opposition zueinander. Der proeuropäische Kultur-Underground versucht, leider nicht mit der Hilfe des Staats, sondern dem Staat zum Trotz dennoch recht erfolgreich, sofern das unter den gegebenen Bedingungen überhaupt möglich ist) eine alternative Kulturpolitik zu betreiben. Dabei versuchen viele NGO und Künstlergruppen, die begreifen, dass eine solche Isolation der Entwicklung nicht förderlich ist, mit den staatlichen Institutionen zusammenzuarbeiten, sie zur Beteiligung an Projekten und Events einzuladen, ihre Hilfe bei der Lösung von Problemen anzubieten. Für die NGO sind die staatlichen Kulturinstitutionen häufig Gegenstand des Interesses aufgrund der Tatsache, dass sie über Räumlichkeiten und technische MM
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
In der Wirtschaft gehen wir aus von dem, was ist: Wir reißen nicht ab, stören nicht, zerstören nicht. MM Eine starke, effiziente staatliche Obrigkeit, politische Stabilität in unserem Land – das sind die wichtigsten Voraussetzungen für die öffentliche Ordnung bei der Evolution und schrittweisen Entwicklung der Volkswirtschaft, ihrer schrittweisen Integration mit der Weltwirtschaft. MM Im bereich der Kultur und des gesellschaftlichen Lebens ist für unsere Republik nicht aggressiver Nationalismus angemessen, sondern die Hilfe des Staates für die historische Zweisprachigkeit, das Wiedererwachen der Geistigkeit und Kultivierung der traditionellen Religionen, der Kunst in allen Formen. MM Der Staat betreibt eine konsequente Politik zum Zweck der Aufrechterhaltung des weißrussischen Nationalerbes, der besten Charaktereigenschaften der Weißrussen: Wertschätzung für Menschen anderer Volkszugehörigkeit und Konfession, Toleranz, Humanismus und Friede. MM Staat und Staatshaushalt sind verpflichtet, finanzielle Unterstützung für die Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur zu gewähren. Das Prinzip der Kontinuität der Kulturpolitik drückt sich aus durch den Unterhalt der Infrastruktur der öffentlichen Kultur- und Kunstinstitutionen. MM Die Grundlage der Staatspolitik ist die Bestimmung der dauerhaften Eckpunkte des historischen Gedächtnisses des Volkes – des Sieges im großen Vaterländischen Krieg. Die Treue dem Gedächtnis spiegelt sich wider in dem Entschluss der Führung des Landes über die Einführung des Schulunterrichtsfachs Der Große Vaterländische Krieg des sowjetischen Volkes. MM Das Land hat den festen Kurs der Schaffung einer Ideologie des weißrussischen Staates, der Herauskristallisierung der weißrussischen nationalen Idee eingeschlagen. Am weitesten gefasst und am bündigsten steht die nationale Idee in der Parole des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland: Für ein starkes und blühendes Weißrussland! Ich denke, jeder, der die Zeiten des Kommunismus erlebt hat, erkennt auf Anhieb diesen optimistisch-demagogischen stil, in dem man von den hohen Tribünen herab zu uns gesprochen hat. Es ist schwer, ihn zu kritisieren. Im Prinzip ist alles gut geschrieben. Aber zwischen den Zeilen taucht die Frage auf: Was bedeutet eigentlich genau die Wendung „starke, effiziente staatliche Obrigkeit“, worin liegt ihre Stärke? Verursacht das Streben nach „politischer Stabilität“ etwa die Verfolgung jener Studenten, die eine TrickfilmseMM
139
rie gemacht haben, in der eine der Hauptfiguren Alexander Lukaschenko ist? Ich weiß nicht, was ein durchschnittlicher Europäer aus dem Satz „Im Bereich der Kultur und des gesellschaftlichen Lebens ist für unsere Republik nicht aggressiver Nationalismus angemessen“ versteht und warum das hervorgehoben wird, was nicht angemessen ist. Ein durchschnittlicher Weißrusse versteht die Botschaft wohl: Mit aggressivem Nationalismus ist die Politik der „Belaruskaga Adradżennia“ (Weißrussische Renaissance) gemeint, die zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre eingeführt wurde, als die einzige Amtssprache noch weißrussisch war. Das Ziel dieser Politik war die Entwicklung der weißrussischen Sprache und ihre Einführung in alle Sphären des gesellschaftlichen Lebens. Was klar zur Lösung des Problems der nationalen Identifikation der Weißrussen als einer eigenständigen europäischen Nation und nicht einer russischen Provinz beitragen würde. Mit anderen Worten: Die Staatspolitik, darunter auch die Kulturpolitik, basiert auf den Parolen „Stabilität“, „Ordnung“ und der Idee des „Erbes“ der Sowjetunion als Grundlage für die weitere Entwicklung. Einerseits totale Zerstörung des Alten und andererseits der Versuch etwas völlig Neues aufzubauen, das ist eine historische Sackgasse – dieses gescheiterte Experiment ist vor zwanzig Jahren zu Ende gegangen. Qualität, Werte und Vitalität jenes „Erbes“ wecken erhebliche Zweifel. Und selbst wenn es gelänge, erfolgreich gewisse Formen des Funktionierens der Gesellschaft zu konservieren, ist dann ihre Entwicklung gemäß den Bedürfnissen der Gegenwart zu erreichen? Einen anderen, völlig gegensätzlichen, Blick auf die Frage der Grundlagen der Entwicklung der Kultur schlägt Wladimir Mackiewicz [Mackiewicz, 2006], ein weißrussischer Methodologe und Leiter der Agentur für Humanitäre Technologie: Das grundlegende sozial-kulturelle Problem des heutigen Weißrussland beruht darauf, dass die Tradition und die bestehenden Sitten auf die Vergangenheit gerichtet sind, zu einer geschlossenen Gesellschaft, die geradezu eine allgemeine Systemkrise hervorgerufen hat. Eine positive Lösung der Krise ist ausschließlich mit anderen Mitteln möglich, die zur Zukunft gehören, zur offenen Gesellschaft. Eine allgemeine Lösung dieses Problems kann man mit den Worten des deutschen Philosophen Hermann Lotze formulieren: „Das, was sein soll, ist die Grundlage dessen, was ist.“ Das bedeutet, dass die Zukunft die heutige Wirklichkeit definiert, was sich aus der Vergangenheit ergibt, existiert gewissermaßen nicht mehr.“ Solche Mittel sollen nach Mackiewicz die humanitären Technologien sein, die auf der
MM In der Wirtschaft gehen wir aus von dem, was ist: Wir reißen nicht ab, stören nicht, zerstören nicht. MM Eine starke, effiziente staatliche Obrigkeit, politische Stabilität in unserem Land – das sind die wichtigsten Voraussetzungen für die öffentliche Ordnung bei der Evolution und schrittweisen Entwicklung der Volkswirtschaft, ihrer schrittweisen Integration mit der Weltwirtschaft. MM Im bereich der Kultur und des gesellschaftlichen Lebens ist für unsere Republik nicht aggressiver Nationalismus angemessen, sondern die Hilfe des Staates für die historische Zweisprachigkeit, das Wiedererwachen der Geistigkeit und Kultivierung der traditionellen Religionen, der Kunst in allen Formen. MM Der Staat betreibt eine konsequente Politik zum Zweck der Aufrechterhaltung des weißrussischen Nationalerbes, der besten Charaktereigenschaften der Weißrussen: Wertschätzung für Menschen anderer Volkszugehörigkeit und Konfession, Toleranz, Humanismus und Friede. MM Staat und Staatshaushalt sind verpflichtet, finanzielle Unterstützung für die Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur zu gewähren. Das Prinzip der Kontinuität der Kulturpolitik drückt sich aus durch den Unterhalt der Infrastruktur der öffentlichen Kultur- und Kunstinstitutionen. MM Die Grundlage der Staatspolitik ist die Bestimmung der dauerhaften Eckpunkte des historischen Gedächtnisses des Volkes – des Sieges im großen Vaterländischen Krieg. Die Treue dem Gedächtnis spiegelt sich wider in dem Entschluss der Führung des Landes über die Einführung des Schulunterrichtsfachs Der Große Vaterländische Krieg des sowjetischen Volkes. MM Das Land hat den festen Kurs der Schaffung einer Ideologie des weißrussischen Staates, der Herauskristallisierung der weißrussischen nationalen Idee eingeschlagen. Am weitesten gefasst und am bündigsten steht die nationale Idee in der Parole des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland: Für ein starkes und blühendes Weißrussland! Ich denke, jeder, der die Zeiten des Kommunismus erlebt hat, erkennt auf Anhieb diesen optimistisch-demagogischen stil, in dem man von den hohen Tribünen herab zu uns gesprochen hat. Es ist schwer, ihn zu kritisieren. Im Prinzip ist alles gut geschrieben. Aber zwischen den Zeilen taucht die Frage auf: Was bedeutet eigentlich genau die Wendung „starke, effiziente staatliche Obrigkeit“, worin liegt ihre Stärke? Verursacht das Streben nach „politischer Stabilität“ etwa die Verfolgung jener Studenten, die eine Trickfilmse-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
rie gemacht haben, in der eine der Hauptfiguren Alexander Lukaschenko ist? Ich weiß nicht, was ein durchschnittlicher Europäer aus dem Satz „Im Bereich der Kultur und des gesellschaftlichen Lebens ist für unsere Republik nicht aggressiver Nationalismus angemessen“ versteht und warum das hervorgehoben wird, was nicht angemessen ist. Ein durchschnittlicher Weißrusse versteht die Botschaft wohl: Mit aggressivem Nationalismus ist die Politik der „Belaruskaga Adradżennia“ (Weißrussische Renaissance) gemeint, die zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre eingeführt wurde, als die einzige Amtssprache noch weißrussisch war. Das Ziel dieser Politik war die Entwicklung der weißrussischen Sprache und ihre Einführung in alle Sphären des gesellschaftlichen Lebens. Was klar zur Lösung des Problems der nationalen Identifikation der Weißrussen als einer eigenständigen europäischen Nation und nicht einer russischen Provinz beitragen würde. Mit anderen Worten: Die Staatspolitik, darunter auch die Kulturpolitik, basiert auf den Parolen „Stabilität“, „Ordnung“ und der Idee des „Erbes“ der Sowjetunion als Grundlage für die weitere Entwicklung. Einerseits totale Zerstörung des Alten und andererseits der Versuch etwas völlig Neues aufzubauen, das ist eine historische Sackgasse – dieses gescheiterte Experiment ist vor zwanzig Jahren zu Ende gegangen. Qualität, Werte und Vitalität jenes „Erbes“ wecken erhebliche Zweifel. Und selbst wenn es gelänge, erfolgreich gewisse Formen des Funktionierens der Gesellschaft zu konservieren, ist dann ihre Entwicklung gemäß den Bedürfnissen der Gegenwart zu erreichen? Einen anderen, völlig gegensätzlichen, Blick auf die Frage der Grundlagen der Entwicklung der Kultur schlägt Wladimir Mackiewicz [Mackiewicz, 2006], ein weißrussischer Methodologe und Leiter der Agentur für Humanitäre Technologie: Das grundlegende sozial-kulturelle Problem des heutigen Weißrussland beruht darauf, dass die Tradition und die bestehenden Sitten auf die Vergangenheit gerichtet sind, zu einer geschlossenen Gesellschaft, die geradezu eine allgemeine Systemkrise hervorgerufen hat. Eine positive Lösung der Krise ist ausschließlich mit anderen Mitteln möglich, die zur Zukunft gehören, zur offenen Gesellschaft. Eine allgemeine Lösung dieses Problems kann man mit den Worten des deutschen Philosophen Hermann Lotze formulieren: „Das, was sein soll, ist die Grundlage dessen, was ist.“ Das bedeutet, dass die Zukunft die heutige Wirklichkeit definiert, was sich aus der Vergangenheit ergibt, existiert gewissermaßen nicht mehr.“ Solche Mittel sollen nach Mackiewicz die humanitären Technologien sein, die auf der
139
tion. Die staatliche Politik in diesem Bereich hat zum Ziel die Erhaltung der kulturellen Identität des weißrussischen Volkes sowie der nationalen Traditionen, die Wiedergeburt und Erhaltung des Erbes und die Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten, die Gewährleistung der Zugänglichkeit von Kulturgütern sowie die Integration mit der globalen Kultur nach dem Gesetz der Gleichheit der Teilnehmer an den globalen Kulturprozessen. Die Prioritäten der staatlichen Politik im Kulturbereich (gemäß Art. 10, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes „Die Kultur in der Republik Weißrussland“) sind: MM Schutz, Entwicklung und Verbreitung der weißrussischen Kultur und Sprache, MM Schaffung, Verbreitung und Propagierung von Literatur und Kunst für Kinder und jugendliche, die Schaffung von Bedingungen für die ästhetische Erziehung; Bildungsarbeit im Bereich Kunst und Kultur für Kinder und Jugendliche, MM Förderung klassischer Literatur und Kunst sowie anderer ästhetischer und moralischer nationaler und globaler Werte, MM Erhaltung und Entwicklung der Kultur auf dem Lande. Diese Konzeption entstand in Anlehnung an den Rapport über den Zustand der Kultur, in dem unter anderem die grundlegenden Probleme des Kultursektors im Land festgelegt wurden. Wenn man sie mit der Liste der „grundsätzlichen Schwächen, die im Bereich der Kultur auftreten“ [Vermarktung Polens durch Kultur] vergleicht, von denen es in Polen als einem zweifellos weiter entwickelten Land als Weißrussland eigentlich weniger geben sollte, fällt auf, dass es doch wesentlich mehr solcher polnischer „Schwächen“ gibt als weißrussischer, die (was nicht schwer zu erraten ist) auf „fehlenden Geldmitteln“ beruhen. Die polnische Nationale Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur für die Jahre 2004-2013 weist auf folgende Mängel im Kulturbereich hin (und man muss feststellen, dass diese Diagnose nach wie vor aktuell ist, selbst wenn sich die Lage durch bessere Finanzierung in einige fällen gebessert haben sollte): MM Fehlen einer kohärenten und klar bestimmten staatlichen Kulturpolitik, MM Fehlen von strategischer Planung (Management) im Kulturbereich, MM niedrige Ausgaben für Kultur pro Einwohner im Vergleich mit den übrigen Ländern der Europäischen Union, MM Verschuldung der Kulturinstitutionen, MM schlechter Zustand der Infrastruktur der Kulturinstitutionen, MM Fehlen eines Systems zur Bewertung der Qualität des Funktionierens der Kulturinstitutionen sowie Fehlen einer Verbindung zwischen dem
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kreierung und Einführung neuer Prinzipien des Handelns, neuer Verhaltensmuster beruhen, die sich im Falle einer erfolgreichen Verbreitung in der Gesellschaft in Traditionen verwandeln. Diese Art von Praktiken ist notwendig in Situationen der Krise, der Transformation und der Entwicklung, wenn der traditionelle weg nicht mehr den gestellten Zielen entspricht. Kehren wir jedoch zum Thema der offiziellen Einstellung gegenüber der Kultur zurück. Gegenwärtig stützt sich die staatliche Kulturpolitik auf die internationalen Prinzipien, die in Konventionen der UNESCO verzeichnet sind – der Haager Konvention über den Schutz von Kulturgütern im Fall eines bewaffneten Konflikts (1954), des Weltkultur- und -naturerbes der UNESCO (1972), den Schutz des nichtmateriellen Kulturerbes (2003), über den Schutz und die Förderung der vielfältigen kulturellen Ausdrucksformen (2005). Des Weiteren: MM die Landesstrategie für nachhaltige sozial-ökonomische Entwicklung Weißrusslands für die Zeit bis zum Jahr 2000, bestätigt vom Präsidium des Ministerrats der Republik Weißrussland [Landesstrategie…] MM Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland, das Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland vom 04. 06. 1991, [Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland] MM das Programm für die sozial-ökonomische Entwicklung Weißrusslands für die Jahre 20062010, MM das integrierte Programm für die Entwicklung des Dienstleistungssektors in der Republik Weißrussland in den Jahren 2006-2010, MM das staatliche Programm „Das Gedächtnis Weißrusslands“, MM das Programm „Erhaltung und Entwicklung der Kultur der Republik Weißrussland für die Jahre 2006-2010“, MM das Programm für Maßnahmen im Rahmen des „Programms der Erneuerung und Entwicklung dörflicher Gebiete für die Jahre 2005-2010“, MM das Programm für die Entwicklung der Republik Weißrussland für die Jahre 2005-2010, MM das Programm für den Wiederaufbau und die technische Modernisierung der öffentlichen Theater in der Republik Weißrussland für die Jahre 2004-2010. Im Dezember 2009 wurde das Konzept des staatlichen Programms „Die Kultur Weißrusslands (2011-2015)“ erstellt, der zufolge ein Hauptziel der Entwicklung der Kultur die Vergrößerung ihrer Rolle bei der sozial-ökonomischen Entwicklung ist, die Schaffung einer hohen Geistigkeit gemäß den historischen, sozialen und kulturellen Werten des weißrussischen Volkes und der Weltzivilisa-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
140
tion. Die staatliche Politik in diesem Bereich hat zum Ziel die Erhaltung der kulturellen Identität des weißrussischen Volkes sowie der nationalen Traditionen, die Wiedergeburt und Erhaltung des Erbes und die Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten, die Gewährleistung der Zugänglichkeit von Kulturgütern sowie die Integration mit der globalen Kultur nach dem Gesetz der Gleichheit der Teilnehmer an den globalen Kulturprozessen. Die Prioritäten der staatlichen Politik im Kulturbereich (gemäß Art. 10, Abs. 3 des Gesetzes „Die Kultur in der Republik Weißrussland“) sind: MM Schutz, Entwicklung und Verbreitung der weißrussischen Kultur und Sprache, MM Schaffung, Verbreitung und Propagierung von Literatur und Kunst für Kinder und jugendliche, die Schaffung von Bedingungen für die ästhetische Erziehung; Bildungsarbeit im Bereich Kunst und Kultur für Kinder und Jugendliche, MM Förderung klassischer Literatur und Kunst sowie anderer ästhetischer und moralischer nationaler und globaler Werte, MM Erhaltung und Entwicklung der Kultur auf dem Lande. Diese Konzeption entstand in Anlehnung an den Rapport über den Zustand der Kultur, in dem unter anderem die grundlegenden Probleme des Kultursektors im Land festgelegt wurden. Wenn man sie mit der Liste der „grundsätzlichen Schwächen, die im Bereich der Kultur auftreten“ [Vermarktung Polens durch Kultur] vergleicht, von denen es in Polen als einem zweifellos weiter entwickelten Land als Weißrussland eigentlich weniger geben sollte, fällt auf, dass es doch wesentlich mehr solcher polnischer „Schwächen“ gibt als weißrussischer, die (was nicht schwer zu erraten ist) auf „fehlenden Geldmitteln“ beruhen. Die polnische Nationale Strategie für die Entwicklung der Kultur für die Jahre 2004-2013 weist auf folgende Mängel im Kulturbereich hin (und man muss feststellen, dass diese Diagnose nach wie vor aktuell ist, selbst wenn sich die Lage durch bessere Finanzierung in einige fällen gebessert haben sollte): MM Fehlen einer kohärenten und klar bestimmten staatlichen Kulturpolitik, MM Fehlen von strategischer Planung (Management) im Kulturbereich, MM niedrige Ausgaben für Kultur pro Einwohner im Vergleich mit den übrigen Ländern der Europäischen Union, MM Verschuldung der Kulturinstitutionen, MM schlechter Zustand der Infrastruktur der Kulturinstitutionen, MM Fehlen eines Systems zur Bewertung der Qualität des Funktionierens der Kulturinstitutionen sowie Fehlen einer Verbindung zwischen dem
140
Kreierung und Einführung neuer Prinzipien des Handelns, neuer Verhaltensmuster beruhen, die sich im Falle einer erfolgreichen Verbreitung in der Gesellschaft in Traditionen verwandeln. Diese Art von Praktiken ist notwendig in Situationen der Krise, der Transformation und der Entwicklung, wenn der traditionelle weg nicht mehr den gestellten Zielen entspricht. Kehren wir jedoch zum Thema der offiziellen Einstellung gegenüber der Kultur zurück. Gegenwärtig stützt sich die staatliche Kulturpolitik auf die internationalen Prinzipien, die in Konventionen der UNESCO verzeichnet sind – der Haager Konvention über den Schutz von Kulturgütern im Fall eines bewaffneten Konflikts (1954), des Weltkultur- und -naturerbes der UNESCO (1972), den Schutz des nichtmateriellen Kulturerbes (2003), über den Schutz und die Förderung der vielfältigen kulturellen Ausdrucksformen (2005). Des Weiteren: MM die Landesstrategie für nachhaltige sozial-ökonomische Entwicklung Weißrusslands für die Zeit bis zum Jahr 2000, bestätigt vom Präsidium des Ministerrats der Republik Weißrussland [Landesstrategie…] MM Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland, das Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland vom 04. 06. 1991, [Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland] MM das Programm für die sozial-ökonomische Entwicklung Weißrusslands für die Jahre 20062010, MM das integrierte Programm für die Entwicklung des Dienstleistungssektors in der Republik Weißrussland in den Jahren 2006-2010, MM das staatliche Programm „Das Gedächtnis Weißrusslands“, MM das Programm „Erhaltung und Entwicklung der Kultur der Republik Weißrussland für die Jahre 2006-2010“, MM das Programm für Maßnahmen im Rahmen des „Programms der Erneuerung und Entwicklung dörflicher Gebiete für die Jahre 2005-2010“, MM das Programm für die Entwicklung der Republik Weißrussland für die Jahre 2005-2010, MM das Programm für den Wiederaufbau und die technische Modernisierung der öffentlichen Theater in der Republik Weißrussland für die Jahre 2004-2010. Im Dezember 2009 wurde das Konzept des staatlichen Programms „Die Kultur Weißrusslands (2011-2015)“ erstellt, der zufolge ein Hauptziel der Entwicklung der Kultur die Vergrößerung ihrer Rolle bei der sozial-ökonomischen Entwicklung ist, die Schaffung einer hohen Geistigkeit gemäß den historischen, sozialen und kulturellen Werten des weißrussischen Volkes und der Weltzivilisa-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
System der Verteilung ministerieller Fördermittel und einem System der Bewertung der Qualität von Kulturinstitutionen und -maßnahmen, MM zu hohe Spezialisierung der Institutionen zur Verbreitung von Kultur, MM Fehlen effizienter Instrumente zur Motivierung von Vertretern des Privatsektors zur Investition in Kultur, MM hohe Abhängigkeit der Kulturinstitutionen und deren Direktoren von den Betreibern dieser Institutionen. Die Probleme der weißrussischen Kultur sind im Konzept des staatlichen Programms „Die Kultur Weißrusslands (1011-1015)“ folgendermaßen dargestellt: Dennoch, wenn man die erheblichen Fortschritte im Kultursektor in unserem Land berücksichtigt, muss man feststellen, dass das Niveau ihrer Entwicklung nicht den Anforderungen des steigenden internationalen Wettbewerbs im wirtschaftlichen, sozialen, politischen und geistigen bereich genügt. In der sozialen und geschäftlichen Sphäre gilt Kultur nicht als Entwicklungsparadigma. Die Bewusstwerdung, dass moralischen und geistigen Gesetzen, wie auch ökologischen und ökonomischen, eine Schlüsselrolle im Prozess des Übergangs zur nachhaltigen Entwicklung zukommt. Im Zusammenhang damit drückt sich eine wesentliche Einstellung der Gesellschaft zur Kultur in unzureichender Aufwendung von Mitteln für ihre Entwicklung aus. Die finanziellen Beschränkungen komplizieren die Umsetzung von Maßnahmen zum Schutz und zur qualitativen Stärkung der Netze der Kulturinstitutionen, Logistik, Zugänglichkeit und Vielfalt der Leistungen der Kulturinstitutionen für die gesamte Bevölkerung. Das Potenzial der weißrussischen Kultur ist nicht ausreichend erschlossen zum Bau und zur Stärkung eines positiven internationalen Images des Landes. Die Sphäre der Kultur ist nicht gut angepasst an die tatsächliche Arbeitssituation im Land unter marktwirtschaftlichen Bedingungen. Sie ist von erheblichen Finanzierungsproblemen betroffen. Gemäß dem Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland „Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland“ sollte die Höhe der Haushaltsmittel für Erhaltung und Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur beginnend mit dem Jahr 2009 auf einer Höhe von 1,0 % BIP liegen. Die tatsächlichen Ausgaben für Kultur im Jahr 2008 (einschließlich Geldmittel für Bauarbeiten) betrugen 0,83 % BIP. Für das Jahr 2009 wurden Haushaltsmittel in Höhe von 0,62 % des geplanten BIP vorgesehen und in den vorherigen
4
Daten über die Ausgaben für den Kulturbereich – ca. 0,5 % BIP. Die Gehälter der Mitarbeiter von Kulturinstitutionen gehören zu den niedrigsten im Land. Nach dem Nationalen Ausschuss für Statistik betrug das Durchschnittseinkommen eines Mitarbeiters im Kunst- und Kultursektor im Jahr 2008 bei 656.000 Rubel4 (74% eines Durchschnittsgehalts). Das Durchschnittsgehalt von Mitarbeitern im Kulturbereich ging von 73,6% im Zeitraum von Januar bis Oktober 2008 auf 73,2% im Zeitraum von Januar bis Oktober 2009 zurück. Die nähere Analyse weist auf den zu allgemeinen Charakter des Herangehens an die Bestimmung der Probleme hin, vor denen die weißrussische Kultur steht. Meiner Ansicht nach sind sie einerseits eine Folge einer typisch sowjetischen Eigenheit – des Sprechens nur „über unsere Siege“ und die Vermittlung des Eindrucks, dass Probleme nicht existieren (und schließlich sind die Autoren des Rapports Beamte des Kulturministeriums). Andererseits kann man darin ein Anzeichen für eine Krise des strategischen Marketings im Kulturbereich erblicken. Beinahe alle im Rapport über die Vermarktung Polens durch Kultur aufgeführten schwächen sind mehr oder weniger adäquat auch für Weißrussland. Darüber hinaus treten solche Probleme auf wie: MM ideologische Kontrolle durch den Staat – als charakteristisches Element des staatlichen bürokratischen Elements der Kulturpolitik. Dies bringt folgende Probleme mit sich: eingeschränkte und ungünstige Innovationsbedingungen, Ablehnung neuer Muster der künstlerischen Tätigkeit, wie sie insbesondere von jungen Künstlern präsentiert werden, MM Braindrain – die talentiertesten Fachleute, insbesondere die jüngeren, emigrieren aufgrund ungünstiger Arbeitsbedingungen, fehlender Motivation, niedriger Gehälter und des Kontraktsystems bei der Beschäftigung (der Kontrakt wird für ein Jahr unterzeichnet und der Arbeitgeber kann ihn aus beliebigen Gründen nicht verlängern) ins Ausland, MM niedriges Niveau der Kulturarbeit in Kleinstädten und Dorfgemeinden, MM schwacher Entwicklungsgrad des Tourismus, kein Kulturtourismus. Hinzuzufügen ist, dass sich unter den Subjekten, die einer Kulturtätigkeit in Richtung Umsetzung der staatlichen Politik nachgehen, gesellschaftliche Organisationen befinden, die vom Staat berufen und der Regierung unterhalten
1 Złoty = ca. 1.000 Rubel.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
141
4
141
1 Złoty = ca. 1.000 Rubel.
System der Verteilung ministerieller Fördermittel und einem System der Bewertung der Qualität von Kulturinstitutionen und -maßnahmen, MM zu hohe Spezialisierung der Institutionen zur Verbreitung von Kultur, MM Fehlen effizienter Instrumente zur Motivierung von Vertretern des Privatsektors zur Investition in Kultur, MM hohe Abhängigkeit der Kulturinstitutionen und deren Direktoren von den Betreibern dieser Institutionen. Die Probleme der weißrussischen Kultur sind im Konzept des staatlichen Programms „Die Kultur Weißrusslands (1011-1015)“ folgendermaßen dargestellt: Dennoch, wenn man die erheblichen Fortschritte im Kultursektor in unserem Land berücksichtigt, muss man feststellen, dass das Niveau ihrer Entwicklung nicht den Anforderungen des steigenden internationalen Wettbewerbs im wirtschaftlichen, sozialen, politischen und geistigen bereich genügt. In der sozialen und geschäftlichen Sphäre gilt Kultur nicht als Entwicklungsparadigma. Die Bewusstwerdung, dass moralischen und geistigen Gesetzen, wie auch ökologischen und ökonomischen, eine Schlüsselrolle im Prozess des Übergangs zur nachhaltigen Entwicklung zukommt. Im Zusammenhang damit drückt sich eine wesentliche Einstellung der Gesellschaft zur Kultur in unzureichender Aufwendung von Mitteln für ihre Entwicklung aus. Die finanziellen Beschränkungen komplizieren die Umsetzung von Maßnahmen zum Schutz und zur qualitativen Stärkung der Netze der Kulturinstitutionen, Logistik, Zugänglichkeit und Vielfalt der Leistungen der Kulturinstitutionen für die gesamte Bevölkerung. Das Potenzial der weißrussischen Kultur ist nicht ausreichend erschlossen zum Bau und zur Stärkung eines positiven internationalen Images des Landes. Die Sphäre der Kultur ist nicht gut angepasst an die tatsächliche Arbeitssituation im Land unter marktwirtschaftlichen Bedingungen. Sie ist von erheblichen Finanzierungsproblemen betroffen. Gemäß dem Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland „Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland“ sollte die Höhe der Haushaltsmittel für Erhaltung und Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur beginnend mit dem Jahr 2009 auf einer Höhe von 1,0 % BIP liegen. Die tatsächlichen Ausgaben für Kultur im Jahr 2008 (einschließlich Geldmittel für Bauarbeiten) betrugen 0,83 % BIP. Für das Jahr 2009 wurden Haushaltsmittel in Höhe von 0,62 % des geplanten BIP vorgesehen und in den vorherigen
Daten über die Ausgaben für den Kulturbereich – ca. 0,5 % BIP. Die Gehälter der Mitarbeiter von Kulturinstitutionen gehören zu den niedrigsten im Land. Nach dem Nationalen Ausschuss für Statistik betrug das Durchschnittseinkommen eines Mitarbeiters im Kunst- und Kultursektor im Jahr 2008 bei 656.000 Rubel4 (74% eines Durchschnittsgehalts). Das Durchschnittsgehalt von Mitarbeitern im Kulturbereich ging von 73,6% im Zeitraum von Januar bis Oktober 2008 auf 73,2% im Zeitraum von Januar bis Oktober 2009 zurück. Die nähere Analyse weist auf den zu allgemeinen Charakter des Herangehens an die Bestimmung der Probleme hin, vor denen die weißrussische Kultur steht. Meiner Ansicht nach sind sie einerseits eine Folge einer typisch sowjetischen Eigenheit – des Sprechens nur „über unsere Siege“ und die Vermittlung des Eindrucks, dass Probleme nicht existieren (und schließlich sind die Autoren des Rapports Beamte des Kulturministeriums). Andererseits kann man darin ein Anzeichen für eine Krise des strategischen Marketings im Kulturbereich erblicken. Beinahe alle im Rapport über die Vermarktung Polens durch Kultur aufgeführten schwächen sind mehr oder weniger adäquat auch für Weißrussland. Darüber hinaus treten solche Probleme auf wie: MM ideologische Kontrolle durch den Staat – als charakteristisches Element des staatlichen bürokratischen Elements der Kulturpolitik. Dies bringt folgende Probleme mit sich: eingeschränkte und ungünstige Innovationsbedingungen, Ablehnung neuer Muster der künstlerischen Tätigkeit, wie sie insbesondere von jungen Künstlern präsentiert werden, MM Braindrain – die talentiertesten Fachleute, insbesondere die jüngeren, emigrieren aufgrund ungünstiger Arbeitsbedingungen, fehlender Motivation, niedriger Gehälter und des Kontraktsystems bei der Beschäftigung (der Kontrakt wird für ein Jahr unterzeichnet und der Arbeitgeber kann ihn aus beliebigen Gründen nicht verlängern) ins Ausland, MM niedriges Niveau der Kulturarbeit in Kleinstädten und Dorfgemeinden, MM schwacher Entwicklungsgrad des Tourismus, kein Kulturtourismus. Hinzuzufügen ist, dass sich unter den Subjekten, die einer Kulturtätigkeit in Richtung Umsetzung der staatlichen Politik nachgehen, gesellschaftliche Organisationen befinden, die vom Staat berufen und der Regierung unterhalten
werden. Dabei handelt es sich um die Nachfolger sowjetischer Organisationen: Pioniere (Pfadfinder) – heute Pionier-Organisation der Republik Weißrussland und Komsomol – heute Jugendverband der Republik Weißrussland. Im Jahr 2007 entstand eine weitere Organisation mit ähnlicher Mission, aber anderer Zielgruppe (Erwachsene) – „Bela Rus“ Gesellschaftliche Organisation der Republik. Eine charakteristische Eigenart ihrer Tätigkeit ist, dass die „freiwillige“ Mitgliedschaft inoffiziell von allen Mitarbeitern staatlicher Institutionen (insbesondere Kultur- und Bildungseinrichtungen), Studenten und Schülern erwartet wird.
unter Hindernissen, wie sie sonst in Europa unbekannt sind.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Nichtregierungskulturinstitutionen. Kultureller Underground
142
A
Die ideologischen Repressionen des Staats gegenüber der alternativen weißrussischen Musik bewirken, dass ihre Entwicklung gegenwärtig in Richtung DIY-Kultur tendiert (engl. „do it yourself“). Die Musiker werden in keiner Weise vom Staat gefördert, können nur auf sich selbst zählen und sind doch in globaler Richtung für Weißrussland, für die Entwicklung der Nationalkultur in den Zeiten der IT-Technologie, tätig. Auch auf lokaler Ebene funktionieren sie nach dem Prinzip DIY: Sie schaffen nichtzensierte Kommunikationsnetze, unabhängige Verlage auf eigenen Rechnung sowie Vertriebsstrukturen für Platten von Undergroundgruppen. Diese art von Initiativen, die eine alternative für die staatlich geförderte „ideologisch korrekte“ Kultur schaffen, existieren in Weißrussland
ls ich Ende 2009 auf einem Festival in Moldawien war, hörte ich folgende Ansicht zu Weißrussland im Vergleich mit Moldawien: „Bei euch ist alles verboten, aber alle tun etwas. bei uns ist alles erlaubt, aber niemand tut etwas.“ Tatsächlich ist jede Art von Kulturarbeit unter solch harten materiellen, rechtlichen, ideologischen Bedingungen eine große Herausforderung. Andererseits lehrt die Geschichte, dass die Kunst manchmal unter den schwierigsten Bedingungen aufkeimt, die Krise stimuliert die Künstler. Also kann man auch in dieser Situation sich eine gewisse Blüte der Kultur versprechen, wenigstens der Protestkultur, deren Ergebnisse eine große Bedeutung für das Land oder vielleicht gar ganz Europa haben kann. Ein Beispiel für eine solche erfolgreiche Gegenkultur ist das Schaffen des weltberühmten serbischen Regisseurs Emir Kusturica. Der weißrussische Musikkritiker Anatol Mialguj schreibt in seinem Essay über die Jugendmusik:
ls ich Ende 2009 auf einem Festival in Moldawien war, hörte ich folgende Ansicht zu Weißrussland im Vergleich mit Moldawien: „Bei euch ist alles verboten, aber alle tun etwas. bei uns ist alles erlaubt, aber niemand tut etwas.“ Tatsächlich ist jede Art von Kulturarbeit unter solch harten materiellen, rechtlichen, ideologischen Bedingungen eine große Herausforderung. Andererseits lehrt die Geschichte, dass die Kunst manchmal unter den schwierigsten Bedingungen aufkeimt, die Krise stimuliert die Künstler. Also kann man auch in dieser Situation sich eine gewisse Blüte der Kultur versprechen, wenigstens der Protestkultur, deren Ergebnisse eine große Bedeutung für das Land oder vielleicht gar ganz Europa haben kann. Ein Beispiel für eine solche erfolgreiche Gegenkultur ist das Schaffen des weltberühmten serbischen Regisseurs Emir Kusturica. Der weißrussische Musikkritiker Anatol Mialguj schreibt in seinem Essay über die Jugendmusik:
Was sind das für Hindernisse? Es können Hindernisse und Schwierigkeiten „natürlicher“ Art sein, die „das Leben selbst“ mit sich bringt: fehlende Freizeit, fehlende Mittel für technisches Equipment (Musikinstrumente, Computer), Bücher, Platten etc. Andere Hindernisse sind „künstlich“. Sie ergeben sich aus dem paternalistischen Charakter der staatlichen Kulturpolitik, die A. Moles [Moles, 1973] als dogmatisch beschreibt und in der alle rechte und Hauptkanäle der Informationsverbreitung in den Händen eines „administrativen Rats“ liegen. Eine Kulturpolitik, die sich nach diesen Standards entwickelt, kann den Zwecken jeder beliebigen politischen Partei, Glaubensgemeinschaft oder dem ganzen Staat dienen. Wenn die Tätigkeit irgendeiner Organisation den staatlichen Interessen entspricht, besitzen die Beamten zahlreiche Möglichkeiten, diese Tätigkeit zu blockieren, zum Beispiel durch: MM Verbote von Kulturveranstaltungen, MM Blockade der Tätigkeit mit verschiedenen „legalen“ Methoden – ein „populäre“ Methode ist etwa die Verweigerung der Registrierung der Organisation, MM Blockade des Zugangs zu den Empfängern – zum Beispiel die Verordnung über das Verbot des Verkaufs einiger Zeitungen der unabhängigen Presse in Kiosks oder Postämtern, MM Übermäßig komplizierte Prozedur der Registrierung einer Kulturinstitution (häufige Finanz-, Steuer-, Sanitär-, Feuerschutzinspektionen, was die potenziellen Gründer solcher Einrichtungen demotiviert. Sie sind also zur Wahl gezwungen: entweder mit den Beamten kämpfen, was viel Zeit und Energie in Anspruch nimmt, die sonst für die satzungsgemäße Tätigkeit aufgewandt werden könnte. Oder illegal arbeiten, im Bewusstsein, dass sie gemäß dem geltenden Recht angeklagt werden können (Art. 193.1 Strafgesetzbuch der Republik Weißrussland). Eine solche Situation verringert den Ansporn der Bürger zu Teilnahme im NGO-Kulturbereich erheblich. MM Die gesetzlichen Bedingungen der Tätigkeit von Nichtregierungskulturinstitutionen lassen Mensur und ideologische Kontrolle von staatlicher Seite zu (Dekret des Präsidenten Nr. 259 vom 13.05.2008). Eine Folge dieser Politik ist unter anderem die Tatsache, dass das große Festival der weißrussischen Rockmusik „Be Free” seit drei Jahren in der Ukraine stattfindet, denn im eigenen Land werden die Veranstalter keine „Genehmigung für die Organisation einer Tätigkeit im Unterhaltungsbereich auf dem Hoheitsgebiet der Republik Weißrussland“ erhalten – das so genannte Konzertzeugnis.
A
Was sind das für Hindernisse? Es können Hindernisse und Schwierigkeiten „natürlicher“ Art sein, die „das Leben selbst“ mit sich bringt: fehlende Freizeit, fehlende Mittel für technisches Equipment (Musikinstrumente, Computer), Bücher, Platten etc. Andere Hindernisse sind „künstlich“. Sie ergeben sich aus dem paternalistischen Charakter der staatlichen Kulturpolitik, die A. Moles [Moles, 1973] als dogmatisch beschreibt und in der alle rechte und Hauptkanäle der Informationsverbreitung in den Händen eines „administrativen Rats“ liegen. Eine Kulturpolitik, die sich nach diesen Standards entwickelt, kann den Zwecken jeder beliebigen politischen Partei, Glaubensgemeinschaft oder dem ganzen Staat dienen. Wenn die Tätigkeit irgendeiner Organisation den staatlichen Interessen entspricht, besitzen die Beamten zahlreiche Möglichkeiten, diese Tätigkeit zu blockieren, zum Beispiel durch: MM Verbote von Kulturveranstaltungen, MM Blockade der Tätigkeit mit verschiedenen „legalen“ Methoden – ein „populäre“ Methode ist etwa die Verweigerung der Registrierung der Organisation, MM Blockade des Zugangs zu den Empfängern – zum Beispiel die Verordnung über das Verbot des Verkaufs einiger Zeitungen der unabhängigen Presse in Kiosks oder Postämtern, MM Übermäßig komplizierte Prozedur der Registrierung einer Kulturinstitution (häufige Finanz-, Steuer-, Sanitär-, Feuerschutzinspektionen, was die potenziellen Gründer solcher Einrichtungen demotiviert. Sie sind also zur Wahl gezwungen: entweder mit den Beamten kämpfen, was viel Zeit und Energie in Anspruch nimmt, die sonst für die satzungsgemäße Tätigkeit aufgewandt werden könnte. Oder illegal arbeiten, im Bewusstsein, dass sie gemäß dem geltenden Recht angeklagt werden können (Art. 193.1 Strafgesetzbuch der Republik Weißrussland). Eine solche Situation verringert den Ansporn der Bürger zu Teilnahme im NGO-Kulturbereich erheblich. MM Die gesetzlichen Bedingungen der Tätigkeit von Nichtregierungskulturinstitutionen lassen Mensur und ideologische Kontrolle von staatlicher Seite zu (Dekret des Präsidenten Nr. 259 vom 13.05.2008). Eine Folge dieser Politik ist unter anderem die Tatsache, dass das große Festival der weißrussischen Rockmusik „Be Free” seit drei Jahren in der Ukraine stattfindet, denn im eigenen Land werden die Veranstalter keine „Genehmigung für die Organisation einer Tätigkeit im Unterhaltungsbereich auf dem Hoheitsgebiet der Republik Weißrussland“ erhalten – das so genannte Konzertzeugnis.
Die ideologischen Repressionen des Staats gegenüber der alternativen weißrussischen Musik bewirken, dass ihre Entwicklung gegenwärtig in Richtung DIY-Kultur tendiert (engl. „do it yourself“). Die Musiker werden in keiner Weise vom Staat gefördert, können nur auf sich selbst zählen und sind doch in globaler Richtung für Weißrussland, für die Entwicklung der Nationalkultur in den Zeiten der IT-Technologie, tätig. Auch auf lokaler Ebene funktionieren sie nach dem Prinzip DIY: Sie schaffen nichtzensierte Kommunikationsnetze, unabhängige Verlage auf eigenen Rechnung sowie Vertriebsstrukturen für Platten von Undergroundgruppen. Diese art von Initiativen, die eine alternative für die staatlich geförderte „ideologisch korrekte“ Kultur schaffen, existieren in Weißrussland
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Nichtregierungskulturinstitutionen. Kultureller Underground
unter Hindernissen, wie sie sonst in Europa unbekannt sind.
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werden. Dabei handelt es sich um die Nachfolger sowjetischer Organisationen: Pioniere (Pfadfinder) – heute Pionier-Organisation der Republik Weißrussland und Komsomol – heute Jugendverband der Republik Weißrussland. Im Jahr 2007 entstand eine weitere Organisation mit ähnlicher Mission, aber anderer Zielgruppe (Erwachsene) – „Bela Rus“ Gesellschaftliche Organisation der Republik. Eine charakteristische Eigenart ihrer Tätigkeit ist, dass die „freiwillige“ Mitgliedschaft inoffiziell von allen Mitarbeitern staatlicher Institutionen (insbesondere Kultur- und Bildungseinrichtungen), Studenten und Schülern erwartet wird.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Schwierigkeiten bei der Erschließung alternativer Finanzierungsquellen (Sponsorengelder) sowohl auf dem Binnen- als auch dem Auslandmarkt. In ihrem Artikel über die grundlegenden Probleme des 3. Sektors im Bereich der Kultur in der Republik Weißrussland kommentiert L. Osmołowska [Osmołowska 2008] der Erlass des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland Nr. 24 „Über den Erhalt und die Verwendung kostenloser Zuwendungen” vom 28.11.2003 und stellt fest, dass es zu einer Formalisierung und zu Einschränkungen bei Erhalt und Verwendung ausländischer Zuwendungen geführt hat, die vom Empfänger im Departement für Humanitäre Tätigkeit des Büros des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland registriert werden muss. Außerdem hat im Jahr 2005 der Staat entschieden, mit seiner Kontro9lle auch die inländische Sponsorenhilfe zu erfassen. Der Erlass des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland vom 01.07.2005 Nr. 300 „Über die Deklaration und ´Verwendung finanzieller Zuwendungen” legt zwölf Ziele fest, für deren Umsetzung die auf diese Weise erschlossenen Geldmittel verwendet werden können. Die Verwendung von Sponsorengeldern für andere zwecke ist nur mit ausdrücklicher Genehmigung des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland möglich. Art. 193.1 des Strafgesetzbuchs der Republik Weißrussland sieht eine Haftung für nichtregistriert Gesellschaften, religiöse Organisationen oder Fonds vor, auf die eine Haftstrafe bis zu zwei Jahren steht. Der kurz vor den Präsidentschaftswahlen 2006 verabschiedete Artikel wurde sofort zum Kampf gegen von den Machthabern unerwünschte Organisationen herangezogen; auf seiner Grundlage wurde Anklage gegen siebzehn Personen erhoben. Die Existenz von Art. 193.1 stellt ein Hindernis für die Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft in Weißrussland dar, insbesondere wenn man die übermäßig komplizierte (und noch dazu künstliche und keineswegs zufällige) Prozedur der Registrierung gemeinnütziger Vereine hinzunimmt. Danach kann jede selbstständige Bürgerinitiative als Verbrechen geahndet werden. Das verletzt das recht der Bürger auf Versammlungsfreiheit (Artikel 36 der Verfassung der Republik Weißrussland) und widerspricht der Allgemeinen Menschenrechtserklärung und anderen internationalen Rechtsverbindlichkeiten, zu denen sich die Republik, Weißrussland verpflichtet hat Eine strafrechtliche Haftung für nichtregistrierte Vereinstätigkeit existiert so ähnlich in Turkmenistan, Tadschikistan, China und Nordkorea. In einer Situation, in der die grundsätzlichen MM
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Distributionskanäle für Kultur kaum zugänglich sind, ist das Internet zum einzigen Feld der Information geworden, wo sich ein unabhängiges Kulturleben abspielen kann. In diesem Fall hat der Staat wiederum auf die chinesischen Erfahrungen zurückgegriffen: Im Jahr 2009 kam die Skizze für eine erlass des Präsidenten „Über die Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Nutzung der inländischen Segmente des globalen Computernetzwerks Internet” Diesem Dokument zufolge hat die Kontrolle über die Ressourcen des Internets in Weißrussland auf eine Weise zu erfolgen, die vom Ministerrat in Übereinstimmung mit den entsprechenden Diensten, dem Zentrum für Nachrichtendienst und Analyse des Büros des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland, abgestimmt ist. Ein ernst zu nehmendes Problem ist Punkt 1.5, der in dem Entwurf für die Verordnung vorgeschlagen ist. Er lautet folgendermaßen: „Anbieter von Internetdienstleistungen können auf Wunsch des Nutzers die Dienstleistung einer Beschränkung des Zugangs zu Informationsinhalten erbringen, die extremistische Tätigkeiten enthalten“ usw. Außerdem stellt der Punkt unzweideutig fest: „Einen autorisierten Internetanbieter verpflichtet die Einschränkung des Zugangs zu diesen Informationen im Fall der Erbringung von […] An staatliche Behörden, öffentliche Institutionen, Bildungs- und Kultureinrichtungen.“ Die staatliche Politik der schrittweisen Einschränkung der Freiheitssphäre der Bürger („schrittweise” ist eines der „Grundprinzipien” der staatlichen Politik) ist leider in den vergangenen Jahren auch in der Realität zu bemerken. Wie wird also die Gesellschaft reagieren, wenn diese Skizze verabschiedet wird? Wir sie zum letzten Tropfen der Leiden? Werden wir uns auch an diese „neuen Bedingungen” anpassen? Was für eine Bedeutung hat das für den Kultursektor? Es mag so scheinen, als wäre das eine rein politische frage. Aber können Kultur, und insbesondere Kunst, außerhalb der Politik leben? Mag sein, aber im Falle einer frustrierten Gesellschaft, die mindestens die vergangenen 20 Jahre in permanenter Krise lebt, ist apolitische Kunst eher Unterhaltung (ein fest in Zeiten der Seuche) oder Furcht vor der Wirklichkeit. Da Kunst am sensibelsten auf Ungerechtigkeit, Lüge und Betrug reagiert (Beethoven, Dostojewski). Kann sie auch (in Form von Büchern, Musik, Theatervorstellungen oder selbstständigem Amateurschaffen) Hoffnung auf bessere Zeiten geben und vor der Verzweiflung schützen. Das Kulturleben in Weißrussland ist ziemlich abgekapselt, schwach integriert in die europäischen Prozesse. Die Förderung und Distribution von Kulturgütern im Ausland hat keinen systema-
MM Schwierigkeiten bei der Erschließung alternativer Finanzierungsquellen (Sponsorengelder) sowohl auf dem Binnen- als auch dem Auslandmarkt. In ihrem Artikel über die grundlegenden Probleme des 3. Sektors im Bereich der Kultur in der Republik Weißrussland kommentiert L. Osmołowska [Osmołowska 2008] der Erlass des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland Nr. 24 „Über den Erhalt und die Verwendung kostenloser Zuwendungen” vom 28.11.2003 und stellt fest, dass es zu einer Formalisierung und zu Einschränkungen bei Erhalt und Verwendung ausländischer Zuwendungen geführt hat, die vom Empfänger im Departement für Humanitäre Tätigkeit des Büros des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland registriert werden muss. Außerdem hat im Jahr 2005 der Staat entschieden, mit seiner Kontro9lle auch die inländische Sponsorenhilfe zu erfassen. Der Erlass des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland vom 01.07.2005 Nr. 300 „Über die Deklaration und ´Verwendung finanzieller Zuwendungen” legt zwölf Ziele fest, für deren Umsetzung die auf diese Weise erschlossenen Geldmittel verwendet werden können. Die Verwendung von Sponsorengeldern für andere zwecke ist nur mit ausdrücklicher Genehmigung des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland möglich. Art. 193.1 des Strafgesetzbuchs der Republik Weißrussland sieht eine Haftung für nichtregistriert Gesellschaften, religiöse Organisationen oder Fonds vor, auf die eine Haftstrafe bis zu zwei Jahren steht. Der kurz vor den Präsidentschaftswahlen 2006 verabschiedete Artikel wurde sofort zum Kampf gegen von den Machthabern unerwünschte Organisationen herangezogen; auf seiner Grundlage wurde Anklage gegen siebzehn Personen erhoben. Die Existenz von Art. 193.1 stellt ein Hindernis für die Entwicklung der Zivilgesellschaft in Weißrussland dar, insbesondere wenn man die übermäßig komplizierte (und noch dazu künstliche und keineswegs zufällige) Prozedur der Registrierung gemeinnütziger Vereine hinzunimmt. Danach kann jede selbstständige Bürgerinitiative als Verbrechen geahndet werden. Das verletzt das recht der Bürger auf Versammlungsfreiheit (Artikel 36 der Verfassung der Republik Weißrussland) und widerspricht der Allgemeinen Menschenrechtserklärung und anderen internationalen Rechtsverbindlichkeiten, zu denen sich die Republik, Weißrussland verpflichtet hat Eine strafrechtliche Haftung für nichtregistrierte Vereinstätigkeit existiert so ähnlich in Turkmenistan, Tadschikistan, China und Nordkorea. In einer Situation, in der die grundsätzlichen
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Distributionskanäle für Kultur kaum zugänglich sind, ist das Internet zum einzigen Feld der Information geworden, wo sich ein unabhängiges Kulturleben abspielen kann. In diesem Fall hat der Staat wiederum auf die chinesischen Erfahrungen zurückgegriffen: Im Jahr 2009 kam die Skizze für eine erlass des Präsidenten „Über die Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Nutzung der inländischen Segmente des globalen Computernetzwerks Internet” Diesem Dokument zufolge hat die Kontrolle über die Ressourcen des Internets in Weißrussland auf eine Weise zu erfolgen, die vom Ministerrat in Übereinstimmung mit den entsprechenden Diensten, dem Zentrum für Nachrichtendienst und Analyse des Büros des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland, abgestimmt ist. Ein ernst zu nehmendes Problem ist Punkt 1.5, der in dem Entwurf für die Verordnung vorgeschlagen ist. Er lautet folgendermaßen: „Anbieter von Internetdienstleistungen können auf Wunsch des Nutzers die Dienstleistung einer Beschränkung des Zugangs zu Informationsinhalten erbringen, die extremistische Tätigkeiten enthalten“ usw. Außerdem stellt der Punkt unzweideutig fest: „Einen autorisierten Internetanbieter verpflichtet die Einschränkung des Zugangs zu diesen Informationen im Fall der Erbringung von […] An staatliche Behörden, öffentliche Institutionen, Bildungs- und Kultureinrichtungen.“ Die staatliche Politik der schrittweisen Einschränkung der Freiheitssphäre der Bürger („schrittweise” ist eines der „Grundprinzipien” der staatlichen Politik) ist leider in den vergangenen Jahren auch in der Realität zu bemerken. Wie wird also die Gesellschaft reagieren, wenn diese Skizze verabschiedet wird? Wir sie zum letzten Tropfen der Leiden? Werden wir uns auch an diese „neuen Bedingungen” anpassen? Was für eine Bedeutung hat das für den Kultursektor? Es mag so scheinen, als wäre das eine rein politische frage. Aber können Kultur, und insbesondere Kunst, außerhalb der Politik leben? Mag sein, aber im Falle einer frustrierten Gesellschaft, die mindestens die vergangenen 20 Jahre in permanenter Krise lebt, ist apolitische Kunst eher Unterhaltung (ein fest in Zeiten der Seuche) oder Furcht vor der Wirklichkeit. Da Kunst am sensibelsten auf Ungerechtigkeit, Lüge und Betrug reagiert (Beethoven, Dostojewski). Kann sie auch (in Form von Büchern, Musik, Theatervorstellungen oder selbstständigem Amateurschaffen) Hoffnung auf bessere Zeiten geben und vor der Verzweiflung schützen. Das Kulturleben in Weißrussland ist ziemlich abgekapselt, schwach integriert in die europäischen Prozesse. Die Förderung und Distribution von Kulturgütern im Ausland hat keinen systema-
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Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
tischen Charakter, sondern ist eher eine Sammlung einzelner Initiativen. Daraus ergibt sich auch, dass auf globaler Ebene die weißrussische Kultur unbekannt ist, beinahe nicht existent als wiedererkennbares Phänomen. Mit Sicherheit lässt sich sagen, dass in Weißrussland hochrangige künstlerische Produkte entstehen, es gibt bedeutende Künstler, die auch im Ausland anerkannt sind, wie etwas das Ethno-Trio Troitsa (Weltmusik), Stary Olsa (Folk, mittelalterliche Musik), die Jazzband Apple-tea, das Vokalensemble Kamerata, das plastische Theater InZest, das Kammerorchester Classic-avangard. Nur werden diese Bereiche der Kunst nicht in den Massenmedien des „globalen Dorfes” popularisiert wie Kino oder Pop-Musik. Innerhalb des staates hingegen ist die Kulturbewegung sehr belebt, wenn auch vor allem in der Hauptstadt Minsk konzentriert. Um die zahlreichen Musik- und Theatergruppen, Künstler und Schriftsteller entstehen Vereine, die für die Kultur in den jeweiligen Bereichen tätig sind. Unabhängige Experten, Kunstkritiker, Journalisten, Veranstalter von Kulturevents, Verlage, Tonstudios unterstützen die Künstler auf vielfältige Art und Weise, für die das unabdingbar ist, da meistens das Produkt ihres Schaffens nicht auf Gewinn angelegt ist, denn um verdienen zu können, genügt es, Coverversionen alter Schlager auf Hochzeiten und Betriebsfesten zu spielen. Dieses Schaffen ist im besten Fall eine Antwort auf die Herausforderungen der Wirklichkeit, eine Analyse der Situation, eine Selbstanalyse der Künstler als Mitglieder der Gesellschaft, Ausnutzung der Folklore als Fundament für die moderne Kunst. Im schlimmeren fall – eine Imitation der „Stars“. Dies ist sicherlich eine zu leise Stimme, um in der ganzen Welt gehört zu werden, nichts desto weniger wertvoll, insbesondere dort, wo sie geboren wird.
K
Beispiele für MaSSnahmen im Bereich der Kulturentwicklung, die von NGOs durchgeführt werden: Diese Tabelle zeigt die grundlegenden Probleme des 3. Sektors im Bereich der Kultur und auf welche Weise versucht, sie zu lösen oder was zu einer Neutralisierung der negativen Phänomen führt:
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
+
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–
Abgeschlossenheit →
Teilnahme an internationalen Veranstaltungen, Organisation von Tagen/ Wochen der weißrussischen Kultur im Ausland
Enthusiasmus, kreatives Potenzial
Strategie einzelner künstlerischer Phänomene
Überwiegen von Amateurschaffen →
Fehlen von Management →
Wettbewerbe, Kritik, Preise
Entstehung von Künstlervereinen, die u. a. neue Talente ausbilden
Niedriges Niveau der Ausführung →
Fehlen von Spezialisten →
Fonds (in geringem Maße), Mäzenatentum (Business, Privatpersonen)
Fonds (in geringem Maße), Mäzenatentum (Business, Privatpersonen)
Fehlen von Geldmitteln →
Fehlen von Geldmitteln →
Entstehung von Künstlervereinen, die u. a. neue Talente ausbilden
Wettbewerbe, Kritik, Preise
Fehlen von Spezialisten →
Niedriges Niveau der Ausführung →
Strategie einzelner künstlerischer Phänomene
Enthusiasmus, kreatives Potenzial
ulturkampagne „Budzma!”. Mit dem Ziel, die Einwohner von Weißrussland an der Kultur ihres eigenen Landes zu interessieren und ein entsprechendes Bewusstsein zu wecken, finden im Rahmen der Kampagne zahlreiche Bildungsund Kulturveranstaltungen statt: Vorlesungen aus den Bereichen Geschichte und Kultur, Konzerte, Ausstellungen, Dichterlesungen, Buchpräsentationen, Magazine, Musikprojekte. Experty.by – ein Internetprojekt für die systematische Bewertung von Platten weißrussischer Künstler verschiedener Stilrichtungen, Im Rahmen des Projekts findet die alljährliche Zeremonie „Nagrody Experty.by“. In der Jury sitzen Musikkritiker aus Russland, der Ukraine, Litauen und Polen. Die initiative entstand 2008. Das Projekt „Swobodnyj teatr“ (Freies Theater). Die Projektziele sind: MM Unterstützung der Entwicklung des neuen Dramas in und außerhalb von Weißrussland, MM Bündelung der Kräfte junger Dramaturgen auf der suche nach neuen Ideen, MM Aufbau von Kommunikationsbrücken zwischen der weißrussischen Theaterwelt und der Außenwelt, MM Schaffung eines alternativen Ausbildungssystems für Schauspieler und Regisseure, MM Förderung der Idee der künstlerischen Freiheit sowie der demokratischen Prinzipien im weißrussischen Theater. Projektmaßnahmen sind: MM Workshops mit bedeutenden Theaterschaffenden, MM Internationaler Wettbewerb für moderne Dramaturgie „Swobodnyj teatr“, Herausgabe eines Almanachs, MM Öffentliches Vorlesen der werke weißrussischer Dramaturgen in Weißrussland, der Ukraine, Russland und den baltischen Staaten sowie auf Theaterfestivals in Europa, MM Übersetzung der Dramen junger Autoren in Fremdsprachen. Zum Glück entstehen immer mehr solche initiativen. Und es sind unter anderem die Folgen der kulturellen Integration und des Erfahrungsaustauschs mit Europa, die langsam beginnen sich auf
Fehlen von Management →
Überwiegen von Amateurschaffen →
K
Abgeschlossenheit →
+
Beispiele für MaSSnahmen im Bereich der Kulturentwicklung, die von NGOs durchgeführt werden:
ulturkampagne „Budzma!”. Mit dem Ziel, die Einwohner von Weißrussland an der Kultur ihres eigenen Landes zu interessieren und ein entsprechendes Bewusstsein zu wecken, finden im Rahmen der Kampagne zahlreiche Bildungsund Kulturveranstaltungen statt: Vorlesungen aus den Bereichen Geschichte und Kultur, Konzerte, Ausstellungen, Dichterlesungen, Buchpräsentationen, Magazine, Musikprojekte. Experty.by – ein Internetprojekt für die systematische Bewertung von Platten weißrussischer Künstler verschiedener Stilrichtungen, Im Rahmen des Projekts findet die alljährliche Zeremonie „Nagrody Experty.by“. In der Jury sitzen Musikkritiker aus Russland, der Ukraine, Litauen und Polen. Die initiative entstand 2008. Das Projekt „Swobodnyj teatr“ (Freies Theater). Die Projektziele sind: MM Unterstützung der Entwicklung des neuen Dramas in und außerhalb von Weißrussland, MM Bündelung der Kräfte junger Dramaturgen auf der suche nach neuen Ideen, MM Aufbau von Kommunikationsbrücken zwischen der weißrussischen Theaterwelt und der Außenwelt, MM Schaffung eines alternativen Ausbildungssystems für Schauspieler und Regisseure, MM Förderung der Idee der künstlerischen Freiheit sowie der demokratischen Prinzipien im weißrussischen Theater. Projektmaßnahmen sind: MM Workshops mit bedeutenden Theaterschaffenden, MM Internationaler Wettbewerb für moderne Dramaturgie „Swobodnyj teatr“, Herausgabe eines Almanachs, MM Öffentliches Vorlesen der werke weißrussischer Dramaturgen in Weißrussland, der Ukraine, Russland und den baltischen Staaten sowie auf Theaterfestivals in Europa, MM Übersetzung der Dramen junger Autoren in Fremdsprachen. Zum Glück entstehen immer mehr solche initiativen. Und es sind unter anderem die Folgen der kulturellen Integration und des Erfahrungsaustauschs mit Europa, die langsam beginnen sich auf
–
Diese Tabelle zeigt die grundlegenden Probleme des 3. Sektors im Bereich der Kultur und auf welche Weise versucht, sie zu lösen oder was zu einer Neutralisierung der negativen Phänomen führt:
Teilnahme an internationalen Veranstaltungen, Organisation von Tagen/ Wochen der weißrussischen Kultur im Ausland
tischen Charakter, sondern ist eher eine Sammlung einzelner Initiativen. Daraus ergibt sich auch, dass auf globaler Ebene die weißrussische Kultur unbekannt ist, beinahe nicht existent als wiedererkennbares Phänomen. Mit Sicherheit lässt sich sagen, dass in Weißrussland hochrangige künstlerische Produkte entstehen, es gibt bedeutende Künstler, die auch im Ausland anerkannt sind, wie etwas das Ethno-Trio Troitsa (Weltmusik), Stary Olsa (Folk, mittelalterliche Musik), die Jazzband Apple-tea, das Vokalensemble Kamerata, das plastische Theater InZest, das Kammerorchester Classic-avangard. Nur werden diese Bereiche der Kunst nicht in den Massenmedien des „globalen Dorfes” popularisiert wie Kino oder Pop-Musik. Innerhalb des staates hingegen ist die Kulturbewegung sehr belebt, wenn auch vor allem in der Hauptstadt Minsk konzentriert. Um die zahlreichen Musik- und Theatergruppen, Künstler und Schriftsteller entstehen Vereine, die für die Kultur in den jeweiligen Bereichen tätig sind. Unabhängige Experten, Kunstkritiker, Journalisten, Veranstalter von Kulturevents, Verlage, Tonstudios unterstützen die Künstler auf vielfältige Art und Weise, für die das unabdingbar ist, da meistens das Produkt ihres Schaffens nicht auf Gewinn angelegt ist, denn um verdienen zu können, genügt es, Coverversionen alter Schlager auf Hochzeiten und Betriebsfesten zu spielen. Dieses Schaffen ist im besten Fall eine Antwort auf die Herausforderungen der Wirklichkeit, eine Analyse der Situation, eine Selbstanalyse der Künstler als Mitglieder der Gesellschaft, Ausnutzung der Folklore als Fundament für die moderne Kunst. Im schlimmeren fall – eine Imitation der „Stars“. Dies ist sicherlich eine zu leise Stimme, um in der ganzen Welt gehört zu werden, nichts desto weniger wertvoll, insbesondere dort, wo sie geboren wird.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
die Transformation und das Kulturmanagement in demokratischer Richtung auszuwirken. Trotz all dieser Schwierigkeiten ist es am wichtigsten, dass Weißrussland über große Ressourcen an Humankapital verfügt, an Menschen, denen das Schicksal der Kultur in ihrem Land nicht gleichgültig ist, die „etwas unternehmen“ in einem Land, in dem „alles verboten ist“.
Kulturindustrien
P
roduktion der Kulturindustrien ist nicht nur Ausdruck von Identität, werten und Inhalten, sondern auch ein Faktor der wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung. Zum Schutz und zur Förderung der kulturellen Vielfalt lohnt es sich, die Entwicklung der Kulturindustrie zu unterstützen, die fähig sind, sich sowohl auf lokaler als auch auf internationaler Ebene zu präsentieren. Weißrussland ist ein relativ kleines Land mit einem kleinen Binnenmarkt – es aht5 ca. 9,5 Millionen Einwohner. Abgesehen davon, dass im relativ kurzen Zeitraum seiner politischen Unabhängigkeit das Land keine kulturelle Unabhängigkeit erreicht hat und weiterhin von der russischen Kultur (in höchstem Grade) und teilweise von der westlichen Kultur dominiert wird. Ein Staat, der sich in einer schwierigen wirtschaftlichen Situation befindet, tritt gerne einen Teil seines kulturellen Raums an Unternehmensstrukturen ab, deren Tätigkeit er durch entsprechende Gesetze kontrolliert Peter Bendixen [Bendixen, 2001] beschreibt den Veränderungsprozess, der sich aus der Ausrichtung auf den freien markt ergibt: Die Marktwirtschaft, genauer gesagt, das nach Gewinn strebende und Investitionen dürstende Kapital kreiert seine eigene Kultur, Kulturtätigkeit mit kommerziellem Antlitz, Kultureinrichtungen, die auf „Show” eingestellt sind, deren Arbeit beginnt der Ästhetik der Waren in den an Events reichen Einkaufszentren zu ähneln. Leider ist das weißrussische „Einkaufszentrum“ im Grunde genommen eine Filiale der der riesigen „Galerie” Moskau, wo die beste „Ware“ made in Belarus verkauft wird, denn dort „dreht sich“ das große Geld, denn Moskau ist ein gewaltiger Markt. Natürlich muss die Ware in russischer Sprache geliefert werden. Monika Smoleń beschreibt die Kulturindustrien wie alle kommerziellen Initiativen im Kultursektor, deren wichtigstes Alleinstellungsmerkmal die Gewinnorientierung ist. Für manche Subjekte der kommerziellen Kulturtätigkeit ist jene Gewinnorientiertheit Selbstzweck, wenn egal ist, was verkauft wird, Hauptsache man kann dabei so viel wie Möglich Gewinne erzielen.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Andere behandeln den Gewinn als Mittel zur Erlangung von Unabhängigkeit, der Möglichkeit, als freischaffender Künstler über die Runden zu kommen, der „seine“ Gunstgattung entwickeln und vermarkten kann. Wenn also ein Künstler aus Weißrussland vor dem Dilemma steht, ob er ein russischsprachiges Produkt schaffen soll, das Chancen hat, Moskau „zu erobern“, oder ob er für den Bedarf des Binnenmarkts tätig sein will, idem er ein weißrussisches Produkt schafft, dann sieht die treue zur eigenen Kultur nur selten über das gesunde Gewinnstreben. Theoretisch existiert noch ein weiterer Entwicklungsweg: der Auftritt eines weißrussischen Produkts sauf dem Weltmarkt, um die weißrussische Kultur zu einem Trend mit Wiedererkennungswert zu machen. Vorbilder hierfür sind solche weltbekannten „Marken“ wie der spanische Flamenco, der irische Stepptanz, Bauchtanz, die chinesische Teezeremonie, Balkan-Beat, japanisches Anime oder sogar der türkische Kebab. Monika Smoleń schreibt hierzu: Die Bedeutung der Kulturindustrien, welche die Besonderheiten des Landes hervorheben, wächst zusammen mit dem voranschreitenden Globalisierungsprozess und dem „Bedarf” nach Kultursymbolen, die unseren Ort im „globalen Dorf” bestimmen. Ohne Zweifel zu dem weck, damit die weißrussische Kultur aufhört, sich unentschieden an einem ort zu erfüllen, benötigt Weißrussland einen „großen Sieg”, seine „Helden” der Kultur, die das Land auf globaler Ebene popularisieren und gleichzeitig die zersplitterte weißrussische Gesellschaft durch gemeinsamen Stolz einen würden. Maßnahmen in dieser Richtung beschränken sich derzeit noch auf die dramatischen Erlebnisse auf der internationalen Bühne im Zusammenhang mit der Teilnahme Weißrusslands am Eurovisionswettbewerb. Der Wettbewerb als Mechanismus, der die Nationen beim Daumendrücken für ihre Repräsentanten eint, funktioniert erfolgreich. Aber ob es wirklich notwendig ist, dass Weißrussland sich als ein Land darstellt, in dem Popstars auf eine bestimmte weise über die Bühne springen oder das Publikum mit ihrer magischen Tanztechnik verführen? Meiner Annsicht nach beruht die Niederlage Weißrusslands auf der Präsentation eines Produkts auf dem internationalen Markt, das populäre Trends imitiert – also immer etwas, was bei der Konkurrenz schon vorhanden ist. Eine qualitätsgerichtete, außergewöhnliche, die Besonderheit des Landes unterstreichende Produktion der Kulturindustrien in Verbindung mit einer durchdachten Marketingstrategie http mehr Chancen, den ausländischen Markt zu erobern und gewinn einzufahren.
145
roduktion der Kulturindustrien ist nicht nur Ausdruck von Identität, werten und Inhalten, sondern auch ein Faktor der wirtschaftlichen und gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung. Zum Schutz und zur Förderung der kulturellen Vielfalt lohnt es sich, die Entwicklung der Kulturindustrie zu unterstützen, die fähig sind, sich sowohl auf lokaler als auch auf internationaler Ebene zu präsentieren. Weißrussland ist ein relativ kleines Land mit einem kleinen Binnenmarkt – es aht5 ca. 9,5 Millionen Einwohner. Abgesehen davon, dass im relativ kurzen Zeitraum seiner politischen Unabhängigkeit das Land keine kulturelle Unabhängigkeit erreicht hat und weiterhin von der russischen Kultur (in höchstem Grade) und teilweise von der westlichen Kultur dominiert wird. Ein Staat, der sich in einer schwierigen wirtschaftlichen Situation befindet, tritt gerne einen Teil seines kulturellen Raums an Unternehmensstrukturen ab, deren Tätigkeit er durch entsprechende Gesetze kontrolliert Peter Bendixen [Bendixen, 2001] beschreibt den Veränderungsprozess, der sich aus der Ausrichtung auf den freien markt ergibt: Die Marktwirtschaft, genauer gesagt, das nach Gewinn strebende und Investitionen dürstende Kapital kreiert seine eigene Kultur, Kulturtätigkeit mit kommerziellem Antlitz, Kultureinrichtungen, die auf „Show” eingestellt sind, deren Arbeit beginnt der Ästhetik der Waren in den an Events reichen Einkaufszentren zu ähneln. Leider ist das weißrussische „Einkaufszentrum“ im Grunde genommen eine Filiale der der riesigen „Galerie” Moskau, wo die beste „Ware“ made in Belarus verkauft wird, denn dort „dreht sich“ das große Geld, denn Moskau ist ein gewaltiger Markt. Natürlich muss die Ware in russischer Sprache geliefert werden. Monika Smoleń beschreibt die Kulturindustrien wie alle kommerziellen Initiativen im Kultursektor, deren wichtigstes Alleinstellungsmerkmal die Gewinnorientierung ist. Für manche Subjekte der kommerziellen Kulturtätigkeit ist jene Gewinnorientiertheit Selbstzweck, wenn egal ist, was verkauft wird, Hauptsache man kann dabei so viel wie Möglich Gewinne erzielen.
P
Kulturindustrien die Transformation und das Kulturmanagement in demokratischer Richtung auszuwirken. Trotz all dieser Schwierigkeiten ist es am wichtigsten, dass Weißrussland über große Ressourcen an Humankapital verfügt, an Menschen, denen das Schicksal der Kultur in ihrem Land nicht gleichgültig ist, die „etwas unternehmen“ in einem Land, in dem „alles verboten ist“.
145
Andere behandeln den Gewinn als Mittel zur Erlangung von Unabhängigkeit, der Möglichkeit, als freischaffender Künstler über die Runden zu kommen, der „seine“ Gunstgattung entwickeln und vermarkten kann. Wenn also ein Künstler aus Weißrussland vor dem Dilemma steht, ob er ein russischsprachiges Produkt schaffen soll, das Chancen hat, Moskau „zu erobern“, oder ob er für den Bedarf des Binnenmarkts tätig sein will, idem er ein weißrussisches Produkt schafft, dann sieht die treue zur eigenen Kultur nur selten über das gesunde Gewinnstreben. Theoretisch existiert noch ein weiterer Entwicklungsweg: der Auftritt eines weißrussischen Produkts sauf dem Weltmarkt, um die weißrussische Kultur zu einem Trend mit Wiedererkennungswert zu machen. Vorbilder hierfür sind solche weltbekannten „Marken“ wie der spanische Flamenco, der irische Stepptanz, Bauchtanz, die chinesische Teezeremonie, Balkan-Beat, japanisches Anime oder sogar der türkische Kebab. Monika Smoleń schreibt hierzu: Die Bedeutung der Kulturindustrien, welche die Besonderheiten des Landes hervorheben, wächst zusammen mit dem voranschreitenden Globalisierungsprozess und dem „Bedarf” nach Kultursymbolen, die unseren Ort im „globalen Dorf” bestimmen. Ohne Zweifel zu dem weck, damit die weißrussische Kultur aufhört, sich unentschieden an einem ort zu erfüllen, benötigt Weißrussland einen „großen Sieg”, seine „Helden” der Kultur, die das Land auf globaler Ebene popularisieren und gleichzeitig die zersplitterte weißrussische Gesellschaft durch gemeinsamen Stolz einen würden. Maßnahmen in dieser Richtung beschränken sich derzeit noch auf die dramatischen Erlebnisse auf der internationalen Bühne im Zusammenhang mit der Teilnahme Weißrusslands am Eurovisionswettbewerb. Der Wettbewerb als Mechanismus, der die Nationen beim Daumendrücken für ihre Repräsentanten eint, funktioniert erfolgreich. Aber ob es wirklich notwendig ist, dass Weißrussland sich als ein Land darstellt, in dem Popstars auf eine bestimmte weise über die Bühne springen oder das Publikum mit ihrer magischen Tanztechnik verführen? Meiner Annsicht nach beruht die Niederlage Weißrusslands auf der Präsentation eines Produkts auf dem internationalen Markt, das populäre Trends imitiert – also immer etwas, was bei der Konkurrenz schon vorhanden ist. Eine qualitätsgerichtete, außergewöhnliche, die Besonderheit des Landes unterstreichende Produktion der Kulturindustrien in Verbindung mit einer durchdachten Marketingstrategie http mehr Chancen, den ausländischen Markt zu erobern und gewinn einzufahren.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3) Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
sich ausschließlich mit zwei Arten der modernen Massenkultur beschäftigen: mit Pop und mit Chanson.6 Unter dieser Betrachtung sehen die Piraten ein bisschen aus wie Robin Hood. Das, was sie den reichen wegnehmen, geben sie den armen. Aber nach wie vor bleibt es ein Strafdelikt. Die Gründe für eine solche Einstellung gegenüber der Institution des intellektuellen Eigentums stecken in der Verantwortungslosigkeit der Menschen (wozu für etwas bezahlen, wenn man es umsonst haben kann), in einem Fehlen an Rechtskultur, wie es für Länder mit einer schwach ausgeprägten Zivilgesellschaft kennzeichnend ist. Bei der Lösung dieses Problems ist es notwendig, sich noch weiter an die Anforderungen der Europäischen Union anzupassen und eine normale Zivilgesellschaft aufzubauen. Außer dem nicht perfekt funktionierenden Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland „Über das Urheberrecht und verwandte Rechte” (die Gesetznovelle von 2008 wurde bislang noch nicht verabschiedet), den Gesetzen über die Massenmedien, Reklame und Kinematografie existieren noch andere Rechtsmechanismen, welche die Tätigkeit der Kulturindustrien regulieren: MM ein Gesetz des Informationsministeriums, das für Radiosender eine Quote von 75 % für weißrussische Musik vorsieht (01.01.2005), MM das Gesetz über die Konzerttätigkeit auf dem Hoheitsgebiet der Republik Weißrussland (01.06.2008). Die Quote von 75 % weißrussischer Musik im Äther wurde auf Initiative des Kulturministeriums zum Zweck der Popularisierung der örtlichen Künstler und der Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten junger Künstler festgelegt. Der stellvertretende Informationsminister Alexandr Slobodtschuk erläuterte, dass der Staat bei der Einführung dieser Quote das Eintreten eines „weißrussischen Booms erwartete, das Erscheinen neuer Stars und origineller Werke. Bei den kommerziellen Sendern wiederum weckte die Verpflichtung zu 75 % weißrussischer Musik heftigen, wenn auch ergebnislosen Widerstand. Im Laufe von zehn Jahren führten die Bemühungen um die Verringerung des Anteils der inländischen Musikproduktion auf wenigstens 50 %7 lediglich zu einer Verkürzung der Zeit, in der
146
Der im Sektor der Kulturindustrien erwirtschaftete Gewinn ist generell verbunden mit Vervielfältigung, Umgestaltung, Repräsentanz, Distribution von Produkten des intellektuellen Eigentums. Eine wichtige Bedingung ist hier ein effektives System für den Urheberschutz. Nach Untersuchungen der IDC (International Data Corporation, USA) ist der Anteil von Piratenprodukten in Weißrussland ausgesprochen hoch – etwa 80 % der importierten digitalen Produktion. Ein so hoher Prozentsatz ist auch in den anderen Ländern der ehemaligen Sowjetunion zu beobachten, abgesehen von den drei baltischen Staaten. Das Problem ist natürlich von globaler Dimension, der Kampf mit ihm wird Jahrzehnte dauern, aber Weißrussland befindet sich mit den anderen postsowjetischen Staaten erst am Anfang des Weges. Mit anderen Worten: Die Notwendigkeit des Schutzes des intellektuellen Eigentums ist offensichtlich, aber bislang sind keine wirksamen Mechanismen für den Kampf gegen dieses Problem entstanden. Andererseits ändern viele Künstler (vor allem Musiker), die aus verschiedenen gründen nicht den Kampf gegen die Piraten aufnehmen können oder pollen, die Taktik ihrer Tätigkeit: Anstatt Konzerttourneen für die Promotion ihrer neuen Scheibe zu veranstalten, ziehen sie es vor, ihre Aufnahmen kostenlos ins Internet zu stellen – als Werbung für die Konzerte, die dann den eigentlichen Gewinn abwerfen. Ein solcher Grund kann das bewusste begreifen sein, dass der freie Zugang zu Aufnahmen im Internet oder sogar der Verkauf von nichtlizenzierten Tonträgern (die dank des niedrigeren Preises zugänglicher sind) nicht das „absolute Böse“. Der Leader der weißrussischen Gruppe „Lapis Trubieckoj” („Gruppe des Jahres 2002“ nach dem russischen Rock Alternative Music Prize) äußert sich zu diesem Problem folgendermaßen: Ich persönlich bin interessiert an der Popularisierung: Je mehr Leute unsere Melodien hören, je mehr davon in Filmen und Serien verwendet werden, desto besser. Denn wir leben von unseren Konzerten. 5* [...] Ich bin doch kein Idiot, dass ich die Piraterie bekämpfe. Das ist eine große Heuchelei, vor allem seitens der Musiker aus der ehemaligen Sowjetunion. Piraten sind die Vertreiber der jüngsten, frischesten, lebendigsten, aktuellsten Musik, während die großen Labels
Eine solche Quote wurde etwa in der Ukraine eingeführt, wo der Musikmarkt um einiges größer ist.
Dank der Tatsache, dass die authentische Rezeption, das heißt das „Anwesendsein“, ein sehr wichtiger Aspekt der gegenwärtigen ( Jugend-)kultur geblieben ist.
7
5
Russkij szanson – Russischer Chanson, eine russisch-sowjetische Liedgattung, die von dem „romantischen“ Leben von Verbrechern, Gefängnisinsassen usw. handelt. Seit den neunziger Jahren Gegenstand der Massenkultur. Paradoxerweise populär auf dem gesamten Gebiet der ehemaligen Sowjetunion.
6
6
Russkij szanson – Russischer Chanson, eine russisch-sowjetische Liedgattung, die von dem „romantischen“ Leben von Verbrechern, Gefängnisinsassen usw. handelt. Seit den neunziger Jahren Gegenstand der Massenkultur. Paradoxerweise populär auf dem gesamten Gebiet der ehemaligen Sowjetunion.
Dank der Tatsache, dass die authentische Rezeption, das heißt das „Anwesendsein“, ein sehr wichtiger Aspekt der gegenwärtigen ( Jugend-)kultur geblieben ist.
Eine solche Quote wurde etwa in der Ukraine eingeführt, wo der Musikmarkt um einiges größer ist.
5
7
sich ausschließlich mit zwei Arten der modernen Massenkultur beschäftigen: mit Pop und mit Chanson.6 Unter dieser Betrachtung sehen die Piraten ein bisschen aus wie Robin Hood. Das, was sie den reichen wegnehmen, geben sie den armen. Aber nach wie vor bleibt es ein Strafdelikt. Die Gründe für eine solche Einstellung gegenüber der Institution des intellektuellen Eigentums stecken in der Verantwortungslosigkeit der Menschen (wozu für etwas bezahlen, wenn man es umsonst haben kann), in einem Fehlen an Rechtskultur, wie es für Länder mit einer schwach ausgeprägten Zivilgesellschaft kennzeichnend ist. Bei der Lösung dieses Problems ist es notwendig, sich noch weiter an die Anforderungen der Europäischen Union anzupassen und eine normale Zivilgesellschaft aufzubauen. Außer dem nicht perfekt funktionierenden Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland „Über das Urheberrecht und verwandte Rechte” (die Gesetznovelle von 2008 wurde bislang noch nicht verabschiedet), den Gesetzen über die Massenmedien, Reklame und Kinematografie existieren noch andere Rechtsmechanismen, welche die Tätigkeit der Kulturindustrien regulieren: MM ein Gesetz des Informationsministeriums, das für Radiosender eine Quote von 75 % für weißrussische Musik vorsieht (01.01.2005), MM das Gesetz über die Konzerttätigkeit auf dem Hoheitsgebiet der Republik Weißrussland (01.06.2008). Die Quote von 75 % weißrussischer Musik im Äther wurde auf Initiative des Kulturministeriums zum Zweck der Popularisierung der örtlichen Künstler und der Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten junger Künstler festgelegt. Der stellvertretende Informationsminister Alexandr Slobodtschuk erläuterte, dass der Staat bei der Einführung dieser Quote das Eintreten eines „weißrussischen Booms erwartete, das Erscheinen neuer Stars und origineller Werke. Bei den kommerziellen Sendern wiederum weckte die Verpflichtung zu 75 % weißrussischer Musik heftigen, wenn auch ergebnislosen Widerstand. Im Laufe von zehn Jahren führten die Bemühungen um die Verringerung des Anteils der inländischen Musikproduktion auf wenigstens 50 %7 lediglich zu einer Verkürzung der Zeit, in der
146
Der im Sektor der Kulturindustrien erwirtschaftete Gewinn ist generell verbunden mit Vervielfältigung, Umgestaltung, Repräsentanz, Distribution von Produkten des intellektuellen Eigentums. Eine wichtige Bedingung ist hier ein effektives System für den Urheberschutz. Nach Untersuchungen der IDC (International Data Corporation, USA) ist der Anteil von Piratenprodukten in Weißrussland ausgesprochen hoch – etwa 80 % der importierten digitalen Produktion. Ein so hoher Prozentsatz ist auch in den anderen Ländern der ehemaligen Sowjetunion zu beobachten, abgesehen von den drei baltischen Staaten. Das Problem ist natürlich von globaler Dimension, der Kampf mit ihm wird Jahrzehnte dauern, aber Weißrussland befindet sich mit den anderen postsowjetischen Staaten erst am Anfang des Weges. Mit anderen Worten: Die Notwendigkeit des Schutzes des intellektuellen Eigentums ist offensichtlich, aber bislang sind keine wirksamen Mechanismen für den Kampf gegen dieses Problem entstanden. Andererseits ändern viele Künstler (vor allem Musiker), die aus verschiedenen gründen nicht den Kampf gegen die Piraten aufnehmen können oder pollen, die Taktik ihrer Tätigkeit: Anstatt Konzerttourneen für die Promotion ihrer neuen Scheibe zu veranstalten, ziehen sie es vor, ihre Aufnahmen kostenlos ins Internet zu stellen – als Werbung für die Konzerte, die dann den eigentlichen Gewinn abwerfen. Ein solcher Grund kann das bewusste begreifen sein, dass der freie Zugang zu Aufnahmen im Internet oder sogar der Verkauf von nichtlizenzierten Tonträgern (die dank des niedrigeren Preises zugänglicher sind) nicht das „absolute Böse“. Der Leader der weißrussischen Gruppe „Lapis Trubieckoj” („Gruppe des Jahres 2002“ nach dem russischen Rock Alternative Music Prize) äußert sich zu diesem Problem folgendermaßen: Ich persönlich bin interessiert an der Popularisierung: Je mehr Leute unsere Melodien hören, je mehr davon in Filmen und Serien verwendet werden, desto besser. Denn wir leben von unseren Konzerten. 5* [...] Ich bin doch kein Idiot, dass ich die Piraterie bekämpfe. Das ist eine große Heuchelei, vor allem seitens der Musiker aus der ehemaligen Sowjetunion. Piraten sind die Vertreiber der jüngsten, frischesten, lebendigsten, aktuellsten Musik, während die großen Labels
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
die Pflicht von 75 % besteht, auf neun Stunden täglich. Warum will die Radioindustrie nicht die Bemühungen um ein lokales Produkt unterstützen? Die Antwort lautet: Denn: MM die weißrussischen Interpreter bringen keine solche Menge von Aufnahmen von entsprechendem Format und hoher Qualität heraus, um damit drei viertel der Sendezeit füllen zu können, MM 75% bewirken, dass alle Radiosender einander ähneln müssen, MM Die Radiosender hören auf, attraktiv für Hörer und Reklamekunden zu sein, MM Das Fehlen einer Konkurrenz hemmt die kreative Entwicklung der weißrussischen Interpreten. Zweifellos ist die Unterstützung der lokalen Musikindustrie unverzichtbar, aber eine so große Menge an Eigenprodukten in einem Land mit einem so kleinen Markt ist gewiss nicht die beste Idee. Was sie Praxis im Übrigen bestätigt. Das Gesetz über die Konzerttätigkeit auf dem Hoheitsgebiet der Republik Weißrussland ist auf den Verbraucherschutz ausgerichtet. Die Hauptziele, die damit verfolgt werden, sind folgende: MM Vermeidung von Kultur- und Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen, die eine Gefährdung für die nationale Sicherheit, die öffentliche Ordnung, Gesundheit und Moralempfinden, Rechte und Freiheiten der Bürger, darstellen könnten, MM Gewährleistung eines hohen künstlerischen Niveaus von Konzerten, Zirkusvorstellungen und anderer Kultur- und Unterhaltungstätigkeit, MM die Förderung und Popularisierung der besten Errungenschaften der in- und ausländischen Kunst und Kultur, MM Die Befriedigung geistiger, ideologischer, moralischer,. ästhetischer und edukativer Bedürfnisse der Bevölkerung. Gemäß dem Gesetz ist der Veranstalter eines jeden Kultur- oder Unterhaltungsereignisses (sowohl kommerzielle als auch karitative, genauso wie Hochzeiten, Betriebsfeiern, Diskotheken)
8
verpflichtet, sie bei einer Abteilung der lokalen Behörden anzumelden, eine Gebühr zu entrichten und ein „Konzertzeugnis” zu erhalten Punkt 11 des Gesetzes enthält: Zum Zweck der Stärkung des Programms zur Kontrolle der Unterhaltung bilden die Kulturabteilungen Künstler- und Expertenausschüsse (Räte), die berechtigt sind, sich mit den Inhalten von Audio-, Video- und Druckmaterialien von Kulturund Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen vertraut zu machen oder zur vorherigen Ansicht (Anhören) der Auftritte und der Abgabe eines Gutachtens über die Übereinstimmung der Inhalte mit den Hauptaufgaben des Gesetzes. Ohne zusätzliche Erklärungen list sich erkennen, dass das Gesetzes die Tätigkeit der Konzertagenturen kompliziert. In keiner Weise begünstigt es die Tätigkeit individueller Unternehmer, da nach Punkt 5 das Gesetz ihnen die Möglichkeit von Veranstaltungen in Bühnenräumen mit mehr als 150 Sitzplätzen nimmt. Ob die „Gefährdung für die Nationale Sicherheit, die öffentliche Ordnung, Gesundheit und Moralempfinden, Rechte und Freiheiten der Bürger“ durch Kultur- und Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen wirklich so groß ist, dass die Programminhalte behördlicherseits überprüft werden müssen? Daran möchte ich zweifeln. Auf der ganzen Welt kommen die Staaten damit jedenfalls zurecht. Unter dem Deckmantel des Verbraucherschutzes sanktioniert das Gesetz des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland de facto Zensur und ideologische Kontrolle und blockiert den Zugang unerwünschter Künstler zum Publikum.8 Mit anderen Worten: Die Kulturindustrien existieren, arbeiten und generieren Gewinne, nicht durch die Hilfe des Staates, sondern seinem Handel zum Trotz. Und das ist keine Ausnahme, denn die Bedingungen für alle Arten von Geschäft und Unternehmen sind in Weißrussland schwierig und verursachen verschiedenartige unzivilisierte Lösungen (Korruption, Schattenwirtschaft). So endet das Gespräch über die Kulturpolitik in Weißrussland mit einem Gespräch über politische Kultur.
Im Mai 2007 wurde dem Veranstalter eines Konzerts, bei dem das neue Album der Gruppe Krama (eine der beliebtesten Rockgruppen im Land) präsentiert werden sollte, das Konzertzeugnis aufgrund „niedrigen künstlerischen Niveaus“ verweigert.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
147
8
147
Im Mai 2007 wurde dem Veranstalter eines Konzerts, bei dem das neue Album der Gruppe Krama (eine der beliebtesten Rockgruppen im Land) präsentiert werden sollte, das Konzertzeugnis aufgrund „niedrigen künstlerischen Niveaus“ verweigert.
die Pflicht von 75 % besteht, auf neun Stunden täglich. Warum will die Radioindustrie nicht die Bemühungen um ein lokales Produkt unterstützen? Die Antwort lautet: Denn: MM die weißrussischen Interpreter bringen keine solche Menge von Aufnahmen von entsprechendem Format und hoher Qualität heraus, um damit drei viertel der Sendezeit füllen zu können, MM 75% bewirken, dass alle Radiosender einander ähneln müssen, MM Die Radiosender hören auf, attraktiv für Hörer und Reklamekunden zu sein, MM Das Fehlen einer Konkurrenz hemmt die kreative Entwicklung der weißrussischen Interpreten. Zweifellos ist die Unterstützung der lokalen Musikindustrie unverzichtbar, aber eine so große Menge an Eigenprodukten in einem Land mit einem so kleinen Markt ist gewiss nicht die beste Idee. Was sie Praxis im Übrigen bestätigt. Das Gesetz über die Konzerttätigkeit auf dem Hoheitsgebiet der Republik Weißrussland ist auf den Verbraucherschutz ausgerichtet. Die Hauptziele, die damit verfolgt werden, sind folgende: MM Vermeidung von Kultur- und Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen, die eine Gefährdung für die nationale Sicherheit, die öffentliche Ordnung, Gesundheit und Moralempfinden, Rechte und Freiheiten der Bürger, darstellen könnten, MM Gewährleistung eines hohen künstlerischen Niveaus von Konzerten, Zirkusvorstellungen und anderer Kultur- und Unterhaltungstätigkeit, MM die Förderung und Popularisierung der besten Errungenschaften der in- und ausländischen Kunst und Kultur, MM Die Befriedigung geistiger, ideologischer, moralischer,. ästhetischer und edukativer Bedürfnisse der Bevölkerung. Gemäß dem Gesetz ist der Veranstalter eines jeden Kultur- oder Unterhaltungsereignisses (sowohl kommerzielle als auch karitative, genauso wie Hochzeiten, Betriebsfeiern, Diskotheken)
verpflichtet, sie bei einer Abteilung der lokalen Behörden anzumelden, eine Gebühr zu entrichten und ein „Konzertzeugnis” zu erhalten Punkt 11 des Gesetzes enthält: Zum Zweck der Stärkung des Programms zur Kontrolle der Unterhaltung bilden die Kulturabteilungen Künstler- und Expertenausschüsse (Räte), die berechtigt sind, sich mit den Inhalten von Audio-, Video- und Druckmaterialien von Kulturund Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen vertraut zu machen oder zur vorherigen Ansicht (Anhören) der Auftritte und der Abgabe eines Gutachtens über die Übereinstimmung der Inhalte mit den Hauptaufgaben des Gesetzes. Ohne zusätzliche Erklärungen list sich erkennen, dass das Gesetzes die Tätigkeit der Konzertagenturen kompliziert. In keiner Weise begünstigt es die Tätigkeit individueller Unternehmer, da nach Punkt 5 das Gesetz ihnen die Möglichkeit von Veranstaltungen in Bühnenräumen mit mehr als 150 Sitzplätzen nimmt. Ob die „Gefährdung für die Nationale Sicherheit, die öffentliche Ordnung, Gesundheit und Moralempfinden, Rechte und Freiheiten der Bürger“ durch Kultur- und Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen wirklich so groß ist, dass die Programminhalte behördlicherseits überprüft werden müssen? Daran möchte ich zweifeln. Auf der ganzen Welt kommen die Staaten damit jedenfalls zurecht. Unter dem Deckmantel des Verbraucherschutzes sanktioniert das Gesetz des Präsidenten der Republik Weißrussland de facto Zensur und ideologische Kontrolle und blockiert den Zugang unerwünschter Künstler zum Publikum.8 Mit anderen Worten: Die Kulturindustrien existieren, arbeiten und generieren Gewinne, nicht durch die Hilfe des Staates, sondern seinem Handel zum Trotz. Und das ist keine Ausnahme, denn die Bedingungen für alle Arten von Geschäft und Unternehmen sind in Weißrussland schwierig und verursachen verschiedenartige unzivilisierte Lösungen (Korruption, Schattenwirtschaft). So endet das Gespräch über die Kulturpolitik in Weißrussland mit einem Gespräch über politische Kultur.
148
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Literatur Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i sztuki, Kraków 2001. Culture management. Kulturmanagement. Zarządzanie kulturą, 2008, № 1. Mackiewicz W., Białoruś: wbrew oczywistości, Niewskij prostor 2006. Mialguj A., Muzyka rezystansu językowego, „Dziejaslou” 2008.
Problemy zarządzania. Sfera kultury i turystyki, ed. K. Mazurek-Łopacińska, Wrocław 1999. Smoleń M., Przemysły kultury. Wpływ na rozwój miast, Kraków 2003. Szulborska-Łukaszewicz J., Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie, Kraków 2009. www.kimpress.by www.kultura.by www.president.gov.by
Orzechowski E., Dziś nawet żebrak musi być sprawnym menedżerem. O zarządzaniu kulturą i szkolnictwem wyższym, Kraków 2009.
Internetseiten Landesstrategie für nachhaltige sozial-ökonomische Entwicklung Weißrusslands für die Zeit bis zum Jahr 2000, Rapport vom 23.03.2004, Nr. 12.
www.kimpress.by www.kultura.by www.president.gov.by
Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland, Gesetz der Republik Weißrussland vom 04.06.1991, Nr. 832-XII (Red. 18. 07. 2007). Vermarktung Polens durch Kultur, Kongress der Polnischen Kultur 2009, http://www.kongreskultury.pl/ title,Reforma_kultury,pid,564,oid,1212,fsid,64.html. title,Reforma_kultury,pid,564,oid,1212,fsid,64.html. nischen Kultur 2009, http://www.kongreskultury.pl/ Vermarktung Polens durch Kultur, Kongress der Pol18. 07. 2007). Republik Weißrussland vom 04.06.1991, Nr. 832-XII (Red. Über die Kultur der Republik Weißrussland, Gesetz der Rapport vom 23.03.2004, Nr. 12. wicklung Weißrusslands für die Zeit bis zum Jahr 2000, Landesstrategie für nachhaltige sozial-ökonomische Ent-
Internetseiten
www.president.gov.by www.kultura.by www.kimpress.by
wyższym, Kraków 2009. menedżerem. O zarządzaniu kulturą i szkolnictwem Orzechowski E., Dziś nawet żebrak musi być sprawnym 2008. prostor 2006. Mackiewicz W., Białoruś: wbrew oczywistości, Niewskij kulturą, 2008, № 1. Culture management. Kulturmanagement. Zarządzanie sztuki, Kraków 2001. Bendixen P., Wprowadzenie do ekonomiki kultury i
Literatur
www.president.gov.by www.kultura.by www.kimpress.by kowie, Kraków 2009. Szulborska-Łukaszewicz J., Polityka kulturalna w KraKraków 2003. Smoleń M., Przemysły kultury. Wpływ na rozwój miast, Mazurek-Łopacińska, Wrocław 1999. Problemy zarządzania. Sfera kultury i turystyki, ed. K. Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Mialguj A., Muzyka rezystansu językowego, „Dziejaslou”
148
149
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Aspekte der Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik unter wirtschaftlich schwierigen Umständen: Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik Anda Laķe
Einführung und Darstellung des Problems
D
er Analytiker der Kulturpolitik John Hocks bemerkt, dass „die Planung der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung in ihrem Wesen Entwicklung, Ausdruck und Anwendung derselben sozialen Werte ist, welche die Gesellschaft für wesentlich für ihre Identität anerkennt“ [Hocks, 2007]. In diesem Zusammenhang stellt sich die Frage: Wie lässt es sich erreichen, dass die Werte, die von den Gestaltern der öffentlichen Politik, bekannt werden, genau denjenigen der Gesellschaft, der sie dienen, entsprechen? Diese Frage lässt sich auch unter einem anderen Blickwinkel betrachten: Wie lässt es sich erreichen, dass die Hauptprinzipien der öffentlichen Politikgestaltung in den Versuchen wurzeln, die vorherrschenden Probleme gemäß dem herrschenden Wertesystem zu lösen? Im Zusammenhang mit der Finanzkrise haben die Diskussionen über die Funktionen der Regierung im Allgemeinen und die Qualität der Planungspolitik der einzelnen Sektoren an Heftigkeit zugenommen. Sie enthalten eine harsche Kritik der unverantwortlichen Aktionen der Politiker und Entscheidungsträger, die den Staat fast in den Bankrott geführt hätten und keine zielführenden Lösungen für die verschiedenen Probleme der Staatsfinanzen gefunden haben. Unter den Umständen des Konflikts zwischen Regierung und Zivilgesellschaft ist eine Argumentation, welche die erforderliche Übereinkunft zwischen Politikern und Gesellschaft gewährleisten kann, ein wich-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
tiges Instrument in den Händen der Regierung. Darüber hinaus ist es von wesentlicher Bedeutung, dass die Regierung berücksichtigt, dass nur ein gewisser Typ von Information das Verständnis seitens der Bevölkerung erleichtert und als demokratisch, nicht manipulativ gelten darf. [Ijabs, 2007] Die Frage, auf welche Werte und Argumente die Politiker bisher ihre Entscheidungen gestützt haben, wird immer brennender und gleichzeitig unklarer. Immerhin hat dies zu folgenden Konsequenzen geführt: einen drastischen Rückgang der Haushaltseinkünfte des Staates im Jahr 2009 und die Notwendigkeit der Aufnahme eines internationalen Kredits. Die Bedingungen, nach denen der Kredit gewährt wurde und die Notwendigkeit, den Haushalt auszugleichen, erfordern eine Senkung der staatlichen Haushaltsausgaben um 510 Millionen Lants im Jahr 2010 gegenüber den Ausgaben im Jahr 2009. Im Bereich der Umsetzung der Kulturpolitik vermerken wir einen Rückgang der Finanzierung des lettischen Kulturministeriums um 28,3 Millionen Lats, was ein Drittel des Haushalts des Ministeriums von 2009 ausmacht. Gleichzeitig wurde in Lettland eine ganze Reihe von miteinander zusammenhängenden Verordnungen erlassen, die eine Förderung des Kultursektors vorsehen. So kam es 12. Mai 2009 zu einem Treffen der Kulturminister aus den 27 Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union, auf dem sie den Antrag des Europarats unterstützten, dass die Kultur als Katalysator für Kreativität und Innovation zu behandeln ist. In diesem Dokument wird hervorgehoben, dass strategische Investitionen in die Kultur ungeheuer wichtig sind, denn sie
149
Anda Laķe Promovendin an der lettischen Rīga Stradiņš University. Sie ist als Vizedirektorin des Fachbereichs Kultursoziologie und Management der Lettischen Kulturakademie tätig. Der Mitglied des Lettischen Berufsverbandes der Soziologen. In der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit beschäftigt sie sich mit der Methodologie der soziologischen Forschung, Interdisziplinarität bei Forschung, Methodologie der Analyse, wie auch mit dem Schutz des Kulturerbes. 2008 war sie zum Kultusminister in Lettland berufen.
er Analytiker der Kulturpolitik John Hocks bemerkt, dass „die Planung der gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung in ihrem Wesen Entwicklung, Ausdruck und Anwendung derselben sozialen Werte ist, welche die Gesellschaft für wesentlich für ihre Identität anerkennt“ [Hocks, 2007]. In diesem Zusammenhang stellt sich die Frage: Wie lässt es sich erreichen, dass die Werte, die von den Gestaltern der öffentlichen Politik, bekannt werden, genau denjenigen der Gesellschaft, der sie dienen, entsprechen? Diese Frage lässt sich auch unter einem anderen Blickwinkel betrachten: Wie lässt es sich erreichen, dass die Hauptprinzipien der öffentlichen Politikgestaltung in den Versuchen wurzeln, die vorherrschenden Probleme gemäß dem herrschenden Wertesystem zu lösen? Im Zusammenhang mit der Finanzkrise haben die Diskussionen über die Funktionen der Regierung im Allgemeinen und die Qualität der Planungspolitik der einzelnen Sektoren an Heftigkeit zugenommen. Sie enthalten eine harsche Kritik der unverantwortlichen Aktionen der Politiker und Entscheidungsträger, die den Staat fast in den Bankrott geführt hätten und keine zielführenden Lösungen für die verschiedenen Probleme der Staatsfinanzen gefunden haben. Unter den Umständen des Konflikts zwischen Regierung und Zivilgesellschaft ist eine Argumentation, welche die erforderliche Übereinkunft zwischen Politikern und Gesellschaft gewährleisten kann, ein wich-
D
Einführung und Darstellung des Problems
Anda Laķe
tiges Instrument in den Händen der Regierung. Darüber hinaus ist es von wesentlicher Bedeutung, dass die Regierung berücksichtigt, dass nur ein gewisser Typ von Information das Verständnis seitens der Bevölkerung erleichtert und als demokratisch, nicht manipulativ gelten darf. [Ijabs, 2007] Die Frage, auf welche Werte und Argumente die Politiker bisher ihre Entscheidungen gestützt haben, wird immer brennender und gleichzeitig unklarer. Immerhin hat dies zu folgenden Konsequenzen geführt: einen drastischen Rückgang der Haushaltseinkünfte des Staates im Jahr 2009 und die Notwendigkeit der Aufnahme eines internationalen Kredits. Die Bedingungen, nach denen der Kredit gewährt wurde und die Notwendigkeit, den Haushalt auszugleichen, erfordern eine Senkung der staatlichen Haushaltsausgaben um 510 Millionen Lants im Jahr 2010 gegenüber den Ausgaben im Jahr 2009. Im Bereich der Umsetzung der Kulturpolitik vermerken wir einen Rückgang der Finanzierung des lettischen Kulturministeriums um 28,3 Millionen Lats, was ein Drittel des Haushalts des Ministeriums von 2009 ausmacht. Gleichzeitig wurde in Lettland eine ganze Reihe von miteinander zusammenhängenden Verordnungen erlassen, die eine Förderung des Kultursektors vorsehen. So kam es 12. Mai 2009 zu einem Treffen der Kulturminister aus den 27 Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union, auf dem sie den Antrag des Europarats unterstützten, dass die Kultur als Katalysator für Kreativität und Innovation zu behandeln ist. In diesem Dokument wird hervorgehoben, dass strategische Investitionen in die Kultur ungeheuer wichtig sind, denn sie
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Aspekte der Entwicklung der Kulturpolitik unter wirtschaftlich schwierigen Umständen: Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik
Anda Laķe Promovendin an der lettischen Rīga Stradiņš University. Sie ist als Vizedirektorin des Fachbereichs Kultursoziologie und Management der Lettischen Kulturakademie tätig. Der Mitglied des Lettischen Berufsverbandes der Soziologen. In der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit beschäftigt sie sich mit der Methodologie der soziologischen Forschung, Interdisziplinarität bei Forschung, Methodologie der Analyse, wie auch mit dem Schutz des Kulturerbes. 2008 war sie zum Kultusminister in Lettland berufen.
Entscheidungen der Regierung als demokratisch gelten können, wie auch zu Spekulationen über die Bemühungen der Regierung um die Förderung unklarer Interessengruppen. Beispielsweise kann die Gesellschaft aus Informationen der lettischen Regierung über die Reduzierung von Fördermitteln für die Kultur von der Verbindung bestimmter Museen, der Schmälerung der Funktionen des Nationalen Kinozentrums usw. erfahren („Diena“ , 26. Oktober 2009, S. 4), aber die Schöpfer der Politiken (Strategien) legen keine Informationen darüber offen, welche Probleme der Kulturpolitik aufgrund der verringerten Finanzierung ungelöst bleiben und welche Probleme die Kulturpolitiker an erster Stelle zu lösen beabsichtigen. Sowohl die Werte als auch die Ziele der Regierung bleiben zunächst unverständlich. [The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia]. Die Gesellschaft ist nicht in der Lage, die rationale Argumentation von politischen Entscheidungen zu erfassen, was, gemäß einer bekannten Klassifizierung der Modelle der Entscheidungsfindung, die H. Simon vorgeschlagen hat, den folgenden Phasen entspricht: 1. Definition des Problems und Setzung von Zielen zu seiner Lösung, 2. Untersuchung aller Strategien zum Erreichen eines Alternativziels, 3. Vorhersehen aller relevanten Konsequenzen, die sich aus der gegebenen Alternative ergeben, 4. Wahl der Strategie, die das Problem auf die bestmögliche Weise löst oder sich als kostengünstigste Variante erweist. Natürlich lässt sich das Prinzip der Rationalität bei der Gestaltung von Politik nicht vollständig anwenden, eine gewisse Rationalität jedoch würde wesentlich zur Schaffung einer Konzeption der Aufrechterhaltung und Aktivierung gewisser Werte in der Politik beitragen wie auch zur Identifizierung, Aktivierung und Erlangung genauer bestimmter öffentlicher Ziele. In vielen modernen politischen Systemen gilt das Prinzip der Evaluierung des politischen Einflusses und insbesondere von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen als wirksamstes Instrument zur Rationalisierung von Politiken (Strategien) und Qualitätsverbesserung. Die vom Lettischen Staatssekretariat geschaffene Datenbank für Untersuchungen und Publikationen [Research and publications database http://petijumi.mk.gov.lv/ ui/] umfasst alle Untersuchungen, die jemals von der Regierung in Auftrag gegeben worden sind. Die Beurteilung der politischen Sphäre ist eine Art von Untersuchung, die als Kriterium für die Struktur von Datenbanken dient. 51 Analysen sind in dieser Kategorie von Untersuchungen enthalten.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
gewährleisten die Dynamik und Kreativität der Gesellschaften der Europäischen Union und schaffen Arbeitsplätze. Kulturinventionen erleichtern die Kreativität als Triebkraft der Innovation, was notwendig ist für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und den Wettbewerb [Culturelab]. Jedoch sind nicht nur die Übereinstimmung mit den genannten Prinzipien und das Erreichen der entsprechenden Ziele in Lettland bedroht. Die Lösung einer Reihe von Problemen in Zusammenhang mit der Kultur und die Beachtung der dazugehörigen Werte sind ebenfalls gefährdet. Diese Situation erfordert grundlegende Entscheidungen über die Prioritäten bei der Verwendung von Fördergeldern, der Lösung der aktuellen Probleme in diesem Bereich ohne Verspätung wie auch der wirtschaftlichen Möglichkeiten der Strukturentwicklung in der Kultursphäre. Die Dokumente über die bisherige Strategieplanung (zum Beispiel die Vorgaben der staatlichen Kulturpolitik für die Jahre 2006-2015 etc.) enthalten mit Sicherheit formale Definitionen von Zielen, Werten und Prioritäten in der Kulturpolitik. Jedoch unter den gegebenen Umständen, die eine Revision der Regierungsfunktionen in den einzelnen politischen Sparten implizieren, scheint das Erreichen dieser Ziele unmöglich. Zwecks Optimierung der neuen Kriterienliste und unter dem Druck der Öffentlichkeit hat die lettische Regierung versucht, die Bedeutung der Funktion von Ministerien einzuschätzen, wobei sie die öffentliche Meinung und die Standpunkte der Sozialpartner berücksichtigt. Die gegenwärtigen Finanzaussichten für 2010 sehen eine grundlegende Übersicht und Bewertung vieler kulturpolitischer Programme zum Zweck der Begründung ihrer Notwendigkeit vor. Charakteristisch für Lettland ist, dass die Gestalter der Politik nicht in der Lage sind, klare und glaubwürdige Argumente für die Unterstützung politischer Entscheidungen und einer nichtkonventionellen Politik vorzulegen, selbst in Fällen, in denen die Politik einen enormen Einfluss auf Interessen und Bedürfnisse der Bevölkerung ausübt. Das führt zu Spannungen zwischen Politik und Gesellschaft, was sich im Unverständnis für die Werte und Ziele der Politik ausdrückt. Bei der angestrebten Übereinkunft zwischen Politikern und Gesellschaft schreibt man die Hauptrolle denjenigen Informationen zu, welche die politischen Alternativen betreffen und nicht den Argumenten, die für die eine oder andere Alternative sprechen. Der Gesellschaft fehlt es zuweilen an Informationen für die Begründung der ausgewählten politischen Alternative. Dies gibt Raum für eine freie Interpretation der politischen Angelegenheiten, was zu allgemeiner Skepsis bezüglich der Frage führt, inwieweit die
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
150
Entscheidungen der Regierung als demokratisch gelten können, wie auch zu Spekulationen über die Bemühungen der Regierung um die Förderung unklarer Interessengruppen. Beispielsweise kann die Gesellschaft aus Informationen der lettischen Regierung über die Reduzierung von Fördermitteln für die Kultur von der Verbindung bestimmter Museen, der Schmälerung der Funktionen des Nationalen Kinozentrums usw. erfahren („Diena“ , 26. Oktober 2009, S. 4), aber die Schöpfer der Politiken (Strategien) legen keine Informationen darüber offen, welche Probleme der Kulturpolitik aufgrund der verringerten Finanzierung ungelöst bleiben und welche Probleme die Kulturpolitiker an erster Stelle zu lösen beabsichtigen. Sowohl die Werte als auch die Ziele der Regierung bleiben zunächst unverständlich. [The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia]. Die Gesellschaft ist nicht in der Lage, die rationale Argumentation von politischen Entscheidungen zu erfassen, was, gemäß einer bekannten Klassifizierung der Modelle der Entscheidungsfindung, die H. Simon vorgeschlagen hat, den folgenden Phasen entspricht: 1. Definition des Problems und Setzung von Zielen zu seiner Lösung, 2. Untersuchung aller Strategien zum Erreichen eines Alternativziels, 3. Vorhersehen aller relevanten Konsequenzen, die sich aus der gegebenen Alternative ergeben, 4. Wahl der Strategie, die das Problem auf die bestmögliche Weise löst oder sich als kostengünstigste Variante erweist. Natürlich lässt sich das Prinzip der Rationalität bei der Gestaltung von Politik nicht vollständig anwenden, eine gewisse Rationalität jedoch würde wesentlich zur Schaffung einer Konzeption der Aufrechterhaltung und Aktivierung gewisser Werte in der Politik beitragen wie auch zur Identifizierung, Aktivierung und Erlangung genauer bestimmter öffentlicher Ziele. In vielen modernen politischen Systemen gilt das Prinzip der Evaluierung des politischen Einflusses und insbesondere von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen als wirksamstes Instrument zur Rationalisierung von Politiken (Strategien) und Qualitätsverbesserung. Die vom Lettischen Staatssekretariat geschaffene Datenbank für Untersuchungen und Publikationen [Research and publications database http://petijumi.mk.gov.lv/ ui/] umfasst alle Untersuchungen, die jemals von der Regierung in Auftrag gegeben worden sind. Die Beurteilung der politischen Sphäre ist eine Art von Untersuchung, die als Kriterium für die Struktur von Datenbanken dient. 51 Analysen sind in dieser Kategorie von Untersuchungen enthalten.
150
gewährleisten die Dynamik und Kreativität der Gesellschaften der Europäischen Union und schaffen Arbeitsplätze. Kulturinventionen erleichtern die Kreativität als Triebkraft der Innovation, was notwendig ist für die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung und den Wettbewerb [Culturelab]. Jedoch sind nicht nur die Übereinstimmung mit den genannten Prinzipien und das Erreichen der entsprechenden Ziele in Lettland bedroht. Die Lösung einer Reihe von Problemen in Zusammenhang mit der Kultur und die Beachtung der dazugehörigen Werte sind ebenfalls gefährdet. Diese Situation erfordert grundlegende Entscheidungen über die Prioritäten bei der Verwendung von Fördergeldern, der Lösung der aktuellen Probleme in diesem Bereich ohne Verspätung wie auch der wirtschaftlichen Möglichkeiten der Strukturentwicklung in der Kultursphäre. Die Dokumente über die bisherige Strategieplanung (zum Beispiel die Vorgaben der staatlichen Kulturpolitik für die Jahre 2006-2015 etc.) enthalten mit Sicherheit formale Definitionen von Zielen, Werten und Prioritäten in der Kulturpolitik. Jedoch unter den gegebenen Umständen, die eine Revision der Regierungsfunktionen in den einzelnen politischen Sparten implizieren, scheint das Erreichen dieser Ziele unmöglich. Zwecks Optimierung der neuen Kriterienliste und unter dem Druck der Öffentlichkeit hat die lettische Regierung versucht, die Bedeutung der Funktion von Ministerien einzuschätzen, wobei sie die öffentliche Meinung und die Standpunkte der Sozialpartner berücksichtigt. Die gegenwärtigen Finanzaussichten für 2010 sehen eine grundlegende Übersicht und Bewertung vieler kulturpolitischer Programme zum Zweck der Begründung ihrer Notwendigkeit vor. Charakteristisch für Lettland ist, dass die Gestalter der Politik nicht in der Lage sind, klare und glaubwürdige Argumente für die Unterstützung politischer Entscheidungen und einer nichtkonventionellen Politik vorzulegen, selbst in Fällen, in denen die Politik einen enormen Einfluss auf Interessen und Bedürfnisse der Bevölkerung ausübt. Das führt zu Spannungen zwischen Politik und Gesellschaft, was sich im Unverständnis für die Werte und Ziele der Politik ausdrückt. Bei der angestrebten Übereinkunft zwischen Politikern und Gesellschaft schreibt man die Hauptrolle denjenigen Informationen zu, welche die politischen Alternativen betreffen und nicht den Argumenten, die für die eine oder andere Alternative sprechen. Der Gesellschaft fehlt es zuweilen an Informationen für die Begründung der ausgewählten politischen Alternative. Dies gibt Raum für eine freie Interpretation der politischen Angelegenheiten, was zu allgemeiner Skepsis bezüglich der Frage führt, inwieweit die
151
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Alle werden von der Europäischen Kommission verlangt. Keine dieser Untersuchungen wurden von einer der litauischen Regierungsinstitutionen durchgeführt. Außerdem liefert die Datenbank keine Informationen über Untersuchungen, die man zum Bereich der Beurteilung der politischen Sphäre rechnen könnte und die vom Kulturministerium in Auftrag gegeben wurden. Daraus schließe ich, dass ein solches Instrument zur Verbesserung der Qualität der Politik wie die Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik mitsamt der Untersuchung der Beurteilung, wie es bei der Gestaltung von Politiken (Strategien) in vielen Ländern Verwendung findet, bei der Gestaltung von Politik, insbesondere Kulturpolitik, in Lettland kaum eine Rolle spielt. Zum Zweck einer eingehenderen Analyse der oben beschriebenen Situation möchte ich die Sphäre der sozialen Untersuchungen in Lettland darstellen. Die Thematik der Untersuchungen durch Vertreter der lettischen Sozialwissenschaften und der Umfang der zu diesen Untersuchungen herangezogenen Methoden erweitern sich im Bezug auf die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit, die dynamisch ist und mit Innovationen angefüllt, gemäß dem Umfang der erforderlichen Untersuchungsprobleme. In der demokratischen Welt ist eines der Gebiete, in der gesellschaftliche Untersuchungen breite Anwendung finden, eben die Sphäre der Politik. In Lettland werden solche Untersuchungen vor allem von internationalen Institutionen, der staatlichen und kommunalen Verwaltungen in Auftrag gegeben. Dabei ist eine der größten Interessen der Politiker häufig mit der Notwendigkeit der Erhebung von Informationen verbunden, die eine Evaluierung der Einflüsse der Politik erlauben würden. In verschiedenen politischen Systemen bestehen unterschiedliche Konventionen bezüglich der Evaluierung des Einflusses der Politik. Dennoch ist eines der Untersuchungsinstrumente, das üblicherweise bei der Evaluierung von Politik eingesetzt wird, die so genannte Evaluierungsuntersuchung. Die Gestalter von Politiken können Informationen gewinnen über Evaluierungsuntersuchungen, die eine Rationalisierung der politischen Entscheidungsfindung und in Zusammenhang damit der Verbesserung der Qualität der Gestaltung von Politiken (Strategien) sowie eine Erweiterung des Bereichs der Probleme, die mit Hilfe der Politik gelöst werden können. Abgesehen von der theoretischen Notwendigkeit der Evaluierung von Untersuchungsdaten verfügen Politik und Exekutive häufig nicht über Informationen über die Umsetzung einer bestimmten Politik / eines bestimmten Programms und über Wissen, wie die höchsten Indikatoren der Umsetzung zu
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
erreichen sind. Wissenschaftler aus vielen Ländern haben festgestellt, dass die Gestalter von Politik nicht immer die Unterstützung solcher Programme und die Erzielung der erforderlichen Resultate für ihre vorderste Priorität halten. Gleichzeitig steigen die Ansprüche der Bevölkerung. Häufig sind die Regierungen nicht in der Lage, angemessen auf diese Probleme zu reagieren [Wholey, Kathryn, 1989). Das Grundproblem ist folgendes: Die bisherigen Situationsuntersuchungen zeigen, dass in einem systemhaften und konzeptuellen Sinn verschiedene Praktiken in der lettischen Verwaltung existieren (z.B. Ministerien und die ihnen unterstehenden Behörden), was die Umsetzung der Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik und die Anwendung methodischer Untersuchungsprinzipien anbelangt. Umso mehr als die Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik ihre Funktion der Verbesserung der Politikgestaltung nicht erfüllt, keine Integration der Problemlösungsansätze in politische Prozesse der Entscheidungsfindung stimuliert noch eine Fortsetzung der Politik gewährleistet.
Der besondere Charakter von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen
D
er besondere Charakter von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen hat seine Wurzeln im Verständnis des Begriffs Evaluierung. Er bedeutet die systematische Auswertung der Resultate einer Politik oder eines Programms oder der Ergebnisse, die mit deutlich formulierten oder unklaren, mittelbaren Standards verglichen werden, um die Verbesserung dieser Politik / dieses Programms zu verfolgen. Einerseits ist der Begriff der Evaluierung verbunden mit einer Beschreibung der Wesensgrundlage der jeweiligen Maßnahme/Errungenschaft/Ausführung, andererseits ist sie verbunden mit den Standards und Kriterien, nach denen die jeweilige Maßnahme/Errungenschaft/Ausführung beurteilt wird. [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. Dies ist eine Art soziopolitischer (strategischer) Untersuchung, die eine Beurteilung der gewollten und ungewollten Konsequenzen des Programms einer neuen oder übernommenen Politik oder Praxis bezweckt, darunter die Feststellung, in welchem Grade die gesetzten Ziele tatsächlich realisiert werden, sowie eine Identifizierung der Übertragung der Folgen. [Wörterbuch der Soziologie] Die Methodik von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen umfasst eine bestimmte Logik der Untersuchungen, die angewandt wird, wenn ein soziales oder politisches Maßnahmenprogramm bewertet werden soll. Evaluierungsuntersuchungen sind interdisziplinäre Untersuchungen, in denen häufig
151
Alle werden von der Europäischen Kommission verlangt. Keine dieser Untersuchungen wurden von einer der litauischen Regierungsinstitutionen durchgeführt. Außerdem liefert die Datenbank keine Informationen über Untersuchungen, die man zum Bereich der Beurteilung der politischen Sphäre rechnen könnte und die vom Kulturministerium in Auftrag gegeben wurden. Daraus schließe ich, dass ein solches Instrument zur Verbesserung der Qualität der Politik wie die Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik mitsamt der Untersuchung der Beurteilung, wie es bei der Gestaltung von Politiken (Strategien) in vielen Ländern Verwendung findet, bei der Gestaltung von Politik, insbesondere Kulturpolitik, in Lettland kaum eine Rolle spielt. Zum Zweck einer eingehenderen Analyse der oben beschriebenen Situation möchte ich die Sphäre der sozialen Untersuchungen in Lettland darstellen. Die Thematik der Untersuchungen durch Vertreter der lettischen Sozialwissenschaften und der Umfang der zu diesen Untersuchungen herangezogenen Methoden erweitern sich im Bezug auf die gesellschaftliche Wirklichkeit, die dynamisch ist und mit Innovationen angefüllt, gemäß dem Umfang der erforderlichen Untersuchungsprobleme. In der demokratischen Welt ist eines der Gebiete, in der gesellschaftliche Untersuchungen breite Anwendung finden, eben die Sphäre der Politik. In Lettland werden solche Untersuchungen vor allem von internationalen Institutionen, der staatlichen und kommunalen Verwaltungen in Auftrag gegeben. Dabei ist eine der größten Interessen der Politiker häufig mit der Notwendigkeit der Erhebung von Informationen verbunden, die eine Evaluierung der Einflüsse der Politik erlauben würden. In verschiedenen politischen Systemen bestehen unterschiedliche Konventionen bezüglich der Evaluierung des Einflusses der Politik. Dennoch ist eines der Untersuchungsinstrumente, das üblicherweise bei der Evaluierung von Politik eingesetzt wird, die so genannte Evaluierungsuntersuchung. Die Gestalter von Politiken können Informationen gewinnen über Evaluierungsuntersuchungen, die eine Rationalisierung der politischen Entscheidungsfindung und in Zusammenhang damit der Verbesserung der Qualität der Gestaltung von Politiken (Strategien) sowie eine Erweiterung des Bereichs der Probleme, die mit Hilfe der Politik gelöst werden können. Abgesehen von der theoretischen Notwendigkeit der Evaluierung von Untersuchungsdaten verfügen Politik und Exekutive häufig nicht über Informationen über die Umsetzung einer bestimmten Politik / eines bestimmten Programms und über Wissen, wie die höchsten Indikatoren der Umsetzung zu
er besondere Charakter von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen hat seine Wurzeln im Verständnis des Begriffs Evaluierung. Er bedeutet die systematische Auswertung der Resultate einer Politik oder eines Programms oder der Ergebnisse, die mit deutlich formulierten oder unklaren, mittelbaren Standards verglichen werden, um die Verbesserung dieser Politik / dieses Programms zu verfolgen. Einerseits ist der Begriff der Evaluierung verbunden mit einer Beschreibung der Wesensgrundlage der jeweiligen Maßnahme/Errungenschaft/Ausführung, andererseits ist sie verbunden mit den Standards und Kriterien, nach denen die jeweilige Maßnahme/Errungenschaft/Ausführung beurteilt wird. [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. Dies ist eine Art soziopolitischer (strategischer) Untersuchung, die eine Beurteilung der gewollten und ungewollten Konsequenzen des Programms einer neuen oder übernommenen Politik oder Praxis bezweckt, darunter die Feststellung, in welchem Grade die gesetzten Ziele tatsächlich realisiert werden, sowie eine Identifizierung der Übertragung der Folgen. [Wörterbuch der Soziologie] Die Methodik von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen umfasst eine bestimmte Logik der Untersuchungen, die angewandt wird, wenn ein soziales oder politisches Maßnahmenprogramm bewertet werden soll. Evaluierungsuntersuchungen sind interdisziplinäre Untersuchungen, in denen häufig
D
Der besondere Charakter von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen erreichen sind. Wissenschaftler aus vielen Ländern haben festgestellt, dass die Gestalter von Politik nicht immer die Unterstützung solcher Programme und die Erzielung der erforderlichen Resultate für ihre vorderste Priorität halten. Gleichzeitig steigen die Ansprüche der Bevölkerung. Häufig sind die Regierungen nicht in der Lage, angemessen auf diese Probleme zu reagieren [Wholey, Kathryn, 1989). Das Grundproblem ist folgendes: Die bisherigen Situationsuntersuchungen zeigen, dass in einem systemhaften und konzeptuellen Sinn verschiedene Praktiken in der lettischen Verwaltung existieren (z.B. Ministerien und die ihnen unterstehenden Behörden), was die Umsetzung der Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik und die Anwendung methodischer Untersuchungsprinzipien anbelangt. Umso mehr als die Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik ihre Funktion der Verbesserung der Politikgestaltung nicht erfüllt, keine Integration der Problemlösungsansätze in politische Prozesse der Entscheidungsfindung stimuliert noch eine Fortsetzung der Politik gewährleistet.
die methodischen Grundsätze der soziologischen, politikwissenschaftlichen und volkswirtschaftlichen Forschung zum Einsatz kommen. Außerdem werden solche Erhebungen in der Regel nach allgemein akzeptierten internationalen Standards durchgeführt. Die Auswahl der Untersuchungsmethodologie und ihre Projektierung hängen mit folgender Untersuchungsaufgabe zusammen: Es geht um die Erfassung der zeitlichen Veränderung bestimmter Variablen durch die Feststellung, in welchem Maße sich die jeweiligen Maßnahmen und die Umwelt sich auf die Variablen ausgewirkt haben. Das Ziel der Evaluierungsuntersuchung ist die Bewertung der Einflussnahme. Der Prozess selbst, die ergriffenen Maßnahmen und die eingesetzten Instrumente werden als Programm bezeichnet, und die dadurch erzielten Effekte werden in gegenseitigen Wechselbeziehungen auf methodisch kontrollierte Art und Weise untersucht und bewertet. Zu berücksichtigen ist dabei die Tatsache, dass jedes Programm nur in enger Verbindung mit dem sozialen Umfeld realisiert werden kann. Sie lässt sich nicht von den Umwelteinflüssen ablösen. Die Techniken der Beurteilung lassen sich mit Leichtigkeit anpassen und bei der Analyse der Sozial, Gesundheits-, Umwelt-, Bildungs-und Kulturpolitik einsetzen. Die beschriebene Methodik wird mit Erfolg für Forschungs-, Beurteilung- und Optimierungszwecke eingesetzt, zum Beispiel für Sozialprogramme in all ihren Aspekten: bei der Demonstration sozialer Probleme, der Konzeptualisierung von Zielvorgaben, der Implementierung und Verwaltung von Programmen, der Messung von Ergebnissen und ihrer Wirksamkeit. [Ebenda]
die Logik der Bewertung verbunden sein muss mit der Logik der Programmgestaltung: Sie schlagen folgendes Schema der Bewertungsebenen vor [Nutbeam, 1998]: 1. Definition des Problems 2. Identifizierung der Problemlösungen 3. Test der Innovation 4. Demonstration der Innovation 5. Distribution der Intervention 6. Managements des Programms
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die Besonderheit dieser Methodologie hängt mit der Tatsache zusammen, dass Ausgangs-und Bezugspunkt jeweils das zu bewertende Programm ist. Zuweilen wird der Begriff Programm als Synonym des Begriffs Politik gebraucht, der eine Strategie, einen Handlungsplan, eine Taktik bedeutet, die in einem Dokument oder einem Beschluss näher bestimmt wird. (z. B. Politik der Universitätsbildung). Nach diesem Verständnis der Begriffe ist das Hauptziel des Programms / der Politik die Veränderung des Wissensstands, der Einstellung, der Werte und Verhaltensweisen von Menschen bzw. die Veränderung der Organisation, in der sie arbeiten oder des Umfelds, in dem sie leben. Ein gemeinsames Merkmals aller Programme/Politiken ist ihr Ziel, ein besseres Leben zu gestalten. Um die richtige Interpretation der Daten zu gewährleisten müssen die Datenerheber genau verstehen, worum es in dem jeweiligen Programm geht und wie sie in den einzelnen Fällen vorgehen sollen. [Weiss, 1998] Ein besonderer Bestandteil der Evaluierung in einer solchen Evaluierungsuntersuchung ist die Beurteilung des erzielten Erfolgs, der Konsequenzen und Ergebnisse des Programms (Erfolg, Konsequenzen). Die zu erwartenden Einflüsse können in höherem und geringerem Maße auftreten. Der Erfolg des Programms wird nicht nach nach den festgestellten Veränderungen bewertet, sondern nach dem Nutzen, der sich aus der Implementierung des Programms ergibt. Ein Programm ist dann erfolgreich, wenn die ergriffenen Maßnahmen auf die variablen des Ziels mit genügender Intensität und auf geplante Art und Weise auf die Variablen Einfluss nehmen. Selbst im Fall eines maximal erfolglosen Programms sind Veränderungen von Variablen in geplanter Form möglich, wenn das Programmumfeld positiv wirkt. Und umgekehrt: Ein erfolgreiches Programm kann nur kleine Veränderungen verursachen, wen der Umwelteinfluss negativ ist. Die verschiedenen Arten von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen konzentrieren sich in der Regel auf die Werte und den Einsatz von Politiken; ihre Aufgabe ist nicht6 nur die Erhebung von Informationen über die beabsichtigten oder un-
152
Die Besonderheit dieser Methodologie hängt mit der Tatsache zusammen, dass Ausgangs-und Bezugspunkt jeweils das zu bewertende Programm ist. Zuweilen wird der Begriff Programm als Synonym des Begriffs Politik gebraucht, der eine Strategie, einen Handlungsplan, eine Taktik bedeutet, die in einem Dokument oder einem Beschluss näher bestimmt wird. (z. B. Politik der Universitätsbildung). Nach diesem Verständnis der Begriffe ist das Hauptziel des Programms / der Politik die Veränderung des Wissensstands, der Einstellung, der Werte und Verhaltensweisen von Menschen bzw. die Veränderung der Organisation, in der sie arbeiten oder des Umfelds, in dem sie leben. Ein gemeinsames Merkmals aller Programme/Politiken ist ihr Ziel, ein besseres Leben zu gestalten. Um die richtige Interpretation der Daten zu gewährleisten müssen die Datenerheber genau verstehen, worum es in dem jeweiligen Programm geht und wie sie in den einzelnen Fällen vorgehen sollen. [Weiss, 1998] Ein besonderer Bestandteil der Evaluierung in einer solchen Evaluierungsuntersuchung ist die Beurteilung des erzielten Erfolgs, der Konsequenzen und Ergebnisse des Programms (Erfolg, Konsequenzen). Die zu erwartenden Einflüsse können in höherem und geringerem Maße auftreten. Der Erfolg des Programms wird nicht nach nach den festgestellten Veränderungen bewertet, sondern nach dem Nutzen, der sich aus der Implementierung des Programms ergibt. Ein Programm ist dann erfolgreich, wenn die ergriffenen Maßnahmen auf die variablen des Ziels mit genügender Intensität und auf geplante Art und Weise auf die Variablen Einfluss nehmen. Selbst im Fall eines maximal erfolglosen Programms sind Veränderungen von Variablen in geplanter Form möglich, wenn das Programmumfeld positiv wirkt. Und umgekehrt: Ein erfolgreiches Programm kann nur kleine Veränderungen verursachen, wen der Umwelteinfluss negativ ist. Die verschiedenen Arten von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen konzentrieren sich in der Regel auf die Werte und den Einsatz von Politiken; ihre Aufgabe ist nicht6 nur die Erhebung von Informationen über die beabsichtigten oder un-
Die logische Struktur der Methodologie zeigt das folgende Forschungsprojekt [Round, Marshall, Horton, 2005, S. 6]: 1. Beschreibung des Programms (Formulierung des Problems, Identifizierung der Ziele, Zielkomplexe, Indikatoren der Intervention und Auswirkungen), 2. Vorbereitung einer Probebeurteilung (Engagement der interessierten Parteien, Bestimmung des Hauptziels der Beurteilung, Formulierung der wichtigsten Untersuchungsfragen, Identifizierung der Ressourcen), 3. Erstellung des Bewertungsprojekts (Bestimmung des Projekts, Wahl der Methoden der Datenerhebung und Vorbereitung von Instrumenten zur Datenerhebung), 4. Erhebung der Daten, 5. Analyse und Interpretation der Daten, 6. Formatierung und Distribution der Daten der Evaluierungsuntersuchung. Einige Theoretiker vertreten die Ansicht, dass
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die logische Struktur der Methodologie zeigt das folgende Forschungsprojekt [Round, Marshall, Horton, 2005, S. 6]: 1. Beschreibung des Programms (Formulierung des Problems, Identifizierung der Ziele, Zielkomplexe, Indikatoren der Intervention und Auswirkungen), 2. Vorbereitung einer Probebeurteilung (Engagement der interessierten Parteien, Bestimmung des Hauptziels der Beurteilung, Formulierung der wichtigsten Untersuchungsfragen, Identifizierung der Ressourcen), 3. Erstellung des Bewertungsprojekts (Bestimmung des Projekts, Wahl der Methoden der Datenerhebung und Vorbereitung von Instrumenten zur Datenerhebung), 4. Erhebung der Daten, 5. Analyse und Interpretation der Daten, 6. Formatierung und Distribution der Daten der Evaluierungsuntersuchung. Einige Theoretiker vertreten die Ansicht, dass
die Logik der Bewertung verbunden sein muss mit der Logik der Programmgestaltung: Sie schlagen folgendes Schema der Bewertungsebenen vor [Nutbeam, 1998]: 1. Definition des Problems 2. Identifizierung der Problemlösungen 3. Test der Innovation 4. Demonstration der Innovation 5. Distribution der Intervention 6. Managements des Programms
152
die methodischen Grundsätze der soziologischen, politikwissenschaftlichen und volkswirtschaftlichen Forschung zum Einsatz kommen. Außerdem werden solche Erhebungen in der Regel nach allgemein akzeptierten internationalen Standards durchgeführt. Die Auswahl der Untersuchungsmethodologie und ihre Projektierung hängen mit folgender Untersuchungsaufgabe zusammen: Es geht um die Erfassung der zeitlichen Veränderung bestimmter Variablen durch die Feststellung, in welchem Maße sich die jeweiligen Maßnahmen und die Umwelt sich auf die Variablen ausgewirkt haben. Das Ziel der Evaluierungsuntersuchung ist die Bewertung der Einflussnahme. Der Prozess selbst, die ergriffenen Maßnahmen und die eingesetzten Instrumente werden als Programm bezeichnet, und die dadurch erzielten Effekte werden in gegenseitigen Wechselbeziehungen auf methodisch kontrollierte Art und Weise untersucht und bewertet. Zu berücksichtigen ist dabei die Tatsache, dass jedes Programm nur in enger Verbindung mit dem sozialen Umfeld realisiert werden kann. Sie lässt sich nicht von den Umwelteinflüssen ablösen. Die Techniken der Beurteilung lassen sich mit Leichtigkeit anpassen und bei der Analyse der Sozial, Gesundheits-, Umwelt-, Bildungs-und Kulturpolitik einsetzen. Die beschriebene Methodik wird mit Erfolg für Forschungs-, Beurteilung- und Optimierungszwecke eingesetzt, zum Beispiel für Sozialprogramme in all ihren Aspekten: bei der Demonstration sozialer Probleme, der Konzeptualisierung von Zielvorgaben, der Implementierung und Verwaltung von Programmen, der Messung von Ergebnissen und ihrer Wirksamkeit. [Ebenda]
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
beabsichtigten Folgen; ihre Hauptmission beruht auf der Untersuchung, ob die Folgen einer Politik ein Ergebnis der Maßnahmen zur Lösung des jeweiligen Problems sind. Eine Evaluierungsuntersuchung stellt in der Regel fest, ob eine Politik ihr Ziel erreicht hat oder nicht.
Evaluierungsuntersuchungen als Teil des Systems der Beurteilung von Politiken
I
n der Politikwissenschaft gilt die Beurteilung des Einflusses einer Politik als eine der Arten der Analyse, deren methodischen Prinzipien den Stadien des politischen Prozesses oder des Prozesses der Entscheidungsfindung entsprechen. Die Logik der Beurteilung des Einflusses von Politiken und ihr Verhältnis zu den Stadien des politischen Prozesses wird von Dunn W. N., Diamond L., Faulks K. und anderen behandelt. Die logische Struktur der Beurteilung des politischen Einflusses stellt sich folgendermaßen dar [Birkland, 2005; Peters, 2006]: 1. Analyse und Definition der gesellschaftlichen Probleme, die mit Hilfe der Instrumente der jeweiligen Politik gelöst werden sollen, 2. Bestimmung des Ziels der Politik, 3. Wahl von Alternativen für die Politik, 4. Vergleich der Alternativen und Entscheidung für die beste Wahl, 5. Entscheidung, 6. Implementierung der Politik, 7. Beurteilung, um festzustellen, ob die Politik ihr Ziel erreicht hat und das definierte Problem gelöst wurde. Natürlich unterscheidet sich die logische Struktur der Beurteilung des Einflusses einer Politik ein wenig je nach Quelle. Die meisten Experten unterstreichen die Rolle der Problemanalyse und der genauen Definition: Das häufigste Negativum bei der Bewertung sind Schwierigkeiten bei der Definition des zu lösenden Ausgangsproblems Die so genannte formale Beurteilung mittels bestimmter Indikatoren überprüft, ob das Ziel der Politik erreicht wurde, was nicht immer und unbedingt die Lösung des Problems bedeuten muss. Die präzise Definition des Problems, das politisch gelöst werden soll, wie auch der entsprechenden politischen Ziele sind ein wichtiger Schritt bei der Stärkung der Qualität der Politikgestaltung. Obwohl die staatlichen Verwaltungsstrukturen Lettlands eine relativ weit reichende Praxis des Einsatzes gesellschaftlicher Erhebungen vorsehen, werden die gewonnen Daten unzureichend verwertet. Es kommt sogar vor, dass die Gutachten
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
und Verbesserungsvorschläge von den Politikern kritisiert werden. Wichtig ist, die erhobenen Daten in die politischen Entscheidungen zu integrieren, besonders dann, wenn die Ergebnisse einer Evaluierung unterliegen. Die Fragen einer wirksameren und adäquateren Zusammenarbeit zwischen Soziologen und Politikern, der Anwendung einer verbesserten Methode sowie die Schaffung eines Evaluierungssystems nehmen an Bedeutung zu. Im lettischen soziopolitischen Bereich werden die Prozesse der Politikgestaltung und der Entscheidungsfindung häufig scharf kritisiert bis hin zu verschiedenen Formen des politischen Protests. Die Unfähigkeit zur Beschlussfassung bei der Problemlösung im Wirtschafts-, Sozial- und Kulturbereich verursacht ernst zu nehmende Konsequenzen in der gegenwärtigen Wirtschaftskrise. Die Gestalter von Politik in verschiedenen Sphären stoßen auf immer heftigere Kritik in Zusammenhang damit, dass der Staat keine langfristigen Ziele gesetzt hat, also auch keine dementsprechende Politik verfolgt, was zu einer ineffizienten Verwendung politisch-finanzieller Instrumente geführt hat Eines der Mittel, das für die Erstellung einer konsequenten Politik werben würde, ist die Schaffung eines begrifflich präzisierten Systems der Bewertung. Es ist von Bedeutung, eine Situation zu schaffen, in der ein System zur Beurteilung des Einflusses von Politik nicht nur formal (in vielen Dokumenten über die Planung von Politiken können wir Ziele finden, die mit der Schaffung eines Systems der Bewertung des Einflusses der Politik in Lettland zusammenhängen, z.B. die Vorgaben für die Jahre 2008-2013), sondern auch praktisch (im Rahmen der Handlungspolitik) zum Tragen kommt. Die Deklarationen der Regierung bezüglich der Notwendigkeit der Durchführung von Untersuchungen erscheinen ungenügend: Das Ministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft verweist auf die Notwendigkeit einer engeren Bindung zwischen den Schlussfolgerungen aus wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen und den Initiativen der neuen Politik, der Erarbeitung von Gesetzen und Vorschriften, den Änderungen in den Curricula, der Erarbeitung eines methodischen Hintergrundes, der Organisation der Schulen und vieler anderer Aspekte. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungsergebnisse müssen zur Bewertung der Ergebnisse von Ergebnissen von Initiativen der Bildungspolitik und zur bewussten Fortsetzung der Erlangung der in Dokumenten der Gesetzgebung und der Planung von Politiken für bestimmte Ziele herangezogen werden. [Discuss Research In Educational Policy Making] Die Stärkung des Systems zur Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik auf die Bildung einer Staatspolitik erfordert ein hervorragendes begriffliches Bewusstsein und
153
Natürlich unterscheidet sich die logische Struktur der Beurteilung des Einflusses einer Politik ein wenig je nach Quelle. Die meisten Experten unterstreichen die Rolle der Problemanalyse und der genauen Definition: Das häufigste Negativum bei der Bewertung sind Schwierigkeiten bei der Definition des zu lösenden Ausgangsproblems Die so genannte formale Beurteilung mittels bestimmter Indikatoren überprüft, ob das Ziel der Politik erreicht wurde, was nicht immer und unbedingt die Lösung des Problems bedeuten muss. Die präzise Definition des Problems, das politisch gelöst werden soll, wie auch der entsprechenden politischen Ziele sind ein wichtiger Schritt bei der Stärkung der Qualität der Politikgestaltung. Obwohl die staatlichen Verwaltungsstrukturen Lettlands eine relativ weit reichende Praxis des Einsatzes gesellschaftlicher Erhebungen vorsehen, werden die gewonnen Daten unzureichend verwertet. Es kommt sogar vor, dass die Gutachten n der Politikwissenschaft gilt die Beurteilung des Einflusses einer Politik als eine der Arten der Analyse, deren methodischen Prinzipien den Stadien des politischen Prozesses oder des Prozesses der Entscheidungsfindung entsprechen. Die Logik der Beurteilung des Einflusses von Politiken und ihr Verhältnis zu den Stadien des politischen Prozesses wird von Dunn W. N., Diamond L., Faulks K. und anderen behandelt. Die logische Struktur der Beurteilung des politischen Einflusses stellt sich folgendermaßen dar [Birkland, 2005; Peters, 2006]: 1. Analyse und Definition der gesellschaftlichen Probleme, die mit Hilfe der Instrumente der jeweiligen Politik gelöst werden sollen, 2. Bestimmung des Ziels der Politik, 3. Wahl von Alternativen für die Politik, 4. Vergleich der Alternativen und Entscheidung für die beste Wahl, 5. Entscheidung, 6. Implementierung der Politik, 7. Beurteilung, um festzustellen, ob die Politik ihr Ziel erreicht hat und das definierte Problem gelöst wurde.
I
Evaluierungsuntersuchungen als Teil des Systems der Beurteilung von Politiken beabsichtigten Folgen; ihre Hauptmission beruht auf der Untersuchung, ob die Folgen einer Politik ein Ergebnis der Maßnahmen zur Lösung des jeweiligen Problems sind. Eine Evaluierungsuntersuchung stellt in der Regel fest, ob eine Politik ihr Ziel erreicht hat oder nicht.
153
und Verbesserungsvorschläge von den Politikern kritisiert werden. Wichtig ist, die erhobenen Daten in die politischen Entscheidungen zu integrieren, besonders dann, wenn die Ergebnisse einer Evaluierung unterliegen. Die Fragen einer wirksameren und adäquateren Zusammenarbeit zwischen Soziologen und Politikern, der Anwendung einer verbesserten Methode sowie die Schaffung eines Evaluierungssystems nehmen an Bedeutung zu. Im lettischen soziopolitischen Bereich werden die Prozesse der Politikgestaltung und der Entscheidungsfindung häufig scharf kritisiert bis hin zu verschiedenen Formen des politischen Protests. Die Unfähigkeit zur Beschlussfassung bei der Problemlösung im Wirtschafts-, Sozial- und Kulturbereich verursacht ernst zu nehmende Konsequenzen in der gegenwärtigen Wirtschaftskrise. Die Gestalter von Politik in verschiedenen Sphären stoßen auf immer heftigere Kritik in Zusammenhang damit, dass der Staat keine langfristigen Ziele gesetzt hat, also auch keine dementsprechende Politik verfolgt, was zu einer ineffizienten Verwendung politisch-finanzieller Instrumente geführt hat Eines der Mittel, das für die Erstellung einer konsequenten Politik werben würde, ist die Schaffung eines begrifflich präzisierten Systems der Bewertung. Es ist von Bedeutung, eine Situation zu schaffen, in der ein System zur Beurteilung des Einflusses von Politik nicht nur formal (in vielen Dokumenten über die Planung von Politiken können wir Ziele finden, die mit der Schaffung eines Systems der Bewertung des Einflusses der Politik in Lettland zusammenhängen, z.B. die Vorgaben für die Jahre 2008-2013), sondern auch praktisch (im Rahmen der Handlungspolitik) zum Tragen kommt. Die Deklarationen der Regierung bezüglich der Notwendigkeit der Durchführung von Untersuchungen erscheinen ungenügend: Das Ministerium für Bildung und Wissenschaft verweist auf die Notwendigkeit einer engeren Bindung zwischen den Schlussfolgerungen aus wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen und den Initiativen der neuen Politik, der Erarbeitung von Gesetzen und Vorschriften, den Änderungen in den Curricula, der Erarbeitung eines methodischen Hintergrundes, der Organisation der Schulen und vieler anderer Aspekte. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungsergebnisse müssen zur Bewertung der Ergebnisse von Ergebnissen von Initiativen der Bildungspolitik und zur bewussten Fortsetzung der Erlangung der in Dokumenten der Gesetzgebung und der Planung von Politiken für bestimmte Ziele herangezogen werden. [Discuss Research In Educational Policy Making] Die Stärkung des Systems zur Beurteilung des Einflusses der Politik auf die Bildung einer Staatspolitik erfordert ein hervorragendes begriffliches Bewusstsein und
die Anwendung methodischer Untersuchungsprinzipien in der Praxis.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die adäquate Definition der Programmziele als eine der Voraussetzungen für eine erfolgreiche Umsetzung einer Beurteilung eines Programms und seiner Auswirkungen: eine Fallstudie im Kontext der lettischen Kulturpolitik
154
E
ine sehr wichtige Rolle bei der Evaluierung des Beitrags der Politik und der Implementierung von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen fällt in die Sphäre der Politik, wo die bessere Lösung eines Problems und die Wahl von politischen Alternativen mit den Interessen unterschiedlicher sozialer Gruppen, ihrer Bedürfnisse, Gewinne und Verluste verbunden ist. Dies gilt auch für die Kulturpolitik. Eine der aktuellen Ziele der Kulturpolitik, wie es ich in Dokumenten über Politiken auf unterschiedlichen Stufen ausdrückt (Vorgaben für die staatliche Kulturpolitik 2006-2015), ist der Erhalt des immateriellen Kulturerbes. Soziokulturelle Veränderungen, verstärkt durch die Globalisierung, und die so genannte kulturelle Orientierungslosigkeit schaffen eine zusätzliche Gefahr für den Erhalt der traditionellen Kultur, insbesondere des immateriellen Kulturerbes. In einem solchen Fall muss jede Gesellschaft, die den Anspruch auf ein bestimmtes Kulturerbe erhebt und deren ziel der Erhalt dieses Kulturerbes ist, die Fragen beantworten, was dieses Erbe beinhaltet und was seine wichtigsten Werte sind. Eines der Instrumente der Kulturpolitik, wie es vom Kulturministerium der Republik Lettland eingesetzt wird , ist die Schaffung eines Kanons der lettischen Kultur. Für dieses Projekt hat das Ministerium eine Expertenkommission in 7 Kulturbereichen einberufen, die eine bestimmte Anzahl an Kulturwerten für jeden Bereich vereinbarte, die in den Kanon der polnischen Kultur aufgenommen werden sollten. Die Urheber des Kanons geben zu, dass das Hauptziel der Erstellung des Kulturkanons die Erstellung einer Liste der bedeutendsten und bemerkenswertesten Kunstwerke und Kulturwerte ist, die die wichtigsten kulturellen Errungenschaften Lettlands widerspiegeln. Dies soll zu einer Steigerung des Bewusstseins für das Nationalerbe beitragen. Der Kanon wurde auf der Basis von Expertengutachten erstellt. Jedoch waren bei der Erstellung des Kanons die Begriffe der Gesellschaft – des Erben – vom Kulturerbe nicht bekannt. Da eine der Funktionen des Kul-
turkanons die Bildungsfunktion ist, das heißt die Förderung und Popularisierung der nationalen Kulturwerte in einer multikulturellen Gesellschaft, ist die Einstellung der lettischen Schulen und der Schuljugend zu den kulturellen Errungenschaften Lettlands sowie ihr Wissen darüber nach wie vor eine aktuelle Frage. Der Erstellung des Kulturkanons ging eine Untersuchung voraus, die feststellen sollte, welche Begriffe die lettische Jugend von den wichtigsten Kulturwerten hat und welche Meinung diese Gruppe zu den von den Experten angegebenen Werten in jedem der Bereiche hat. Das Forschungsprojekt beruhte auf einer gemischten Methodik: quantitative Methode – Umfrage, die Zielgruppe waren die lettischen Schüler, die geplante Untersuchungsgruppe betrug 600 Personen, die gesamte Untersuchungsgruppe 685 Personen; quantitative Methode: Gruppendiskussion, die Untersuchungsgruppe waren lettische Jugendliche in m Alter von 18-25 Jahren, die nach dem Kriterium ihrer unterschiedlichen Kulturinteressen in 10 Untersuchungsgruppen zusammengestellt wurden. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse ergaben ein niedriges Bewusstsein für die Wertekomplexe, die von den Experten für die einzelnen Kulturbereiche angegeben worden waren. Außerdem unterschied sich das Wissen der jugendlichen je nach den einzelnen Werten. Am besten bekannt waren die Werte, die sich auf die lettischen, Traditionen, Sitten und Gebräuche und die Literatur bezogen, am schwächsten fiel das Wissen bei den visuellen Künsten aus; die Jugendlichen kannten nur wenige Werte aus den Bereichen Film und Theater. Die erlangten Daten lassen ein anderes Problem bei der Erstellung des Kulturkanons erkennen: Die Jugendlichen mit ihren unterschiedlichen Interessen verhielten sich skeptisch gegenüber der Notwendigkeit der Fixierung eines solchen Kanons. Eines der Hauptmotive bei der Argumentation war das fehlende Verständnis für die Zielsetzung. Das politische Produkt, das von der Untersuchungsgruppe auf diese Weise bewertet wurde, kann die Möglichkeit der Bewertung des Beitrags der Politik in der Zukunft erschweren, wenn der Kulturkanon als Instrument zum Erhalt des Kulturerbes zum Gegenstand der Evaluierung wird. In der öffentlichen Sphäre und der Dokumentation des Kulturkanons wurden einige Motive für seine Erstellung und Funktion aktualisiert, aber eine bündige, geordnete Konzeption der Projektziele fehlt nach wie vor. Diese unscharfe Konzeptualisierung des Programmziels macht eine rückschauende inhaltliche Beurteilung unmöglich. Das Projekt des Kulturkanons ist nicht das einzige Beispiel in der lettischen Kulturpolitik, wo das politische Programm ein unklar bezeichnetes Ziel
E
ine sehr wichtige Rolle bei der Evaluierung des Beitrags der Politik und der Implementierung von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen fällt in die Sphäre der Politik, wo die bessere Lösung eines Problems und die Wahl von politischen Alternativen mit den Interessen unterschiedlicher sozialer Gruppen, ihrer Bedürfnisse, Gewinne und Verluste verbunden ist. Dies gilt auch für die Kulturpolitik. Eine der aktuellen Ziele der Kulturpolitik, wie es ich in Dokumenten über Politiken auf unterschiedlichen Stufen ausdrückt (Vorgaben für die staatliche Kulturpolitik 2006-2015), ist der Erhalt des immateriellen Kulturerbes. Soziokulturelle Veränderungen, verstärkt durch die Globalisierung, und die so genannte kulturelle Orientierungslosigkeit schaffen eine zusätzliche Gefahr für den Erhalt der traditionellen Kultur, insbesondere des immateriellen Kulturerbes. In einem solchen Fall muss jede Gesellschaft, die den Anspruch auf ein bestimmtes Kulturerbe erhebt und deren ziel der Erhalt dieses Kulturerbes ist, die Fragen beantworten, was dieses Erbe beinhaltet und was seine wichtigsten Werte sind. Eines der Instrumente der Kulturpolitik, wie es vom Kulturministerium der Republik Lettland eingesetzt wird , ist die Schaffung eines Kanons der lettischen Kultur. Für dieses Projekt hat das Ministerium eine Expertenkommission in 7 Kulturbereichen einberufen, die eine bestimmte Anzahl an Kulturwerten für jeden Bereich vereinbarte, die in den Kanon der polnischen Kultur aufgenommen werden sollten. Die Urheber des Kanons geben zu, dass das Hauptziel der Erstellung des Kulturkanons die Erstellung einer Liste der bedeutendsten und bemerkenswertesten Kunstwerke und Kulturwerte ist, die die wichtigsten kulturellen Errungenschaften Lettlands widerspiegeln. Dies soll zu einer Steigerung des Bewusstseins für das Nationalerbe beitragen. Der Kanon wurde auf der Basis von Expertengutachten erstellt. Jedoch waren bei der Erstellung des Kanons die Begriffe der Gesellschaft – des Erben – vom Kulturerbe nicht bekannt. Da eine der Funktionen des Kul-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die adäquate Definition der Programmziele als eine der Voraussetzungen für eine erfolgreiche Umsetzung einer Beurteilung eines Programms und seiner Auswirkungen: eine Fallstudie im Kontext der lettischen Kulturpolitik
turkanons die Bildungsfunktion ist, das heißt die Förderung und Popularisierung der nationalen Kulturwerte in einer multikulturellen Gesellschaft, ist die Einstellung der lettischen Schulen und der Schuljugend zu den kulturellen Errungenschaften Lettlands sowie ihr Wissen darüber nach wie vor eine aktuelle Frage. Der Erstellung des Kulturkanons ging eine Untersuchung voraus, die feststellen sollte, welche Begriffe die lettische Jugend von den wichtigsten Kulturwerten hat und welche Meinung diese Gruppe zu den von den Experten angegebenen Werten in jedem der Bereiche hat. Das Forschungsprojekt beruhte auf einer gemischten Methodik: quantitative Methode – Umfrage, die Zielgruppe waren die lettischen Schüler, die geplante Untersuchungsgruppe betrug 600 Personen, die gesamte Untersuchungsgruppe 685 Personen; quantitative Methode: Gruppendiskussion, die Untersuchungsgruppe waren lettische Jugendliche in m Alter von 18-25 Jahren, die nach dem Kriterium ihrer unterschiedlichen Kulturinteressen in 10 Untersuchungsgruppen zusammengestellt wurden. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse ergaben ein niedriges Bewusstsein für die Wertekomplexe, die von den Experten für die einzelnen Kulturbereiche angegeben worden waren. Außerdem unterschied sich das Wissen der jugendlichen je nach den einzelnen Werten. Am besten bekannt waren die Werte, die sich auf die lettischen, Traditionen, Sitten und Gebräuche und die Literatur bezogen, am schwächsten fiel das Wissen bei den visuellen Künsten aus; die Jugendlichen kannten nur wenige Werte aus den Bereichen Film und Theater. Die erlangten Daten lassen ein anderes Problem bei der Erstellung des Kulturkanons erkennen: Die Jugendlichen mit ihren unterschiedlichen Interessen verhielten sich skeptisch gegenüber der Notwendigkeit der Fixierung eines solchen Kanons. Eines der Hauptmotive bei der Argumentation war das fehlende Verständnis für die Zielsetzung. Das politische Produkt, das von der Untersuchungsgruppe auf diese Weise bewertet wurde, kann die Möglichkeit der Bewertung des Beitrags der Politik in der Zukunft erschweren, wenn der Kulturkanon als Instrument zum Erhalt des Kulturerbes zum Gegenstand der Evaluierung wird. In der öffentlichen Sphäre und der Dokumentation des Kulturkanons wurden einige Motive für seine Erstellung und Funktion aktualisiert, aber eine bündige, geordnete Konzeption der Projektziele fehlt nach wie vor. Diese unscharfe Konzeptualisierung des Programmziels macht eine rückschauende inhaltliche Beurteilung unmöglich. Das Projekt des Kulturkanons ist nicht das einzige Beispiel in der lettischen Kulturpolitik, wo das politische Programm ein unklar bezeichnetes Ziel
154
die Anwendung methodischer Untersuchungsprinzipien in der Praxis.
155
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
und zu lösendes Problem hat. Ein anderes Beispiel ist das Projekt des Baus der lettischen Nationalbibliothek Lichtburg. Trotz der enormen Baukosten in Höhe von 135,2 Millionen Lats mit Mehrwertsteuer wird hauptsächlich eine manipulative und nicht rationale und klare Argumentation für die Unterstützung für das Projekt herangezogen. Die fehlende Präzision auf der Etappe der Planung eines Programms für die Kulturpolitik, die Analyse des Problems (das die Werte aufzeigt) und die Festlegung der Projektziele, mindert die Möglichkeiten der Beurteilung und Verbesserung der Politik. Konzeptuelle und kommunikativ klar bezeichnete Probleme, die eine vorherige Lösung und logisch entsprechende politische Ziele erfordern, würden die politische Kommunikation rationalisieren und das manipulative Element reduzieren. Das wäre einer der Schritte zur Überwindung der Entfremdung zwischen Regierung und Zivilgesellschaft, die gerade in den Zeiten einer beginnenden Wirtschaftskrise besonders gefährlich ist.
Schlussfolgerungen MM
MM
MM
MM
In Lettland ist die Umsetzung der methodologischen Prinzipien von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen bei der Gestaltung von Politiken und Evaluierungen unbestimmt und differenziert, Evaluierungsuntersuchungen erfüllen eine ihrer Rollen nicht: die kommunikative Funktion. Eine erfolgreiche Umsetzung der methodologischen Prinzipien von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen in Lettland hängen von der Besonderheit des Systems der Evaluierung des Einflusses der Politik auf die staatliche Verwaltung und von Traditionen bei der Untersuchungsplanung ab. Eine wesentliche Rolle bei der Umsetzung der Evaluierung der Politik kommt der genauen Erstellung der Programmziele zu. Die Wirksamkeit des Projekts des Kulturkanons (unter anderem die Möglichkeit seiner Bewertung in der Zukunft) würde sich durch Festlegung der wichtigsten Funktionen und Ziele erhöhen.
-copy. mk.gov.lv/lv/aktuali/zinas/2009gads/09/300909-03
html).
The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia, http://www. radosas –industrijas. Culturelab, http://culturelablv.wordpress.com/category/
Internetseiten:
izm.gov.lv/aktualitates/informacija-medijiem/2359. Discuss Research In Educational Policy Making, http://izm. mk.gov.lv/ui/. Research and publications database, http://petijumi.
tional, New York 1998. problems and solutions. Health promotion internaNutbeam, D., Evaluating health promotion – progress, 2007. komunikacija, ētika un kultura, Latvijas Universitate
River 1998. Weiss, C.H., Evaluation, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Department of Human Services, Melbourne 2005.
munikacija: diskursa teorijas perspektiva. Politiska
Literatur:
Ijabs, I., Argumentcija un manipulacija politiskaja kovalsts attistibas planosana, 2007. Hocks, J., Ilgtspejigas attistibas 4. Pilars. Kulturas nozime
Hocks, J., Ilgtspejigas attistibas 4. Pilars. Kulturas nozime valsts attistibas planosana, 2007. Ijabs, I., Argumentcija un manipulacija politiskaja ko-
Literatur:
health promotion evaluation, Victorian Government Round, R., Marshall, B., Horton, K., Planning for effective Systematic Approach Thouthand Oaks 1999. Rossi, P.H., Freeman, H.F., Lipsey M.W., Evaluation. A Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, New York 1994.
munikacija: diskursa teorijas perspektiva. Politiska komunikacija, ētika un kultura, Latvijas Universitate 2007. Nutbeam, D., Evaluating health promotion – progress,
Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, New York 1994. Rossi, P.H., Freeman, H.F., Lipsey M.W., Evaluation. A Systematic Approach Thouthand Oaks 1999. Round, R., Marshall, B., Horton, K., Planning for effective health promotion evaluation, Victorian Government Department of Human Services, Melbourne 2005. Weiss, C.H., Evaluation, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River 1998.
problems and solutions. Health promotion international, New York 1998.
Internetseiten: Culturelab, http://culturelablv.wordpress.com/category/ radosas –industrijas. The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia, http://www. mk.gov.lv/lv/aktuali/zinas/2009gads/09/300909-03
Research and publications database, http://petijumi. mk.gov.lv/ui/. Discuss Research In Educational Policy Making, http://izm. izm.gov.lv/aktualitates/informacija-medijiem/2359. html).
-copy.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
155
und zu lösendes Problem hat. Ein anderes Beispiel ist das Projekt des Baus der lettischen Nationalbibliothek Lichtburg. Trotz der enormen Baukosten in Höhe von 135,2 Millionen Lats mit Mehrwertsteuer wird hauptsächlich eine manipulative und nicht rationale und klare Argumentation für die Unterstützung für das Projekt herangezogen. Die fehlende Präzision auf der Etappe der Planung eines Programms für die Kulturpolitik, die Analyse des Problems (das die Werte aufzeigt) und die Festlegung der Projektziele, mindert die Möglichkeiten der Beurteilung und Verbesserung der Politik. Konzeptuelle und kommunikativ klar bezeichnete Probleme, die eine vorherige Lösung und logisch entsprechende politische Ziele erfordern, würden die politische Kommunikation rationalisieren und das manipulative Element reduzieren. Das wäre einer der Schritte zur Überwindung der Entfremdung zwischen Regierung und Zivilgesellschaft, die gerade in den Zeiten einer beginnenden Wirtschaftskrise besonders gefährlich ist.
MM MM MM MM
In Lettland ist die Umsetzung der methodologischen Prinzipien von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen bei der Gestaltung von Politiken und Evaluierungen unbestimmt und differenziert, Evaluierungsuntersuchungen erfüllen eine ihrer Rollen nicht: die kommunikative Funktion. Eine erfolgreiche Umsetzung der methodologischen Prinzipien von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen in Lettland hängen von der Besonderheit des Systems der Evaluierung des Einflusses der Politik auf die staatliche Verwaltung und von Traditionen bei der Untersuchungsplanung ab. Eine wesentliche Rolle bei der Umsetzung der Evaluierung der Politik kommt der genauen Erstellung der Programmziele zu. Die Wirksamkeit des Projekts des Kulturkanons (unter anderem die Möglichkeit seiner Bewertung in der Zukunft) würde sich durch Festlegung der wichtigsten Funktionen und Ziele erhöhen.
Schlussfolgerungen
156
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie
156
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Es ist nicht offensichtlich, dass urbane Zentren notwendig Kulturstandorte sein müssen. Früher hatten diese Rolle Institutionen wie Nation, Imperium, Kirche inne. Der Stadt als Produkt der Moderne wurde besondere Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt. Dies ist ein sehr „westlicher“ Blickpunkt, denn viele Megastädte in den Entwicklungsländern weichen weit ab von den Merkmalen, die wir mit der Stadt und dem städtischen Lebensraum assoziieren. Diese Merkmale der Stadt stellen jedoch das dar, was wir in unserem Kontext mit Kultur assoziieren.
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
1
zen wir keine allgemein akzeptierte Definition des Kulturmanagements. Es ist nicht meine Absicht, die „Kultur“ näher zu erörtern, denn der Aufgabenbereich der Kulturarbeit in den Städten steht außer Frage. Ich möchte mich darauf konzentrieren, was genau dem Management in diesem speziellen Kultursegment unterliegt und was in hohem Maße von verschiedenen Konzeptionen des Wirtschaftens und dem gesellschaftlichen Umfeld abhängt. Kulturmanagement als akademische Disziplin ist im deutschen Hochschulwesen seit rund zwanzig Jahren ein Studiengang, in dem wissenschaftliche Titel erlangt werden können. Dies ist ein deutlicher Effekt und eine Voraussetzung der Professionalisierung eines differenzierten beruflichen Tätigkeitsfelds. Tatsächlich, die unmittelbare Wechselwirkung zwischen Theorie und Praxis ist ein unverzichtbares Element für die Professionalisierung eines Bereichs der Kultur in der Gesellschaft. Über einen langen Zeitraum hinweg war die Kultur ideologisch verstanden als Gegenbegriff zur Berufstätigkeit, und nach wie vor finden sich auf konservativer Seite Gegner einer Merkantilisierung der „gesamten“ Kultur. Das Kulturmanagement entwickelt sich auf zwei Ebenen: als akademische Disziplin und als Segment des Managements. [vgl. Klein, 2008] Im Hinblick auf diese beiden Aspekte ist das Kulturmanagement zwischen den Sozialwissenschaften, der Wirtschaft und der Kunst zu verorten. Es ist also von Natur aus interdisziplinär und umfasst ein breites Spektrum an Tätigkeiten, die sich auf das Management von Organisationen und die Kulturarbeit beziehen, die auf verschiedenen Ziele ausgerichtet sind wie Produktion, Distribution, Ausstellung und Erziehung. Dies betrifft alle Sektoren, profit-, non-profit- und
D
iskussionen über den Zusammenhang zwischen Kultur und Business werden seit jeher geführt. In den vergangenen Jahrzehnten haben sie jedoch an Intensität gewonnen. Seit dem Erscheinen von Richard Floridas Buch Die Entstehung der kreativen Klasse (Rise of the Creative Class, 2002) ist die Stadt ins Zentrum des Interesses gerückt, wann immer die kulturelle Entwicklung und die gesellschaftlichen Funktionen der Kultur erörtert werden.1 Nach Richard Florida existieren drei Faktoren, welche die Entwicklung in der postindustriellen Wirtschaft dieser Städte bedingen: Technologie, Talent und Toleranz. Diese Elemente kumulieren in einer neuen Konfiguration der Arbeitskraft, die Florida, die „kreative Klasse” nennt. Dabei handelt es sich um Wissenschaftler, Ingenieure, Architekten, Lehrer, Schriftsteller, Künstler, Vertreter der Unterhaltungsbranche. Ihre Rolle ist die Generierung neuer Ideen, Technologien und kreativer Inhalte. Floridas Kernthese besteht darin, dass die Wirtschaft sich ändert und die Kreativität zur wichtigsten Produktivkraft und Quelle des Fortschritts im 21. Jahrhundert wird. Die kreativen Berufe mehren sich und die Unternehmen sind darauf ausgerichtet, kreative Personen anzuziehen. Floridas urbane Botschaft besagt, dass es das Ziel der Städte, die Erfolge erzielen möchten, sein muss, kreative Personen anzuziehen. Wie auch andere Theoretiker formuliert Florida Annahmen, die die Strategie des Kulturmanagements als Schlüsselproblem im Wettbewerb zwischen den urbanen Zentren stützen, das heißt, den Städten (dies bezieht sich nicht auf Ballungsräume ohne ein Minimum an urbanen Ressourcen). Die Debatte verläuft sowohl auf der praktischen als auch auf der theoretischen Ebene. Dennoch besit-
zen wir keine allgemein akzeptierte Definition des Kulturmanagements. Es ist nicht meine Absicht, die „Kultur“ näher zu erörtern, denn der Aufgabenbereich der Kulturarbeit in den Städten steht außer Frage. Ich möchte mich darauf konzentrieren, was genau dem Management in diesem speziellen Kultursegment unterliegt und was in hohem Maße von verschiedenen Konzeptionen des Wirtschaftens und dem gesellschaftlichen Umfeld abhängt. Kulturmanagement als akademische Disziplin ist im deutschen Hochschulwesen seit rund zwanzig Jahren ein Studiengang, in dem wissenschaftliche Titel erlangt werden können. Dies ist ein deutlicher Effekt und eine Voraussetzung der Professionalisierung eines differenzierten beruflichen Tätigkeitsfelds. Tatsächlich, die unmittelbare Wechselwirkung zwischen Theorie und Praxis ist ein unverzichtbares Element für die Professionalisierung eines Bereichs der Kultur in der Gesellschaft. Über einen langen Zeitraum hinweg war die Kultur ideologisch verstanden als Gegenbegriff zur Berufstätigkeit, und nach wie vor finden sich auf konservativer Seite Gegner einer Merkantilisierung der „gesamten“ Kultur. Das Kulturmanagement entwickelt sich auf zwei Ebenen: als akademische Disziplin und als Segment des Managements. [vgl. Klein, 2008] Im Hinblick auf diese beiden Aspekte ist das Kulturmanagement zwischen den Sozialwissenschaften, der Wirtschaft und der Kunst zu verorten. Es ist also von Natur aus interdisziplinär und umfasst ein breites Spektrum an Tätigkeiten, die sich auf das Management von Organisationen und die Kulturarbeit beziehen, die auf verschiedenen Ziele ausgerichtet sind wie Produktion, Distribution, Ausstellung und Erziehung. Dies betrifft alle Sektoren, profit-, non-profit- und
D
iskussionen über den Zusammenhang zwischen Kultur und Business werden seit jeher geführt. In den vergangenen Jahrzehnten haben sie jedoch an Intensität gewonnen. Seit dem Erscheinen von Richard Floridas Buch Die Entstehung der kreativen Klasse (Rise of the Creative Class, 2002) ist die Stadt ins Zentrum des Interesses gerückt, wann immer die kulturelle Entwicklung und die gesellschaftlichen Funktionen der Kultur erörtert werden.1 Nach Richard Florida existieren drei Faktoren, welche die Entwicklung in der postindustriellen Wirtschaft dieser Städte bedingen: Technologie, Talent und Toleranz. Diese Elemente kumulieren in einer neuen Konfiguration der Arbeitskraft, die Florida, die „kreative Klasse” nennt. Dabei handelt es sich um Wissenschaftler, Ingenieure, Architekten, Lehrer, Schriftsteller, Künstler, Vertreter der Unterhaltungsbranche. Ihre Rolle ist die Generierung neuer Ideen, Technologien und kreativer Inhalte. Floridas Kernthese besteht darin, dass die Wirtschaft sich ändert und die Kreativität zur wichtigsten Produktivkraft und Quelle des Fortschritts im 21. Jahrhundert wird. Die kreativen Berufe mehren sich und die Unternehmen sind darauf ausgerichtet, kreative Personen anzuziehen. Floridas urbane Botschaft besagt, dass es das Ziel der Städte, die Erfolge erzielen möchten, sein muss, kreative Personen anzuziehen. Wie auch andere Theoretiker formuliert Florida Annahmen, die die Strategie des Kulturmanagements als Schlüsselproblem im Wettbewerb zwischen den urbanen Zentren stützen, das heißt, den Städten (dies bezieht sich nicht auf Ballungsräume ohne ein Minimum an urbanen Ressourcen). Die Debatte verläuft sowohl auf der praktischen als auch auf der theoretischen Ebene. Dennoch besit-
Birgit-Katharine Seemann Historikerin und Fachbereichsleiterin für Kultur und Museum in Potsdam. Sie promovierte an der Universität Hamburg. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Kulturmanagement und Geschichte der europäischen Kulturpolitik.
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Birgit-Katharine Seemann Historikerin und Fachbereichsleiterin für Kultur und Museum in Potsdam. Sie promovierte an der Universität Hamburg. Ihr Forschungsbereich umfasst Kulturmanagement und Geschichte der europäischen Kulturpolitik.
Es ist nicht offensichtlich, dass urbane Zentren notwendig Kulturstandorte sein müssen. Früher hatten diese Rolle Institutionen wie Nation, Imperium, Kirche inne. Der Stadt als Produkt der Moderne wurde besondere Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt. Dies ist ein sehr „westlicher“ Blickpunkt, denn viele Megastädte in den Entwicklungsländern weichen weit ab von den Merkmalen, die wir mit der Stadt und dem städtischen Lebensraum assoziieren. Diese Merkmale der Stadt stellen jedoch das dar, was wir in unserem Kontext mit Kultur assoziieren.
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
1
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie
157
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Florida beschränkt den Wert der Kultur für die Stadt allein auf die ökonomische Dimension. Wenn das Kulturmanagement diesem Ansatz folgen soll, muss es der Erzeugung und Stimulation von Kultur als Faktor dienen, der die Stadt stärkt und ihr Wirtschaftspotenzial intensiviert. Das Szenario bilden die so genannten kreativen Industrien (creative industries). Bei näherem Hinsehen stellt sich Floridas Ansatz als zu oberflächlich heraus. Er ist auf längere Sicht nicht funktionell. Dennoch lassen sich kurzfristig positive Folgen erzielen durch Konzentration auf prestigeträchtige Kulturprojekte. Prestige ist von Natur aus an den Effekt gekoppelt. So zieht eine große Ausstellung oder ein Megakonzert mehr Touristen an. So dominieren die Funktionen des Brandings, des Marketings und der Public Relations über den Inhalt, ihre Konturen sind verschwommen und der kulturelle Kontext setzt einzig und allein wirtschaftliche Ziele. Aufgrund des steigenden Wettbewerbs zwischen den Städten wird die Kultur als Werkzeug (unter anderem) der globalen Positionierung gebraucht, als Aufruf an Unternehmen, Handel und begüterte Neubürger. So erhält die Kultur immer stärker ihre Legitimierung durch andere Zwecke; sie ist ein wirtschaftlicher Stimulator, ein Werkzeug, das das Image der Stadt verbessert oder eine Touristenattraktion. Alle diese Zwecke sind an und für sich nicht unberechtigt, aber in diesem Prozess besteht eine umgekehrt proportionale Relation zwischen Mittel und Zweck: Die Kultur verliert ihren ursprünglichen Wert und den sozialen
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Kontext. Viele deutsche Städte basieren auf einem Kulturmanagement, dass von den Stadtverwaltungen selbst initiiert und eingerichtet wurde, in der Regel als Resultante von Unternehmungen der Kultur- und der Stadtmarketingabteilungen. Einige deutsche Städte, zum Beispiel die Hauptstadt Berlin, richten spezielle Büros außerhalb der Maschine der Stadtverwaltung ein, die sich ausschließlich um das städtische Kulturmanagement kümmern. Nach Florida und anderen sollten die Städte: 1. die internen Prozesse der kohärenten Identifikation stärken, 2. eine Vorrangstellung im Wettbewerb mit anderen Städten erlangen, 3. ein besseres Image auf allen Regional-, Landes- und internationaler Ebenen schaffen, zum Beispiel als Kulturhauptstadt durch Implementierung eines effizienten Kulturmanagements. Auf internationaler Ebene hat sich dieser Prozess als idealer Ansatz zur Maximierung des wirtschaftlichen Werts der Kultur bewährt. Recht häufig jedoch verursacht die Bezuschussung von Veranstaltungen, die vom Kulturmanagement vorgeschlagen werden, höhere Kosten für den Steuerzahler als Nutzen für die Gesellschaft, während Gewinne nur Manager und Agenten erzielen. Die ökonomische Beschränkung der Kultur auf die Rolle eines Faktors kommunaler Einnahmen und einer Unterstützung für das Business macht sie zu einem Gerät der Gestaltung des äußeren Erscheinungsbilds im internationalen Wettbewerb der Städte, es schafft automatisch das ernste Problem der internen Position, denn die Repräsentation der Stadt nach außen bedeutet nicht unbedingt Nutzen für die Einwohnerschaft. Es ist also nicht verwunderlich, dass in vielen Städten ein Widerstand gegen diesen Trend zu verzeichnen ist, der häufig mit einer Kritik an der Gentrifikation einhergeht. Ein imposantes Beispiel für diese Protestbewegung war die Besetzung des Hamburger Gängeviertels durch Künstler im Sommer 2009. [Hausbesetzung mit Beifall] Eine Ursache für diesen Aufstand war der von der Stadtverwaltung geplante Verkauf dieses Geländes an einen Investor, der vorhatte, die alten Gebäude und ihre Umgebung durch neue Bebauung zu ersetzen. Die Initiative der Künstler fand so starke Unterstützung bei der Hamburger Einwohnerschaft, dass die Stadt ihr Vorhaben aufgeben musste. Heute wird dieses Gelände erneuert und für soziale und kulturelle Zwecke bestimmt. Es wird auch günstigen Wohn- und Gewerberaum bieten. [Gängeviertel] Die von den Künstlern geäußerte Kritik war zugleich ein Protest gegen die steigende Merkantilisierung der Kultur. Im „Hamburger Manifest“ lesen wir:
öffentliche Institutionen. Philanthropie karitatives Wirken und Kulturprojekte sind Felder, auf denen sich ein Wandel vollzieht. Diese Felder entlehnen Methoden, Vorgehensweisen und sogar Motive aus anderen Bereichen, je nach Bedürfnissen, die sich aus den utilitaristischen Vorgaben von Effizienz und Erfolg ergeben. [Deveraux, 2009, S. 155-169] Zuweilen widersetzen sie sich auch der utilitaristischen Herangehensweise. Ein von den städtischen Behörden als Rahmen verstandenes Kulturmanagement kann einen bedeutsamen Beitrag zur Entwicklung der städtischen Politik beitragen. Peter Bendixen erweitert den Begriff des Kulturmanagements auch in Bezug auf das Internet: Kulturmanagement bedeutet den physischen, kognitiven und ästhetischen Zugang des Publikums (zur Kultur – B.S.). Es ist eine Form der Gestaltung sozialer Milieus, das heißt des unmittelbaren Umfelds an den Tätigkeitsorten und der lokalen Gesellschaften, aber auch in gesellschaftlichen Gruppen, Szenarios, Netzwerken, Atmosphären; zuletzt im virtuellen Umfeld der elektronischen Internetöffentlichkeit. [Bendixen, 2007, S. 4]
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Kontext. Viele deutsche Städte basieren auf einem Kulturmanagement, dass von den Stadtverwaltungen selbst initiiert und eingerichtet wurde, in der Regel als Resultante von Unternehmungen der Kultur- und der Stadtmarketingabteilungen. Einige deutsche Städte, zum Beispiel die Hauptstadt Berlin, richten spezielle Büros außerhalb der Maschine der Stadtverwaltung ein, die sich ausschließlich um das städtische Kulturmanagement kümmern. Nach Florida und anderen sollten die Städte: 1. die internen Prozesse der kohärenten Identifikation stärken, 2. eine Vorrangstellung im Wettbewerb mit anderen Städten erlangen, 3. ein besseres Image auf allen Regional-, Landes- und internationaler Ebenen schaffen, zum Beispiel als Kulturhauptstadt durch Implementierung eines effizienten Kulturmanagements. Auf internationaler Ebene hat sich dieser Prozess als idealer Ansatz zur Maximierung des wirtschaftlichen Werts der Kultur bewährt. Recht häufig jedoch verursacht die Bezuschussung von Veranstaltungen, die vom Kulturmanagement vorgeschlagen werden, höhere Kosten für den Steuerzahler als Nutzen für die Gesellschaft, während Gewinne nur Manager und Agenten erzielen. Die ökonomische Beschränkung der Kultur auf die Rolle eines Faktors kommunaler Einnahmen und einer Unterstützung für das Business macht sie zu einem Gerät der Gestaltung des äußeren Erscheinungsbilds im internationalen Wettbewerb der Städte, es schafft automatisch das ernste Problem der internen Position, denn die Repräsentation der Stadt nach außen bedeutet nicht unbedingt Nutzen für die Einwohnerschaft. Es ist also nicht verwunderlich, dass in vielen Städten ein Widerstand gegen diesen Trend zu verzeichnen ist, der häufig mit einer Kritik an der Gentrifikation einhergeht. Ein imposantes Beispiel für diese Protestbewegung war die Besetzung des Hamburger Gängeviertels durch Künstler im Sommer 2009. [Hausbesetzung mit Beifall] Eine Ursache für diesen Aufstand war der von der Stadtverwaltung geplante Verkauf dieses Geländes an einen Investor, der vorhatte, die alten Gebäude und ihre Umgebung durch neue Bebauung zu ersetzen. Die Initiative der Künstler fand so starke Unterstützung bei der Hamburger Einwohnerschaft, dass die Stadt ihr Vorhaben aufgeben musste. Heute wird dieses Gelände erneuert und für soziale und kulturelle Zwecke bestimmt. Es wird auch günstigen Wohn- und Gewerberaum bieten. [Gängeviertel] Die von den Künstlern geäußerte Kritik war zugleich ein Protest gegen die steigende Merkantilisierung der Kultur. Im „Hamburger Manifest“ lesen wir:
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
Florida beschränkt den Wert der Kultur für die Stadt allein auf die ökonomische Dimension. Wenn das Kulturmanagement diesem Ansatz folgen soll, muss es der Erzeugung und Stimulation von Kultur als Faktor dienen, der die Stadt stärkt und ihr Wirtschaftspotenzial intensiviert. Das Szenario bilden die so genannten kreativen Industrien (creative industries). Bei näherem Hinsehen stellt sich Floridas Ansatz als zu oberflächlich heraus. Er ist auf längere Sicht nicht funktionell. Dennoch lassen sich kurzfristig positive Folgen erzielen durch Konzentration auf prestigeträchtige Kulturprojekte. Prestige ist von Natur aus an den Effekt gekoppelt. So zieht eine große Ausstellung oder ein Megakonzert mehr Touristen an. So dominieren die Funktionen des Brandings, des Marketings und der Public Relations über den Inhalt, ihre Konturen sind verschwommen und der kulturelle Kontext setzt einzig und allein wirtschaftliche Ziele. Aufgrund des steigenden Wettbewerbs zwischen den Städten wird die Kultur als Werkzeug (unter anderem) der globalen Positionierung gebraucht, als Aufruf an Unternehmen, Handel und begüterte Neubürger. So erhält die Kultur immer stärker ihre Legitimierung durch andere Zwecke; sie ist ein wirtschaftlicher Stimulator, ein Werkzeug, das das Image der Stadt verbessert oder eine Touristenattraktion. Alle diese Zwecke sind an und für sich nicht unberechtigt, aber in diesem Prozess besteht eine umgekehrt proportionale Relation zwischen Mittel und Zweck: Die Kultur verliert ihren ursprünglichen Wert und den sozialen
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie
öffentliche Institutionen. Philanthropie karitatives Wirken und Kulturprojekte sind Felder, auf denen sich ein Wandel vollzieht. Diese Felder entlehnen Methoden, Vorgehensweisen und sogar Motive aus anderen Bereichen, je nach Bedürfnissen, die sich aus den utilitaristischen Vorgaben von Effizienz und Erfolg ergeben. [Deveraux, 2009, S. 155-169] Zuweilen widersetzen sie sich auch der utilitaristischen Herangehensweise. Ein von den städtischen Behörden als Rahmen verstandenes Kulturmanagement kann einen bedeutsamen Beitrag zur Entwicklung der städtischen Politik beitragen. Peter Bendixen erweitert den Begriff des Kulturmanagements auch in Bezug auf das Internet: Kulturmanagement bedeutet den physischen, kognitiven und ästhetischen Zugang des Publikums (zur Kultur – B.S.). Es ist eine Form der Gestaltung sozialer Milieus, das heißt des unmittelbaren Umfelds an den Tätigkeitsorten und der lokalen Gesellschaften, aber auch in gesellschaftlichen Gruppen, Szenarios, Netzwerken, Atmosphären; zuletzt im virtuellen Umfeld der elektronischen Internetöffentlichkeit. [Bendixen, 2007, S. 4]
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
157
wird bereichert durch Einbeziehung zukünftiger Gruppen von Akteuren. Eine solche Herangehensweise könnte in den alten Hierarchien niemals zustandekommen. Sie wird nutzerorientiert sein, und die Nutzer sind die Bürger. Der Nutzer indes wird anders zu behandeln sein als ein Kunde oder Verbraucher. Die Inanspruchnahme der städtischen Kultur erfordert gewisse Fähigkeiten. Bisher jedoch sind die Möglichkeiten der teilhabe der Bürger an der der Beschlussfassung und der Überwachung sehr begrenzt. Das Kulturmanagement kann so zu einem Teil einer allgemeinen Reform werden, die den Bürgern eine gewisse Mitverantwortung überträgt, sofern diese sie annehmen wollen. Das neue Kulturmanagement erfüllt zugleich seine wirtschaftliche Rolle durch die Verbesserung der Effizienz und Produktivität bei der Nutzung der immer beschränkteren Ressourcen für die Umsetzung der wachsenden Bedürfnisse im immer differenzierter werdenden Spektrum der städtischen Kultur sowie die Stärkung ihrer Rolle in Management und Leitung. Transparenz, Qualitätssicherung und Kontrolle werden benötigt, um den Bürger zu versichern, dass seine Steuerabgaben gut angelegt sind; andererseits sollte das Kulturmanagement koordinieren und die Qualität verbessern, indem es die Bürger in eine breit angelegte Debatte und Partizipationsstrukturen miteinbezieht. Ein nicht leicht zu erreichendes Ziel ist die Einbindung von Marketinginstrumenten und komplexen Entscheidungsfindungsprozessen in die Kulturangelegenheiten, insbesondere auf städtischer Ebene. Es gilt, die Aufrechterhaltung des Bürgerengagements zu pflegen und sich auf einzelne Probleme zu konzentrieren. [Ebenda, S. 111] Ein solches Vorgehen marginalisiert nicht das wirtschaftliche Management oder das moderne Marketing, sondern stellt einen Bestandteil derselben dar und ist mit ihnen integriert, denn das Kulturmanagement kann nicht abgelöst von den kulturellen „Inhalten“ funktionieren und nicht missbraucht werden, um die Kultur auf die Funktion einer Ware zu reduzieren. Nichtsdestoweniger müssen wir auch die Frage der der Ausgaben für städtische Strategien erkennen, die allen Bürgern im Kulturbereich dienen sollen. Das Kulturmanagement sollte auch eine Achse für die Generierung von Einkünften sein – andernfalls wird die Kultur der erste Sektor sein, der von Kürzungen betroffen wird. Es besteht kein Zweifel, dass der Bedarf nach Begründung der Existenz von Kulturprogrammen stärker als in der Vergangenheit zum Vorschein tritt, als ausschließliche die Verwaltung darüber entschied, ob eine Institution erhalten oder ein Projekt fortgesetzt wird. Bei einer solchen Vielfalt der Bedürfnisse
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Seit der US-Ökonom Richard Florida vorgerechnet hat, dass nur die Städte prosperieren, in denen sich die „kreative Klasse“ wohlfühlt, konkurrieren viele europäische Metropolen heute darum, zum Ansiedlungsgebiet für diese „kreative Klasse“ zu werden. Für Hamburg hat die Konkurrenz der Standorte mittlerweile dazu geführt, dass sich die städtische Politik immer mehr einer „Image City“ unterordnet.“ [Hamburg: Manifest gegen Gentrification] Wenn man die innere Struktur der Städte betrachtet, sind viele Einwohner immer unzufriedener mit der Tatsache, dass ihre Kultur auf Touristenevents und große Projekte reduziert wird. Das gilt nicht nur für Europa, sondern auch für die Vereinigten Staaten. [Whyte, 2009] Die Bürger fordern, dass ihre kulturellen Bedürfnisse von der Stadt akzeptiert und anerkannt werden. Dies stellt eine Herausforderung für die städtischen Behörden dar, denn die Bedürfnisse der einheimischen Bevölkerung und touristische Projekte decken sich nicht unbedingt. Um beiden Bedürfnissen gerecht zu werden, müssen die Städte neue Prozesse der Teilnahme initiieren, die alle Interessierten einschließt. Eben hier liegt der richtige Platz für das Kulturmanagement: Es soll dabei helfen, eine kulturelle Atmosphäre zu schaffen, die bewirkt, dass es sich lohnt in der Stadt zu wohnen, und die außerdem Touristen und Unternehmen anlockt. Das ist ein komplexes Vorhaben, dass sich nicht mit herkömmlichen Methoden umsetzen lässt. Um dieser Herausforderung zu begegnen, bemühen sich viele Städte, das Kulturmanagement in ihre Strategien einzubeziehen. Sie schaffen partizipielle und inklusive Strukturen mit einem hohen Potenzial für die Erlangung integrativer und kohärenter Resultate. Die internen und externen Kräfte müssen auf synergische und nicht antagonistische Weise miteinander verbunden werden. Jedoch bedeutet dies einen ständigen Anpassungsprozess, denn es ist zu befürchten, dass sowohl innerhalb der internen und externen Interessen als auch zwischen ihnen permanent Konflikte auftreten. Bernd Wagner sieht in einem solchen Perspektivenwechsel den Übergang von einem staatsorientierten Kulturmanagement hin zu einem pluralistischen Kulturmanagement. [Wagner, 2006, S. 108] Selbstverständlich waren die städtischen Zentren und Behörden niemals eine niedrigere Stufe des „Staates“. Diese neuen Strukturen verwandeln die Stadtvertreter in mittelbare Akteure, die versuchen, kooperativen, horizontale Managementstrukturen anstelle der bisherigen Hierarchie zu schaffen. Natürlich bleibt die Kraft, die diese kulturellen Eigenschaften gestaltet, beibehalten, aber sie
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
158
wird bereichert durch Einbeziehung zukünftiger Gruppen von Akteuren. Eine solche Herangehensweise könnte in den alten Hierarchien niemals zustandekommen. Sie wird nutzerorientiert sein, und die Nutzer sind die Bürger. Der Nutzer indes wird anders zu behandeln sein als ein Kunde oder Verbraucher. Die Inanspruchnahme der städtischen Kultur erfordert gewisse Fähigkeiten. Bisher jedoch sind die Möglichkeiten der teilhabe der Bürger an der der Beschlussfassung und der Überwachung sehr begrenzt. Das Kulturmanagement kann so zu einem Teil einer allgemeinen Reform werden, die den Bürgern eine gewisse Mitverantwortung überträgt, sofern diese sie annehmen wollen. Das neue Kulturmanagement erfüllt zugleich seine wirtschaftliche Rolle durch die Verbesserung der Effizienz und Produktivität bei der Nutzung der immer beschränkteren Ressourcen für die Umsetzung der wachsenden Bedürfnisse im immer differenzierter werdenden Spektrum der städtischen Kultur sowie die Stärkung ihrer Rolle in Management und Leitung. Transparenz, Qualitätssicherung und Kontrolle werden benötigt, um den Bürger zu versichern, dass seine Steuerabgaben gut angelegt sind; andererseits sollte das Kulturmanagement koordinieren und die Qualität verbessern, indem es die Bürger in eine breit angelegte Debatte und Partizipationsstrukturen miteinbezieht. Ein nicht leicht zu erreichendes Ziel ist die Einbindung von Marketinginstrumenten und komplexen Entscheidungsfindungsprozessen in die Kulturangelegenheiten, insbesondere auf städtischer Ebene. Es gilt, die Aufrechterhaltung des Bürgerengagements zu pflegen und sich auf einzelne Probleme zu konzentrieren. [Ebenda, S. 111] Ein solches Vorgehen marginalisiert nicht das wirtschaftliche Management oder das moderne Marketing, sondern stellt einen Bestandteil derselben dar und ist mit ihnen integriert, denn das Kulturmanagement kann nicht abgelöst von den kulturellen „Inhalten“ funktionieren und nicht missbraucht werden, um die Kultur auf die Funktion einer Ware zu reduzieren. Nichtsdestoweniger müssen wir auch die Frage der der Ausgaben für städtische Strategien erkennen, die allen Bürgern im Kulturbereich dienen sollen. Das Kulturmanagement sollte auch eine Achse für die Generierung von Einkünften sein – andernfalls wird die Kultur der erste Sektor sein, der von Kürzungen betroffen wird. Es besteht kein Zweifel, dass der Bedarf nach Begründung der Existenz von Kulturprogrammen stärker als in der Vergangenheit zum Vorschein tritt, als ausschließliche die Verwaltung darüber entschied, ob eine Institution erhalten oder ein Projekt fortgesetzt wird. Bei einer solchen Vielfalt der Bedürfnisse
158
Seit der US-Ökonom Richard Florida vorgerechnet hat, dass nur die Städte prosperieren, in denen sich die „kreative Klasse“ wohlfühlt, konkurrieren viele europäische Metropolen heute darum, zum Ansiedlungsgebiet für diese „kreative Klasse“ zu werden. Für Hamburg hat die Konkurrenz der Standorte mittlerweile dazu geführt, dass sich die städtische Politik immer mehr einer „Image City“ unterordnet.“ [Hamburg: Manifest gegen Gentrification] Wenn man die innere Struktur der Städte betrachtet, sind viele Einwohner immer unzufriedener mit der Tatsache, dass ihre Kultur auf Touristenevents und große Projekte reduziert wird. Das gilt nicht nur für Europa, sondern auch für die Vereinigten Staaten. [Whyte, 2009] Die Bürger fordern, dass ihre kulturellen Bedürfnisse von der Stadt akzeptiert und anerkannt werden. Dies stellt eine Herausforderung für die städtischen Behörden dar, denn die Bedürfnisse der einheimischen Bevölkerung und touristische Projekte decken sich nicht unbedingt. Um beiden Bedürfnissen gerecht zu werden, müssen die Städte neue Prozesse der Teilnahme initiieren, die alle Interessierten einschließt. Eben hier liegt der richtige Platz für das Kulturmanagement: Es soll dabei helfen, eine kulturelle Atmosphäre zu schaffen, die bewirkt, dass es sich lohnt in der Stadt zu wohnen, und die außerdem Touristen und Unternehmen anlockt. Das ist ein komplexes Vorhaben, dass sich nicht mit herkömmlichen Methoden umsetzen lässt. Um dieser Herausforderung zu begegnen, bemühen sich viele Städte, das Kulturmanagement in ihre Strategien einzubeziehen. Sie schaffen partizipielle und inklusive Strukturen mit einem hohen Potenzial für die Erlangung integrativer und kohärenter Resultate. Die internen und externen Kräfte müssen auf synergische und nicht antagonistische Weise miteinander verbunden werden. Jedoch bedeutet dies einen ständigen Anpassungsprozess, denn es ist zu befürchten, dass sowohl innerhalb der internen und externen Interessen als auch zwischen ihnen permanent Konflikte auftreten. Bernd Wagner sieht in einem solchen Perspektivenwechsel den Übergang von einem staatsorientierten Kulturmanagement hin zu einem pluralistischen Kulturmanagement. [Wagner, 2006, S. 108] Selbstverständlich waren die städtischen Zentren und Behörden niemals eine niedrigere Stufe des „Staates“. Diese neuen Strukturen verwandeln die Stadtvertreter in mittelbare Akteure, die versuchen, kooperativen, horizontale Managementstrukturen anstelle der bisherigen Hierarchie zu schaffen. Natürlich bleibt die Kraft, die diese kulturellen Eigenschaften gestaltet, beibehalten, aber sie
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
gewinnen Verhandlungsprozesse an Gewicht. Die Planung bleibt nach wie vor an zentraler Stelle, aber nicht mehr ganz so im Mittelpunkt wie die traditionelle Entwicklungsplanung der Haushaltsbehörden. Die Einbeziehung des Bürgers bewirkt, dass die Auswirkungen weniger vorhersehbar sein werden als früher. Aber auch folgender Effekt ergibt sich: Da die Möglichkeit der Aufrechterhaltung Voraussetzung ist für ein stabiles und dynamisches Kulturumfeld, muss die Verantwortung der Bürger für die Priorität der Kultur gegenüber anderen städtischen Bedürfnissen und nicht nur für eine positive kulturelle Entwicklung gestärkt werden. Solche inklusive Strategien werden in einigen deutschen Städten erprobt: unter anderem in Dresden, in Oldenburg, Leipzig und Potsdam. [Dresden; Oldenburg; Leipzig; Potsdam] Über Prioritäten wird in Prozeduren diskutiert und entschieden, die Vertreter aus Politik und Verwaltung, Institutionen und Projekten wie natürlich auch die Bürger selbst umfassen. Sehr wichtig sind die Prinzipien, nach denen die Prozeduren implementiert werden sowie andere überzeugende Arten der Vermittlung. Die Prinzipien der Beteiligungsprozeduren sind entweder herkömmlich – Versammlungen, Foren, Zeugnisse – oder greifen auf moderne Informationsmittel zurück wie Internet oder Blog. Die Verbindung von virtuellen und tatsächlichen Kommunikationsprozessen scheint die beste Praxis zu sein. Die Planung von Kulturstrategien für Städte erfordert die Definition der folgenden Ziele und die Antwort auf Schlüsselfragen: Ziele und Effekte: 1. Inventarisierung und Analyse der Stärken und Schwächen des Ist-Zustands; 2. Erstellung von Vorgaben und Vorhaben; 3. Abstimmung zwischen allen Teilnehmern, 4. Partizipationsstrukturen, 5. maximale Transparenz. Es besteht ein Zusammenhang zwischen allen diesen Zielen, die sicherlich auf verschiedene Hindernisse in der Sozialstruktur einer jeden Gemeinschaft stoßen werden. So werden beispielsweise nicht alle Bürger am Diskurs teilnehmen wollen, aber beinahe jeder von ihnen bekommt die Folgen der Planung zu spüren. Ihr Recht auf Widerstand ist zu achten, auch wenn man sie wegen ihres geringen Engagements in den Entscheidungsprozess kritisieren mag. Es bestehen ebenfalls gewisse Einschränkungen, die von der begrenzten Autonomie der staatlichen Prärogativen unterworfenen städtischen Organe diktiert sind. Diese empirischen Aspekte können wir dennoch beiseitelassen, denn sie zeigen nur die Komplexität der Probleme auf, ohne an die Grundsätze zu rühren.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Leitfragen: 1. Wie sieht das Kulturprofil der Stadt aus und in welche Richtung wollen wir uns entwickeln? Zum Beispiel größeres Augenmerk auf die Jugend oder multikulturelle Gruppen, Frauen oder Klassenstrukturen. 2. Welche Potenziale und Abhängigkeiten können in den bestehenden Strukturen auftreten und wo lassen sie sich ändern? Das ist eine wichtige Frage, denn in vielen Fällen haben die bestehenden Strukturen eine stärkere Unterstützung als die innovative Suche nach neuen Bereichen. 3. Wie sind die funktionalen Prioritäten für unser Gesellschaft zu definieren? Diese Frage erfordert natürlich die raffiniertesten und beharrlichen Diskussionen: Von ihr sind alle Teile des sozialen Systems betroffen. Die Kulturstruktur der Stadt ist nicht offensichtlich. Ihre Entdeckung ist Teil des Planungsprozesses. 4. Wenn wir die Vision der Kulturstadt geschaffen haben, stellt sich die frage, was zu unternehmen ist, um diese Vision weiterzuentwickeln. Zu koordinieren sind interne und externe Entwicklung. Der Haushalt sollte sich nicht nur auf Investitionen und neue Projekte konzentrieren, sondern auch die Erhaltungs- und Erneuerungskosten berücksichtigen. Die Kriterien für den Abschluss von Programmen und Projekten müssen so klar definiert sein wie die Kriterien für etwaige neue Pläne. Kulturmanagement kann nur dann erfolgreich funktionieren, wenn die Teilnehmer es als integriertes Planungsmodell verstehen. Alle Teilnehmer sollten berücksichtigt werden. Dazu sind adäquate demokratische Partizipationsstrukturen zu schaffen. Nicht nur die Einbeziehung der Teilnehmer ist geboten, sondern auch eine funktionelle Differenzierung der städtischen, künstlerischen, sozialen etc. Institutionen muss bei der Planung der Struktur des Diskussionsprozesses berücksichtigt werden. Das, was dieses Schema von früheren Modellen unterscheidet, ist die Tatsache, dass die Planung sich nicht aus Institutionen ergibt, sondern direkt aus der städtischen Kulturlandschaft entspringt. Dies erfordert ein komplexes Kulturverständnis – sowie informierte und kompetente Bürger: Sie werden dadurch zu Teilnehmern. Wirtschaft und formelle Institutionen sollten Berücksichtigung finden, aber die Kultur kann nicht auf die Rolle ihres Gegenstands reduziert werden. Der städtische Diskurs reicht weit über das Modell der Kreativität als Mittel der ökonomischen Anlage hinaus. Er trägt in sich das humanistische Potenzial unserer Städte.
159
gewinnen Verhandlungsprozesse an Gewicht. Die Planung bleibt nach wie vor an zentraler Stelle, aber nicht mehr ganz so im Mittelpunkt wie die traditionelle Entwicklungsplanung der Haushaltsbehörden. Die Einbeziehung des Bürgers bewirkt, dass die Auswirkungen weniger vorhersehbar sein werden als früher. Aber auch folgender Effekt ergibt sich: Da die Möglichkeit der Aufrechterhaltung Voraussetzung ist für ein stabiles und dynamisches Kulturumfeld, muss die Verantwortung der Bürger für die Priorität der Kultur gegenüber anderen städtischen Bedürfnissen und nicht nur für eine positive kulturelle Entwicklung gestärkt werden. Solche inklusive Strategien werden in einigen deutschen Städten erprobt: unter anderem in Dresden, in Oldenburg, Leipzig und Potsdam. [Dresden; Oldenburg; Leipzig; Potsdam] Über Prioritäten wird in Prozeduren diskutiert und entschieden, die Vertreter aus Politik und Verwaltung, Institutionen und Projekten wie natürlich auch die Bürger selbst umfassen. Sehr wichtig sind die Prinzipien, nach denen die Prozeduren implementiert werden sowie andere überzeugende Arten der Vermittlung. Die Prinzipien der Beteiligungsprozeduren sind entweder herkömmlich – Versammlungen, Foren, Zeugnisse – oder greifen auf moderne Informationsmittel zurück wie Internet oder Blog. Die Verbindung von virtuellen und tatsächlichen Kommunikationsprozessen scheint die beste Praxis zu sein. Die Planung von Kulturstrategien für Städte erfordert die Definition der folgenden Ziele und die Antwort auf Schlüsselfragen: Ziele und Effekte: 1. Inventarisierung und Analyse der Stärken und Schwächen des Ist-Zustands; 2. Erstellung von Vorgaben und Vorhaben; 3. Abstimmung zwischen allen Teilnehmern, 4. Partizipationsstrukturen, 5. maximale Transparenz. Es besteht ein Zusammenhang zwischen allen diesen Zielen, die sicherlich auf verschiedene Hindernisse in der Sozialstruktur einer jeden Gemeinschaft stoßen werden. So werden beispielsweise nicht alle Bürger am Diskurs teilnehmen wollen, aber beinahe jeder von ihnen bekommt die Folgen der Planung zu spüren. Ihr Recht auf Widerstand ist zu achten, auch wenn man sie wegen ihres geringen Engagements in den Entscheidungsprozess kritisieren mag. Es bestehen ebenfalls gewisse Einschränkungen, die von der begrenzten Autonomie der staatlichen Prärogativen unterworfenen städtischen Organe diktiert sind. Diese empirischen Aspekte können wir dennoch beiseitelassen, denn sie zeigen nur die Komplexität der Probleme auf, ohne an die Grundsätze zu rühren.
159
Leitfragen: 1. Wie sieht das Kulturprofil der Stadt aus und in welche Richtung wollen wir uns entwickeln? Zum Beispiel größeres Augenmerk auf die Jugend oder multikulturelle Gruppen, Frauen oder Klassenstrukturen. 2. Welche Potenziale und Abhängigkeiten können in den bestehenden Strukturen auftreten und wo lassen sie sich ändern? Das ist eine wichtige Frage, denn in vielen Fällen haben die bestehenden Strukturen eine stärkere Unterstützung als die innovative Suche nach neuen Bereichen. 3. Wie sind die funktionalen Prioritäten für unser Gesellschaft zu definieren? Diese Frage erfordert natürlich die raffiniertesten und beharrlichen Diskussionen: Von ihr sind alle Teile des sozialen Systems betroffen. Die Kulturstruktur der Stadt ist nicht offensichtlich. Ihre Entdeckung ist Teil des Planungsprozesses. 4. Wenn wir die Vision der Kulturstadt geschaffen haben, stellt sich die frage, was zu unternehmen ist, um diese Vision weiterzuentwickeln. Zu koordinieren sind interne und externe Entwicklung. Der Haushalt sollte sich nicht nur auf Investitionen und neue Projekte konzentrieren, sondern auch die Erhaltungs- und Erneuerungskosten berücksichtigen. Die Kriterien für den Abschluss von Programmen und Projekten müssen so klar definiert sein wie die Kriterien für etwaige neue Pläne. Kulturmanagement kann nur dann erfolgreich funktionieren, wenn die Teilnehmer es als integriertes Planungsmodell verstehen. Alle Teilnehmer sollten berücksichtigt werden. Dazu sind adäquate demokratische Partizipationsstrukturen zu schaffen. Nicht nur die Einbeziehung der Teilnehmer ist geboten, sondern auch eine funktionelle Differenzierung der städtischen, künstlerischen, sozialen etc. Institutionen muss bei der Planung der Struktur des Diskussionsprozesses berücksichtigt werden. Das, was dieses Schema von früheren Modellen unterscheidet, ist die Tatsache, dass die Planung sich nicht aus Institutionen ergibt, sondern direkt aus der städtischen Kulturlandschaft entspringt. Dies erfordert ein komplexes Kulturverständnis – sowie informierte und kompetente Bürger: Sie werden dadurch zu Teilnehmern. Wirtschaft und formelle Institutionen sollten Berücksichtigung finden, aber die Kultur kann nicht auf die Rolle ihres Gegenstands reduziert werden. Der städtische Diskurs reicht weit über das Modell der Kreativität als Mittel der ökonomischen Anlage hinaus. Er trägt in sich das humanistische Potenzial unserer Städte.
160
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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Klein, A., Kompendium Kulturmanagement, München 2008. Wagner, B., Kulturentwicklungsplanung. Ein Überblick in historischer Perspektive, (in:) „Die Stadt von der Kultur her denken die Kultur von der Stadt her denken. Strategische Kulturpolitik als Element strategischer Kommunalpolitik“, Brinckmann, H., Richter, R., 2006.
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Richter, R., 2006. strategischer Kommunalpolitik“, Brinckmann, H., her denken. Strategische Kulturpolitik als Element der Kultur her denken die Kultur von der Stadt in historischer Perspektive, (in:) „Die Stadt von Wagner, B., Kulturentwicklungsplanung. Ein Überblick 2008. Klein, A., Kompendium Kulturmanagement, München
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Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management Małgorzata Ćwikła
D
as Interesse für kreatives Management ist eine natürliche Auswirkung der gesellschaftlichen Veränderungen, die in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten die Evolution von der Industriegesellschaft zur Postindustriegesellschaft bewirkt haben, David Bells Thesen zufolge hat sich der Übergang von der Produktionsgesellschaft zu einem Kapitalismus, der auf dem Umsatz von Informationen basiert, seinen deutlichen Ausdruck in einem Arbeitsmodell gefunden, bei dem die Mitarbeiter entweder ständig mit ihrem neu erworbenen Wissen operieren oder ausführende Dienstleistungen erbringen [Bell, 1994, S. 233]. In beiden Fällen wird besonderer Nachdruck auf die Kreation gelegt, die auch im Prozess der Herstellung von Alltagsgegenständen oder anderen Tätigkeiten steckt, die bisher als weit entfernt von kreativer Arbeit galten. Die Kumulation solcher Tendenzen schlägt sich besonders stark im Kulturschaffen nieder, das häufig nicht in der Lage ist, den ökonomischen Veränderungen zu folgen und viele Jahre zur Anpassung benötigt [Sadler, 1997, S. 7]. Zuweilen stellt sich die Situation aber auch umgekehrt dar. Neugier und Mut beim Ausprobieren neuer Wege für die Kultur können zur Entdeckung innovativer Managementmodelle führen. Ein Beispiel hierfür ist die Mode der Revitalisierung stillgelegter Industrieflächen für die Belange der Kunst. Berechtigt erscheint hierbei die Feststellung, dass es hinsichtlich zweier Prozesse der Gegenwart – einerseits des Drangs
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
nach Entdeckung des postindustriellen Erbes und andererseits des Augenmerks auf kreative Ansätze im Management – auf dem Feld der Kultur zu einer interessanten Symbiose kommt. Die seit vielen Jahren zu bemerkende Synchronisierung dieser beiden Phänomene hat dazu geführt, dass Kulturzentren alte Fabriken und Werkstätten beleben, durch interessante Ideen zu Kultorten werden und besser als traditionelle Institutionen den Erwartungen und Bedürfnissen des modernen Empfängers entgegenkommen. In diesem Artikel werden die Faktoren besprochen, die eine kreative Entwicklung von Organisationen stimulieren, die auf postindustriellen Flächen arbeiten, unter Aufzeigung einiger charakteristischer Eigenschaften, die eine erfolgreiche Entwicklung im Dickicht der Kulturproduktion ermöglichen.
Die Fundamente der Arbeit
D
ie Entdeckung von stillgelegten Industriegebäuden und -flächen ist keine neuer oder nur für den Kulturbereich kennzeichnender Prozess. Die verbreitete Mode der Adaption solcher Räume für Geschäfts- oder Wohnzwecke dauert seit längerem an und gehört zu der Stadtlandschaft, die durch und für die so genannte kreative Klasse geschaffen wird. Diesen Begriff prägte Richard Florida, der präzise die kreativen Berufe bestimmte, die nicht unbedingt mit künstlerischer Arbeit
161
Małgorzata Ćwikła sie absolvierte Polonistik an der Universität Breslau. Sie arbeitete u.a. im Theater Hebbel am Ufer in Berlin, in der Internationalen Kulturfabrik Kampnagel in Hamburg und im Dramatischen Theater in Warszawa. 2008/2009 war sie Stipendiatin der Robert Bosch Stiftung im Rahmen des Programms Kulturmanager aus Mittel- und Osteuropa. 2010 machte sie ein Praktikum an der Polnischen Botschaft in Sarajevo.
as Interesse für kreatives Management ist eine natürliche Auswirkung der gesellschaftlichen Veränderungen, die in den vergangenen Jahrzehnten die Evolution von der Industriegesellschaft zur Postindustriegesellschaft bewirkt haben, David Bells Thesen zufolge hat sich der Übergang von der Produktionsgesellschaft zu einem Kapitalismus, der auf dem Umsatz von Informationen basiert, seinen deutlichen Ausdruck in einem Arbeitsmodell gefunden, bei dem die Mitarbeiter entweder ständig mit ihrem neu erworbenen Wissen operieren oder ausführende Dienstleistungen erbringen [Bell, 1994, S. 233]. In beiden Fällen wird besonderer Nachdruck auf die Kreation gelegt, die auch im Prozess der Herstellung von Alltagsgegenständen oder anderen Tätigkeiten steckt, die bisher als weit entfernt von kreativer Arbeit galten. Die Kumulation solcher Tendenzen schlägt sich besonders stark im Kulturschaffen nieder, das häufig nicht in der Lage ist, den ökonomischen Veränderungen zu folgen und viele Jahre zur Anpassung benötigt [Sadler, 1997, S. 7]. Zuweilen stellt sich die Situation aber auch umgekehrt dar. Neugier und Mut beim Ausprobieren neuer Wege für die Kultur können zur Entdeckung innovativer Managementmodelle führen. Ein Beispiel hierfür ist die Mode der Revitalisierung stillgelegter Industrieflächen für die Belange der Kunst. Berechtigt erscheint hierbei die Feststellung, dass es hinsichtlich zweier Prozesse der Gegenwart – einerseits des Drangs
D
Małgorzata Ćwikła
ie Entdeckung von stillgelegten Industriegebäuden und -flächen ist keine neuer oder nur für den Kulturbereich kennzeichnender Prozess. Die verbreitete Mode der Adaption solcher Räume für Geschäfts- oder Wohnzwecke dauert seit längerem an und gehört zu der Stadtlandschaft, die durch und für die so genannte kreative Klasse geschaffen wird. Diesen Begriff prägte Richard Florida, der präzise die kreativen Berufe bestimmte, die nicht unbedingt mit künstlerischer Arbeit
D
Die Fundamente der Arbeit nach Entdeckung des postindustriellen Erbes und andererseits des Augenmerks auf kreative Ansätze im Management – auf dem Feld der Kultur zu einer interessanten Symbiose kommt. Die seit vielen Jahren zu bemerkende Synchronisierung dieser beiden Phänomene hat dazu geführt, dass Kulturzentren alte Fabriken und Werkstätten beleben, durch interessante Ideen zu Kultorten werden und besser als traditionelle Institutionen den Erwartungen und Bedürfnissen des modernen Empfängers entgegenkommen. In diesem Artikel werden die Faktoren besprochen, die eine kreative Entwicklung von Organisationen stimulieren, die auf postindustriellen Flächen arbeiten, unter Aufzeigung einiger charakteristischer Eigenschaften, die eine erfolgreiche Entwicklung im Dickicht der Kulturproduktion ermöglichen.
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management
Małgorzata Ćwikła sie absolvierte Polonistik an der Universität Breslau. Sie arbeitete u.a. im Theater Hebbel am Ufer in Berlin, in der Internationalen Kulturfabrik Kampnagel in Hamburg und im Dramatischen Theater in Warszawa. 2008/2009 war sie Stipendiatin der Robert Bosch Stiftung im Rahmen des Programms Kulturmanager aus Mittel- und Osteuropa. 2010 machte sie ein Praktikum an der Polnischen Botschaft in Sarajevo.
162
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
ist. Aufgrund der Besonderheiten der Kulturarbeit betrifft diese Rentabilität nicht konkrete finanzielle Gewinne und kann zum heutigen Zeitpunkt eine selbstständige Existenz nicht garantieren. Sie ist jedoch wesentlich in den Bereichen Bildung, Gesellschaft und Entwicklung, da die Notwendigkeit der Anpassung an untypische Bedingungen zu zahlreichen Innovationen, zum Ausprobieren neuer Lösungen führen kann. Vielleicht werden in weiterer Perspektive solche Einrichtungen optimale Modelle des Funktionierens als autarke Institutionen erarbeiten, die auch den traditionelleren Kulturzentren adäquat sind. Heute unterscheiden sich diese beiden Typen noch wesentlich, was bei den einen zur Stagnation führt, bei den anderen jedoch kreative Kräfte freisetzt.
in Faktor, der sich auf das kreative Denken auswirkt, ist die Freiheit bei der Suche nach neuen Lösungen und eine Mäßigung bei der Benutzung des logischen Denkens. Ein anderer wichtiger Bestandteil, der aber am meisten Angst hervorruft, ist die Veränderung [Proctor, 1998, S. 36]. Vielleicht trennt in Polen eben deshalb ein so großer Abgrund die traditionellen und die neu entstandenen Kultureinrichtungen. Letztere reagieren auf natürliche Weise auf die schnellen Veränderungen der Gegenwart. Die „verwurzelten“ Einrichtungen hingegen sind in den meisten Fällen mit einer Schutzmauer ausgestattet, an der alle Neuheiten abprallen, während sie sich hartnäckig gegen äußere Einflüsse wehren. Die zahlreichen postkommunistischen Hinterlassenschaften erleichtern die Arbeit und die Annahme von Herausforderungen nicht. Für die Mitarbeiter der jungen Kulturinstitutionen stellen sie dagegen schon keinen Bezugspunkt mehr dar, weshalb sie ihre Energie in zukunftsträchtige Projekte investieren können. Interessanterweise finden in postindustriellen Räumen in der Regel solche Institutionen einen Unterschlupf, die aus der alternativen Kultur mit ihrem oftmals chaotischen Image und Handeln stammen. Dabei stellt sich jedoch heraus, dass dieses Freidenkertum, das sich langsam ins Kulturmanagement einschleicht, in der ersten Phase den Prozess der kreativen Arbeit verbessern und zur Entstehung der besten Einfälle führen kann. Die Schwierigkeit beruht darauf, im richtigen Moment zu reagieren und so vorzugehen, dass man von der „lockereren“ Atmosphäre in der Organisation profitiert und gleichzeitig effizient und professionell bleibt. Nur dann kann man sich am Markt „halten“ und etwas Neues ausprobieren.
Funktionsweisen
E
E
Funktionsweisen
in Faktor, der sich auf das kreative Denken auswirkt, ist die Freiheit bei der Suche nach neuen Lösungen und eine Mäßigung bei der Benutzung des logischen Denkens. Ein anderer wichtiger Bestandteil, der aber am meisten Angst hervorruft, ist die Veränderung [Proctor, 1998, S. 36]. Vielleicht trennt in Polen eben deshalb ein so großer Abgrund die traditionellen und die neu entstandenen Kultureinrichtungen. Letztere reagieren auf natürliche Weise auf die schnellen Veränderungen der Gegenwart. Die „verwurzelten“ Einrichtungen hingegen sind in den meisten Fällen mit einer Schutzmauer ausgestattet, an der alle Neuheiten abprallen, während sie sich hartnäckig gegen äußere Einflüsse wehren. Die zahlreichen postkommunistischen Hinterlassenschaften erleichtern die Arbeit und die Annahme von Herausforderungen nicht. Für die Mitarbeiter der jungen Kulturinstitutionen stellen sie dagegen schon keinen Bezugspunkt mehr dar, weshalb sie ihre Energie in zukunftsträchtige Projekte investieren können. Interessanterweise finden in postindustriellen Räumen in der Regel solche Institutionen einen Unterschlupf, die aus der alternativen Kultur mit ihrem oftmals chaotischen Image und Handeln stammen. Dabei stellt sich jedoch heraus, dass dieses Freidenkertum, das sich langsam ins Kulturmanagement einschleicht, in der ersten Phase den Prozess der kreativen Arbeit verbessern und zur Entstehung der besten Einfälle führen kann. Die Schwierigkeit beruht darauf, im richtigen Moment zu reagieren und so vorzugehen, dass man von der „lockereren“ Atmosphäre in der Organisation profitiert und gleichzeitig effizient und professionell bleibt. Nur dann kann man sich am Markt „halten“ und etwas Neues ausprobieren.
162
ist. Aufgrund der Besonderheiten der Kulturarbeit betrifft diese Rentabilität nicht konkrete finanzielle Gewinne und kann zum heutigen Zeitpunkt eine selbstständige Existenz nicht garantieren. Sie ist jedoch wesentlich in den Bereichen Bildung, Gesellschaft und Entwicklung, da die Notwendigkeit der Anpassung an untypische Bedingungen zu zahlreichen Innovationen, zum Ausprobieren neuer Lösungen führen kann. Vielleicht werden in weiterer Perspektive solche Einrichtungen optimale Modelle des Funktionierens als autarke Institutionen erarbeiten, die auch den traditionelleren Kulturzentren adäquat sind. Heute unterscheiden sich diese beiden Typen noch wesentlich, was bei den einen zur Stagnation führt, bei den anderen jedoch kreative Kräfte freisetzt.
verbunden sind, sondern eher mit der Suche nach neuen Wegen für die Entwicklung verschiedener Bereiche und Berufsfelder, von den Medien bis zum Management [Florida, 2002, s. 68]. Die Vertreter dieser kreativen Klasse gruppieren sich in Städten, die verschiedene Kriterien erfüllen: Sie sind offen, besitzen eine vielfältige ethnische Bevölkerungsstruktur und sind sich ihrer Geschichte bewusst. Deshalb ist bei der Betrachtung der von Florida und seinen Mitarbeitern erstellten Liste der entsprechenden Städte eine klare Analogie erkennbar: Sie alle greifen auf ihre postindustriellen Spuren zurück und verwandeln diese in Orte mit neuen Funktionen. Der Raum wird einer Transformation unterzogen, die an die wachsenden Erwartungen der Einwohner angepasst ist. Postindustrielle Objekte befinden sich dabei keineswegs nur in urbanen Gebieten. Dennoch soll in den folgenden Ausführungen der Schwerpunkt auf die Situation gelegt werden. Natürlich wäre es wichtig, auch eine Studie über die kleineren Siedlungseinheiten vorzulegen, was jedoch weiterer, eingehender Untersuchungen bedarf. Das Potenzial des postindustriellen Erbes ist auch aus einem anderen Grund von Vertretern aus Technik und Ökonomie erkannt worden. Nicht immer stand dieses Interesse in Übereinstimmung mit der Position der Verteidiger dieser Art von Objekten. In Deutschland etwa waren noch Anfang 2009 viele alte Fabriken, Bergwerke und Hütten vom Abriss bedroht, da es sich aufgrund der Schrottpreise für die Besitzer mehr lohnte, die Gebäude abzutragen und die Kosten dafür durch den Verkauf der verwertbaren Materialien zu decken [http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?module=html01pages&func=display&p id=159]. Paradoxerweise hat ein scheinbar weit außerhalb des Kulturbereichs liegender Umstand wie der Rückgang der Preise für Metallabfälle in den letzten Monaten diese Pläne unrentabel gemacht. Gleichzeitig ist zu betonen, dass in bestimmten Fällen ein Abriss billiger ist als Renovierungsarbeiten. Denkmalgeschützte Objekte müssen auf eine genau bestimmte Art und Weise instandgesetzt werden, was natürlich Kosten generiert. Es sind übrigens eben die enormen Kosten für die funktionelle Diversifikation der ehemaligen Fabriken, die den Enthusiasmus für die Belebung der postindustriellen Landschaften dämpfen. Neben den Umbauarbeiten ist vor allem der Unterhalt der großen Fertigungshallen kostspielig. Auch die gesetzlichen Regelungen und Normen für Institutionen, die Massenveranstaltungen durchführen, sind zu beachten. Den sich auftürmenden Schwierigkeiten zum Trotz stellt es sich heraus, dass die Annahme derartiger Herausforderungen in vielen Fällen durchaus rentabel
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
verbunden sind, sondern eher mit der Suche nach neuen Wegen für die Entwicklung verschiedener Bereiche und Berufsfelder, von den Medien bis zum Management [Florida, 2002, s. 68]. Die Vertreter dieser kreativen Klasse gruppieren sich in Städten, die verschiedene Kriterien erfüllen: Sie sind offen, besitzen eine vielfältige ethnische Bevölkerungsstruktur und sind sich ihrer Geschichte bewusst. Deshalb ist bei der Betrachtung der von Florida und seinen Mitarbeitern erstellten Liste der entsprechenden Städte eine klare Analogie erkennbar: Sie alle greifen auf ihre postindustriellen Spuren zurück und verwandeln diese in Orte mit neuen Funktionen. Der Raum wird einer Transformation unterzogen, die an die wachsenden Erwartungen der Einwohner angepasst ist. Postindustrielle Objekte befinden sich dabei keineswegs nur in urbanen Gebieten. Dennoch soll in den folgenden Ausführungen der Schwerpunkt auf die Situation gelegt werden. Natürlich wäre es wichtig, auch eine Studie über die kleineren Siedlungseinheiten vorzulegen, was jedoch weiterer, eingehender Untersuchungen bedarf. Das Potenzial des postindustriellen Erbes ist auch aus einem anderen Grund von Vertretern aus Technik und Ökonomie erkannt worden. Nicht immer stand dieses Interesse in Übereinstimmung mit der Position der Verteidiger dieser Art von Objekten. In Deutschland etwa waren noch Anfang 2009 viele alte Fabriken, Bergwerke und Hütten vom Abriss bedroht, da es sich aufgrund der Schrottpreise für die Besitzer mehr lohnte, die Gebäude abzutragen und die Kosten dafür durch den Verkauf der verwertbaren Materialien zu decken [http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?module=html01pages&func=display&p id=159]. Paradoxerweise hat ein scheinbar weit außerhalb des Kulturbereichs liegender Umstand wie der Rückgang der Preise für Metallabfälle in den letzten Monaten diese Pläne unrentabel gemacht. Gleichzeitig ist zu betonen, dass in bestimmten Fällen ein Abriss billiger ist als Renovierungsarbeiten. Denkmalgeschützte Objekte müssen auf eine genau bestimmte Art und Weise instandgesetzt werden, was natürlich Kosten generiert. Es sind übrigens eben die enormen Kosten für die funktionelle Diversifikation der ehemaligen Fabriken, die den Enthusiasmus für die Belebung der postindustriellen Landschaften dämpfen. Neben den Umbauarbeiten ist vor allem der Unterhalt der großen Fertigungshallen kostspielig. Auch die gesetzlichen Regelungen und Normen für Institutionen, die Massenveranstaltungen durchführen, sind zu beachten. Den sich auftürmenden Schwierigkeiten zum Trotz stellt es sich heraus, dass die Annahme derartiger Herausforderungen in vielen Fällen durchaus rentabel
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Nicht weniger wichtig ist das Verständnis für die Besonderheit des Raums, der einen großen Einfluss auf die Perzeption der Stadt und der in ihr entstehenden Relationen hat. Ewa Rewers analysiert die Problematik moderner Metropolen und stellt fest: „Die postmoderne und gleichzeitig postnihilistische Epoche, deren Kommen Heidegger erwartete, hat Gestalt angenommen in der reflexiven, postindustriellen Moderne, die ein Bewohnen immer komplizierter und abhängig von technologischen Innovationen macht“ [Rewers, 2005, S. 235]. Diese Neuheiten des Ingenieurwesens sind notwendig in der europäischen postindustriellen Konvergenz. Sie schaffen eine Wohn- und Arbeitsumgebung und wirken sich zusätzlich auf das Modell der Freizeitgestaltung und die Wahl des Unterhaltungsprogramms aus. Dank der technischen Entwicklung war das Ende der Epoche der Schwerindustrie möglich und später die Adaptierung ihres Erbes an die heutigen Bedürfnisse – die in allen Ecken Europas unterstützte zweite Jugendblüte der Fabrik. Den augenfälligen Übereinstimmungen zum Trotz erscheint die allgemeine Mode für die Inwertsetzung und Revitalisierung ehemaliger Industrieobjekte unter dem Aspekt der Globalisierung dennoch komplexer. Erkennbar ist ein Unterschied zwischen West- und Osteuropa, aber auch zwischen typischen Industriestädten und solchen mit einem anderen Profil. Von erheblicher Bedeutung ist dazu die Lage des jeweiligen Gebäudes (in aller Regel in urbaner Randlage), was sich in hohem Maße auf die Festlegung des Tätigkeitsbereichs auswirkt. Mit solchen Geländen beschäftigt sich das in Polen und Deutschland tätige Institut für neue Industriekultur. Manager, die ehemalige Industrieobjekte wiederbeleben, sind mit einem grundsätzlichen Problem des heutigen Kulturbetriebs konfrontiert – der Notwendigkeit des Wettbewerbs um das Publikum mit den modernen Medien. Der erwähnte technologische Fortschritt hat gewisse Innovationen ermöglicht, gleichzeitig wurde der Schwerpunkt des gesellschaftlichen Lebens verschoben, das, gestützt auf die elektronische Kommunikation, immer anonymer wird und sich immer weiter von der früheren Tradition der unmittelbaren Teilnahme an Ereignissen entfernt. Alvin Toffler zufolge blieb von der agrarischen Epoche (der ersten Welle der Entwicklung der Menschheit), über die industrielle Epoche (zweite Welle) bis zur postindustriellen Epoche (dritte Welle) stets das folgende Modell der Bindung der Mitarbeiter aktuell: HAUS: DOM –> FABRIK –> HAUS [Toffler, 2006, S. 177]. Gemäß dieser Feststellung muss man bei der Führung einer Kulturinstitution in einer alten Fabrik in gewisser Weise in
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Opposition zur geltenden Gesellschaftsordnung stehen und die Menschen – zur Teilnahme am dort organisierten Kulturleben – wieder in die Fabriken zurückführen. Das heutige Übergewicht der Telekommunikation über die Beförderungsmittel erschwert diese Aufgabe natürlich. Eine Lösung in dieser Lage kann natürlich eine kostenlose Bereitstellung von Verkehrsmitteln von den zentral gelegenen Punkten der Stadt zu den peripher gelegenen Kulturinstitutionen und zurück sein. So etwas wird im Übrigen immer häufiger angeboten. So wird zum Beispiel d das vom Breslauer Teatr Polski produzierte Stück Das gelobte Land unter der Regie von Jan Klata im alten Pumpwerk Świątniki aufgeführt. Das Publikum gelangt mit speziellen Busverbindungen zum Ort des Geschehens, was dem Theaterbesuch einen zusätzlichen Charakter verleiht. Ein besonders wesentliches Element der Arbeit in Kulturzentren in den „weniger angesagten“ Stadtvierteln ist die Notwendigkeit der Generierung von zwei unterschiedlichen Arten von Publikum. Einerseits ist mit der lokalen Bevölkerung der Vororte zu rechnen, die in der Regel weniger Interesse an Kunstaktionen zeigt. Dies ist eine Folge der früheren Stadtplanung, bei der den einzelnen Stadtteilen unterschiedliche Funktionen zugeteilt wurden, die sich erst in letzter Zeit infolge einer gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Gentrifizierung zu ändern und zu „wandern“ beginnen. Ein Beispiel für diesen Prozess ist das heutige Berlin. Um jedoch auf der kulturellen Landkarte der Stadt bestehen zu können, müssen andererseits Veranstaltungen mit einem breiteren Echo angeboten werden, am besten mit landesweiter Bedeutung. Bei einem Überblick über das Repertoire solcher Kulturzentren lässt sich eine bestimmte Tendenz erkennen: Im Alltag richtet sich das Angebot stärker an die lokale Bevölkerung; besondere Berücksichtigung findet auch der didaktische Aspekt. Weit im Voraus werden hingegen die größeren Events vorbereitet, die das Publikum mit bekannten Namen (insbesondere bei Konzerten) oder einer attraktiven Idee (innovative Festivals) anziehen sollen. In diesem Zusammenhang erscheinen die Klagen der großen staatlichen Theater über fehlendes Publikum doch recht übertrieben. Sie signalisieren wohl eher ein falsches Herantreten an den heutigen Zuschauer, der von einem enormen Angebot verwöhnt ist, wodurch er launisch wird und erwartet, dass man sich um seine Gunst bemüht. Natürlich sind peripher gelegene Kultureinrichtungen trotz besten Willens und kreativer Lösungen immer im Nachteil gegenüber den im Stadtzentrum gelegenen, die auch mit spontan entscheidenden Besuchern rechnen können. Mit Sicherheit aus diesem Grund
163
Nicht weniger wichtig ist das Verständnis für die Besonderheit des Raums, der einen großen Einfluss auf die Perzeption der Stadt und der in ihr entstehenden Relationen hat. Ewa Rewers analysiert die Problematik moderner Metropolen und stellt fest: „Die postmoderne und gleichzeitig postnihilistische Epoche, deren Kommen Heidegger erwartete, hat Gestalt angenommen in der reflexiven, postindustriellen Moderne, die ein Bewohnen immer komplizierter und abhängig von technologischen Innovationen macht“ [Rewers, 2005, S. 235]. Diese Neuheiten des Ingenieurwesens sind notwendig in der europäischen postindustriellen Konvergenz. Sie schaffen eine Wohn- und Arbeitsumgebung und wirken sich zusätzlich auf das Modell der Freizeitgestaltung und die Wahl des Unterhaltungsprogramms aus. Dank der technischen Entwicklung war das Ende der Epoche der Schwerindustrie möglich und später die Adaptierung ihres Erbes an die heutigen Bedürfnisse – die in allen Ecken Europas unterstützte zweite Jugendblüte der Fabrik. Den augenfälligen Übereinstimmungen zum Trotz erscheint die allgemeine Mode für die Inwertsetzung und Revitalisierung ehemaliger Industrieobjekte unter dem Aspekt der Globalisierung dennoch komplexer. Erkennbar ist ein Unterschied zwischen West- und Osteuropa, aber auch zwischen typischen Industriestädten und solchen mit einem anderen Profil. Von erheblicher Bedeutung ist dazu die Lage des jeweiligen Gebäudes (in aller Regel in urbaner Randlage), was sich in hohem Maße auf die Festlegung des Tätigkeitsbereichs auswirkt. Mit solchen Geländen beschäftigt sich das in Polen und Deutschland tätige Institut für neue Industriekultur. Manager, die ehemalige Industrieobjekte wiederbeleben, sind mit einem grundsätzlichen Problem des heutigen Kulturbetriebs konfrontiert – der Notwendigkeit des Wettbewerbs um das Publikum mit den modernen Medien. Der erwähnte technologische Fortschritt hat gewisse Innovationen ermöglicht, gleichzeitig wurde der Schwerpunkt des gesellschaftlichen Lebens verschoben, das, gestützt auf die elektronische Kommunikation, immer anonymer wird und sich immer weiter von der früheren Tradition der unmittelbaren Teilnahme an Ereignissen entfernt. Alvin Toffler zufolge blieb von der agrarischen Epoche (der ersten Welle der Entwicklung der Menschheit), über die industrielle Epoche (zweite Welle) bis zur postindustriellen Epoche (dritte Welle) stets das folgende Modell der Bindung der Mitarbeiter aktuell: HAUS: DOM –> FABRIK –> HAUS [Toffler, 2006, S. 177]. Gemäß dieser Feststellung muss man bei der Führung einer Kulturinstitution in einer alten Fabrik in gewisser Weise in
163
Opposition zur geltenden Gesellschaftsordnung stehen und die Menschen – zur Teilnahme am dort organisierten Kulturleben – wieder in die Fabriken zurückführen. Das heutige Übergewicht der Telekommunikation über die Beförderungsmittel erschwert diese Aufgabe natürlich. Eine Lösung in dieser Lage kann natürlich eine kostenlose Bereitstellung von Verkehrsmitteln von den zentral gelegenen Punkten der Stadt zu den peripher gelegenen Kulturinstitutionen und zurück sein. So etwas wird im Übrigen immer häufiger angeboten. So wird zum Beispiel d das vom Breslauer Teatr Polski produzierte Stück Das gelobte Land unter der Regie von Jan Klata im alten Pumpwerk Świątniki aufgeführt. Das Publikum gelangt mit speziellen Busverbindungen zum Ort des Geschehens, was dem Theaterbesuch einen zusätzlichen Charakter verleiht. Ein besonders wesentliches Element der Arbeit in Kulturzentren in den „weniger angesagten“ Stadtvierteln ist die Notwendigkeit der Generierung von zwei unterschiedlichen Arten von Publikum. Einerseits ist mit der lokalen Bevölkerung der Vororte zu rechnen, die in der Regel weniger Interesse an Kunstaktionen zeigt. Dies ist eine Folge der früheren Stadtplanung, bei der den einzelnen Stadtteilen unterschiedliche Funktionen zugeteilt wurden, die sich erst in letzter Zeit infolge einer gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen Gentrifizierung zu ändern und zu „wandern“ beginnen. Ein Beispiel für diesen Prozess ist das heutige Berlin. Um jedoch auf der kulturellen Landkarte der Stadt bestehen zu können, müssen andererseits Veranstaltungen mit einem breiteren Echo angeboten werden, am besten mit landesweiter Bedeutung. Bei einem Überblick über das Repertoire solcher Kulturzentren lässt sich eine bestimmte Tendenz erkennen: Im Alltag richtet sich das Angebot stärker an die lokale Bevölkerung; besondere Berücksichtigung findet auch der didaktische Aspekt. Weit im Voraus werden hingegen die größeren Events vorbereitet, die das Publikum mit bekannten Namen (insbesondere bei Konzerten) oder einer attraktiven Idee (innovative Festivals) anziehen sollen. In diesem Zusammenhang erscheinen die Klagen der großen staatlichen Theater über fehlendes Publikum doch recht übertrieben. Sie signalisieren wohl eher ein falsches Herantreten an den heutigen Zuschauer, der von einem enormen Angebot verwöhnt ist, wodurch er launisch wird und erwartet, dass man sich um seine Gunst bemüht. Natürlich sind peripher gelegene Kultureinrichtungen trotz besten Willens und kreativer Lösungen immer im Nachteil gegenüber den im Stadtzentrum gelegenen, die auch mit spontan entscheidenden Besuchern rechnen können. Mit Sicherheit aus diesem Grund
wählen die abgelegenen Kultureinrichtungen andere Marketingstrategien. Deutlich wird dies in den grafischen Materialien. Die traditionellen Einrichtungen bleiben seit Jahren einem Muster ihrer Drucke treu, während die innovativen Organisationen, nicht nur an postindustriellen Standorten, sich durch visuell anziehende Reklame zu übertrumpfen suchen und alle möglichen Kommunikationskanäle des Internets nutzen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der sozialen Netzwerke.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kulturausschreibungen
164
I
nfolge des polnischen Beitritts zur Europäischen Union haben sich für die Kultur neue Finanzierungsmöglichkeiten eröffnet. Die Beantragung von Zuschüssen und die fieberhafte Einhaltung der Abrechnungsfristen sind alltäglich geworden, wie auch die Tatsache der Durchführung zahlreicher Projekte mit ausländischen Partnern. Ein wichtiges Element eines jeden Zuschussantrags ist die Fähigkeit der „Anpassung“ an die Erwartungen des jeweiligen Geldgebers. Voraussetzungen für den Erfolg sind also in diesem Fall die kreative Erfassung des Themas und die Fähigkeit zur Ausspielung aller überzeugenden Faktoren. Im Fall von Institutionen, die im postindustriellen Rahmen tätig sind, ist ein weiterer Trumpf beim Wettlauf um Geldquellen die Unterstreichung des Potenzials des Orts, so wie es Essen und das Ruhrgebiert bei ihrer Bewerbung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt 2010 gezeigt haben. Unter den europäischen Prioritäten der letzten Jahre lassen sich die meisten auf kreative Weise an einen Ort mit untypischer Provenienz anpassen. Die Verkündung des Jahrs 2009 zum Europäischen Jahr der Kreativität und Innovation war ein deutliches Signal dafür, dass das Setzen auf Entwicklung in allen Bereichen die Erschließung von Finanzierungsmitteln erleichtert und mit den Programmlinien der Europäischen Union korrespondiert. Ähnlich ist es mit anderen Förderorganisationen für Kunst, die regelmäßig in Europa entstehen. Bei der Durchsicht von Programmen, Broschüren und Webseiten von Kulturinstitutionen in postindustriellen Objekten, kann man oft unbekannte Logos der Geldgeber sehen, neue Programme und internationale Austauschnetze entdecken. Ein solcher kreativer „Voyeurismus“ und die Verbreitung des in diesem Bereich unverzichtbaren Wissens sind besonders wichtig für Kulturmanager – nicht selten kann man auf diese Weise schneller an Informationen über die sich ständig neu ergebenden Finanzierungs-
möglichkeiten gelangen als über die Recherche in offiziellen Quellen. So sind etwa zwei wichtige polnische Institutionen – das Krakauer Theater Łaźnia Nowa und die Warschauer Fabryka Trzciny – im Netzwerk Trans Europe Halles organisiert, das ähnliche unabhängige Kulturzentren von Moskau bis Barcelona vereinigt. Bei der Suche nach Projektpartnern sind solche Plattformen enorm hilfreich, auch für Nichtmitglieder. Außerdem kann man bei der Suche nach Mitteln für die Umsetzung eines bestimmten Projekts auf einer einzigen Internetseite Beispiele finden für rund fünfzig Institutionen, die mit den entsprechenden Programmen verlinkt sind. Dieser von manchen Praktikern häufig verfluchte Übereifer verschiedener Stiftungen hat seine offensichtlich positive Dimension in einer Gesellschaft, die von Daten und Informationen abhängig ist. Mehr Freiraum bei interdisziplinären Initiativen ermöglicht Engagement für Projekte mit sozialem Einschlag, wie auch die Beteiligung am Dialog über die wichtigsten Angelegenheiten. Ein richtiger Ansatz garantiert auch in diesem Fall den Erfolg. Kulturzentren in postindustriellen Objekten haben – dank ihrer Flexibilität – eine weitere wichtige europäische Priorität für sich erschlossen: den großzügig geförderten Umweltschutz. Die Opposition gegenüber der negativen Rolle der Industrie in diesem Bereich lässt solche Unternehmungen in einem interessanten Licht erscheinen und gewissermaßen am Ursprung über Verantwortlichkeit und die Notwendigkeit einschneidender Änderungen nachdenken. Das nach der Zahl der Zuschauerplätze größte unabhängige Theaterzentrum in Europa, das Hamburger Kampnagel in einer ehemaligen Fabrik für Hafenladekräne, konnte im Jahr 2009 dank der erhaltenen Zuschüsse über tausend Quadratmeter Sonnenkollektoren montieren. dadurch wurden die Betriebskosten verringert, wurden die Dachflächen einer Runderneuerung unterzogen und die Einkünfte aus der Solarstromerzeugung kommen dem Theaterhaushalt zugute. Außerdem ist ein alljährlich auf dem alten Fabrikgelände stattfindendes Festival aktuellen Fragen gewidmet wie etwa dem Klimaschutz oder dem vernünftigen Umgang mit natürlichen Rohstoffen. Dieses „Einschmuggeln“ didaktischer Inhalte schmälert keineswegs den künstlerischen Rang des Festivals. Über die brennenden Probleme spricht man vermittels der Arbeiten von Christoph Schlingensief, Needcompany oder dem Natural Theater of Oklahoma. In nächster Zeit stehen im Übrigen noch mehr künstlerische Aktionen für den Umweltschutz zu erwarten. Ehemalige Fabriken bieten hierfür ein glaubwürdiges Bühnenbild.
I
nfolge des polnischen Beitritts zur Europäischen Union haben sich für die Kultur neue Finanzierungsmöglichkeiten eröffnet. Die Beantragung von Zuschüssen und die fieberhafte Einhaltung der Abrechnungsfristen sind alltäglich geworden, wie auch die Tatsache der Durchführung zahlreicher Projekte mit ausländischen Partnern. Ein wichtiges Element eines jeden Zuschussantrags ist die Fähigkeit der „Anpassung“ an die Erwartungen des jeweiligen Geldgebers. Voraussetzungen für den Erfolg sind also in diesem Fall die kreative Erfassung des Themas und die Fähigkeit zur Ausspielung aller überzeugenden Faktoren. Im Fall von Institutionen, die im postindustriellen Rahmen tätig sind, ist ein weiterer Trumpf beim Wettlauf um Geldquellen die Unterstreichung des Potenzials des Orts, so wie es Essen und das Ruhrgebiert bei ihrer Bewerbung um den Titel der Europäischen Kulturstadt 2010 gezeigt haben. Unter den europäischen Prioritäten der letzten Jahre lassen sich die meisten auf kreative Weise an einen Ort mit untypischer Provenienz anpassen. Die Verkündung des Jahrs 2009 zum Europäischen Jahr der Kreativität und Innovation war ein deutliches Signal dafür, dass das Setzen auf Entwicklung in allen Bereichen die Erschließung von Finanzierungsmitteln erleichtert und mit den Programmlinien der Europäischen Union korrespondiert. Ähnlich ist es mit anderen Förderorganisationen für Kunst, die regelmäßig in Europa entstehen. Bei der Durchsicht von Programmen, Broschüren und Webseiten von Kulturinstitutionen in postindustriellen Objekten, kann man oft unbekannte Logos der Geldgeber sehen, neue Programme und internationale Austauschnetze entdecken. Ein solcher kreativer „Voyeurismus“ und die Verbreitung des in diesem Bereich unverzichtbaren Wissens sind besonders wichtig für Kulturmanager – nicht selten kann man auf diese Weise schneller an Informationen über die sich ständig neu ergebenden Finanzierungs-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kulturausschreibungen
möglichkeiten gelangen als über die Recherche in offiziellen Quellen. So sind etwa zwei wichtige polnische Institutionen – das Krakauer Theater Łaźnia Nowa und die Warschauer Fabryka Trzciny – im Netzwerk Trans Europe Halles organisiert, das ähnliche unabhängige Kulturzentren von Moskau bis Barcelona vereinigt. Bei der Suche nach Projektpartnern sind solche Plattformen enorm hilfreich, auch für Nichtmitglieder. Außerdem kann man bei der Suche nach Mitteln für die Umsetzung eines bestimmten Projekts auf einer einzigen Internetseite Beispiele finden für rund fünfzig Institutionen, die mit den entsprechenden Programmen verlinkt sind. Dieser von manchen Praktikern häufig verfluchte Übereifer verschiedener Stiftungen hat seine offensichtlich positive Dimension in einer Gesellschaft, die von Daten und Informationen abhängig ist. Mehr Freiraum bei interdisziplinären Initiativen ermöglicht Engagement für Projekte mit sozialem Einschlag, wie auch die Beteiligung am Dialog über die wichtigsten Angelegenheiten. Ein richtiger Ansatz garantiert auch in diesem Fall den Erfolg. Kulturzentren in postindustriellen Objekten haben – dank ihrer Flexibilität – eine weitere wichtige europäische Priorität für sich erschlossen: den großzügig geförderten Umweltschutz. Die Opposition gegenüber der negativen Rolle der Industrie in diesem Bereich lässt solche Unternehmungen in einem interessanten Licht erscheinen und gewissermaßen am Ursprung über Verantwortlichkeit und die Notwendigkeit einschneidender Änderungen nachdenken. Das nach der Zahl der Zuschauerplätze größte unabhängige Theaterzentrum in Europa, das Hamburger Kampnagel in einer ehemaligen Fabrik für Hafenladekräne, konnte im Jahr 2009 dank der erhaltenen Zuschüsse über tausend Quadratmeter Sonnenkollektoren montieren. dadurch wurden die Betriebskosten verringert, wurden die Dachflächen einer Runderneuerung unterzogen und die Einkünfte aus der Solarstromerzeugung kommen dem Theaterhaushalt zugute. Außerdem ist ein alljährlich auf dem alten Fabrikgelände stattfindendes Festival aktuellen Fragen gewidmet wie etwa dem Klimaschutz oder dem vernünftigen Umgang mit natürlichen Rohstoffen. Dieses „Einschmuggeln“ didaktischer Inhalte schmälert keineswegs den künstlerischen Rang des Festivals. Über die brennenden Probleme spricht man vermittels der Arbeiten von Christoph Schlingensief, Needcompany oder dem Natural Theater of Oklahoma. In nächster Zeit stehen im Übrigen noch mehr künstlerische Aktionen für den Umweltschutz zu erwarten. Ehemalige Fabriken bieten hierfür ein glaubwürdiges Bühnenbild.
164
wählen die abgelegenen Kultureinrichtungen andere Marketingstrategien. Deutlich wird dies in den grafischen Materialien. Die traditionellen Einrichtungen bleiben seit Jahren einem Muster ihrer Drucke treu, während die innovativen Organisationen, nicht nur an postindustriellen Standorten, sich durch visuell anziehende Reklame zu übertrumpfen suchen und alle möglichen Kommunikationskanäle des Internets nutzen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der sozialen Netzwerke.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Eine andere Dimension der Korporation
B
ei der weiteren Suche nach Übereinstimmungen zwischen modernem Management und dem soziologischen Verständnis der sich in letzter Zeit in der Wirtschaft vollziehenden Veränderungen lassen sich Kulturinstitutionen als wissensabsorbierende Unternehmen bezeichnen. Diese aus der Theorie von Bell und Drucker stammende Feststellung wurde später von Sadler zum Begriff der talentabsorbierenden Gesellschaft modifiziert, was besser zu den Besonderheiten der Arbeit in Kunstinstitutionen passt [Sadler, op. cit., S. 141]. Verallgemeinernd lässt sich sagen, dass das heutige Herangehen an das Human-Ressource-Management eine Folge des Funktionierens in der postindustriellen Gesellschaft ist und sich ergibt aus der Notwendigkeit einer Anpassung an die Erwartungen derjenigen Seite des Mitarbeiterdialogs, die immer mehr an Bedeutung gewinnt – der Beschäftigten selbst. Das Finden einer tragfähigen Struktur ist leichter, wenn sie von Grund auf geschaffen wird, als wenn sie sich durch eine Umgestaltung ergibt – insbesondere dann, wenn man als Ausgangspunkt das bereits erwähnte kommunistische Modell hat. Deshalb können neu entstehende Organisationen, die häufig dem 3. Sektor entstammen, sich bei der Festlegung ihrer Funktionsprinzipien auf aktuelle Modelle stützen. Charakteristische Phänomene sind die Verkürzung der Kommunikationswege und eine kollegialere Atmosphäre. Erkennbar ist dies unter anderem in häufigeren Meetings des gesamten Teams, gemeinsamer Entscheidungsfindung und transparenter Problemlösung ohne Errichtung von Informationslabirynthen. Ausschlaggebend bei erfolgreichem Management ist das Streben aller zu demselben Ziel, das alle Mitarbeiter verbinden sollte [Drucker, 2001, S. 173]. Im Fall einiger Institutionen, die auf anachronistische Weise funktionieren, gibt es nicht nur kein gemeinsames Ziel, sondern überhaupt keine Aufgaben, die sich die Organisation setzt. Deshalb eben ist es so wichtig, schon vor Beginn der Arbeit präzise die umzusetzenden Aufgaben vorzugeben und eine kollektive Anstrengung zu unternehmen, die gesteckten Ziele zu erreichen. Vereine und Stiftungen haben es in dieser Beziehung leichter, denn in ihren Satzungen müssen sie ihre Ziele und Pläne genau definieren. Dieses offensichtliche Element ist genauso entscheidend wie andere in den vergangenen Jahren empirisch bestätigte Methoden wie Enthaltsamkeit bei der Bewertung geäußerter Ideen, Brainstorming oder Open Space. Edward Nęcka nennt zusätzliche Umstände, die in einer Organisation die kreativen Kräfte stimulieren kön-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
nen: Gefühl von Freiheit und Unterstützung, keine Furcht sich lächerlich zu machen, freie Diskussionsatmosphäre, Billigung von begrenztem Risiko und Besitz von Herausforderungen [Nęcka, 2003, S. 151]. Ein Beispiel für eine Veranstaltung, die aus allen diesen Faktoren entsprießt, ist das Festival „Podwodny Wrocław“, das 2008 erstmals im Breslauer Kulturzentrum Browar Mieszczański in Opposition zu dem seit Jahren veranstalteten „Wrocław Non Stop“ stattfand und eine vollkommen alternativen Charakter hatte, ohne die offiziellen Anforderungen an schöpferische Arbeit – Neuheit und Nützlichkeit – zu verfehlen. Das Unternehmen war riskant, denn es wurde innerhalb kürzester Zeit von Künstlern auf die Beine gestellt, die bei „Wrocław Non Stop“ übergangen worden waren. Es wurden deshalb keine Sponsoren oder Fördermittel erschlossen und die Informationen über das Festival verbreiteten sich auf informellem Weg oder unter Einsatz von Partisanenmarketing. Nichtsdestotrotz war die Veranstaltung ein großer Erfolg. Im folgenden Jahr fiel „Wrocław Non Stop“ aus, dafür gab es eine zweite Ausgabe von „Podwodny Wrocław“ – unter völlig anderen Organisationsbedingungen, mit wesentlich größerem Schwung und städtischer Unterstützung. Auch dies ist bemerkenswert: Heute zieht das Zentrum Browar Mieszczański, obwohl es sich außerhalb der gefühlten Grenzen der Innenstadt befindet (wenn auch die tatsächlichen Entfernungen nicht sehr erheblich sind), ein immer größeres Publikum an, und viele Veranstaltungen finden regelmäßig statt, auch im Winter. Noch vor ein paar Jahren war dies ein echtes Problem gewesen. Ohne Zweifel ist diese Veränderung auf das breit gestreute Angebot zurückzuführen: Theateraufführungen, Konzerte, Auftritte von DJs und Multimediakünstlern. Dadurch wird das Programm bunter und das Publikum hat die Möglichkeit, in dieser künstlerischen Polyphonie nach eigenen Präferenzen zu entscheiden. Ein ausgezeichnetes Beispiel für eine derartige Einrichtung ist die Berliner Kulturbrauerei, heute ein Kulttreff. Über eine Million Besucher im Jahr – das ist ein für unabhängige Kulturzentren durchaus ungewöhnliches Ergebnis. Die Umgestaltung der riesigen Flächen geschah jedoch sehr durchdacht. In einer Nacht finden hier verschiedene Events statt, die wie ein Jahrmarkt durchlaufen werden können. Dadurch entstand in der Nähe des Stadtzentrums eine wahre Kultursiedlung, die ihren eigenen Rhythmus lebt – was den Fans des Zentrums im Übrigen nur willkommen ist. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass die größte Stärke von Kulturinstitutionen in postindustriellen Objekten ihr alternativer Charakter ist. In wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht wird dies aller-
165
ei der weiteren Suche nach Übereinstimmungen zwischen modernem Management und dem soziologischen Verständnis der sich in letzter Zeit in der Wirtschaft vollziehenden Veränderungen lassen sich Kulturinstitutionen als wissensabsorbierende Unternehmen bezeichnen. Diese aus der Theorie von Bell und Drucker stammende Feststellung wurde später von Sadler zum Begriff der talentabsorbierenden Gesellschaft modifiziert, was besser zu den Besonderheiten der Arbeit in Kunstinstitutionen passt [Sadler, op. cit., S. 141]. Verallgemeinernd lässt sich sagen, dass das heutige Herangehen an das Human-Ressource-Management eine Folge des Funktionierens in der postindustriellen Gesellschaft ist und sich ergibt aus der Notwendigkeit einer Anpassung an die Erwartungen derjenigen Seite des Mitarbeiterdialogs, die immer mehr an Bedeutung gewinnt – der Beschäftigten selbst. Das Finden einer tragfähigen Struktur ist leichter, wenn sie von Grund auf geschaffen wird, als wenn sie sich durch eine Umgestaltung ergibt – insbesondere dann, wenn man als Ausgangspunkt das bereits erwähnte kommunistische Modell hat. Deshalb können neu entstehende Organisationen, die häufig dem 3. Sektor entstammen, sich bei der Festlegung ihrer Funktionsprinzipien auf aktuelle Modelle stützen. Charakteristische Phänomene sind die Verkürzung der Kommunikationswege und eine kollegialere Atmosphäre. Erkennbar ist dies unter anderem in häufigeren Meetings des gesamten Teams, gemeinsamer Entscheidungsfindung und transparenter Problemlösung ohne Errichtung von Informationslabirynthen. Ausschlaggebend bei erfolgreichem Management ist das Streben aller zu demselben Ziel, das alle Mitarbeiter verbinden sollte [Drucker, 2001, S. 173]. Im Fall einiger Institutionen, die auf anachronistische Weise funktionieren, gibt es nicht nur kein gemeinsames Ziel, sondern überhaupt keine Aufgaben, die sich die Organisation setzt. Deshalb eben ist es so wichtig, schon vor Beginn der Arbeit präzise die umzusetzenden Aufgaben vorzugeben und eine kollektive Anstrengung zu unternehmen, die gesteckten Ziele zu erreichen. Vereine und Stiftungen haben es in dieser Beziehung leichter, denn in ihren Satzungen müssen sie ihre Ziele und Pläne genau definieren. Dieses offensichtliche Element ist genauso entscheidend wie andere in den vergangenen Jahren empirisch bestätigte Methoden wie Enthaltsamkeit bei der Bewertung geäußerter Ideen, Brainstorming oder Open Space. Edward Nęcka nennt zusätzliche Umstände, die in einer Organisation die kreativen Kräfte stimulieren kön-
B
Eine andere Dimension der Korporation
165
Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass die größte Stärke von Kulturinstitutionen in postindustriellen Objekten ihr alternativer Charakter ist. In wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht wird dies allernen: Gefühl von Freiheit und Unterstützung, keine Furcht sich lächerlich zu machen, freie Diskussionsatmosphäre, Billigung von begrenztem Risiko und Besitz von Herausforderungen [Nęcka, 2003, S. 151]. Ein Beispiel für eine Veranstaltung, die aus allen diesen Faktoren entsprießt, ist das Festival „Podwodny Wrocław“, das 2008 erstmals im Breslauer Kulturzentrum Browar Mieszczański in Opposition zu dem seit Jahren veranstalteten „Wrocław Non Stop“ stattfand und eine vollkommen alternativen Charakter hatte, ohne die offiziellen Anforderungen an schöpferische Arbeit – Neuheit und Nützlichkeit – zu verfehlen. Das Unternehmen war riskant, denn es wurde innerhalb kürzester Zeit von Künstlern auf die Beine gestellt, die bei „Wrocław Non Stop“ übergangen worden waren. Es wurden deshalb keine Sponsoren oder Fördermittel erschlossen und die Informationen über das Festival verbreiteten sich auf informellem Weg oder unter Einsatz von Partisanenmarketing. Nichtsdestotrotz war die Veranstaltung ein großer Erfolg. Im folgenden Jahr fiel „Wrocław Non Stop“ aus, dafür gab es eine zweite Ausgabe von „Podwodny Wrocław“ – unter völlig anderen Organisationsbedingungen, mit wesentlich größerem Schwung und städtischer Unterstützung. Auch dies ist bemerkenswert: Heute zieht das Zentrum Browar Mieszczański, obwohl es sich außerhalb der gefühlten Grenzen der Innenstadt befindet (wenn auch die tatsächlichen Entfernungen nicht sehr erheblich sind), ein immer größeres Publikum an, und viele Veranstaltungen finden regelmäßig statt, auch im Winter. Noch vor ein paar Jahren war dies ein echtes Problem gewesen. Ohne Zweifel ist diese Veränderung auf das breit gestreute Angebot zurückzuführen: Theateraufführungen, Konzerte, Auftritte von DJs und Multimediakünstlern. Dadurch wird das Programm bunter und das Publikum hat die Möglichkeit, in dieser künstlerischen Polyphonie nach eigenen Präferenzen zu entscheiden. Ein ausgezeichnetes Beispiel für eine derartige Einrichtung ist die Berliner Kulturbrauerei, heute ein Kulttreff. Über eine Million Besucher im Jahr – das ist ein für unabhängige Kulturzentren durchaus ungewöhnliches Ergebnis. Die Umgestaltung der riesigen Flächen geschah jedoch sehr durchdacht. In einer Nacht finden hier verschiedene Events statt, die wie ein Jahrmarkt durchlaufen werden können. Dadurch entstand in der Nähe des Stadtzentrums eine wahre Kultursiedlung, die ihren eigenen Rhythmus lebt – was den Fans des Zentrums im Übrigen nur willkommen ist.
166
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Bell, D., Kulturowe sprzeczności kapitalizmu,Warszawa
nego miasta, Kraków 2005. Proctor, T., Zarządzanie twórcze, Warszawa 1998.
Literatur dings schnell zum Nachteil, denn es schmälert die Chancen auf staatliche Förderung. Bei einer entsprechenden Herangehensweise lässt sich dies jedoch rekompensieren, nicht selten auf attraktivere Weise. Nach Überwindung der ersten Schwierigkeiten ist eine Finanzierung auf unterschiedliche Art und Weise möglich, auch durch die Kooperation von Kultur und Geschäftswelt, so dass der wirtschaftliche Druck nicht zum Hauptthema wird, das die kulturellen Inhalte in den Schatten stellt. Weltweit kommt es in zahlreichen anerkannten ehemaligen Fabriken zu interessanten Verbindungen – attraktive Büroräume und Lofts werden vermietet, Kulturarbeit geleistet, es gibt modische Boutiquen, Clubs und Restaurants. Bei entsprechender Nutzung des gegebenen Potenzials werden solche regelmäßigen Veranstaltungen möglich wie die Krakauer Festivals „Genius Loci“ und „Sacrum Profanum“, die es sich zum Ziel gesetzt haben, die Kunst mit der industriellen Vergangenheit zu konfrontieren, wie sie in fast jeder Stadt anzutreffen ist. Insbesondere in Mittel- und Osteuropa, das die Epoche der intensivierten Industrialisierung im 19. Jahrhundert und später die Dominanz der kommunistischen Planwirtschaft über sich ergehen lassen musste. Die Gebäude aus der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts stellen zwar keinen größeren Wert als Baudenkmäler dar, auch sind sie kaum interessant hinsichtlich der Bau- und Ingenieurstechnik. Dennoch wächst das Interesse
auch an Objekten aus der Nachkriegszeit und ihr besonderer Charakter wird hervorgehoben, um auch dieses Kapitel der Industriegeschichte, das heute hauptsächlich durch seine baulichen Relikte dokumentiert ist, angemessen zu würdigen Alvin Toffler sah als Kennzeichen für die dritte Welle in der Entwicklung unserer Zivilisation die Eroberung des Kosmos und der Ozeane [Toffler, op. cit., S. 172]. In noch fernerer Perspektive werden sich auch diese Orte des Handelns desaktualisieren und, wer weiß, vielleicht werden dereinst Konzerte und Spektakel in Raumstationen veranstaltet. Diese Vision erfordert derzeit noch viel Phantasie; vielleicht sollten deshalb die besten Manager beginnen, sie für erreichbar zu halten – so wie noch vor hundert Jahren die Änderung der Nutzungsbestimmung einer Fabrik unvorstellbar schien. Alle Schritte zu neuen Lösungen sind möglich dank kühner Ideen, der Suche außerhalb der Grenzen des Gewohnten. Heute geschieht dies im Hinblick auf Gebäude, die für die Industrie errichtet worden waren und von dieser in einer Zeit veränderter wirtschaftlicher Rahmenbedingungen aufgegeben wurden. Weiterhin bleibt jedoch viel zu tun mit den verfallenden Hallen, damit die Industrie wieder in ihren Mauern aufblühen kann. Dieses Mal die Kulturindustrie, die im fortschrittlichen ökonomischen Denken für die Nachhaltigkeit – das dürfte eine belegte Tatsache sein – nicht weniger wichtig ist als die traditionelle Industrie.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Rewers, E., Post-Polis. Wstęp do filozofii ponowoczes-
166
1994.
30.11.2009).
Toffler, A., Trzecia fala, Poznań 2006.
html01pages&func=display&pid=159 (Vortrag vom
alnym, Kraków 1997.
Nęcka, E., Psychologia twórczości, Gdańsk 2003.
Sadler, P., Zarządzanie w społeczeństwie postindustri-
http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?module=
2001.
2001.
2002.
Drucker, P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Warszawa
Drucker, P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Warszawa
alnym, Kraków 1997. Florida, R., The Rise of the Creative Class, New York
nego miasta, Kraków 2005. Toffler, A., Trzecia fala, Poznań 2006.
Florida, R., The Rise of the Creative Class, New York
Sadler, P., Zarządzanie w społeczeństwie postindustri-
Rewers, E., Post-Polis. Wstęp do filozofii ponowoczes-
Nęcka, E., Psychologia twórczości, Gdańsk 2003.
1994.
Proctor, T., Zarządzanie twórcze, Warszawa 1998.
2002.
Bell, D., Kulturowe sprzeczności kapitalizmu,Warszawa
html01pages&func=display&pid=159 (Vortrag vom
Literatur
http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?module=
auch an Objekten aus der Nachkriegszeit und ihr besonderer Charakter wird hervorgehoben, um auch dieses Kapitel der Industriegeschichte, das heute hauptsächlich durch seine baulichen Relikte dokumentiert ist, angemessen zu würdigen Alvin Toffler sah als Kennzeichen für die dritte Welle in der Entwicklung unserer Zivilisation die Eroberung des Kosmos und der Ozeane [Toffler, op. cit., S. 172]. In noch fernerer Perspektive werden sich auch diese Orte des Handelns desaktualisieren und, wer weiß, vielleicht werden dereinst Konzerte und Spektakel in Raumstationen veranstaltet. Diese Vision erfordert derzeit noch viel Phantasie; vielleicht sollten deshalb die besten Manager beginnen, sie für erreichbar zu halten – so wie noch vor hundert Jahren die Änderung der Nutzungsbestimmung einer Fabrik unvorstellbar schien. Alle Schritte zu neuen Lösungen sind möglich dank kühner Ideen, der Suche außerhalb der Grenzen des Gewohnten. Heute geschieht dies im Hinblick auf Gebäude, die für die Industrie errichtet worden waren und von dieser in einer Zeit veränderter wirtschaftlicher Rahmenbedingungen aufgegeben wurden. Weiterhin bleibt jedoch viel zu tun mit den verfallenden Hallen, damit die Industrie wieder in ihren Mauern aufblühen kann. Dieses Mal die Kulturindustrie, die im fortschrittlichen ökonomischen Denken für die Nachhaltigkeit – das dürfte eine belegte Tatsache sein – nicht weniger wichtig ist als die traditionelle Industrie.
30.11.2009).
dings schnell zum Nachteil, denn es schmälert die Chancen auf staatliche Förderung. Bei einer entsprechenden Herangehensweise lässt sich dies jedoch rekompensieren, nicht selten auf attraktivere Weise. Nach Überwindung der ersten Schwierigkeiten ist eine Finanzierung auf unterschiedliche Art und Weise möglich, auch durch die Kooperation von Kultur und Geschäftswelt, so dass der wirtschaftliche Druck nicht zum Hauptthema wird, das die kulturellen Inhalte in den Schatten stellt. Weltweit kommt es in zahlreichen anerkannten ehemaligen Fabriken zu interessanten Verbindungen – attraktive Büroräume und Lofts werden vermietet, Kulturarbeit geleistet, es gibt modische Boutiquen, Clubs und Restaurants. Bei entsprechender Nutzung des gegebenen Potenzials werden solche regelmäßigen Veranstaltungen möglich wie die Krakauer Festivals „Genius Loci“ und „Sacrum Profanum“, die es sich zum Ziel gesetzt haben, die Kunst mit der industriellen Vergangenheit zu konfrontieren, wie sie in fast jeder Stadt anzutreffen ist. Insbesondere in Mittel- und Osteuropa, das die Epoche der intensivierten Industrialisierung im 19. Jahrhundert und später die Dominanz der kommunistischen Planwirtschaft über sich ergehen lassen musste. Die Gebäude aus der Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts stellen zwar keinen größeren Wert als Baudenkmäler dar, auch sind sie kaum interessant hinsichtlich der Bau- und Ingenieurstechnik. Dennoch wächst das Interesse
167
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung Janis Garjans
M
an kann von verschiedenen Ansätzen ausgehen, um die lettischen Museen zu beschreiben. Historisch gesehen müsste man bis ins Jahr 1773 zurückgehen, als der Rat der Stadt Riga beschloss, in Riga ein erstes öffentliches Museum einzurichten, nachdem N. Himzel der Stadt seine Sammlungen aus den Bereichen Biologie, Kunst und Geschichte vermacht hatte. Diese Bestände wurden zum Fundament für das Museum der Stadt Riga und für Navigation sowie anderer Museen, die bis heute in Lettland tätig sind. Nach der Erklärung der Unabhängigkeit Lettlands im Jahr 1918 wurde ein nationales Museumssystem geschaffen, das die wichtigsten Bereiche der Wissenschaft umfasste. Die erste Periode der Unabhängigkeit in den zwanziger und dreißiger Jahren war von der Entwicklung eines Netzes von staatlichen und kommunalen Museen geprägt. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde dieses System umgeformt und an die in der Sowjetunion herrschenden Standards angepasst. Den ideologischen Restriktionen zum Trotz wurde das Museumsnetz in allen Regionen Lettlands ausgebaut und das Angebot an Museumstypen differenziert. Auch die soziopolitischen Prozesse in den frühen neunziger Jahren fanden ihren Niederschlag in der Tätigkeit dieser Institutionen. Bei der Beschreibung der Inhalte der lettischen Museen ist ihre Vielfalt zu analysieren, um so ein Bild der Interessengebiete der lettischen Bevölkerung, ihrer Erkenntnisbedürfnisse im Bereich des Nationalerbes und die Motivation für die Darstellung der Welt durch Museen zu gewinnen. Ein besonderes Merkmal der lettischen Museen ist der große Anteil an so genannten Gedächtnismuseen, sowohl in den öffentlich finanzierten als auch den privaten Museen. Nichtsdestotrotz besteht der wichtigste Aspekt, der heute die lettischen Museen prägt, meiner Ansicht nach in den Fragen, die sich ständig bei der Analyse des Charakters der
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Museen ergeben, nicht nur als Ergebnis empirischer Erfahrungen, sondern auch mittels theoretischer Schlussfolgerungen. Diese Fragen haben ihre grundsätzliche Bedeutung aufgrund verschiedener Faktoren gewonnen. Der tschechische Museologe Z. Z. Stránský begründet die Notwendigkeit für ein theoretisches Verständnis der Museumsarbeit: „Die heutige Kondition des Menschen zeigt, dass er sich nicht mehr durch oberflächliches und zufälliges Wissen zufrieden stellen lässt in Bezug auf eine Erscheinung, die so eng mit der menschlichen Existenz verknüpft ist (d.h. den Museen – J.G.). Die postliberale Gesellschaft wird nicht in etwas investieren wollen, was ihr keinen Gewinn bringt. Wenn einige Museumsmacher diese Tatsache immer noch nicht begriffen haben und so tun, als würde die Zukunft es ihnen erlauben, sich ‘ganz einfach mit ihren Angelegenheiten zu beschäftigen’, dann werden sowohl sie als auch die Museen dafür bezahlen müssen.“ [Stránský, 1995, S. 18]. Zum Zweck der Bestimmung und Regulierung der Beziehung zwischen Staat und Museumswesen wurde eine Rechtsgrundlage für den Betrieb der lettischen Museen geschaffen. Ihre Einrichtung ist nicht nur aus juristischer Sicht bemerkenswert, sondern auch aus professionellen Gründen. Bei der Definition der Grundbegriffe, der Bestimmung der Funktionen und des Managementmechanismus wurde ein neues museologisches und museografisches Denken initiiert sowie Grenzen und Probleme für die Diskussion über die weiteren Entwicklungswege des lettischen Museumswesens abgesteckt. Von den Grenzen des Museums zu sprechen in Zeiten, wo solche Begriffe kursieren wie „Museum ohne Grenzen“ oder „virtuelles Museum“, mag riskant erscheinen. Dennoch denke ich nicht, dass man dieses Problem mit einer konservativen Auffassung der Prozesse in der heutigen Museenwelt in Zusammenhang bringen sollte.
167
Janis Garjans er trägt den Doktortitel in humanistischen Wissenschaften. Ein Absolvent des Fachbereiches Sprachwissenschaften der Lettischen Universität, Fachbereichsleiter für Museum und Bildende Kunst des Kultusministeriums Lettlands. 1998-2009 war es als Direktor des Staatlichen Vorstands von Lettischen Museen tätig. Seit 2000 führt er Vorlesungen in Theorie und Geschichte von Museologie an der Lettischen Kulturakademie. Mit den Museen ist er seit 1976 verbunden. Er arbeitete als wissenschaftlicher Experte und Kurator im Andrejs Upits Memorial Museum (Riga). In den 90er Jahren war er Aktivist der Arbeiter von lettischen Museen, 1993-1998 Direktor des Vereins von Lettischen Museen. Seit 1994 gehört er zum Internationalen Museumsrat (ICOM). Seine Ausbildung in Museologie ergänzte er in Tschechien, Kanada und Holland. Er verfasste wissenschaftliche Artikel im Bereich Geschichte
an kann von verschiedenen Ansätzen ausgehen, um die lettischen Museen zu beschreiben. Historisch gesehen müsste man bis ins Jahr 1773 zurückgehen, als der Rat der Stadt Riga beschloss, in Riga ein erstes öffentliches Museum einzurichten, nachdem N. Himzel der Stadt seine Sammlungen aus den Bereichen Biologie, Kunst und Geschichte vermacht hatte. Diese Bestände wurden zum Fundament für das Museum der Stadt Riga und für Navigation sowie anderer Museen, die bis heute in Lettland tätig sind. Nach der Erklärung der Unabhängigkeit Lettlands im Jahr 1918 wurde ein nationales Museumssystem geschaffen, das die wichtigsten Bereiche der Wissenschaft umfasste. Die erste Periode der Unabhängigkeit in den zwanziger und dreißiger Jahren war von der Entwicklung eines Netzes von staatlichen und kommunalen Museen geprägt. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde dieses System umgeformt und an die in der Sowjetunion herrschenden Standards angepasst. Den ideologischen Restriktionen zum Trotz wurde das Museumsnetz in allen Regionen Lettlands ausgebaut und das Angebot an Museumstypen differenziert. Auch die soziopolitischen Prozesse in den frühen neunziger Jahren fanden ihren Niederschlag in der Tätigkeit dieser Institutionen. Bei der Beschreibung der Inhalte der lettischen Museen ist ihre Vielfalt zu analysieren, um so ein Bild der Interessengebiete der lettischen Bevölkerung, ihrer Erkenntnisbedürfnisse im Bereich des Nationalerbes und die Motivation für die Darstellung der Welt durch Museen zu gewinnen. Ein besonderes Merkmal der lettischen Museen ist der große Anteil an so genannten Gedächtnismuseen, sowohl in den öffentlich finanzierten als auch den privaten Museen. Nichtsdestotrotz besteht der wichtigste Aspekt, der heute die lettischen Museen prägt, meiner Ansicht nach in den Fragen, die sich ständig bei der Analyse des Charakters der
M
Janis Garjans
Museen ergeben, nicht nur als Ergebnis empirischer Erfahrungen, sondern auch mittels theoretischer Schlussfolgerungen. Diese Fragen haben ihre grundsätzliche Bedeutung aufgrund verschiedener Faktoren gewonnen. Der tschechische Museologe Z. Z. Stránský begründet die Notwendigkeit für ein theoretisches Verständnis der Museumsarbeit: „Die heutige Kondition des Menschen zeigt, dass er sich nicht mehr durch oberflächliches und zufälliges Wissen zufrieden stellen lässt in Bezug auf eine Erscheinung, die so eng mit der menschlichen Existenz verknüpft ist (d.h. den Museen – J.G.). Die postliberale Gesellschaft wird nicht in etwas investieren wollen, was ihr keinen Gewinn bringt. Wenn einige Museumsmacher diese Tatsache immer noch nicht begriffen haben und so tun, als würde die Zukunft es ihnen erlauben, sich ‘ganz einfach mit ihren Angelegenheiten zu beschäftigen’, dann werden sowohl sie als auch die Museen dafür bezahlen müssen.“ [Stránský, 1995, S. 18]. Zum Zweck der Bestimmung und Regulierung der Beziehung zwischen Staat und Museumswesen wurde eine Rechtsgrundlage für den Betrieb der lettischen Museen geschaffen. Ihre Einrichtung ist nicht nur aus juristischer Sicht bemerkenswert, sondern auch aus professionellen Gründen. Bei der Definition der Grundbegriffe, der Bestimmung der Funktionen und des Managementmechanismus wurde ein neues museologisches und museografisches Denken initiiert sowie Grenzen und Probleme für die Diskussion über die weiteren Entwicklungswege des lettischen Museumswesens abgesteckt. Von den Grenzen des Museums zu sprechen in Zeiten, wo solche Begriffe kursieren wie „Museum ohne Grenzen“ oder „virtuelles Museum“, mag riskant erscheinen. Dennoch denke ich nicht, dass man dieses Problem mit einer konservativen Auffassung der Prozesse in der heutigen Museenwelt in Zusammenhang bringen sollte.
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung
Janis Garjans er trägt den Doktortitel in humanistischen Wissenschaften. Ein Absolvent des Fachbereiches Sprachwissenschaften der Lettischen Universität, Fachbereichsleiter für Museum und Bildende Kunst des Kultusministeriums Lettlands. 1998-2009 war es als Direktor des Staatlichen Vorstands von Lettischen Museen tätig. Seit 2000 führt er Vorlesungen in Theorie und Geschichte von Museologie an der Lettischen Kulturakademie. Mit den Museen ist er seit 1976 verbunden. Er arbeitete als wissenschaftlicher Experte und Kurator im Andrejs Upits Memorial Museum (Riga). In den 90er Jahren war er Aktivist der Arbeiter von lettischen Museen, 1993-1998 Direktor des Vereins von Lettischen Museen. Seit 1994 gehört er zum Internationalen Museumsrat (ICOM). Seine Ausbildung in Museologie ergänzte er in Tschechien, Kanada und Holland. Er verfasste wissenschaftliche Artikel im Bereich Geschichte
A
Was ist ein Museum?
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
der lettischen Literatur und Museologie in der lettischen, englischen und russischen Sprachfassung.
168
Regionalmuseen nur selten, und das vor allem bei der Dokumentation der Sammlungen, an der Tagesordnung steht. Wenn wir jedoch davon ausgehen, dass alle Ausstellungen und anderen Formen der Bildungsarbeit Resultate wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen darstellen, wird klar, dass ohne Forschung auch die Kommunikationsfunktion von Museen – weder kleinerer noch größerer – gewährleistet werden kann. Das Gesetz legt auch nicht fest, wer diese musealen Funktionen umsetzen soll. Hin und wieder lebt in Lettland die Diskussion darüber auf, wie eine professionelle Museumstätigkeit möglich ist, wenn das Museum nur einen Mitarbeiter hat (der zuweilen auch nur eine halbe Stelle versieht). Wie kann eine Person alle grundlegenden Funktionen eines Museums erfüllen? Auf diese Frage lässt sich die Gegenfrage stellen: Warum muss es sich denn unbedingt um ein festes Mitglied des Museumspersonals handeln? Es ist zu erwarten, dass die Kultur der ehrenamtlichen Arbeit im Museum sich auch in unserem Land durchzusetzen beginnt, wie auch das Outsourcing von Dienstleistungen, um auf diese Weise die Qualität des Produkts oder der Dienstleistung zu gewährleisten. In Lettland, wie auch in anderen Ländern, stellt sich der Bedarf nach Beratungsdienstleistungen. Eine Hauptaufgabe der Museumsmitarbeiter in dieser Situation ist die Sicherstellung der Kommunikationsfunktion – die Arbeit mit den Museumsbesuchern. Man muss zugeben, dass aus museumswissenschaftlicher Perspektive die Museen nur einen Teil dessen umfassen, was zum Kulturerbe gehört. Musealität – eine bestimmte dem Objekt zugeschriebene Eigenschaft – zeichnet sich durch einen wesentlich breiteren Umfang des Kulturerbes aus als nur museale Sammlungen. Es gibt auch andere Institutionen, die sich mit der Erzeugung und Erfassung von Kulturgut beschäftigen. Im Zusammenhang mit dem oben erwähnten Museumsregister hat sich herausgestellt, dass viele Sammlungen in Lettland geschaffen wurden und viele Ausstellungen zu besichtigen sind. In den Augen des einfachen Besuchers werden Einrichtungen, die mit dem Kulturerbe zu tun haben, häufig mit Museen gleichgesetzt. Ein solches Verständnis ist auch bei Managern und Eigentümern der so genannten Museen verbreitet – den Mitgliedern der kommunalen Räte. Und wer sollte ihnen einen Vorwurf daraus machen? Vielleicht sind wir selber, die Museumsspezialisten, daran schuld, weil wir, wenn wir das Museum mit einem Eisberg vergleichen, dessen Ausstellungen, Feierlichkeiten und Veranstaltungen „oberhalb des Wasserspiegels“ sichtbar sind, der Gesellschaft zu wenig von dem unsichtbaren Teil erzählt, gezeigt und erklärt haben, der die Basis bildet: die Basis der Umsetzung der Kommunikation des Museums.
der lettischen Literatur und Museologie in der lettischen, englischen und russischen Sprachfassung.
ls Ende der neunziger Jahre die Lettische Staatliche Museenverwaltung eingerichtet wurde, war eine unserer Aufgaben die Erstellung eines genauen Museenregisters: Wir bereiteten ein Registerformular vor, versandten es und erhielten sehr reiche, geradezu verblüffende Ergebnisse über einen sehr großen Querschnitt von Museen aus allen Regionen Lettlands. Wir bekamen neue, bislang unbekannte Informationen von kleinen lokalen Räten und Privatinstitutionen – Vereinen, Stiftungen und Privatpersonen. Wir erstellten einen Register, auf den wir uns bezogen, als wir gemäß dem Gesetz über die Museen mit der Akkreditierung von Museen begannen. Und damals tauchte das Problem auf, ob die Institution, die eine Akkreditierung beantragte, als Museum einzustufen ist. Ohne klare Kriterien – Grenzziehungen – fällt die Antwort auf diese Frage sehr schwer. Jeder kann seine eigene Antwort vorschlagen, die keineswegs falsch sein muss. Die Akkreditierung der Museen war der praktische Anreiz, der uns dazu bewog, solche Kriterien zu vereinbaren. Die Definition des Begriffs „Museum“ im 1997 verabschiedeten Gesetz über die Museen war allgemein und deskriptiv. Sie wurde nach dem Vorbild der Satzung der ICOM und dem Kodex der Berufsethik formuliert. Dennoch trug diese Definition nicht viel zur Lösung des Problems bei. Deshalb beschlossen wir 2006 bei der Vorbereitung der Novelle des Gesetzes über die Museen den Paragrafen, der sich auf die Funktion der Museen bezieht, zu erweitern: „Museen erfüllen folgende Funktionen: 1. Sammlung, Dokumentation und Erhalt des materiellen und unantastbaren Kultur- und Naturerbes, 2. Erforschung der Museumsbestände und der damit zusammenhängenden Informationen, 3. Bildung der Gesellschaft und Popularisierung des materiellen und unantastbaren Kulturund Naturerbes durch Organisation von Ausstellungen wie auch andere Methoden der Bildungsarbeit und der Popularisierung der Museumstätigkeit.“ Damit eine Institution als Museum klassifiziert werden kann, muss sie in allen oben genannten Funktionen aktiv sein. Zu betonen ist allerdings, dass das Gesetz nicht regelt, wie weit reichend jede dieser Funktionen ausgeübt werden muss. Es ist völlig verständlich, dass sich hier die Proportionen in unterschiedlichen Museen unterschiedlich verteilen. Dies bezieht sich besonders auf den Bereich der wissenschaftlichen Forschung. In einem Universitätsmuseum kann die Forschungsarbeit mitunter dominant sein, während sie etwa bei
ls Ende der neunziger Jahre die Lettische Staatliche Museenverwaltung eingerichtet wurde, war eine unserer Aufgaben die Erstellung eines genauen Museenregisters: Wir bereiteten ein Registerformular vor, versandten es und erhielten sehr reiche, geradezu verblüffende Ergebnisse über einen sehr großen Querschnitt von Museen aus allen Regionen Lettlands. Wir bekamen neue, bislang unbekannte Informationen von kleinen lokalen Räten und Privatinstitutionen – Vereinen, Stiftungen und Privatpersonen. Wir erstellten einen Register, auf den wir uns bezogen, als wir gemäß dem Gesetz über die Museen mit der Akkreditierung von Museen begannen. Und damals tauchte das Problem auf, ob die Institution, die eine Akkreditierung beantragte, als Museum einzustufen ist. Ohne klare Kriterien – Grenzziehungen – fällt die Antwort auf diese Frage sehr schwer. Jeder kann seine eigene Antwort vorschlagen, die keineswegs falsch sein muss. Die Akkreditierung der Museen war der praktische Anreiz, der uns dazu bewog, solche Kriterien zu vereinbaren. Die Definition des Begriffs „Museum“ im 1997 verabschiedeten Gesetz über die Museen war allgemein und deskriptiv. Sie wurde nach dem Vorbild der Satzung der ICOM und dem Kodex der Berufsethik formuliert. Dennoch trug diese Definition nicht viel zur Lösung des Problems bei. Deshalb beschlossen wir 2006 bei der Vorbereitung der Novelle des Gesetzes über die Museen den Paragrafen, der sich auf die Funktion der Museen bezieht, zu erweitern: „Museen erfüllen folgende Funktionen: 1. Sammlung, Dokumentation und Erhalt des materiellen und unantastbaren Kultur- und Naturerbes, 2. Erforschung der Museumsbestände und der damit zusammenhängenden Informationen, 3. Bildung der Gesellschaft und Popularisierung des materiellen und unantastbaren Kulturund Naturerbes durch Organisation von Ausstellungen wie auch andere Methoden der Bildungsarbeit und der Popularisierung der Museumstätigkeit.“ Damit eine Institution als Museum klassifiziert werden kann, muss sie in allen oben genannten Funktionen aktiv sein. Zu betonen ist allerdings, dass das Gesetz nicht regelt, wie weit reichend jede dieser Funktionen ausgeübt werden muss. Es ist völlig verständlich, dass sich hier die Proportionen in unterschiedlichen Museen unterschiedlich verteilen. Dies bezieht sich besonders auf den Bereich der wissenschaftlichen Forschung. In einem Universitätsmuseum kann die Forschungsarbeit mitunter dominant sein, während sie etwa bei
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
A
Regionalmuseen nur selten, und das vor allem bei der Dokumentation der Sammlungen, an der Tagesordnung steht. Wenn wir jedoch davon ausgehen, dass alle Ausstellungen und anderen Formen der Bildungsarbeit Resultate wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen darstellen, wird klar, dass ohne Forschung auch die Kommunikationsfunktion von Museen – weder kleinerer noch größerer – gewährleistet werden kann. Das Gesetz legt auch nicht fest, wer diese musealen Funktionen umsetzen soll. Hin und wieder lebt in Lettland die Diskussion darüber auf, wie eine professionelle Museumstätigkeit möglich ist, wenn das Museum nur einen Mitarbeiter hat (der zuweilen auch nur eine halbe Stelle versieht). Wie kann eine Person alle grundlegenden Funktionen eines Museums erfüllen? Auf diese Frage lässt sich die Gegenfrage stellen: Warum muss es sich denn unbedingt um ein festes Mitglied des Museumspersonals handeln? Es ist zu erwarten, dass die Kultur der ehrenamtlichen Arbeit im Museum sich auch in unserem Land durchzusetzen beginnt, wie auch das Outsourcing von Dienstleistungen, um auf diese Weise die Qualität des Produkts oder der Dienstleistung zu gewährleisten. In Lettland, wie auch in anderen Ländern, stellt sich der Bedarf nach Beratungsdienstleistungen. Eine Hauptaufgabe der Museumsmitarbeiter in dieser Situation ist die Sicherstellung der Kommunikationsfunktion – die Arbeit mit den Museumsbesuchern. Man muss zugeben, dass aus museumswissenschaftlicher Perspektive die Museen nur einen Teil dessen umfassen, was zum Kulturerbe gehört. Musealität – eine bestimmte dem Objekt zugeschriebene Eigenschaft – zeichnet sich durch einen wesentlich breiteren Umfang des Kulturerbes aus als nur museale Sammlungen. Es gibt auch andere Institutionen, die sich mit der Erzeugung und Erfassung von Kulturgut beschäftigen. Im Zusammenhang mit dem oben erwähnten Museumsregister hat sich herausgestellt, dass viele Sammlungen in Lettland geschaffen wurden und viele Ausstellungen zu besichtigen sind. In den Augen des einfachen Besuchers werden Einrichtungen, die mit dem Kulturerbe zu tun haben, häufig mit Museen gleichgesetzt. Ein solches Verständnis ist auch bei Managern und Eigentümern der so genannten Museen verbreitet – den Mitgliedern der kommunalen Räte. Und wer sollte ihnen einen Vorwurf daraus machen? Vielleicht sind wir selber, die Museumsspezialisten, daran schuld, weil wir, wenn wir das Museum mit einem Eisberg vergleichen, dessen Ausstellungen, Feierlichkeiten und Veranstaltungen „oberhalb des Wasserspiegels“ sichtbar sind, der Gesellschaft zu wenig von dem unsichtbaren Teil erzählt, gezeigt und erklärt haben, der die Basis bildet: die Basis der Umsetzung der Kommunikation des Museums.
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Was ist ein Museum?
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Im Kontext des lettischen Kulturerbes ist das Museumswesen neben dem Sektor der immobilen Baudenkmäler am vorhersehbarsten, was die Gesetzgebung anbelangt. Menschen, die sich auf dem Feld des Kulturerbes engagieren möchten, finden die einzigen Bezugspunkte im Museumsbereich und versuchen in diese Richtung zu gehen. Für Spezialisten ist es wichtig, nicht den Überblick zu verlieren und zu wissen, wie die Grenzlinie zwischen Museum und Nicht-Museum zu ziehen ist. Der Grund ist nicht Arroganz, Neid etc. Die Umsetzung ihrer Funktion und Mission, scheinbar langweilig, diese ganze geradezu bürokratische anmutende Führung von Registern, Aufbewahrung und Konservierung, hat dazu geführt, dass über Jahrzehnte und Jahrhunderte die Museen in der Lage waren, das Kulturerbe aufzubewahren und gemäß den Interessen der Gesellschaft zu verwenden. Und die Gesellschaft weiß dies zu schätzen. Im Fall von Lettland möchte ich Beispiele angeben, die von einer positiven Einstellung der Gesellschaft gegenüber den Museen zeugen: das Interesse verschiedener Gesellschaftsgruppen an der Schaffung neuer Museen, Leihgaben und Schenkungen einzigartiger Kunstwerke und historisch wertvoller Gegenstände, drunter nicht selten Familienerbstücke, die steigenden Besucherzahlen. Trotzdem dürfen wir nicht solche Fälle ignorieren, wie etwa ein so genanntes „Schulmuseum“, das, wenn der Geschichtelehrer pensioniert wird, niemanden findet, der die Forschungen im lokalen Rahmen fortsetzen würde, und schon nach ein paar Jahren keiner mehr weiß, wo sich eigentlich die wertvollen Urkunden und Fotografien befinden. Mitarbeiter im Museumsbereich dürfen das Vertrauen der Gesellschaft nicht missbrauchen. Dies ist auch für uns das Hauptargument, das für die Notwendigkeit der Absteckung einer deutlichen Grenze zwischen Museen und anderen Arten von Arbeit im Bereich des Nationalerbes spricht, so dass wir mittels fester musealer Standards versuchen können, einen professionellen, vorhersehbaren und langfristigen Zugang zum Kulturerbe zu gewährleisten.
Das akkreditierte Museum
G
arantiert nun das Gesetz über die Museen, indem es den Begriff Museum definiert und die kennzeichnenden Funktionen der Museumsarbeit bestimmt, dass das Wort Museum ausschließlich von echten Museen gebraucht wird? Natürlich nicht. Ein bekannter Abwehrmechanismus der professionellen Museen ist die Akkreditierung, wie sie auch vom lettischen Recht verlangt bzw. empfohlen wird. Ein akkreditiertes Museum ist ein
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Museum, das vom Staat als solches anerkannt ist. Ein Teil des Staatshaushalts, der regelmäßig von der staatlichen Stiftung für Kulturkapital verteilt wird, wird nur an akkreditierte Museen vergeben. Eines der Kriterien, die ein Museum erfüllen muss, um sich um Mittel aus dem Norwegischen Finanzmechanismus bewerben, ist der Status des akkreditierten Museums. In der Bevölkerung wächst die Überzeugung, dass die Akkreditierung eine Garantie für Qualität und Professionalismus der Museen darstellt. Auch die Museen sind sich darüber im Klaren. Während die Akkreditierung für staatliche und regionale Museen obligatorisch ist, können private Museen selbst darüber entscheiden, ob sie akkreditiert werden möchten oder nicht. Jedes Jahr erhalten auch private Museen diesen Status, und ich muss zugeben, dass es sich um wirklich seriöse Institutionen handelt, die an ihre Zukunft denken und die Bedeutung von Professionalismus begreifen. Bei der Analyse der Mechanismen und Kriterien für eine Akkreditierung ist von der Erklärung auszugehen, dass in Lettland solche Museen zur Akkreditierung qualifiziert werden, deren Tätigkeit den Grundanforderungen oder minimalen Standards entspricht. Bei der Vorbereitung des Akkreditierungsplans hatten wir natürlich die Hoffnung, damit eine Verbesserung des Professionalismus der Museen und ihre weitere positive Entwicklung zu bewirken. Dennoch konnten wir einen objektiven Umstand nicht ignorieren: die verfügbaren Geldmittel. Deshalb ist ein akkreditiertes Museum in Lettland nicht etwas, das sich durch besondere Innovativität oder Exklusivität hervorheben würde, sondern ganz einfach ein Museum, das seine Mission verfolgt und auf ehrliche Weise seine Museumsfunktionen erfüllt. Die Akkreditierung der Museen erlaubt es uns in erster Linie, jede einzelne Einrichtung einzuschätzen und die eingangs gestellte Frage zu beantworten: Handelt es sich um eine Museum oder nicht? Abgesehen von dieser Schlüsselfrage war es wichtig, nicht auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklungsfähigkeit des Volks zu warten, während die Museen in der Lage wären, ihre Ideen ohne Einschränkungen zu verwirklichen. Wir waren der Ansicht, dass die Entwicklung der Museen mit der Vervollkommnung von uns selbst beginnen muss, dass wir daran arbeiten müssen, was mit Verwaltung, Spezialisten und Dienstpersonal verbunden ist. Der Akkreditierungsprozess hat gezeigt, dass die unter Museumsmitarbeitern häufig anzutreffende Maxime „Gebt uns Geld und wir zeigen euch, wie man arbeitet“ nicht immer das ist, worum es geht. Die Akkreditierung von Museen existiert in Lettland seit zehn Jahren, und
169
arantiert nun das Gesetz über die Museen, indem es den Begriff Museum definiert und die kennzeichnenden Funktionen der Museumsarbeit bestimmt, dass das Wort Museum ausschließlich von echten Museen gebraucht wird? Natürlich nicht. Ein bekannter Abwehrmechanismus der professionellen Museen ist die Akkreditierung, wie sie auch vom lettischen Recht verlangt bzw. empfohlen wird. Ein akkreditiertes Museum ist ein
G
Das akkreditierte Museum Im Kontext des lettischen Kulturerbes ist das Museumswesen neben dem Sektor der immobilen Baudenkmäler am vorhersehbarsten, was die Gesetzgebung anbelangt. Menschen, die sich auf dem Feld des Kulturerbes engagieren möchten, finden die einzigen Bezugspunkte im Museumsbereich und versuchen in diese Richtung zu gehen. Für Spezialisten ist es wichtig, nicht den Überblick zu verlieren und zu wissen, wie die Grenzlinie zwischen Museum und Nicht-Museum zu ziehen ist. Der Grund ist nicht Arroganz, Neid etc. Die Umsetzung ihrer Funktion und Mission, scheinbar langweilig, diese ganze geradezu bürokratische anmutende Führung von Registern, Aufbewahrung und Konservierung, hat dazu geführt, dass über Jahrzehnte und Jahrhunderte die Museen in der Lage waren, das Kulturerbe aufzubewahren und gemäß den Interessen der Gesellschaft zu verwenden. Und die Gesellschaft weiß dies zu schätzen. Im Fall von Lettland möchte ich Beispiele angeben, die von einer positiven Einstellung der Gesellschaft gegenüber den Museen zeugen: das Interesse verschiedener Gesellschaftsgruppen an der Schaffung neuer Museen, Leihgaben und Schenkungen einzigartiger Kunstwerke und historisch wertvoller Gegenstände, drunter nicht selten Familienerbstücke, die steigenden Besucherzahlen. Trotzdem dürfen wir nicht solche Fälle ignorieren, wie etwa ein so genanntes „Schulmuseum“, das, wenn der Geschichtelehrer pensioniert wird, niemanden findet, der die Forschungen im lokalen Rahmen fortsetzen würde, und schon nach ein paar Jahren keiner mehr weiß, wo sich eigentlich die wertvollen Urkunden und Fotografien befinden. Mitarbeiter im Museumsbereich dürfen das Vertrauen der Gesellschaft nicht missbrauchen. Dies ist auch für uns das Hauptargument, das für die Notwendigkeit der Absteckung einer deutlichen Grenze zwischen Museen und anderen Arten von Arbeit im Bereich des Nationalerbes spricht, so dass wir mittels fester musealer Standards versuchen können, einen professionellen, vorhersehbaren und langfristigen Zugang zum Kulturerbe zu gewährleisten.
169
Museum, das vom Staat als solches anerkannt ist. Ein Teil des Staatshaushalts, der regelmäßig von der staatlichen Stiftung für Kulturkapital verteilt wird, wird nur an akkreditierte Museen vergeben. Eines der Kriterien, die ein Museum erfüllen muss, um sich um Mittel aus dem Norwegischen Finanzmechanismus bewerben, ist der Status des akkreditierten Museums. In der Bevölkerung wächst die Überzeugung, dass die Akkreditierung eine Garantie für Qualität und Professionalismus der Museen darstellt. Auch die Museen sind sich darüber im Klaren. Während die Akkreditierung für staatliche und regionale Museen obligatorisch ist, können private Museen selbst darüber entscheiden, ob sie akkreditiert werden möchten oder nicht. Jedes Jahr erhalten auch private Museen diesen Status, und ich muss zugeben, dass es sich um wirklich seriöse Institutionen handelt, die an ihre Zukunft denken und die Bedeutung von Professionalismus begreifen. Bei der Analyse der Mechanismen und Kriterien für eine Akkreditierung ist von der Erklärung auszugehen, dass in Lettland solche Museen zur Akkreditierung qualifiziert werden, deren Tätigkeit den Grundanforderungen oder minimalen Standards entspricht. Bei der Vorbereitung des Akkreditierungsplans hatten wir natürlich die Hoffnung, damit eine Verbesserung des Professionalismus der Museen und ihre weitere positive Entwicklung zu bewirken. Dennoch konnten wir einen objektiven Umstand nicht ignorieren: die verfügbaren Geldmittel. Deshalb ist ein akkreditiertes Museum in Lettland nicht etwas, das sich durch besondere Innovativität oder Exklusivität hervorheben würde, sondern ganz einfach ein Museum, das seine Mission verfolgt und auf ehrliche Weise seine Museumsfunktionen erfüllt. Die Akkreditierung der Museen erlaubt es uns in erster Linie, jede einzelne Einrichtung einzuschätzen und die eingangs gestellte Frage zu beantworten: Handelt es sich um eine Museum oder nicht? Abgesehen von dieser Schlüsselfrage war es wichtig, nicht auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklungsfähigkeit des Volks zu warten, während die Museen in der Lage wären, ihre Ideen ohne Einschränkungen zu verwirklichen. Wir waren der Ansicht, dass die Entwicklung der Museen mit der Vervollkommnung von uns selbst beginnen muss, dass wir daran arbeiten müssen, was mit Verwaltung, Spezialisten und Dienstpersonal verbunden ist. Der Akkreditierungsprozess hat gezeigt, dass die unter Museumsmitarbeitern häufig anzutreffende Maxime „Gebt uns Geld und wir zeigen euch, wie man arbeitet“ nicht immer das ist, worum es geht. Die Akkreditierung von Museen existiert in Lettland seit zehn Jahren, und
170
fert, stellt klar, was das Museum der Gesellschaft bringen soll. Andererseits erlaubt die praktische Tätigkeit des Museums eine Einschätzung, wie die musealen Funktionen in der jeweiligen Einrichtung orientiert sind und wie sie ihre Mission erfüllt. Die Mission zeigt, ob das Museum seine eigene Richtung und seine Nische in der lettischen Museumslandschaft gefunden hat. Nur diejenigen Einrichtungen, die eine seriöse Analyse durchgeführt und einen Vorgehensplan vorbereitet haben, können eine Mission definieren, die als Instrument und Bezugspunkt bei verschiedenen Aspekten der Museumsarbeit, unter anderem auch bei der Akkreditierung von Museen, dient.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die nächste Grenzziehung
ei der Betrachtung der Abgrenzungen, die das lettische Recht für die Arbeit der Museen vorsieht bin ich der festen Überzeugung, dass sie eher als Wegzeichen dienen denn als einengender Rahmen. Die Museen sollen selbst entscheiden, wie die Grundfunktionen wahrgenommen werden – was und wie gesammelt wird, welches Thematik gewählt wird, welche Kommunikationsformen möglich sind. Niemand anderes kann den Museen diese Entscheidungen abnehmen. Während es bei der ersten Akkreditierung darum ging festzulegen, ob alle Museumsfunktionen wahrgenommen werden, soll die nächste Akkreditierung das Museum zur Verbesserung seiner Qualität bringen. Die Museen sollen Arbeitsaufgaben formulieren, die mit den Prioritäten der staatlichen Kulturpolitik übereinstimmen. Zu diesen Prioritäten gehören die Verbesserung der Zugänglichkeit der Museen und ihres langfristigen Entwicklungspotenzials. Letzteres ist insbesondere mit der professionellen Tätigkeit der Museen verbunden, von denen verlangt wird, dass sie Handlungsstrategien zur Umsetzung ihre Grundaufgaben vorlegen und verfolgen. Dieses Mal müssen die Museum Abgrenzungen vornehmen und Kriterien nenne, damit sie selbst, die Trägerinstitutionen und selbstverständlich die Gesellschaft Klarheit darüber haben, in welcher Form mit den Beständen umgegangen wird, welche Forschungstätigkeit betrieben wird und wie die Kommunikation umgesetzt wird. Diese Strategien erlauben es, sich auf das Ziel zu konzentrieren und Professionalismus zu gewährleisten, wodurch das Museum seine soziale Funktion erfüllen kann: die Initiierung positiver Veränderungen in der Gesellschaft. Die Epoche, in der wir leben, erfordert genau diese Herangehensweise. Museen brauchen Bezugspunkte, die uns zu wirksamem Handeln antreiben, und nicht Grenzen, die uns von der Ge-
B
B
die größte Befriedigung geht davon aus, dass die Museumsmitarbeiter selbst sich dessen bewusst sind, dass die Akkreditierung ein nicht zu überschätzender Anreiz ist, aktiv und organisiert zu werden, und was daraus folgt, Voraussetzungen für die weitere Entwicklung zu schaffen Welche Kriterien gibt es für den Status des akkreditierten Museums? Das Gesetz über die Museen sagt: 1. (2) Ein Museum kann akkreditiert werden, wenn es die folgenden Voraussetzungen erfüllt: 2. Es besitzt eine vom Gründer festgeschriebene Satzung; 3. es wird eine Inventarisierung der Sammlungen geführt; 4. es verfügt über einen Sitz, Ausstattung und Sicherheitssysteme, welche die Aufbewahrung der Sammlungen ermöglicht; 5. der Zugang der Bevölkerung zu den Sammlungen ist gewährleistet; 6. es wurde eine Strategie zur Vervollkommnung des Museums entwickelt.
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Die nächste Grenzziehung
ei der Betrachtung der Abgrenzungen, die das lettische Recht für die Arbeit der Museen vorsieht bin ich der festen Überzeugung, dass sie eher als Wegzeichen dienen denn als einengender Rahmen. Die Museen sollen selbst entscheiden, wie die Grundfunktionen wahrgenommen werden – was und wie gesammelt wird, welches Thematik gewählt wird, welche Kommunikationsformen möglich sind. Niemand anderes kann den Museen diese Entscheidungen abnehmen. Während es bei der ersten Akkreditierung darum ging festzulegen, ob alle Museumsfunktionen wahrgenommen werden, soll die nächste Akkreditierung das Museum zur Verbesserung seiner Qualität bringen. Die Museen sollen Arbeitsaufgaben formulieren, die mit den Prioritäten der staatlichen Kulturpolitik übereinstimmen. Zu diesen Prioritäten gehören die Verbesserung der Zugänglichkeit der Museen und ihres langfristigen Entwicklungspotenzials. Letzteres ist insbesondere mit der professionellen Tätigkeit der Museen verbunden, von denen verlangt wird, dass sie Handlungsstrategien zur Umsetzung ihre Grundaufgaben vorlegen und verfolgen. Dieses Mal müssen die Museum Abgrenzungen vornehmen und Kriterien nenne, damit sie selbst, die Trägerinstitutionen und selbstverständlich die Gesellschaft Klarheit darüber haben, in welcher Form mit den Beständen umgegangen wird, welche Forschungstätigkeit betrieben wird und wie die Kommunikation umgesetzt wird. Diese Strategien erlauben es, sich auf das Ziel zu konzentrieren und Professionalismus zu gewährleisten, wodurch das Museum seine soziale Funktion erfüllen kann: die Initiierung positiver Veränderungen in der Gesellschaft. Die Epoche, in der wir leben, erfordert genau diese Herangehensweise. Museen brauchen Bezugspunkte, die uns zu wirksamem Handeln antreiben, und nicht Grenzen, die uns von der Ge-
Nachdruck wird also auf die Transparenz der juristischen Fragen, die Inventurliste und die Sicherheit gelegt. Die Forschungs- und Kommunikationsfunktion des Museums drückt sich dadurch aus, in welcher Form das Museum seine Bestände der Bevölkerung zugänglich macht. Das Museum wird für einen befristeten Zeitraum akkreditiert, deshalb ist auch die Entwicklungsstrategie von Bedeutung. Das Gesetz bestimmt diese Kriterien und die Funktionen von Museen eher allgemein. Manchmal wird die Frage gestellt, ob diese Kriterien für die Bewertung einer jeden Art von Museum ideal sind – also etwa gleichermaßen für große staatliche Museen und für kleine, lokale Einrichtungen. Von Beginn der Akkreditierung an war klar, dass noch eine weitere Grenzziehung notwendig ist: die Definition der Mission des Museums. Dieser Terminus hat Phasen der Diskussion, des Unverständnisses und sogar heftiger Anfeindung durchgemacht und wird heute von den lettischen Museen allgemein verwendet. Hierbei geht es nicht um schöne und poetische Phrasen, sondern um allgemeine Fragen. Die Definition der Mission des Museums ist unmittelbar mit dem Charakter des jeweiligen Museums verbunden und sollte die folgenden Fragen beantworten: 1. Was sind Thematik (Profil) und allgemeine Ziele des Museums? 2. Was sind die chronologischen und geografischen Grenzen des Museums? 3. Was ist die Zielgruppe des Museums? Eine gut durchdachte und begründete Mission des Museums, die Antworten auf diese Fragen lie-
fert, stellt klar, was das Museum der Gesellschaft bringen soll. Andererseits erlaubt die praktische Tätigkeit des Museums eine Einschätzung, wie die musealen Funktionen in der jeweiligen Einrichtung orientiert sind und wie sie ihre Mission erfüllt. Die Mission zeigt, ob das Museum seine eigene Richtung und seine Nische in der lettischen Museumslandschaft gefunden hat. Nur diejenigen Einrichtungen, die eine seriöse Analyse durchgeführt und einen Vorgehensplan vorbereitet haben, können eine Mission definieren, die als Instrument und Bezugspunkt bei verschiedenen Aspekten der Museumsarbeit, unter anderem auch bei der Akkreditierung von Museen, dient.
Nachdruck wird also auf die Transparenz der juristischen Fragen, die Inventurliste und die Sicherheit gelegt. Die Forschungs- und Kommunikationsfunktion des Museums drückt sich dadurch aus, in welcher Form das Museum seine Bestände der Bevölkerung zugänglich macht. Das Museum wird für einen befristeten Zeitraum akkreditiert, deshalb ist auch die Entwicklungsstrategie von Bedeutung. Das Gesetz bestimmt diese Kriterien und die Funktionen von Museen eher allgemein. Manchmal wird die Frage gestellt, ob diese Kriterien für die Bewertung einer jeden Art von Museum ideal sind – also etwa gleichermaßen für große staatliche Museen und für kleine, lokale Einrichtungen. Von Beginn der Akkreditierung an war klar, dass noch eine weitere Grenzziehung notwendig ist: die Definition der Mission des Museums. Dieser Terminus hat Phasen der Diskussion, des Unverständnisses und sogar heftiger Anfeindung durchgemacht und wird heute von den lettischen Museen allgemein verwendet. Hierbei geht es nicht um schöne und poetische Phrasen, sondern um allgemeine Fragen. Die Definition der Mission des Museums ist unmittelbar mit dem Charakter des jeweiligen Museums verbunden und sollte die folgenden Fragen beantworten: 1. Was sind Thematik (Profil) und allgemeine Ziele des Museums? 2. Was sind die chronologischen und geografischen Grenzen des Museums? 3. Was ist die Zielgruppe des Museums? Eine gut durchdachte und begründete Mission des Museums, die Antworten auf diese Fragen lie-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
die größte Befriedigung geht davon aus, dass die Museumsmitarbeiter selbst sich dessen bewusst sind, dass die Akkreditierung ein nicht zu überschätzender Anreiz ist, aktiv und organisiert zu werden, und was daraus folgt, Voraussetzungen für die weitere Entwicklung zu schaffen Welche Kriterien gibt es für den Status des akkreditierten Museums? Das Gesetz über die Museen sagt: 1. (2) Ein Museum kann akkreditiert werden, wenn es die folgenden Voraussetzungen erfüllt: 2. Es besitzt eine vom Gründer festgeschriebene Satzung; 3. es wird eine Inventarisierung der Sammlungen geführt; 4. es verfügt über einen Sitz, Ausstattung und Sicherheitssysteme, welche die Aufbewahrung der Sammlungen ermöglicht; 5. der Zugang der Bevölkerung zu den Sammlungen ist gewährleistet; 6. es wurde eine Strategie zur Vervollkommnung des Museums entwickelt.
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Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
sellschaft isolieren. In den lettischen Museen wird die Frage immer aktueller, was wir von den Museen erwarten sollen – Produkte (Ausstellungen, Vorträge, Veranstaltungen) oder Ergebnisse (z.B. das Wissen, das der Besucher aus seinem Museumsbesuch schöpft). Mit den Worten von Stephan Weil: „Die Resultate sind die positiven Veränderungen bei den Empfängern, diese Einflüsse, diese Veränderungen in Herz und Geist, die den letztendlichen Zweck des Museums darstellen.“ [Weil, 2005]. Natürlich sind Produkte notwendig, um diese Resultate zu erzielen. Dennoch verlieren wir bei der Gestaltung dieser Produkte allzu häufig das übergeordnete Ziel aus den Augen. Daher ist die Formulierung der Politik eines Museums ein innerer Anreiz für jedes professionelle Museum, nicht nur an Produkte, sondern vor allem auch an Resultate zu denken.
Wegzeichen
W
as bedeuten jene Abgrenzungen und Wegzeichen für die lettischen Museen? Zunächst das Recht, das die Tätigkeit auf diesem Feld reguliert – das Gesetz über die Museen und die Vorschriften des Ministerrats, die sich daraus ergeben, wie auch die nationale Kulturpolitik, z.B. das 2006 bestätigte Dokument „Nacionālā valsts“ (Die Nationale Regierung). Zu bemerken ist, dass die Spezialisten aus dem Bereich des Museumswesens genauso aktiv an der Arbeit dieser Rechtsgrundlagen mitgewirkt haben. Es war ja der Lettische Museumsrat, der die Verbesserungen im Gesetz über die Museen angeregt hat und es damit zu einem angemesseneren Instrument für professionelle Arbeit gemacht hat, wozu auch die Anerkennung museumswissenschaftlicher und internationaler Praktiken gehört. Zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre, als unsere Länder einen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Schock erlebten, wurde das Gesetz über die Museen geschaffen, um diesen Bereich vor dem Niedergang zu bewahren. Dadurch wurden besondere Absicherungen und Grenzen in der Gesetzgebung verankert. Ähnlich wie auch andere Kulturinstitu-
tionen funktionieren die Museen heute auf einem von einem starken Wettbewerb geprägten Markt. Da sie vor allem aus öffentlichen Mitteln finanziert werden, wird ihnen immer häufiger die Frage nach dem Nutzen für die heutige (und nicht irgendeine mystische zukünftige) Gesellschaft gestellt. Ich denke, die Zeit ist vergangen, in der wir es uns erlauben konnten, Jahre für das Finden eigener Lösungen durch Praxis und empirische Beobachtung zu verschwenden. Heutzutage erwarten alle Seiten von den Museen sofortigen Profit aus den Investitionen. Und wenn eine Museum nicht im Stande ist, dies zu bieten, wird sofort die Frage erhoben: „ Warum vergeuden wir unser Geld dafür?“ Damit die Museen existieren und in der sozialen Sphäre wirksam werden können, ist Professionalismus zum wichtigsten Kriterium geworden. In Lettland haben wir viel Energie aufgewandt, ein professionelles Aus- und Fortbildungssystem für Museumsmitarbeiter zu schaffen. Seit 2000 kann an der Lettischen Kulturakademie der Magistertitel in Museumswissenschaft erworben werden. Außerdem werden Weiterbildungsmaßnahmen angeboten. Der Staatliche Museumsrat besitzt eine zum Selbststudium bestimmte Bibliothek mit museumswissenschaftlicher Literatur, ausländischen Monografien und unserer eigenen Publikationsserie „Bibliothek der Museologie“. Ein besonderes Bildungsprojekt ist die „Schule der baltischen Museologie“, in der Mitarbeiter von Museen aus Lettland, Litauen und Estland die Möglichkeit haben, sich mit weltberühmten Koryphäen zu treffen: mit Stephen Weil, Martin Scherer, Peter van Mensch, Francoise Mairesse, Anja Dauschek und anderen. Wie unsere Museen sind, wonach sie streben, welche Abgrenzungen und Wegzeichen wir wählen, hängt weitgehend vom Professionalismus der Mitarbeiter ab. Deswegen ist es wichtig, in einer Situation, in der die Parolen von Museen ohne Grenzen frisch und innovativ klingen, die Notwendigkeit der Absteckung professionell begründeter Grenzen und ihre wichtige Rolle bei der Tätigkeit der Museen zum Nutzen der Gesellschaft hervorzuheben.
Literatur Stransky Z., Wstęp do badań muzeologicznych, Brno, 1995.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Weil S. E., A Success/Failure Matrix for Museums, „Museum News”, January/February, 2005.
171
1995. Stransky Z., Wstęp do badań muzeologicznych, Brno,
seum News”, January/February, 2005. Weil S. E., A Success/Failure Matrix for Museums, „Mu-
Literatur as bedeuten jene Abgrenzungen und Wegzeichen für die lettischen Museen? Zunächst das Recht, das die Tätigkeit auf diesem Feld reguliert – das Gesetz über die Museen und die Vorschriften des Ministerrats, die sich daraus ergeben, wie auch die nationale Kulturpolitik, z.B. das 2006 bestätigte Dokument „Nacionālā valsts“ (Die Nationale Regierung). Zu bemerken ist, dass die Spezialisten aus dem Bereich des Museumswesens genauso aktiv an der Arbeit dieser Rechtsgrundlagen mitgewirkt haben. Es war ja der Lettische Museumsrat, der die Verbesserungen im Gesetz über die Museen angeregt hat und es damit zu einem angemesseneren Instrument für professionelle Arbeit gemacht hat, wozu auch die Anerkennung museumswissenschaftlicher und internationaler Praktiken gehört. Zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre, als unsere Länder einen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Schock erlebten, wurde das Gesetz über die Museen geschaffen, um diesen Bereich vor dem Niedergang zu bewahren. Dadurch wurden besondere Absicherungen und Grenzen in der Gesetzgebung verankert. Ähnlich wie auch andere Kulturinstitu-
W
Wegzeichen sellschaft isolieren. In den lettischen Museen wird die Frage immer aktueller, was wir von den Museen erwarten sollen – Produkte (Ausstellungen, Vorträge, Veranstaltungen) oder Ergebnisse (z.B. das Wissen, das der Besucher aus seinem Museumsbesuch schöpft). Mit den Worten von Stephan Weil: „Die Resultate sind die positiven Veränderungen bei den Empfängern, diese Einflüsse, diese Veränderungen in Herz und Geist, die den letztendlichen Zweck des Museums darstellen.“ [Weil, 2005]. Natürlich sind Produkte notwendig, um diese Resultate zu erzielen. Dennoch verlieren wir bei der Gestaltung dieser Produkte allzu häufig das übergeordnete Ziel aus den Augen. Daher ist die Formulierung der Politik eines Museums ein innerer Anreiz für jedes professionelle Museum, nicht nur an Produkte, sondern vor allem auch an Resultate zu denken.
tionen funktionieren die Museen heute auf einem von einem starken Wettbewerb geprägten Markt. Da sie vor allem aus öffentlichen Mitteln finanziert werden, wird ihnen immer häufiger die Frage nach dem Nutzen für die heutige (und nicht irgendeine mystische zukünftige) Gesellschaft gestellt. Ich denke, die Zeit ist vergangen, in der wir es uns erlauben konnten, Jahre für das Finden eigener Lösungen durch Praxis und empirische Beobachtung zu verschwenden. Heutzutage erwarten alle Seiten von den Museen sofortigen Profit aus den Investitionen. Und wenn eine Museum nicht im Stande ist, dies zu bieten, wird sofort die Frage erhoben: „ Warum vergeuden wir unser Geld dafür?“ Damit die Museen existieren und in der sozialen Sphäre wirksam werden können, ist Professionalismus zum wichtigsten Kriterium geworden. In Lettland haben wir viel Energie aufgewandt, ein professionelles Aus- und Fortbildungssystem für Museumsmitarbeiter zu schaffen. Seit 2000 kann an der Lettischen Kulturakademie der Magistertitel in Museumswissenschaft erworben werden. Außerdem werden Weiterbildungsmaßnahmen angeboten. Der Staatliche Museumsrat besitzt eine zum Selbststudium bestimmte Bibliothek mit museumswissenschaftlicher Literatur, ausländischen Monografien und unserer eigenen Publikationsserie „Bibliothek der Museologie“. Ein besonderes Bildungsprojekt ist die „Schule der baltischen Museologie“, in der Mitarbeiter von Museen aus Lettland, Litauen und Estland die Möglichkeit haben, sich mit weltberühmten Koryphäen zu treffen: mit Stephen Weil, Martin Scherer, Peter van Mensch, Francoise Mairesse, Anja Dauschek und anderen. Wie unsere Museen sind, wonach sie streben, welche Abgrenzungen und Wegzeichen wir wählen, hängt weitgehend vom Professionalismus der Mitarbeiter ab. Deswegen ist es wichtig, in einer Situation, in der die Parolen von Museen ohne Grenzen frisch und innovativ klingen, die Notwendigkeit der Absteckung professionell begründeter Grenzen und ihre wichtige Rolle bei der Tätigkeit der Museen zum Nutzen der Gesellschaft hervorzuheben.
172 Im Weiteren verwende ich einen Textabschnitt aus [Kargul, 2001].
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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172
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Im Weiteren verwende ich einen Textabschnitt aus [Kargul, 2001].
Józef Kargul
1
aus den Regeln, aus denen sich Rechte und Pflichten der Partner ableiten, von denen der Einzelne die Prärogative der Macht in Abhängigkeit von der von ihm eingenommen sozialen Position (seinem Sozialstatus) erhält. Die Macht ist legitimiert und die Autorität weist keinen persönlichen Charakter auf, sondern ist eine Autorität der Position (des Status) [vgl. Sztompka, op. cit., S. 374-375]. Die Pädagogik wiederum beruft sich bei ihren Analysen der Autorität häufiger auf die Philosophie. Katarzyna Olbrycht zum Beispiel bemerkt, dass die genannten soziologischen Ansätze keinen Bezug zur Axiologie aufweisen, die jedoch ihrer Auffassung nach eines der Fundamente der Autorität darstellt. In ihren Analysen bezieht sie sich auf die Ansichten von Władysław Stróżewski, der die Voraussetzungen aufzeigt, die eine Autoritätsperson aufweisen sollte. Die Autorin unterstreicht also: „Grundlegend ist die Verbindung von erheblichen Fertigkeiten auf dem jeweiligen Gebiet mit Persönlichkeit, Kompetenz und verwirklichten persönlichen Werten. Eine Autorität muss ein Vorbild objektiver, überdurchschnittlicher Eigenschaften darstellen, die in ihr ein so hohes Niveau erreicht haben, dass sie als Vorbild dastehen kann, dessen Nachahmung das Erlangen bestimmter Werte verspricht.“ [Olbrycht, 2007, S. 31] Ich meine also, dass diese Aspekte bei der Behandlung der Autorität des Kulturanimateurs ebenfalls zu berücksichtigen sind, aber ich schlage vor, die Analyse vom Gesichtspunkt der Orte vorzunehmen, die den Animateuren theoretisch in bestimmten Räumen beizumessen sind.1 Der erste von ihnen ist der soziale Raum, der von der Soziologie als „Markt der Interaktionen“ bezeichnet wird, auf dem Einzelne gesellschaftliche Bindungen schaffen. Das Netz der Abhängigkeiten
aus den Regeln, aus denen sich Rechte und Pflichten der Partner ableiten, von denen der Einzelne die Prärogative der Macht in Abhängigkeit von der von ihm eingenommen sozialen Position (seinem Sozialstatus) erhält. Die Macht ist legitimiert und die Autorität weist keinen persönlichen Charakter auf, sondern ist eine Autorität der Position (des Status) [vgl. Sztompka, op. cit., S. 374-375]. Die Pädagogik wiederum beruft sich bei ihren Analysen der Autorität häufiger auf die Philosophie. Katarzyna Olbrycht zum Beispiel bemerkt, dass die genannten soziologischen Ansätze keinen Bezug zur Axiologie aufweisen, die jedoch ihrer Auffassung nach eines der Fundamente der Autorität darstellt. In ihren Analysen bezieht sie sich auf die Ansichten von Władysław Stróżewski, der die Voraussetzungen aufzeigt, die eine Autoritätsperson aufweisen sollte. Die Autorin unterstreicht also: „Grundlegend ist die Verbindung von erheblichen Fertigkeiten auf dem jeweiligen Gebiet mit Persönlichkeit, Kompetenz und verwirklichten persönlichen Werten. Eine Autorität muss ein Vorbild objektiver, überdurchschnittlicher Eigenschaften darstellen, die in ihr ein so hohes Niveau erreicht haben, dass sie als Vorbild dastehen kann, dessen Nachahmung das Erlangen bestimmter Werte verspricht.“ [Olbrycht, 2007, S. 31] Ich meine also, dass diese Aspekte bei der Behandlung der Autorität des Kulturanimateurs ebenfalls zu berücksichtigen sind, aber ich schlage vor, die Analyse vom Gesichtspunkt der Orte vorzunehmen, die den Animateuren theoretisch in bestimmten Räumen beizumessen sind.1 Der erste von ihnen ist der soziale Raum, der von der Soziologie als „Markt der Interaktionen“ bezeichnet wird, auf dem Einzelne gesellschaftliche Bindungen schaffen. Das Netz der Abhängigkeiten
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs werde ich in diesem Beitrag auf zwei Ebenen betrachten. Auf der Ebene der praktischen Wirklichkeit, in der sich verschiedene Prozesse und Erscheinungen im Bereich der Verbreitung von Kultur und der gesellschaftlich-kulturellen Animation feststellen lassen, und auf der Ebene der theoretischen Reflexion über die Tätigkeit des Kulturanimateurs. Eingangs jedoch ein paar Worte über die Autorität selbst als begriffliche Kategorie. Im Wörterbuch der polnischen Sprache finden wir eine Begriffsbestimmung mit zwei Bedeutungen: „1. Jemandes allgemein anerkanntes Ansehen, Einfluss, Bedeutung. 2. Mensch, Institution, Doktrin, Schrift, die in einem Bereich oder einer speziellen Gruppe von Menschen besondere Anerkennung, Hochachtung genießt” [Słownik języka polskiego, 1978, S. 102]. Die Soziologie untersucht das Problem der Autorität in Formeltheorien, und innerhalb dieses Bereichs in der Einflusstheorie [vgl. Merton, 1892] und/oder in Machttheorien [vgl. Sztompka, 2002]. Eine solche Situation, in der das Subjekt Einfluss ausübt auf sehr differenzierte und verschiedenartige Bereiche und sein Ansehen allgemein anerkannt ist, wird seine Autorität in den soziologischen Einflusstheorien als polymorph bezeichnet [Merton, op. cit.]. Dahingegen zeigt der machttheoretische Ansatz, dass ein elementarer Aspekt der Autorität der Einfluss ist, der es erlaubt, sofern er nicht mit Erlaubnis und Akzeptanz einer anderen Person ausgeübt wird, die Form einer persönlichen Autorität zu erreichen. Macht findet statt im Bereich der Kontakte und Interaktionen, stützt sich auf persönliche Attribute und wird spontan und nicht von oben oktroyiert ausgeübt. Innerhalb der sozialen Beziehungen ergibt sie sich
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs werde ich in diesem Beitrag auf zwei Ebenen betrachten. Auf der Ebene der praktischen Wirklichkeit, in der sich verschiedene Prozesse und Erscheinungen im Bereich der Verbreitung von Kultur und der gesellschaftlich-kulturellen Animation feststellen lassen, und auf der Ebene der theoretischen Reflexion über die Tätigkeit des Kulturanimateurs. Eingangs jedoch ein paar Worte über die Autorität selbst als begriffliche Kategorie. Im Wörterbuch der polnischen Sprache finden wir eine Begriffsbestimmung mit zwei Bedeutungen: „1. Jemandes allgemein anerkanntes Ansehen, Einfluss, Bedeutung. 2. Mensch, Institution, Doktrin, Schrift, die in einem Bereich oder einer speziellen Gruppe von Menschen besondere Anerkennung, Hochachtung genießt” [Słownik języka polskiego, 1978, S. 102]. Die Soziologie untersucht das Problem der Autorität in Formeltheorien, und innerhalb dieses Bereichs in der Einflusstheorie [vgl. Merton, 1892] und/oder in Machttheorien [vgl. Sztompka, 2002]. Eine solche Situation, in der das Subjekt Einfluss ausübt auf sehr differenzierte und verschiedenartige Bereiche und sein Ansehen allgemein anerkannt ist, wird seine Autorität in den soziologischen Einflusstheorien als polymorph bezeichnet [Merton, op. cit.]. Dahingegen zeigt der machttheoretische Ansatz, dass ein elementarer Aspekt der Autorität der Einfluss ist, der es erlaubt, sofern er nicht mit Erlaubnis und Akzeptanz einer anderen Person ausgeübt wird, die Form einer persönlichen Autorität zu erreichen. Macht findet statt im Bereich der Kontakte und Interaktionen, stützt sich auf persönliche Attribute und wird spontan und nicht von oben oktroyiert ausgeübt. Innerhalb der sozialen Beziehungen ergibt sie sich
Józef Kargul Pädagoge und Andragoge. Seit 1997 arbeitet er als Professor an der Universität in Zielona Góra, seit 2006 an der Universität von Niederschlesien. Sein Forschungsbereich umfasst die Grundlegung einer Theorie von Kulturpopularisierung und soziokultureller Animation wie auch Theorie von Lebenslangem Lernen. Er veröffentlichte über 200 Publikationen, darunter 10 Bücher (Autor von 7 und Mitautor von 3 Büchern). Seit 1999 ist er Veranstalter und wissenschaftlicher Leiter der Sommerschule für Junge Andragogen. 2006-2009 arbeitete er als Redakteur der Fachzeitschrift Dyskursy młodych andragogów (Diskurse Junger Andragogen). Der Mitglied von zahlreichen wissenschaftlichen Organisationen (u.a. dem Komitee der Pädagogischen Wissenschaften von der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (1993-2002), der Breslauer Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, Akademischen Gesellschaft für Andragogen (Vorstandsmitglied) und der
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
1
Józef Kargul
Józef Kargul Pädagoge und Andragoge. Seit 1997 arbeitet er als Professor an der Universität in Zielona Góra, seit 2006 an der Universität von Niederschlesien. Sein Forschungsbereich umfasst die Grundlegung einer Theorie von Kulturpopularisierung und soziokultureller Animation wie auch Theorie von Lebenslangem Lernen. Er veröffentlichte über 200 Publikationen, darunter 10 Bücher (Autor von 7 und Mitautor von 3 Büchern). Seit 1999 ist er Veranstalter und wissenschaftlicher Leiter der Sommerschule für Junge Andragogen. 2006-2009 arbeitete er als Redakteur der Fachzeitschrift Dyskursy młodych andragogów (Diskurse Junger Andragogen). Der Mitglied von zahlreichen wissenschaftlichen Organisationen (u.a. dem Komitee der Pädagogischen Wissenschaften von der Polnischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (1993-2002), der Breslauer Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, Akademischen Gesellschaft für Andragogen (Vorstandsmitglied) und der
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Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3) 2
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Wenn also eine solche Situation stattfindet und die Teilnehmer der Interaktion die losen Vorschläge des Animateurs akzeptieren und Anstrengungen unternehmen, ihr bisheriges Verhalten zu ändern, dann haben wir es mit einer persönlichen Autorität zu tun. Der Animateur übt hier natürlich ebenfalls eine Macht über den Einzelnen oder die Gruppe aus, aber es handelt sich um Macht in ihrer weichen, milden oder, wie Piotr Sztompka schreibt, eleganten Form. Der Animateur übt diesen persönlichen Einfluss aus dank seiner konkreten Persönlichkeitsmerkmale, er versteht es, andere, die sich dazu bereit zeigen, zu seinen Intentionen zu überzeugen, zu bitten, zu überzeugen. In diesem Fall besitzt die Autorität des Animateurs eine monomorphe Dimension, denn sie wirkt sich nicht auf einen weiten Personenkreis aus, sondern auf Individuen oder in einer bestimmten Hinsicht homogene Gruppen. Wenn jedoch die Überzeugungsfähigkeiten des Animateurs einen solchen Grad erreichen würden, dass sich sein Einfluss in Verhaltensänderungen seiner Interaktionspartner auf vielen Gebieten ihres Lebens manifestiert, dann hätten wir es mit einer polymorphen Autorität zu tun. Der öffentliche Raum ist weiterer Bereich, in dem meiner Ansicht nach die Aktivität des Kulturanimateurs zu verorten ist. Dieser Raum wird von der Soziologie als Bereich definiert, in dem sich ein Spiel um Einfluss auf öffentliche Angelegenheiten abspielt, um Kontrolle über öffentliche Güter und Ressourcen. „Öffentliche Güter lassen sich als diejenigen Güter definieren, die kollektiv erzeugt und konsumiert werden und von deren Partizipation keine Einzelnen ausgeschlossen werden können.“ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., S. 33]. Die Aktivität in diesem Raum erzeugt am meisten Widersprüche und Dilemmas. Auch der Kulturanimateur kann bei seiner Tätigkeit verschiedenen Situationen begegnen oder sogar selbst solche kreieren, die den Charakter eines Dilemmas aufweisen. Der bereits erwähnte Animateur, der Fähigkeiten freisetzt, belebt, ermuntert, anfeuert, Kräfte und Mut zum Handeln verleiht, kann bei Einzelnen den Ehrgeiz zur Verwirklichung ihrer eigenen Interessen freisetzen, und dies nicht nur gegen, sondern auch auf Kosten der anderen. Dies kann etwa dann eintreten, wenn ein Animateur, der ein Theaterensemble leitet, dank seiner Tätigkeit die künstlerischen Talente eines schüchternen
Józef Kargul
und Zusammenhänge zwischen den Einzelpersonen verschafft dem Einzelnen in hohem Maße die Chance zur Verbesserung seiner Lebenssituation [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., S. 28]. Der Kulturanimateur handelt in einem solchen sozialen Raum, indem er die gesellschaftliche oder kulturelle Aktivität bestimmter Personen anregt, stimuliert und ihnen dadurch hilft, ihre eigenen kreativen Ressourcen zu entdecken. Häufig tut er dies, indem er zugleich Bedingungen für die Anknüpfung zwischenmenschlicher Interaktionen schafft, was die Ausprägung eines ganzen Beziehungsgeflechts von sozialen Interaktionen unterstützt.2 Auf diese Weise erweitern sich die Ressourcen der sozialen Beziehungen, die eine Art von Sozialkapital darstellen können. Entgegen der verbreiteten Ansicht erlaubt es dieses Kapital, verschiedene vor allem nichtwirtschaftliche Interessen zu verfolgen. Dazu gehört nicht selten die Freude am Schaffen, die unter dem Einfluss der Ermunterung durch den Animateur entsteht und neue, bislang unbekannte Erfahrungen vermittelt. Denn schon allein die Tatsache der Anknüpfung starker sozialer Bindungen zwischen Personen, die in einem bestimmten Bereich der Kultur tätig sind, führt zu Freundschaften, und das allein ist für manchen schon ein ungeheuer wichtiges „Geschäft“. Die Arbeit der Kulturanimateure harmoniert mit dem „freien Markt“ in der Hinsicht, dass durch den Kontakt mit dem Animateur die Menschen beginnen, an ihre eigenen Begabungen, ihre Fähigkeiten zu glauben und zugleich sehr häufig lernen, ihre individuellen Bedürfnisse umzusetzen, was nicht heißt, dass dies die Erzielung eines positiven Gruppenergebnisses behindern würde. Ein Animateur, der belebt, zur Aktivität ermuntert, hilft, anspornt, aber nicht bewertet, keine willkürlichen Entscheidungen trifft, nicht verurteilt, nicht unterdrückt, was spontan in der Gruppe oder einem Einzelnen zum Vorschein kommt, ist ein Schauspieler, der in einem gesellschaftlichen Raum agiert, der zwar selten ein klar formuliertes Ziel besitzt, aber eine spontane Entwicklung der Interaktionspartner zulässt. Und eben darin steckt seine soziale Kraft. Die Interaktionspartner können dem Animateur keine Manipulation vorwerfen, denn der in ihnen geweckte Glaube an die eigenen Kräfte kann dazu führen, dass sie ohne Widerstände die sprichwörtliche „Angel“ in die Hand nehmen und wissen, wozu sie ihnen nützlich sein kann.
Wenn also eine solche Situation stattfindet und die Teilnehmer der Interaktion die losen Vorschläge des Animateurs akzeptieren und Anstrengungen unternehmen, ihr bisheriges Verhalten zu ändern, dann haben wir es mit einer persönlichen Autorität zu tun. Der Animateur übt hier natürlich ebenfalls eine Macht über den Einzelnen oder die Gruppe aus, aber es handelt sich um Macht in ihrer weichen, milden oder, wie Piotr Sztompka schreibt, eleganten Form. Der Animateur übt diesen persönlichen Einfluss aus dank seiner konkreten Persönlichkeitsmerkmale, er versteht es, andere, die sich dazu bereit zeigen, zu seinen Intentionen zu überzeugen, zu bitten, zu überzeugen. In diesem Fall besitzt die Autorität des Animateurs eine monomorphe Dimension, denn sie wirkt sich nicht auf einen weiten Personenkreis aus, sondern auf Individuen oder in einer bestimmten Hinsicht homogene Gruppen. Wenn jedoch die Überzeugungsfähigkeiten des Animateurs einen solchen Grad erreichen würden, dass sich sein Einfluss in Verhaltensänderungen seiner Interaktionspartner auf vielen Gebieten ihres Lebens manifestiert, dann hätten wir es mit einer polymorphen Autorität zu tun. Der öffentliche Raum ist weiterer Bereich, in dem meiner Ansicht nach die Aktivität des Kulturanimateurs zu verorten ist. Dieser Raum wird von der Soziologie als Bereich definiert, in dem sich ein Spiel um Einfluss auf öffentliche Angelegenheiten abspielt, um Kontrolle über öffentliche Güter und Ressourcen. „Öffentliche Güter lassen sich als diejenigen Güter definieren, die kollektiv erzeugt und konsumiert werden und von deren Partizipation keine Einzelnen ausgeschlossen werden können.“ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., S. 33]. Die Aktivität in diesem Raum erzeugt am meisten Widersprüche und Dilemmas. Auch der Kulturanimateur kann bei seiner Tätigkeit verschiedenen Situationen begegnen oder sogar selbst solche kreieren, die den Charakter eines Dilemmas aufweisen. Der bereits erwähnte Animateur, der Fähigkeiten freisetzt, belebt, ermuntert, anfeuert, Kräfte und Mut zum Handeln verleiht, kann bei Einzelnen den Ehrgeiz zur Verwirklichung ihrer eigenen Interessen freisetzen, und dies nicht nur gegen, sondern auch auf Kosten der anderen. Dies kann etwa dann eintreten, wenn ein Animateur, der ein Theaterensemble leitet, dank seiner Tätigkeit die künstlerischen Talente eines schüchternen
Józef Kargul
2
Darauf machen aufmerksam A.Kargulowa und K. Ferenz [Kargulowi, Ferenc, 1991]. Die Autorinnen öffneten wohl zum ersten Mal in der Literatur über Analysen der Kultur- und Bildungsarbeit von Kulturhäusern einen Blick auf diese Institutionen als Ort weit reichender und vielfältiger Einflüsse und Prozesse mit offenem und unkontrolliertem Charakter, angenähert an die griechische Agora.
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs
und Zusammenhänge zwischen den Einzelpersonen verschafft dem Einzelnen in hohem Maße die Chance zur Verbesserung seiner Lebenssituation [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., S. 28]. Der Kulturanimateur handelt in einem solchen sozialen Raum, indem er die gesellschaftliche oder kulturelle Aktivität bestimmter Personen anregt, stimuliert und ihnen dadurch hilft, ihre eigenen kreativen Ressourcen zu entdecken. Häufig tut er dies, indem er zugleich Bedingungen für die Anknüpfung zwischenmenschlicher Interaktionen schafft, was die Ausprägung eines ganzen Beziehungsgeflechts von sozialen Interaktionen unterstützt.2 Auf diese Weise erweitern sich die Ressourcen der sozialen Beziehungen, die eine Art von Sozialkapital darstellen können. Entgegen der verbreiteten Ansicht erlaubt es dieses Kapital, verschiedene vor allem nichtwirtschaftliche Interessen zu verfolgen. Dazu gehört nicht selten die Freude am Schaffen, die unter dem Einfluss der Ermunterung durch den Animateur entsteht und neue, bislang unbekannte Erfahrungen vermittelt. Denn schon allein die Tatsache der Anknüpfung starker sozialer Bindungen zwischen Personen, die in einem bestimmten Bereich der Kultur tätig sind, führt zu Freundschaften, und das allein ist für manchen schon ein ungeheuer wichtiges „Geschäft“. Die Arbeit der Kulturanimateure harmoniert mit dem „freien Markt“ in der Hinsicht, dass durch den Kontakt mit dem Animateur die Menschen beginnen, an ihre eigenen Begabungen, ihre Fähigkeiten zu glauben und zugleich sehr häufig lernen, ihre individuellen Bedürfnisse umzusetzen, was nicht heißt, dass dies die Erzielung eines positiven Gruppenergebnisses behindern würde. Ein Animateur, der belebt, zur Aktivität ermuntert, hilft, anspornt, aber nicht bewertet, keine willkürlichen Entscheidungen trifft, nicht verurteilt, nicht unterdrückt, was spontan in der Gruppe oder einem Einzelnen zum Vorschein kommt, ist ein Schauspieler, der in einem gesellschaftlichen Raum agiert, der zwar selten ein klar formuliertes Ziel besitzt, aber eine spontane Entwicklung der Interaktionspartner zulässt. Und eben darin steckt seine soziale Kraft. Die Interaktionspartner können dem Animateur keine Manipulation vorwerfen, denn der in ihnen geweckte Glaube an die eigenen Kräfte kann dazu führen, dass sie ohne Widerstände die sprichwörtliche „Angel“ in die Hand nehmen und wissen, wozu sie ihnen nützlich sein kann.
Darauf machen aufmerksam A.Kargulowa und K. Ferenz [Kargulowi, Ferenc, 1991]. Die Autorinnen öffneten wohl zum ersten Mal in der Literatur über Analysen der Kultur- und Bildungsarbeit von Kulturhäusern einen Blick auf diese Institutionen als Ort weit reichender und vielfältiger Einflüsse und Prozesse mit offenem und unkontrolliertem Charakter, angenähert an die griechische Agora.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
173
Redaktionsratsmitglied von wissenschaftlichen Fachzeitschiften. Der Vorsitzende des Wissenschaftsrates Edukacja Dorosłych (Erwachsenenbildung).
Redaktionsratsmitglied von wissenschaftlichen Fachzeitschiften. Der Vorsitzende des Wissenschaftsrates Edukacja Dorosłych (Erwachsenenbildung).
denartigen Dilemmas löst, hängt ab, ob seine Autorität gestärkt oder geschwächt wird oder ob er sie gar ganz verliert. Etwas anders stellt sich die Tätigkeit von Animateuren dar, wenn wir sie im institutionellen Raum verorten. Dieser Raum ist der Bereich, in dem sich die Festigung der Regeln für Vorgehensweisen vollzieht. Diese Regeln werden in zweifacher Hinsicht geschaffen: entweder auf makropolitischer Ebene, wenn die Einzelnen sich mehr oder weniger aktiv daran anpassen, oder es handelt sich um Regeln, die in der täglichen Praxis der Einzelnen, der gesellschaftlichen Gruppen und Organisationen aufgestellt werden. Der institutionelle Raum eröffnet Einzelnen und Gruppen sowohl Handlungsmöglichkeiten als auch Bedingungen, die diese Möglichkeiten einschränken. Gleichwohl besteht eine grundsätzliche Verschiedenheit der Rollen von Institutionen in stabilen Zeitperioden und in Zeiten radikaler Veränderungen. „In der erstgenannten Situation erfüllen die Institutionen eine beschränkende Rolle für die auf verschiedenen Ebenen des gesellschaftlichen Lebens geführten Spiele. In der zweiten Situation dreht sich das Spiel selbst um die Gestalt dieser Spiele. Institutionen wechseln aus der Rolle des Regulators und Stabilisators des Spiels in die Rolle des Gegenstands und Ziels des Spiels.“ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., S. 39]. Solche Spiele um die Spielregeln wurden im Fall der Kulturanimation in der ersten Zeit der Systemtransformation zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre ausgetragen und haben sich im Grunde genommen bis zum heutigen Tag fortgesetzt. Im weiteren Verlauf, bereits nach dem Jahr 2000, können wir beobachten, wie das überkommene institutionelle System der Verbreitung von Kultur durch Kulturhäuser, Klubs oder Schulhorte, das die Verhaltensweisen der Akteure reguliert, so stark ist, dass die Mitarbeiter in diesen Einrichtungen schablonenhaft, routinemäßig vorgehen und identische Formen der Teilhabe an der Kultur organisieren wie in der Zeit der Volksrepublik, wobei sie ihren beruflichen Aufgaben unverändert gegenüberstehen. 3 Zugleich jedoch tauchen in diesen Institutionen Animateure auf, die mit anderen Mitarbeitern wetteifern und sich bemühen, dass ihre Strategien und Verhaltensweisen auf Akzeptanz stoßen, um sie so gesellschaftlich zu festigen. So kristallisiert sich eine neue Qualität von Kulturinstitutionen heraus, in der zwei Verhaltensweisen nebeneinander stehen: auf der einen Seite Expansion und Steuerung der
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Jungen freisetzt und mit Erschrecken feststellen muss, dass dieser Teilnehmer, der zunächst außerhalb der Gruppe stand, zum „Star“ avanciert, der nunmehr versucht, die anderen zu dominieren und sogar nach „Anerkennungsbezeugungen für seine Größe“ verlangt. Ein ähnlicher Fall tritt ein, wenn ein Mädchen mit der Lebenshaltung einer „grauen Maus“ plötzlich beginnt, an ihr Tanztalent zu glauben und auf aggressive Weise vom Animateur verlangt, seine Zeit nur ihr allein zu widmen und ein intensives Training anzusetzen, denn sie habe beschlossen, bei einem Tanzwettbewerb den ersten Preis davonzutragen. Oder dann, wenn eine künstlerische Jugendgruppe so von ihrer Arbeit fasziniert ist, oder besser gesagt von der Anwesenheit in ihrer geschlossenen Gesellschaft im Kulturzentrum, dass sie nachdrücklich von der Leitung fordert, den Seniorenclub zu liquidieren und die Räumlichkeiten ihnen zur ausschließlichen Nutzung zu überlassen. Ähnliche Zwiespälte gibt es im sozialen Leben, im Umfeld des Animateurs, in großer Zahl. Beispiele liefern uns die eigenen Beobachtung und die Medien. Diese Beschreibungen zeugen davon, dass in diesem Fall die Mechanismen des freien Markts sich als am wenigstens effizient erweisen – in der Beziehung, dass der Markt eine Nachfrage nach bestimmten Leistungen erzeugt, diese Leistungen gemäß den Gesetzen des Markts erbracht werden und dadurch die Bedürfnisse bestimmter Personen oder Gruppen befriedigt werden, wobei die Nebenwirkungen des Prozesses der Bedürfnisbefriedigung Konfliktsituationen hervorrufen. Wenn der Animatuer in der Zielgruppe persönliche Autorität gewinnt, nicht nur im jeweiligen Fachgebiet, sondern auch in moralischer Hinsicht, dann wird er keine Schwierigkeiten mit der Konfliktlösung haben. Er kann dann nämlich seine Machtprärogative, die sich aus seinem Status ergibt, nutzen, also auf die sich aus seiner sozialen Position ergebende Autorität zurückgreifen. Aufgrund seiner Kompetenzen oder seiner Anstellung in einer Institution besitzt er die natürliche Möglichkeit, für andere zu entscheiden, etwas von anderen zu verlangen, ihnen Anweisungen oder Befehle zu geben und sie, wenn nötig, zum Gehorsam zu zwingen“ [Sztompka, op. cit., S. 375 ]. Er verfügt also über eine solche Prärogative, mit der er in kurzer Zeit Konflikte lösen kann. Das Problem liegt allerdings darin, dass ihr Einsatz so vonstatten gehen muss, dass er nicht die Idee der Animation selbst in Frage stellt. Davon, wie der Animateur die im Alltag entstehenden verschie-
174
Als Beispiel mag die Organisation großer Propagandaveranstaltungen dienen, die seit Jahren nach einem einzigen Szenario statfinden, das nur den Inhalt/Gegenstand der Propaganda differenziert.
Als Beispiel mag die Organisation großer Propagandaveranstaltungen dienen, die seit Jahren nach einem einzigen Szenario statfinden, das nur den Inhalt/Gegenstand der Propaganda differenziert.
3
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3) 3
denartigen Dilemmas löst, hängt ab, ob seine Autorität gestärkt oder geschwächt wird oder ob er sie gar ganz verliert. Etwas anders stellt sich die Tätigkeit von Animateuren dar, wenn wir sie im institutionellen Raum verorten. Dieser Raum ist der Bereich, in dem sich die Festigung der Regeln für Vorgehensweisen vollzieht. Diese Regeln werden in zweifacher Hinsicht geschaffen: entweder auf makropolitischer Ebene, wenn die Einzelnen sich mehr oder weniger aktiv daran anpassen, oder es handelt sich um Regeln, die in der täglichen Praxis der Einzelnen, der gesellschaftlichen Gruppen und Organisationen aufgestellt werden. Der institutionelle Raum eröffnet Einzelnen und Gruppen sowohl Handlungsmöglichkeiten als auch Bedingungen, die diese Möglichkeiten einschränken. Gleichwohl besteht eine grundsätzliche Verschiedenheit der Rollen von Institutionen in stabilen Zeitperioden und in Zeiten radikaler Veränderungen. „In der erstgenannten Situation erfüllen die Institutionen eine beschränkende Rolle für die auf verschiedenen Ebenen des gesellschaftlichen Lebens geführten Spiele. In der zweiten Situation dreht sich das Spiel selbst um die Gestalt dieser Spiele. Institutionen wechseln aus der Rolle des Regulators und Stabilisators des Spiels in die Rolle des Gegenstands und Ziels des Spiels.“ [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, op. cit., S. 39]. Solche Spiele um die Spielregeln wurden im Fall der Kulturanimation in der ersten Zeit der Systemtransformation zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre ausgetragen und haben sich im Grunde genommen bis zum heutigen Tag fortgesetzt. Im weiteren Verlauf, bereits nach dem Jahr 2000, können wir beobachten, wie das überkommene institutionelle System der Verbreitung von Kultur durch Kulturhäuser, Klubs oder Schulhorte, das die Verhaltensweisen der Akteure reguliert, so stark ist, dass die Mitarbeiter in diesen Einrichtungen schablonenhaft, routinemäßig vorgehen und identische Formen der Teilhabe an der Kultur organisieren wie in der Zeit der Volksrepublik, wobei sie ihren beruflichen Aufgaben unverändert gegenüberstehen. 3 Zugleich jedoch tauchen in diesen Institutionen Animateure auf, die mit anderen Mitarbeitern wetteifern und sich bemühen, dass ihre Strategien und Verhaltensweisen auf Akzeptanz stoßen, um sie so gesellschaftlich zu festigen. So kristallisiert sich eine neue Qualität von Kulturinstitutionen heraus, in der zwei Verhaltensweisen nebeneinander stehen: auf der einen Seite Expansion und Steuerung der
174
Jungen freisetzt und mit Erschrecken feststellen muss, dass dieser Teilnehmer, der zunächst außerhalb der Gruppe stand, zum „Star“ avanciert, der nunmehr versucht, die anderen zu dominieren und sogar nach „Anerkennungsbezeugungen für seine Größe“ verlangt. Ein ähnlicher Fall tritt ein, wenn ein Mädchen mit der Lebenshaltung einer „grauen Maus“ plötzlich beginnt, an ihr Tanztalent zu glauben und auf aggressive Weise vom Animateur verlangt, seine Zeit nur ihr allein zu widmen und ein intensives Training anzusetzen, denn sie habe beschlossen, bei einem Tanzwettbewerb den ersten Preis davonzutragen. Oder dann, wenn eine künstlerische Jugendgruppe so von ihrer Arbeit fasziniert ist, oder besser gesagt von der Anwesenheit in ihrer geschlossenen Gesellschaft im Kulturzentrum, dass sie nachdrücklich von der Leitung fordert, den Seniorenclub zu liquidieren und die Räumlichkeiten ihnen zur ausschließlichen Nutzung zu überlassen. Ähnliche Zwiespälte gibt es im sozialen Leben, im Umfeld des Animateurs, in großer Zahl. Beispiele liefern uns die eigenen Beobachtung und die Medien. Diese Beschreibungen zeugen davon, dass in diesem Fall die Mechanismen des freien Markts sich als am wenigstens effizient erweisen – in der Beziehung, dass der Markt eine Nachfrage nach bestimmten Leistungen erzeugt, diese Leistungen gemäß den Gesetzen des Markts erbracht werden und dadurch die Bedürfnisse bestimmter Personen oder Gruppen befriedigt werden, wobei die Nebenwirkungen des Prozesses der Bedürfnisbefriedigung Konfliktsituationen hervorrufen. Wenn der Animatuer in der Zielgruppe persönliche Autorität gewinnt, nicht nur im jeweiligen Fachgebiet, sondern auch in moralischer Hinsicht, dann wird er keine Schwierigkeiten mit der Konfliktlösung haben. Er kann dann nämlich seine Machtprärogative, die sich aus seinem Status ergibt, nutzen, also auf die sich aus seiner sozialen Position ergebende Autorität zurückgreifen. Aufgrund seiner Kompetenzen oder seiner Anstellung in einer Institution besitzt er die natürliche Möglichkeit, für andere zu entscheiden, etwas von anderen zu verlangen, ihnen Anweisungen oder Befehle zu geben und sie, wenn nötig, zum Gehorsam zu zwingen“ [Sztompka, op. cit., S. 375 ]. Er verfügt also über eine solche Prärogative, mit der er in kurzer Zeit Konflikte lösen kann. Das Problem liegt allerdings darin, dass ihr Einsatz so vonstatten gehen muss, dass er nicht die Idee der Animation selbst in Frage stellt. Davon, wie der Animateur die im Alltag entstehenden verschie-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Verhaltensweisen der Teilnehmer mit starken Tendenzen zu Zwang, Anleitung und Kontrolle, auf der anderen Seite die der Kulturanimateure. Die Interaktionen zwischen Animateuren und Teilnehmern gründen auf der Achtung der Souveränität der Subjekte und der Anerkennung ihrer Autonomie. Diese Interaktionen nehmen die Form eines Diskurses statt und die Verhaltensstrategien der Animateure weisen einen kommunikativen Charakter auf, in dem Inspiration, Vereinbarung, gegenseitige Hilfe und Unterstützung dominieren [vgl. Schindler, 2000]. Es lässt sich demnach feststellen, dass gegenwärtig in den Kulturinstitutionen weiterhin ein permanentes Spiel um das Spiel gespielt wird, wobei die einen Akteure danach streben, das traditionelle Kulturhaus aufrechtzuerhalten, die anderen hingegen ein Zentrum der Sozialund Kulturanimation zu schaffen versuchen, in dem kreative Aktivität stattfindet und nicht behavioristisches Training, Unterstützung der individuellen Entwicklung und nicht kollektives Handeln, Emanzipation des Einzelnen und nicht Anpassung an die Erwartungen und Ansprüche eines externen Subjekts, Mitbeteiligung an der Entscheidungsfindung und nicht autoritäre Lenkung, Bereitschaft, auf die Äußerung individueller Bedürfnisse zu reagieren, und nicht der Zwang, im Namen des „Allgemeinwohls“ den Verzicht auf diese zu erzwingen. Empirische Beweise für das erwähnte „Spiel um das Spiel“, das gegenwärtig von den Animateuren untereinander, zwischen ihnen und den Teilnehmern, zwischen ihnen und den Vertretern der Behörden gespielt wird, haben Untersuchungen geliefert, deren Ergebnisse in der Monografie Z prądem i pod prąd (Mit und gegen den Strom) [Kargul, Słowińska, Gancarz, 2004] vorgestellt wurden. Aus diesen Untersuchungen geht hervor, dass nicht immer diejenigen Animateure Einfluss auf die Erstellung der Spielregeln haben, die zwar über persönliche Autorität verfügen, die jedoch einen monomorphen Charakter aufweist, der sich nicht auf die Möglichkeit der Einflussnahme auf die Vertreter verschiedener Institutionen in den lokalen Gemeinschaften auswirkt. Die Sieger sind Personen mit polymorpher persönlicher Autorität, aber nur solange keine andere Person auftritt, nicht unbedingt ein Animateur, die ebenfalls einen polymorphen Einfluss ausübt, allerdings auf eine breitere Gesellschaftsgruppe. Dann muss der Animateur sich mit dem Konkurrenten auseinandersetzen, und das Ergebnis dieser Konfrontation ist nicht immer günstig für den Animateur. Es sei denn, der Animateur verfügt über eine charismatische Autorität. Charisma bezeichnet die Soziologie als
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
„Definition und Interpretation gewisser Fähigkeiten, Talente oder Fertigkeiten von Individuen als außergewöhnlich, außerordentlich oder gar übermenschlich. Gewisse Qualitäten des Einzelnen – moralische, intellektuelle, organisatorische, Führungsqualitäten – werden erkannt, hervorgehoben und idealisiert von einer Allgemeinheit, die in diesem Moment zur gesellschaftlichen Basis des Charismas wird. Niemand besitzt Charisma allein für sich, sondern nur dann, wenn er Anhänger, Bekenner, Fans, Bewunderer, Gläubige findet. Um Charisma zu gewinnen, muss man mitreißen, antreiben, erobern [...] und eine gesellschaftliche Resonanz gewinnen. Wenn nun einer Person ein solches Charisma zugeschrieben wird, bedeutet das die Verleihung einer Berechtigung zur Entscheidung für die Allgemeinheit und gleichzeitig die Bereitschaft zu williger Unterordnung unter diese Entscheidungen.“ [Sztompka, op. cit., S. 379] In diesem Zusammenhang stellt K. Olbrycht zutreffend fest: „Es ist jedoch gleichzeitig zu bedenken, dass eine charismatische Autorität häufig verdächtig wird, und zwar nicht grundlos, in Wirklichkeit ihr eigenes „verstecktes Programm“ zu verfolgen, das dazu dient, Macht über andere zu gewinnen, die sich leicht unterordnen und vor der Verantwortung fliehen.“ [Olbrycht, op. cit., S. 31] Es stellt sich somit die Frage, ob ein Animateur, auch wenn er über eine charismatische Autorität verfügt, bei seinem Auftreten im institutionellen Raum sich um jeden Preis bemühen soll, die Gestalt dieser Institution nach seiner eigenen Vision zu prägen, weil er überzeugt ist, dass nur das Handeln eines jeden Akteurs im Geist der Animation den einzelnen Teilnehmern eine authentische, aktive und kreative Teilnahme an der Kultur gewährleistet, oder ob er nur darum spielen soll, dass er selbst und seine Anhänger einen garantierten Ort haben, sie selbst zu sein, auf gleicher Augenhöhe mit anderen gesellschaftlichen Akteuren, deren Tätigkeiten ebenso wertvolle Ergebnisse zeitigen können, sowohl auf der Ebene des individuellen Erfahrens und Erlebens als auch im gesellschaftlichen Raum. Soll er sich um jeden Preis bemühen, das Ziel der Animation zu realisieren, das die aktive Unterstützung der Rolle des Menschen darstellt, der sich im gesellschaftlichen Raum verwirklicht durch die Wahl von Werten aus einem breiten Repertoire, das auf dem Markt angeboten wird, und durch die Suche nach den angemessenen Ausdrucksformen für diese Werte, oder soll er die Auffassung akzeptieren, dass es außengesteuerte Menschen gibt, die sich nur dann zu entwickeln vermögen, wenn ein äußeres Subjekt ihnen nicht nur den Weg vorgibt, sondern auch eine genaue
175
Verhaltensweisen der Teilnehmer mit starken Tendenzen zu Zwang, Anleitung und Kontrolle, auf der anderen Seite die der Kulturanimateure. Die Interaktionen zwischen Animateuren und Teilnehmern gründen auf der Achtung der Souveränität der Subjekte und der Anerkennung ihrer Autonomie. Diese Interaktionen nehmen die Form eines Diskurses statt und die Verhaltensstrategien der Animateure weisen einen kommunikativen Charakter auf, in dem Inspiration, Vereinbarung, gegenseitige Hilfe und Unterstützung dominieren [vgl. Schindler, 2000]. Es lässt sich demnach feststellen, dass gegenwärtig in den Kulturinstitutionen weiterhin ein permanentes Spiel um das Spiel gespielt wird, wobei die einen Akteure danach streben, das traditionelle Kulturhaus aufrechtzuerhalten, die anderen hingegen ein Zentrum der Sozialund Kulturanimation zu schaffen versuchen, in dem kreative Aktivität stattfindet und nicht behavioristisches Training, Unterstützung der individuellen Entwicklung und nicht kollektives Handeln, Emanzipation des Einzelnen und nicht Anpassung an die Erwartungen und Ansprüche eines externen Subjekts, Mitbeteiligung an der Entscheidungsfindung und nicht autoritäre Lenkung, Bereitschaft, auf die Äußerung individueller Bedürfnisse zu reagieren, und nicht der Zwang, im Namen des „Allgemeinwohls“ den Verzicht auf diese zu erzwingen. Empirische Beweise für das erwähnte „Spiel um das Spiel“, das gegenwärtig von den Animateuren untereinander, zwischen ihnen und den Teilnehmern, zwischen ihnen und den Vertretern der Behörden gespielt wird, haben Untersuchungen geliefert, deren Ergebnisse in der Monografie Z prądem i pod prąd (Mit und gegen den Strom) [Kargul, Słowińska, Gancarz, 2004] vorgestellt wurden. Aus diesen Untersuchungen geht hervor, dass nicht immer diejenigen Animateure Einfluss auf die Erstellung der Spielregeln haben, die zwar über persönliche Autorität verfügen, die jedoch einen monomorphen Charakter aufweist, der sich nicht auf die Möglichkeit der Einflussnahme auf die Vertreter verschiedener Institutionen in den lokalen Gemeinschaften auswirkt. Die Sieger sind Personen mit polymorpher persönlicher Autorität, aber nur solange keine andere Person auftritt, nicht unbedingt ein Animateur, die ebenfalls einen polymorphen Einfluss ausübt, allerdings auf eine breitere Gesellschaftsgruppe. Dann muss der Animateur sich mit dem Konkurrenten auseinandersetzen, und das Ergebnis dieser Konfrontation ist nicht immer günstig für den Animateur. Es sei denn, der Animateur verfügt über eine charismatische Autorität. Charisma bezeichnet die Soziologie als
175
„Definition und Interpretation gewisser Fähigkeiten, Talente oder Fertigkeiten von Individuen als außergewöhnlich, außerordentlich oder gar übermenschlich. Gewisse Qualitäten des Einzelnen – moralische, intellektuelle, organisatorische, Führungsqualitäten – werden erkannt, hervorgehoben und idealisiert von einer Allgemeinheit, die in diesem Moment zur gesellschaftlichen Basis des Charismas wird. Niemand besitzt Charisma allein für sich, sondern nur dann, wenn er Anhänger, Bekenner, Fans, Bewunderer, Gläubige findet. Um Charisma zu gewinnen, muss man mitreißen, antreiben, erobern [...] und eine gesellschaftliche Resonanz gewinnen. Wenn nun einer Person ein solches Charisma zugeschrieben wird, bedeutet das die Verleihung einer Berechtigung zur Entscheidung für die Allgemeinheit und gleichzeitig die Bereitschaft zu williger Unterordnung unter diese Entscheidungen.“ [Sztompka, op. cit., S. 379] In diesem Zusammenhang stellt K. Olbrycht zutreffend fest: „Es ist jedoch gleichzeitig zu bedenken, dass eine charismatische Autorität häufig verdächtig wird, und zwar nicht grundlos, in Wirklichkeit ihr eigenes „verstecktes Programm“ zu verfolgen, das dazu dient, Macht über andere zu gewinnen, die sich leicht unterordnen und vor der Verantwortung fliehen.“ [Olbrycht, op. cit., S. 31] Es stellt sich somit die Frage, ob ein Animateur, auch wenn er über eine charismatische Autorität verfügt, bei seinem Auftreten im institutionellen Raum sich um jeden Preis bemühen soll, die Gestalt dieser Institution nach seiner eigenen Vision zu prägen, weil er überzeugt ist, dass nur das Handeln eines jeden Akteurs im Geist der Animation den einzelnen Teilnehmern eine authentische, aktive und kreative Teilnahme an der Kultur gewährleistet, oder ob er nur darum spielen soll, dass er selbst und seine Anhänger einen garantierten Ort haben, sie selbst zu sein, auf gleicher Augenhöhe mit anderen gesellschaftlichen Akteuren, deren Tätigkeiten ebenso wertvolle Ergebnisse zeitigen können, sowohl auf der Ebene des individuellen Erfahrens und Erlebens als auch im gesellschaftlichen Raum. Soll er sich um jeden Preis bemühen, das Ziel der Animation zu realisieren, das die aktive Unterstützung der Rolle des Menschen darstellt, der sich im gesellschaftlichen Raum verwirklicht durch die Wahl von Werten aus einem breiten Repertoire, das auf dem Markt angeboten wird, und durch die Suche nach den angemessenen Ausdrucksformen für diese Werte, oder soll er die Auffassung akzeptieren, dass es außengesteuerte Menschen gibt, die sich nur dann zu entwickeln vermögen, wenn ein äußeres Subjekt ihnen nicht nur den Weg vorgibt, sondern auch eine genaue
176
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Kargul J. Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić i system, Warszawa 2002.
Marszałek, Toruń, 2007. w wychowaniu osobowym, Wydawnictwo Adam Olbrycht K., O roli przykładu, wzoru, autorytetu mistrza PWN Warszawa 1982. Merton R. K., Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna,
Giza-Poleszczuk A., Marody M., Rychard A., Strategie
Intensität der Existenz des Individuums in einer bestimmten Kultur, die vom Animateur bei der Ausübung einer subjektiven und aktiven Rolle und ihrer Selbstverwirklichung durch eigenes Tun, die Wahl bestimmter Werte aus dem angebotenen Kulturrepertoire und die Suche nach eigenen Ausdrucksmöglichkeiten unterstützt wird. Ich hoffe, dass eine solche Betrachtung der eigenen gesellschaftlichen Rolle durch die Kulturanimateure selbst es ihnen ermöglicht, der Verflechtung in dilemmatische Situationen zu entgehen.
Strategie aufzeigt, wie die einzelnen Abschnitte dieses Wegs bewältigt werden können – und der systematisch kontrolliert, ob der Wanderer nicht von der eingeschlagenen Route abweicht. Ich persönlich spreche mich für Pluralismus beim Angebot der Kulturaktivitäten aus und sehe einen großen Wert sowohl in den von den Mitarbeitern der Kultur- und Bildungsarbeit als auch den Animateuren angebotenen Programmen. Im ersten Fall haben wir es mit der Existenz des Menschen in der Kultur zu tun, im zweiten mit der
Literature
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
dylematy? [w:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, pod
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red. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS,
dawnictwo Znak, 2002.
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kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa1991.
Sztompka P., Socjologia. Analiza społeczeństwa, Wy-
ja – animator i jego kształcenie, pod red. K. Hrycyk,
W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności
Warszawa 1978.
Kargul J., Słowińska S., Gancarz M., Z prądem i pod
Góra, 2004. Kargulowa A., Ferenz K., Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa.
Wrocław 2000. Słownik języka polskiego pod red. M. Szymczaka, PWN
Wrocław 2000.
społecznym, Oficyna Wydawnicza U.Z., Zielona
ja – animator i jego kształcenie, pod red. K. Hrycyk,
społecznym, Oficyna Wydawnicza U.Z., Zielona
prąd. Lubuskie instytucje kultury w nowym ładzie
kulturalna wobec przemian cywilizacyjnych. Animac-
prąd. Lubuskie instytucje kultury w nowym ładzie
Kargul J., Słowińska S., Gancarz M., Z prądem i pod
Schindler A., O istocie animacji [w:] Animacja społeczno-
Warszawa 1978.
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Słownik języka polskiego pod red. M. Szymczaka, PWN
red. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS,
w wychowaniu osobowym, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń, 2007.
Góra, 2004.
dylematy? [w:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, pod
Kargulowa A., Ferenz K., Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa.
Kargul J. Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić
PWN Warszawa 1982. Olbrycht K., O roli przykładu, wzoru, autorytetu mistrza
dawnictwo Znak, 2002.
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Merton R. K., Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna,
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Intensität der Existenz des Individuums in einer bestimmten Kultur, die vom Animateur bei der Ausübung einer subjektiven und aktiven Rolle und ihrer Selbstverwirklichung durch eigenes Tun, die Wahl bestimmter Werte aus dem angebotenen Kulturrepertoire und die Suche nach eigenen Ausdrucksmöglichkeiten unterstützt wird. Ich hoffe, dass eine solche Betrachtung der eigenen gesellschaftlichen Rolle durch die Kulturanimateure selbst es ihnen ermöglicht, der Verflechtung in dilemmatische Situationen zu entgehen.
kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa1991.
Strategie aufzeigt, wie die einzelnen Abschnitte dieses Wegs bewältigt werden können – und der systematisch kontrolliert, ob der Wanderer nicht von der eingeschlagenen Route abweicht. Ich persönlich spreche mich für Pluralismus beim Angebot der Kulturaktivitäten aus und sehe einen großen Wert sowohl in den von den Mitarbeitern der Kultur- und Bildungsarbeit als auch den Animateuren angebotenen Programmen. Im ersten Fall haben wir es mit der Existenz des Menschen in der Kultur zu tun, im zweiten mit der
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung Ivars Bērziņš
D
as Wissen über diese Welt zu ordnen, war immer und ist eine klassische Tugend von Wissenschaft und Philosophie. Schon Aristoteles (ca. 384-322 v. Christus), mittelalterliche Scholastik mit Thomas von Aquin (1225-1274) und die anderen, wie Arthur Schopenhauer (1778-1860) haben über den Weg gedacht, wie man das Wissen an die Gesellschaft bringen kann. Einen Gegenstand mehrfach zu beschreiben, ihn also benutzerdifferenziert zu dokumentieren. Das sei an einem gehörten Beispiel von Kochbüchern gezeigt. Es gibt verschiedene Kochbücher. Sie richten sich an unterschiedliche Lesergruppen und stoßen je nach deren Neigung auf Zustimmung oder Ablehnung. MM Dem Theoretiker: Diese Kochbücher sind von Physikern bzw. Chemikern geschrieben. Die physikalischen und chemischen Prozesse, die bei der Speisenvorbereitung und bei deren Verarbeitung im Körper ablaufen, stehen hier im Mittelpunkt. Wenn das physikalisch-chemische Prinzip der Prozesse verstanden ist, besitzen sie eine ihrem Denken gerechte Basis zum Zubereiten von Speisen. MM Dem Formalisten : In diesen Kochbüchern stehen die Regeln des Kochens im Mittelpunkt. Man braucht sie nur wie Algorithmen zu befolgen, um Speisen von vorprogrammierter Köstlichkeit vorzubereiten. Regelorientierte Köche werden diese Bücher präferieren. MM Dem Klassifizierer: In diesen Kochbüchern stehen nicht die Verarbeitungsregeln, sondern die Zutaten im Vordergrund, also nicht die Ablaufvorschriften, sondern die Mengenrezepte. Die Köche, die dieser Bücher präferieren, denken in Kategorien stofflicher Differenzierung. MM Dem Kommunikator: In diesen Kochbüchern stehen die Anlässe im Mittelpunkt: Geburtstag, Feiertag mit Familie, Wochenende mit Freunden, usw. Die Kochbücher prägt Gesetz der
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Katarzyna Kopeć-Gocyk
Motivation. Der Benutzer wird durch Gerichte anlass gerechter Komposition beeindruckt. Jeder Art von Kochbuch hat ihre eigenen Kunden, und innerhalb jeder Kundengruppe wird das ganze Spektrum von Breiverderbern bis zu Starköchen geben. Jeder kocht auf der Basis seines eigenen individuellen Vorverständnisses. Ähnlich kann man für jede Art von Lernen zwischen verschiedenen Denkanlagen differenzieren und die im Unterricht entsprechend berücksichtigen. Jeder Weg kann zu einem guten Resultat führen. Doch die Kompetenz im Wissen lässt sich aber nicht erreichen durch den Zwang zu einer konkreten Methode. Häufig lassen sich auch Mittelwege finden. Auch das Aufgabenprofil von Kultur- und Musikmanagern ist in unserer Gesellschaft heutzutage noch nicht genau definiert. Von einem festen Berufsbild kann nicht gesprochen werden. Die Gründe dafür liegen in verschiedenen historischen Traditionen und Staatspolitiken, in verschiedenen Kulturverständnissen, usw. Doch das muss nicht als Nachteil gesehen werden, weil sich die noch nicht geprobte Varianten und Tendenzen anwenden lassen und in konkrete Konzepte bei den Lehrprogrammen ausprobieren. Als wir in Lettland haben vor zwölf Jahren mit dem Ausbildungsprogramm zum Kulturmanager angefangen, stützten wir auf das Modell des berühmten Kulturmanagers und Professors Peter Bendixen – „Ausbildung”, „Training” und „Praxis”. MM Ausbildung ist die Schaffung, didaktische Aufbereitung und Darbringung von Grundlagenwissen, das für eine Basisqualifikation für erforderlich gehalten wird. MM Training ist ein Qualifizierungsangebot, das vorhandene Fähigkeiten (Basisqualifikation) verstärkt, verfeinert oder auf ein bestimmtes Anwendungsgebiet hin meist praxisorientiert speziell ausgestaltet.
177
Ivars Bērziņš er studierte an der Musikakademie Lettlands, promovierte an dem Staatlichen Konservatorium St. Petersburg. Der Absolvent des Kulturmanagements an der Hochschule für Musik und Theater in Hamburg. 2005 verteidigte er seine Dissertation über die Privatisierung im Kulturbereich in Lettland an der Universität Münster. Seit 2006 ist er als Professor für Kulturmanagement an der Kulturakademie Lettlands tätig. Der Musiker, Dirigent des Rundfunkchores Lettland (1978-1986), Preisträger mehrerer internationalen Chorwettbewerbe in Spanien, Finnland, Lettland, Experte des Kultusministeriums für die Fragen der Kulturausbildung und -ökonomie.
Es gibt verschiedene Kochbücher. Sie richten sich an unterschiedliche Lesergruppen und stoßen je nach deren Neigung auf Zustimmung oder Ablehnung. MM Dem Theoretiker: Diese Kochbücher sind von Physikern bzw. Chemikern geschrieben. Die physikalischen und chemischen Prozesse, die bei der Speisenvorbereitung und bei deren Verarbeitung im Körper ablaufen, stehen hier im Mittelpunkt. Wenn das physikalisch-chemische Prinzip der Prozesse verstanden ist, besitzen sie eine ihrem Denken gerechte Basis zum Zubereiten von Speisen. MM Dem Formalisten : In diesen Kochbüchern stehen die Regeln des Kochens im Mittelpunkt. Man braucht sie nur wie Algorithmen zu befolgen, um Speisen von vorprogrammierter Köstlichkeit vorzubereiten. Regelorientierte Köche werden diese Bücher präferieren. MM Dem Klassifizierer: In diesen Kochbüchern stehen nicht die Verarbeitungsregeln, sondern die Zutaten im Vordergrund, also nicht die Ablaufvorschriften, sondern die Mengenrezepte. Die Köche, die dieser Bücher präferieren, denken in Kategorien stofflicher Differenzierung. MM Dem Kommunikator: In diesen Kochbüchern stehen die Anlässe im Mittelpunkt: Geburtstag, Feiertag mit Familie, Wochenende mit Freunden, usw. Die Kochbücher prägt Gesetz der as Wissen über diese Welt zu ordnen, war immer und ist eine klassische Tugend von Wissenschaft und Philosophie. Schon Aristoteles (ca. 384-322 v. Christus), mittelalterliche Scholastik mit Thomas von Aquin (1225-1274) und die anderen, wie Arthur Schopenhauer (1778-1860) haben über den Weg gedacht, wie man das Wissen an die Gesellschaft bringen kann. Einen Gegenstand mehrfach zu beschreiben, ihn also benutzerdifferenziert zu dokumentieren. Das sei an einem gehörten Beispiel von Kochbüchern gezeigt.
D
Ivars Bērziņš
177
Jeder Art von Kochbuch hat ihre eigenen Kunden, und innerhalb jeder Kundengruppe wird das ganze Spektrum von Breiverderbern bis zu Starköchen geben. Jeder kocht auf der Basis seines eigenen individuellen Vorverständnisses. Ähnlich kann man für jede Art von Lernen zwischen verschiedenen Denkanlagen differenzieren und die im Unterricht entsprechend berücksichtigen. Jeder Weg kann zu einem guten Resultat führen. Doch die Kompetenz im Wissen lässt sich aber nicht erreichen durch den Zwang zu einer konkreten Methode. Häufig lassen sich auch Mittelwege finden. Auch das Aufgabenprofil von Kultur- und Musikmanagern ist in unserer Gesellschaft heutzutage noch nicht genau definiert. Von einem festen Berufsbild kann nicht gesprochen werden. Die Gründe dafür liegen in verschiedenen historischen Traditionen und Staatspolitiken, in verschiedenen Kulturverständnissen, usw. Doch das muss nicht als Nachteil gesehen werden, weil sich die noch nicht geprobte Varianten und Tendenzen anwenden lassen und in konkrete Konzepte bei den Lehrprogrammen ausprobieren. Als wir in Lettland haben vor zwölf Jahren mit dem Ausbildungsprogramm zum Kulturmanager angefangen, stützten wir auf das Modell des berühmten Kulturmanagers und Professors Peter Bendixen – „Ausbildung”, „Training” und „Praxis”. MM Ausbildung ist die Schaffung, didaktische Aufbereitung und Darbringung von Grundlagenwissen, das für eine Basisqualifikation für erforderlich gehalten wird. MM Training ist ein Qualifizierungsangebot, das vorhandene Fähigkeiten (Basisqualifikation) verstärkt, verfeinert oder auf ein bestimmtes Anwendungsgebiet hin meist praxisorientiert speziell ausgestaltet. Motivation. Der Benutzer wird durch Gerichte anlass gerechter Komposition beeindruckt.
Übersetzung: Katarzyna Kopeć-Gocyk
Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung
Ivars Bērziņš er studierte an der Musikakademie Lettlands, promovierte an dem Staatlichen Konservatorium St. Petersburg. Der Absolvent des Kulturmanagements an der Hochschule für Musik und Theater in Hamburg. 2005 verteidigte er seine Dissertation über die Privatisierung im Kulturbereich in Lettland an der Universität Münster. Seit 2006 ist er als Professor für Kulturmanagement an der Kulturakademie Lettlands tätig. Der Musiker, Dirigent des Rundfunkchores Lettland (1978-1986), Preisträger mehrerer internationalen Chorwettbewerbe in Spanien, Finnland, Lettland, Experte des Kultusministeriums für die Fragen der Kulturausbildung und -ökonomie.
MM Praxis ist Qualifikationsmöglichkeit, die der Erweiterung und Vertiefung des Erfahrungshorizontes im konkreten Handlungszusammenhang dient. Der Einbau von praktischen Projekten ins Ausbildungsprogramm ist von großer Bedeutung. Die digitale Medienrevolution bedeutet nicht nur Änderungen der Arbeitsbedingungen für Musikschaffende, sondern auch schafft einen leichteren Zugang zu neuen Mitteln der Musikproduktion und des Musikvertriebs auf dem Markt. Die traditionelle Unterscheidung zwischen Musikschaffenden, Produzenten und Agenten verschwimmt immer deutlicher, weil sie durch den Einfluss der modernen Marktstruktur und Verhaltensänderungen von Verbrauchern bestimmt sind. Im Endeffekt, neue Berufsbereiche werden entfaltet, deren Profile klar und hochspezialisiert definiert sind. Musikmanager ist zum Beispiel einer jener Berufe, die zugleich die Elemente von Kunst, Wissenschaft und Business verknüpft. Personalmanagement im Namen eines Künstlers erfüllt eine der bedeutenden Funktionen von Musikmanagement. Kunstmanagement ist gleichzeitig Business, Wissenschaft, Kunst und Grundlagewissen über menschliche Verhältnisse. Der Beruf „Musikmanager” wird nach unserer Auffassung immer häufiger von Menschen erwünscht, die ihre Karriere im Wirtschafts- und Musiksektor planen, genauer gesagt in der Musikindustrie. Sowohl in privaten als auch öffentlichen Einrichtungen sind verschiedene Musikexperte benötigt, die im Bereich Musikmanagement und Musikproduktion tätig sind. Lidia Varbanova, Professorin aus Bulgarien, spricht zugleich über Kulturmanager und ihre Klassifikation als Verwalter, die die Interessen einer nationalen Organisation vertreten und Staatsgeld umverteilen, als Produzenten und Agenten, die weitgehend den privaten Sektor und den Sektor von Nichtregierungsorganisationen vertreten, die auch unternehmensorientiert in der Form von Konzerteinrichtungen oder Agenturen agieren. Aufgrund dieser Stellung scheint es, dass Musikmanagement zu einer professionellen Industrie wird. Daraus resultiert die Tatsache, dass das Bildungssystem im Bereich Musikmanagement erforderlich ist. Wenn über Management gesprochen wird, sollte man dem Konzept der Musik und ihrer Vielfalt Aufmerksamkeit schenken. Man weiß, dass es verschiedene Musikrichtungen gibt (z.B. akademische Musik, Popmusik, Volksmusik). Und jede dieser Richtungen hat ihre eigene Geschichte, Vorhaben und Ziele. Die Frage ist es, ob sie gegenseitig kombinierbar sind oder im Gegenteil – entgegenstellbar sind.
Klassische Musik steht am häufigsten im Gegensatz zur Popmusik. Paul Willis, britischer Kulturtheoretiker, glaubt, dass die hohe Kunst das Ernste und Unerreichbare im Alltagsleben, also die absolute Natur des menschlichen Daseins, ausdrückt. Die Schaffens- sowie Verstehensprozesse solcher Kultur sind nicht problemlos und sie bedürfen eines bestimmten Niveaus der Musikausbildung. Echte Musik kann zum Beispiel als tiefe, bedeutungsvolle, komplexe, intellektuelle und disziplinierte Kunst beschrieben werden, die man gänzlich nur dann genießen kann, wenn man musikalisch ausgebildet und auf Musikrezeption vorbereitet ist. Im Gegenteil, Popmusik ist nur eine milde, melodische Musik, die nicht aus dem Sinn geht. Klassische Musik ist eine Kunst, Popmusik ist aber nur eine leichte Unterhaltung. Popmusik wird durch die Einfachheit, Zugänglichkeit und Ähnlichkeit von Grundelementen gekennzeichnet, was vermutlich aus der Massenproduktion resultiert. Popmusik ist ein Produkt des Massenkonsums. Wie oben erwähnt, Popmusik wird oft als Antonym der klassischen Musik betrachtet, die historisch Musik der Elite und der oberen Schicht der Gesellschaft gewesen ist, und auch als Antonym der traditionellen Volksmusik, die sich auf die nichtkommerzielle Weise ausbreitete. Populäre Kultur ist dementsprechend eine kommerzielle Massenmusik, während die hohe Kunst ein Ergebnis des individuellen Schaffens ist. Die Kultur als nationale Identität, wie auch kulturelle Unterschiede in jedem Staat sind zweifellos bedeutende Faktoren im Musikbereich, die bereits in der Theorie von Johann Gottfried Herder in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts erwähnt wurden. Deswegen sollte im Fall von Lettland mehr Aufmerksamkeit zum kulturellen Erbe und zur nationalen Identität geschenkt werden. Beide sind tief in der Musik eingewurzelt, genauso wie in verschiedenen zusammenhängenden immateriellen Kulturtraditionen wie z.B. „Song Festival“, das in die UNESCO-Liste des immateriellen Kulturerbes eingeschlossen ist. Diese Tradition gehört zu einem sehr starken Faktor der nationalen Identität. Aus diesem Grunde sollte sie als ein Teil der Politik von der nationalen Wichtigkeit und eine der Fragen in ihrer Agenda gesehen werden. Rapide Entwicklung und Vergrößerung des Spielraums vom Kultursektor trägt zu einem starken Bedürfnis nach qualifizierten Managern bei, die Experte im engen Bereich sind. Der Beruf des Musikmanagers ist ohnehin auch ganz individuell. Darüber hinaus kommen bedeutende Änderungen in der nationalen Wirtschaft vor. Die sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Paradigmen, die typisch für Europa sind, ändern sich, und die Idee der Marktliberalisierung wird immer populärer.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Klassische Musik steht am häufigsten im Gegensatz zur Popmusik. Paul Willis, britischer Kulturtheoretiker, glaubt, dass die hohe Kunst das Ernste und Unerreichbare im Alltagsleben, also die absolute Natur des menschlichen Daseins, ausdrückt. Die Schaffens- sowie Verstehensprozesse solcher Kultur sind nicht problemlos und sie bedürfen eines bestimmten Niveaus der Musikausbildung. Echte Musik kann zum Beispiel als tiefe, bedeutungsvolle, komplexe, intellektuelle und disziplinierte Kunst beschrieben werden, die man gänzlich nur dann genießen kann, wenn man musikalisch ausgebildet und auf Musikrezeption vorbereitet ist. Im Gegenteil, Popmusik ist nur eine milde, melodische Musik, die nicht aus dem Sinn geht. Klassische Musik ist eine Kunst, Popmusik ist aber nur eine leichte Unterhaltung. Popmusik wird durch die Einfachheit, Zugänglichkeit und Ähnlichkeit von Grundelementen gekennzeichnet, was vermutlich aus der Massenproduktion resultiert. Popmusik ist ein Produkt des Massenkonsums. Wie oben erwähnt, Popmusik wird oft als Antonym der klassischen Musik betrachtet, die historisch Musik der Elite und der oberen Schicht der Gesellschaft gewesen ist, und auch als Antonym der traditionellen Volksmusik, die sich auf die nichtkommerzielle Weise ausbreitete. Populäre Kultur ist dementsprechend eine kommerzielle Massenmusik, während die hohe Kunst ein Ergebnis des individuellen Schaffens ist. Die Kultur als nationale Identität, wie auch kulturelle Unterschiede in jedem Staat sind zweifellos bedeutende Faktoren im Musikbereich, die bereits in der Theorie von Johann Gottfried Herder in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts erwähnt wurden. Deswegen sollte im Fall von Lettland mehr Aufmerksamkeit zum kulturellen Erbe und zur nationalen Identität geschenkt werden. Beide sind tief in der Musik eingewurzelt, genauso wie in verschiedenen zusammenhängenden immateriellen Kulturtraditionen wie z.B. „Song Festival“, das in die UNESCO-Liste des immateriellen Kulturerbes eingeschlossen ist. Diese Tradition gehört zu einem sehr starken Faktor der nationalen Identität. Aus diesem Grunde sollte sie als ein Teil der Politik von der nationalen Wichtigkeit und eine der Fragen in ihrer Agenda gesehen werden. Rapide Entwicklung und Vergrößerung des Spielraums vom Kultursektor trägt zu einem starken Bedürfnis nach qualifizierten Managern bei, die Experte im engen Bereich sind. Der Beruf des Musikmanagers ist ohnehin auch ganz individuell. Darüber hinaus kommen bedeutende Änderungen in der nationalen Wirtschaft vor. Die sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Paradigmen, die typisch für Europa sind, ändern sich, und die Idee der Marktliberalisierung wird immer populärer.
178
178
Praxis ist Qualifikationsmöglichkeit, die der Erweiterung und Vertiefung des Erfahrungshorizontes im konkreten Handlungszusammenhang dient. Der Einbau von praktischen Projekten ins Ausbildungsprogramm ist von großer Bedeutung. Die digitale Medienrevolution bedeutet nicht nur Änderungen der Arbeitsbedingungen für Musikschaffende, sondern auch schafft einen leichteren Zugang zu neuen Mitteln der Musikproduktion und des Musikvertriebs auf dem Markt. Die traditionelle Unterscheidung zwischen Musikschaffenden, Produzenten und Agenten verschwimmt immer deutlicher, weil sie durch den Einfluss der modernen Marktstruktur und Verhaltensänderungen von Verbrauchern bestimmt sind. Im Endeffekt, neue Berufsbereiche werden entfaltet, deren Profile klar und hochspezialisiert definiert sind. Musikmanager ist zum Beispiel einer jener Berufe, die zugleich die Elemente von Kunst, Wissenschaft und Business verknüpft. Personalmanagement im Namen eines Künstlers erfüllt eine der bedeutenden Funktionen von Musikmanagement. Kunstmanagement ist gleichzeitig Business, Wissenschaft, Kunst und Grundlagewissen über menschliche Verhältnisse. Der Beruf „Musikmanager” wird nach unserer Auffassung immer häufiger von Menschen erwünscht, die ihre Karriere im Wirtschafts- und Musiksektor planen, genauer gesagt in der Musikindustrie. Sowohl in privaten als auch öffentlichen Einrichtungen sind verschiedene Musikexperte benötigt, die im Bereich Musikmanagement und Musikproduktion tätig sind. Lidia Varbanova, Professorin aus Bulgarien, spricht zugleich über Kulturmanager und ihre Klassifikation als Verwalter, die die Interessen einer nationalen Organisation vertreten und Staatsgeld umverteilen, als Produzenten und Agenten, die weitgehend den privaten Sektor und den Sektor von Nichtregierungsorganisationen vertreten, die auch unternehmensorientiert in der Form von Konzerteinrichtungen oder Agenturen agieren. Aufgrund dieser Stellung scheint es, dass Musikmanagement zu einer professionellen Industrie wird. Daraus resultiert die Tatsache, dass das Bildungssystem im Bereich Musikmanagement erforderlich ist. Wenn über Management gesprochen wird, sollte man dem Konzept der Musik und ihrer Vielfalt Aufmerksamkeit schenken. Man weiß, dass es verschiedene Musikrichtungen gibt (z.B. akademische Musik, Popmusik, Volksmusik). Und jede dieser Richtungen hat ihre eigene Geschichte, Vorhaben und Ziele. Die Frage ist es, ob sie gegenseitig kombinierbar sind oder im Gegenteil – entgegenstellbar sind. MM
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
179
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die Staaten revidieren ihre Funktionen, sie von Anfang an definierend. Das Hauptproblem der Industrieentwicklung wird die Finanzierung, und Fähigkeit, sie zu gewinnen. Die Gesellschaft scheint heute genug verwöhnt zu sein, um zu wissen, was sie will. Der Blick in die Richtung Musikmanagement würde deshalb breite Gelegenheiten für die Musik und Musikschaffenden bieten, und auch für organisatorisch engagierten Manager der Musikereignissen, d.h. die Musikmanager, deren Aufgabe es ist, im Stande zu sein, die oben erwähnten Entwicklungstendenzen ins Visier zu nehmen. Alle Entscheidungen, die bei einer Institution heutzutage getroffen werden, beeinflussen mindestens drei Elemente: 1. unerfüllte Bedürfnisse und Wünsche der Gesellschaft, 2. Personen, die bereit und fähig sind, diese Bedürfnisse zu befriedigen, 3. Ressourcen, ohne die diese Bedürfnisse könnten nicht erfüllt werden. Das gilt auch für den gesamten Non-ProfitSektor. In der Vergangenheit funktionierte die Regel, dass die Kulturinstitutionen als Selbstverständlichkeit wahrgenommen werden. Und nicht innere Werte sind hier ein Maßstab, aber eine externe Sicht auf eine positive Entwicklung, welche die Institutionen den Einzelpersonen und der Gesellschaft anbieten können. Der Erfolg im Musikbereich hängt heutzutage weitgehend von der Musikproduktion und ihrer Popularisierung ab. Musikmanager ist ein Beruf
für junge Menschen, die gerne in der Musikbranche tätig sind, sich entwickeln und versuchen möchten, ihre Visionen in die Tat umzusetzen. Mit Hilfe von verschiedenen Kursen, Seminaren, Praktika, die im Rahmen des Bildungsprogramms realisieren werden, neue Experte im Bereich Musikmanagement sollten das Folgende über die Musikbranche lernen: Gesetze und Rechte, Grundlagen in Geschäftsführung, Vertragsformen, Urheberrecht und verwandte Schutzrechte, Kunstmanagement und Musikindustrie usw. Kunstmanager müssen Grundkenntnisse in der Musikindustrie besitzen, ansonsten werden sie mit den Kundenerwartungen nie vertraut. Die betriebswirtschaftliche Ausbildung scheint eine traditionelle Sache zu sein, vor allem in den Bereichen Marketing, Brand Management und Verkauf. Studienschwerpunkt Industrie kann zu einer sehr breiten und modernen Businessvision führen, die wiederum eine Seltenheit in der Musikbranche ist. Ein sehr wichtiger Teil ist hier aber ein Berufspraktikum in einem Musikmanagementunternehmen, das die Möglichkeit bietet, Management als Geschäft zu begreifen und Personalkontakte im Business zu knüpfen. Musikmanager ohne oben erwähnte Grundkenntnisse sind ebenso undenkbar wie diese ohne Praktika, dazu Praktika in einer Musikeinrichtung oder bei einem Musikprojekt. Für Manager sind ihre persönlichen künstlerischen Erfahrungen von besonderer Bedeutung. Die Erfahrung im künstlerischen Schaffen ist effektiver als Gespräche über Kunst oder Bedingungen der kreativen Arbeit.
Literatur
Allen P. Artist management for the music business. – UK:
Aristoteles: Physikalische Vorlesung, Paul Gohlke ed. Paderborn: Schöningh 1956. Bendixen, Peter: Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstmanagement. 3rd Edition, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2006. Brugger, Walter (ed.): Philosophisches Wörterbuch (17th Edition). Freiburg, Basel, Wien: Herder 1976. Schopenhauer, Arthur: Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde. W: Sämtliche Werke wyd. przez Arthur Hübscher, 3rd Edition, Wiesbaden: Brockhaus 1972.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Elsevier Inc., 2007 – p. 274 Certo S. C. Modern management: adding digital focus. Ninth edition. – New Yersey: Prentice Hall, 2003 – p. 595. Clancy P. Skills and Competencies: The Cultural Manager // From Maestro to Manager. Critical issues in Arts & Culture Management. Ed. by Marian Fitzgibbon, Anne Kelly, 1999 – Dublin – p. 17. Counterfactual history, management and organizations: Reflections and new directions// http://moh.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/49 [26.04.2009].
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baden: Brockhaus 1972. Werke wyd. przez Arthur Hübscher, 3rd Edition, WiesSatzes vom zureichenden Grunde. W: Sämtliche Schopenhauer, Arthur: Über die vierfache Wurzel des Edition). Freiburg, Basel, Wien: Herder 1976. Brugger, Walter (ed.): Philosophisches Wörterbuch (17th schaften, Wiesbaden 2006. management. 3rd Edition, VS Verlag für SozialwissenBendixen, Peter: Einführung in das Kultur- und KunstPaderborn: Schöningh 1956. Aristoteles: Physikalische Vorlesung, Paul Gohlke ed.
pub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/49 [26.04.2009]. Reflections and new directions// http://moh.sageCounterfactual history, management and organizations: Anne Kelly, 1999 – Dublin – p. 17. & Culture Management. Ed. by Marian Fitzgibbon, // From Maestro to Manager. Critical issues in Arts Clancy P. Skills and Competencies: The Cultural Manager 595. Ninth edition. – New Yersey: Prentice Hall, 2003 – p. Certo S. C. Modern management: adding digital focus. Elsevier Inc., 2007 – p. 274 Allen P. Artist management for the music business. – UK:
Literatur
für junge Menschen, die gerne in der Musikbranche tätig sind, sich entwickeln und versuchen möchten, ihre Visionen in die Tat umzusetzen. Mit Hilfe von verschiedenen Kursen, Seminaren, Praktika, die im Rahmen des Bildungsprogramms realisieren werden, neue Experte im Bereich Musikmanagement sollten das Folgende über die Musikbranche lernen: Gesetze und Rechte, Grundlagen in Geschäftsführung, Vertragsformen, Urheberrecht und verwandte Schutzrechte, Kunstmanagement und Musikindustrie usw. Kunstmanager müssen Grundkenntnisse in der Musikindustrie besitzen, ansonsten werden sie mit den Kundenerwartungen nie vertraut. Die betriebswirtschaftliche Ausbildung scheint eine traditionelle Sache zu sein, vor allem in den Bereichen Marketing, Brand Management und Verkauf. Studienschwerpunkt Industrie kann zu einer sehr breiten und modernen Businessvision führen, die wiederum eine Seltenheit in der Musikbranche ist. Ein sehr wichtiger Teil ist hier aber ein Berufspraktikum in einem Musikmanagementunternehmen, das die Möglichkeit bietet, Management als Geschäft zu begreifen und Personalkontakte im Business zu knüpfen. Musikmanager ohne oben erwähnte Grundkenntnisse sind ebenso undenkbar wie diese ohne Praktika, dazu Praktika in einer Musikeinrichtung oder bei einem Musikprojekt. Für Manager sind ihre persönlichen künstlerischen Erfahrungen von besonderer Bedeutung. Die Erfahrung im künstlerischen Schaffen ist effektiver als Gespräche über Kunst oder Bedingungen der kreativen Arbeit.
Die Staaten revidieren ihre Funktionen, sie von Anfang an definierend. Das Hauptproblem der Industrieentwicklung wird die Finanzierung, und Fähigkeit, sie zu gewinnen. Die Gesellschaft scheint heute genug verwöhnt zu sein, um zu wissen, was sie will. Der Blick in die Richtung Musikmanagement würde deshalb breite Gelegenheiten für die Musik und Musikschaffenden bieten, und auch für organisatorisch engagierten Manager der Musikereignissen, d.h. die Musikmanager, deren Aufgabe es ist, im Stande zu sein, die oben erwähnten Entwicklungstendenzen ins Visier zu nehmen. Alle Entscheidungen, die bei einer Institution heutzutage getroffen werden, beeinflussen mindestens drei Elemente: 1. unerfüllte Bedürfnisse und Wünsche der Gesellschaft, 2. Personen, die bereit und fähig sind, diese Bedürfnisse zu befriedigen, 3. Ressourcen, ohne die diese Bedürfnisse könnten nicht erfüllt werden. Das gilt auch für den gesamten Non-ProfitSektor. In der Vergangenheit funktionierte die Regel, dass die Kulturinstitutionen als Selbstverständlichkeit wahrgenommen werden. Und nicht innere Werte sind hier ein Maßstab, aber eine externe Sicht auf eine positive Entwicklung, welche die Institutionen den Einzelpersonen und der Gesellschaft anbieten können. Der Erfolg im Musikbereich hängt heutzutage weitgehend von der Musikproduktion und ihrer Popularisierung ab. Musikmanager ist ein Beruf
180
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
180
Bogusław Nierenberg
edialität ist eines der wesentlichen Kennzeichen der Welt von heute. Medien sind allgegenwärtig, sie durchdringen praktisch alle Bereiche des gesellschaftlichen, wirtschaftlichen und politischen Lebens. Sie sind ein nicht wegzudenkender Bestandteil der Gegenwartskultur. Jedoch bedeutet die Allgegenwart eines Phänomens noch keineswegs das Verständnis seines Wesenskerns, vertieftes Wissen über die ihm innewohnenden Gesetzmäßigkeiten. Genau so scheinen die Dinge beim Medienmanagement zu liegen. In Polen ist die Bezeichnung einer solchen Subdisziplin des Managements unüblich, es gibt noch nicht einmal einen entsprechenden Studiengang. Hier und da werden Postgraduiertenstudiengänge angeboten, die jedoch eher die Vermittlung bestimmter Fertigkeiten bezwecken als die Gewinnung und Verbreitung akademisches Wissen. Einen Master-Studiengang Medienmanagement als Fachrichtung des Studiengangs Kulturwissenschaft bietet erstmals in Polen das Institut für Kultur der Fakultät für Management und Sozialkommunikation der Jagiellonen-Universität Krakau an. Einen ähnlich akademischen Charakter hat hier auch das Postgraduiertenstudium in diesem Bereich. Das sind erste wissenschaftliche und organisatorische Schritte, um die auf diesem Feld führenden Länder einzuholen. Entscheidend für das Verständnis des Managements scheinen zwei Feststellungen von P. Drucker: 1.) Information wird die wichtigste Ressource des 21. Jahrhunderts sein; 2.) Information wird umso wertvoller, je verbreiteter sie ist. Während die erste These allgemein akzeptiert zu sein scheint, wenn auch nicht immer und überall konsequent bewusst gemacht, so rührt die zweite an
Einführung
M
die Grundfesten volkswirtschaftlicher Lehrsätze. In der klassischen Ökonomie heißt es, dass ein Gut umso wertvoller ist, je seltener es auftritt und umgekehrt. Die allgemeine Verfügbarkeit eines Guts mindert seinen Preis. Dieses fundamentale Prinzip scheint von Drucker in Frage gestellt. Dieser Widerspruch lässt sich durch den bereits 1989 von R. Picard beschriebenen Dualismus der Medien und die von dem Autor des vorliegenden Artikels vorgeschlagene Formel der „Informationsknöpfe“ erklären, wovon im Weiteren noch die Rede sein wird. Gleichzeitig wurde zur Erklärung verschiedener Phänomene im Bereich des Medienmanagements die Systemmethodologie verwendet, nach der die untersuchten Erscheinungen als unmittelbar oder mittelbar miteinander verbundene Ganzheit zu betrachten sind, denn diese Art der Beschreibung erlaubt, wie es scheint, das Wesen der Phänomene wiederzugeben und nicht nur ihre Struktur. Leider bezeichnen viele Wissenschaftler die Beschreibung von Strukturen als System, was man wohl als begrifflichen, vor allem aber methodologischen Missbrauch bezeichnen kann. Um sich nicht auf negative Beispiele zu beziehen, zeigen wir lieber ein positives: die Monografie Mediensysteme von Daniel C. Hallin und P. Mancini, die sich nicht auf die Beschreibung der untersuchten Strukturen beschränken, sondern sich bemühen, in das Wesen der Phänomene einzudringen. Systemanalyse ist langwierig und mühsam, aber sie erlaubt es, in den Kern des Phänomens vorzudringen und Schlüsse über sein Wesen zu formulieren. Dabei sollen die von R. Ackoff formulierten drei Schlüsselfragen der Systemuntersuchung nicht außer Acht gelassen werden: 1. Warum sehe ich das, was ich sehe? 2. Warum sind die Dinge so, wie sie sind? 3. Warum ändern sich die Dinge?
M
Einführung
die Grundfesten volkswirtschaftlicher Lehrsätze. In der klassischen Ökonomie heißt es, dass ein Gut umso wertvoller ist, je seltener es auftritt und umgekehrt. Die allgemeine Verfügbarkeit eines Guts mindert seinen Preis. Dieses fundamentale Prinzip scheint von Drucker in Frage gestellt. Dieser Widerspruch lässt sich durch den bereits 1989 von R. Picard beschriebenen Dualismus der Medien und die von dem Autor des vorliegenden Artikels vorgeschlagene Formel der „Informationsknöpfe“ erklären, wovon im Weiteren noch die Rede sein wird. Gleichzeitig wurde zur Erklärung verschiedener Phänomene im Bereich des Medienmanagements die Systemmethodologie verwendet, nach der die untersuchten Erscheinungen als unmittelbar oder mittelbar miteinander verbundene Ganzheit zu betrachten sind, denn diese Art der Beschreibung erlaubt, wie es scheint, das Wesen der Phänomene wiederzugeben und nicht nur ihre Struktur. Leider bezeichnen viele Wissenschaftler die Beschreibung von Strukturen als System, was man wohl als begrifflichen, vor allem aber methodologischen Missbrauch bezeichnen kann. Um sich nicht auf negative Beispiele zu beziehen, zeigen wir lieber ein positives: die Monografie Mediensysteme von Daniel C. Hallin und P. Mancini, die sich nicht auf die Beschreibung der untersuchten Strukturen beschränken, sondern sich bemühen, in das Wesen der Phänomene einzudringen. Systemanalyse ist langwierig und mühsam, aber sie erlaubt es, in den Kern des Phänomens vorzudringen und Schlüsse über sein Wesen zu formulieren. Dabei sollen die von R. Ackoff formulierten drei Schlüsselfragen der Systemuntersuchung nicht außer Acht gelassen werden: 1. Warum sehe ich das, was ich sehe? 2. Warum sind die Dinge so, wie sie sind? 3. Warum ändern sich die Dinge?
Bogusław Nierenberg Professor der Universität in Opole. Ein wissenschaftlicher Angestellte, Journalist, Ökonom. Der Direktor des Kulturinstitutes am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Als Professor ist er am Studienzentrum für Journalismus und Soziale Kommunikation der Universität in Opole tätig. Er ist Leiter des einzigen in Polen Studienzentrums für Medienmanagement und -ökonomie am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Experte im Bereich Kultur- und Medienökonomie, Medienmanagement, Marktkommunikation und Werbung. Der Autor von 7 Monographien und Dutzenden wissenschaftlichen Artikeln über Medien, Werbung, Management und Marktkommunikation, wie auch Journalismus und journalistische Gattungen. Er ist Autor eines Gedichtbandes „Dychotomia uczuć” („Dichotomie der Gefühle“).
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
edialität ist eines der wesentlichen Kennzeichen der Welt von heute. Medien sind allgegenwärtig, sie durchdringen praktisch alle Bereiche des gesellschaftlichen, wirtschaftlichen und politischen Lebens. Sie sind ein nicht wegzudenkender Bestandteil der Gegenwartskultur. Jedoch bedeutet die Allgegenwart eines Phänomens noch keineswegs das Verständnis seines Wesenskerns, vertieftes Wissen über die ihm innewohnenden Gesetzmäßigkeiten. Genau so scheinen die Dinge beim Medienmanagement zu liegen. In Polen ist die Bezeichnung einer solchen Subdisziplin des Managements unüblich, es gibt noch nicht einmal einen entsprechenden Studiengang. Hier und da werden Postgraduiertenstudiengänge angeboten, die jedoch eher die Vermittlung bestimmter Fertigkeiten bezwecken als die Gewinnung und Verbreitung akademisches Wissen. Einen Master-Studiengang Medienmanagement als Fachrichtung des Studiengangs Kulturwissenschaft bietet erstmals in Polen das Institut für Kultur der Fakultät für Management und Sozialkommunikation der Jagiellonen-Universität Krakau an. Einen ähnlich akademischen Charakter hat hier auch das Postgraduiertenstudium in diesem Bereich. Das sind erste wissenschaftliche und organisatorische Schritte, um die auf diesem Feld führenden Länder einzuholen. Entscheidend für das Verständnis des Managements scheinen zwei Feststellungen von P. Drucker: 1.) Information wird die wichtigste Ressource des 21. Jahrhunderts sein; 2.) Information wird umso wertvoller, je verbreiteter sie ist. Während die erste These allgemein akzeptiert zu sein scheint, wenn auch nicht immer und überall konsequent bewusst gemacht, so rührt die zweite an
Bogusław Nierenberg
Bogusław Nierenberg Professor der Universität in Opole. Ein wissenschaftlicher Angestellte, Journalist, Ökonom. Der Direktor des Kulturinstitutes am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Als Professor ist er am Studienzentrum für Journalismus und Soziale Kommunikation der Universität in Opole tätig. Er ist Leiter des einzigen in Polen Studienzentrums für Medienmanagement und -ökonomie am Fachbereich Management und Soziale Kommunikation der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Experte im Bereich Kultur- und Medienökonomie, Medienmanagement, Marktkommunikation und Werbung. Der Autor von 7 Monographien und Dutzenden wissenschaftlichen Artikeln über Medien, Werbung, Management und Marktkommunikation, wie auch Journalismus und journalistische Gattungen. Er ist Autor eines Gedichtbandes „Dychotomia uczuć” („Dichotomie der Gefühle“).
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell
181
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Das mediale Gut als Gegenstand des Managements
G
emäß der Systemtheorie schöpft jede Organisation aus ihrer Umgebung vier verschiedene Arten von Aufwendungen und Ressourcen [Ebenda, S. 37]: 1. Menschen, 2. Geld, 3. Sachen, 4. Informationen. In diesem Zusammenhang wäre zu entscheiden, welche Elemente des öffentlichen und des Unternehmensmanagements für Überlegungen bezüglich des Medienmanagements relevant sind. Untersuchungen im Bereich der Medienwirtschaft berechtigen uns zu der Feststellung, dass alle Medien, unabhängig von ihrem Charakter und den jeweiligen Informationsträgern, zwei Funktionen erfüllen [Picard, 1989, S. 17-18]: 1. eine gesellschaftliche Mission, 2. eine kommerzielle Mission. Zu bedenken ist ebenfalls, dass Medienorganisationen nicht nur bestimmte Güter liefern oder bestimmte Dienstleistungen erbringen, sondern auch über die in der heutigen Welt selten gewordene Fähigkeit verfügen, die Aufmerksamkeit
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
er Begriff Management wird normalerweise mit Kommerz, mit gewinnorientierten Organisationen assoziiert. Dagegen bediente sich Frederic W. Taylor bei seiner Rede vor dem amerikanischen Kongress im Jahr 1912 des Beispiels der Klinik von Elton Mayo, also einer nicht auf Gewinn ausgerichteten Organisation. F. W. Taylor war es, der den Begriff Wissenschaftliches Management schuf. Auch die Bezeichnung Managementgrundsätze wurde erstmals in Bezug auf eine Organisation gebraucht, die keine kommerziellen Eigenschaften hat – die amerikanische Armee; den Begriff hat Elihu Root geprägt, der Kriegsminister unter Theodore Roosevelt. In den USA hatte der Begriff Management in den Zeiten der großen Wirtschaftskrise schlechte Konnotationen. Deshalb sprach man lieber von Öffentlicher Verwaltung – was im Grunde genommen nichts anderes heißt als Management im öffentlichen Sektor. [Drucker, 2000, S. 6] Nach dem 2. Weltkrieg kehrte die Bezeichnung Management in die allgemein benutzte Terminologie zurück, obwohl bis heute die Überzeugung verbreitet ist, bei Management handle es sich vor allem um Unternehmensmanagement. Drucker zufolge ist diese „These jedoch falsch, so wie die Behauptung falsch wäre, dass sich etwa die Medizin auf die Geburtshilfe beschränke“. [Ebenda, S. 7] Ein Manger von heute muss sich auf Effizienz und das Erzielen von Ergebnissen konzentrieren, wozu ihm Wissen und Fähigkeiten aus verschiedenen Fachbereichen dienen [Drucker, 2002, S. 29], ohne besonders darüber nachzudenken, wodurch sich Unternehmensmanagement von Nicht-Unternehmensmanagement unterscheidet. Drucker behauptet, dass 90% der Probleme, mit denen sich eine Organisation beschäftigen muss, allgemeiner Natur sind, und nur die übrigen 10% in der spezifischen Mission, Geschichte, Kultur und Terminologie der jeweiligen Organisation begründet sind. [Drucker, 2000, S. 8] Zu ähnlichen Ergebnissen kommen auch andere Gelehrte. [Ansoff, 1985, S. 33; Koźmiński, Piotrowski, 2004, S. 80; Krzyżanowski, 1992, S. 231-232] Sowohl öffentliche als auch kommerzielle Organisationen bieten ihren gegenwärtigen und potenziellen Verbrauchern private oder öffentliche Güter an. [Owsiak, 1997, S. 19-25, Bednarczyk, 2001, S. 18-22] Die einfachste Unterscheidung dieser Begriffe beruht auf der Annahme, dass private Güter solche sind, die von einer Person und nicht gleichzeitig von jemand anderem konsumiert werden können [Begg, Fischer, Dornbusch, 2003, S. 99-100] (z. B. ein Kuchen, Hemd oder
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
emäß der Systemtheorie schöpft jede Organisation aus ihrer Umgebung vier verschiedene Arten von Aufwendungen und Ressourcen [Ebenda, S. 37]: 1. Menschen, 2. Geld, 3. Sachen, 4. Informationen. In diesem Zusammenhang wäre zu entscheiden, welche Elemente des öffentlichen und des Unternehmensmanagements für Überlegungen bezüglich des Medienmanagements relevant sind. Untersuchungen im Bereich der Medienwirtschaft berechtigen uns zu der Feststellung, dass alle Medien, unabhängig von ihrem Charakter und den jeweiligen Informationsträgern, zwei Funktionen erfüllen [Picard, 1989, S. 17-18]: 1. eine gesellschaftliche Mission, 2. eine kommerzielle Mission. Zu bedenken ist ebenfalls, dass Medienorganisationen nicht nur bestimmte Güter liefern oder bestimmte Dienstleistungen erbringen, sondern auch über die in der heutigen Welt selten gewordene Fähigkeit verfügen, die Aufmerksamkeit
D
Der Gegenstand des Medienmanagements
Bogusław Nierenberg
D
Fahrrad), öffentliche Güter dagegen von vielen Personen gleichzeitig konsumiert werden können, ohne dass einer von ihnen dadurch ein Nachteil entstehen würde (z. B. Atemluft, öffentliches Gesundheitswesen oder die Wehrfähigkeit eines Staates). Es lässt sich also feststellen, dass der Gegenstand des Managements ein bestimmtes Gut ist; im Fall der Medien also ein mediales Gut, mit dessen Erzeugung sich Medienunternehmen beschäftigen und das einen dualen Charakter aufweist (wovon noch eingehender die Rede sein wird). Der Pionier von Untersuchungen auf diesem Feld ist Robert G. Picard [Picard, 1989]. In Polen beschäftigen sich mit Fragen der Medienwirtschaft vor allem Tadeusz Kowalski, Bogdan Jung und der Autor dieses Artikels [Kowalski, 1998; Kowalski, Jung, 2006; Nierenberg, 2006; Nierenberg, 2007], die Problematik des Medienmarketings untersucht neben den Genannten Jan Beliczyński. [Beliczyński, 2005; Nierenberg, 2007; Kowalski, 2008] Andere Autoren behandeln das Thema nur gelegentlich am Rande. Medienmanagement wäre demnach ein Prozess, in dem jenes duale Gut bestimmten Handlungen unterliegt. Ricky Griffin zufolge ist es eine „Gesamtheit von Handlungen (Planung, Entscheidung, Organisation, Führung, d. h. Anleitung von Menschen und Kontrolle), die auf die Ressourcen einer Organisation ausgerichtet sind (…) und dazu dienen, die Ziele der Organisation effektiv und wirksam zu erreichen“. [Griffin, 1999, S. 38]
Bogusław Nierenberg
er Begriff Management wird normalerweise mit Kommerz, mit gewinnorientierten Organisationen assoziiert. Dagegen bediente sich Frederic W. Taylor bei seiner Rede vor dem amerikanischen Kongress im Jahr 1912 des Beispiels der Klinik von Elton Mayo, also einer nicht auf Gewinn ausgerichteten Organisation. F. W. Taylor war es, der den Begriff Wissenschaftliches Management schuf. Auch die Bezeichnung Managementgrundsätze wurde erstmals in Bezug auf eine Organisation gebraucht, die keine kommerziellen Eigenschaften hat – die amerikanische Armee; den Begriff hat Elihu Root geprägt, der Kriegsminister unter Theodore Roosevelt. In den USA hatte der Begriff Management in den Zeiten der großen Wirtschaftskrise schlechte Konnotationen. Deshalb sprach man lieber von Öffentlicher Verwaltung – was im Grunde genommen nichts anderes heißt als Management im öffentlichen Sektor. [Drucker, 2000, S. 6] Nach dem 2. Weltkrieg kehrte die Bezeichnung Management in die allgemein benutzte Terminologie zurück, obwohl bis heute die Überzeugung verbreitet ist, bei Management handle es sich vor allem um Unternehmensmanagement. Drucker zufolge ist diese „These jedoch falsch, so wie die Behauptung falsch wäre, dass sich etwa die Medizin auf die Geburtshilfe beschränke“. [Ebenda, S. 7] Ein Manger von heute muss sich auf Effizienz und das Erzielen von Ergebnissen konzentrieren, wozu ihm Wissen und Fähigkeiten aus verschiedenen Fachbereichen dienen [Drucker, 2002, S. 29], ohne besonders darüber nachzudenken, wodurch sich Unternehmensmanagement von Nicht-Unternehmensmanagement unterscheidet. Drucker behauptet, dass 90% der Probleme, mit denen sich eine Organisation beschäftigen muss, allgemeiner Natur sind, und nur die übrigen 10% in der spezifischen Mission, Geschichte, Kultur und Terminologie der jeweiligen Organisation begründet sind. [Drucker, 2000, S. 8] Zu ähnlichen Ergebnissen kommen auch andere Gelehrte. [Ansoff, 1985, S. 33; Koźmiński, Piotrowski, 2004, S. 80; Krzyżanowski, 1992, S. 231-232] Sowohl öffentliche als auch kommerzielle Organisationen bieten ihren gegenwärtigen und potenziellen Verbrauchern private oder öffentliche Güter an. [Owsiak, 1997, S. 19-25, Bednarczyk, 2001, S. 18-22] Die einfachste Unterscheidung dieser Begriffe beruht auf der Annahme, dass private Güter solche sind, die von einer Person und nicht gleichzeitig von jemand anderem konsumiert werden können [Begg, Fischer, Dornbusch, 2003, S. 99-100] (z. B. ein Kuchen, Hemd oder
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell
Der Gegenstand des Medienmanagements
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
181
G
Das mediale Gut als Gegenstand des Managements Fahrrad), öffentliche Güter dagegen von vielen Personen gleichzeitig konsumiert werden können, ohne dass einer von ihnen dadurch ein Nachteil entstehen würde (z. B. Atemluft, öffentliches Gesundheitswesen oder die Wehrfähigkeit eines Staates). Es lässt sich also feststellen, dass der Gegenstand des Managements ein bestimmtes Gut ist; im Fall der Medien also ein mediales Gut, mit dessen Erzeugung sich Medienunternehmen beschäftigen und das einen dualen Charakter aufweist (wovon noch eingehender die Rede sein wird). Der Pionier von Untersuchungen auf diesem Feld ist Robert G. Picard [Picard, 1989]. In Polen beschäftigen sich mit Fragen der Medienwirtschaft vor allem Tadeusz Kowalski, Bogdan Jung und der Autor dieses Artikels [Kowalski, 1998; Kowalski, Jung, 2006; Nierenberg, 2006; Nierenberg, 2007], die Problematik des Medienmarketings untersucht neben den Genannten Jan Beliczyński. [Beliczyński, 2005; Nierenberg, 2007; Kowalski, 2008] Andere Autoren behandeln das Thema nur gelegentlich am Rande. Medienmanagement wäre demnach ein Prozess, in dem jenes duale Gut bestimmten Handlungen unterliegt. Ricky Griffin zufolge ist es eine „Gesamtheit von Handlungen (Planung, Entscheidung, Organisation, Führung, d. h. Anleitung von Menschen und Kontrolle), die auf die Ressourcen einer Organisation ausgerichtet sind (…) und dazu dienen, die Ziele der Organisation effektiv und wirksam zu erreichen“. [Griffin, 1999, S. 38]
182
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
auf sich zu lenken. Aufgrund dieses Dualismus sind Mediengüter als spezifische Marktgüter zu behandeln (vgl. Abb. 1 Medien als Gut oder Dienstleistung auf dem Markt). Vereinfacht gesprochen lässt sich sagen, dass jener Dualismus der Medien darauf beruht, dass dasselbe Produkt / dieselbe Dienstleistung auf zwei verschiedenen Märkten angeboten wird [Ebenda, S. 29-39]: 1. dem Medienmarkt, 2. dem Reklamemarkt. Die ökonomische Sichtweise der Medien, wie sie R. Picard vertritt, weckt bei Personen, die nicht mit ihrem Wesen vertraut sind, reflexartig Ablehnung. Wie soll es möglich sein, heißt es, dass zum Beispiel die BBC neben ihrer gesellschaftlichen Funktion auch eine kommerzielle Funktion erfüllt, wenn sie doch überhaupt keine Werbung sendet? Bei der Antwort auf solche Vorwürfe genügt es, auf den CPT-Index (cost per tausend) zu verweisen – die Kosten des Zugangs zu Tausend Empfängern der jeweiligen Reklame. Stellen wir uns eine Sendung der BBC vor, die von 3 Millionen Zuschauern gesehen wird. Können diese 3 Millionen in derselben Zeit eine Sendung des kommerziellen Fernsehens verfolgen? Natürlich nicht. Wenn es also dieses Programm der BBC nicht gäbe, würde wohl ein Teil der Fernsehzuschauer – vielleicht ein erheblicher Teil – eine Sendung eines Privatka-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Abb. 1 Medien als Gut oder Dienstleistung auf dem Markt
182
Markt der Mediengüter und -dienstleistungen
Quelle: [Nierenberg, 2007, S. 93]
Angebot an Zugang zu Reklamegebern
Zugang zu Empfängern (für Reklamegeber)
Angebot an Mediengütern und -dienstleistungen und Zugang zu Reklamegebern
Mediengut/dienstleistung (Inhalt der Medien)
Angebot an Mediengütern und -dienstleistungen
Quelle: [Piccard, 1989, S. 18; Kowalski, 1998, S. 30; Nierenberg, 2007, S. 92]
Der Markt der Mediengüter/dienstleistungen
Abb. 2 Die Dreiteilung des Medienmarkts nals anschauen. Dadurch würde die Sendequote
Abb. 2 Die Dreiteilung des Medienmarkts nals anschauen. Dadurch würde die Sendequote
Der Markt der Mediengüter/dienstleistungen
Quelle: [Piccard, 1989, S. 18; Kowalski, 1998, S. 30; Nierenberg, 2007, S. 92]
Angebot an Zugang zu Reklamegebern
Zugang zu Empfängern (für Reklamegeber)
Angebot an Mediengütern und -dienstleistungen und Zugang zu Reklamegebern
Mediengut/dienstleistung (Inhalt der Medien)
Angebot an Mediengütern und -dienstleistungen
Markt der Mediengüter und -dienstleistungen
steigen, ergo der CPT-Indikator sinken. Und eben daran sind die Reklamegeber interessiert. Auf diese Weise erfüllt die BBC, auch wenn sie keine Werbungen ausstrahlt, ebenfalls eine kommerzielle Rolle auf dem Medienmarkt. Die von R. Picard vorgeschlagene Einteilung hat weit reichende Konsequenzen. Sie besagt nämlich, dass Medien keine „gewöhnlichen“ Unternehmen sind, die ihren Eigentümern lediglich Gewinn bringen sollen. Es scheint also, dass einige Wissenschaftler voreilig behauptet haben, dass „die Massenmedien im kapitalistischen System, mit wenigen Ausnahmen, die sich auf die öffentlichen Medien beziehen, normale Produktionsunternehmen darstellen“ [Goban-Klas, 1999, S. 151]. D. McQuail behauptet geradezu: „Medien sind kein Geschäft wie jedes andere aufgrund des gesellschaftlichen Interesses.” [McQuail, 2007, S. 242] Es scheint auch, dass der von R. Picard aufgezeigte Dualismus der Medien, der sich vor allem auf den Inhalt (product content) und den ökonomischen Aspekt (for advertisers) bezieht, ebenfalls die Behauptung zulässt, dass es sich nicht um ein Geschäft wie jedes andere handelt. Die von R. Picard vorgeschlagene Dualität des Medienmarkts sollte, so scheint es, modifiziert werden. Eine genauere Analyse des Medienmarkts führt uns in die Richtung einer detaillierteren Unterscheidung der angebotenen Güter. Es scheint, dass diese duale Einteilung der Mediengüter und -dienstleistungen durch eine Dreiteilung ersetzt werden sollte (vgl. Abb. 2 Die Dreiteilung des Medienmarkts). Im Fall der kommerziellen Medienunternehmen ist das grundlegende Problem ein solches Management der Organisation, bei dem sowohl die Interessen der Eigentümer (Teilhaber) als auch der Empfänger erhalten und respektiert werden. Diese Annahme ist zuweilen sehr schwer in der Praxis umzusetzen, denn es gibt Situationen, in denen das gesellschaftliche Interesse und das Interesse der Eigentümer nicht kongruent sind. Das betrifft insbesondere kleinere Medienunternehmen, deren wirtschaftliche Existenz zum Beispiel von einem Reklamegeber, etwa einer Einheit der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung oder dem einzigen Unternehmen der Region, abhängig ist. Im Fall der öffentlichen Medien (in der Regel handelt es sich um elektronische Medien) ist die grundlegende Managementfrage die Wahrung der Unabhängigkeit von politischen Einflüssen. Das politische Interesse stimmt zumeist nicht mit dem gesellschaftlichen Interessen überein. D. C. Hallin und P. Mancini haben eine Systemunterteilung der Medienmodelle vorgeschlagen in: 1. mediterran (polarisierter Pluralismus), 2. nord- und mitteleuropäisch (demokratischer Korporatismus), 3.
Abb. 1 Medien als Gut oder Dienstleistung auf dem Markt
steigen, ergo der CPT-Indikator sinken. Und eben daran sind die Reklamegeber interessiert. Auf diese Weise erfüllt die BBC, auch wenn sie keine Werbungen ausstrahlt, ebenfalls eine kommerzielle Rolle auf dem Medienmarkt. Die von R. Picard vorgeschlagene Einteilung hat weit reichende Konsequenzen. Sie besagt nämlich, dass Medien keine „gewöhnlichen“ Unternehmen sind, die ihren Eigentümern lediglich Gewinn bringen sollen. Es scheint also, dass einige Wissenschaftler voreilig behauptet haben, dass „die Massenmedien im kapitalistischen System, mit wenigen Ausnahmen, die sich auf die öffentlichen Medien beziehen, normale Produktionsunternehmen darstellen“ [Goban-Klas, 1999, S. 151]. D. McQuail behauptet geradezu: „Medien sind kein Geschäft wie jedes andere aufgrund des gesellschaftlichen Interesses.” [McQuail, 2007, S. 242] Es scheint auch, dass der von R. Picard aufgezeigte Dualismus der Medien, der sich vor allem auf den Inhalt (product content) und den ökonomischen Aspekt (for advertisers) bezieht, ebenfalls die Behauptung zulässt, dass es sich nicht um ein Geschäft wie jedes andere handelt. Die von R. Picard vorgeschlagene Dualität des Medienmarkts sollte, so scheint es, modifiziert werden. Eine genauere Analyse des Medienmarkts führt uns in die Richtung einer detaillierteren Unterscheidung der angebotenen Güter. Es scheint, dass diese duale Einteilung der Mediengüter und -dienstleistungen durch eine Dreiteilung ersetzt werden sollte (vgl. Abb. 2 Die Dreiteilung des Medienmarkts). Im Fall der kommerziellen Medienunternehmen ist das grundlegende Problem ein solches Management der Organisation, bei dem sowohl die Interessen der Eigentümer (Teilhaber) als auch der Empfänger erhalten und respektiert werden. Diese Annahme ist zuweilen sehr schwer in der Praxis umzusetzen, denn es gibt Situationen, in denen das gesellschaftliche Interesse und das Interesse der Eigentümer nicht kongruent sind. Das betrifft insbesondere kleinere Medienunternehmen, deren wirtschaftliche Existenz zum Beispiel von einem Reklamegeber, etwa einer Einheit der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung oder dem einzigen Unternehmen der Region, abhängig ist. Im Fall der öffentlichen Medien (in der Regel handelt es sich um elektronische Medien) ist die grundlegende Managementfrage die Wahrung der Unabhängigkeit von politischen Einflüssen. Das politische Interesse stimmt zumeist nicht mit dem gesellschaftlichen Interessen überein. D. C. Hallin und P. Mancini haben eine Systemunterteilung der Medienmodelle vorgeschlagen in: 1. mediterran (polarisierter Pluralismus), 2. nord- und mitteleuropäisch (demokratischer Korporatismus), 3.
Quelle: [Nierenberg, 2007, S. 93]
auf sich zu lenken. Aufgrund dieses Dualismus sind Mediengüter als spezifische Marktgüter zu behandeln (vgl. Abb. 1 Medien als Gut oder Dienstleistung auf dem Markt). Vereinfacht gesprochen lässt sich sagen, dass jener Dualismus der Medien darauf beruht, dass dasselbe Produkt / dieselbe Dienstleistung auf zwei verschiedenen Märkten angeboten wird [Ebenda, S. 29-39]: 1. dem Medienmarkt, 2. dem Reklamemarkt. Die ökonomische Sichtweise der Medien, wie sie R. Picard vertritt, weckt bei Personen, die nicht mit ihrem Wesen vertraut sind, reflexartig Ablehnung. Wie soll es möglich sein, heißt es, dass zum Beispiel die BBC neben ihrer gesellschaftlichen Funktion auch eine kommerzielle Funktion erfüllt, wenn sie doch überhaupt keine Werbung sendet? Bei der Antwort auf solche Vorwürfe genügt es, auf den CPT-Index (cost per tausend) zu verweisen – die Kosten des Zugangs zu Tausend Empfängern der jeweiligen Reklame. Stellen wir uns eine Sendung der BBC vor, die von 3 Millionen Zuschauern gesehen wird. Können diese 3 Millionen in derselben Zeit eine Sendung des kommerziellen Fernsehens verfolgen? Natürlich nicht. Wenn es also dieses Programm der BBC nicht gäbe, würde wohl ein Teil der Fernsehzuschauer – vielleicht ein erheblicher Teil – eine Sendung eines Privatka-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
nordatlantisch (liberal). [Hallin, Mancini, 2007, S. 66-76] Das polnische Modell scheint dabei dem mediterranen Modell (polarisierter Pluralismus) näher zu stehen, bei dem das Management elektronischer Medien dem politischen Prozess untergeordnet ist, der von einer starken Einflussnahme der Regierung oder des Parlaments auf die Medien geprägt ist. [Ebenda] Hinsichtlich der hier erörterten Fragen scheint die Frage wesentlich, ob in Anbetracht dieses Dualismus der Organisation und des Subjekts das Management eines Medienunternehmens (insbesondere öffentlicher Unternehmen) besondere Managementformen und -instrumente erfordert. Die Antwort darauf setzt vor allem eine Definition der umzusetzenden Aufgaben (Mission) sowie Verständnis für das Wesen des öffentlichen Managements voraus.
Management in den öffentlich-rechtlichen Medien
D
ie Erforschung der wirtschaftlichen Aspekte der Medientätigkeit begann früher als die Untersuchung der Prozesse des Medienmanagements. Ähnlich verhielt es sich mit der klassischen Wissenschaft vom Management, die erst an der Schwelle vom 19. zum 20. Jahrhundert kodifiziert wurde [Piotrowski, 2004, S. 621], obwohl Managementprozesse so alt sind wie die Zivilisation. [Pringle, Starr, 2006, S. 3] Das junge, noch nicht völlig auskristallisierte Forschungsgebiet des Medienmanagements entstand im Fahrwasser der Medienwirtschaft. Einige Kenner dieser Problematik vertreten die Ansicht, dass die Verbindung von Untersuchungen aus dem Bereich der Medienwirtschaft und des Medienmanagements günstig sei [Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2006, S. 2-7; Kowalski, 2008, S. 36-38], da eine „genaue Trennung von Wirtschaft und Management unmöglich ist“ [Kowalski, 2008, S. 36]. Diese letztere Feststellung steht ohne Zweifel. Dennoch hat es den Anschein, dass analog zum wissenschaftlichen Management, das sich von der klassischen Volkswirtschaft abgesondert hat, auch das Medienmanagement sich von der Medienwirtschaft trennen sollte. Dabei besteht ein Bedarf an der Aufstellung eines separaten wissenschaftlichen Instrumentariums für diesen speziellen Wissensbereich. Natürlich wird die Grenzlinie zwischen Medienmanagement und Medienwirtschaft unscharf verlaufen, aber eine Unterscheidung ist dennoch vonnöten. In Polen wird die Trennung von Medienwirtschaft und Medienmanagement zusätzlich durch die Situierung der öffentlichen Medien und die damit
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
zusammenhängenden Probleme begünstigt. Es hat den Anschein, dass die polnischen Wissenschaftler, die sich mit Medienwirtschaft beschäftigen, sich auf natürliche Weise den kommerziellen Medien zuwenden, wo sie eine Vielzahl an Forschungsproblemen vorfinden, während diejenigen, die sich auf Probleme des Managements konzentrieren, ihre Untersuchungsgebiete eher im Bereich der öffentlichen Medien suchen. Vielleicht wird sich dies langfristig ändern, aber für die kommenden Jahre zeichnet sich eine solche Differenzierung der Forschungsgegenstände ab. Es scheint zudem, dass im Bereich des Managements der öffentlichen Medien eine der Hauptaufgaben die Umsetzung ihrer Grundaufgaben sein wird, also das, was als Mission der öffentlichen Medien bezeichnet wird. Öffentliche Organisationen bieten in der Regel öffentliche Güter an. Zu unterscheiden sind dabei zwei Kategorien [Bednarczyk, 2001, S. 19]: 1. öffentliche Institutionen im engeren Sinn, 2. öffentliche Institutionen im weiteren Sinn. Zu den Institutionen im engeren Sinn gehören staatliche Behörden, kommunale Selbstverwaltung, Armee, Polizei usw. Zu den Institutionen im weiteren Sinn gehören Schulen, Bibliotheken, Theater, Museen, Theater, Museen, Einrichtungen der Gesundheitsfürsorge, Sportanlagen etc. Im Fall der (bzw. einiger) Medien könne wir dagegen nur von einem „quasi-öffentlichen Charakter“ [Kowalski, 1998, S. 32] sprechen, da öffentliche Güter als wirtschaftliche Kategorie drei Eigenschaften erfüllen müssen [Ebenda]: 1. Der Konsum eines öffentlichen Guts schränkt nicht den Konsum desselben Guts durch eine andere Person ein. 2. Der Konsum eines öffentlichen Guts schränkt nicht seinen Konsum durch eine andere Person ein. 3. Es ist nicht möglich, auf den Konsum eines öffentlichen Guts zu verzichten. Nach Ansicht von T. Kowalski erfüllen keine Medien die dritte Bedingung, und eben dieser Umstand ist die Ursache für ihren quasi-öffentlichen Charakter. [Ebenda] Vom Standpunkt des Managements öffentlicher Institutionen jedoch sind von größter Bedeutung die Quellen der Finanzierung und die Quellen der Macht. Im Fall der öffentlichen Institutionen im engeren Sinn sind die Finanzmittel öffentliche Fonds und das politische Mandat der Gruppierung, welche die Wahl gewonnen hat. Im Fall von Institutionen im weiteren Sinn können die Finanzierungquellen gemischt sein: öffentlich und privat. Die Quelle der Macht ist das Eigentum, das wiederum öffentlich und privat sein kann. Hinsichtlich der erörterten Fragen ist die Definition des Begriffs Unternehmen und insbesondere der
183
ie Erforschung der wirtschaftlichen Aspekte der Medientätigkeit begann früher als die Untersuchung der Prozesse des Medienmanagements. Ähnlich verhielt es sich mit der klassischen Wissenschaft vom Management, die erst an der Schwelle vom 19. zum 20. Jahrhundert kodifiziert wurde [Piotrowski, 2004, S. 621], obwohl Managementprozesse so alt sind wie die Zivilisation. [Pringle, Starr, 2006, S. 3] Das junge, noch nicht völlig auskristallisierte Forschungsgebiet des Medienmanagements entstand im Fahrwasser der Medienwirtschaft. Einige Kenner dieser Problematik vertreten die Ansicht, dass die Verbindung von Untersuchungen aus dem Bereich der Medienwirtschaft und des Medienmanagements günstig sei [Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2006, S. 2-7; Kowalski, 2008, S. 36-38], da eine „genaue Trennung von Wirtschaft und Management unmöglich ist“ [Kowalski, 2008, S. 36]. Diese letztere Feststellung steht ohne Zweifel. Dennoch hat es den Anschein, dass analog zum wissenschaftlichen Management, das sich von der klassischen Volkswirtschaft abgesondert hat, auch das Medienmanagement sich von der Medienwirtschaft trennen sollte. Dabei besteht ein Bedarf an der Aufstellung eines separaten wissenschaftlichen Instrumentariums für diesen speziellen Wissensbereich. Natürlich wird die Grenzlinie zwischen Medienmanagement und Medienwirtschaft unscharf verlaufen, aber eine Unterscheidung ist dennoch vonnöten. In Polen wird die Trennung von Medienwirtschaft und Medienmanagement zusätzlich durch die Situierung der öffentlichen Medien und die damit
D
Management in den öffentlich-rechtlichen Medien nordatlantisch (liberal). [Hallin, Mancini, 2007, S. 66-76] Das polnische Modell scheint dabei dem mediterranen Modell (polarisierter Pluralismus) näher zu stehen, bei dem das Management elektronischer Medien dem politischen Prozess untergeordnet ist, der von einer starken Einflussnahme der Regierung oder des Parlaments auf die Medien geprägt ist. [Ebenda] Hinsichtlich der hier erörterten Fragen scheint die Frage wesentlich, ob in Anbetracht dieses Dualismus der Organisation und des Subjekts das Management eines Medienunternehmens (insbesondere öffentlicher Unternehmen) besondere Managementformen und -instrumente erfordert. Die Antwort darauf setzt vor allem eine Definition der umzusetzenden Aufgaben (Mission) sowie Verständnis für das Wesen des öffentlichen Managements voraus.
183
zusammenhängenden Probleme begünstigt. Es hat den Anschein, dass die polnischen Wissenschaftler, die sich mit Medienwirtschaft beschäftigen, sich auf natürliche Weise den kommerziellen Medien zuwenden, wo sie eine Vielzahl an Forschungsproblemen vorfinden, während diejenigen, die sich auf Probleme des Managements konzentrieren, ihre Untersuchungsgebiete eher im Bereich der öffentlichen Medien suchen. Vielleicht wird sich dies langfristig ändern, aber für die kommenden Jahre zeichnet sich eine solche Differenzierung der Forschungsgegenstände ab. Es scheint zudem, dass im Bereich des Managements der öffentlichen Medien eine der Hauptaufgaben die Umsetzung ihrer Grundaufgaben sein wird, also das, was als Mission der öffentlichen Medien bezeichnet wird. Öffentliche Organisationen bieten in der Regel öffentliche Güter an. Zu unterscheiden sind dabei zwei Kategorien [Bednarczyk, 2001, S. 19]: 1. öffentliche Institutionen im engeren Sinn, 2. öffentliche Institutionen im weiteren Sinn. Zu den Institutionen im engeren Sinn gehören staatliche Behörden, kommunale Selbstverwaltung, Armee, Polizei usw. Zu den Institutionen im weiteren Sinn gehören Schulen, Bibliotheken, Theater, Museen, Theater, Museen, Einrichtungen der Gesundheitsfürsorge, Sportanlagen etc. Im Fall der (bzw. einiger) Medien könne wir dagegen nur von einem „quasi-öffentlichen Charakter“ [Kowalski, 1998, S. 32] sprechen, da öffentliche Güter als wirtschaftliche Kategorie drei Eigenschaften erfüllen müssen [Ebenda]: 1. Der Konsum eines öffentlichen Guts schränkt nicht den Konsum desselben Guts durch eine andere Person ein. 2. Der Konsum eines öffentlichen Guts schränkt nicht seinen Konsum durch eine andere Person ein. 3. Es ist nicht möglich, auf den Konsum eines öffentlichen Guts zu verzichten. Nach Ansicht von T. Kowalski erfüllen keine Medien die dritte Bedingung, und eben dieser Umstand ist die Ursache für ihren quasi-öffentlichen Charakter. [Ebenda] Vom Standpunkt des Managements öffentlicher Institutionen jedoch sind von größter Bedeutung die Quellen der Finanzierung und die Quellen der Macht. Im Fall der öffentlichen Institutionen im engeren Sinn sind die Finanzmittel öffentliche Fonds und das politische Mandat der Gruppierung, welche die Wahl gewonnen hat. Im Fall von Institutionen im weiteren Sinn können die Finanzierungquellen gemischt sein: öffentlich und privat. Die Quelle der Macht ist das Eigentum, das wiederum öffentlich und privat sein kann. Hinsichtlich der erörterten Fragen ist die Definition des Begriffs Unternehmen und insbesondere der
184
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Karol Jakubowicz verweist auf drei Grundrichtungen bezüglich des Grades der staatlichen Einflussnahme auf die Medien [Ebenda, S. 96]: 1. minimalistisch – in Ländern, in denen der Inhalt kommerzieller Medien nicht geregelt ist und die Finanzierung der Medien aus öffentlichen Mitteln nicht 30 Dollar pro Einwohner übersteigt (Italien, Neuseeland, Portugal, Spanien, USA), 2. Medien als „kulturelle Ausnahme“ – kommerziellen Sendern wird die Pflicht auferlegt, Sendungen zu produzieren, welche die nationale Identität festigen; die öffentliche Finanzierung übersteigt nicht 30 Dollar pro Einwohner, 3. hoher Grad der Einflussnahme – Eingriffe ins Programm werden mit dem öffentlichen Interesse begründet, die öffentliche Finanzierung übersteigt 50 Dollar pro Einwohner (Deutschland, Niederlande, Schweden, Großbritannien). Es scheint, dass im Fall des Managements öffentlicher Medien eines der wichtigsten Elemente das Fehlen einer kommerziellen Motivation ist. Das ist dann möglich, wenn die öffentlichen Medien keine Mittel auf dem kommerziellen Markt erschließen müssen. In solchen Ländern wie Großbritannien, Dänemark, Norwegen, Schweden und Japan beträgt der Anteil der öffentlichen Gelder an den Medieninstitutionen beinahe 100% [ Jędrzejewski, 2003, S. 39]. In Polen sind die öffentlichen Medienunternehmen dazu gezwungen, Finanzierungsquellen auf dem kommerziellen Markt zu suchen. Der Anteil der öffentlichen Mittel für die Umsetzung öffentlicher Aufgaben (die so genannte Mission) beläuft sich von 27-28% (öffentliches Fernsehen) bis 72-73% (öffentlicher Rundfunk) [Bericht über die Grundprobleme von Rundfunk und Fernsehen], und im Fall der Regionalsender des Polnischen Fernsehens – fast 100%. Beim derzeitigen Rechtsstand 1 muss das Management der öffentlichen Medien in Polen also eine Verbindung zweier Ziele darstellen: kommerzieller Ziele und des öffentlichen Interesses. Die polnischen öffentlichen Medien haben die Form von Gesellschaften des Handelsrechts, die von Natur her auf Gewinn ausgerichtet sind. gewinne werden übrigens auch vom Schatzminister erwartet, der gegenüber den öffentlichen Medienunternehmen die Eigentümerfunktion ausübt. Andererseits wurden die polnischen öffentlichen Medien dem Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen unterworfen, in dem das öffentliche
184
speziellen Sonderform des öffentlichen Unternehmens von größter Bedeutung. Im Recht der Europäischen Union ist festgelegt, dass ein Unternehmen ein „Subjekt (eine Einheit) ist, die einer Gewerbetätigkeit für den Bedarf des Markts nachgeht“ [Emmerich, 1999, S. 666]. Und es hat keine Bedeutung, ob das jeweilige Subjekt dem öffentlichen oder privaten Recht unterliegt. [Dudzik, 2002, S. 137] Gemäß den EU-Vorschriften wurde als Grundprinzip die Vermutung der Ausübung eines dominierenden Einflusses auf das Unternehmen angenommen. Dieses Prinzip kann in einem, zwei oder drei Fällen realisiert werden, entweder einzeln oder verbunden [Ebenda, S. 174-175]: 1. Öffentliche Organe besitzen die Mehrheit des Stammkapitals des Unternehmens. 2. Öffentliche Organe kontrollieren die Mehrheit der Stimmen, die auf die von dem Unternehmen emittierten Aktien (Anteile) entfallen. 3. Öffentliche Organe können über die Hälfte der Mitglieder der Verwaltungs-, Managementoder Aufsichtsorgane des Unternehmens berufen. Im Lichte dieser Vorschriften erfüllen die in den Artikeln 22-28 des Gesetzes über Rundfunk und Fernsehen [Gesetz vom 29.12.1992 über Rundfunk und Fernsehen] aufgeführten polnischen Medieninstitutionen diese Kriterien. Organisationen dieser Art sind in der Regel nicht gewinnorientiert. Ihre Aufgaben bestimmt der Eigentümer, also die Gesellschaft und in deren Auftrag die Staatsorgane, die dafür öffentliche Mittel aufwenden. Dies erfordert jedoch eine Definition der Aufgaben der öffentlichen Medien, also der öffentlichen Medien selbst. Durchaus symptomatisch ist das Beispiel der von der britischen Regierung berufenen Kommission zur Erarbeitung eines Konzepts der Digitalisierung der BBC, darunter der Neudefinition des Wesens des öffentlichen Rundfunks. Die Kommission schreib in ihrem Abschlussbericht: „Wir haben uns im Verlauf der sechs Monate, die wir zur Verfügung hatten, nicht an eine derart anspruchsvolle Aufgabe gewagt. Wenn jeder von uns versuchte, eine neue Definition vorzustellen, begannen bekannte Begriffe aufzutauchen – Information, Bildung, Horizonterweiterung, Unabhängigkeit, allgemeine Zugänglichkeit, Inklusivität, Engagement für Minderheiten, fehlende kommerzielle Motivation usw. Wir sind zu dem Schluss gelangt, dass wir zwar keine neue Definition formulieren werden, aber wir wissen, was öffentliche Medien sind.” [ Jakubowicz, 2007, S. 27]
Die Beschreibung bezieht sich auf den Rechtsstand im 1. Halbjahr 2010.
Die Beschreibung bezieht sich auf den Rechtsstand im 1. Halbjahr 2010.
1
Karol Jakubowicz verweist auf drei Grundrichtungen bezüglich des Grades der staatlichen Einflussnahme auf die Medien [Ebenda, S. 96]: 1. minimalistisch – in Ländern, in denen der Inhalt kommerzieller Medien nicht geregelt ist und die Finanzierung der Medien aus öffentlichen Mitteln nicht 30 Dollar pro Einwohner übersteigt (Italien, Neuseeland, Portugal, Spanien, USA), 2. Medien als „kulturelle Ausnahme“ – kommerziellen Sendern wird die Pflicht auferlegt, Sendungen zu produzieren, welche die nationale Identität festigen; die öffentliche Finanzierung übersteigt nicht 30 Dollar pro Einwohner, 3. hoher Grad der Einflussnahme – Eingriffe ins Programm werden mit dem öffentlichen Interesse begründet, die öffentliche Finanzierung übersteigt 50 Dollar pro Einwohner (Deutschland, Niederlande, Schweden, Großbritannien). Es scheint, dass im Fall des Managements öffentlicher Medien eines der wichtigsten Elemente das Fehlen einer kommerziellen Motivation ist. Das ist dann möglich, wenn die öffentlichen Medien keine Mittel auf dem kommerziellen Markt erschließen müssen. In solchen Ländern wie Großbritannien, Dänemark, Norwegen, Schweden und Japan beträgt der Anteil der öffentlichen Gelder an den Medieninstitutionen beinahe 100% [ Jędrzejewski, 2003, S. 39]. In Polen sind die öffentlichen Medienunternehmen dazu gezwungen, Finanzierungsquellen auf dem kommerziellen Markt zu suchen. Der Anteil der öffentlichen Mittel für die Umsetzung öffentlicher Aufgaben (die so genannte Mission) beläuft sich von 27-28% (öffentliches Fernsehen) bis 72-73% (öffentlicher Rundfunk) [Bericht über die Grundprobleme von Rundfunk und Fernsehen], und im Fall der Regionalsender des Polnischen Fernsehens – fast 100%. Beim derzeitigen Rechtsstand 1 muss das Management der öffentlichen Medien in Polen also eine Verbindung zweier Ziele darstellen: kommerzieller Ziele und des öffentlichen Interesses. Die polnischen öffentlichen Medien haben die Form von Gesellschaften des Handelsrechts, die von Natur her auf Gewinn ausgerichtet sind. gewinne werden übrigens auch vom Schatzminister erwartet, der gegenüber den öffentlichen Medienunternehmen die Eigentümerfunktion ausübt. Andererseits wurden die polnischen öffentlichen Medien dem Gesetz über Rundfunk und Fernsehen unterworfen, in dem das öffentliche
1
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
speziellen Sonderform des öffentlichen Unternehmens von größter Bedeutung. Im Recht der Europäischen Union ist festgelegt, dass ein Unternehmen ein „Subjekt (eine Einheit) ist, die einer Gewerbetätigkeit für den Bedarf des Markts nachgeht“ [Emmerich, 1999, S. 666]. Und es hat keine Bedeutung, ob das jeweilige Subjekt dem öffentlichen oder privaten Recht unterliegt. [Dudzik, 2002, S. 137] Gemäß den EU-Vorschriften wurde als Grundprinzip die Vermutung der Ausübung eines dominierenden Einflusses auf das Unternehmen angenommen. Dieses Prinzip kann in einem, zwei oder drei Fällen realisiert werden, entweder einzeln oder verbunden [Ebenda, S. 174-175]: 1. Öffentliche Organe besitzen die Mehrheit des Stammkapitals des Unternehmens. 2. Öffentliche Organe kontrollieren die Mehrheit der Stimmen, die auf die von dem Unternehmen emittierten Aktien (Anteile) entfallen. 3. Öffentliche Organe können über die Hälfte der Mitglieder der Verwaltungs-, Managementoder Aufsichtsorgane des Unternehmens berufen. Im Lichte dieser Vorschriften erfüllen die in den Artikeln 22-28 des Gesetzes über Rundfunk und Fernsehen [Gesetz vom 29.12.1992 über Rundfunk und Fernsehen] aufgeführten polnischen Medieninstitutionen diese Kriterien. Organisationen dieser Art sind in der Regel nicht gewinnorientiert. Ihre Aufgaben bestimmt der Eigentümer, also die Gesellschaft und in deren Auftrag die Staatsorgane, die dafür öffentliche Mittel aufwenden. Dies erfordert jedoch eine Definition der Aufgaben der öffentlichen Medien, also der öffentlichen Medien selbst. Durchaus symptomatisch ist das Beispiel der von der britischen Regierung berufenen Kommission zur Erarbeitung eines Konzepts der Digitalisierung der BBC, darunter der Neudefinition des Wesens des öffentlichen Rundfunks. Die Kommission schreib in ihrem Abschlussbericht: „Wir haben uns im Verlauf der sechs Monate, die wir zur Verfügung hatten, nicht an eine derart anspruchsvolle Aufgabe gewagt. Wenn jeder von uns versuchte, eine neue Definition vorzustellen, begannen bekannte Begriffe aufzutauchen – Information, Bildung, Horizonterweiterung, Unabhängigkeit, allgemeine Zugänglichkeit, Inklusivität, Engagement für Minderheiten, fehlende kommerzielle Motivation usw. Wir sind zu dem Schluss gelangt, dass wir zwar keine neue Definition formulieren werden, aber wir wissen, was öffentliche Medien sind.” [ Jakubowicz, 2007, S. 27]
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Interesse (Mission) beschrieben ist. [Gesetz vom 29.12.1992 über Rundfunk und Fernsehen] Seit Jahren versucht eine Regierung nach der anderen, diese Quadratur des Kreises zu lösen, was in der Regel mit Versprechungen und der gleichzeitigen Übernahme von Einflussmöglichkeiten auf die öffentlichen Medien endet. K. Jakubowicz spricht geradezu von einer Krise der Rechtskraft der öffentlichen Medien. In Meinungsumfragen bringen die Empfänger den Bedarf an öffentlichen Medien zum Ausdruck, gleichzeitig aber auch die Enttäuschung an ihrem Funktionieren. [ Jakubowicz, 2007, S. 252]
Information als Gegenstand des Managements
P
. Drucker behauptet, dass das 21. Jahrhundert zum Jahrhundert der Information wird. [Drucker, 2000, S. 104-105] Die Information wird zur wichtigsten Ressource. Geldgier und Machthunger verursachten, dass in der Vergangenheit, die Grundressourcen immer Gegenstände der Begehrlichkeit und in der Folge Anlässe von Kriegen waren. Zuerst ging es um Land, dass – laut A. Smith – Golddukaten im Tauschprozess gebar. [Smith, 2003, S. 213-235] Danach ging es um Rohstoffe. Die Welt von heute hat schon den einen oder anderen Krieg um Energieträger gesehen. Wenn P. Drucker recht hat, werden wir sicherlich Zeugen von Kriegen um Information werden. Vielleicht ist dies ja auch schon der Fall. Der russisch-litauische und der russisch-georgische Konflikt scheinen in diesem Bezug jedenfalls durchaus symptomatisch zu sein. 2 Dem Menschen der Gegenwart mangelt es an Demut. Ihm scheint, dass er die größten und großartigsten Werke vollbringt, dass er die Informationsrevolution geschaffen hat. Dabei handelt es sich ja bereits um die vierte Medienrevolution in der Geschichte. Die erste hing mit der Erfindung des Drucks vor 5 bis 6 Tausend Jahren in Mesopotamien zusammen. Die zweite setzte vor 3,5 Tausend Jahren in China eine – die Erfindung des Buchs. Die dritte begann im Jahr 1456 Gutenberg mit der Erfindung der beweglichen Lettern. [Drucker, 2000, S. 104-113] P. Drucker betont die besondere Eigenart der Information als einer Ressource, die sich den
2
Grundprinzipien der Volkswirtschaft entzieht: „Wenn ich eine Sache verkaufe, zum Beispiel ein Buch, bedeutet das, dass ich es nicht mehr besitze. Wenn ich jemandem eine Information erteile, besitze ich sie nach wie vor. In Wirklichkeit wird die Information dadurch wertvoller, dass sie einer größeren Zahl von Menschen bekannt ist. Mit der wachsenden Zahl der Empfänger wächst auch ihr Wert.“ [Ebenda, S. 27] Diese Eigenschaft steht im Widerspruch zu dem grundlegenden ökonomischen Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage (die Nachfrage sinkt bei steigendem Angebot). Zur Erklärung dieses scheinbaren Widerspruchs ist Bezug zu nehmen auf die von R. Picard beschriebene duale Natur des Markts der Mediengüter und -dienstleistungen (von der bereits die Rede war), aber auch zu berücksichtigen, dass eine solche duale Natur auch die Medienunternehmen selbst aufweisen. Ohne diese Fragestellung trivialisieren zu wollen, möchten wir uns auf ein Beispiel berufen, das den Kern der Sache gut illustriert. Nehmen wir an, wir haben zwei Unternehmen: Eines stellt gewöhnliche Knöpfe her, das andere – Medienknöpfe (Medienunternehmen). Um den Unterschied zwischen diesen beiden zu verdeutlichen, nehmen wir zudem an, dass der Autor dieser Zeilen das normale Knopfunternehmen exemplifiziert und der bedeutendste polnische Skispringer Adam Małysz das Medienunternehmen. Wenn beide nebeneinander auf der Piste stünden, wäre Małyszs Skianzug voller Werbelogos, der Skianzug des Autors trüge kein einziges. Der berühmte Skispringer liefert ein Content in Form seiner herausragenden sportlichen Leistungen, wodurch er in der Lage ist, auf sich ein seltenes Gut zu kumulieren: die Aufmerksamkeit der Verbraucher (Medienunternehmen, das Informationsknöpfe herstellt). Der Autor besitzt eine solche Fähigkeit nicht (Unternehmen, das gewöhnliche Knöpfe herstellt). Wenn wir nun wissen, worauf der Unterschied zwischen einem gewöhnlichen Unternehmen und einem Medienunternehmen beruht, versuchen wir uns zwei nahezu identische Zeitungen vorzustellen. Beide enthalten jeweils 100 identische „Informationsknöpfe“, aber die erste Zeitung erscheint mit einer Auflage von einer halben Million und die zweite mit einer Auflage von Tausend Exemplaren. Die Frage, welche „Informationsknöpfe“ wertvoller sind, die in der ersten oder die in der zweiten
Im ersten Fall (2007) ging es um die Versetzung des Denkmals des Ehernen Soldaten zum Gedenken an die Sowjetarmee aus dem Zentrum von Tallin auf einen Friedhof; im zweiten (2008) – bewaffneten während des Russisch-georgischen Kriegs – um strittige Grenzgebiete zwischen Russland und Georgien. In beiden Fällen wurden Radiosender der Regierungen von Estland bzw. Georgien angegriffen, wodurch die Regierungen für einen gewissen Zeitraum von der informationszufuhr abgeschnitten waren. Die russische Regierung erklärte damit nichts zu tun zu haben, dass es sich um einen Angriff anonymer Hacker gehandelt habe.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
185
2
185
Im ersten Fall (2007) ging es um die Versetzung des Denkmals des Ehernen Soldaten zum Gedenken an die Sowjetarmee aus dem Zentrum von Tallin auf einen Friedhof; im zweiten (2008) – bewaffneten während des Russisch-georgischen Kriegs – um strittige Grenzgebiete zwischen Russland und Georgien. In beiden Fällen wurden Radiosender der Regierungen von Estland bzw. Georgien angegriffen, wodurch die Regierungen für einen gewissen Zeitraum von der informationszufuhr abgeschnitten waren. Die russische Regierung erklärte damit nichts zu tun zu haben, dass es sich um einen Angriff anonymer Hacker gehandelt habe.
. Drucker behauptet, dass das 21. Jahrhundert zum Jahrhundert der Information wird. [Drucker, 2000, S. 104-105] Die Information wird zur wichtigsten Ressource. Geldgier und Machthunger verursachten, dass in der Vergangenheit, die Grundressourcen immer Gegenstände der Begehrlichkeit und in der Folge Anlässe von Kriegen waren. Zuerst ging es um Land, dass – laut A. Smith – Golddukaten im Tauschprozess gebar. [Smith, 2003, S. 213-235] Danach ging es um Rohstoffe. Die Welt von heute hat schon den einen oder anderen Krieg um Energieträger gesehen. Wenn P. Drucker recht hat, werden wir sicherlich Zeugen von Kriegen um Information werden. Vielleicht ist dies ja auch schon der Fall. Der russisch-litauische und der russisch-georgische Konflikt scheinen in diesem Bezug jedenfalls durchaus symptomatisch zu sein. 2 Dem Menschen der Gegenwart mangelt es an Demut. Ihm scheint, dass er die größten und großartigsten Werke vollbringt, dass er die Informationsrevolution geschaffen hat. Dabei handelt es sich ja bereits um die vierte Medienrevolution in der Geschichte. Die erste hing mit der Erfindung des Drucks vor 5 bis 6 Tausend Jahren in Mesopotamien zusammen. Die zweite setzte vor 3,5 Tausend Jahren in China eine – die Erfindung des Buchs. Die dritte begann im Jahr 1456 Gutenberg mit der Erfindung der beweglichen Lettern. [Drucker, 2000, S. 104-113] P. Drucker betont die besondere Eigenart der Information als einer Ressource, die sich den
P
Information als Gegenstand des Managements Interesse (Mission) beschrieben ist. [Gesetz vom 29.12.1992 über Rundfunk und Fernsehen] Seit Jahren versucht eine Regierung nach der anderen, diese Quadratur des Kreises zu lösen, was in der Regel mit Versprechungen und der gleichzeitigen Übernahme von Einflussmöglichkeiten auf die öffentlichen Medien endet. K. Jakubowicz spricht geradezu von einer Krise der Rechtskraft der öffentlichen Medien. In Meinungsumfragen bringen die Empfänger den Bedarf an öffentlichen Medien zum Ausdruck, gleichzeitig aber auch die Enttäuschung an ihrem Funktionieren. [ Jakubowicz, 2007, S. 252]
Grundprinzipien der Volkswirtschaft entzieht: „Wenn ich eine Sache verkaufe, zum Beispiel ein Buch, bedeutet das, dass ich es nicht mehr besitze. Wenn ich jemandem eine Information erteile, besitze ich sie nach wie vor. In Wirklichkeit wird die Information dadurch wertvoller, dass sie einer größeren Zahl von Menschen bekannt ist. Mit der wachsenden Zahl der Empfänger wächst auch ihr Wert.“ [Ebenda, S. 27] Diese Eigenschaft steht im Widerspruch zu dem grundlegenden ökonomischen Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage (die Nachfrage sinkt bei steigendem Angebot). Zur Erklärung dieses scheinbaren Widerspruchs ist Bezug zu nehmen auf die von R. Picard beschriebene duale Natur des Markts der Mediengüter und -dienstleistungen (von der bereits die Rede war), aber auch zu berücksichtigen, dass eine solche duale Natur auch die Medienunternehmen selbst aufweisen. Ohne diese Fragestellung trivialisieren zu wollen, möchten wir uns auf ein Beispiel berufen, das den Kern der Sache gut illustriert. Nehmen wir an, wir haben zwei Unternehmen: Eines stellt gewöhnliche Knöpfe her, das andere – Medienknöpfe (Medienunternehmen). Um den Unterschied zwischen diesen beiden zu verdeutlichen, nehmen wir zudem an, dass der Autor dieser Zeilen das normale Knopfunternehmen exemplifiziert und der bedeutendste polnische Skispringer Adam Małysz das Medienunternehmen. Wenn beide nebeneinander auf der Piste stünden, wäre Małyszs Skianzug voller Werbelogos, der Skianzug des Autors trüge kein einziges. Der berühmte Skispringer liefert ein Content in Form seiner herausragenden sportlichen Leistungen, wodurch er in der Lage ist, auf sich ein seltenes Gut zu kumulieren: die Aufmerksamkeit der Verbraucher (Medienunternehmen, das Informationsknöpfe herstellt). Der Autor besitzt eine solche Fähigkeit nicht (Unternehmen, das gewöhnliche Knöpfe herstellt). Wenn wir nun wissen, worauf der Unterschied zwischen einem gewöhnlichen Unternehmen und einem Medienunternehmen beruht, versuchen wir uns zwei nahezu identische Zeitungen vorzustellen. Beide enthalten jeweils 100 identische „Informationsknöpfe“, aber die erste Zeitung erscheint mit einer Auflage von einer halben Million und die zweite mit einer Auflage von Tausend Exemplaren. Die Frage, welche „Informationsknöpfe“ wertvoller sind, die in der ersten oder die in der zweiten
186
as Medienmanagement ist ein junger Forschungszweig mit verhältnismäßig bescheidenem wissenschaftlichem Ertrag. Es bedarf der Etablierung eines neuen Forschungsapparats, der kreativen Adaptation der bestehenden Begriffe an die wissenschaftlichen Erfordernisse, wie auch die Festlegung des Untersuchungsgegenstands der neuen Disziplin. Es hat den Anschein, dass sich in den kommenden Jahren das Interesse am Medienmanagement verstärken wird sowohl vonseiten der Wissenschaftler und Studenten, als auch vonseiten der Politik und der Wirtschaft. Die Ursache hierfür ist die ständig wachsende Bedeutung der Medienindustrien oder, weiter gefasst der „kreativen Industrien“ (creative industries). Schon jetzt wird die Hälfte des BIP der größten Volkswirtschaft der Welt, der Vereinigten Staaten, im Bereich der creative industries erwirtschaftet. Die hier skizzierten Probleme scheinen ein interessantes Forschungsfeld zu sein, sowohl im Bezug auf die kommerziellen als auch die öffentlichen Medien. Es sieht so aus, dass die Erforscher der kommerziellen Medien sich auf die Klärung von Fragen konzentrieren sollten, welche die Art des Medienmanagements determinieren (determinieren werden): Information und ihre Eigenschaften, Digitalisierung, Konvergenz, Netzorganisationen. Die Erforschung der öffentlichen Medien wiederum sollten neben den genannten Problemen auch berücksichtigen, dass diese in der nächsten Zeit sich eher von der Politik entfernen werden. Ihren Platz in der Programmgestaltung wird die Kultur einnehmen, die als Sinn und Wesen der grundlegenden
D
Resümee Zeitung, ist eine rhetorische Frage. Dieses Beispiel verdeutlicht, dass die Information ihrem Wesen nach eine Ressource ist, die sich den Gesetzen der herkömmlichen Volkswirtschaft entzieht.
Aufgaben der öffentlichen Medien zu verstehen ist. Schon heute haben viele Kultur- und Kunstunternehmungen eine mediale Dimension, wie etwa virtuelle Museen und Bibliotheken. Diese gegenseitige Durchdringung von Medien und Kultur wird verursachen, dass sich neue Forschungsfelder eröffnen. Tomasz Goban-Klas hat zwar aufgezeigt, dass die elektronischen Medien als „die Gehirne der Massenempfänger massierende” [Goban-Klas, 2005, S. 20] Massenkommunikationsmittel entstanden sind, jedoch hat der technologische Fortschritt bewirkt, dass „die einseitige, standardgemäße Botschaft nicht nur wenig effizient ist, sondern auch immer weniger populär. Die Leute suchen nach neuen Formen der Interaktion, die zwar mediatisiert ist, aber gleichwohl Interaktion bleibt.“ [Ebenda] Das wiederum zeigt die Richtung auf, in welcher sich die mit dem Management in diesem Bereich verbundenen Prozesse weiterentwickeln werden. Die Medien werden zu einer Art Netz [Castells, 2003, S. 11-12], und das bedeutet, dass die Steuerleute der Medien ihr Managementmonopol verlieren können. Manuel Castells verweist auf die Vorzüge der modernen Netzorganisationen network society [Castells, 1996, S. 36]: „Über den längsten Zeitraum der Menschheitsgeschichte hinweg, im Gegensatz zur biologischen Evolution, haben die Netzwerke als Managementinstrumente gegen solche Organisationen verloren, die Ressourcen bei den wichtigsten Unternehmungen zu kumulieren vermochten…“ [Ebenda, S. 12]. R. G. Picard vertrat die Ansicht, dass das Wesen der Medienorganisationen im 21. Jahrhundert die Schaffung von Werten sein wird. Er schreibt: „Journalismus und Medienorganisationen (news organizations) befunden sich im Umbruch. Diejenigen, die diese Veränderungen wählen und auf den Anstieg von Werten für den Verbraucher setzen, haben die Zukunft vor sich; diejenigen, die ihre bisherige Funktionsweise weiterverfolgen – werden verdorren.“ [Picard, 2010, S. 158]
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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D
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2005. Owsiak, S., Finanse publiczne. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1997. Picard, R. G., Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage, London 1989. Picard, R. G., Value Creation and the Future of news Organizations, Media XXI, Barcelona 2010. Piotrowski, W., Organizacja i zarządzanie – kierunki, koncepcje, punkty widzenia [in:] Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. Pringle, P. K., Starr, M. F., Electronic Media Management, Focal Press, Burlington – Oxford 2006. Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2004.
Ossolineum, Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków 1965.
Gesetze, Rapporte, Internetseiten: The Future Funding of the BBC. Report of the Independent Review Panel, Department for Culture, Media and Sport, London 1999.
Law of 29.12.1992 on the radio and television. http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/ spr2008/inf2008.pdf
spr2008/inf2008.pdf http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/ Law of 29.12.1992 on the radio and television.
Ossolineum, Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków 1965. Kotarbiński, T., Traktat o dobrej robocie, Wydawnictwo Handlowej, Warszawa 1997. teorii i praktyki, Oficyna Wydawnicza Szkoły Głównej Kieżun, W., Sprawne zarządzanie organizacją. Zarys dawnictwo Profi-Press, Warszawa 2003. Jędrzejewski, S., Radio w komunikacji społecznej, Wyfesjonalne, Warszawa 2007. nowy początek, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i ProJakubowicz, K., Media publiczne. Początek końca czy rence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey 2006. A. B. Albarran, S. M. Chan-Olmsted, M. O. Wirth, LawHandbook of Media Management and Economics, (eds.) nictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007. mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym, WydawHallin, D. C., Mancini, P., Systemy medialne. Trzy modele
otrowski, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2004. Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. PiFocal Press, Burlington – Oxford 2006. Pringle, P. K., Starr, M. F., Electronic Media Management, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. ria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, koncepcje, punkty widzenia [in:] Zarządzanie. TeoPiotrowski, W., Organizacja i zarządzanie – kierunki, Organizations, Media XXI, Barcelona 2010. Picard, R. G., Value Creation and the Future of news Sage, London 1989. Picard, R. G., Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, dawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1997. Owsiak, S., Finanse publiczne. Teoria i praktyka, Wy2005. standardů Wyd. Slezska univerzita Opava, Opava
w Katowicach, Katowice 1998.
Opolské a Opavské Selzsko ve směru evropských
H. Bieniok, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej
i Opawski w kierunku standardów europejskich –
[in:] Podstawy zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, ed.
akcesji Polski do Unii Europejskiej, [in:] Śląsk Opolski
Gruszczyńska-Malec, G., Zasady organizacji i zarządzania Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1999 Griffin, R., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wyd. Śląski w Opolu, Opole 2005.
Nierenberg, B., Udział mediów w rynku reklamowym po medialnego, Wyd. Radio Opole, Opole 2006. Nierenberg, B., Strategia publicznego przedsiębiorstwa U. Eisenbeis, Media XXI, Lisboa 2008.
Duczmal, B. Nierenberg, Wydawnictwo Instytut
Changes, Challenges, Opportunities, eds. Ch. Scholz,
niczne w procesie komunikacji rynkowej, ed. M.
Looking tothe Future of Modern Media Management.
kształtowaniu nowego rynku, [in:] Media elektro-
i zarządzaniu, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1992.
Goban-Klas, T., Nowe media elektroniczne w edition R. Skubisz, Warszawa 1999. podarcze Unii Europejskiej, ed. M. A. Dauses, Polish Emmerich, V., Prawo antymonopolowe [in:] Prawo gosniczy Zakamycze, Kraków 2002.
Krzyżanowski, L ., Podstawy nauk o organizacji Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. ria i praktyka, ed. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Koźmiński, A. K., Zarządzanie [in:] Zarządzanie. TeoSpraw Publicznych, no 1/2005.
neutralnością, a zaangażowaniem, Kantor Wydaw-
Zarządzanie publiczne, Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu
cznych w prawie Wspólnoty Europejskiej. Między
Kożuch, B., Zarządzanie jako dyscyplina naukowa [in:]
Dudzik, S., Pomoc państwa dla przedsiębiorstw publiMuza, Warszawa 2000. Drucker, P., Zarządzanie w XXI wieku, Wydawnictwo MT Biznes, Warszawa 2002. Drucker, P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Wydawnictwo Wydawnicza Polskapresse, Warszawa 2007. Chyliński, M., Russ-Mohl, S., Dziennikarstwo, Grupa Oxford 1996. Castells, M., The Rise of Network Society, Blackwell, Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2006. Kowalski, T., Jung, B., Media na rynku, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2008. wadzenie do zarządzania mediami, Wydawnictwa Kowalski, T., Między twórczością a biznesem. WproEd. Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX. działalności środków komunikowania masowego, Kowalski, T., Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik1
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Jan Sowa
188
Die Kultur abschlachten
Es ist bezeichnend, dass das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe in das Expertenteam für diese Diagnose nicht einen einzigen Vertreter des Kulturbetriebs geladen hat. Dies zeugt von einer gönnerhaft überheblichen Haltung gegenüber der Kultur, deren Schöpfer und Animatoren als Partner im Dialog als Subjekte, ansonsten aber als Objekte von Untersuchungen und Manipulationen behandelt werden.
I
2
als eine Art Industrie – eine Gewerbebranche, die sich mittels derselben Werkzeuge bewerten und rationalisieren lässt wie zum Beispiel der Kartoffelanbau oder die Produktion von Haushaltsgeräten. Dieser Entwurf beruht auf einer Applikation der grundlegenden Empfehlungen des so genannten Washington Consensus im Kulturbereich, also die Prinzipien von Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsreformen, wie sie in den achtziger Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts von amerikanischen Volkswirten formuliert worden waren [Bresser Pereira, Maravall, Przeworski, 1993; Stiglitz, 2004; Sowa, 2008]. Seine drei Grundpostulate – die heilige Dreifaltigkeit des Neoliberalismus – sind Privatisierung, Liberalisierung und Kürzungen der öffentlichen Ausgaben. Diese Prinzipien möchten die Autoren des Rapports auch im Kulturbereich einführen, um in diesem Sinne die Funktionsweisen der Kulturinstitutionen zu reformieren. Eine solche Reform müsste beruhen unter anderem auf einer Steigerung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit in der Kultur durch gleichberechtigte Aktivität der privaten, öffentlichen und tertiären Wirtschaftssubjekte auf dem freien Markt der Zuschüsse, die Verringerung der Zahl der öffentlichen Institutionen durch ihre
Ich fühle mich verpflichtet, schon eingangs klar den Gesichtspunkt zu definieren, unter dem dieser Text verfasst wurde. Ich möchte hier nicht nur als Akademiker auftreten, also jemand, der versucht, ein bestimmtes Spektrum von Problemen und Gesichtspunkten neutral darzustellen, sondern eher als Intellektueller. Letzterer ist jemand – wie es Julia Kristeva in ihrem Kommentar zu Leben und Werk von Hanna Arendt treffend formuliert hat – versucht eine bestimmte Position in der Welt einzunehmen, wobei er sich des Denkens als seines einzigen Werkzeugs bedient.
m Frühjahr des vergangenen Jahres, 20 Jahre nach dem Beginn der neoliberalen gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Transformation in Polen, wurde die öffentliche Meinung mit dem Versuch konfrontiert, einen der letzten Bereiche, die noch nicht nach der Marktlogik des Spätkapitalismus formatiert waren, einer ökonomischen Rationalisierung zu unterziehen: die Kultur. Der so genannte Hausner-Rapport (und später -Plan) [vgl. Pawłowski, 2002], verkündet gewissermaßen als Prequel für den Kongress der Polnischen Kultur, enthielt eine von einer Gruppe von Beamten und Wissenschaftlern (zumeist Betriebswirten)2 formulierte Diagnose der gegenwärtigen Lage der Kultur und Empfehlungen zu ihrer Verbesserung. Dieses über 100 Seiten lange Dokument [http://www. kongreskultury.pl/] trägt in seinen allgemeinen Zügen nichts zum Verständnis der sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Situation bei, was wir nicht schon zuvor auf anderen Feldern gehört und gesehen hätten. Als Vorschlag für eine Reform der Kultur stellt er jedoch den Entwurf einer radikalen Revolution dar, denn er betrachtet das Kulturschaffen
1
1
m Frühjahr des vergangenen Jahres, 20 Jahre nach dem Beginn der neoliberalen gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Transformation in Polen, wurde die öffentliche Meinung mit dem Versuch konfrontiert, einen der letzten Bereiche, die noch nicht nach der Marktlogik des Spätkapitalismus formatiert waren, einer ökonomischen Rationalisierung zu unterziehen: die Kultur. Der so genannte Hausner-Rapport (und später -Plan) [vgl. Pawłowski, 2002], verkündet gewissermaßen als Prequel für den Kongress der Polnischen Kultur, enthielt eine von einer Gruppe von Beamten und Wissenschaftlern (zumeist Betriebswirten)2 formulierte Diagnose der gegenwärtigen Lage der Kultur und Empfehlungen zu ihrer Verbesserung. Dieses über 100 Seiten lange Dokument [http://www. kongreskultury.pl/] trägt in seinen allgemeinen Zügen nichts zum Verständnis der sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Situation bei, was wir nicht schon zuvor auf anderen Feldern gehört und gesehen hätten. Als Vorschlag für eine Reform der Kultur stellt er jedoch den Entwurf einer radikalen Revolution dar, denn er betrachtet das Kulturschaffen
Ich fühle mich verpflichtet, schon eingangs klar den Gesichtspunkt zu definieren, unter dem dieser Text verfasst wurde. Ich möchte hier nicht nur als Akademiker auftreten, also jemand, der versucht, ein bestimmtes Spektrum von Problemen und Gesichtspunkten neutral darzustellen, sondern eher als Intellektueller. Letzterer ist jemand – wie es Julia Kristeva in ihrem Kommentar zu Leben und Werk von Hanna Arendt treffend formuliert hat – versucht eine bestimmte Position in der Welt einzunehmen, wobei er sich des Denkens als seines einzigen Werkzeugs bedient.
I
als eine Art Industrie – eine Gewerbebranche, die sich mittels derselben Werkzeuge bewerten und rationalisieren lässt wie zum Beispiel der Kartoffelanbau oder die Produktion von Haushaltsgeräten. Dieser Entwurf beruht auf einer Applikation der grundlegenden Empfehlungen des so genannten Washington Consensus im Kulturbereich, also die Prinzipien von Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsreformen, wie sie in den achtziger Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts von amerikanischen Volkswirten formuliert worden waren [Bresser Pereira, Maravall, Przeworski, 1993; Stiglitz, 2004; Sowa, 2008]. Seine drei Grundpostulate – die heilige Dreifaltigkeit des Neoliberalismus – sind Privatisierung, Liberalisierung und Kürzungen der öffentlichen Ausgaben. Diese Prinzipien möchten die Autoren des Rapports auch im Kulturbereich einführen, um in diesem Sinne die Funktionsweisen der Kulturinstitutionen zu reformieren. Eine solche Reform müsste beruhen unter anderem auf einer Steigerung der Wettbewerbsfähigkeit in der Kultur durch gleichberechtigte Aktivität der privaten, öffentlichen und tertiären Wirtschaftssubjekte auf dem freien Markt der Zuschüsse, die Verringerung der Zahl der öffentlichen Institutionen durch ihre
2
Die Kultur abschlachten
Es ist bezeichnend, dass das Ministerium für Kultur und Nationalerbe in das Expertenteam für diese Diagnose nicht einen einzigen Vertreter des Kulturbetriebs geladen hat. Dies zeugt von einer gönnerhaft überheblichen Haltung gegenüber der Kultur, deren Schöpfer und Animatoren als Partner im Dialog als Subjekte, ansonsten aber als Objekte von Untersuchungen und Manipulationen behandelt werden.
Jan Sowa er studierte Polonistik, Psychologie und Philosophie an der Jagiellonen Universität und Saint-Denis Universität Paris VIII. Er trägt den Doktortitel in Soziologie. Ein Kulturtheoretiker und -Praktiker. Er ist Mitbegründer der Stiftung Ha!art Körperschaft und der Goldex Poldex Genossenschaft. Er ist wissenschaftlicher Angestellter am Lehrstuhl für zeitgenössische Kultur der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Autor von Büchern: Sezon w teatrze lalek (2004) und Ciesz się, późny wnuku. Kolonializm, globalizacja i demokracja radykalna” (2008). Er veröffentlichte Dutzende von Artikeln im In- und Ausland u.a. in „Kultura Współczesna” („Zeitgenössische Kultur“), „Ha!art”, „Krytyka Polityczna” („Politische Kritik“), „Problemy polityki społecznej” („Probleme der Sozialpolitik“), „Praesens”, „Philosophie Magazine”, „Obieg” („Kreislauf“) und „Przegląd anarchistyczny” („Anarchistische Übersicht“).
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Jan Sowa er studierte Polonistik, Psychologie und Philosophie an der Jagiellonen Universität und Saint-Denis Universität Paris VIII. Er trägt den Doktortitel in Soziologie. Ein Kulturtheoretiker und -Praktiker. Er ist Mitbegründer der Stiftung Ha!art Körperschaft und der Goldex Poldex Genossenschaft. Er ist wissenschaftlicher Angestellter am Lehrstuhl für zeitgenössische Kultur der Jagiellonen Universität. Der Autor von Büchern: Sezon w teatrze lalek (2004) und Ciesz się, późny wnuku. Kolonializm, globalizacja i demokracja radykalna” (2008). Er veröffentlichte Dutzende von Artikeln im In- und Ausland u.a. in „Kultura Współczesna” („Zeitgenössische Kultur“), „Ha!art”, „Krytyka Polityczna” („Politische Kritik“), „Problemy polityki społecznej” („Probleme der Sozialpolitik“), „Praesens”, „Philosophie Magazine”, „Obieg” („Kreislauf“) und „Przegląd anarchistyczny” („Anarchistische Übersicht“).
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Jan Sowa
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Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik1
189
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Hausner dekonstruieren
H
inter den von Hausner postulierten Reformen – und ähnliche Vorschläge stellte unlängst im Sejm Kulturminister Bogdan Zdrojewski vor – steht eine Reihe von Annahmen, die eine Kombination der Ideen des Washington Consensus und unseres polnischen, hausgemachten Denkens über die Systemtransformation der neunziger Jahre und die Erfahrungen aus der Zeit der Volksrepublik Polen darstellen. Sie seien an dieser Stelle expressis verbis artikuliert.
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik1
Die Überzeugung von der unbedingten Überlegenheit des privaten Eigentums über das staatliche inter den von Hausner postulierten Reformen – und ähnliche Vorschläge stellte unlängst im Sejm Kulturminister Bogdan Zdrojewski vor – steht eine Reihe von Annahmen, die eine Kombination der Ideen des Washington Consensus und unseres polnischen, hausgemachten Denkens über die Systemtransformation der neunziger Jahre und die Erfahrungen aus der Zeit der Volksrepublik Polen darstellen. Sie seien an dieser Stelle expressis verbis artikuliert.
H
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Einer der lautstärksten Apologeten Singapurs ist Fareed Zakaria [vgl. Zakaria, 2004; ders., 1994].
Hausner dekonstruieren Privatisierung ähnlich der in Polen für Krankenhäuser vorgeschlagenen Lösung (Umwandlung in Handelsgesellschaften), die Beschränkung der Aktivität der Gewerkschaften, die den Kulturmanagern die Arbeit erschweren und „Erwartungen artikulieren, die sich aus einer fordernden und kurzsichtigen Haltung ergeben, wie sie für einen Teil der Mitarbeiter dieser Institutionen, insbesondere der älteren, kennzeichnend ist“ [Buczek u. a., S. 29], sowie eine bessere Nutzung der Kultur als Wirtschaftszweig, der messbare materielle Gewinne erwirtschaftet. Die Autoren des Rapports schreiben: „Das Entwicklungspotenzial der Kultur, das aktiviert werden und einen Mechanismen zur Belebung der Wirtschaft und Überwindung der Krise darstellen könnte, wird nicht erkannt. Wobei es nicht unbedingt nur um den Tourismus geht. Wichtiger zu sein scheint die Kreierung neuer Investitions- und Konsumbedürfnisse, also die Stimulierung einer zusätzlichen Binnennachfrage (Hervorhebung – JS)“ [ebenda, S. 27]. Dieses kurze Zitat spiegelt die dem Rapport zugrundegelegte Perspektive wider. Die Kultur wird hier instrumental behandelt, als etwas, was sich „aktivieren“ lässt, also als passives Objekt der betriebswirtschaftlichen Manipulation zwecks „Kreierung von Investitions-- und Konsumbedürfnissen“. Es nimmt also nicht wunder, dass der Hausner-Plan von den Kulturschaffenden mit vernichtender Kritik aufgenommen wurde, deren Quintessenz in dem Titel eines Artikels von Maciej Nowak, dem Direktor des Theaterinstituts in Warschau und einem der bedeutendsten polnischen Theaterkritikern, steckt: Hausner will die Kultur abschlachten [Nowak, 2009; vgl. auch Warszas; Żakowski].
Dies ist der Grundstein der neoliberalen Doktrin und wird angeführt als Begründung einer breit angelegten Privatisierung aller Bereiche des gesellschaftlichen Lebens. Es fällt nicht schwer, für einen derartigen Standpunkt Unterstützung zu finden in einem Land wie Polen, wo ein großer Teil der Bevölkerung sich aus eigener Erfahrung an die katastrophale Misswirtschaft der staatlichen Institutionen in der VRP erinnern kann. Hingegen war und ist nicht überall alles gleich. In vielen Ländern der Erde funktionieren staatliche Betriebe auf höchstem Niveau, sowohl was die Qualität der erbrachten Leistungen angeht als auch ihre Produktivität. Als Beispiel mögen die französische Staatsbahnen SCNCF genügen, die das modernste und am besten funktionierende Schienennetz der Welt bedienen. Die Privatisierung der Eisenbahnen in Großbritannien wurde auf der Welle des Thatcherismus vorangetrieben – und in keinerlei Hinsicht können sie sich auch nur annähernd mit den französischen Standards messen; im Gegenteil: Die gebotene Qualität hat sich in mancher Hinsicht verschlechtert. Das beste Beispiel für eine hohe Produktivität des Staatseigentums ist Singapur, das von Neoliberalen oft genug als sich dynamisch entwickelnde Volkswirtschaft und Wohlstandsgesellschaft dargestellt wird. 3 Dabei vergessen sie jedoch zu erwähnen, dass 70% der Volkswirtschaft von Singapur in staatlicher Hand liegt. Zu den Unternehmen des staatlichen Sektors, die globale Standards in ihren Fachbereichen setzen, gehören etwa die Singapore Airlines oder die Port Authority of Singapore, die den weltweit größten Containerhafen verwaltet. Auch in der einschlägigen Literatur wird die Bedeutung des staatlichen Engagements in verschiedenen Bereichen des gesellschaftlichen Lebens betont, insbesondere dort, wo die zeitliche Perspektive der umzusetzenden Projekte besonders lang ist – zu diesem Bereich gehört ohne jeden Zweifel die Kultur, deren interessanteste Früchte aus der Erfahrung und Arbeit von Jahrzehnten resultieren und auf deren Investitionseffekte oft genug sogar mehrere Generationen warten müssen. Wie der amerikanische Volkswirt und Politikwissenschaftler Lester C. Thurow, langjähriger Leiter der MIT Sloan School of Management, nachweist, beträgt der zeitliche Horizont, mit dem private Firmen operieren, etwa fünf Jahre, weshalb die Umsetzung langfristiger Projekte die Beteiligung von Subjekten des staatlichen Sektors erfordert [vgl. Thurow 1999, S. 380]. Durch seine Reduzierung verurteilen wir uns selbst zu einem
Jan Sowa
Dies ist der Grundstein der neoliberalen Doktrin und wird angeführt als Begründung einer breit angelegten Privatisierung aller Bereiche des gesellschaftlichen Lebens. Es fällt nicht schwer, für einen derartigen Standpunkt Unterstützung zu finden in einem Land wie Polen, wo ein großer Teil der Bevölkerung sich aus eigener Erfahrung an die katastrophale Misswirtschaft der staatlichen Institutionen in der VRP erinnern kann. Hingegen war und ist nicht überall alles gleich. In vielen Ländern der Erde funktionieren staatliche Betriebe auf höchstem Niveau, sowohl was die Qualität der erbrachten Leistungen angeht als auch ihre Produktivität. Als Beispiel mögen die französische Staatsbahnen SCNCF genügen, die das modernste und am besten funktionierende Schienennetz der Welt bedienen. Die Privatisierung der Eisenbahnen in Großbritannien wurde auf der Welle des Thatcherismus vorangetrieben – und in keinerlei Hinsicht können sie sich auch nur annähernd mit den französischen Standards messen; im Gegenteil: Die gebotene Qualität hat sich in mancher Hinsicht verschlechtert. Das beste Beispiel für eine hohe Produktivität des Staatseigentums ist Singapur, das von Neoliberalen oft genug als sich dynamisch entwickelnde Volkswirtschaft und Wohlstandsgesellschaft dargestellt wird. 3 Dabei vergessen sie jedoch zu erwähnen, dass 70% der Volkswirtschaft von Singapur in staatlicher Hand liegt. Zu den Unternehmen des staatlichen Sektors, die globale Standards in ihren Fachbereichen setzen, gehören etwa die Singapore Airlines oder die Port Authority of Singapore, die den weltweit größten Containerhafen verwaltet. Auch in der einschlägigen Literatur wird die Bedeutung des staatlichen Engagements in verschiedenen Bereichen des gesellschaftlichen Lebens betont, insbesondere dort, wo die zeitliche Perspektive der umzusetzenden Projekte besonders lang ist – zu diesem Bereich gehört ohne jeden Zweifel die Kultur, deren interessanteste Früchte aus der Erfahrung und Arbeit von Jahrzehnten resultieren und auf deren Investitionseffekte oft genug sogar mehrere Generationen warten müssen. Wie der amerikanische Volkswirt und Politikwissenschaftler Lester C. Thurow, langjähriger Leiter der MIT Sloan School of Management, nachweist, beträgt der zeitliche Horizont, mit dem private Firmen operieren, etwa fünf Jahre, weshalb die Umsetzung langfristiger Projekte die Beteiligung von Subjekten des staatlichen Sektors erfordert [vgl. Thurow 1999, S. 380]. Durch seine Reduzierung verurteilen wir uns selbst zu einem
Jan Sowa
3
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik1
Privatisierung ähnlich der in Polen für Krankenhäuser vorgeschlagenen Lösung (Umwandlung in Handelsgesellschaften), die Beschränkung der Aktivität der Gewerkschaften, die den Kulturmanagern die Arbeit erschweren und „Erwartungen artikulieren, die sich aus einer fordernden und kurzsichtigen Haltung ergeben, wie sie für einen Teil der Mitarbeiter dieser Institutionen, insbesondere der älteren, kennzeichnend ist“ [Buczek u. a., S. 29], sowie eine bessere Nutzung der Kultur als Wirtschaftszweig, der messbare materielle Gewinne erwirtschaftet. Die Autoren des Rapports schreiben: „Das Entwicklungspotenzial der Kultur, das aktiviert werden und einen Mechanismen zur Belebung der Wirtschaft und Überwindung der Krise darstellen könnte, wird nicht erkannt. Wobei es nicht unbedingt nur um den Tourismus geht. Wichtiger zu sein scheint die Kreierung neuer Investitions- und Konsumbedürfnisse, also die Stimulierung einer zusätzlichen Binnennachfrage (Hervorhebung – JS)“ [ebenda, S. 27]. Dieses kurze Zitat spiegelt die dem Rapport zugrundegelegte Perspektive wider. Die Kultur wird hier instrumental behandelt, als etwas, was sich „aktivieren“ lässt, also als passives Objekt der betriebswirtschaftlichen Manipulation zwecks „Kreierung von Investitions-- und Konsumbedürfnissen“. Es nimmt also nicht wunder, dass der Hausner-Plan von den Kulturschaffenden mit vernichtender Kritik aufgenommen wurde, deren Quintessenz in dem Titel eines Artikels von Maciej Nowak, dem Direktor des Theaterinstituts in Warschau und einem der bedeutendsten polnischen Theaterkritikern, steckt: Hausner will die Kultur abschlachten [Nowak, 2009; vgl. auch Warszas; Żakowski].
Die Überzeugung von der unbedingten Überlegenheit des privaten Eigentums über das staatliche
3
Einer der lautstärksten Apologeten Singapurs ist Fareed Zakaria [vgl. Zakaria, 2004; ders., 1994].
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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190
Der Antagonismus von Staat und Wirtschaft
Diese Beschränkungen für die Bedingungen der Markteffizienz sind wichtig – viele Schlüsselmaßnahmen des Staats lassen sich als Antwort auf die Unzulänglichkeit des Markts begreifen.“ Stiglitz, 2004, S. 78-79]. [
chaotischen Spiel der Marktkräfte, die ausschließlich ihre kurzfristigen Gewinne zu maximieren trachten.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
D
en Rahmen für die Präsentation seines Rapports setzt Hausner, indem er seinen Ansatz den Verhältnissen in der Volksrepublik gegenüberstellt. Aus einem Interview, das er Roman Pawłowski im Juni 2009 noch vor Veröffentlichung des Rapports erteilte, können wir erfahren, dass die „Kultur der letzte Bereich des öffentlichen Lebens ist, der nach 1989 nicht vollständige reformiert wurde“ [Pawłowski, 2009]. Natürlich besitzt eine solche Darlegung des Sachverhalts eine große rhetorische Wirkung. Die Nostalgie nach der Volksrepublik ist ein Gefühl, das nach wie vor in der polnischen Gesellschaft gegenwärtig ist, dennoch würde kaum jemand in den so genannten vergangenen Zeiten Vorlagen für die institutionelle Organisation irgendeines Lebensbereichs suchen. Die Volksrepublik wird mit Stillstand, schlechter Qualität, niedriger Produktivität, Bürokratisierung und dergleichen assoziiert. Im Kontext der Kultur hingegen ist die Dämonisierung der VRP keineswegs gut begründet. Meine Absicht hier ist nicht und war nie die Glorifizierung der VPR oder ihre Darstellung als Vorbild auf irgendeinem Feld, jedoch ist es eine unbestreitbare Tatsache, dass die Kultur derjenige Bereich war, dem es in der repressiven
Auch Historiker des Kapitalismus beweisen ohne jeden Zweifel, dass die kapitalistische Wirtschaft sich entwickelt hat und weiterentwickelt dank des staatlichen Eingreifens in Wirtschaftsprozesse [Arrighi, 1994; Braudel, 1979; Wallerstein, 1974]. Wir haben im Übrigen unmittelbar selbst gesehen, wie wichtig für den Kapitalismus der Staat ist: In der Zeit der Finanzkrise 2008/2009 wurde die Stabilität nur und ausschließlich durch staatliche Interventionen aufrechterhalten. Natürlich haben die Marktfundamentalisten Recht, wenn sie behaupten, dass in längerer Perspektive sich der Markt ebenfalls selbst reguliert hätte. Aber die sozialen Kosten einer solchen Selbstregulierung wären schließlich gewaltig. Einen hervorragenden Kommentar zu dieser Einstellung verkündete schon vor langem John Maynard Keynes, ein großer Anhänger der staatlichen Intervention in der Wirtschaft: Auf lange Frist sind wir alle tot.
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Die VRP als das exemplifizierte Böse in jeder Form
„Die neuesten Errungenschaften der volkswirtschaftlichen Theorie – paradoxerweise erlangt in einer Zeit der unerbittlichsten Jagd nach der Umsetzung der Politik, die sich aus dem Washington Consensus ergibt – haben gezeigt, dass, wann immer der Markt unvollständig ist, [...], das Wirken der unsichtbaren Hand im höchsten Grade unvollkommen ist. […] Erwünscht sind bestimmte Interventionen der Regierung, die prinzipiell die Markteffizienz verbessern.
Die VRP als das exemplifizierte Böse in jeder Form
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ie Neoliberalen bedienen sich gern und häufig eines Denkschemas, das auf der Gegenüberstellung des perfekt produktiven freien Markts und der staatlichen Kräfte beruht, deren Intervention diesen wunderbaren Mechanismus nur kaputt machen können. Häufig ist die Rede von der „unsichtbaren Hand des Marktes“ (eine von Adam Smith in seinem Werk Der Wohlstand der Nationen – Eine Untersuchung seiner Natur und seiner Ursachen geprägte Metapher), die auf die beste mögliche Weise jedes Problem in Zusammenhang mit der Verteilung der wirtschaftlichen Ressourcen lösen soll. Die Geschichte der Diskussion dieser Frage in der ökonomischen Theorie des 20. Jahrhunderts ist reichlich paradox. Es wurden nämlich zwei Nobelpreise vergeben: einer für den Beweis, dass Smiths unsichtbare Hand tatsächlich wirkt – genauer gesagt, dass „die Allokation von Ressourcen im Gleichgewichtszustand des Wettbewerbs pareto-optimal ist (keine andere Verteilung von Gütern und Produktionsmitteln würde die Situation irgendeiner Person verbessern, ohne nicht gleichzeitig die Lage von mindestens einer anderen Person zu verschlechtern) und dass umgekehrt jede pareto-optimale Allokation von Ressourcen im Zustand des Wettbewerbsgleichgewichts vorgenommen werden kann“ [Arrow, Debreu, 1954, S. 265] – sowie ein zweiter für den Nachweis, dass dieses Gesetz nur auf eine ideale Welt anwendbar ist, in der, wie Douglas C. North sagt, die Wirtschaft reibungslos funktionieren würde (engl. frictionless economy) [North, 2010], in der realen Welt dagegen aufgrund der Nichterfüllung des Grundsatzes vom absoluten Wettbewerb niemals aufgehen kann. Anschaulich kommentiert dies Joseph Stiglitz, der Laureat des letzteren der oben genannten Nobelpreise:
ie Neoliberalen bedienen sich gern und häufig eines Denkschemas, das auf der Gegenüberstellung des perfekt produktiven freien Markts und der staatlichen Kräfte beruht, deren Intervention diesen wunderbaren Mechanismus nur kaputt machen können. Häufig ist die Rede von der „unsichtbaren Hand des Marktes“ (eine von Adam Smith in seinem Werk Der Wohlstand der Nationen – Eine Untersuchung seiner Natur und seiner Ursachen geprägte Metapher), die auf die beste mögliche Weise jedes Problem in Zusammenhang mit der Verteilung der wirtschaftlichen Ressourcen lösen soll. Die Geschichte der Diskussion dieser Frage in der ökonomischen Theorie des 20. Jahrhunderts ist reichlich paradox. Es wurden nämlich zwei Nobelpreise vergeben: einer für den Beweis, dass Smiths unsichtbare Hand tatsächlich wirkt – genauer gesagt, dass „die Allokation von Ressourcen im Gleichgewichtszustand des Wettbewerbs pareto-optimal ist (keine andere Verteilung von Gütern und Produktionsmitteln würde die Situation irgendeiner Person verbessern, ohne nicht gleichzeitig die Lage von mindestens einer anderen Person zu verschlechtern) und dass umgekehrt jede pareto-optimale Allokation von Ressourcen im Zustand des Wettbewerbsgleichgewichts vorgenommen werden kann“ [Arrow, Debreu, 1954, S. 265] – sowie ein zweiter für den Nachweis, dass dieses Gesetz nur auf eine ideale Welt anwendbar ist, in der, wie Douglas C. North sagt, die Wirtschaft reibungslos funktionieren würde (engl. frictionless economy) [North, 2010], in der realen Welt dagegen aufgrund der Nichterfüllung des Grundsatzes vom absoluten Wettbewerb niemals aufgehen kann. Anschaulich kommentiert dies Joseph Stiglitz, der Laureat des letzteren der oben genannten Nobelpreise:
D
Auch Historiker des Kapitalismus beweisen ohne jeden Zweifel, dass die kapitalistische Wirtschaft sich entwickelt hat und weiterentwickelt dank des staatlichen Eingreifens in Wirtschaftsprozesse [Arrighi, 1994; Braudel, 1979; Wallerstein, 1974]. Wir haben im Übrigen unmittelbar selbst gesehen, wie wichtig für den Kapitalismus der Staat ist: In der Zeit der Finanzkrise 2008/2009 wurde die Stabilität nur und ausschließlich durch staatliche Interventionen aufrechterhalten. Natürlich haben die Marktfundamentalisten Recht, wenn sie behaupten, dass in längerer Perspektive sich der Markt ebenfalls selbst reguliert hätte. Aber die sozialen Kosten einer solchen Selbstregulierung wären schließlich gewaltig. Einen hervorragenden Kommentar zu dieser Einstellung verkündete schon vor langem John Maynard Keynes, ein großer Anhänger der staatlichen Intervention in der Wirtschaft: Auf lange Frist sind wir alle tot.
en Rahmen für die Präsentation seines Rapports setzt Hausner, indem er seinen Ansatz den Verhältnissen in der Volksrepublik gegenüberstellt. Aus einem Interview, das er Roman Pawłowski im Juni 2009 noch vor Veröffentlichung des Rapports erteilte, können wir erfahren, dass die „Kultur der letzte Bereich des öffentlichen Lebens ist, der nach 1989 nicht vollständige reformiert wurde“ [Pawłowski, 2009]. Natürlich besitzt eine solche Darlegung des Sachverhalts eine große rhetorische Wirkung. Die Nostalgie nach der Volksrepublik ist ein Gefühl, das nach wie vor in der polnischen Gesellschaft gegenwärtig ist, dennoch würde kaum jemand in den so genannten vergangenen Zeiten Vorlagen für die institutionelle Organisation irgendeines Lebensbereichs suchen. Die Volksrepublik wird mit Stillstand, schlechter Qualität, niedriger Produktivität, Bürokratisierung und dergleichen assoziiert. Im Kontext der Kultur hingegen ist die Dämonisierung der VRP keineswegs gut begründet. Meine Absicht hier ist nicht und war nie die Glorifizierung der VPR oder ihre Darstellung als Vorbild auf irgendeinem Feld, jedoch ist es eine unbestreitbare Tatsache, dass die Kultur derjenige Bereich war, dem es in der repressiven
Der Antagonismus von Staat und Wirtschaft
Diese Beschränkungen für die Bedingungen der Markteffizienz sind wichtig – viele Schlüsselmaßnahmen des Staats lassen sich als Antwort auf die Unzulänglichkeit des Markts begreifen.“ [ Stiglitz, 2004, S. 78-79].
„Die neuesten Errungenschaften der volkswirtschaftlichen Theorie – paradoxerweise erlangt in einer Zeit der unerbittlichsten Jagd nach der Umsetzung der Politik, die sich aus dem Washington Consensus ergibt – haben gezeigt, dass, wann immer der Markt unvollständig ist, [...], das Wirken der unsichtbaren Hand im höchsten Grade unvollkommen ist. […] Erwünscht sind bestimmte Interventionen der Regierung, die prinzipiell die Markteffizienz verbessern.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
chaotischen Spiel der Marktkräfte, die ausschließlich ihre kurzfristigen Gewinne zu maximieren trachten.
191
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Volksrepublik besser erging als in der freien 3. Republik. Nach 1989 entstanden in der polnischen Kultur nicht viele Dinge, die sich etwa mit den Errungenschaften des polnischen Kinos oder Theaters in den sechziger und siebziger Jahren (für das Kino ohne Zweifel ein goldenes Zeitalter) vergleichen ließen. Der ungebändigte freie Markt ist dem Kulturschaffen nicht gewogen, und meines Erachtens lässt sich sogar die These riskieren, dass eine negative Korrelation besteht zwischen dem Grad der Vermarktwirtschaflichung eines Gebiets der Kunst in der 3. Republik und ihrer Qualität. Den bildenden Künste in Polen, im noch geringsten Maße vom Markt abhängig (im Sinne eines Markts von Empfängern, die mit ihrem Geld „abstimmen“, wie manchmal von den Anhängern jenes absurden Geschöpfs, das „Markdemokratie“ genannt wird, behauptet), geht es recht gut, was sich in der enormen Anerkennung niederschlägt, die solche Künstler wie Mirosław Bałka, Zbigniew Libera, Krzysztof Wodiczko oder Zofia Kulik im Ausland erfahren. Ebenso geschätzt sind die polnischen Kuratoren. Es genügt, hier Aneta Szyłak, Joanna Mytkowska oder Adam Szymczyk zu erwähnen. Schlechter steht das polnische Theater da, auch wenn seine internationale Wertschätzung nicht die übelste ist (mit Sicherheit aber auch nicht so gut wie in den großen Zeiten der Grotowskis und Kantors). Am schlechtesten fallen solche Bereiche aus, in denen Markt, Unternehmen und der Privatsektor einen großen Stellenwert einnehmen: die Literatur (mit Ausnahme einiger junger Schriftsteller) und insbesondere das Kino, das in letzter Zeit dank junger Regisseure wie Wojciech Smarzowski oder Ksawery Żuławski etwas an Boden zurückgewonnen hat, in den neunziger Jahren hingegen die schlechteste Ära seiner Geschichte durchmachte, als ständig immer wieder nur der Schauspieler Pazura den Schauspieler Linda verfolgte und umgekehrt. Zu sagen, die Kultur sei der einzige Bereich, der nach 1989 nie reformiert wurde, ist auch deshalb absurd, weil, wie Jarosław Suchan, der Direktor des Kunstmuseums in Łódź, bei einer der Diskussionen über den Hausner-Plan festgestellt hat, es schwer falle, eine Errungenschaft der gleich zu Beginn der Transformation rücksichtslos reformierten polnischen Industrie zu nennen, die in der Welt ein ähnliches Renommee genießen würde wie die polnische Gegenwartskunst.
4
Managerismus
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as Rezept für die Gesundung der polnischen Kulturinstitutionen stützt sich nach Ansicht des Hausnerschen Expertenteams in hohem Grade auf die Einführung der Prinzipien eines professionellen Managements. Darin lässt sich durchaus ein Beispiel des Triumphs der Rationalisierung und der instrumentalen Vernunft erblicken, vor der sich die Theoretiker der Moderne von Weber bis Habermas fürchteten. Der Glaube an den Managerismus ist heute ein mentales Relikt, ein Überbleibsel des Marktenthusiasmus der neunziger Jahre, als das von Fukuyma ausgerufene „Ende der Geschichte“ und der Triumph des liberalen Kapitalismus über alle anderen Formen der gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Organisation die Welt in die Umarmung der Spezialisten für Produktivität, der Manager, drängte. Heute erscheint dieser Glaube reichlich naiv, denn Hausner stellt seinen Vorschlag einer neoliberalen Reform der polnischen Kultur in einem Moment vor, in dem der Neoliberalismus ein spektakuläres Fiasko in seiner Kerndisziplin erlitten hat, in der die Manger eigentlich die größten Erfolge hätten erzielen sollen: in der Welt der Hochfinanz. Stattdessen sahen wir, wie die dem Kult des Managements immanente Obsession der permanenten Optimierung aller Indikatoren (Produktivität, Umsatz, Produktionsvolumen, Stückzahlen, Gewinn etc.) den liberalen Kapitalismus zu einem strukturellen Einbruch geführt hat, vor dessen tragischen Konsequenzen uns nur Regierungsinterventionen gerettet haben. Der neoliberale Glaube an den Managerismus hat auch noch eine andere Schwäche, die sich auf dramatische Weise manifestiert, wenn es um die Kultur geht: die Einstellung nach dem Prinzip one-size-fits-all, nach dem dieselben Methoden, Werkzeuge und Rezepte von einem Bereich auf jeden anderen übertragen werden können. Das erinnert an das Verhalten der Beamten des Internationalen Währungsfonds, die in ihren Laptops fertige Schablonen für Wirtschaftsreformen von Land zu Land transportieren, um dann nur noch an die entsprechende Stelle den Namen des Landes, in dem sie sich jeweils gerade befinden, zu kopieren.4 Derweil bedingt die Besonderheit der Kultur als eines Bereichs der menschlichen Aktivität, dass die Anwendung von im Kontext des Unternehmensmanagements entwickelten Techniken, Methoden und Kriterien – ein Stan-
Eine Anekdote berichtet, einer der Beamten habe einmal vergessen, den Namen des Landes nach seiner letzten Reise zu ändern und der Regierung des Landes, das er als Berater besuchte, ein Dokument vorgestellt, das von der Reform in einem völlig anderen Erdteil handelte. In der endgültigen Version habe er außer dem Namen des Landes kaum etwas geändert.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
191
4
Eine Anekdote berichtet, einer der Beamten habe einmal vergessen, den Namen des Landes nach seiner letzten Reise zu ändern und der Regierung des Landes, das er als Berater besuchte, ein Dokument vorgestellt, das von der Reform in einem völlig anderen Erdteil handelte. In der endgültigen Version habe er außer dem Namen des Landes kaum etwas geändert.
Volksrepublik besser erging als in der freien 3. Republik. Nach 1989 entstanden in der polnischen Kultur nicht viele Dinge, die sich etwa mit den Errungenschaften des polnischen Kinos oder Theaters in den sechziger und siebziger Jahren (für das Kino ohne Zweifel ein goldenes Zeitalter) vergleichen ließen. Der ungebändigte freie Markt ist dem Kulturschaffen nicht gewogen, und meines Erachtens lässt sich sogar die These riskieren, dass eine negative Korrelation besteht zwischen dem Grad der Vermarktwirtschaflichung eines Gebiets der Kunst in der 3. Republik und ihrer Qualität. Den bildenden Künste in Polen, im noch geringsten Maße vom Markt abhängig (im Sinne eines Markts von Empfängern, die mit ihrem Geld „abstimmen“, wie manchmal von den Anhängern jenes absurden Geschöpfs, das „Markdemokratie“ genannt wird, behauptet), geht es recht gut, was sich in der enormen Anerkennung niederschlägt, die solche Künstler wie Mirosław Bałka, Zbigniew Libera, Krzysztof Wodiczko oder Zofia Kulik im Ausland erfahren. Ebenso geschätzt sind die polnischen Kuratoren. Es genügt, hier Aneta Szyłak, Joanna Mytkowska oder Adam Szymczyk zu erwähnen. Schlechter steht das polnische Theater da, auch wenn seine internationale Wertschätzung nicht die übelste ist (mit Sicherheit aber auch nicht so gut wie in den großen Zeiten der Grotowskis und Kantors). Am schlechtesten fallen solche Bereiche aus, in denen Markt, Unternehmen und der Privatsektor einen großen Stellenwert einnehmen: die Literatur (mit Ausnahme einiger junger Schriftsteller) und insbesondere das Kino, das in letzter Zeit dank junger Regisseure wie Wojciech Smarzowski oder Ksawery Żuławski etwas an Boden zurückgewonnen hat, in den neunziger Jahren hingegen die schlechteste Ära seiner Geschichte durchmachte, als ständig immer wieder nur der Schauspieler Pazura den Schauspieler Linda verfolgte und umgekehrt. Zu sagen, die Kultur sei der einzige Bereich, der nach 1989 nie reformiert wurde, ist auch deshalb absurd, weil, wie Jarosław Suchan, der Direktor des Kunstmuseums in Łódź, bei einer der Diskussionen über den Hausner-Plan festgestellt hat, es schwer falle, eine Errungenschaft der gleich zu Beginn der Transformation rücksichtslos reformierten polnischen Industrie zu nennen, die in der Welt ein ähnliches Renommee genießen würde wie die polnische Gegenwartskunst.
as Rezept für die Gesundung der polnischen Kulturinstitutionen stützt sich nach Ansicht des Hausnerschen Expertenteams in hohem Grade auf die Einführung der Prinzipien eines professionellen Managements. Darin lässt sich durchaus ein Beispiel des Triumphs der Rationalisierung und der instrumentalen Vernunft erblicken, vor der sich die Theoretiker der Moderne von Weber bis Habermas fürchteten. Der Glaube an den Managerismus ist heute ein mentales Relikt, ein Überbleibsel des Marktenthusiasmus der neunziger Jahre, als das von Fukuyma ausgerufene „Ende der Geschichte“ und der Triumph des liberalen Kapitalismus über alle anderen Formen der gesellschaftlich-wirtschaftlichen Organisation die Welt in die Umarmung der Spezialisten für Produktivität, der Manager, drängte. Heute erscheint dieser Glaube reichlich naiv, denn Hausner stellt seinen Vorschlag einer neoliberalen Reform der polnischen Kultur in einem Moment vor, in dem der Neoliberalismus ein spektakuläres Fiasko in seiner Kerndisziplin erlitten hat, in der die Manger eigentlich die größten Erfolge hätten erzielen sollen: in der Welt der Hochfinanz. Stattdessen sahen wir, wie die dem Kult des Managements immanente Obsession der permanenten Optimierung aller Indikatoren (Produktivität, Umsatz, Produktionsvolumen, Stückzahlen, Gewinn etc.) den liberalen Kapitalismus zu einem strukturellen Einbruch geführt hat, vor dessen tragischen Konsequenzen uns nur Regierungsinterventionen gerettet haben. Der neoliberale Glaube an den Managerismus hat auch noch eine andere Schwäche, die sich auf dramatische Weise manifestiert, wenn es um die Kultur geht: die Einstellung nach dem Prinzip one-size-fits-all, nach dem dieselben Methoden, Werkzeuge und Rezepte von einem Bereich auf jeden anderen übertragen werden können. Das erinnert an das Verhalten der Beamten des Internationalen Währungsfonds, die in ihren Laptops fertige Schablonen für Wirtschaftsreformen von Land zu Land transportieren, um dann nur noch an die entsprechende Stelle den Namen des Landes, in dem sie sich jeweils gerade befinden, zu kopieren.4 Derweil bedingt die Besonderheit der Kultur als eines Bereichs der menschlichen Aktivität, dass die Anwendung von im Kontext des Unternehmensmanagements entwickelten Techniken, Methoden und Kriterien – ein Stan-
D
Managerismus
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3) Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
umgeben, die sie verstehbar und vorhersehbar machen [Taleb 2007, S. 16-17]. Spezialisten für Kulturmanagement bedienen sich Kategorien, die dem Wesen der Kultur als Bereich des Schaffens von Werten nicht entsprechen. Sie beziehen sich zumeist auf Kriterien, die nur wenig über die Kultur aussagen: die durchschnittlichen Unterhaltskosten für einen Quadratmeter Galerie- oder Museumsfläche, die Zahl der Besucher pro Mitarbeiter, die durchschnittlichen Kosten der Bedienung der Besucher, die Zahl der entliehenen Bücher aus einer Bibliothek je Zeiteinheit, die Zahl der Besucher der jeweiligen Institution je Zeiteinheit, die Zahl des Austauschs von Exponaten der Museen untereinander, der Anteil der Mitarbeitergehälter an den Fixkosten, der Anteil der selbstständig erwirtschafteten Mittel an den Gesamteinkünften der jeweiligen Institution, die Zahl der von der jeweiligen Institution durchgeführten Veranstaltungen je Zeiteinheit, die Zufriedenheit der Besucher mit dem Angebot der Institution, die Bewertung der Servicequalität, die Bequemlichkeit der Anfahrt oder der Öffnungszeiten usw.6 Diese Kriterien haben einen gewissen Wert, aber sie eignen sich gut nur zur Bewertung von zwei Arten von Aktivitäten, die zum im weiten Sinne verstandenen Kulturbetrieb gehören und zudem relativ wenig bedeutende Elemente darstellen: die Präsentation des Nationalerbes und die Unterhaltung. Dagegen sagen sie nichts aus über die aktuellsten Formen des Kulturschaffens, wie zum Beispiel die experimentelle Suche nach neuen Wegen im Bereich der visuellen oder performativen Künste. Diese ist zu fließend und innovativ, um sich nach den Standardmethoden der Ökonomie, der Soziologie oder der Psychologie untersuchen zu lassen (denn damit beschäftigt sich die Betriebswirtschaft, die keine eigenständige wissenschaftliche Disziplin darstellt, sondern nur ein Sammelsurium von Techniken aus verschiedenen anderen Sozialwissenschaften). Eine weitere wichtige Unzulänglichkeit des Managerismus zeigt sich am entgegengesetzten Ende des Kulturbetriebs, nämlich auf der Seite der Rezeption. Die Frage der Teilnahme an der Kultur ist eines der grundsätzlichen Probleme, das jeder lösen muss, dessen Ziel die Verbesserung ihrer Funktionsweise ist.7 Natürlich, das Problem ist auch in den Überlegungen des Kulturmanagements gegenwärtig, allerdings wird es dabei genauso behandelt wie in den PR- und
192
dardbeispiel ist die SWOT-Analyse, allgegenwärtig unter den Spezialisten für Kulturmanagement, auch der im Hausner-Rapport vorgestellten [vgl. Kultura w kryzysie..., S. 86-111]5 – geringe Chancen hat, zu den erwünschten Resultaten zu führen. Die Kultur funktioniert nicht nach den Prinzipien von Investition und Gewinn. Vor allem deshalb, weil die Kulturproduktion sich überhaupt nicht in den Kategorien präzise definierter Vorgehensschritte beschreiben lässt, die zu den im Voraus geplanten Zielen und Resultaten führen. Wesentlich besser ist sie durch die Kategorien zu beschreiben, die aus der Schenkökonomie oder den Prozessen des symbolischen Tauschs stammen [vgl. Mauss 2001, S. 165-310 ff.]. Der Homo economicus, der den anthropologischen Hintergrund des Managerismus bildet, hat nur geringe Chancen, eine faszinierende und lebendige Kultur zu schaffen. Ihr Funktionieren wird besser durch solche Begriffe wie Potlatch, Karneval, Exzess, Begegnung, Transgression oder Prozess beschrieben – Begriffe also, die Ökonomen nicht kennen und nicht verwenden. Ein anderer wesentlicher Punkt ist die grundsätzliche Schwäche der Methodologie, mittels derer das, was sich in der Kultur abspielt, zu messen wären. Das ist eine grundsätzliche Frage, denn um etwas gut zu verwalten, muss man vor allem über Messinstrumente verfügen, die eine Evaluierung der durch die jeweilige Maßnahme erzielten Effekte erlauben. Die Kultur ist in dieser Hinsicht ein außerordentlich undankbarer Untersuchungsgegenstand, da der Wert ihrer Erzeugnisse sich in hohem Grade auf der Grundlage ihres historischen Einflusses konstituiert und deshalb erst retrospektiv, ex post, erkennbar ist. Die Kunstgeschichte zeigt, dass bedeutende Kunstwerke in erster Linie diejenigen sind, die Konventionen durchbrechen, indem sie neue Perspektiven öffnen, die später von den folgenden Künstlergenerationen exploriert werden. Solche bedeutenden Errungenschaften bleiben oft zum Zeitpunkt ihres Entstehens unerkannt. Sie sind in jeder Hinsicht als außerordentlich seltene Ereignisse zu bezeichnen – in dem Sinn, wie dieser Begriff zum Beispiel von Nicholas Taleb verstanden wird: Erstens liegen sie außerhalb des Bereichs der üblichen Wahrscheinlichkeit, was bedeutet, dass niemand zuvor mit vernünftiger Wahrscheinlichkeit sagen kann, was geschehen wird; zweitens rufen sie enorme Auswirkungen hervor; drittens werden sie post factum von einer ganzen Menge von Theorien
Vgl. jede beliebige Arbeit über die grundsätzlichen Probleme des Kulturmanagements [bspw. Prawelska-Skrzypek, 2003].
Am Rande soll bemerkt sein, dass die SWOT-Analyse heute sogar im Bereich des Unternehmensmangements selbst in Frage gestellt wird [vgl. http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304].
6
5
Am Rande soll bemerkt sein, dass die SWOT-Analyse heute sogar im Bereich des Unternehmensmangements selbst in Frage gestellt wird [vgl. http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304].
Vgl. jede beliebige Arbeit über die grundsätzlichen Probleme des Kulturmanagements [bspw. Prawelska-Skrzypek, 2003].
5
6
umgeben, die sie verstehbar und vorhersehbar machen [Taleb 2007, S. 16-17]. Spezialisten für Kulturmanagement bedienen sich Kategorien, die dem Wesen der Kultur als Bereich des Schaffens von Werten nicht entsprechen. Sie beziehen sich zumeist auf Kriterien, die nur wenig über die Kultur aussagen: die durchschnittlichen Unterhaltskosten für einen Quadratmeter Galerie- oder Museumsfläche, die Zahl der Besucher pro Mitarbeiter, die durchschnittlichen Kosten der Bedienung der Besucher, die Zahl der entliehenen Bücher aus einer Bibliothek je Zeiteinheit, die Zahl der Besucher der jeweiligen Institution je Zeiteinheit, die Zahl des Austauschs von Exponaten der Museen untereinander, der Anteil der Mitarbeitergehälter an den Fixkosten, der Anteil der selbstständig erwirtschafteten Mittel an den Gesamteinkünften der jeweiligen Institution, die Zahl der von der jeweiligen Institution durchgeführten Veranstaltungen je Zeiteinheit, die Zufriedenheit der Besucher mit dem Angebot der Institution, die Bewertung der Servicequalität, die Bequemlichkeit der Anfahrt oder der Öffnungszeiten usw.6 Diese Kriterien haben einen gewissen Wert, aber sie eignen sich gut nur zur Bewertung von zwei Arten von Aktivitäten, die zum im weiten Sinne verstandenen Kulturbetrieb gehören und zudem relativ wenig bedeutende Elemente darstellen: die Präsentation des Nationalerbes und die Unterhaltung. Dagegen sagen sie nichts aus über die aktuellsten Formen des Kulturschaffens, wie zum Beispiel die experimentelle Suche nach neuen Wegen im Bereich der visuellen oder performativen Künste. Diese ist zu fließend und innovativ, um sich nach den Standardmethoden der Ökonomie, der Soziologie oder der Psychologie untersuchen zu lassen (denn damit beschäftigt sich die Betriebswirtschaft, die keine eigenständige wissenschaftliche Disziplin darstellt, sondern nur ein Sammelsurium von Techniken aus verschiedenen anderen Sozialwissenschaften). Eine weitere wichtige Unzulänglichkeit des Managerismus zeigt sich am entgegengesetzten Ende des Kulturbetriebs, nämlich auf der Seite der Rezeption. Die Frage der Teilnahme an der Kultur ist eines der grundsätzlichen Probleme, das jeder lösen muss, dessen Ziel die Verbesserung ihrer Funktionsweise ist.7 Natürlich, das Problem ist auch in den Überlegungen des Kulturmanagements gegenwärtig, allerdings wird es dabei genauso behandelt wie in den PR- und
192
dardbeispiel ist die SWOT-Analyse, allgegenwärtig unter den Spezialisten für Kulturmanagement, auch der im Hausner-Rapport vorgestellten [vgl. Kultura w kryzysie..., S. 86-111]5 – geringe Chancen hat, zu den erwünschten Resultaten zu führen. Die Kultur funktioniert nicht nach den Prinzipien von Investition und Gewinn. Vor allem deshalb, weil die Kulturproduktion sich überhaupt nicht in den Kategorien präzise definierter Vorgehensschritte beschreiben lässt, die zu den im Voraus geplanten Zielen und Resultaten führen. Wesentlich besser ist sie durch die Kategorien zu beschreiben, die aus der Schenkökonomie oder den Prozessen des symbolischen Tauschs stammen [vgl. Mauss 2001, S. 165-310 ff.]. Der Homo economicus, der den anthropologischen Hintergrund des Managerismus bildet, hat nur geringe Chancen, eine faszinierende und lebendige Kultur zu schaffen. Ihr Funktionieren wird besser durch solche Begriffe wie Potlatch, Karneval, Exzess, Begegnung, Transgression oder Prozess beschrieben – Begriffe also, die Ökonomen nicht kennen und nicht verwenden. Ein anderer wesentlicher Punkt ist die grundsätzliche Schwäche der Methodologie, mittels derer das, was sich in der Kultur abspielt, zu messen wären. Das ist eine grundsätzliche Frage, denn um etwas gut zu verwalten, muss man vor allem über Messinstrumente verfügen, die eine Evaluierung der durch die jeweilige Maßnahme erzielten Effekte erlauben. Die Kultur ist in dieser Hinsicht ein außerordentlich undankbarer Untersuchungsgegenstand, da der Wert ihrer Erzeugnisse sich in hohem Grade auf der Grundlage ihres historischen Einflusses konstituiert und deshalb erst retrospektiv, ex post, erkennbar ist. Die Kunstgeschichte zeigt, dass bedeutende Kunstwerke in erster Linie diejenigen sind, die Konventionen durchbrechen, indem sie neue Perspektiven öffnen, die später von den folgenden Künstlergenerationen exploriert werden. Solche bedeutenden Errungenschaften bleiben oft zum Zeitpunkt ihres Entstehens unerkannt. Sie sind in jeder Hinsicht als außerordentlich seltene Ereignisse zu bezeichnen – in dem Sinn, wie dieser Begriff zum Beispiel von Nicholas Taleb verstanden wird: Erstens liegen sie außerhalb des Bereichs der üblichen Wahrscheinlichkeit, was bedeutet, dass niemand zuvor mit vernünftiger Wahrscheinlichkeit sagen kann, was geschehen wird; zweitens rufen sie enorme Auswirkungen hervor; drittens werden sie post factum von einer ganzen Menge von Theorien
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Marketing-Abteilungen kommerzieller Firmen, also mit dem Akzent auf der Verbesserung des Images der Kulturinstitution sowie der Attraktivität ihres Angebots. Ohne Zweifel lässt sich auch in dieser Hinsicht einiges verbessern, dennoch aber handelt es sich um rein kosmetische Maßnahmen. Das grundsätzliche Problem der Teilnahme an der Kultur ist das Problem der Distribution des Symbolkapitals in der Gesellschaft. Dieses Kapital ist vor allem die Erzielung eines solchen Bildungsstands, der die Rezeption von Kultur erst ermöglicht; im Fall der raffiniertesten Formen der Hochkultur, wie etwa der Konzeptkunst ist eine gewisse Bildung unabdingbar, um Kunst überhaupt als solche wahrzunehmen. In der sozialen Wirklichkeit, in der wir leben, ist das Symbolkapital, so wie jede andere Form von Kapital auch, ungleichmäßig verteilt. Die Änderung dieses Sachverhalts ist eine grundlegende Voraussetzung für eine Reform des gesellschaftlichen Funktionierens von Kultur. Diese Änderung vorzunehmen, liegt jedoch völlig außerhalb der Wirkungsreichweite der Kulturinstitutionen, weshalb auch das Kulturmanagement hier machtlos bleiben muss. Eine egalitärere Umverteilung des Symbolkapitals erfordert einschneidende Veränderungen in die Funktionsweise der Gesellschaft: die Organisation von Produktion und Arbeit, die auf maximale Ausnutzung der Produktivkraft des Einzelnen auf Kosten seiner Entwicklung in anderen Sphären als der materiellen orientiert ist, das Funktionieren der Medien, die auf die Lieferung billiger, verdummender Unterhaltung ausgerichtet sind, den Bildungsprozess, der immer stärker unter dem Diktat des Arbeitsmarkts verläuft und bezweckt, nicht so sehr bewusste Bürger hervorzubringen als vielmehr gedankenlose Verbraucher und passive, gehorsame Arbeitnehmer. Mit anderen Worten: Es wird keine bessere Partizipation an der Kultur geben ohne eine grundlegende Umstrukturierung der Gesamtheit der sozialen Beziehungen. Dies liegt jedoch außerhalb der Einflussmöglichkeiten irgendwelcher Spezialisten für Kulturmanagement. Zusammenfassend: Der Managerismus ist eine Sackgasse für das Herangehen an die Kultur, denn zum Ersten verfügt er nicht über einen adäquaten Messapparat, der in der Lage wäre, präzise zu beschreiben und zu messen, was zu tun ist, zum Zweiten liegen die Werkzeuge und
Methoden, die zur Durchführung von mehr als nur kosmetischen Änderungen benötigt werden, vollkommen außerhalb des Wirkungsbereichs des Kulturmanagement. Das Problem reicht allerdings noch tiefer: Der Managerismus entspricht nicht nur nicht dem Wesen der Herausforderungen, vor denen eine umfassende Kulturreform steht, sondern er übt auch einen schlechten Einfluss auf einen großen Teil der Institutionen aus, darunter insbesondere der Institutionen des 3. Sektors. Diese stellen einen wichtigen Teil einer jeden demokratischen Gesellschaft dar. Untersuchungen, die Robert Putnam in Italien durchführte, haben ergeben, dass jede Art von Verein als Inkubator für das Entstehen von Sozialkapital wirkt, das für das richtige Funktionieren einer demokratischen Führung unentbehrlich ist [vgl. Putnam, 1995]. Das liegt daran, dass die Bürgerorganisationen des 3. Sektors auf Enthusiasmus, Engagement und Vertrauen gründen. In den letzten Jahrzehnten lässt sich ein Prozess der Erosion dieser Formen der Bürgeraktivität beobachten, der einhergeht mit Professionalisierung, Kommerzialisierung und Vereinnahmung des 3. Sektors durch die Obrigkeiten [vgl. Rymsza, 2005]. Die Institutionen des 3. Sektors, immer häufiger verwaltet mit direkt aus dem Business übertragenen Methoden, hören auf, Strukturen der Zivilgesellschaft und Nichtregierungsorganisationen zu sein, und werden zu Para-Firmen, die typischen kommerziellen Zwecken nachgehen oder zu Para-Regierungsorganisationen, die von der Obrigkeit beherrscht sind, die das Zuschussystem manipuliert (Festlegung der Zuschussprioritäten, Aufzeigen von favorisierten Themen, Moderation der Themen der Kultursaison, Definition der sozialen Probleme, für deren Lösung Gelder an den 3. Sektor überwiesen werden, wie zum Beispiel Nikotin- oder Alkoholabhängigkeit usw.).8 Der Nutzen, der bislang immer breiteren Gesellschaftskreisen durch die Tätigkeit von Organisationen des 3. Sektors zuteilwurde, war weder durch die Professionalität ihrer Führung noch eine eingehende Analyse ihrer Effizienz bei der Umsetzung ihrer Aufgaben bedingt, sondern dadurch, dass sie eine Art und Weise der Institutionalisierung des Enthusiasmus und Vertrauens darstellten, was die Menschen wirksam zu größerem Engagement im gesellschaftlichen Leben ermunterte. Der Managerismus mit seiner Maschine der bürokratischen
7
Daten über die Teilnahme der Polen an unterschiedlichen Bereichen der Kultur und eine interessante Diskussion zu diesem Thema [vgl. Fatyga, 2009].
8
Eine Interessante Diskussion zu diesem Thema fand kürzlich in der Tageszeitung „Gazeta Wyborcza“ statt [vgl. Graff, 2010; Nowicka, 2010; Bodnar, Kucharczyk, 2010; Sadura, 2010].
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
193
193
Eine Interessante Diskussion zu diesem Thema fand kürzlich in der Tageszeitung „Gazeta Wyborcza“ statt [vgl. Graff, 2010; Nowicka, 2010; Bodnar, Kucharczyk, 2010; Sadura, 2010].
8
Daten über die Teilnahme der Polen an unterschiedlichen Bereichen der Kultur und eine interessante Diskussion zu diesem Thema [vgl. Fatyga, 2009].
7
Marketing-Abteilungen kommerzieller Firmen, also mit dem Akzent auf der Verbesserung des Images der Kulturinstitution sowie der Attraktivität ihres Angebots. Ohne Zweifel lässt sich auch in dieser Hinsicht einiges verbessern, dennoch aber handelt es sich um rein kosmetische Maßnahmen. Das grundsätzliche Problem der Teilnahme an der Kultur ist das Problem der Distribution des Symbolkapitals in der Gesellschaft. Dieses Kapital ist vor allem die Erzielung eines solchen Bildungsstands, der die Rezeption von Kultur erst ermöglicht; im Fall der raffiniertesten Formen der Hochkultur, wie etwa der Konzeptkunst ist eine gewisse Bildung unabdingbar, um Kunst überhaupt als solche wahrzunehmen. In der sozialen Wirklichkeit, in der wir leben, ist das Symbolkapital, so wie jede andere Form von Kapital auch, ungleichmäßig verteilt. Die Änderung dieses Sachverhalts ist eine grundlegende Voraussetzung für eine Reform des gesellschaftlichen Funktionierens von Kultur. Diese Änderung vorzunehmen, liegt jedoch völlig außerhalb der Wirkungsreichweite der Kulturinstitutionen, weshalb auch das Kulturmanagement hier machtlos bleiben muss. Eine egalitärere Umverteilung des Symbolkapitals erfordert einschneidende Veränderungen in die Funktionsweise der Gesellschaft: die Organisation von Produktion und Arbeit, die auf maximale Ausnutzung der Produktivkraft des Einzelnen auf Kosten seiner Entwicklung in anderen Sphären als der materiellen orientiert ist, das Funktionieren der Medien, die auf die Lieferung billiger, verdummender Unterhaltung ausgerichtet sind, den Bildungsprozess, der immer stärker unter dem Diktat des Arbeitsmarkts verläuft und bezweckt, nicht so sehr bewusste Bürger hervorzubringen als vielmehr gedankenlose Verbraucher und passive, gehorsame Arbeitnehmer. Mit anderen Worten: Es wird keine bessere Partizipation an der Kultur geben ohne eine grundlegende Umstrukturierung der Gesamtheit der sozialen Beziehungen. Dies liegt jedoch außerhalb der Einflussmöglichkeiten irgendwelcher Spezialisten für Kulturmanagement. Zusammenfassend: Der Managerismus ist eine Sackgasse für das Herangehen an die Kultur, denn zum Ersten verfügt er nicht über einen adäquaten Messapparat, der in der Lage wäre, präzise zu beschreiben und zu messen, was zu tun ist, zum Zweiten liegen die Werkzeuge und
Methoden, die zur Durchführung von mehr als nur kosmetischen Änderungen benötigt werden, vollkommen außerhalb des Wirkungsbereichs des Kulturmanagement. Das Problem reicht allerdings noch tiefer: Der Managerismus entspricht nicht nur nicht dem Wesen der Herausforderungen, vor denen eine umfassende Kulturreform steht, sondern er übt auch einen schlechten Einfluss auf einen großen Teil der Institutionen aus, darunter insbesondere der Institutionen des 3. Sektors. Diese stellen einen wichtigen Teil einer jeden demokratischen Gesellschaft dar. Untersuchungen, die Robert Putnam in Italien durchführte, haben ergeben, dass jede Art von Verein als Inkubator für das Entstehen von Sozialkapital wirkt, das für das richtige Funktionieren einer demokratischen Führung unentbehrlich ist [vgl. Putnam, 1995]. Das liegt daran, dass die Bürgerorganisationen des 3. Sektors auf Enthusiasmus, Engagement und Vertrauen gründen. In den letzten Jahrzehnten lässt sich ein Prozess der Erosion dieser Formen der Bürgeraktivität beobachten, der einhergeht mit Professionalisierung, Kommerzialisierung und Vereinnahmung des 3. Sektors durch die Obrigkeiten [vgl. Rymsza, 2005]. Die Institutionen des 3. Sektors, immer häufiger verwaltet mit direkt aus dem Business übertragenen Methoden, hören auf, Strukturen der Zivilgesellschaft und Nichtregierungsorganisationen zu sein, und werden zu Para-Firmen, die typischen kommerziellen Zwecken nachgehen oder zu Para-Regierungsorganisationen, die von der Obrigkeit beherrscht sind, die das Zuschussystem manipuliert (Festlegung der Zuschussprioritäten, Aufzeigen von favorisierten Themen, Moderation der Themen der Kultursaison, Definition der sozialen Probleme, für deren Lösung Gelder an den 3. Sektor überwiesen werden, wie zum Beispiel Nikotin- oder Alkoholabhängigkeit usw.).8 Der Nutzen, der bislang immer breiteren Gesellschaftskreisen durch die Tätigkeit von Organisationen des 3. Sektors zuteilwurde, war weder durch die Professionalität ihrer Führung noch eine eingehende Analyse ihrer Effizienz bei der Umsetzung ihrer Aufgaben bedingt, sondern dadurch, dass sie eine Art und Weise der Institutionalisierung des Enthusiasmus und Vertrauens darstellten, was die Menschen wirksam zu größerem Engagement im gesellschaftlichen Leben ermunterte. Der Managerismus mit seiner Maschine der bürokratischen
Rationalisierung und Obsession der Überwachung von Indikatoren kann hierzu kaum beitragen, viel hingegen verderben.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Das menschliche Element
194
D
er Hausner-Plan, mag er auch meiner Ansicht nach eindeutig in die falsche Richtung führen, enthält jedoch einen wichtigen und richtigen Punkt: den Vorschlag von Veränderungen bei der Art und Weise der Bestellung der Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen sowie die Organisation ihrer Arbeit. Dieses menschliche Element ist eindeutig wichtiger als die Fragen der Effizienz, der Erschließung von Eigenmitteln, des PR-Liftings der Institutionen usw. Die empirische Analyse zeigt nämlich, dass die Institutionen, die auf der kulturellen Landkarte Polens (und nicht nur) wichtige Landmarken darstellen, diejenigen sind, die weniger von geschickten Managern geleitet werden, als vielmehr von Fachleuten auf höchstem Niveau. Als Beispiel schlage ich die nähere Betrachtung eines der Bereiche der Gegenwartskultur vor: der visuellen Künste. Von allen Disziplinen des künstlerischen Schaffens in Polen erfahren diese die höchste Anerkennung im Ausland. Es ist auch der Kunstbereich, den ich am besten kenne aufgrund meiner Verbundenheit mit dem Krakauer Kunstbunker und die Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Institutionen der Gegenwartskunst im In- und Ausland. Deshalb wähle ich sie zum Gegenstand einer kurzen Analyse, obwohl ich meine, dass sich die Schlussfolgerungen durchaus auf andere Bereiche der Kultur verallgemeinern lassen. In Polen wurde nach der Reform der Selbstverwaltung im Jahr 1999 eine große Zahl von Institutionen, die sich mit der Gegenwartskunst beschäftigen, den Selbstverwaltungen unterstellt. Zuvor waren sie überwiegend im gesamtpolnischen Büro für Kunstausstellungen vereint oder unterstanden auf andere Weise den Zentralbehörden. Bei keiner von ihnen handelte es sich um ein international anerkanntes Zentrum der Gegenwartskunst, denn als solche konnte in den neunziger Jahren wohl nur das Warschauer Zentrum für Gegenwartskultur Schloss Ujazdów gelten. Im Laufe der Dekade, die seitdem verstrichen ist, haben sich manche von ihnen in unbedeutende provinzielle Galerien, die Materialmalerei oder Lederbildnerei örtlicher Vertreter des Verbandes Polnischer Bildender Künstler ausstellen, verwandelt, andere wiederum haben sich zu erstklassigen Institutionen mit einer sichtbaren Position im In- und Ausland entwickelt. Interessanterweise ist ihr Rang nicht direkt proportional zu der Größe der Stadt, in der sie sich befinden. Wichtige und qualitativ hervorragende
Galerien sind zum Beispiel in Białystok, Bytom oder Zielona Góra zu finden. Wenn wir uns diese guten Beispiele näher betrachten, fällt auf, dass das, was ihnen gemein ist, nicht die Anwendung bestimmter Managementtechniken oder eine besondere Aktivität bei der Erschließung von Eigenmitteln ist, sondern ein charismatischer Direktor oder eine charismatische Direktorin, die vor allen Dingen die Gegenwartskunst verstehen, in diesem Bereich über hervorragendes Fachwissen verfügen, eine Vision der Entwicklung ihrer Institution besitzen und deren Programm nicht so sehr auf der Basis der Auswertrung von Fragebögen an Geschmack und Erwartungen des Publikums ausrichten als vielmehr auf Mut und Experimentierfreude setzen. Ich denke hier an solche Leute wie Monika Szewczyk in Białystok, Sebastian Cichocki in Bytom, Jarosław Suchan in Krakau, Wojciech Kozłowski in Zielona Góra oder Aneta Szyłak in Danzig. Dieses menschliche Element ist fundamental in jedem Bereich des Kunstschaffens. Hinter den wichtigen Institutionen der Gegenwartskunst steht nicht ein bedeutender Manager oder Fundraiser, sondern ein Kunstfachmann: Łukasz Gorczyca und Michał Kaczyński von Raster, Andrzej Przywara, Joanna Mytkowska und Adam Szymczyk von der Stiftung Galerie Foksal oder Piotr Krajewski vom WRO Center, um nur ein paar Namen zu nennen. Es fällt also nicht schwer festzustellen, worauf die wesentliche positive Veränderung im institutionellen Funktionieren von Kultur beruht: auf der Förderung eines demokratischen und transparenten Mechanismus der Bestellung der Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen, was die beste und einzige Garantie ist, dass kompetente Personen an diese Posten gelangen. Dieser Mechanismus muss gar nicht erst besonders geschaffen werden, denn er existiert bereits: die offene Ausschreibung, die von einer Expertenjury entschieden wird. Es würde genügen, diese Form konsequent und allgemein im ganzen Land und in jeder Kulturinstitution anzuwenden. Das derzeit geltende Recht gibt jedoch dem der jeweiligen Institution übergeordneten Subjekt die Möglichkeit, einen Wettbewerb durchzuführen oder gar den Direktor nach Gutdünken zu bestimmen. (Eine Ausnahme sind ein paar Dutzend Institutionen, die unter direkter Verfügung des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe stehen.) Von dieser zweiten Möglichkeit hat unlängst der der Stadtpräsident von Krakau Gebrauch gemacht, als er ohne vorherigen Wettbewerb, zu dessen Durchführung ihn über 400 Vertreter der polnischen Kultur aufgefordert hatten, die Direktorin für das neu gegründete Museum der Gegenwartskunst einsetzte.9 Auch Kulturminister Bogdan Zdrojewski und die ört-
D
er Hausner-Plan, mag er auch meiner Ansicht nach eindeutig in die falsche Richtung führen, enthält jedoch einen wichtigen und richtigen Punkt: den Vorschlag von Veränderungen bei der Art und Weise der Bestellung der Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen sowie die Organisation ihrer Arbeit. Dieses menschliche Element ist eindeutig wichtiger als die Fragen der Effizienz, der Erschließung von Eigenmitteln, des PR-Liftings der Institutionen usw. Die empirische Analyse zeigt nämlich, dass die Institutionen, die auf der kulturellen Landkarte Polens (und nicht nur) wichtige Landmarken darstellen, diejenigen sind, die weniger von geschickten Managern geleitet werden, als vielmehr von Fachleuten auf höchstem Niveau. Als Beispiel schlage ich die nähere Betrachtung eines der Bereiche der Gegenwartskultur vor: der visuellen Künste. Von allen Disziplinen des künstlerischen Schaffens in Polen erfahren diese die höchste Anerkennung im Ausland. Es ist auch der Kunstbereich, den ich am besten kenne aufgrund meiner Verbundenheit mit dem Krakauer Kunstbunker und die Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Institutionen der Gegenwartskunst im In- und Ausland. Deshalb wähle ich sie zum Gegenstand einer kurzen Analyse, obwohl ich meine, dass sich die Schlussfolgerungen durchaus auf andere Bereiche der Kultur verallgemeinern lassen. In Polen wurde nach der Reform der Selbstverwaltung im Jahr 1999 eine große Zahl von Institutionen, die sich mit der Gegenwartskunst beschäftigen, den Selbstverwaltungen unterstellt. Zuvor waren sie überwiegend im gesamtpolnischen Büro für Kunstausstellungen vereint oder unterstanden auf andere Weise den Zentralbehörden. Bei keiner von ihnen handelte es sich um ein international anerkanntes Zentrum der Gegenwartskunst, denn als solche konnte in den neunziger Jahren wohl nur das Warschauer Zentrum für Gegenwartskultur Schloss Ujazdów gelten. Im Laufe der Dekade, die seitdem verstrichen ist, haben sich manche von ihnen in unbedeutende provinzielle Galerien, die Materialmalerei oder Lederbildnerei örtlicher Vertreter des Verbandes Polnischer Bildender Künstler ausstellen, verwandelt, andere wiederum haben sich zu erstklassigen Institutionen mit einer sichtbaren Position im In- und Ausland entwickelt. Interessanterweise ist ihr Rang nicht direkt proportional zu der Größe der Stadt, in der sie sich befinden. Wichtige und qualitativ hervorragende
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Das menschliche Element
Galerien sind zum Beispiel in Białystok, Bytom oder Zielona Góra zu finden. Wenn wir uns diese guten Beispiele näher betrachten, fällt auf, dass das, was ihnen gemein ist, nicht die Anwendung bestimmter Managementtechniken oder eine besondere Aktivität bei der Erschließung von Eigenmitteln ist, sondern ein charismatischer Direktor oder eine charismatische Direktorin, die vor allen Dingen die Gegenwartskunst verstehen, in diesem Bereich über hervorragendes Fachwissen verfügen, eine Vision der Entwicklung ihrer Institution besitzen und deren Programm nicht so sehr auf der Basis der Auswertrung von Fragebögen an Geschmack und Erwartungen des Publikums ausrichten als vielmehr auf Mut und Experimentierfreude setzen. Ich denke hier an solche Leute wie Monika Szewczyk in Białystok, Sebastian Cichocki in Bytom, Jarosław Suchan in Krakau, Wojciech Kozłowski in Zielona Góra oder Aneta Szyłak in Danzig. Dieses menschliche Element ist fundamental in jedem Bereich des Kunstschaffens. Hinter den wichtigen Institutionen der Gegenwartskunst steht nicht ein bedeutender Manager oder Fundraiser, sondern ein Kunstfachmann: Łukasz Gorczyca und Michał Kaczyński von Raster, Andrzej Przywara, Joanna Mytkowska und Adam Szymczyk von der Stiftung Galerie Foksal oder Piotr Krajewski vom WRO Center, um nur ein paar Namen zu nennen. Es fällt also nicht schwer festzustellen, worauf die wesentliche positive Veränderung im institutionellen Funktionieren von Kultur beruht: auf der Förderung eines demokratischen und transparenten Mechanismus der Bestellung der Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen, was die beste und einzige Garantie ist, dass kompetente Personen an diese Posten gelangen. Dieser Mechanismus muss gar nicht erst besonders geschaffen werden, denn er existiert bereits: die offene Ausschreibung, die von einer Expertenjury entschieden wird. Es würde genügen, diese Form konsequent und allgemein im ganzen Land und in jeder Kulturinstitution anzuwenden. Das derzeit geltende Recht gibt jedoch dem der jeweiligen Institution übergeordneten Subjekt die Möglichkeit, einen Wettbewerb durchzuführen oder gar den Direktor nach Gutdünken zu bestimmen. (Eine Ausnahme sind ein paar Dutzend Institutionen, die unter direkter Verfügung des Ministeriums für Kultur und Nationalerbe stehen.) Von dieser zweiten Möglichkeit hat unlängst der der Stadtpräsident von Krakau Gebrauch gemacht, als er ohne vorherigen Wettbewerb, zu dessen Durchführung ihn über 400 Vertreter der polnischen Kultur aufgefordert hatten, die Direktorin für das neu gegründete Museum der Gegenwartskunst einsetzte.9 Auch Kulturminister Bogdan Zdrojewski und die ört-
194
Rationalisierung und Obsession der Überwachung von Indikatoren kann hierzu kaum beitragen, viel hingegen verderben.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
lichen Organe der Zentralbehörden, die Einfluss auf die Satzung des entstehenden Museums hatten – konkret der Woiwode Stanisław Kracik, der den Änderungsantrag des Stadtrats ablehnte, der eine obligatorische Ausschreibung festschreiben wollte – haben sich durch ihre Entscheidungen eher auf die Seite feudaler Investiturprozeduren als auf die Seite der transparenten Mechanismen einer offenen und demokratischen Gesellschaft gestellt. Ein weiteres wichtiges Element wäre die Einführung begrenzter Amtszeiten für alle leitenden Posten (derzeit werden alle Museumsdirektoren für einen unbestimmten Zeitraum einberufen, was in den meisten Fällen bedeutet, dass sie ihre Funktion lebenslang bekleiden). Genau diese Empfehlungen stehen auch im Hausner-Plan [vgl. Kultura w kryzysie, S. 37]. Leider weist nichts darauf hin, dass Minister Zdrojewski ausgerechnet diesen Teil des Rapports umsetzen wird. In seinem Sejm-Exposé im Januar 2010 konzentrierte sich Zdrojewski vor allem auf die Probleme von Finanzierung und Marketing. Eine solche Verteilung der Akzente entspricht nicht dem Kern des Problems. Das Volumen des Kulturhaushalts ist nicht das zu reformierende Hauptproblem: Es sind ja gar nicht so wenige Gelder vorhanden – sie werden nur nicht richtig verteilt.10 Die Praxis zeigt, dass man sogar für wenig Geld in der Kultur wertvolle Dinge schaffen kann, wofür die Krakauer Genossenschaft Goldex Polder als Beispiel dienen mag: Mit einem kleinen Haushalt, der von einer Gruppe von Enthusiasten aus ihren Privatmitteln unterhalten wird, gelangte sie in diesem Jahr auf die Liste der 100 wichtigsten Institutionen, Ereignisse und Persönlichkeiten des Kunstbetriebs, die von der meinungsbildenden Branchenzeitschrift für Gegenwartskultur „Obieg“ veröffentlicht wurde [vgl. http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954]. Die übermäßige Konzentration auf Finanz- und Marketingfragen ist ein dem Managerismus eigenes Epiphänomen, das zeigt, dass die Perzeption der Wirklichkeit von der Sprache abhängt, die wir verenden, um über sie zu sprechen. Jede Technik der Manipulation durch irgendetwas – und in dieser Hinsicht unterscheidet sich das Kulturmanagement in nichts von einer Mondlandung – legt besonderen Nachdruck auf messbare Faktoren,
denn nur diese ermöglichen erstens eine Definition der Problemsituation, mit der wir zu tun haben, und zweitens die Evaluierung der Wirksamkeit der durchgeführten Manipulation. Deshalb nehmen die Fragen der finanziellen Kondition der Institutionen, ihrer Organisationsstrukturen und Marketingmaßnahmen, eine prominente Position in jeder Managementtechnik ein – sowohl in der Geschäftswelt als auch andernorts. Die ästhetische Qualität ist hingegen mit solchen Methoden wesentlich schwerer fassbar und liegt an der Grenze dessen, was überhaupt noch operationierbar ist; solche Aspekte wie die Bedeutung der jeweiligen Unternehmung im allgemeinen Diskurs der Kunstproduktion und ihr eventueller bahnbrechender Charakter liegt völlig außerhalb aller sinnvollen Messbereiche (unter anderem deshalb, weil etwas Zeit verstreichen muss, bevor Ergebnisse sichtbar werden). Natürlich besitzt der Mensch die Fähigkeit solche Fragen zu erspüren und enträtseln, jedoch tut er das vor allem intuitiv, ohne Einsatz standardisierter Messtechniken. Eben darauf beruht die haushohe Überlegenheit bedeutender Experten in den jeweiligen Bereichen des Kunstschaffens – Kuratoren, Regisseure, Direktoren von Theatern und Kunstgalerien, Redakteure usw. –, dass sie in der Lage sind intuitiv einzuschätzen, welche Richtungen der experimentellen Suche vielversprechend sind und welche Resultate es verdienen popularisiert zu werden. Ob auch Kulturmanager dazu in der Lage sind, ist jedoch durchaus zweifelhaft. Auf jeden Fall völlig nutzlos sind hierbei jegliche Kriterien, die zur Messung des Effizienz von Kulturinstitutionen herangezogen werden. Abgesehen von umfangreichen Erörterungen über die Finanzierung der polnischen Kultur und ihrer besseren Vermarktung im Ausland sprach Minister Zdrojewski in seiner Sejm-Rede von dem Bedarf nach einer Förderung der Kulturerziehung. Dies ist sicherlich ein begrüßenswerter Ansatz, stellen doch Erziehung und Bildung einen der Hauptmechanismen der Distribution des Sozialkapitals dar. Jedoch das Gegenmittel, das der Minister anbietet und die Errungenschaften, mit denen er sich hervortut, scheinen der Aufgabe kaum angemessen. Die Wiedereinführung von Kunsterziehung und Musikunterricht in den Schulen ist
9
Für Informationen zu diesem Thema vgl. das Blog des Komitees für Transparenz in der Krakauer Kulturpolitik [http://inicjatywa2009.blogspot.com/].
10
Hier ein Beispiel: Das Krakauer Festivalbüro hat einen Haushalt von mehreren Zehn Millionen Złoty, obwohl seine Tätigkeit vor allem auf der Organisation von Massenunterhaltung beruht (z. B. WOW!night, Music Square Session, also die Silvesterparty auf dem Krakauer Hauptmarkt, bei der u. a. die „polenweit größte Konfetti-Show mit 80 kg Konfetti“ stattfindet [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/], während die Galerie Kunstbunker aufgrund des schmalen Haushalts Mitarbeiter entlassen und ihr Programm beschneiden muss.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
195
195
Hier ein Beispiel: Das Krakauer Festivalbüro hat einen Haushalt von mehreren Zehn Millionen Złoty, obwohl seine Tätigkeit vor allem auf der Organisation von Massenunterhaltung beruht (z. B. WOW!night, Music Square Session, also die Silvesterparty auf dem Krakauer Hauptmarkt, bei der u. a. die „polenweit größte Konfetti-Show mit 80 kg Konfetti“ stattfindet [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/], während die Galerie Kunstbunker aufgrund des schmalen Haushalts Mitarbeiter entlassen und ihr Programm beschneiden muss.
10
Für Informationen zu diesem Thema vgl. das Blog des Komitees für Transparenz in der Krakauer Kulturpolitik [http://inicjatywa2009.blogspot.com/].
9
lichen Organe der Zentralbehörden, die Einfluss auf die Satzung des entstehenden Museums hatten – konkret der Woiwode Stanisław Kracik, der den Änderungsantrag des Stadtrats ablehnte, der eine obligatorische Ausschreibung festschreiben wollte – haben sich durch ihre Entscheidungen eher auf die Seite feudaler Investiturprozeduren als auf die Seite der transparenten Mechanismen einer offenen und demokratischen Gesellschaft gestellt. Ein weiteres wichtiges Element wäre die Einführung begrenzter Amtszeiten für alle leitenden Posten (derzeit werden alle Museumsdirektoren für einen unbestimmten Zeitraum einberufen, was in den meisten Fällen bedeutet, dass sie ihre Funktion lebenslang bekleiden). Genau diese Empfehlungen stehen auch im Hausner-Plan [vgl. Kultura w kryzysie, S. 37]. Leider weist nichts darauf hin, dass Minister Zdrojewski ausgerechnet diesen Teil des Rapports umsetzen wird. In seinem Sejm-Exposé im Januar 2010 konzentrierte sich Zdrojewski vor allem auf die Probleme von Finanzierung und Marketing. Eine solche Verteilung der Akzente entspricht nicht dem Kern des Problems. Das Volumen des Kulturhaushalts ist nicht das zu reformierende Hauptproblem: Es sind ja gar nicht so wenige Gelder vorhanden – sie werden nur nicht richtig verteilt.10 Die Praxis zeigt, dass man sogar für wenig Geld in der Kultur wertvolle Dinge schaffen kann, wofür die Krakauer Genossenschaft Goldex Polder als Beispiel dienen mag: Mit einem kleinen Haushalt, der von einer Gruppe von Enthusiasten aus ihren Privatmitteln unterhalten wird, gelangte sie in diesem Jahr auf die Liste der 100 wichtigsten Institutionen, Ereignisse und Persönlichkeiten des Kunstbetriebs, die von der meinungsbildenden Branchenzeitschrift für Gegenwartskultur „Obieg“ veröffentlicht wurde [vgl. http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954]. Die übermäßige Konzentration auf Finanz- und Marketingfragen ist ein dem Managerismus eigenes Epiphänomen, das zeigt, dass die Perzeption der Wirklichkeit von der Sprache abhängt, die wir verenden, um über sie zu sprechen. Jede Technik der Manipulation durch irgendetwas – und in dieser Hinsicht unterscheidet sich das Kulturmanagement in nichts von einer Mondlandung – legt besonderen Nachdruck auf messbare Faktoren,
denn nur diese ermöglichen erstens eine Definition der Problemsituation, mit der wir zu tun haben, und zweitens die Evaluierung der Wirksamkeit der durchgeführten Manipulation. Deshalb nehmen die Fragen der finanziellen Kondition der Institutionen, ihrer Organisationsstrukturen und Marketingmaßnahmen, eine prominente Position in jeder Managementtechnik ein – sowohl in der Geschäftswelt als auch andernorts. Die ästhetische Qualität ist hingegen mit solchen Methoden wesentlich schwerer fassbar und liegt an der Grenze dessen, was überhaupt noch operationierbar ist; solche Aspekte wie die Bedeutung der jeweiligen Unternehmung im allgemeinen Diskurs der Kunstproduktion und ihr eventueller bahnbrechender Charakter liegt völlig außerhalb aller sinnvollen Messbereiche (unter anderem deshalb, weil etwas Zeit verstreichen muss, bevor Ergebnisse sichtbar werden). Natürlich besitzt der Mensch die Fähigkeit solche Fragen zu erspüren und enträtseln, jedoch tut er das vor allem intuitiv, ohne Einsatz standardisierter Messtechniken. Eben darauf beruht die haushohe Überlegenheit bedeutender Experten in den jeweiligen Bereichen des Kunstschaffens – Kuratoren, Regisseure, Direktoren von Theatern und Kunstgalerien, Redakteure usw. –, dass sie in der Lage sind intuitiv einzuschätzen, welche Richtungen der experimentellen Suche vielversprechend sind und welche Resultate es verdienen popularisiert zu werden. Ob auch Kulturmanager dazu in der Lage sind, ist jedoch durchaus zweifelhaft. Auf jeden Fall völlig nutzlos sind hierbei jegliche Kriterien, die zur Messung des Effizienz von Kulturinstitutionen herangezogen werden. Abgesehen von umfangreichen Erörterungen über die Finanzierung der polnischen Kultur und ihrer besseren Vermarktung im Ausland sprach Minister Zdrojewski in seiner Sejm-Rede von dem Bedarf nach einer Förderung der Kulturerziehung. Dies ist sicherlich ein begrüßenswerter Ansatz, stellen doch Erziehung und Bildung einen der Hauptmechanismen der Distribution des Sozialkapitals dar. Jedoch das Gegenmittel, das der Minister anbietet und die Errungenschaften, mit denen er sich hervortut, scheinen der Aufgabe kaum angemessen. Die Wiedereinführung von Kunsterziehung und Musikunterricht in den Schulen ist
196
natürlich ein richtiger Schritt, aber entschieden zu wenig, um die Gegenwartskultur dem Durchschnittsbürger zugänglicher und schmackhafter zu machen. Das heutige Kunstschaffen in eigentlich allen Bereichen hat vor allem einen konzeptuellen Charakter, was ein Effekt der Revolution der Avantgarde im 20. Jahrhundert ist. Natürlich sind auch die ästhetischen Kategorien nach wie vor aktuell, dennoch zählt ein Kunstwerk ohne konzeptuelle Aufladung heute eher zum Design, zur Unterhaltung oder Dekoration. Aus diesem Grund ist für die Rezeption der Gegenwartskultur eine entsprechende Bildung im Bereich der Begriffe und Theorien sogar wichtiger als die traditionelle Kunsterziehung. Kunst und Musik als Schulfächer bringen allein wenig, wenn es um das Verständnis der Gegenwartskunst geht. Eine wesentlich bessere Idee wäre zum Beispiel – nach französischem Vorbild – die Einführung von Philosophie als Abiturpflichtfach. Nichts deutet jedoch darauf hin, dass die jetzige Regierung an derartige Veränderungen im Bildungswesen denkt, deren Einführung übrigens auch nur in geringem Maße vom Kulturministerium selber abhängt, was wiederum deutlich macht, wie bürokratische Zuständigkeitsaufteilungen einer Durchführung von anderen als nur rein kosmetischen Reformen im Weg stehen.
(Soziologe und Kurator), Bogna Świątkowska (Kuratorin, Vorsitzende der Stiftung für Neue Kultur Bęc Zmiana) und Joanna Warsza (Kuratorin, führt die Laura-Palmer-Stiftung). Ein Manifest mit einem Reformprogramm wurde im November 2009 auf der Webseite des Komitees für Radikale Veränderungen in der Kultur bislang durch mehrere Hundert Unterzeichnende unterstützt [http://www. rewolucjakulturalna.pl/]. Da der vollständige Text des Manifests nebst umfangreichem Kommentar im Internet zugänglich ist [ebenda], möchte ich an dieser Stelle nur kurz die wichtigsten Thesen und Postulate beleuchten. Ausgangspunkt für die vorgeschlagenen Veränderungen ist die kritische Diagnose der gegenwärtigen Situation und der vorgeschlagenen Reformen. Das Manifest spricht sich gegen vier negative Phänomene in der Gegenwartskultur aus: gegen die Herrschaft von Bürokraten und Betriebswirten, gegen die Kommerzialisierung der Kultur, gegen ihre Instrumentalisierung, gegen die Liquidierung bzw. Schwächung des öffentlichen Sektors. Als Antidoton werden fünf radikale Reformen postuliert:
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Auf der Suche nach einer Alternative
d 1. Anlässlich des Kongresses der Polnischen Kultur kritisierte Leszek Balcerowicz alle, denen die Idee der Privatisierung der Kultur nicht behagte, mit den Worten, sie würden sich vor den Menschen fürchten und dem Staat vertrauen. Die Vorschläge des Manifests gehen jedoch nicht in die Richtung einer Verstaatlichung der Kultur, sondern ihrer Vergesellschaftlichung, das heißt ihrer Unterstellung der unmittelbaren Kontrolle der Gesellschaft selbst und nicht einer Elite ihrer auserwählten Vertreter. Sie erinnern also an die Postulate, die bezüglich der Situation in den Medien vom Bürgerkomitee für die Öffentlichen Medien aufgestellt wurden. Wie sollte das nun
D
A
1. Liquidierung des zentralisierten, bürokratischen Modells des Kulturmanagements und Einrichtung von Gesellschaftsräten für Kunst und Kultur, 2. rechtliche Gleichstellung unterschiedlicher Formen des intellektuellen Eigentums, 3. verstärkte Finanzierung von Aktivitäten mit experimentellem Charakter aus öffentlichen Mitteln, 4. Lösung des Problems der sozialen (und nicht nur) Sicherheit der Kulturschaffenden, 5. Elementarbildung im Bereich der aktuellen Kultur.
196
Diese Thesen möchte ich in aller Kürze kommentieren.
Diese Thesen möchte ich in aller Kürze kommentieren.
a ich mit der Auffassung übereinstimme, dass konstruktive Kritik, also eine solche, die Alternativen für die kritisierten Lösungen aufzeigt, einen höheren Wert besitzt als rein negative Kritik, die ausschließlich den Status quo zum Vorschein bringt, möchte ich zum Schluss eines der Projekte vorstellen, die als Alternative zur im HausnerRapport, auf dem Kongress der Polnischen Kultur und in der Sejm-Rede von Minister Zdrojewski vorgeschlagenen Strategie der Kulturreform herangezogen werden könnten. Das Projekt hat den Charakter einer Bürgerinitiative. Erstellt wurde es von einer Gruppe von Leuten, die auf verschiedene Art und Weise mit dem Kulturbetrieb verbunden sind und zu denen außer mir gehörten: Roman Dziadkiewicz (Künstler, Vorstand der Stiftung 36,6), Grzegorz Jankowicz (Philologe, Redakteur der Zeitschrift „Ha!art“ und Feuilletonchef der Wochenzeitung „Tygodnik Powszechny“), Zbigniew Libera (einer der bedeutendsten polnischen zeitgenössischen Künstler), Ewa Majewska (Philosophin und Feministin), Lidia Makowska (Aktivistin des Portals Indeks73), Natalia Romik (Politologin und Kuratorin), Janek Simon (Künstler, Mitbegründer Genossenschaft Goldex Poldex), Kuba Szreder
A
D
1. Liquidierung des zentralisierten, bürokratischen Modells des Kulturmanagements und Einrichtung von Gesellschaftsräten für Kunst und Kultur, 2. rechtliche Gleichstellung unterschiedlicher Formen des intellektuellen Eigentums, 3. verstärkte Finanzierung von Aktivitäten mit experimentellem Charakter aus öffentlichen Mitteln, 4. Lösung des Problems der sozialen (und nicht nur) Sicherheit der Kulturschaffenden, 5. Elementarbildung im Bereich der aktuellen Kultur.
d 1. Anlässlich des Kongresses der Polnischen Kultur kritisierte Leszek Balcerowicz alle, denen die Idee der Privatisierung der Kultur nicht behagte, mit den Worten, sie würden sich vor den Menschen fürchten und dem Staat vertrauen. Die Vorschläge des Manifests gehen jedoch nicht in die Richtung einer Verstaatlichung der Kultur, sondern ihrer Vergesellschaftlichung, das heißt ihrer Unterstellung der unmittelbaren Kontrolle der Gesellschaft selbst und nicht einer Elite ihrer auserwählten Vertreter. Sie erinnern also an die Postulate, die bezüglich der Situation in den Medien vom Bürgerkomitee für die Öffentlichen Medien aufgestellt wurden. Wie sollte das nun
Auf der Suche nach einer Alternative
(Soziologe und Kurator), Bogna Świątkowska (Kuratorin, Vorsitzende der Stiftung für Neue Kultur Bęc Zmiana) und Joanna Warsza (Kuratorin, führt die Laura-Palmer-Stiftung). Ein Manifest mit einem Reformprogramm wurde im November 2009 auf der Webseite des Komitees für Radikale Veränderungen in der Kultur bislang durch mehrere Hundert Unterzeichnende unterstützt [http://www. rewolucjakulturalna.pl/]. Da der vollständige Text des Manifests nebst umfangreichem Kommentar im Internet zugänglich ist [ebenda], möchte ich an dieser Stelle nur kurz die wichtigsten Thesen und Postulate beleuchten. Ausgangspunkt für die vorgeschlagenen Veränderungen ist die kritische Diagnose der gegenwärtigen Situation und der vorgeschlagenen Reformen. Das Manifest spricht sich gegen vier negative Phänomene in der Gegenwartskultur aus: gegen die Herrschaft von Bürokraten und Betriebswirten, gegen die Kommerzialisierung der Kultur, gegen ihre Instrumentalisierung, gegen die Liquidierung bzw. Schwächung des öffentlichen Sektors. Als Antidoton werden fünf radikale Reformen postuliert:
a ich mit der Auffassung übereinstimme, dass konstruktive Kritik, also eine solche, die Alternativen für die kritisierten Lösungen aufzeigt, einen höheren Wert besitzt als rein negative Kritik, die ausschließlich den Status quo zum Vorschein bringt, möchte ich zum Schluss eines der Projekte vorstellen, die als Alternative zur im HausnerRapport, auf dem Kongress der Polnischen Kultur und in der Sejm-Rede von Minister Zdrojewski vorgeschlagenen Strategie der Kulturreform herangezogen werden könnten. Das Projekt hat den Charakter einer Bürgerinitiative. Erstellt wurde es von einer Gruppe von Leuten, die auf verschiedene Art und Weise mit dem Kulturbetrieb verbunden sind und zu denen außer mir gehörten: Roman Dziadkiewicz (Künstler, Vorstand der Stiftung 36,6), Grzegorz Jankowicz (Philologe, Redakteur der Zeitschrift „Ha!art“ und Feuilletonchef der Wochenzeitung „Tygodnik Powszechny“), Zbigniew Libera (einer der bedeutendsten polnischen zeitgenössischen Künstler), Ewa Majewska (Philosophin und Feministin), Lidia Makowska (Aktivistin des Portals Indeks73), Natalia Romik (Politologin und Kuratorin), Janek Simon (Künstler, Mitbegründer Genossenschaft Goldex Poldex), Kuba Szreder
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
natürlich ein richtiger Schritt, aber entschieden zu wenig, um die Gegenwartskultur dem Durchschnittsbürger zugänglicher und schmackhafter zu machen. Das heutige Kunstschaffen in eigentlich allen Bereichen hat vor allem einen konzeptuellen Charakter, was ein Effekt der Revolution der Avantgarde im 20. Jahrhundert ist. Natürlich sind auch die ästhetischen Kategorien nach wie vor aktuell, dennoch zählt ein Kunstwerk ohne konzeptuelle Aufladung heute eher zum Design, zur Unterhaltung oder Dekoration. Aus diesem Grund ist für die Rezeption der Gegenwartskultur eine entsprechende Bildung im Bereich der Begriffe und Theorien sogar wichtiger als die traditionelle Kunsterziehung. Kunst und Musik als Schulfächer bringen allein wenig, wenn es um das Verständnis der Gegenwartskunst geht. Eine wesentlich bessere Idee wäre zum Beispiel – nach französischem Vorbild – die Einführung von Philosophie als Abiturpflichtfach. Nichts deutet jedoch darauf hin, dass die jetzige Regierung an derartige Veränderungen im Bildungswesen denkt, deren Einführung übrigens auch nur in geringem Maße vom Kulturministerium selber abhängt, was wiederum deutlich macht, wie bürokratische Zuständigkeitsaufteilungen einer Durchführung von anderen als nur rein kosmetischen Reformen im Weg stehen.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
konkret aussehen? Gewisse Vorformen eines solchen Systems funktionieren bereits in der Praxis. Leider nicht in Polen, sondern in Wien, wo seit dem Jahr 2004 die Plattform NetzNetz existiert, die der Verteilung der von der Stadt zur Verfügung gestellten Fördermittel dient, und zwar im Bereich der Digitalkultur (Internetkunst, Videokunst und andere Formen der Verwendung neuer Medien in der Kultur). Die Verteilung der Zuschüsse erfolgt auf demokratischem und inklusivem Weg. Die Entscheidung darüber, wofür Geldmittel ausgegeben werden sollen, treffen nicht die Beamten der Stadtverwaltung, sondern kollektiv alle Interessierten zusammen, indem sie abstimmen und den zuvor im Internetforum präsentierten Projekten eine entsprechende Punktzahl zuteilen. Auf diese Weise verwalten sie einen Haushalt in Höhe von ca. 500.000 Euro (ca. 2.000.000 Złoty). Diese Form der Organisation kann man als Muster für das Funktionieren der Gesellschaftsräte für Kunst und Kultur betrachten, deren Zuständigkeiten wesentlich weiter definiert sein und auch das Monitoring der Kunstschulen umfassen sollten [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netznetz]. Ad 2. Die Frage des intellektuellen Eigentums ist ein Thema für einen gesonderten Artikel. Die derzeitigen Regelungen bewähren sich in der Praxis nicht, wodurch viele Erscheinungsformen des künstlerischen Schaffens (wie etwa Found footage oder Mash-up) von vorneherein illegal sind. Das Manifest verlangt die rechtliche Gleichstellung von Lösungen, die eine Behebung dieses Zustands zulassen, zum Beispiel offene Lizenzen vom Typ Creative Commons [http://creativecommons.pl/]. Ad 3. Ein Thema, das wichtiger ist als die Anhebung der Fördermittel für die Kultur – zum Beispiel auf 1% des BIP –, ist die Änderung des Modus bei der Verteilung dieser Gelder. Das Antriebsrad der Kultur bilden experimentelle Projekte, die jedoch unterfinanziert sind im Vergleich damit, welch beträchtliche Mittel für die Konservierung und Vermarktung des Nationalerbes (z. B. die Aktivitäten im Rahmen des Chopin-Jahres), spektakuläre Festivals unter Starbeteiligung (hierauf spezialisiert sich das Krakauer Festivalbüro) sowie reine Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen aufgebracht werden. In vielen Fällen sind experimentelle Projekte noch nicht einmal kostspielig. In der Praxis könnte eine Verbesserung ihrer Finanzierung zum Beispiel auf der Einführung von Mikrogrants (bis zu einem Betrag von 5.000 oder 10.000 Złoty) beruhen, die bei vereinfachten Prozeduren direkt an die Künstler auszuzahlen wären, die dadurch
11
riskante, aber potenziell bedeutsame Projekte finanzieren könnten. Auf diese Weise könnte man statt eines Festivals in der Art des Krakauer ArtBoom mehrere Hundert experimenteller Projekte finanzieren. Ohne Zweifel ließen sich dadurch bessere Resultate erzielen, auch unter jenem Aspekt, um den es den kommunalen Behörden vor allen Dingen geht: die Vermarktung der Stadt mit dem Image eines lebendigen und dynamischen Kulturzentrums. Ad 4. Die größten Kontroversen und Diskussionen rief das Problem der sozialen Sicherheit der Kulturschaffenden hervor. Interessanterweise werden Lösungen, die eine Art garantiertes Mindesteinkommen für Künstler beinhalten, in einigen Ländern schon seit vielen Jahren praktiziert. So gibt es etwa in Frankreich seit 1936 (sic!) die Berufskategorie Intermittent du spectacle, die Kulturschaffende umfasst, die nicht fest angestellt sind. Bei ihnen wechseln Perioden der beruflichen Aktivität mit Perioden ab, in denen sie keine Einkünfte haben. Wenn eine solche Person in der Lage ist nachzuweisen, dass sie 507 Stunden im Jahr gearbeitet hat (etwa so viel wie drei Monate Arbeit bei Festanstellung), dann erhält sie für den Rest der Zeit eine Vergütung in Höhe von 75% ihres Monatseinkommens, aber nicht weniger als 787 Euro [http://www.nidinfo.com/html/intermittent_spectacle.html.]. Diese Lösung hat sich in Frankreich auf das Beste bewährt. Die Tatsache, dass ähnliche Ideen in Polen auf empörte Kommentare über die übertriebenen Ansprüche der Kulturschaffenden stoßen, ist einzig und allein ein Beweis unserer beschränkten Vorstellungskraft und unserer Provinzialität. Ad. 5. Die Vorschläge bezüglich des Schul- und Bildungswesens gehen in eine andere Richtung als das, was Minister Bogdan Zdrojewski im Sejm vorgeschlagen hat. Es geht nicht um Kunsterziehung, sondern um Bildung im Bereich der zeitgenössischen Kultur, die solche Kompetenzen vermittelt, die bei der Rezeption der Produktion der Gegenwartskunst unabdingbar sind. Ein solcher Unterricht sollte die gesamte Schulzeit vom Kindergarten bis zur Oberschule abdecken. Seine Einführung ist auch in praktischer Hinsicht absolut möglich. Heute stehen im Lehrplan für die Grundschule vier Stunden Sportunterricht. Eine davon an den Kulturunterricht abzutreten, wäre mit Sicherheit ein Schritt in die richtige Richtung, denn Kulturerziehung ist ein wichtiges Element der Erziehung zu modernen, demokratischen Staatsbürgern.11 Es dürfte auch kein Problem
Nota bene, das zwanghafte Training der körperlichen Leistungsfähigkeit lässt an totalitäre Regime wie Hitlerdeutschland oder das maoistische China denken.
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
197
11
197
Nota bene, das zwanghafte Training der körperlichen Leistungsfähigkeit lässt an totalitäre Regime wie Hitlerdeutschland oder das maoistische China denken.
konkret aussehen? Gewisse Vorformen eines solchen Systems funktionieren bereits in der Praxis. Leider nicht in Polen, sondern in Wien, wo seit dem Jahr 2004 die Plattform NetzNetz existiert, die der Verteilung der von der Stadt zur Verfügung gestellten Fördermittel dient, und zwar im Bereich der Digitalkultur (Internetkunst, Videokunst und andere Formen der Verwendung neuer Medien in der Kultur). Die Verteilung der Zuschüsse erfolgt auf demokratischem und inklusivem Weg. Die Entscheidung darüber, wofür Geldmittel ausgegeben werden sollen, treffen nicht die Beamten der Stadtverwaltung, sondern kollektiv alle Interessierten zusammen, indem sie abstimmen und den zuvor im Internetforum präsentierten Projekten eine entsprechende Punktzahl zuteilen. Auf diese Weise verwalten sie einen Haushalt in Höhe von ca. 500.000 Euro (ca. 2.000.000 Złoty). Diese Form der Organisation kann man als Muster für das Funktionieren der Gesellschaftsräte für Kunst und Kultur betrachten, deren Zuständigkeiten wesentlich weiter definiert sein und auch das Monitoring der Kunstschulen umfassen sollten [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netznetz]. Ad 2. Die Frage des intellektuellen Eigentums ist ein Thema für einen gesonderten Artikel. Die derzeitigen Regelungen bewähren sich in der Praxis nicht, wodurch viele Erscheinungsformen des künstlerischen Schaffens (wie etwa Found footage oder Mash-up) von vorneherein illegal sind. Das Manifest verlangt die rechtliche Gleichstellung von Lösungen, die eine Behebung dieses Zustands zulassen, zum Beispiel offene Lizenzen vom Typ Creative Commons [http://creativecommons.pl/]. Ad 3. Ein Thema, das wichtiger ist als die Anhebung der Fördermittel für die Kultur – zum Beispiel auf 1% des BIP –, ist die Änderung des Modus bei der Verteilung dieser Gelder. Das Antriebsrad der Kultur bilden experimentelle Projekte, die jedoch unterfinanziert sind im Vergleich damit, welch beträchtliche Mittel für die Konservierung und Vermarktung des Nationalerbes (z. B. die Aktivitäten im Rahmen des Chopin-Jahres), spektakuläre Festivals unter Starbeteiligung (hierauf spezialisiert sich das Krakauer Festivalbüro) sowie reine Unterhaltungsveranstaltungen aufgebracht werden. In vielen Fällen sind experimentelle Projekte noch nicht einmal kostspielig. In der Praxis könnte eine Verbesserung ihrer Finanzierung zum Beispiel auf der Einführung von Mikrogrants (bis zu einem Betrag von 5.000 oder 10.000 Złoty) beruhen, die bei vereinfachten Prozeduren direkt an die Künstler auszuzahlen wären, die dadurch
riskante, aber potenziell bedeutsame Projekte finanzieren könnten. Auf diese Weise könnte man statt eines Festivals in der Art des Krakauer ArtBoom mehrere Hundert experimenteller Projekte finanzieren. Ohne Zweifel ließen sich dadurch bessere Resultate erzielen, auch unter jenem Aspekt, um den es den kommunalen Behörden vor allen Dingen geht: die Vermarktung der Stadt mit dem Image eines lebendigen und dynamischen Kulturzentrums. Ad 4. Die größten Kontroversen und Diskussionen rief das Problem der sozialen Sicherheit der Kulturschaffenden hervor. Interessanterweise werden Lösungen, die eine Art garantiertes Mindesteinkommen für Künstler beinhalten, in einigen Ländern schon seit vielen Jahren praktiziert. So gibt es etwa in Frankreich seit 1936 (sic!) die Berufskategorie Intermittent du spectacle, die Kulturschaffende umfasst, die nicht fest angestellt sind. Bei ihnen wechseln Perioden der beruflichen Aktivität mit Perioden ab, in denen sie keine Einkünfte haben. Wenn eine solche Person in der Lage ist nachzuweisen, dass sie 507 Stunden im Jahr gearbeitet hat (etwa so viel wie drei Monate Arbeit bei Festanstellung), dann erhält sie für den Rest der Zeit eine Vergütung in Höhe von 75% ihres Monatseinkommens, aber nicht weniger als 787 Euro [http://www.nidinfo.com/html/intermittent_spectacle.html.]. Diese Lösung hat sich in Frankreich auf das Beste bewährt. Die Tatsache, dass ähnliche Ideen in Polen auf empörte Kommentare über die übertriebenen Ansprüche der Kulturschaffenden stoßen, ist einzig und allein ein Beweis unserer beschränkten Vorstellungskraft und unserer Provinzialität. Ad. 5. Die Vorschläge bezüglich des Schul- und Bildungswesens gehen in eine andere Richtung als das, was Minister Bogdan Zdrojewski im Sejm vorgeschlagen hat. Es geht nicht um Kunsterziehung, sondern um Bildung im Bereich der zeitgenössischen Kultur, die solche Kompetenzen vermittelt, die bei der Rezeption der Produktion der Gegenwartskunst unabdingbar sind. Ein solcher Unterricht sollte die gesamte Schulzeit vom Kindergarten bis zur Oberschule abdecken. Seine Einführung ist auch in praktischer Hinsicht absolut möglich. Heute stehen im Lehrplan für die Grundschule vier Stunden Sportunterricht. Eine davon an den Kulturunterricht abzutreten, wäre mit Sicherheit ein Schritt in die richtige Richtung, denn Kulturerziehung ist ein wichtiges Element der Erziehung zu modernen, demokratischen Staatsbürgern.11 Es dürfte auch kein Problem
198
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Democratic Approach, Cambridge 1993. Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A SocialBresser Pereira L.C., Maravall J.M., Przeworski A., vol. 22, Nr. 3. a Competitive Economy, „Econometrica” Juli 1954, Arrow K.J., Debreu G., Existence of an Equilibrium for XVIIIe Siècle, Paris 1979. Civilisation Matérielle, Économie Et Capitalisme XVeand the Origins of our Times, London 1994, F. Braudel, Arrighi G., The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304. Planning, ManyWordls.com, http://manyworlds.com/ Armstrong J. S., Don’t do SWOT: A Note on Marketing
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„Trzeci Sektor“, Nr. 3/2005. publiczną w świetle doświadczeń amerykańskich, współpracy sektora poza-rządowego z administracją Rymsza A., Partnerzy służby publicznej? Wyzwania telskie we współczesnych Włoszech, Kraków 1995. Putnam R.D., Demokracja w działaniu. Tradycje obywapl/1,75475,6582681,Plan_Hausnera_dla_kultury.html cza“, 8. Mai 2009, Internetversion: http://wyborcza. Pawłowski R., Plan Hausnera dla kultury, „Gazeta WyborLectures, Nr. 7). nomic Growth, Warszawa 2010, S. 6 (Distinguish North D.C., Understanding Economic Change and EcoSocjologia i antropologia, Warszawa 2001. w społeczeństwach archaicznych, [in:] derselbe, Mauss M., Szkic o darze. Forma i podstawa wymiany
dieses Studiengangs sicherlich bessere Entfaltungsmöglichkeiten als der Beruf des Kellners oder der Raumpflegerin in Irland. Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Buczek M. u. a., Kultura w kryzysie czy kryzys w kulturze.
Stiglitz J.E., Globalizacja, Warszawa 2004. Setka „Obiegu”, http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954.
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Raport przygotowany na zlecenie Ministerstwa Kultury i
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pl/library/File/Hausner/Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20
html/intermittent_spectacle.html. Manifest komitetu na rzecz radykalnych zmian w kul-
Zakaria F., The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy
Thurow L.C., Przyszłość kapitalizmu. Jak dzisiejsze siły
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Economy in the Sixteenth Century, New York 1974. Warszas, J., Kulturalna doktryna, http://wyborcza.
ist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-
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Wallerstein I., The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capital-
Hausner J., Raport o finansowaniu i zarządzaniu insty-
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Prawelska-Skrzypek, G., Polityka kulturalna polskich
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czy%20kryzys%20w%20kulturze_wpelna.pdf. Fatyga B., Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnict-
Taleb N. N., The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly
Hausner J., Raport o finansowaniu i zarządzaniu insty-
pl/library/File/Hausner/Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20
Stiglitz J.E., Globalizacja, Warszawa 2004.
pl/8,76842,6737667.html.
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„Trzeci Sektor“, Nr. 3/2005. Setka „Obiegu”, http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954.
tucjami kultury,
Raport przygotowany na zlecenie Ministerstwa Kultury i
publiczną w świetle doświadczeń amerykańskich,
http://www.kongreskultury.pl/library/File/Hausner/
Democratic Approach, Cambridge 1993. Buczek M. u. a., Kultura w kryzysie czy kryzys w kulturze.
współpracy sektora poza-rządowego z administracją
Affairs, March/April 1994.
Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-
Zakaria F., A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew, Foreign
Bresser Pereira L.C., Maravall J.M., Przeworski A.,
telskie we współczesnych Włoszech, Kraków 1995. Rymsza A., Partnerzy służby publicznej? Wyzwania
Kultura%20w%20kryzysie%20czy%20kryzys%20
vol. 22, Nr. 3.
pl/1,75475,6582681,Plan_Hausnera_dla_kultury.html Putnam R.D., Demokracja w działaniu. Tradycje obywa-
w%20kulturze_wpelna.pdf.
a Competitive Economy, „Econometrica” Juli 1954,
at Home and Abroad, New York 2004.
Arrow K.J., Debreu G., Existence of an Equilibrium for
cza“, 8. Mai 2009, Internetversion: http://wyborcza.
Zakaria F., The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy
XVIIIe Siècle, Paris 1979.
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à l’heure de l’europe!, http://www.nidinfo.com/
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nomic Growth, Warszawa 2010, S. 6 (Distinguish
Les intermittents du spectacle: Une spécificité française
and the Origins of our Times, London 1994, F. Braudel,
North D.C., Understanding Economic Change and Eco-
cza.pl/8,76842,6737667.html.
exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304. Arrighi G., The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power
Socjologia i antropologia, Warszawa 2001.
Żakowski, J., By balon nie stał się ciałem, http://wybor-
Planning, ManyWordls.com, http://manyworlds.com/
w społeczeństwach archaicznych, [in:] derselbe,
html/intermittent_spectacle.html.
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Mauss M., Szkic o darze. Forma i podstawa wymiany
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dieses Studiengangs sicherlich bessere Entfaltungsmöglichkeiten als der Beruf des Kellners oder der Raumpflegerin in Irland.
turze, http://www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/.
geben, geeignete Lehrer für dieses Schulfach zu finden. Kulturwissenschaft ist heute in Polen einer der gefragtesten Studiengänge. Die Einführung des Fachs Kulturerziehung böte den Absolventen
199
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Die dritte Wirklichkeit Levan Khetaguri
S
eit Jahrhunderten zeitigten die Bemühungen um eine eigene Perzeption keine Wirkung. Trotz der großen Zahl von Schulen und Bewegungen waren Generationen von Philosophen nicht in der Lage, Fragen zum Zeitalter der Antike zu beantworten oder eigene zu formulieren. Bei unserem Gang durch die Labyrinthe der Zeit und der Geschichte haben wir nicht eine einzige Tür aufgestoßen – dafür haben wir darin gewetteifert, denselben Geschehnissen unterschiedliche Namen zu verleihen. Immer weiter haben wir uns von den heiligen und esoterischen Dingen entfernt. Ein immer größerer Teil der Menschheit führt ein besseres Leben. Immer mehr haben wir uns unserer Geistigkeit beraubt. Kurz gesagt, wir befinden uns im 21. Jahrhundert – einer Epoche, in der sich die Liebe auf die Religion stützt, und in einer Ära, in der das Defizit an Liebe uns einerseits in eine geistige Eiszeit geführt hat und andererseits zur globalen Erwärmung. Wir leben und existieren – aber wo und in welcher Dimension? Calderon, ein spanischer Dramatiker der Renaissance, formuliert folgendes historisches Rätsel: Ist das Leben (die Existenz) nur ein Traum? Natürlich glaubt man seit Jahrhunderten, dass sich diese beiden Welten durch Dichotomien erfassen lassen. Existenz – Traum Leben – Tod Paradies – Hölle Wenn auch die Religion unablässig eine dritte Welt anbietet in Form des Fegefeuers als dritter Dimension. Calderon stellte die Frage über die wahre Wirklichkeit und unsere wahre Existenz. Ist es das, was wir das Leben nennen, oder nennen wir es vielleicht Traum? Wo ist jene wahre Bedeutung? Wenn wir sie aus einer einfachen Perspektive betrachten, können wir ganz einfach feststellen,
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
dass wir körperlich im so genannten wahren Leben existieren und unser Bewusstsein sich im Raum der Träume äußert – der ebenso wahrhaftig ist für unser Bewusstsein. Wo kann man das wahre Wesen des Menschseins finden? Das Wesen, wie es in der antiken Formulierung zum Ausdruck kommt – „Begreife dich selbst“ und „Sei der, der du bist.“ Hier oder dort? Im so genannten Leben oder im Traum? Die Psychologen werden sicher behaupten, dass dies nur in der Sphäre der Wünsche (dem Raum der Träume) möglich ist.
Eine neue Dimension
D
ie Entfaltung der Welt. Wechselwirkung. Erinnerung an die Künste – in Richtung Stream of Consciousness. Von der Postmoderne zum Neointellektualismus. Unlängst hat mir ein Freund gesagt: „Die mit Steiner verbundene Ära der Postmodernen neigt sich dem Ende zu...“ Und auch die Ära der zahlreichen Neo-Ismen – was haben wir als nächstes zu erwarten? Post-post? In den neunziger Jahren hat José Ángel Gómez, der spanische Theatertheoretiker aus Barcelona, seine Theorie des „Post-Theaters“ verbreitet. In der Hoffnung auf ein neues Theater schrieb er Bücher über den Post-Hamlet, den Post-Don-Juan oder die so genannten Probleme des Post-Theaters. Die Erforschung der Kunst ist die Philosophie der Kunst. Die heutigen Kunsthistoriker könnten in der Tat als Kulturanthropologen gelten. Von der Wechselwirkung zur multimedialen Expression. Unsere Perzeption ist interaktiv, was die Wechselwirkung im Prozess unserer eigenen Ex-
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Levan Khetaguri Vizepräsident der Schota-RusstaweliStaatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi; Koordinator und Moderator georgischer und internationaler Kulturprogramme, Festivals, Konferenzen, Seminare, Werkstätte und öffentlicher Vorträge, Produzent und Autor von TV-Programmen. Er veröffentlichte über 80 wissenschaftliche Arbeiten und Artikel in Verlagen und Fachzeitschriften (in der georgischen, russischen, englischen, aserbaidschanischen, belarussischen, slowakischen und anderen Sprachen). Ein Übersetzer einiger Bücher, Preisträger zahlreicher Auszeichnungen, darunter vom Verein für Schwedische Schriftsteller, 2000), von der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Sowjetunion (1985) und der Akademie der Wissenschaften Georgiens (1982). Er ist Mitglied zahlreicher namhaften Institutionen. 1996-1997 war er als Direktor Internationaler Kulturprogramme im georgischen Kultusministerium, und 2008 als Mitglied des Europäischen Kulturparlaments tätig.
eit Jahrhunderten zeitigten die Bemühungen um eine eigene Perzeption keine Wirkung. Trotz der großen Zahl von Schulen und Bewegungen waren Generationen von Philosophen nicht in der Lage, Fragen zum Zeitalter der Antike zu beantworten oder eigene zu formulieren. Bei unserem Gang durch die Labyrinthe der Zeit und der Geschichte haben wir nicht eine einzige Tür aufgestoßen – dafür haben wir darin gewetteifert, denselben Geschehnissen unterschiedliche Namen zu verleihen. Immer weiter haben wir uns von den heiligen und esoterischen Dingen entfernt. Ein immer größerer Teil der Menschheit führt ein besseres Leben. Immer mehr haben wir uns unserer Geistigkeit beraubt. Kurz gesagt, wir befinden uns im 21. Jahrhundert – einer Epoche, in der sich die Liebe auf die Religion stützt, und in einer Ära, in der das Defizit an Liebe uns einerseits in eine geistige Eiszeit geführt hat und andererseits zur globalen Erwärmung. Wir leben und existieren – aber wo und in welcher Dimension? Calderon, ein spanischer Dramatiker der Renaissance, formuliert folgendes historisches Rätsel: Ist das Leben (die Existenz) nur ein Traum? Natürlich glaubt man seit Jahrhunderten, dass sich diese beiden Welten durch Dichotomien erfassen lassen. Existenz – Traum Leben – Tod Paradies – Hölle Wenn auch die Religion unablässig eine dritte Welt anbietet in Form des Fegefeuers als dritter Dimension. Calderon stellte die Frage über die wahre Wirklichkeit und unsere wahre Existenz. Ist es das, was wir das Leben nennen, oder nennen wir es vielleicht Traum? Wo ist jene wahre Bedeutung? Wenn wir sie aus einer einfachen Perspektive betrachten, können wir ganz einfach feststellen,
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ie Entfaltung der Welt. Wechselwirkung. Erinnerung an die Künste – in Richtung Stream of Consciousness. Von der Postmoderne zum Neointellektualismus. Unlängst hat mir ein Freund gesagt: „Die mit Steiner verbundene Ära der Postmodernen neigt sich dem Ende zu...“ Und auch die Ära der zahlreichen Neo-Ismen – was haben wir als nächstes zu erwarten? Post-post? In den neunziger Jahren hat José Ángel Gómez, der spanische Theatertheoretiker aus Barcelona, seine Theorie des „Post-Theaters“ verbreitet. In der Hoffnung auf ein neues Theater schrieb er Bücher über den Post-Hamlet, den Post-Don-Juan oder die so genannten Probleme des Post-Theaters. Die Erforschung der Kunst ist die Philosophie der Kunst. Die heutigen Kunsthistoriker könnten in der Tat als Kulturanthropologen gelten. Von der Wechselwirkung zur multimedialen Expression. Unsere Perzeption ist interaktiv, was die Wechselwirkung im Prozess unserer eigenen Ex-
D
Eine neue Dimension dass wir körperlich im so genannten wahren Leben existieren und unser Bewusstsein sich im Raum der Träume äußert – der ebenso wahrhaftig ist für unser Bewusstsein. Wo kann man das wahre Wesen des Menschseins finden? Das Wesen, wie es in der antiken Formulierung zum Ausdruck kommt – „Begreife dich selbst“ und „Sei der, der du bist.“ Hier oder dort? Im so genannten Leben oder im Traum? Die Psychologen werden sicher behaupten, dass dies nur in der Sphäre der Wünsche (dem Raum der Träume) möglich ist.
Levan Khetaguri
Die dritte Wirklichkeit
Übersetzung: Peter Seraphim
Levan Khetaguri Vizepräsident der Schota-RusstaweliStaatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi; Koordinator und Moderator georgischer und internationaler Kulturprogramme, Festivals, Konferenzen, Seminare, Werkstätte und öffentlicher Vorträge, Produzent und Autor von TV-Programmen. Er veröffentlichte über 80 wissenschaftliche Arbeiten und Artikel in Verlagen und Fachzeitschriften (in der georgischen, russischen, englischen, aserbaidschanischen, belarussischen, slowakischen und anderen Sprachen). Ein Übersetzer einiger Bücher, Preisträger zahlreicher Auszeichnungen, darunter vom Verein für Schwedische Schriftsteller, 2000), von der Akademie der Wissenschaften der Sowjetunion (1985) und der Akademie der Wissenschaften Georgiens (1982). Er ist Mitglied zahlreicher namhaften Institutionen. 1996-1997 war er als Direktor Internationaler Kulturprogramme im georgischen Kultusministerium, und 2008 als Mitglied des Europäischen Kulturparlaments tätig.
2007 war er Leiter von Master- und Doktorandenstudien an der Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi. Als Theaterwissenschaftler nahm er an internationalen Vorträgen und Symposien in Russland, Aserbaidschan, Spanien, der Slowakei, Belarus, Großbritannien teil. Er führte Universitätskurse im Bereich Theatergeschichte, Theorie des Dramas und der Kritik, Theater des 20. Jh., Geschichte der europäischen Zivilisation, Management von darstellender Kunst. Als Experte für Management, Sponsoring, internationale Kooperation im Gebiet Kunst und Kulturpolitik arbeitete er mit Instituten in Jerewan, Baku, Sofia, Bischkek, Vilnius, Görlitz, Göteborg, St. Petersburg seit 1999 zusammen.
gien und sogar die Technik – obwohl die Technik ein einzelnes Werkzeug unserer Selbstäußerung ist. Wir stehen wahrscheinlich am Ende der letzten Dekade des gedruckten Buches – mitsamt den ökologischen Parolen – alle Bücher lösen sich in der Cyberwelt auf und entstehen in digitaler Form. Bald werden wir geboren und sterben in der Cyber-Welt – unsere Existenz zieht aus in den Raum. Unsere Existenz wird unendlich sein. Wie wird jetzt das Theater aussehen? Das interaktive Theater. Das Theater spricht mit jeder Sprache gleichzeitig, es spricht zu allen ohne Grenzen, es spricht mit einer Sprache, die für alle verständlich ist – durch Ton, Geräusch, Farbe, Bewegung, Musik, Licht und Schatten; Bild, Projektion und Live-Darbietung, in vielen Richtungen zur selben Zeit im ganzen Raum. So etwas wie den Theaterraum gibt es nicht mehr. Der Raum ist über die Wände des Theaters
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
hinausgewachsen. Er ist grenzenlos geworden. Mitsamt den hoch entwickelten Technologien wird das Theater geheimnisvoller und mystischer. Wie nie zuvor. Zeigt das Theater Geist und Gedanken auf... Früher zeigte das Theater das Leben und die Menschen, die es führten, heute konzentriert sich das Theater darauf, was sich in den Menschen während des Lebens vollzieht. Es enthüllt den Bewusstseinsstrom mitsamt einer Reihe von Assoziationen und Prozessen, die im Gemüt ablaufen. Der Ausdruck der Wünsche und Sehnsüchte ist zur Wirklichkeit geworden, das Aufzeigen der Gedanken ist wahrhaftig geworden – das Theater kann unsere geheimsten Gedanken zeigen, unsere Taten und das, was für zu tun verlangen. Das ist möglich einzig durch das multimediale Theater und moderne Technologien. Die Farben des Lichts verteilt über die ganze Bühne, jeder Winkel zur Projektionsfläche umgewandelt – überall sehen wir Projektionen unserer Gedanken und Bilder – wir dringen tief ein in die Prozesse, die unserer menschlichen Seele vonstatten gehen – nicht durch die Erzählung, sondern allein durch Betrachtung, das Durchforsten geheimnisvoller Labyrinthe. Nie zuvor war das Theater so nah am Ausdruck der mystischen Welt – das Theater wird global und gleichzeitig überaus intim – die Darbietung kann man vergleichen mit einer Meditation, verbunden mit Magnetismus. Das Theater beginnt an eine visuelle Projektion der mystischen Welt zu erinnern.
hinausgewachsen. Er ist grenzenlos geworden. Mitsamt den hoch entwickelten Technologien wird das Theater geheimnisvoller und mystischer. Wie nie zuvor. Zeigt das Theater Geist und Gedanken auf... Früher zeigte das Theater das Leben und die Menschen, die es führten, heute konzentriert sich das Theater darauf, was sich in den Menschen während des Lebens vollzieht. Es enthüllt den Bewusstseinsstrom mitsamt einer Reihe von Assoziationen und Prozessen, die im Gemüt ablaufen. Der Ausdruck der Wünsche und Sehnsüchte ist zur Wirklichkeit geworden, das Aufzeigen der Gedanken ist wahrhaftig geworden – das Theater kann unsere geheimsten Gedanken zeigen, unsere Taten und das, was für zu tun verlangen. Das ist möglich einzig durch das multimediale Theater und moderne Technologien. Die Farben des Lichts verteilt über die ganze Bühne, jeder Winkel zur Projektionsfläche umgewandelt – überall sehen wir Projektionen unserer Gedanken und Bilder – wir dringen tief ein in die Prozesse, die unserer menschlichen Seele vonstatten gehen – nicht durch die Erzählung, sondern allein durch Betrachtung, das Durchforsten geheimnisvoller Labyrinthe. Nie zuvor war das Theater so nah am Ausdruck der mystischen Welt – das Theater wird global und gleichzeitig überaus intim – die Darbietung kann man vergleichen mit einer Meditation, verbunden mit Magnetismus. Das Theater beginnt an eine visuelle Projektion der mystischen Welt zu erinnern.
pression aufrechterhält – dies lässt sich nur durch Multimedia erreichen. Wir existieren in einer bestimmten Zahl von Wirklichkeiten gleichzeitig – eine der wichtigsten ist die Cyber-Wirklichkeit, welche die Verwendung moderner Technologien als Mittel des eigenen Ausdrucks verlangt. Wir hören, betrachten, denken nach, schreiben zur selben Zeit. In der Cyber-Welt arbeiten wir zusammen mit mehreren, vielleicht sogar zehn Personen gleichzeitig zusammen, die sich dessen nicht bewusst sind. Wir maskieren uns in CyberWelt mit fiktiven Bios, geborgten Individualitäten und Gesichtern. (Wörtlich – im antiken Theater sublimierten wir unsere Bedürfnisse durch den Schauspieler oder die Bühnenfigur, heute hängt nur von uns dieser Prozess ab – die Cyber-Wirklichkeit hat uns die Gelegenheit gegeben, der zu werden, der wir zu sein verlangen, nicht nur imaginiert sondern wirklich.) Wir bezahlen für das neue Leben (das zweite Leben – der Internetraum für die zweite Wirklichkeit) und so wird unsere Sprache des Ausdrucks zur Cyber-Sprache –moderne Technologien der Welt der Zahlen. Die Cyber-Welt ist eine Sphäre ohne Zeit und Grenzen, ohne Sprache und ohne Wirklichkeit. In gewisser Weise existieren wir in einer Dimension außerhalb von Zeit und Wirklichkeit. Wie sieht die Kunst unserer Zeit aus, welche sind ihre Ausdrucksmittel. Das Theater – die Darbietung wird zum einzigen Werkzeug für die Synthese der Künste, des menschlichen Denkens und zum Ausdruck der Cyber-Realisierung des Menschen. Heute wie nie zuvor ist die Kunst Synthese. Der Prozess des Selbstausdrucks ist unbegrenzt, tief und unendlich. Wir sind nicht mehr in der Welt der Nachrichten. Wir sind in der Welt der eingefrorenen Sekunde, wo Sekunden zur Unendlichkeit werden. Wir sind nicht mehr in der Welt der abgeschlossenen Arbeiten, sondern in der nicht endenden Welt der Bewegungen, Worte, Klänge, die sich an den Raum richten. Wir sind in der Epoche der in den Raum gesandten Botschaften. Die herkömmlichen Denkweisen und -formen verschwinden wie nie zuvor. Der Generationenkonflikt ist ernst wie nie zuvor. Die Destruktion der Welt, die in Babylon begonnen hat, findet Wege ihrer Wiedererrichtung in der Cyber-Welt. Wir werden zur Bürgern der Cyber-Welt. Wir verfügen über Wissen über neue Technolo-
Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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gien und sogar die Technik – obwohl die Technik ein einzelnes Werkzeug unserer Selbstäußerung ist. Wir stehen wahrscheinlich am Ende der letzten Dekade des gedruckten Buches – mitsamt den ökologischen Parolen – alle Bücher lösen sich in der Cyberwelt auf und entstehen in digitaler Form. Bald werden wir geboren und sterben in der Cyber-Welt – unsere Existenz zieht aus in den Raum. Unsere Existenz wird unendlich sein. Wie wird jetzt das Theater aussehen? Das interaktive Theater. Das Theater spricht mit jeder Sprache gleichzeitig, es spricht zu allen ohne Grenzen, es spricht mit einer Sprache, die für alle verständlich ist – durch Ton, Geräusch, Farbe, Bewegung, Musik, Licht und Schatten; Bild, Projektion und Live-Darbietung, in vielen Richtungen zur selben Zeit im ganzen Raum. So etwas wie den Theaterraum gibt es nicht mehr. Der Raum ist über die Wände des Theaters
200
2007 war er Leiter von Master- und Doktorandenstudien an der Schota-Russtaweli-Staatsuniversität für Theater und Film in Tbilisi. Als Theaterwissenschaftler nahm er an internationalen Vorträgen und Symposien in Russland, Aserbaidschan, Spanien, der Slowakei, Belarus, Großbritannien teil. Er führte Universitätskurse im Bereich Theatergeschichte, Theorie des Dramas und der Kritik, Theater des 20. Jh., Geschichte der europäischen Zivilisation, Management von darstellender Kunst. Als Experte für Management, Sponsoring, internationale Kooperation im Gebiet Kunst und Kulturpolitik arbeitete er mit Instituten in Jerewan, Baku, Sofia, Bischkek, Vilnius, Görlitz, Göteborg, St. Petersburg seit 1999 zusammen.
pression aufrechterhält – dies lässt sich nur durch Multimedia erreichen. Wir existieren in einer bestimmten Zahl von Wirklichkeiten gleichzeitig – eine der wichtigsten ist die Cyber-Wirklichkeit, welche die Verwendung moderner Technologien als Mittel des eigenen Ausdrucks verlangt. Wir hören, betrachten, denken nach, schreiben zur selben Zeit. In der Cyber-Welt arbeiten wir zusammen mit mehreren, vielleicht sogar zehn Personen gleichzeitig zusammen, die sich dessen nicht bewusst sind. Wir maskieren uns in CyberWelt mit fiktiven Bios, geborgten Individualitäten und Gesichtern. (Wörtlich – im antiken Theater sublimierten wir unsere Bedürfnisse durch den Schauspieler oder die Bühnenfigur, heute hängt nur von uns dieser Prozess ab – die Cyber-Wirklichkeit hat uns die Gelegenheit gegeben, der zu werden, der wir zu sein verlangen, nicht nur imaginiert sondern wirklich.) Wir bezahlen für das neue Leben (das zweite Leben – der Internetraum für die zweite Wirklichkeit) und so wird unsere Sprache des Ausdrucks zur Cyber-Sprache –moderne Technologien der Welt der Zahlen. Die Cyber-Welt ist eine Sphäre ohne Zeit und Grenzen, ohne Sprache und ohne Wirklichkeit. In gewisser Weise existieren wir in einer Dimension außerhalb von Zeit und Wirklichkeit. Wie sieht die Kunst unserer Zeit aus, welche sind ihre Ausdrucksmittel. Das Theater – die Darbietung wird zum einzigen Werkzeug für die Synthese der Künste, des menschlichen Denkens und zum Ausdruck der Cyber-Realisierung des Menschen. Heute wie nie zuvor ist die Kunst Synthese. Der Prozess des Selbstausdrucks ist unbegrenzt, tief und unendlich. Wir sind nicht mehr in der Welt der Nachrichten. Wir sind in der Welt der eingefrorenen Sekunde, wo Sekunden zur Unendlichkeit werden. Wir sind nicht mehr in der Welt der abgeschlossenen Arbeiten, sondern in der nicht endenden Welt der Bewegungen, Worte, Klänge, die sich an den Raum richten. Wir sind in der Epoche der in den Raum gesandten Botschaften. Die herkömmlichen Denkweisen und -formen verschwinden wie nie zuvor. Der Generationenkonflikt ist ernst wie nie zuvor. Die Destruktion der Welt, die in Babylon begonnen hat, findet Wege ihrer Wiedererrichtung in der Cyber-Welt. Wir werden zur Bürgern der Cyber-Welt. Wir verfügen über Wissen über neue Technolo-
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Das Theater beginnt ein Alltagsritual zu erschaffen – das Theater betet für die Welt durch Sichtbarmachung des menschlichen Gemüts. Licht, Musik, Farbe, Klang – sie alle werden zu Mitteln, die den nackten menschlichen Körper verhüllen. Heute drücken sich die Menschen durch den nackten Körper aus, statt durch Worte. Wie nie zuvor benötigt das Theater heute eine neue Sprache und diese Sprache ist der Mensch – der Schauspieler, den man als Maßeinheit für den Gedankenfluss im Raum betrachten kann, einen vollkommenen Wert. Der Wert der heutigen hoch entwickelten Zivilisation – der Mensch wird zum Kunstwerk für diese Zivilisation und alles, was damit in Kontakt gerät, kann ebenso zum Kunstwerk werden. Der Mensch als Maßeinheit der Freiheit, der Mensch als Vorbild der Schönheit, der Mensch als Mittel des Ausdrucks von Natur und Welt. In der Weltkultur – ist Gott das Absolute, das alle Religionen eint trotz ihrer unterschiedlichen
Namen, die Menschen trotz ihrer ethnischen Unterschiede – heute ist Gott das Absolute - Gott ist die Kunst, die Kunst im Schaffen, im Prozess und im Ergebnis. Heute verhalten sich die Wirklichkeiten zueinander relativ. Die Zeitachse wird ersetzt durch eine unendlich riesige Dimension, ohne Anfang und Ende, Sekunden und Minuten sind nur Teile der Unendlichkeit, der digitalen Unendlichkeit. Absolut sind Null und Plus Eins, eine einfache Wahrheit. Nur ein Sprung von Pythagoras zur Gegenwart. Die Welt ist umgeben von Zahlen. Das Fundament des Weltalls ist die Absolute Harmonie – Null und alles unterliegen Veränderungen und dem Schaffen ganz einfach durch Addition von Eins. Das Weltall ist ganz einfach Null und Eins. Null wie das grenzenlose Weltall und Eins wie jeder Einzelne in ihm.
Das Theater beginnt ein Alltagsritual zu erschaffen – das Theater betet für die Welt durch Sichtbarmachung des menschlichen Gemüts. Licht, Musik, Farbe, Klang – sie alle werden zu Mitteln, die den nackten menschlichen Körper verhüllen. Heute drücken sich die Menschen durch den nackten Körper aus, statt durch Worte. Wie nie zuvor benötigt das Theater heute eine neue Sprache und diese Sprache ist der Mensch – der Schauspieler, den man als Maßeinheit für den Gedankenfluss im Raum betrachten kann, einen vollkommenen Wert. Der Wert der heutigen hoch entwickelten Zivilisation – der Mensch wird zum Kunstwerk für diese Zivilisation und alles, was damit in Kontakt gerät, kann ebenso zum Kunstwerk werden. Der Mensch als Maßeinheit der Freiheit, der Mensch als Vorbild der Schönheit, der Mensch als Mittel des Ausdrucks von Natur und Welt. In der Weltkultur – ist Gott das Absolute, das alle Religionen eint trotz ihrer unterschiedlichen Kulturmanagement 2010, Heft 3 (3)
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Namen, die Menschen trotz ihrer ethnischen Unterschiede – heute ist Gott das Absolute - Gott ist die Kunst, die Kunst im Schaffen, im Prozess und im Ergebnis. Heute verhalten sich die Wirklichkeiten zueinander relativ. Die Zeitachse wird ersetzt durch eine unendlich riesige Dimension, ohne Anfang und Ende, Sekunden und Minuten sind nur Teile der Unendlichkeit, der digitalen Unendlichkeit. Absolut sind Null und Plus Eins, eine einfache Wahrheit. Nur ein Sprung von Pythagoras zur Gegenwart. Die Welt ist umgeben von Zahlen. Das Fundament des Weltalls ist die Absolute Harmonie – Null und alles unterliegen Veränderungen und dem Schaffen ganz einfach durch Addition von Eins. Das Weltall ist ganz einfach Null und Eins. Null wie das grenzenlose Weltall und Eins wie jeder Einzelne in ihm.
ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
WSTĘP Emil Orzechowski
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tare porzekadło powiada „do trzech razy sztuka”. I to jest właśnie ten trzeci raz, kiedy ukazuje się nasze czasopismo trójjęzyczne, skupione na refleksji nad teoretycznymi podstawami zarządzania w kulturze/zarządzania kulturą oraz egzemplifikacjami tego procesu w krajach Europy Wschodniej i Południowej, bo ten obszar wydaje się nam nieustająco najbardziej ekscytujący, i ze względów oczywistych: „stąd nasz ród” i ze względów znacznie poważniejszych: refleksji nad miejscem kultury w budowaniu społeczeństw obywatelskich, poszerzania ram myślenia kategoriami Unii Europejskiej, współkreowania wręcz nowej mapy relacji Zachód-Wschód, gdzie zagadnienia kultury powinny umożliwiać, a może i wyprzedzać, polityczne decyzje. Kraje na wschód od Łaby i na południe od Bałtyku to zawsze było skrzyżowanie kultur – spełniane w warunkach często nader bolesnych. I z tego musi płynąć jakaś lekcja, jakaś nauka. Materiały zamieszczone w niniejszym, trzecim numerze pisma, narastały przez ponad rok. Ostatecznie skupiają się, w części teoretycznej, wokół pozornie zużytego tematu: polityki kulturalnej. Problematyki pozornie tylko zużytej, bo wszak trwale obowiązuje nas podstawowa zasada zarządzania: misja, a ta musi być wynikiem refleksji nad pytaniem postawionym kiedyś, w ostro komunistycznych czasach, w krakowskim kabarecie „Piwnica pod Baranami” – „Jak żyjemy? Do czego doprowadziliśmy nasze mieszkania?”. Jest to pytanie zasadnicze i nie da się go zneutralizować próbą skierowania dyskusji na tory pozornie bardziej politycznie poprawne, typu „dyplomacja kulturalna”. Najpierw musi być odpowiedź na pytania: co? po co? dlaczego? w imię czego? dla kogo? etc., by ustalić skalę wartości najważniejszych, a dopiero potem może następować implementacja.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
W
niniejszym numerze tę właśnie problematykę podejmują teksty dotyczące spraw najistotniejszych: Tadeusza Gadacza, Kultura i odpowiedzialność oraz polemiczny w stosunku do niego głos młodej generacji: Jana Sowy, Rewolucja kulturalna - tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej. Teksty te to następstwo Kongresu Kultury Polskiej, który miał wyznaczyć wartości, zaproponować nowe ramy legislacyjne i nowoczesne uregulowania finansowe dla obszaru kultury. W kolejnym, czwartym numerze pisma spróbujemy te starania podsumować i skomentować – teraz jest jeszcze na to za wcześnie; prace trwają. Podkreślam znaczenie tych tekstów, gdyż są one bardzo poważną próbą nakreślenia ram, w jakich ludzie kultury odnajdują się w naszej części świata. Ma to, jak sądzę, wcale istotne znaczenie nie tylko dla Polski, ale może się liczyć i w kontekście polskiej prezydencji w Unii Europejskiej; rzecz jasna, o ile Polacy potrafią sprecyzować system wartości godnych upowszechnienia. A dziś już nie wystarczy mocne, skuteczne, pomocne w budowaniu Solidarności i obaleniu muru berlińskiego, stwierdzenie: „Nie lękajcie się”. Dlatego ważne jest dopełnienie tych uwag przez Matthiasa T. Vogta tekstem Czym jest polityka kulturalna? Andy Laķe, Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach, oraz wręcz brawurową próbą Nastassi Chmiel, Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna. Rzecz oczywista – wszelkie ustalenia polityki kulturalnej to tylko ramy. Ramy, które muszą wypełniać animatorzy i menedżerowie kultury. To blok kolejny tekstów Józefa Kargula, Autorytet animatora kultury, Birgit Katharine Seemann, Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska. To także teksty omawiające realia poszczególnych dyscyplin: Ivarsa Bērzinša,
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tare porzekadło powiada „do trzech razy sztuka”. I to jest właśnie ten trzeci raz, kiedy ukazuje się nasze czasopismo trójjęzyczne, skupione na refleksji nad teoretycznymi podstawami zarządzania w kulturze/zarządzania kulturą oraz egzemplifikacjami tego procesu w krajach Europy Wschodniej i Południowej, bo ten obszar wydaje się nam nieustająco najbardziej ekscytujący, i ze względów oczywistych: „stąd nasz ród” i ze względów znacznie poważniejszych: refleksji nad miejscem kultury w budowaniu społeczeństw obywatelskich, poszerzania ram myślenia kategoriami Unii Europejskiej, współkreowania wręcz nowej mapy relacji Zachód-Wschód, gdzie zagadnienia kultury powinny umożliwiać, a może i wyprzedzać, polityczne decyzje. Kraje na wschód od Łaby i na południe od Bałtyku to zawsze było skrzyżowanie kultur – spełniane w warunkach często nader bolesnych. I z tego musi płynąć jakaś lekcja, jakaś nauka. Materiały zamieszczone w niniejszym, trzecim numerze pisma, narastały przez ponad rok. Ostatecznie skupiają się, w części teoretycznej, wokół pozornie zużytego tematu: polityki kulturalnej. Problematyki pozornie tylko zużytej, bo wszak trwale obowiązuje nas podstawowa zasada zarządzania: misja, a ta musi być wynikiem refleksji nad pytaniem postawionym kiedyś, w ostro komunistycznych czasach, w krakowskim kabarecie „Piwnica pod Baranami” – „Jak żyjemy? Do czego doprowadziliśmy nasze mieszkania?”. Jest to pytanie zasadnicze i nie da się go zneutralizować próbą skierowania dyskusji na tory pozornie bardziej politycznie poprawne, typu „dyplomacja kulturalna”. Najpierw musi być odpowiedź na pytania: co? po co? dlaczego? w imię czego? dla kogo? etc., by ustalić skalę wartości najważniejszych, a dopiero potem może następować implementacja.
S
Emil Orzechowski
WSTĘP
niniejszym numerze tę właśnie problematykę podejmują teksty dotyczące spraw najistotniejszych: Tadeusza Gadacza, Kultura i odpowiedzialność oraz polemiczny w stosunku do niego głos młodej generacji: Jana Sowy, Rewolucja kulturalna - tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej. Teksty te to następstwo Kongresu Kultury Polskiej, który miał wyznaczyć wartości, zaproponować nowe ramy legislacyjne i nowoczesne uregulowania finansowe dla obszaru kultury. W kolejnym, czwartym numerze pisma spróbujemy te starania podsumować i skomentować – teraz jest jeszcze na to za wcześnie; prace trwają. Podkreślam znaczenie tych tekstów, gdyż są one bardzo poważną próbą nakreślenia ram, w jakich ludzie kultury odnajdują się w naszej części świata. Ma to, jak sądzę, wcale istotne znaczenie nie tylko dla Polski, ale może się liczyć i w kontekście polskiej prezydencji w Unii Europejskiej; rzecz jasna, o ile Polacy potrafią sprecyzować system wartości godnych upowszechnienia. A dziś już nie wystarczy mocne, skuteczne, pomocne w budowaniu Solidarności i obaleniu muru berlińskiego, stwierdzenie: „Nie lękajcie się”. Dlatego ważne jest dopełnienie tych uwag przez Matthiasa T. Vogta tekstem Czym jest polityka kulturalna? Andy Laķe, Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach, oraz wręcz brawurową próbą Nastassi Chmiel, Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna. Rzecz oczywista – wszelkie ustalenia polityki kulturalnej to tylko ramy. Ramy, które muszą wypełniać animatorzy i menedżerowie kultury. To blok kolejny tekstów Józefa Kargula, Autorytet animatora kultury, Birgit Katharine Seemann, Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska. To także teksty omawiające realia poszczególnych dyscyplin: Ivarsa Bērzinša,
W
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Bērzinša. Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką, Janisa Gardjansa, Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie, Małgorzaty Ćwikły, Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania, Bogusława Nierenberga, Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym. Niniejszy numer zamyka tekst autora zawsze niezależnego od chwilowych mód: Levan Khetaguri i Trzecia rzeczywistość.
stypendystów; regułę tę stosować będziemy nadal konsekwentnie. Niezależnie też od tego, że mimo deklarowanej równości akademickiej sektorów: publicznego, prywatnego i pozarządowego, uczelni typu uniwersyteckiego i artystycznych, i postulowanej ich współpracy, spotykamy się z niechęcią władz uczelni publicznych do wspierania działań wspólnych, nie będziemy takich głosów bać pod uwagę i czasopismo nasze będzie realną wspólnotą wszystkich, którym kwestie zarządzania kulturą leżą na sercu.
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P
rosimy o komentarze, prosimy o teksty, prosimy o współpracę dla dobra kultury, która „ma znaczenie” dla każdego z osobna i dla każdej społeczności.
rosimy o komentarze, prosimy o teksty, prosimy o współpracę dla dobra kultury, która „ma znaczenie” dla każdego z osobna i dla każdej społeczności.
doborze tekstów do numeru trzeciego dochowaliśmy zasady przyjętej na początku: są w nim artykuły uznanych autorytetów akademickich, ale także prace doktorantów czy młodych
stypendystów; regułę tę stosować będziemy nadal konsekwentnie. Niezależnie też od tego, że mimo deklarowanej równości akademickiej sektorów: publicznego, prywatnego i pozarządowego, uczelni typu uniwersyteckiego i artystycznych, i postulowanej ich współpracy, spotykamy się z niechęcią władz uczelni publicznych do wspierania działań wspólnych, nie będziemy takich głosów bać pod uwagę i czasopismo nasze będzie realną wspólnotą wszystkich, którym kwestie zarządzania kulturą leżą na sercu.
Bērzinša. Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką, Janisa Gardjansa, Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie, Małgorzaty Ćwikły, Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania, Bogusława Nierenberga, Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym. Niniejszy numer zamyka tekst autora zawsze niezależnego od chwilowych mód: Levan Khetaguri i Trzecia rzeczywistość.
P
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
W
doborze tekstów do numeru trzeciego dochowaliśmy zasady przyjętej na początku: są w nim artykuły uznanych autorytetów akademickich, ale także prace doktorantów czy młodych
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Kultura i odpowiedzialność Tadeusz Gadacz
K
rakowski filozof Roman Ingarden pisał w Książeczce o człowieku: „to, co wartością nazywamy: dobro, piękno, prawdziwość, sprawiedliwość itd., to nie znajduje się w obcej fizyko-biologicznej podbudowie naszego ludzkiego świata, lecz występuje dopiero właśnie w owej przez nas wytworzonej i dla człowieka właściwej, nadbudowanej rzeczywistości” [Ingarden, 1987, s. 38]. Ta nowa, wytworzona przez człowieka rzeczywistość, to kultura. Kultura jest odpowiedzią człowieka na wewnętrzne doświadczenie, na wartości, które już zostały urzeczywistnione lub te, które domagają się urzeczywistnienia. Sfera ludzkiego życia, sfera kultury, to sfera wartości. Ludzki świat, to świat, w którym istnieje przyjemność i nieprzyjemność, funkcjonalność i niefunkcjonalność, piękno i brzydota, sprawiedliwość i niesprawiedliwość, mądrość i głupota. Od wartości nie ma ucieczki. Jeśli nie budujemy funkcjonalnych dróg, to są one niefunkcjonalne. Jeśli nie wybieramy piękna, opowiadamy się za brzydotą. Jeśli nie czynimy sprawiedliwości, to jesteśmy niesprawiedliwi. Ks. Józef Tischner pisał: „w naszym świecie, w którym rodzimy się i umieramy, jest jakiś dom i jakaś bezdomność, jest miejsce pracy i brak miejsca pracy, jest szkoła, jest kościół, jest także cmentarz i to wszystko przedstawia dla nas jakąś swoistą godność. W świecie tym jest także głód, jest i niesprawiedliwość, jest odwaga i śmierć, sprawa ważna i mniej ważna. Gdyby to wszystko stało się nagle dla kogoś zupełnie obojętne, pytalibyśmy z niepokojem: co dzieje się z tym człowiekiem?” [Tischner, 1982, s. 484]. Żyjąc, czy chcemy, czy nie, odpowiadamy na wartości. Kulturę i odpowiedzialność łączy słowo „odpowiedź”. Jednak odpowiedź człowieka nie może być prosta i jednoznaczna, gdyż sama kultura jest wewnętrznie złożona. Pełna jest nieusuwalnych napięć, które często są przyczynami sporów. Mniej są one widoczne i znaczące w czasach ucisku, w zamkniętych społeczeństwach poddanych presji politycznej ideologii. Są czymś naturalnym
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
w otwartych społeczeństwach demokratycznych. Dlatego bardziej powinny być przedmiotem dialogu niż sporów. Każde z tych napięć ma swoją własną specyfikę i odrębną wagę. Ich współistnienie stanowi pole odpowiedzialności kultury. Spróbuję nakreślić najważniejsze z nich. Pierwszy rodzaj nieusuwalnego napięcia związany jest z odniesieniem kultury do czasu, z jednej strony do przeszłości, z drugiej do teraźniejszości i przyszłości, i to zarówno w aspekcie narodowej wspólnoty, jak i twórczości. Kultura jest sposobem istnienia narodu, podstawą jego tożsamości. Mówił Jan Paweł II w UNESCO: „Jestem synem Narodu, który przetrzymał najstraszliwsze doświadczenia dziejów, którego wielokrotnie sąsiedzi skazywali na śmierć – a on pozostał przy życiu i pozostał sobą. Zachował własną tożsamość […] w oparciu o własną kulturę, która okazała się w tym wypadku potęgą większą od tamtych potęg” [Przemówienie w siedzibie UNESCO, 2 VI 1980]. Tożsamość narodu rozciąga się w przeszłość, ale musi też wybiegać ku przyszłości. Stanisław Grygiel, otwierając Dom Polski w Rzymie, mówił w tym kontekście o pamięci i wyobraźni narodu: „Samoświadomość narodu rodzi się ze wspólnotowej pamięci oraz z jego wspólnotowej wyobraźni. Pamięcią naród ogarnia dorobek ojców, ich dorobek prawdy oraz związanej z nią wolności. Dorobek ten służy mu za budulec w tworzeniu swojego dziś. Wyobraźnią natomiast, która pamięta, naród wychodzi w przyszłość, w tę wielką konsekwencję prawdy i wolności, aby brać z niej ideę domostwa, jakie buduje” [Grygiel, 1982]. Naród nie może żyć bez swej pamięci, ale nie może żyć także bez twórczych wyobrażeń. Nie da się oddzielić od siebie pamięci i wielkich wyobrażeń. Dwadzieścia kilka lat temu dla polskiej Solidarności wielkim wyobrażeniem stała się idea wolności. Otwarła ona nowy etap historii Polski. Przez minione dwadzieścia lat zaczęliśmy odzyskiwać pamięć. W pamięć niejednokrotnie wkraczała polityka, spory i narodowe waśnie. Czemu jednak służy pamięć? Czy jest budulcem w tworzeniu naszej
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Tadeusz Gadacz pedagog, filozof, religioznawca. W latach 19911995 dziekan Wydziału Filozofii Papieskiej Akademii Teologicznej; w latach 1996-1999 kierownik Katedry Filozofii Religii na Wydziale Filozoficznym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Od 2002 roku pracuje w Instytucie Filozofii i Socjologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, od 1998 roku pełni funkcję kierownika Katedry Filozofii w Collegium Civitas. W latach 2003-2007 był przewodniczącym Komitetu Nauk Filozoficznych PAN. Laureat wielu nagród i odznaczeń: subwencji profesorskiej Fundacji na rzecz Nauki Polskiej (1998), Nagrody Prezydenta Miasta Warszawy dla najlepszego nauczyciela akademickiego (2002), Nagrody Ministra Kultury, Biblioteki Narodowej i Nowych Książek dla najlepszego autora roku 2003 za redakcję naukową dziesięciotomowej encyklopedii Religia (2004), nagrody dla najlepszego wykładowcy w historii Collegium Civitas (2008). Był stypendystą uniwersytetu Louvain-la-Neuve w Belgii, Catholic University of America
rakowski filozof Roman Ingarden pisał w Książeczce o człowieku: „to, co wartością nazywamy: dobro, piękno, prawdziwość, sprawiedliwość itd., to nie znajduje się w obcej fizyko-biologicznej podbudowie naszego ludzkiego świata, lecz występuje dopiero właśnie w owej przez nas wytworzonej i dla człowieka właściwej, nadbudowanej rzeczywistości” [Ingarden, 1987, s. 38]. Ta nowa, wytworzona przez człowieka rzeczywistość, to kultura. Kultura jest odpowiedzią człowieka na wewnętrzne doświadczenie, na wartości, które już zostały urzeczywistnione lub te, które domagają się urzeczywistnienia. Sfera ludzkiego życia, sfera kultury, to sfera wartości. Ludzki świat, to świat, w którym istnieje przyjemność i nieprzyjemność, funkcjonalność i niefunkcjonalność, piękno i brzydota, sprawiedliwość i niesprawiedliwość, mądrość i głupota. Od wartości nie ma ucieczki. Jeśli nie budujemy funkcjonalnych dróg, to są one niefunkcjonalne. Jeśli nie wybieramy piękna, opowiadamy się za brzydotą. Jeśli nie czynimy sprawiedliwości, to jesteśmy niesprawiedliwi. Ks. Józef Tischner pisał: „w naszym świecie, w którym rodzimy się i umieramy, jest jakiś dom i jakaś bezdomność, jest miejsce pracy i brak miejsca pracy, jest szkoła, jest kościół, jest także cmentarz i to wszystko przedstawia dla nas jakąś swoistą godność. W świecie tym jest także głód, jest i niesprawiedliwość, jest odwaga i śmierć, sprawa ważna i mniej ważna. Gdyby to wszystko stało się nagle dla kogoś zupełnie obojętne, pytalibyśmy z niepokojem: co dzieje się z tym człowiekiem?” [Tischner, 1982, s. 484]. Żyjąc, czy chcemy, czy nie, odpowiadamy na wartości. Kulturę i odpowiedzialność łączy słowo „odpowiedź”. Jednak odpowiedź człowieka nie może być prosta i jednoznaczna, gdyż sama kultura jest wewnętrznie złożona. Pełna jest nieusuwalnych napięć, które często są przyczynami sporów. Mniej są one widoczne i znaczące w czasach ucisku, w zamkniętych społeczeństwach poddanych presji politycznej ideologii. Są czymś naturalnym
K
w otwartych społeczeństwach demokratycznych. Dlatego bardziej powinny być przedmiotem dialogu niż sporów. Każde z tych napięć ma swoją własną specyfikę i odrębną wagę. Ich współistnienie stanowi pole odpowiedzialności kultury. Spróbuję nakreślić najważniejsze z nich. Pierwszy rodzaj nieusuwalnego napięcia związany jest z odniesieniem kultury do czasu, z jednej strony do przeszłości, z drugiej do teraźniejszości i przyszłości, i to zarówno w aspekcie narodowej wspólnoty, jak i twórczości. Kultura jest sposobem istnienia narodu, podstawą jego tożsamości. Mówił Jan Paweł II w UNESCO: „Jestem synem Narodu, który przetrzymał najstraszliwsze doświadczenia dziejów, którego wielokrotnie sąsiedzi skazywali na śmierć – a on pozostał przy życiu i pozostał sobą. Zachował własną tożsamość […] w oparciu o własną kulturę, która okazała się w tym wypadku potęgą większą od tamtych potęg” [Przemówienie w siedzibie UNESCO, 2 VI 1980]. Tożsamość narodu rozciąga się w przeszłość, ale musi też wybiegać ku przyszłości. Stanisław Grygiel, otwierając Dom Polski w Rzymie, mówił w tym kontekście o pamięci i wyobraźni narodu: „Samoświadomość narodu rodzi się ze wspólnotowej pamięci oraz z jego wspólnotowej wyobraźni. Pamięcią naród ogarnia dorobek ojców, ich dorobek prawdy oraz związanej z nią wolności. Dorobek ten służy mu za budulec w tworzeniu swojego dziś. Wyobraźnią natomiast, która pamięta, naród wychodzi w przyszłość, w tę wielką konsekwencję prawdy i wolności, aby brać z niej ideę domostwa, jakie buduje” [Grygiel, 1982]. Naród nie może żyć bez swej pamięci, ale nie może żyć także bez twórczych wyobrażeń. Nie da się oddzielić od siebie pamięci i wielkich wyobrażeń. Dwadzieścia kilka lat temu dla polskiej Solidarności wielkim wyobrażeniem stała się idea wolności. Otwarła ona nowy etap historii Polski. Przez minione dwadzieścia lat zaczęliśmy odzyskiwać pamięć. W pamięć niejednokrotnie wkraczała polityka, spory i narodowe waśnie. Czemu jednak służy pamięć? Czy jest budulcem w tworzeniu naszej
Tadeusz Gadacz
Kultura i odpowiedzialność
Tadeusz Gadacz pedagog, filozof, religioznawca. W latach 19911995 dziekan Wydziału Filozofii Papieskiej Akademii Teologicznej; w latach 1996-1999 kierownik Katedry Filozofii Religii na Wydziale Filozoficznym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Od 2002 roku pracuje w Instytucie Filozofii i Socjologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk, od 1998 roku pełni funkcję kierownika Katedry Filozofii w Collegium Civitas. W latach 2003-2007 był przewodniczącym Komitetu Nauk Filozoficznych PAN. Laureat wielu nagród i odznaczeń: subwencji profesorskiej Fundacji na rzecz Nauki Polskiej (1998), Nagrody Prezydenta Miasta Warszawy dla najlepszego nauczyciela akademickiego (2002), Nagrody Ministra Kultury, Biblioteki Narodowej i Nowych Książek dla najlepszego autora roku 2003 za redakcję naukową dziesięciotomowej encyklopedii Religia (2004), nagrody dla najlepszego wykładowcy w historii Collegium Civitas (2008). Był stypendystą uniwersytetu Louvain-la-Neuve w Belgii, Catholic University of America
w Waszyngtonie, Hebrew University w Jerozolimie, wiedeńskiego Instytutu Nauk o Człowieku. Jest autorem ponad 130 polskich i zagranicznych publikacji naukowych. Był współwydawcą serii „Teksty Filozoficzne”, w której ukazały się m.in. przekłady E. Husserla, J. Patočki, E. Lévinasa, M. Heideggera. Obecnie wydaje serię „Klasyka Filozofii” w IFiS PAN. Jest autorem Historii filozofii XX wieku. Obszar jego badań obejmuje historię filozofii XX wieku, filozofię Boga i religii, metafizykę, filozofię człowieka i edukacji.
Chińczykiem? Tak naprawdę – pewno nie, wielu to jednak robi; zostają Chińczykami, szamanami indiańskimi, maniakami seksualnymi, mistykami nieokreślonego wyznania [tamże, s. 28]. O podobnym doświadczeniu pisał prof. Władysław Stróżewski. W sztuce przestaliśmy się kierować ideałem doskonałości, a zaczęliśmy kierować się ideałem nowości. „Nie jest też ważne, by coś było naprawdę udane. Ważne jest, by było nowe, zaskakujące, szokujące. Nowość zastąpiła doskonałość” [Stróżewski, 2002, s. 174]. Wpłynęła na to w dużej mierze także komercjalizacja kultury. Sklepy chcą mieć wciąż nowy i świeży towar. Jego krótka data ważności powoduje ciśnienie oczekiwania na nową dostawę, która tylko dlatego jest lepsza (bardziej wartościowa), że jest świeża. Duży wpływ mają na to także media, dla których codziennym pokarmem jest nowość. Nie usuniemy jednak dialektyki tych dwóch członów: pamięci i wyobrażeń kształtujących przyszłość, tradycji i nowości. Kiedy zbyt wybiegamy w przyszłość lub eksperymentujemy, zaczynamy sięgać do pamięci i przeszłości. Kiedy pamięć i przeszłość zbyt nam ciążą, zaczynamy wybiegać w przyszłość i eksperymentować. Kolejna linia nieusuwalnych napięć przebiega między elitarnością kultury a jej umasowieniem. Kultura wysoka zawsze była elitarna. Wymagała wysokich kompetencji, zdolności i trudu, zarówno w jej tworzeniu, jak i w jej odbiorze. Wymagała wykształcenia. Oświeceniowa idea równości (wszyscy mamy taki sam rozum) wprowadziła do kultury europejskiej ideę wykształcenia powszechnego i umasowienia. Wzmocniła ją idea demokracji, przyznająca równe uprawnienia wszystkim obywatelom. Powszechny dostęp do wykształcenia sam w sobie jest istotną wartością. Niewątpliwym osiągnięciem polskiej kultury, nie tylko szkolnictwa, ale i kultury, jest kilkakrotny wzrost liczby studiujących i z wyższym wykształceniem, który dokonał się w minionych dwudziestu latach. Ceną jednak, jaką zapłaciliśmy za to, jest radykalne obniżenie poziomu wykształcenia. By nie obrażać niczyjego rozumu systematycznie obniżamy poziom wykształcenia. Na wyższe uczelnie przychodzą coraz gorzej wykształceni kandydaci za to z coraz większymi roszczeniami. Dotyczy to nie tylko ich wiedzy czy kompetencji, ale także ogłady i kultury osobistej. Kiedy w 1982 r. rozpoczynałem pracę dydaktyczną bez trudu mogłem rozmawiać ze studentami na temat Iliady, czy odwoływać się do wielu kodów kultury klasycznej. Obecnie większość studentów nie rozumie prośby, by nazwisko na egzaminie pisemnym napisać wersalikami. A przez jedną ze studentek zostałem nawet pouczony, że to się nazywa caps lock. Dużą część winy za zaistniałą
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
teraźniejszości i przyszłości, czy też jedynie politycznym rewanżem? Cmentarze są miejscami, które nawiedzamy, ale nie miejscem zamieszkiwania. Nieusuwalne jest więc napięcie między paradygmatem romantycznym i pozytywistycznym, gdyż nie możemy zamknąć narodu jedynie w pamięci poniesionych przez niego ofiar ani też tylko w przestrzeni jego cywilizacyjnych przekształceń. Nie jest zatem alternatywą, czy mamy koncentrować się na cmentarzach czy na budowie autostrad, czy mamy budować muzeum II wojny światowej czy muzeum sztuki współczesnej. Jeśli wielkim wyobrażeniem polskiej Solidarności była kiedyś idea wolności, to takim wyobrażeniem, które otworzy nas ku przyszłości powinna stać się obecnie idea odpowiedzialności. W równym stopniu musimy być odpowiedzialni zarówno za naszą pamięć, jak i za naszą przyszłość. Innym przejawem nieusuwalnego napięcia między tym, co minione, a teraźniejszością i przyszłością jest relacja między tradycją a nowością. Historyczna tradycja jest miejscem, w którym jedne dzieła kultury osiągają status dzieł klasycznych i stają się dziedzictwem, o które się troszczymy. Nie wszyscy jednak podzielają takie przekonanie. Istnieją bowiem ograniczające, a nawet opresywne formy tradycji, które musimy przekraczać lub z których musimy się wyzwalać. Pisał Andrzej Osęka: „Należę do jednego z takich pokoleń fanatyków wolności w sztuce. Odrzucenie doktryny socrealizmu, które nastąpiło akurat, gdy zaczynałem brać czynny udział w życiu artystycznym, oznaczało wtedy również odrzucenie tradycji” [Osęka, 1994, s. 28]. „Dla wielu artystów wolność, nie przestając być w perspektywie podstawą nowego wspaniałego ładu, wiązała się przede wszystkim z wizją niszczenia, burzenia – według leninowskiej zasady: „żeby zrobić omlet, trzeba stłuc jajka”. Galerie, festiwale sztuki, muzea stały się na dziesiątki lat widownią wielkiego tłuczenia jajek” [tamże, s. 25]. „Z upływem lat rewolucyjny zapał słabnął, nie wystarczył już, by na nim oprzeć nadzieje” [tamże, s. 27]. Jeśli kultura nie może ograniczyć się jedynie do kultywowania tradycji, to miarą jej wartości nie może być także sama jej nowość. Jeszcze raz Andrzej Osęka: „Przekleństwem kultury współczesnej i osobistym nieszczęściem wielu jej twórców jest właśnie dowolność w wyborze formy, konwencji, tradycji. Jakby się otwierało na różnych stronach katalog wyposażenia wnętrza: można je urządzić nowocześnie, klasycznie, rustykalnie, a choćby i w mierze kiczu. Lub tak, jakby się szło do restauracji: do staropolskiej albo do węgierskiej czy chińskiej. Można spróbować tego lub tego, tak lub inaczej. […] Opisując to zjawisko, pewien krytyk zatytułował swój tekst: Czy można zostać
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Chińczykiem? Tak naprawdę – pewno nie, wielu to jednak robi; zostają Chińczykami, szamanami indiańskimi, maniakami seksualnymi, mistykami nieokreślonego wyznania [tamże, s. 28]. O podobnym doświadczeniu pisał prof. Władysław Stróżewski. W sztuce przestaliśmy się kierować ideałem doskonałości, a zaczęliśmy kierować się ideałem nowości. „Nie jest też ważne, by coś było naprawdę udane. Ważne jest, by było nowe, zaskakujące, szokujące. Nowość zastąpiła doskonałość” [Stróżewski, 2002, s. 174]. Wpłynęła na to w dużej mierze także komercjalizacja kultury. Sklepy chcą mieć wciąż nowy i świeży towar. Jego krótka data ważności powoduje ciśnienie oczekiwania na nową dostawę, która tylko dlatego jest lepsza (bardziej wartościowa), że jest świeża. Duży wpływ mają na to także media, dla których codziennym pokarmem jest nowość. Nie usuniemy jednak dialektyki tych dwóch członów: pamięci i wyobrażeń kształtujących przyszłość, tradycji i nowości. Kiedy zbyt wybiegamy w przyszłość lub eksperymentujemy, zaczynamy sięgać do pamięci i przeszłości. Kiedy pamięć i przeszłość zbyt nam ciążą, zaczynamy wybiegać w przyszłość i eksperymentować. Kolejna linia nieusuwalnych napięć przebiega między elitarnością kultury a jej umasowieniem. Kultura wysoka zawsze była elitarna. Wymagała wysokich kompetencji, zdolności i trudu, zarówno w jej tworzeniu, jak i w jej odbiorze. Wymagała wykształcenia. Oświeceniowa idea równości (wszyscy mamy taki sam rozum) wprowadziła do kultury europejskiej ideę wykształcenia powszechnego i umasowienia. Wzmocniła ją idea demokracji, przyznająca równe uprawnienia wszystkim obywatelom. Powszechny dostęp do wykształcenia sam w sobie jest istotną wartością. Niewątpliwym osiągnięciem polskiej kultury, nie tylko szkolnictwa, ale i kultury, jest kilkakrotny wzrost liczby studiujących i z wyższym wykształceniem, który dokonał się w minionych dwudziestu latach. Ceną jednak, jaką zapłaciliśmy za to, jest radykalne obniżenie poziomu wykształcenia. By nie obrażać niczyjego rozumu systematycznie obniżamy poziom wykształcenia. Na wyższe uczelnie przychodzą coraz gorzej wykształceni kandydaci za to z coraz większymi roszczeniami. Dotyczy to nie tylko ich wiedzy czy kompetencji, ale także ogłady i kultury osobistej. Kiedy w 1982 r. rozpoczynałem pracę dydaktyczną bez trudu mogłem rozmawiać ze studentami na temat Iliady, czy odwoływać się do wielu kodów kultury klasycznej. Obecnie większość studentów nie rozumie prośby, by nazwisko na egzaminie pisemnym napisać wersalikami. A przez jedną ze studentek zostałem nawet pouczony, że to się nazywa caps lock. Dużą część winy za zaistniałą
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w Waszyngtonie, Hebrew University w Jerozolimie, wiedeńskiego Instytutu Nauk o Człowieku. Jest autorem ponad 130 polskich i zagranicznych publikacji naukowych. Był współwydawcą serii „Teksty Filozoficzne”, w której ukazały się m.in. przekłady E. Husserla, J. Patočki, E. Lévinasa, M. Heideggera. Obecnie wydaje serię „Klasyka Filozofii” w IFiS PAN. Jest autorem Historii filozofii XX wieku. Obszar jego badań obejmuje historię filozofii XX wieku, filozofię Boga i religii, metafizykę, filozofię człowieka i edukacji.
teraźniejszości i przyszłości, czy też jedynie politycznym rewanżem? Cmentarze są miejscami, które nawiedzamy, ale nie miejscem zamieszkiwania. Nieusuwalne jest więc napięcie między paradygmatem romantycznym i pozytywistycznym, gdyż nie możemy zamknąć narodu jedynie w pamięci poniesionych przez niego ofiar ani też tylko w przestrzeni jego cywilizacyjnych przekształceń. Nie jest zatem alternatywą, czy mamy koncentrować się na cmentarzach czy na budowie autostrad, czy mamy budować muzeum II wojny światowej czy muzeum sztuki współczesnej. Jeśli wielkim wyobrażeniem polskiej Solidarności była kiedyś idea wolności, to takim wyobrażeniem, które otworzy nas ku przyszłości powinna stać się obecnie idea odpowiedzialności. W równym stopniu musimy być odpowiedzialni zarówno za naszą pamięć, jak i za naszą przyszłość. Innym przejawem nieusuwalnego napięcia między tym, co minione, a teraźniejszością i przyszłością jest relacja między tradycją a nowością. Historyczna tradycja jest miejscem, w którym jedne dzieła kultury osiągają status dzieł klasycznych i stają się dziedzictwem, o które się troszczymy. Nie wszyscy jednak podzielają takie przekonanie. Istnieją bowiem ograniczające, a nawet opresywne formy tradycji, które musimy przekraczać lub z których musimy się wyzwalać. Pisał Andrzej Osęka: „Należę do jednego z takich pokoleń fanatyków wolności w sztuce. Odrzucenie doktryny socrealizmu, które nastąpiło akurat, gdy zaczynałem brać czynny udział w życiu artystycznym, oznaczało wtedy również odrzucenie tradycji” [Osęka, 1994, s. 28]. „Dla wielu artystów wolność, nie przestając być w perspektywie podstawą nowego wspaniałego ładu, wiązała się przede wszystkim z wizją niszczenia, burzenia – według leninowskiej zasady: „żeby zrobić omlet, trzeba stłuc jajka”. Galerie, festiwale sztuki, muzea stały się na dziesiątki lat widownią wielkiego tłuczenia jajek” [tamże, s. 25]. „Z upływem lat rewolucyjny zapał słabnął, nie wystarczył już, by na nim oprzeć nadzieje” [tamże, s. 27]. Jeśli kultura nie może ograniczyć się jedynie do kultywowania tradycji, to miarą jej wartości nie może być także sama jej nowość. Jeszcze raz Andrzej Osęka: „Przekleństwem kultury współczesnej i osobistym nieszczęściem wielu jej twórców jest właśnie dowolność w wyborze formy, konwencji, tradycji. Jakby się otwierało na różnych stronach katalog wyposażenia wnętrza: można je urządzić nowocześnie, klasycznie, rustykalnie, a choćby i w mierze kiczu. Lub tak, jakby się szło do restauracji: do staropolskiej albo do węgierskiej czy chińskiej. Można spróbować tego lub tego, tak lub inaczej. […] Opisując to zjawisko, pewien krytyk zatytułował swój tekst: Czy można zostać
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
sytuację ponoszą same środowiska akademickie – części prywatnych, choć nie tylko prywatnych uczelni. Chęć zysku powoduje coraz większe obniżanie standardów nauczania i wymagań stawianych studentom. Uczelnia wyższa była zawsze świątynią wiedzy i kultury. Obecnie niektóre z nich przemieniły się w taśmy produkcyjne do produkowania dyplomów, a czasami nawet stały się miejscem patologii. Przyzwyczailiśmy się także do poważnego obniżenia poziomu prac naukowych. Czasami ogarnia mnie wrażenie, że polska humanistyka znajduje się w stanie wypalenia. W podobny sposób umasowienie kultury doprowadziło do ludyzmu, do tabloidyzacji prasy, do schlebiania najniższym gustom i przekraczania podstawowych norm przyzwoitości. Pisał Jarosław Makowski: „wyobraźmy sobie, że do Polski przyjeżdża intelektualista, który nic nie wie o naszym kraju, ale chciałby się szybko czegoś dowiedzieć. „Pozwólcie mi przez tydzień oglądać wasze programy publicystyczne i czytać wasze gazety – proponuje – a powiem wam, w jakim kraju mieszkacie”. I jeśli ów intelektualista chciałby być uczciwy, to obawiam się, że po tym tygodniu musiałby stwierdzić jedno: „To nie jest kraj dla myślących ludzi” [Makowski, 2009, s. 2]. Nie chcę przez to powiedzieć, że zarówno wykształcenie, jak i kultura ponownie powinny stać się elitarne. Wykształcenie jest niezbywalnym prawem każdego człowieka. Każdy rodzaj wykształcenia jest wartością, nawet fragmentarycznego i powierzchownego. Lepiej by student wysłuchał w uczelnianej auli wykładu, którego w dużej części nie rozumie, gdyż nie jest zdolny do wysiłku intelektualnego albo nie chce go podjąć, niż miałby zasilić szeregi bezrobotnych. Nie może to być jednak powodem do rezygnacji ze standardów kultury języka i wiedzy. Umasowienie wykształcenia nie może doprowadzić do aksjologicznego chaosu i zaniku wzorców. Kultura potrzebuje elit. Demokracja nie kłóci się z elitaryzmem, gdyż elita nie znosi równości w człowieczeństwie i w szansach kształcenia. Są takie obszary kultury, które z istoty są elitarne. Nie można zostać muzykiem nie mając słuchu. Marzy mi się jednak także taka forma elitaryzmu, w której warunkiem studiowania na kierunku administracji, prawa itp. byłaby umiejętność posługiwania się językiem polskim zgodnie z jego regułami. Odpowiedzialność ludzi nauki i kultury polega zatem nie tylko na masowym kształceniu, ale także na kształceniu elit; osób o wysokich kompetencjach w różnych dziedzinach wiedzy i kultury. Podobnie jak umasowienie wykształcenia, tak i umasowienie kultury jest wartością. Wartością
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
jest dowcipny kabaret, zabawny teleturniej, koncert muzyki rozrywkowej. Umasowienie kultury nie może jednak prowadzić do zaprzeczenia kultury moralnej. Nie może także prowadzić do przekonania, że całe życie człowieka jest rozrywką. Utrzymaniu rozdziału między elitaryzmem a masowością utrudnia charakterystyczne dla współczesności rozmywanie kanonu kultury. To kanon bowiem broni standardów i wyznacza wzorce. Profesor Jerzy Jarzębski, wątpiący w to, czy kanon jeszcze istnieje, pisał: „Kanon przedzierzgnięty w towar stał się faktem, a jego urynkowienie doprowadziło szybko do zatraty, a przynajmniej rozmycia wewnętrznej struktury. Sprzyja temu nie tylko spragniony wciąż nowości komercjalizm, ale też, z jednej strony, działanie mechanizmów demokratyzacji, z drugiej – ideały tolerancji, nakazującej akceptować wszelkiego rodzaju treści i wartości, jeśli tylko podpisuje się pod nim znaczniejsza grupa ludzi. Wreszcie do tamtych czynników dołożył się postmodernistyczny kryzys wszelkich hierarchii, zwycięstwo powierzchni nad głębią, wielości nad ekskluzywnością Tego-co-wybrane” [ Jarzębski, 1994, s. 14]. Podstawowa dla kanonu wszelka hierarchia była w XX wieku kwestionowana jako opresyjna. Argumentowano, że podział na to, co wyższe i niższe skrywa w sobie ideologię dominacji. Nie ma zatem prawa istnieć hierarchia, a jedynie to, co odmienne i różne. Opresja nie tkwi jednak w samym kanonie. Nie zaradzimy temu, jak pisał Jerzy Szacki, że ani Homer, ani Szekspir, ani Goethe, ani nawet pomniejsi wielcy twórcy kultury nie byli ani kobietami, ani Murzynami [Szacki, tamże, s. 19]. Nie przez istnienie kanonu kultura może stać się źródłem cierpień, lecz przez brak zrozumienia i szacunku dla inności innego. Współczesna kultura europejska jest silnie spluralizowana, wielowymiarowa. Akceptacja faktu, że mamy do czynienia z różnymi nurtami kultury i z różnymi typami wrażliwości, szacunek dla wyborów każdego człowieka, nie może jednak w moim przekonaniu znieść konieczności obrony kanonów w różnych dziedzinach kultury i nauki, kanonów lokalnych. Inaczej bowiem za opresję będziemy uznawali przymuszanie uczniów do nauki reguł gramatyki i ortografii. Będziemy musieli znieść recenzje, krytykę naukową i krytykę kultury. Każdy bowiem może czuć inaczej, inaczej myśleć i inaczej pisać. Prof. Barbara Skarga pisała w Granicach historyczności: „Czyż nie ma rzeczywiście takich elementów myśli, które byłyby warunkiem jej istnienia i rozwoju, a co zatem idzie, warunkiem rozwoju naszej kultury? Czyż sam fakt poszukiwania prawdy i wartości nie mówi nic o istocie bytu ludzkiego? Czyż historia myśli nigdy nie zaspokojonej, zawsze otwartej i dlatego
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sytuację ponoszą same środowiska akademickie – części prywatnych, choć nie tylko prywatnych uczelni. Chęć zysku powoduje coraz większe obniżanie standardów nauczania i wymagań stawianych studentom. Uczelnia wyższa była zawsze świątynią wiedzy i kultury. Obecnie niektóre z nich przemieniły się w taśmy produkcyjne do produkowania dyplomów, a czasami nawet stały się miejscem patologii. Przyzwyczailiśmy się także do poważnego obniżenia poziomu prac naukowych. Czasami ogarnia mnie wrażenie, że polska humanistyka znajduje się w stanie wypalenia. W podobny sposób umasowienie kultury doprowadziło do ludyzmu, do tabloidyzacji prasy, do schlebiania najniższym gustom i przekraczania podstawowych norm przyzwoitości. Pisał Jarosław Makowski: „wyobraźmy sobie, że do Polski przyjeżdża intelektualista, który nic nie wie o naszym kraju, ale chciałby się szybko czegoś dowiedzieć. „Pozwólcie mi przez tydzień oglądać wasze programy publicystyczne i czytać wasze gazety – proponuje – a powiem wam, w jakim kraju mieszkacie”. I jeśli ów intelektualista chciałby być uczciwy, to obawiam się, że po tym tygodniu musiałby stwierdzić jedno: „To nie jest kraj dla myślących ludzi” [Makowski, 2009, s. 2]. Nie chcę przez to powiedzieć, że zarówno wykształcenie, jak i kultura ponownie powinny stać się elitarne. Wykształcenie jest niezbywalnym prawem każdego człowieka. Każdy rodzaj wykształcenia jest wartością, nawet fragmentarycznego i powierzchownego. Lepiej by student wysłuchał w uczelnianej auli wykładu, którego w dużej części nie rozumie, gdyż nie jest zdolny do wysiłku intelektualnego albo nie chce go podjąć, niż miałby zasilić szeregi bezrobotnych. Nie może to być jednak powodem do rezygnacji ze standardów kultury języka i wiedzy. Umasowienie wykształcenia nie może doprowadzić do aksjologicznego chaosu i zaniku wzorców. Kultura potrzebuje elit. Demokracja nie kłóci się z elitaryzmem, gdyż elita nie znosi równości w człowieczeństwie i w szansach kształcenia. Są takie obszary kultury, które z istoty są elitarne. Nie można zostać muzykiem nie mając słuchu. Marzy mi się jednak także taka forma elitaryzmu, w której warunkiem studiowania na kierunku administracji, prawa itp. byłaby umiejętność posługiwania się językiem polskim zgodnie z jego regułami. Odpowiedzialność ludzi nauki i kultury polega zatem nie tylko na masowym kształceniu, ale także na kształceniu elit; osób o wysokich kompetencjach w różnych dziedzinach wiedzy i kultury. Podobnie jak umasowienie wykształcenia, tak i umasowienie kultury jest wartością. Wartością
209
jest dowcipny kabaret, zabawny teleturniej, koncert muzyki rozrywkowej. Umasowienie kultury nie może jednak prowadzić do zaprzeczenia kultury moralnej. Nie może także prowadzić do przekonania, że całe życie człowieka jest rozrywką. Utrzymaniu rozdziału między elitaryzmem a masowością utrudnia charakterystyczne dla współczesności rozmywanie kanonu kultury. To kanon bowiem broni standardów i wyznacza wzorce. Profesor Jerzy Jarzębski, wątpiący w to, czy kanon jeszcze istnieje, pisał: „Kanon przedzierzgnięty w towar stał się faktem, a jego urynkowienie doprowadziło szybko do zatraty, a przynajmniej rozmycia wewnętrznej struktury. Sprzyja temu nie tylko spragniony wciąż nowości komercjalizm, ale też, z jednej strony, działanie mechanizmów demokratyzacji, z drugiej – ideały tolerancji, nakazującej akceptować wszelkiego rodzaju treści i wartości, jeśli tylko podpisuje się pod nim znaczniejsza grupa ludzi. Wreszcie do tamtych czynników dołożył się postmodernistyczny kryzys wszelkich hierarchii, zwycięstwo powierzchni nad głębią, wielości nad ekskluzywnością Tego-co-wybrane” [ Jarzębski, 1994, s. 14]. Podstawowa dla kanonu wszelka hierarchia była w XX wieku kwestionowana jako opresyjna. Argumentowano, że podział na to, co wyższe i niższe skrywa w sobie ideologię dominacji. Nie ma zatem prawa istnieć hierarchia, a jedynie to, co odmienne i różne. Opresja nie tkwi jednak w samym kanonie. Nie zaradzimy temu, jak pisał Jerzy Szacki, że ani Homer, ani Szekspir, ani Goethe, ani nawet pomniejsi wielcy twórcy kultury nie byli ani kobietami, ani Murzynami [Szacki, tamże, s. 19]. Nie przez istnienie kanonu kultura może stać się źródłem cierpień, lecz przez brak zrozumienia i szacunku dla inności innego. Współczesna kultura europejska jest silnie spluralizowana, wielowymiarowa. Akceptacja faktu, że mamy do czynienia z różnymi nurtami kultury i z różnymi typami wrażliwości, szacunek dla wyborów każdego człowieka, nie może jednak w moim przekonaniu znieść konieczności obrony kanonów w różnych dziedzinach kultury i nauki, kanonów lokalnych. Inaczej bowiem za opresję będziemy uznawali przymuszanie uczniów do nauki reguł gramatyki i ortografii. Będziemy musieli znieść recenzje, krytykę naukową i krytykę kultury. Każdy bowiem może czuć inaczej, inaczej myśleć i inaczej pisać. Prof. Barbara Skarga pisała w Granicach historyczności: „Czyż nie ma rzeczywiście takich elementów myśli, które byłyby warunkiem jej istnienia i rozwoju, a co zatem idzie, warunkiem rozwoju naszej kultury? Czyż sam fakt poszukiwania prawdy i wartości nie mówi nic o istocie bytu ludzkiego? Czyż historia myśli nigdy nie zaspokojonej, zawsze otwartej i dlatego
doznanie wolności, kto doświadcza jej utraty, lecz ten, kto ma możliwość jej odpowiedzialnego urzeczywistnienia. Nigdy nie mieliśmy takiej szansy rozwoju duchowego jak obecnie. Rzecz jednak w tym, jak pisał Władysław Stróżewski, że współczesna cywilizacja technicznych ułatwień zwalnia nas z refleksji i twórczego wysiłku. Po co zapamiętywać, skoro mamy dyski pamięci? Po co nam wiedzieć kto to jest Narcyz, skoro wiemy co to jest MP3. Stajemy, jak sądzę, obecnie przed poważnym pytaniem o kanon wykształcenia. Czy ma stanowić go jedynie umiejętność obsługi komputera i znajomość języka angielskiego? Nie jest zatem alternatywą: wewnętrzny duchowy rozwój czy kultura. Nie ma duchowego rozwoju bez kultury, jak i nie ma kultury bez duchowego rozwoju. Ostatnia wreszcie linia nieusuwalnych napięć, na którą chciałbym zwrócić uwagę, związana jest z tytułem obecnego Kongresu: „Kultura się liczy”. Można to hasło zinterpretować w postaci pytania: Żyć kulturą czy żyć z kultury? Kultura jest bezinteresowna. Jest naddatkiem nad podstawowymi ludzkimi potrzebami Nie ulega wątpliwości, że powinniśmy żyć kulturą. Nie ulega jednak także wątpliwości, że kultura musi mieć źródła finansowania. Ludzie kultury pozostają w nieustannej dialektyce między Nihil habentes omnia possedentes (Nic nie mający, wszystko posiadający) a Omnia habentes, nihil possedentes (Wszystko mający, nic nie posiadający). W tej perspektywie grożą nam dwa niebezpieczeństwa. Z jednej strony dążenie do całkowitej komercjalizacji i urynkowienia kultury. Kultury nie da się całkowicie urynkowić, gdyż nie da się urynkowić wartości wysokich. Nie da się także urynkowić procesów twórczych. Kiedy zastanawiam się na przykład nad urynkowieniem myślenia przypomina mi się wiersz ks. Jana Twardowskiego: „Myślał myśliciel i nic nie wymyślił. I tak sobie myślał. Po co ja tyle myślałem, żeby nic nie wymyślić. Przecież mogłem wcale tyle nie myśleć i byłbym tyle samo wymyślił”. Z punktu widzenia ekonomii taki efekt to same straty. Jednak z punktu widzenia refleksji, to zysk. Niemożliwość pełnego urynkowienia kultury nie oznacza jednak, że nie należy lepiej i sprawniej zarządzać środkami przeznaczanymi na kulturę. Drugie niebezpieczeństwo, to potraktowanie ludzi kultury tak, jak Wawrzek potraktował kiedyś księdza Tischnera. Gdy Wawrzek grabił w Łopusznej siano, ksiądz Tischner przechadzał się ścieżką w zadumie myśląc o pisanej właśnie Filozofii dramatu. Na pytanie Wawrzka: Jegomościu co robicie?, odpowiedział: myślę. Na to Wawrzek: to znaczy psujecie powietrze. Nie da się zatem usunąć dialektyki: żyć kulturą, czy żyć z kultury.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
przybierającej formę pytania, jest tylko wyrazem naszego ograniczenia jako „bytu ku śmierci”, czy przeciwnie, dowodem pragnienia, stale nas przepełniającego, wyjścia ku czemuś, co przekracza nas i nasze historyczne zakorzenienie?” [Skarga, 2005, s. 235]. Podsumowując: nie da się w kulturze przekroczyć dialektyki elitaryzm – egalitaryzm. Alternatywą nie jest ani zamykanie się elit, jak czynił to Petrarca uciekający od wścibskiego i niewykształconego tłumu do swej samotni, ani też godzenie się na aksjologiczny chaos i dominację najgorszych wzorców. Następna linia nieusuwalnych napięć przebiega między duchowym a obiektywnym wymiarem kultury. Kultura jest przejawem duchowego życia człowieka, jego głębokiej duchowej refleksji. Związek między kulturą a życiem duchowym jest taki, że po dziełach kultury, po ich głębi i wzniosłości rozpoznajemy głębię i wzniosłość duchowego życia narodu i jednostek. Georg Simmel określił kulturę jako „drogę duszy do samej siebie” [Simmel, 2007, s. 29], „do urzeczywistnienia wpisanego w nią, ale istniejącego w niej początkowo jako możliwość, pełnego i najbardziej własnego ja” [tamże, s. 32]. Ta droga duszy musi jednak prowadzić poprzez zewnętrzny, obiektywny świat kultury. Piękne obrazy budzą w nas zachwyt, muzyka nas wzrusza, poezja pozwala nam wyrazić to, co w nas niewyrażalne, literatura poszerza nasze istnienie, gdyż stajemy się tym, co przeczytamy. Zachwyceni, wzruszeni, pogłębieni, sami dajemy zewnętrzny wyraz naszemu duchowemu życiu. Kultura jako duchowe życie potrzebuje jednak teatrów, sal wystawowych, bibliotek, sal koncertowych, instrumentów muzycznych. Nie tylko dlatego, by móc zaistnieć w sferze publicznej, lecz dlatego, że dopiero żywe obcowanie z kulturą stwarza możliwość duchowego rozwoju. Bez kultury człowiek karłowacieje, a człowiek karłowaty nie jest zdolny do tworzenia wielkiej kultury. Paradoks związku duchowego życia z obiektywnym wymiarem kultury polega też na tym, że życie duchowe może rozwijać się w sytuacji opresji, w czasach, jak je określił Hegel, negatywności, gdyż duch wówczas uzyskuje samoświadomość, gdy „negatywności patrzy prosto w oczy i przy niej się zatrzymuje”. Tylko ten ma pełne doznanie wolności, kto doświadcza jej utraty. Walczono z nami, a myśmy nie utracili dusz naszych. Natomiast wolność rozwoju kultury czy instytucjonalna możliwość jej ekspresji sama w sobie nie musi być wystarczającym gwarantem duchowego rozwoju. Mówił Stefan Chwin w jednym z wywiadów: obecnie dusza staniała. Czy mamy zatem tęsknić za minionym czasem negatywności? Musimy wyzwolić się z Heglowskiego ukąszenia. Nie ten ma pełne
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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doznanie wolności, kto doświadcza jej utraty, lecz ten, kto ma możliwość jej odpowiedzialnego urzeczywistnienia. Nigdy nie mieliśmy takiej szansy rozwoju duchowego jak obecnie. Rzecz jednak w tym, jak pisał Władysław Stróżewski, że współczesna cywilizacja technicznych ułatwień zwalnia nas z refleksji i twórczego wysiłku. Po co zapamiętywać, skoro mamy dyski pamięci? Po co nam wiedzieć kto to jest Narcyz, skoro wiemy co to jest MP3. Stajemy, jak sądzę, obecnie przed poważnym pytaniem o kanon wykształcenia. Czy ma stanowić go jedynie umiejętność obsługi komputera i znajomość języka angielskiego? Nie jest zatem alternatywą: wewnętrzny duchowy rozwój czy kultura. Nie ma duchowego rozwoju bez kultury, jak i nie ma kultury bez duchowego rozwoju. Ostatnia wreszcie linia nieusuwalnych napięć, na którą chciałbym zwrócić uwagę, związana jest z tytułem obecnego Kongresu: „Kultura się liczy”. Można to hasło zinterpretować w postaci pytania: Żyć kulturą czy żyć z kultury? Kultura jest bezinteresowna. Jest naddatkiem nad podstawowymi ludzkimi potrzebami Nie ulega wątpliwości, że powinniśmy żyć kulturą. Nie ulega jednak także wątpliwości, że kultura musi mieć źródła finansowania. Ludzie kultury pozostają w nieustannej dialektyce między Nihil habentes omnia possedentes (Nic nie mający, wszystko posiadający) a Omnia habentes, nihil possedentes (Wszystko mający, nic nie posiadający). W tej perspektywie grożą nam dwa niebezpieczeństwa. Z jednej strony dążenie do całkowitej komercjalizacji i urynkowienia kultury. Kultury nie da się całkowicie urynkowić, gdyż nie da się urynkowić wartości wysokich. Nie da się także urynkowić procesów twórczych. Kiedy zastanawiam się na przykład nad urynkowieniem myślenia przypomina mi się wiersz ks. Jana Twardowskiego: „Myślał myśliciel i nic nie wymyślił. I tak sobie myślał. Po co ja tyle myślałem, żeby nic nie wymyślić. Przecież mogłem wcale tyle nie myśleć i byłbym tyle samo wymyślił”. Z punktu widzenia ekonomii taki efekt to same straty. Jednak z punktu widzenia refleksji, to zysk. Niemożliwość pełnego urynkowienia kultury nie oznacza jednak, że nie należy lepiej i sprawniej zarządzać środkami przeznaczanymi na kulturę. Drugie niebezpieczeństwo, to potraktowanie ludzi kultury tak, jak Wawrzek potraktował kiedyś księdza Tischnera. Gdy Wawrzek grabił w Łopusznej siano, ksiądz Tischner przechadzał się ścieżką w zadumie myśląc o pisanej właśnie Filozofii dramatu. Na pytanie Wawrzka: Jegomościu co robicie?, odpowiedział: myślę. Na to Wawrzek: to znaczy psujecie powietrze. Nie da się zatem usunąć dialektyki: żyć kulturą, czy żyć z kultury.
210
przybierającej formę pytania, jest tylko wyrazem naszego ograniczenia jako „bytu ku śmierci”, czy przeciwnie, dowodem pragnienia, stale nas przepełniającego, wyjścia ku czemuś, co przekracza nas i nasze historyczne zakorzenienie?” [Skarga, 2005, s. 235]. Podsumowując: nie da się w kulturze przekroczyć dialektyki elitaryzm – egalitaryzm. Alternatywą nie jest ani zamykanie się elit, jak czynił to Petrarca uciekający od wścibskiego i niewykształconego tłumu do swej samotni, ani też godzenie się na aksjologiczny chaos i dominację najgorszych wzorców. Następna linia nieusuwalnych napięć przebiega między duchowym a obiektywnym wymiarem kultury. Kultura jest przejawem duchowego życia człowieka, jego głębokiej duchowej refleksji. Związek między kulturą a życiem duchowym jest taki, że po dziełach kultury, po ich głębi i wzniosłości rozpoznajemy głębię i wzniosłość duchowego życia narodu i jednostek. Georg Simmel określił kulturę jako „drogę duszy do samej siebie” [Simmel, 2007, s. 29], „do urzeczywistnienia wpisanego w nią, ale istniejącego w niej początkowo jako możliwość, pełnego i najbardziej własnego ja” [tamże, s. 32]. Ta droga duszy musi jednak prowadzić poprzez zewnętrzny, obiektywny świat kultury. Piękne obrazy budzą w nas zachwyt, muzyka nas wzrusza, poezja pozwala nam wyrazić to, co w nas niewyrażalne, literatura poszerza nasze istnienie, gdyż stajemy się tym, co przeczytamy. Zachwyceni, wzruszeni, pogłębieni, sami dajemy zewnętrzny wyraz naszemu duchowemu życiu. Kultura jako duchowe życie potrzebuje jednak teatrów, sal wystawowych, bibliotek, sal koncertowych, instrumentów muzycznych. Nie tylko dlatego, by móc zaistnieć w sferze publicznej, lecz dlatego, że dopiero żywe obcowanie z kulturą stwarza możliwość duchowego rozwoju. Bez kultury człowiek karłowacieje, a człowiek karłowaty nie jest zdolny do tworzenia wielkiej kultury. Paradoks związku duchowego życia z obiektywnym wymiarem kultury polega też na tym, że życie duchowe może rozwijać się w sytuacji opresji, w czasach, jak je określił Hegel, negatywności, gdyż duch wówczas uzyskuje samoświadomość, gdy „negatywności patrzy prosto w oczy i przy niej się zatrzymuje”. Tylko ten ma pełne doznanie wolności, kto doświadcza jej utraty. Walczono z nami, a myśmy nie utracili dusz naszych. Natomiast wolność rozwoju kultury czy instytucjonalna możliwość jej ekspresji sama w sobie nie musi być wystarczającym gwarantem duchowego rozwoju. Mówił Stefan Chwin w jednym z wywiadów: obecnie dusza staniała. Czy mamy zatem tęsknić za minionym czasem negatywności? Musimy wyzwolić się z Heglowskiego ukąszenia. Nie ten ma pełne
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Skoro nie da się usunąć napięć między wskazanymi tu elementami tworzącymi pole kultury, rodzi się pytanie, czym powinniśmy kierować się w wyborach członów przedstawionych tu alternatyw? Wywodzę się ze szkoły filozoficznej, w której centrum zawsze stał człowiek, z jego słabością i godnością. Ponieważ w kulturze zawsze chodzi o wartości, to chodzi w niej o człowieka, o jego kondycję i godność. Kultura jest odpowiedzialna za człowieka, jest miejscem tej odpowiedzialności. Celem kultury jest dźwiganie człowieka, rozwój jego człowieczeństwa. Kultura dotyczy bowiem istnienia człowieka, tego kim on jest, a wtórnie dopiero tego, co posiada. Chciałbym teraz przejść od opisu wewnętrznej struktury kultury do refleksji nad jej miejscem i rolą we współczesnym świecie i nad jej odpowiedzialnością. XX wiek diagnozowany był przez wielu myślicieli jako wiek kryzysu. Już w 1935 r. Edmund Husserl zdiagnozował kryzys europejskiego człowieczeństwa. Człowiek, pisał, jest istotą celową: „żyjąc w skończoności […] kieruje się całym swym życiem ku biegunom nieskończoności” [O kryzysie, 1990, s. 20]. Nauka zapomniała jednak o świecie ducha. Europa jest zmęczona. Nie zatem w relatywizacji wartości dostrzegał Husserl niebezpieczeństwo, lecz w obojętności. Martin Heidegger określił współczesne nam czasy jako czasy zwinięcia metafizyki. Matrycą naszego istnienia stała się technika. W coraz większym stopniu myślimy według skuteczności, a nie według wartości. Nawet nie zauważyliśmy, że pojęcie „zasobów”, które u Heideggera oznaczało jeszcze złoża geologiczne, przeszło miękko w gospodarowanie zasobami ludzkimi. Prof. Władysław Stróżewski zdiagnozował ten kryzys jako swoiste „obejście” wartości w imię ideału życia ułatwionego. „Nie wierzę w kryzys wartości – pisał. Świat wartości to obiektywna, autonomiczna dziedzina rzeczywistości, rządząca się własnymi, dobrze ugruntowanymi i nienaruszalnymi prawami. Prawda jest prawdą, dobro dobrem, piękno pięknem. I doskonałość doskonałością. W tej dziedzinie kryzys jest niemożliwy. Kryzys nie dotyczy wartości, ale naszego ich przeżywania. Zatraciliśmy wrażliwość na wartości, zagubiliśmy ich smak. Zwłaszcza zaś pogubiliśmy się w odczytywaniu ich właściwej hierarchii” [Stróżewski, 2002, s. 168]. Leszek Kołakowski w „Cywilizacji na ławie oskarżonych” apelował: „Rozmaite tradycyjne więzi ludzkie, które umożliwiają życie zbiorowe, i bez których istnienie nasze byłoby regulowane wyłącznie przez strach i chciwość,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
nie mają wielu szans na przetrwanie bez systemu tabu…” [O kryzysie, 1990, s. 84]. Nic też nie utraciła ze swej przekonującej siły diagnoza ks. Józefa Tischnera z 1978 r. „Myślenie według wartości”. Współczesność zakwestionowała hierarchię i preferencję – pisał profesor. Zarysowany przez tych myślicieli kryzys nie polega w moim przekonaniu na tym, że rozwijamy sferę badań nauk przyrodniczych, technikę, gospodarkę i ekonomię. Kryzys polega na tym, że nasze życie ograniczyło się w dużej mierze do świata przedmiotowego, do posiadania, do wartości najniższych (hedonicznych, utylitarnych, witalnych). W ten sposób świat przedmiotowy przesłania nam świat wartości wyższych, duchowych (moralnych, estetycznych, religijnych). Żyjemy w swoistym zaćmieniu wartości wyższych, które rozstrzygają o tym kim jesteśmy, a nie o tym, co posiadamy. Potrzebujemy zatem zrównoważonego rozwoju gospodarczego i ekonomicznego z jednej strony, które ułatwiają nam życie i dostarczają rozlicznych dóbr i kultury z drugiej, która rozstrzyga o tym, kim jesteśmy. Dlatego kultura nie jest luksusem, ale koniecznością. Po co nam telefony komórkowe kolejnych nowych generacji, jeśli nie będziemy mieli nic do powiedzenia. To właśnie brak owego zrównoważonego rozwoju, radykalna przewaga mieć nad być, stała się jednym z zasadniczych źródeł obecnego kryzysu ekonomicznego. Gdy przeważa mieć nad być, życie staje się grą. Pisał ks. Tischner w Polska jest ojczyzną: „Jednakże to, że jeszcze nie myślimy, staje się dostatecznie widoczne również dla nie-filozofa przez skutki, które stąd wynikają: zanieczyszczenie środowiska naturalnego, nagromadzenie broni nuklearnej, podział świata na bloki polityczne, nędza jednych i bogactwo drugich, patologia walki o władzę. Gracz przewiduje koniec gry. Stąd jego lęk. Jest to tym boleśniejszy lęk, że końcem gry dla gracza jest zawsze wygrana przeciwnika. Gracz boi się, by nie przegrać, i zarazem wie, że musi przegrać. Nie zostaje mu nic innego, jak wymyślanie wciąż nowych strategii opanowania buntującego się świata i swoich przeciwników, a więc sięganie po nową grę, nową walkę i oczekiwanie nowych przegranych. Czy jest jakieś wyjście z tego obłędu? […] Nie mamy więc innego wyjścia jak wymienić jeden rozum na drugi – rozum, którego rozkoszą jest wygrana w grze, na rozum, który znajduje ukojenie w akcie świadectwa” [Tischner, 1985, ss. 97, 102]. Tym aktem świadectwa jest kultura.
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Skoro nie da się usunąć napięć między wskazanymi tu elementami tworzącymi pole kultury, rodzi się pytanie, czym powinniśmy kierować się w wyborach członów przedstawionych tu alternatyw? Wywodzę się ze szkoły filozoficznej, w której centrum zawsze stał człowiek, z jego słabością i godnością. Ponieważ w kulturze zawsze chodzi o wartości, to chodzi w niej o człowieka, o jego kondycję i godność. Kultura jest odpowiedzialna za człowieka, jest miejscem tej odpowiedzialności. Celem kultury jest dźwiganie człowieka, rozwój jego człowieczeństwa. Kultura dotyczy bowiem istnienia człowieka, tego kim on jest, a wtórnie dopiero tego, co posiada. Chciałbym teraz przejść od opisu wewnętrznej struktury kultury do refleksji nad jej miejscem i rolą we współczesnym świecie i nad jej odpowiedzialnością. XX wiek diagnozowany był przez wielu myślicieli jako wiek kryzysu. Już w 1935 r. Edmund Husserl zdiagnozował kryzys europejskiego człowieczeństwa. Człowiek, pisał, jest istotą celową: „żyjąc w skończoności […] kieruje się całym swym życiem ku biegunom nieskończoności” [O kryzysie, 1990, s. 20]. Nauka zapomniała jednak o świecie ducha. Europa jest zmęczona. Nie zatem w relatywizacji wartości dostrzegał Husserl niebezpieczeństwo, lecz w obojętności. Martin Heidegger określił współczesne nam czasy jako czasy zwinięcia metafizyki. Matrycą naszego istnienia stała się technika. W coraz większym stopniu myślimy według skuteczności, a nie według wartości. Nawet nie zauważyliśmy, że pojęcie „zasobów”, które u Heideggera oznaczało jeszcze złoża geologiczne, przeszło miękko w gospodarowanie zasobami ludzkimi. Prof. Władysław Stróżewski zdiagnozował ten kryzys jako swoiste „obejście” wartości w imię ideału życia ułatwionego. „Nie wierzę w kryzys wartości – pisał. Świat wartości to obiektywna, autonomiczna dziedzina rzeczywistości, rządząca się własnymi, dobrze ugruntowanymi i nienaruszalnymi prawami. Prawda jest prawdą, dobro dobrem, piękno pięknem. I doskonałość doskonałością. W tej dziedzinie kryzys jest niemożliwy. Kryzys nie dotyczy wartości, ale naszego ich przeżywania. Zatraciliśmy wrażliwość na wartości, zagubiliśmy ich smak. Zwłaszcza zaś pogubiliśmy się w odczytywaniu ich właściwej hierarchii” [Stróżewski, 2002, s. 168]. Leszek Kołakowski w „Cywilizacji na ławie oskarżonych” apelował: „Rozmaite tradycyjne więzi ludzkie, które umożliwiają życie zbiorowe, i bez których istnienie nasze byłoby regulowane wyłącznie przez strach i chciwość,
211
nie mają wielu szans na przetrwanie bez systemu tabu…” [O kryzysie, 1990, s. 84]. Nic też nie utraciła ze swej przekonującej siły diagnoza ks. Józefa Tischnera z 1978 r. „Myślenie według wartości”. Współczesność zakwestionowała hierarchię i preferencję – pisał profesor. Zarysowany przez tych myślicieli kryzys nie polega w moim przekonaniu na tym, że rozwijamy sferę badań nauk przyrodniczych, technikę, gospodarkę i ekonomię. Kryzys polega na tym, że nasze życie ograniczyło się w dużej mierze do świata przedmiotowego, do posiadania, do wartości najniższych (hedonicznych, utylitarnych, witalnych). W ten sposób świat przedmiotowy przesłania nam świat wartości wyższych, duchowych (moralnych, estetycznych, religijnych). Żyjemy w swoistym zaćmieniu wartości wyższych, które rozstrzygają o tym kim jesteśmy, a nie o tym, co posiadamy. Potrzebujemy zatem zrównoważonego rozwoju gospodarczego i ekonomicznego z jednej strony, które ułatwiają nam życie i dostarczają rozlicznych dóbr i kultury z drugiej, która rozstrzyga o tym, kim jesteśmy. Dlatego kultura nie jest luksusem, ale koniecznością. Po co nam telefony komórkowe kolejnych nowych generacji, jeśli nie będziemy mieli nic do powiedzenia. To właśnie brak owego zrównoważonego rozwoju, radykalna przewaga mieć nad być, stała się jednym z zasadniczych źródeł obecnego kryzysu ekonomicznego. Gdy przeważa mieć nad być, życie staje się grą. Pisał ks. Tischner w Polska jest ojczyzną: „Jednakże to, że jeszcze nie myślimy, staje się dostatecznie widoczne również dla nie-filozofa przez skutki, które stąd wynikają: zanieczyszczenie środowiska naturalnego, nagromadzenie broni nuklearnej, podział świata na bloki polityczne, nędza jednych i bogactwo drugich, patologia walki o władzę. Gracz przewiduje koniec gry. Stąd jego lęk. Jest to tym boleśniejszy lęk, że końcem gry dla gracza jest zawsze wygrana przeciwnika. Gracz boi się, by nie przegrać, i zarazem wie, że musi przegrać. Nie zostaje mu nic innego, jak wymyślanie wciąż nowych strategii opanowania buntującego się świata i swoich przeciwników, a więc sięganie po nową grę, nową walkę i oczekiwanie nowych przegranych. Czy jest jakieś wyjście z tego obłędu? […] Nie mamy więc innego wyjścia jak wymienić jeden rozum na drugi – rozum, którego rozkoszą jest wygrana w grze, na rozum, który znajduje ukojenie w akcie świadectwa” [Tischner, 1985, ss. 97, 102]. Tym aktem świadectwa jest kultura.
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Tischner J., Myślenie według wartości, Kraków 1982. Tischner J., Polska jest Ojczyzną, Paryż 1985.
Tischner J., Polska jest Ojczyzną, Paryż 1985. Tischner J., Myślenie według wartości, Kraków 1982. Stróżewski W., O wielkości, Kraków 2002. Skarga B., Granice historyczności, Warszawa 2005. 2007. Simmel G., Filozofia kultury. Wybór esejów, Kraków „Znak” 1994, nr 470. Osęka A., Po rewolucji artystycznej, na ruinach norm, 212
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Michalski K. [red.], Rozmowy w Castel Gandolfo. O kry-
Skarga B., Granice historyczności, Warszawa 2005.
Ingarden R., Książeczka o człowieku, Kraków 1987.
15.04.2009.
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Makowski J., Media pełne głupot, „Gazeta Wyborcza”,
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Czym jest polityka kulturalna? Matthias Theodor Vogt
K
siążka, dźwięk, obraz, sztuka służą pracy za robkowej, kształceniu, przyjemności lub indoktrynacji; nie można o nich myśleć w oderwaniu od człowieka (ars gratia artis). Przy obiektywnym odniesieniu do humanistycznych aktywności związanych ze sztuką, będących przedmiotem nauki o polityce kulturalnej, okazuje się, że „kultura artystyczna” przynosi rocznie 44 mld euro (500 euro na jednego mieszkańca), co stanowi blisko 2% PKB Republiki Federalnej Niemiec (ars gratia culturae). Nakłady na kulturę stanowią 2% prywatnej konsumpcji (ars gratia libertatis). Dzisiejsze starania polityki Niemiec o stworzenie warunków ramowych dla kultury i sztuki mają unikalny charakter w całej Europie (politia gratia artis). Chociaż wkład humanistycznych aktywności związanych ze sztuką jest trudny do oszacowania pod względem liczbowym, ma on duże znaczenie dla dobra ogółu (ars gratia politiae). Niemcy stanowią we wszystkich czterech wymiarach prawdziwe pole dla naukowych rozważań i debat dotyczących polityki kulturalnej.
1. Założenia budżetowe
W
pierwszym pragmatycznym założeniu polityka kulturalna jest tym, co polityka rozumie pod tym pojęciem na podstawie swoich założeń budżetowych. Nasz system wychodzi z podstawowego założenia, że suwerenem jest naród, jego przedstawicielem jest parlament, którego królewskim prawem jest prawo do ustalania
1
2
Tłumaczenie: Mathias Vogt i Alina Lizakowska
budżetu. W wolnościowo-demokratycznym porządku ustrojowym budżet jednostki terytorialnej stanowi materialne podłoże walki o sprawiedliwy porządek w ramach dostępnych środków budżetowych. Dynamika podstawowych założeń politycznych, reprezentowana przez wybrane przez naród partie, odzwierciedla się w najróżniejszych ustaleniach priorytetów dla poszczególnych obszarów polityki, a w postaci liczbowej ujęta zostaje w wysokości założeń przewidzianych dla poszczególnych tytułów. Dla celów finansowania są do dyspozycji (1) rezerwy z przeszłości, w specjalistycznym żargonie błędnie1 nazywane „Juliusturm” („wieża Juliusa” – potoczne określenie pełnego skarbu państwa), (2) aktualne przychody z podatków oraz inne przychody i (3) obciążenia, które przyniesie przyszłość. Kto wobec rozmiarów tych ostatnich2 przyjmuje w odniesieniu do polityki kulturalnej, że nie ma istotnego znaczenia, czy federacja wniesie na rzecz wspierania kultury 0,0031% swojego budżetu ogólnego, czy jakąś inną kwotę, ten zapomina, że werwa, z jaką toczone są debaty polityczne, jest niezależna od liczby zer – debaty dotyczące kwot wysokich i najwyższych są z reguły prowadzone raczej mniej ostro. W ramach specyficznej logiki negocjacji budżetowych stosowne zatem było oszacowanie kosztów odbudowy Zamku w Berlinie na 500.000.000 euro i odsunięcie na bok kwestii poszukiwania treści merytorycznych. Przygotowania do budowy trwają, a na dzień dzisiejszy (wiosna 2010) nie widać bynajmniej końca tych poszukiwań. W celu usystematyzowania sposobu dokonywania kalkulacji budżetu w administracji publicz-
W Cytadeli Szpandawskiej (Zitadelle Spandau) nie były składowane oszczędności Rzeszy ani jej poprzedników, lecz francuskie kontrybucje z 1871 r.
W bieżącym federalnym roku budżetowym 2010 nie posiadamy tych pierwszych do dyspozycji, drugie wystarczą jedynie dla trzech czwartych założeń budżetowych (wartość zaciągniętych nowych kredytów wynosi, z uwzględnieniem spłaty wcześniejszych kredytów, 80 miliardów euro), a po trzecie właśnie w takim rzędzie wielkości (78 miliardów euro) należy skompensować zasadniczą dysfunkcjonalność systemu ubezpieczeń społecznych poprzez dotacje państwowe do deficytowej kasy emerytalno-rentowej. Walka o sprawiedliwy porządek jest zawsze w połowie obciążona problemami poprzednich pokoleń (40 miliardów euro lub jedna szósta bieżących federalnych przychodów podatkowych wykorzystywana jest na spłatę odsetek od długów wynoszących aktualnie 1,0 bilion euro), wzgl. zadecyduje o obciążeniu niereprezentowanych w parlamencie przyszłych pokoleń.
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Matthias Theodor Vogt profesor polityki kulturalnej i historii kultury na wydziale Nauk Ekonomicznych Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz (od 1997), obecnie dziekan toku studiów (od 2005) i pełnomocnik akredytujący (od 2006). Założyciel i dyrektor Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej. Wielokrotnie gościł z wykładami na Uniwersytecie Technicznym w Dreźnie, Uniwersytecie Karola Pradze, Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. Autor ponad 100 książek i rozpraw, wydawca oraz współwydawca. Opracował koncepcję oraz przeforsował i wprowadził Saksońską Ustawę o Ośrodkach Kulturalnych (SächsKRG) z dnia 20.01.1994. Jest twórcą kierunku studiów „Kultura i Zarządzanie“ w Görlitz pod patronatem UNESCO (1997), trójnarodowego kolegium naukowego „Collegium PONTES Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec“ pod zwierzchnictwem Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz, Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Uniwersytetu Karola w Pradze oraz Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej (2001), Międzynarodowej Letniej Szkoły
2 W bieżącym federalnym roku budżetowym 2010 nie posiadamy tych pierwszych do dyspozycji, drugie wystarczą jedynie dla trzech czwartych założeń budżetowych (wartość zaciągniętych nowych kredytów wynosi, z uwzględnieniem spłaty wcześniejszych kredytów, 80 miliardów euro), a po trzecie właśnie w takim rzędzie wielkości (78 miliardów euro) należy skompensować zasadniczą dysfunkcjonalność systemu ubezpieczeń społecznych poprzez dotacje państwowe do deficytowej kasy emerytalno-rentowej. Walka o sprawiedliwy porządek jest zawsze w połowie obciążona problemami poprzednich pokoleń (40 miliardów euro lub jedna szósta bieżących federalnych przychodów podatkowych wykorzystywana jest na spłatę odsetek od długów wynoszących aktualnie 1,0 bilion euro), wzgl. zadecyduje o obciążeniu niereprezentowanych w parlamencie przyszłych pokoleń. 1
W Cytadeli Szpandawskiej (Zitadelle Spandau) nie były składowane oszczędności Rzeszy ani jej poprzedników, lecz francuskie kontrybucje z 1871 r.
pierwszym pragmatycznym założeniu polityka kulturalna jest tym, co polityka rozumie pod tym pojęciem na podstawie swoich założeń budżetowych. Nasz system wychodzi z podstawowego założenia, że suwerenem jest naród, jego przedstawicielem jest parlament, którego królewskim prawem jest prawo do ustalania
W
1. Założenia budżetowe siążka, dźwięk, obraz, sztuka służą pracy za robkowej, kształceniu, przyjemności lub indoktrynacji; nie można o nich myśleć w oderwaniu od człowieka (ars gratia artis). Przy obiektywnym odniesieniu do humanistycznych aktywności związanych ze sztuką, będących przedmiotem nauki o polityce kulturalnej, okazuje się, że „kultura artystyczna” przynosi rocznie 44 mld euro (500 euro na jednego mieszkańca), co stanowi blisko 2% PKB Republiki Federalnej Niemiec (ars gratia culturae). Nakłady na kulturę stanowią 2% prywatnej konsumpcji (ars gratia libertatis). Dzisiejsze starania polityki Niemiec o stworzenie warunków ramowych dla kultury i sztuki mają unikalny charakter w całej Europie (politia gratia artis). Chociaż wkład humanistycznych aktywności związanych ze sztuką jest trudny do oszacowania pod względem liczbowym, ma on duże znaczenie dla dobra ogółu (ars gratia politiae). Niemcy stanowią we wszystkich czterech wymiarach prawdziwe pole dla naukowych rozważań i debat dotyczących polityki kulturalnej.
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Matthias Theodor Vogt
budżetu. W wolnościowo-demokratycznym porządku ustrojowym budżet jednostki terytorialnej stanowi materialne podłoże walki o sprawiedliwy porządek w ramach dostępnych środków budżetowych. Dynamika podstawowych założeń politycznych, reprezentowana przez wybrane przez naród partie, odzwierciedla się w najróżniejszych ustaleniach priorytetów dla poszczególnych obszarów polityki, a w postaci liczbowej ujęta zostaje w wysokości założeń przewidzianych dla poszczególnych tytułów. Dla celów finansowania są do dyspozycji (1) rezerwy z przeszłości, w specjalistycznym żargonie błędnie1 nazywane „Juliusturm” („wieża Juliusa” – potoczne określenie pełnego skarbu państwa), (2) aktualne przychody z podatków oraz inne przychody i (3) obciążenia, które przyniesie przyszłość. Kto wobec rozmiarów tych ostatnich2 przyjmuje w odniesieniu do polityki kulturalnej, że nie ma istotnego znaczenia, czy federacja wniesie na rzecz wspierania kultury 0,0031% swojego budżetu ogólnego, czy jakąś inną kwotę, ten zapomina, że werwa, z jaką toczone są debaty polityczne, jest niezależna od liczby zer – debaty dotyczące kwot wysokich i najwyższych są z reguły prowadzone raczej mniej ostro. W ramach specyficznej logiki negocjacji budżetowych stosowne zatem było oszacowanie kosztów odbudowy Zamku w Berlinie na 500.000.000 euro i odsunięcie na bok kwestii poszukiwania treści merytorycznych. Przygotowania do budowy trwają, a na dzień dzisiejszy (wiosna 2010) nie widać bynajmniej końca tych poszukiwań. W celu usystematyzowania sposobu dokonywania kalkulacji budżetu w administracji publicz-
Tłumaczenie: Mathias Vogt i Alina Lizakowska
Czym jest polityka kulturalna?
Matthias Theodor Vogt profesor polityki kulturalnej i historii kultury na wydziale Nauk Ekonomicznych Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz (od 1997), obecnie dziekan toku studiów (od 2005) i pełnomocnik akredytujący (od 2006). Założyciel i dyrektor Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej. Wielokrotnie gościł z wykładami na Uniwersytecie Technicznym w Dreźnie, Uniwersytecie Karola Pradze, Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. Autor ponad 100 książek i rozpraw, wydawca oraz współwydawca. Opracował koncepcję oraz przeforsował i wprowadził Saksońską Ustawę o Ośrodkach Kulturalnych (SächsKRG) z dnia 20.01.1994. Jest twórcą kierunku studiów „Kultura i Zarządzanie“ w Görlitz pod patronatem UNESCO (1997), trójnarodowego kolegium naukowego „Collegium PONTES Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec“ pod zwierzchnictwem Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz, Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Uniwersytetu Karola w Pradze oraz Saksońskiego Instytutu Infrastruktury Kulturalnej (2001), Międzynarodowej Letniej Szkoły
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Artystycznej Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (2003). Obszar jego badań obejmuje procesy transformacji kulturowej w Europie, politykę artystyczną ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem stratagematalogii, podstawowe problemy infrastruktury kulturalnej.
i które są ściśle uregulowane (poniżej berlińskie wytyczne). Dotacje to świadczenia, które zasadniczo są zależne od uznania administracji (świadczenia dobrowolne), służące w miejscach poza administracją Berlina spełnianiu określonych celów, a więc zasadniczo związane z konkretnymi celami świadczenia pieniężne o charakterze publicznoprawnym, które Berlin ponosi w celu wypełniania zadań publicznych, przy czym odbiorca nie dysponuje przed przyznaniem dotacji roszczeniem prawnym określonym co do podstawy i wysokości przyznanego wsparcia, ani też nie odbywa się bezpośrednia wymiana usług. Dotacje są przyznawane odbiorcy w celu realizacji jego zadań, których wspieraniem (realizacją celu) Berlin jest w znacznym stopniu zainteresowany. Ten interes Berlina nie może zostać zaspokojony bez dotacji lub też nie może zostać zaspokojony w koniecznym zakresie. 3 W przypadku ścisłej interpretacji wytycznych dla budżetów publicznych należałoby zbadać kwestię alokacji optymalnej z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia, w sposób niezależny od interesów podmiotu odpowiedzialnego i interesów operacyjnych; tego rodzaju analiza nie ma jednak miejsca, ani też nie opracowano wystarczających parametrów dla dokonania tego rodzaju oceny. Na podstawie „Załącznika: Przegląd planu funkcyjnego” do „Wytycznych dotyczących sporządzania preliminarza do projektu planu budżetowego”, w tym przypadku również dla kraju związkowego Berlin, można zauważyć, jakiemu rodzajowi kultury okazuje zainteresowanie polityka. I tak przykładowo sztuka cyrkowa nie jest, inaczej niż w czasach narodowego socjalizmu lub w krajach socjalistycznych, Chińskiej Republice Ludowej czy też we Francji, pod względem administracyjnotechnicznym przedmiotem zachodnioniemieckiej polityki kulturalnej. Znacznie poważniejszym problemem jest to, że w dokumentach brak jest rubryki z nagłówkiem „Polityka językowa”, a tym samym brak jest jednego z centralnych obszarów polityki kulturalnej w Europie, dotyczącego czy to takiego kuriozum jak tajemny język w portugalskim Minde, czy elementu tożsamości narodowej w Finlandii lub zarejestrowanego jako ponadpaństwowe „niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe ludzkości” języka gwizdanego Silbo na Gomerze. Na podstawie nowych tendencji rozwojowych prawa międzynarodowego polityka językowa prowadzona
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
nej administracja niemiecka opracowała jednolitą, stosowaną w całej federacji czterotorową metodę postępowania, obejmującą: MM plan resortowy (dla polityki kulturalnej istotny jest np. „EP°04” Plan jednostkowy Urzędu Kanclerza Federalnego, „Rozdział 04 05” Pełnomocnik do spraw kultury i mediów – „Beauftragter für Kultur und Medien” – „BKM” – co brzmi już niemal jak „Bundeskulturminister” – federalny minister kultury, jednak [jeszcze?] nie może mieć takiego znaczenia), MM plan grupujący („GPI”; Główne grupy 0-3 Rodzaje przychodów, Główne grupy 4-9 Rodzaje wydatków; w tym przypadku „Grupa 684 – Dotacje na cele bieżące dla instytucji społecznych i im podobnych”), MM plan zatrudnienia (urzędnik państwowy, pracownik umysłowy, pracownik fizyczny) MM oraz interesujący nas w tym przypadku plan funkcyjny („FPI”). Tak oto Bayreuther Richard Wagner-Festspiele, odbywający się w Bayreuth Festiwal Wagnerowski, otrzymał w 2009 r. w „Rozdziale 04 05” w „Pozycji 684 21, Wskaźnik funkcji 182” przydział środków w wysokości 1.673 tys. euro. Oznacza to finansowy udział państwa federalnego w wysokości 30,77% dotacji publicznych (5.437 tys. euro) lub 12,54% budżetu (13.341 tys. euro). Plan funkcyjny opiera się na wskaźnikach funkcji. Przy każdej pozycji budżetowej, po podanej pozycji jako takiej znajduje się myślnik, a za nim trzy cyfry odnoszące się kolejno do funkcji głównej, nadrzędnej i właściwej. Zgodnie z systemem wskaźników funkcji polityka kulturalna stanowi pozycję podrzędną Funkcji głównej 1 (System oświaty, nauka, badania naukowe, sprawy związane z kulturą) obejmującą obydwie Funkcje nadrzędne 18 (Instytucje kulturalne włącznie z zarządzaniem kulturą) i 19 (Wspieranie kultury, ochrona zabytków, sprawy kościelne). Różnica między obydwoma funkcjami nadrzędnymi opiera się na tym, czy dana jednostka będzie postrzegała odbiorcę jako własną lub inną strukturę, co z kolei będzie decydowało o tym, czy administracja danej jednostki będzie traktowała go z zaufaniem czy też nieufnością. Funkcja nadrzędna 18 obejmuje przydziały, za pomocą których jednostka finansuje instytucję własną lub instytucję, za którą ponosi współodpowiedzialność, jak np. Festiwal Wagnerowski – Bayreuther Festspiele; Funkcja nadrzędna 19 obejmuje przydziały, za pomocą których jednostka finansuje instytucje lub projekty osób trzecich,
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[Berlińskie] Wytyczne dotyczące sporządzania preliminarza do projektu planu budżetowego, (Wytyczne techniczno-budżetowe – HtR) z dnia 24 października 2006 r. (DBl. I, s. 37).
[Berlińskie] Wytyczne dotyczące sporządzania preliminarza do projektu planu budżetowego, (Wytyczne techniczno-budżetowe – HtR) z dnia 24 października 2006 r. (DBl. I, s. 37).
3
3
i które są ściśle uregulowane (poniżej berlińskie wytyczne). Dotacje to świadczenia, które zasadniczo są zależne od uznania administracji (świadczenia dobrowolne), służące w miejscach poza administracją Berlina spełnianiu określonych celów, a więc zasadniczo związane z konkretnymi celami świadczenia pieniężne o charakterze publicznoprawnym, które Berlin ponosi w celu wypełniania zadań publicznych, przy czym odbiorca nie dysponuje przed przyznaniem dotacji roszczeniem prawnym określonym co do podstawy i wysokości przyznanego wsparcia, ani też nie odbywa się bezpośrednia wymiana usług. Dotacje są przyznawane odbiorcy w celu realizacji jego zadań, których wspieraniem (realizacją celu) Berlin jest w znacznym stopniu zainteresowany. Ten interes Berlina nie może zostać zaspokojony bez dotacji lub też nie może zostać zaspokojony w koniecznym zakresie. 3 W przypadku ścisłej interpretacji wytycznych dla budżetów publicznych należałoby zbadać kwestię alokacji optymalnej z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia, w sposób niezależny od interesów podmiotu odpowiedzialnego i interesów operacyjnych; tego rodzaju analiza nie ma jednak miejsca, ani też nie opracowano wystarczających parametrów dla dokonania tego rodzaju oceny. Na podstawie „Załącznika: Przegląd planu funkcyjnego” do „Wytycznych dotyczących sporządzania preliminarza do projektu planu budżetowego”, w tym przypadku również dla kraju związkowego Berlin, można zauważyć, jakiemu rodzajowi kultury okazuje zainteresowanie polityka. I tak przykładowo sztuka cyrkowa nie jest, inaczej niż w czasach narodowego socjalizmu lub w krajach socjalistycznych, Chińskiej Republice Ludowej czy też we Francji, pod względem administracyjnotechnicznym przedmiotem zachodnioniemieckiej polityki kulturalnej. Znacznie poważniejszym problemem jest to, że w dokumentach brak jest rubryki z nagłówkiem „Polityka językowa”, a tym samym brak jest jednego z centralnych obszarów polityki kulturalnej w Europie, dotyczącego czy to takiego kuriozum jak tajemny język w portugalskim Minde, czy elementu tożsamości narodowej w Finlandii lub zarejestrowanego jako ponadpaństwowe „niematerialne dziedzictwo kulturowe ludzkości” języka gwizdanego Silbo na Gomerze. Na podstawie nowych tendencji rozwojowych prawa międzynarodowego polityka językowa prowadzona
214
Artystycznej Görlitz-Zgorzelec-Zhořelec (2003). Obszar jego badań obejmuje procesy transformacji kulturowej w Europie, politykę artystyczną ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem stratagematalogii, podstawowe problemy infrastruktury kulturalnej.
nej administracja niemiecka opracowała jednolitą, stosowaną w całej federacji czterotorową metodę postępowania, obejmującą: MM plan resortowy (dla polityki kulturalnej istotny jest np. „EP°04” Plan jednostkowy Urzędu Kanclerza Federalnego, „Rozdział 04 05” Pełnomocnik do spraw kultury i mediów – „Beauftragter für Kultur und Medien” – „BKM” – co brzmi już niemal jak „Bundeskulturminister” – federalny minister kultury, jednak [jeszcze?] nie może mieć takiego znaczenia), MM plan grupujący („GPI”; Główne grupy 0-3 Rodzaje przychodów, Główne grupy 4-9 Rodzaje wydatków; w tym przypadku „Grupa 684 – Dotacje na cele bieżące dla instytucji społecznych i im podobnych”), MM plan zatrudnienia (urzędnik państwowy, pracownik umysłowy, pracownik fizyczny) MM oraz interesujący nas w tym przypadku plan funkcyjny („FPI”). Tak oto Bayreuther Richard Wagner-Festspiele, odbywający się w Bayreuth Festiwal Wagnerowski, otrzymał w 2009 r. w „Rozdziale 04 05” w „Pozycji 684 21, Wskaźnik funkcji 182” przydział środków w wysokości 1.673 tys. euro. Oznacza to finansowy udział państwa federalnego w wysokości 30,77% dotacji publicznych (5.437 tys. euro) lub 12,54% budżetu (13.341 tys. euro). Plan funkcyjny opiera się na wskaźnikach funkcji. Przy każdej pozycji budżetowej, po podanej pozycji jako takiej znajduje się myślnik, a za nim trzy cyfry odnoszące się kolejno do funkcji głównej, nadrzędnej i właściwej. Zgodnie z systemem wskaźników funkcji polityka kulturalna stanowi pozycję podrzędną Funkcji głównej 1 (System oświaty, nauka, badania naukowe, sprawy związane z kulturą) obejmującą obydwie Funkcje nadrzędne 18 (Instytucje kulturalne włącznie z zarządzaniem kulturą) i 19 (Wspieranie kultury, ochrona zabytków, sprawy kościelne). Różnica między obydwoma funkcjami nadrzędnymi opiera się na tym, czy dana jednostka będzie postrzegała odbiorcę jako własną lub inną strukturę, co z kolei będzie decydowało o tym, czy administracja danej jednostki będzie traktowała go z zaufaniem czy też nieufnością. Funkcja nadrzędna 18 obejmuje przydziały, za pomocą których jednostka finansuje instytucję własną lub instytucję, za którą ponosi współodpowiedzialność, jak np. Festiwal Wagnerowski – Bayreuther Festspiele; Funkcja nadrzędna 19 obejmuje przydziały, za pomocą których jednostka finansuje instytucje lub projekty osób trzecich,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
w stosunku do mniejszości narodowych stała się istotnym obszarem polityki również dla Republiki Federalnej Niemiec.4 1. System oświaty, nauka, badania naukowe, sprawy związane z kulturą 18 Instytucje kulturalne (włącznie z zarządzaniem kulturą) Utworzenie, utrzymywanie i prowadzenie własnych instytucji, wspieranie instytucji osób trzecich (nie obejmuje: wspierania pojedynczych przedstawień teatralnych, festiwali muzycznych, wieczorów autorskich itd., por. funkcje od 191 do 193; Instytucje kulturalne za granicą, por. funkcja 024) 181 Teatry Teatry, opery 182 Instytucje kultywowania muzyki Orkiestry zawodowe ( jeśli nie są częścią teatrów), chóry, hale muzyczne 183 Muzea, kolekcje, wystawy Muzea, kolekcje, stałe wystawy sztuki, archiwa państwowe, literackie i muzyczne 184 Ogrody zoologiczne i botaniczne Ogrody zoologiczne, akwaria, ogrody botaniczne (nie obejmuje: parków krajobrazowych, por. funkcja 321) 185 Szkoły muzyczne Młodzieżowe szkoły muzyczne (nie obejmuje: szkół kształcących w zawodzie, por. funkcja 127) 186 Biblioteki pozanaukowe Biblioteki, czytelnie, biblioteki młodzieżowe i objazdowe, instytucje bibliotekarskie, biblioteki muzyczne (nie obejmuje: bibliotek naukowych, archiwów naukowych, por. funkcja 162; szkolnych wypożyczalni mediów, por. funkcja 129) 187 Pozostałe instytucje kulturalne Kina gminne, centra kultury, obserwatoria astronomiczne (jeśli nie są instytucjami badawczymi), instytucje kinematograficzne, instytucje kultywowania kraju ojczystego, instytucjonalne wspieranie cyrków, instytucjonalne wspieranie towarzystw powołanych do kultywowania i rozpowszechniania dzieł literackich (nie obejmuje: ośrodków kultury i wiejskich ośrodków kultury, jak również hal miejskich, hal wielofunkcyjnych, por. funkcja 439; hal sportowych, por. funkcja 323; kolekcji i archiwów, por. funkcje od 162 do 183; szkół artystycznych itp. instytucji zajmujących się pedagogiką kulturalną, por. funkcja 153; instytucjonalnego wspierania towarzystw, których pierwszorzędnym zadaniem jest prowadzenie specjalnych instytucji kulturalnych takich, jak
4
teatry, muzea, czy archiwa, por. funkcje od 181 do 186) 188 Instytucje administracyjne do spraw kulturalnych Urzędy landów ds. renowacji zabytków, administracje państwowych zamków i ogrodów, (nie obejmuje: instytucji bibliotekarskich, por. funkcja 186; administracji ochrony przyrody, por. funkcja 331; urzędów landów ds. zabytków ani placówek administracyjnych zamków i pałaców państwowych, gdy główny zakres ich działania stanowi utrzymanie i zagospodarowanie zamków i pałaców oraz zabytków, por. funkcja 195) 19 Wspieranie kultury, ochrona zabytków, sprawy kościelne (nie obejmuje: spraw związanych z kulturą za granicą, por. funkcja 024) 191 Pojedyncze działania w dziedzinie teatru i kultywowania muzyki Wspieranie festiwali teatralnych, festiwali muzycznych, koncertów rockowych, nagród kulturalnych w dziedzinie teatru i muzyki, przeprowadzanie posiadających oddzielny preliminarz pojedynczych działań w dziedzinie teatru i kultywowania muzyki 192 Pojedyncze działania w dziedzinie muzeów i wystaw Wspieranie pojedynczych wystaw, wspieranie sztuk pięknych, stypendia i nagrody kulturalne dla kształcących się artystów, przeprowadzanie posiadających oddzielny preliminarz pojedynczych wystaw 193 Inne pojedyncze działania w dziedzinie ochrony kultury Promocja filmów (filmów kinowych i telewizyjnych), wspieranie festiwali filmowych, festiwali poświęconych krajowi ojczystemu i zwyczajom, a także festiwali literackich, nagród literackich i ogólnych nagród artystycznych, stypendiów dla pisarzy, przeprowadzanie posiadających oddzielny preliminarz festiwali filmowych, festiwali poświęconych krajowi ojczystemu i zwyczajom 195 Ochrona i konserwacja zabytków Instytucje: pałace oraz zamki o znaczeniu artystycznym i historycznym, zabytki, miejsca prac wykopaliskowych, pomniki i miejsca pamięci, dotacje na utrzymanie, renowację i odbudowę zabytków architektonicznych, archeologicznych i kulturowych (nie obejmuje: pałaców i zamków służących jako budynki dla innych instytucji [np. instytutów badawczych, por. funkcje od 162 do 165; miejsc dalszej edukacji, por. funkcja nadrzędna 15])
Por. z aktualnymi wynikami badań naukowych Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (wyd.): Der Fremde als Bereicherung. Schriften des Collegium Pontes, tom V. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [w druku]. Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (wyd.): Minderheiten als Mehrwert. Schriften des Collegium PONTES, tom VI. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [w druku]
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4 Por. z aktualnymi wynikami badań naukowych Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (wyd.): Der Fremde als Bereicherung. Schriften des Collegium Pontes, tom V. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [w druku]. Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al. (wyd.): Minderheiten als Mehrwert. Schriften des Collegium PONTES, tom VI. Frankfurt etc. 2010 [w druku]
1. System oświaty, nauka, badania naukowe, sprawy związane z kulturą 18 Instytucje kulturalne (włącznie z zarządzaniem kulturą) Utworzenie, utrzymywanie i prowadzenie własnych instytucji, wspieranie instytucji osób trzecich (nie obejmuje: wspierania pojedynczych przedstawień teatralnych, festiwali muzycznych, wieczorów autorskich itd., por. funkcje od 191 do 193; Instytucje kulturalne za granicą, por. funkcja 024) 181 Teatry Teatry, opery 182 Instytucje kultywowania muzyki Orkiestry zawodowe ( jeśli nie są częścią teatrów), chóry, hale muzyczne 183 Muzea, kolekcje, wystawy Muzea, kolekcje, stałe wystawy sztuki, archiwa państwowe, literackie i muzyczne 184 Ogrody zoologiczne i botaniczne Ogrody zoologiczne, akwaria, ogrody botaniczne (nie obejmuje: parków krajobrazowych, por. funkcja 321) 185 Szkoły muzyczne Młodzieżowe szkoły muzyczne (nie obejmuje: szkół kształcących w zawodzie, por. funkcja 127) 186 Biblioteki pozanaukowe Biblioteki, czytelnie, biblioteki młodzieżowe i objazdowe, instytucje bibliotekarskie, biblioteki muzyczne (nie obejmuje: bibliotek naukowych, archiwów naukowych, por. funkcja 162; szkolnych wypożyczalni mediów, por. funkcja 129) 187 Pozostałe instytucje kulturalne Kina gminne, centra kultury, obserwatoria astronomiczne (jeśli nie są instytucjami badawczymi), instytucje kinematograficzne, instytucje kultywowania kraju ojczystego, instytucjonalne wspieranie cyrków, instytucjonalne wspieranie towarzystw powołanych do kultywowania i rozpowszechniania dzieł literackich (nie obejmuje: ośrodków kultury i wiejskich ośrodków kultury, jak również hal miejskich, hal wielofunkcyjnych, por. funkcja 439; hal sportowych, por. funkcja 323; kolekcji i archiwów, por. funkcje od 162 do 183; szkół artystycznych itp. instytucji zajmujących się pedagogiką kulturalną, por. funkcja 153; instytucjonalnego wspierania towarzystw, których pierwszorzędnym zadaniem jest prowadzenie specjalnych instytucji kulturalnych takich, jak w stosunku do mniejszości narodowych stała się istotnym obszarem polityki również dla Republiki Federalnej Niemiec.4
19 Wspieranie kultury, ochrona zabytków, sprawy kościelne (nie obejmuje: spraw związanych z kulturą za granicą, por. funkcja 024) 191 Pojedyncze działania w dziedzinie teatru i kultywowania muzyki Wspieranie festiwali teatralnych, festiwali muzycznych, koncertów rockowych, nagród kulturalnych w dziedzinie teatru i muzyki, przeprowadzanie posiadających oddzielny preliminarz pojedynczych działań w dziedzinie teatru i kultywowania muzyki 192 Pojedyncze działania w dziedzinie muzeów i wystaw Wspieranie pojedynczych wystaw, wspieranie sztuk pięknych, stypendia i nagrody kulturalne dla kształcących się artystów, przeprowadzanie posiadających oddzielny preliminarz pojedynczych wystaw 193 Inne pojedyncze działania w dziedzinie ochrony kultury Promocja filmów (filmów kinowych i telewizyjnych), wspieranie festiwali filmowych, festiwali poświęconych krajowi ojczystemu i zwyczajom, a także festiwali literackich, nagród literackich i ogólnych nagród artystycznych, stypendiów dla pisarzy, przeprowadzanie posiadających oddzielny preliminarz festiwali filmowych, festiwali poświęconych krajowi ojczystemu i zwyczajom 195 Ochrona i konserwacja zabytków Instytucje: pałace oraz zamki o znaczeniu artystycznym i historycznym, zabytki, miejsca prac wykopaliskowych, pomniki i miejsca pamięci, dotacje na utrzymanie, renowację i odbudowę zabytków architektonicznych, archeologicznych i kulturowych (nie obejmuje: pałaców i zamków służących jako budynki dla innych instytucji [np. instytutów badawczych, por. funkcje od 162 do 165; miejsc dalszej edukacji, por. funkcja nadrzędna 15]) teatry, muzea, czy archiwa, por. funkcje od 181 do 186) 188 Instytucje administracyjne do spraw kulturalnych Urzędy landów ds. renowacji zabytków, administracje państwowych zamków i ogrodów, (nie obejmuje: instytucji bibliotekarskich, por. funkcja 186; administracji ochrony przyrody, por. funkcja 331; urzędów landów ds. zabytków ani placówek administracyjnych zamków i pałaców państwowych, gdy główny zakres ich działania stanowi utrzymanie i zagospodarowanie zamków i pałaców oraz zabytków, por. funkcja 195)
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
199 Sprawy kościelne Dotacje dla wspólnot wyznaniowych, wspieranie pojedynczych działań w celach religijnych (nie obejmuje: dotacji dla wspólnot wyznaniowych na zakładanie i utrzymywanie szkół, por. funkcje od 112 do 127; dla instytucji społecznych, por. funkcje nadrzędne 23/24; dla instytucji ochrony zdrowia, por. funkcja nadrzędna 31)
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
2. Federacja, landy, gminy, publicznoprawne związki gmin, kościoły
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Por. Vogt. Matthias Theodor (1997): Kulturräume in Sachsen, eine Dokumentation. Z materiałem fotograficznym Bertrama Kobera i ekspertyzą prawną Fritza Ossenbühla. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band I, Universitätsverlag Leipzig, 1. nakł. 1994, 2. wym. nakł. 1996, 3. nakł. 1997.
7
socii furum 5/ Każde królestwo, które jest samo w sobie podzielone, opustoszeje, gdyż jego książęta stali się towarzyszami złodziei6.” W dzisiejszej praktyce państwowej prezydent federalny (Plan jednostkowy 01) jest przedstawicielem całego państwa; dla protokołu i dla konstruowania budżetu pierwszeństwo ma Bundestag (Plan jednostkowy 02) lub jego prezydent przed Bundesratem (Plan jednostkowy 03) lub jego prezydentem. Jednakże z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej, nadrzędność landów widoczna jest nie tylko w odniesieniu do budżetu; konstytucja przewiduje w widoczny sposób (patrz poniżej) uprawnienia państwa federalnego do właściwego działania tylko dla zewnętrznej polityki kulturalnej. Poniżej tych podwójnych płaszczyzn państwowych, jednostki terytorialne – „communitates civitatum” w Złotej Bulli – wywalczyły sobie i zachowały od średniowiecza, wychodząc od Lombardii, prawo „do regulowania wszystkich spraw miejscowej wspólnoty w ramach ustaw na własną odpowiedzialność” (art. 28 ust. 2 ustawy zasadniczej; analogicznie wszystkie konstytucje landów). Jednostki terytorialne dzielą się na gminy i publicznoprawne związki gmin (art. 28 ust. 2 str. 2 ustawy zasadniczej; zwłaszcza powiaty ziemskie jako publicznoprawne związki gmin posiadające pozbawiony specyfiki zakres zadań, jak i wykazujące konkretną specyfikę, służące określonym celom związki zajmujące się sprawami lokalnego transportu publicznego, wywozu śmieci, zaopatrzenia w wodę itd., w Saksonii (Sachsen) również strefy kulturalne7 jako obowiązkowe związki finansowania kultury służące określonym celom, dla których podmiotem odpowiedzialnym jest powiat. W zakresie niemieckiej polityki kulturalnej, obciążenia rozkładają się na trzech płaszczyznach: MM około 1,0 mld euro rocznie na płaszczyźnie federalnego państwa, MM około 3,5 mld euro rocznie na płaszczyźnie landów, MM około 3,5 mld euro rocznie na płaszczyźnie jednostek terytorialnych, w szczególności dotyczy to wielkich miast powyżej 100.000 mieszkańców.
Karl „Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie Narodu Niemieckiego, cesarz, IV.”: Złota Bulla: dokument reformujący ustrój Rzeszy Niemieckiej cesarza Karola IV z roku 1356 [Akad. d. Wiss. d. DDR, Zentralinst. für Geschichte]. Niemieckie tłumaczenie: Wolfgang D. Fritz., historyczne uwierzytelnienie przez Eckharda Müller-Mertens, Weimar: Böhlau 1978, s. 39-88. Również: http://pom.bbaw.de/mgh/ index.php.
6
asze pierwsze pragmatyczne odniesienie do pytania „Czym jest polityka kulturalna?” założyło fikcję wszechkompetencji państwa. Państwo jest bowiem jedynie podsystemem podmiotów prawa publicznego i należy go zróżnicować oddzielając regiony i państwo ogółem. W Szwajcarii nazywane są one kantonami i federacją (art. 5 ust. 4 szwajcarskiej konstytucji z 1999 r. et passim), w Austrii krajami związkowymi i federacją (art. 1 ust. 1 i art. 5 ust. 1 austriackiej konstytucji z 1929 r. et passim), w Niemczech landami i federacją (art. 10 niemieckiej konstytucji z 1949 r. et passim; w Niemczech nie ma „krajów związkowych” – „Bundesländer”). „Federal” oznacza w amerykańskim użyciu językowym właściwy poziom państwa federalnego (por. np. FBI); natomiast „föderal” – „federalny” w europejskim, niezupełnie logicznym użyciu językowym, poziom regionalny lub poziom landów, lub krajów związkowych. Kwestia nadrzędności pomiędzy tymi obiema płaszczyznami państwowymi pozostaje otwarta od czasu norymberskiego kodeksu z 1356 r., nazywanego później „Złotą Bullą”, kiedy to Karol IV nie mógł przeforsować swoich planów dotyczących uregulowania kwestii władzy centralnej. Przeciwnie, art. 5 ust. 2 tego kodeksu stanowi, że naruszenie prawa „Króla Rzymskiego” będzie rozpatrywane przed palatynem reńskim, a więc także on będzie mógł stać się obiektem ziemskiej sprawiedliwości. Zamieszczona na wstępie skarga Karola brzmi niczym motto specjalnej komisji federalistycznej: „Omne regnum in se ipsum divisum desolabitur; nam principes eius facti sunt
Zeumer, Karl: Quellen und Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Deutschen Reiches in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Tom II, zeszyt 2. Die Goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV. Zweiter Teil: Text der Goldenen Bulle und Urkunden zu ihrer Geschichte und Erläuterung. Weimar 1908.
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5 Zeumer, Karl: Quellen und Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des Deutschen Reiches in Mittelalter und Neuzeit. Tom II, zeszyt 2. Die Goldene Bulle Kaiser Karls IV. Zweiter Teil: Text der Goldenen Bulle und Urkunden zu ihrer Geschichte und Erläuterung. Weimar 1908.
asze pierwsze pragmatyczne odniesienie do pytania „Czym jest polityka kulturalna?” założyło fikcję wszechkompetencji państwa. Państwo jest bowiem jedynie podsystemem podmiotów prawa publicznego i należy go zróżnicować oddzielając regiony i państwo ogółem. W Szwajcarii nazywane są one kantonami i federacją (art. 5 ust. 4 szwajcarskiej konstytucji z 1999 r. et passim), w Austrii krajami związkowymi i federacją (art. 1 ust. 1 i art. 5 ust. 1 austriackiej konstytucji z 1929 r. et passim), w Niemczech landami i federacją (art. 10 niemieckiej konstytucji z 1949 r. et passim; w Niemczech nie ma „krajów związkowych” – „Bundesländer”). „Federal” oznacza w amerykańskim użyciu językowym właściwy poziom państwa federalnego (por. np. FBI); natomiast „föderal” – „federalny” w europejskim, niezupełnie logicznym użyciu językowym, poziom regionalny lub poziom landów, lub krajów związkowych. Kwestia nadrzędności pomiędzy tymi obiema płaszczyznami państwowymi pozostaje otwarta od czasu norymberskiego kodeksu z 1356 r., nazywanego później „Złotą Bullą”, kiedy to Karol IV nie mógł przeforsować swoich planów dotyczących uregulowania kwestii władzy centralnej. Przeciwnie, art. 5 ust. 2 tego kodeksu stanowi, że naruszenie prawa „Króla Rzymskiego” będzie rozpatrywane przed palatynem reńskim, a więc także on będzie mógł stać się obiektem ziemskiej sprawiedliwości. Zamieszczona na wstępie skarga Karola brzmi niczym motto specjalnej komisji federalistycznej: „Omne regnum in se ipsum divisum desolabitur; nam principes eius facti sunt
6 Karl „Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie Narodu Niemieckiego, cesarz, IV.”: Złota Bulla: dokument reformujący ustrój Rzeszy Niemieckiej cesarza Karola IV z roku 1356 [Akad. d. Wiss. d. DDR, Zentralinst. für Geschichte]. Niemieckie tłumaczenie: Wolfgang D. Fritz., historyczne uwierzytelnienie przez Eckharda Müller-Mertens, Weimar: Böhlau 1978, s. 39-88. Również: http://pom.bbaw.de/mgh/ index.php.
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7 Por. Vogt. Matthias Theodor (1997): Kulturräume in Sachsen, eine Dokumentation. Z materiałem fotograficznym Bertrama Kobera i ekspertyzą prawną Fritza Ossenbühla. Kulturelle Infrastruktur Band I, Universitätsverlag Leipzig, 1. nakł. 1994, 2. wym. nakł. 1996, 3. nakł. 1997.
2. Federacja, landy, gminy, publicznoprawne związki gmin, kościoły
socii furum 5/ Każde królestwo, które jest samo w sobie podzielone, opustoszeje, gdyż jego książęta stali się towarzyszami złodziei6.” W dzisiejszej praktyce państwowej prezydent federalny (Plan jednostkowy 01) jest przedstawicielem całego państwa; dla protokołu i dla konstruowania budżetu pierwszeństwo ma Bundestag (Plan jednostkowy 02) lub jego prezydent przed Bundesratem (Plan jednostkowy 03) lub jego prezydentem. Jednakże z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej, nadrzędność landów widoczna jest nie tylko w odniesieniu do budżetu; konstytucja przewiduje w widoczny sposób (patrz poniżej) uprawnienia państwa federalnego do właściwego działania tylko dla zewnętrznej polityki kulturalnej. Poniżej tych podwójnych płaszczyzn państwowych, jednostki terytorialne – „communitates civitatum” w Złotej Bulli – wywalczyły sobie i zachowały od średniowiecza, wychodząc od Lombardii, prawo „do regulowania wszystkich spraw miejscowej wspólnoty w ramach ustaw na własną odpowiedzialność” (art. 28 ust. 2 ustawy zasadniczej; analogicznie wszystkie konstytucje landów). Jednostki terytorialne dzielą się na gminy i publicznoprawne związki gmin (art. 28 ust. 2 str. 2 ustawy zasadniczej; zwłaszcza powiaty ziemskie jako publicznoprawne związki gmin posiadające pozbawiony specyfiki zakres zadań, jak i wykazujące konkretną specyfikę, służące określonym celom związki zajmujące się sprawami lokalnego transportu publicznego, wywozu śmieci, zaopatrzenia w wodę itd., w Saksonii (Sachsen) również strefy kulturalne7 jako obowiązkowe związki finansowania kultury służące określonym celom, dla których podmiotem odpowiedzialnym jest powiat. W zakresie niemieckiej polityki kulturalnej, obciążenia rozkładają się na trzech płaszczyznach: MM około 1,0 mld euro rocznie na płaszczyźnie federalnego państwa, MM około 3,5 mld euro rocznie na płaszczyźnie landów, MM około 3,5 mld euro rocznie na płaszczyźnie jednostek terytorialnych, w szczególności dotyczy to wielkich miast powyżej 100.000 mieszkańców.
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199 Sprawy kościelne Dotacje dla wspólnot wyznaniowych, wspieranie pojedynczych działań w celach religijnych (nie obejmuje: dotacji dla wspólnot wyznaniowych na zakładanie i utrzymywanie szkół, por. funkcje od 112 do 127; dla instytucji społecznych, por. funkcje nadrzędne 23/24; dla instytucji ochrony zdrowia, por. funkcja nadrzędna 31)
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Nakłady terytorialnych podmiotów prawnych na politykę kulturalną wynoszą rocznie łącznie 8 miliardów euro. Podmiotami publicznymi są jednak, oprócz tych czterech typów terytorialnych podmiotów prawnych, również struktury osobowe. W obszarze polityki kulturalnej są to w szczególności: kościół katolicki i ewangelicki z przypuszczalnie pełnymi 4 mld euro rocznie przeznaczonymi na realizację określonych zadań kulturalnych.8 Te nakłady kościelne nie są ujmowane w Raporcie finansowym dotyczącym spraw kulturalnych Statystycznego Urzędu Federalnego Wiesbaden i muszą co za tym idzie zostać dodane do wymienionej tam kwoty 8 miliardów euro, a zatem łączna suma nakładów ponoszonych przez instytucje publiczne (terytorialne i osobowe) wynosi 12 miliardów euro rocznie.
3. Międzynarodowa wspólnota państw na drodze donikąd?
M
iędzynarodowa wspólnota państw opracowała definicję kultury, która nie zawiera żadnej funkcjonalnej treści z punktu widzenia polityki, a tym samym jest niejasna. Definicja przedstawiona na Światowej Konferencji UNESCO w sprawie polityki kulturalnej w Meksyku w 1982 r. brzmiała: „Kultura może być rozumiana w jej najszerzej pojętym sensie jako ogół jedynych w swoim rodzaju duchowych, materialnych, intelektualnych i emocjonalnych aspektów, charakteryzujących dane społeczeństwo lub daną grupę społeczną. Kultura obejmuje więc nie tylko sztukę i literaturę, lecz również style życia, podstawowe prawa ludzi, systemy wartości, tradycje i kierunki religijne.”9 W pewnym sensie jest absurdem, że konferencja, na którą przybyli w przeważającej większości
8
przedstawiciele tzw. Trzeciego Świata, powołała się na etnografa Edwarda Burnetta Tylora (18321917), który w 1871 r. ustalił porządek kultur w kolejności rosnącej z ukierunkowaniem na Europę jako centrum: „Opierając się na analizie porównawczej etnografowie są w stanie określić zarys rozwoju naszej cywilizacji [sic]. Z dużym prawdopodobieństwem można stwierdzić, iż rasy ułożone są według kultur: australijskiej, tahitańskiej, azteckiej, chińskiej, włoskiej.”10 W tym samym tomie Primitive Culture napisano na wstępie: „Kultura lub cywilizacja, w szerokim ujęciu etnograficznym, obejmuje wiedzę, przekonania, sztukę, etykę, prawo, zwyczaje, oraz wszelkie inne umiejętności i zwyczaje zdobyte przez człowieka jako członka społeczności.”11 W cytowanej definicji UNESCO brakuje odniesienia Tylora do etnografii oraz utożsamienia pary pojęć – kultury i cywilizacji. W przypadku języków zachodnioeuropejskich miało to doprowadzić do niejednakowych znaczeń i tendencji konfliktowych12. „Gdy cel zostanie osiągnięty, [...] kultura nagle zastyga, staje się [...] cywilizacją” – według Spenglera, który uważał, że tak oto upadnie Zachód13. W nadzwyczajnie złożonym i w każdym europejskim języku inaczej przebiegającym rozwoju obu pojęć, Kroeber i Kluckhohn sporządzili w 1952 r. katalog zawierający przeszło 200 definicji pojęcia kultury14 – w XIX wieku „kultura i cywilizacja stały się kryterium czołowej pozycji Europy w świecie”15. Jedną z najbardziej oryginalnych definicji kultury sformułował Bismarck: „Dopiero ten środek transportu [tj. kolej] zainicjował cały nowoczesny rozwój, tak więc to koleje – ich dyrektorzy i urzędnicy – są właściwymi podmiotami kultury”16 Z historycznego punktu widzenia można oprzeć się na twierdzeniu
Vogt, Matthias Theodor (2005): Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland. Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej Saksonii na zlecenie Komisji Enquete „Kultura w Niemczech” Niemieckiego Bundestagu. Niemiecki Bundestag, K.-Drs. 15/414b. Światowa Konferencja w sprawie polityki kulturalnej. Raport końcowy zorganizowanej przez UNESCO w dniach od 26 lipca do 6 sierpnia 1982 r w Meksyku międzynarodowej konferencji. Wyd. Niemieckiej Komisji UNESCO. Monachium 1983 (Raporty z konferencji UNESCO, nr 5), s. 121.
9
Tylor, Edward B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom, Londyn 1871, s. 470.
10
11
Tylor: Primitive Culture, s. 1.
Fisch, Jörg: Lemma Zivilisation, Kultur. W: Brunner, Otto m.in.: Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland. Wydano na zlecenie Arbeitskreis für Moderne Sozialgeschichte. Stuttgart. Tom 7, s. 679-774.
12
Spengler, Oswald: Der Untergang des Abendlandes. Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte. Tom 1, 1918. Tom 2, 1922.
13
Kroeber, Alfred; Kluckhohn, Clyde: Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47. 1952. – Różne dalsze opracowania aż po współczesność.
14
Fisch 1978, s. 744.
15
Bismarck, Otto von: Ansprache an die Beamten der Altonaer und Hamburger Eisenbahnen (1.4.1890). FA Tom. 13 (1930), s. 407.
16
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
217
217
Bismarck, Otto von: Ansprache an die Beamten der Altonaer und Hamburger Eisenbahnen (1.4.1890). FA Tom. 13 (1930), s. 407.
16
Fisch 1978, s. 744.
15
Kroeber, Alfred; Kluckhohn, Clyde: Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions. Harvard University Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology Papers 47. 1952. – Różne dalsze opracowania aż po współczesność.
14
Spengler, Oswald: Der Untergang des Abendlandes. Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte. Tom 1, 1918. Tom 2, 1922.
13
12 Fisch, Jörg: Lemma Zivilisation, Kultur. W: Brunner, Otto m.in.: Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe: historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland. Wydano na zlecenie Arbeitskreis für Moderne Sozialgeschichte. Stuttgart. Tom 7, s. 679-774. 11
Tylor: Primitive Culture, s. 1.
Tylor, Edward B.: Primitive Culture. Researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, language, art and custom, Londyn 1871, s. 470.
10
9 Światowa Konferencja w sprawie polityki kulturalnej. Raport końcowy zorganizowanej przez UNESCO w dniach od 26 lipca do 6 sierpnia 1982 r w Meksyku międzynarodowej konferencji. Wyd. Niemieckiej Komisji UNESCO. Monachium 1983 (Raporty z konferencji UNESCO, nr 5), s. 121. 8 Vogt, Matthias Theodor (2005): Der Beitrag der Kirchen und Religionsgemeinschaften zum kulturellen Leben in Deutschland. Instytut Infrastruktury Kulturalnej Saksonii na zlecenie Komisji Enquete „Kultura w Niemczech” Niemieckiego Bundestagu. Niemiecki Bundestag, K.-Drs. 15/414b.
iędzynarodowa wspólnota państw opracowała definicję kultury, która nie zawiera żadnej funkcjonalnej treści z punktu widzenia polityki, a tym samym jest niejasna. Definicja przedstawiona na Światowej Konferencji UNESCO w sprawie polityki kulturalnej w Meksyku w 1982 r. brzmiała: „Kultura może być rozumiana w jej najszerzej pojętym sensie jako ogół jedynych w swoim rodzaju duchowych, materialnych, intelektualnych i emocjonalnych aspektów, charakteryzujących dane społeczeństwo lub daną grupę społeczną. Kultura obejmuje więc nie tylko sztukę i literaturę, lecz również style życia, podstawowe prawa ludzi, systemy wartości, tradycje i kierunki religijne.”9 W pewnym sensie jest absurdem, że konferencja, na którą przybyli w przeważającej większości
M
3. Międzynarodowa wspólnota państw na drodze donikąd? Nakłady terytorialnych podmiotów prawnych na politykę kulturalną wynoszą rocznie łącznie 8 miliardów euro. Podmiotami publicznymi są jednak, oprócz tych czterech typów terytorialnych podmiotów prawnych, również struktury osobowe. W obszarze polityki kulturalnej są to w szczególności: kościół katolicki i ewangelicki z przypuszczalnie pełnymi 4 mld euro rocznie przeznaczonymi na realizację określonych zadań kulturalnych.8 Te nakłady kościelne nie są ujmowane w Raporcie finansowym dotyczącym spraw kulturalnych Statystycznego Urzędu Federalnego Wiesbaden i muszą co za tym idzie zostać dodane do wymienionej tam kwoty 8 miliardów euro, a zatem łączna suma nakładów ponoszonych przez instytucje publiczne (terytorialne i osobowe) wynosi 12 miliardów euro rocznie.
przedstawiciele tzw. Trzeciego Świata, powołała się na etnografa Edwarda Burnetta Tylora (18321917), który w 1871 r. ustalił porządek kultur w kolejności rosnącej z ukierunkowaniem na Europę jako centrum: „Opierając się na analizie porównawczej etnografowie są w stanie określić zarys rozwoju naszej cywilizacji [sic]. Z dużym prawdopodobieństwem można stwierdzić, iż rasy ułożone są według kultur: australijskiej, tahitańskiej, azteckiej, chińskiej, włoskiej.”10 W tym samym tomie Primitive Culture napisano na wstępie: „Kultura lub cywilizacja, w szerokim ujęciu etnograficznym, obejmuje wiedzę, przekonania, sztukę, etykę, prawo, zwyczaje, oraz wszelkie inne umiejętności i zwyczaje zdobyte przez człowieka jako członka społeczności.”11 W cytowanej definicji UNESCO brakuje odniesienia Tylora do etnografii oraz utożsamienia pary pojęć – kultury i cywilizacji. W przypadku języków zachodnioeuropejskich miało to doprowadzić do niejednakowych znaczeń i tendencji konfliktowych12. „Gdy cel zostanie osiągnięty, [...] kultura nagle zastyga, staje się [...] cywilizacją” – według Spenglera, który uważał, że tak oto upadnie Zachód13. W nadzwyczajnie złożonym i w każdym europejskim języku inaczej przebiegającym rozwoju obu pojęć, Kroeber i Kluckhohn sporządzili w 1952 r. katalog zawierający przeszło 200 definicji pojęcia kultury14 – w XIX wieku „kultura i cywilizacja stały się kryterium czołowej pozycji Europy w świecie”15. Jedną z najbardziej oryginalnych definicji kultury sformułował Bismarck: „Dopiero ten środek transportu [tj. kolej] zainicjował cały nowoczesny rozwój, tak więc to koleje – ich dyrektorzy i urzędnicy – są właściwymi podmiotami kultury”16 Z historycznego punktu widzenia można oprzeć się na twierdzeniu
218
Jörga Fischa17, że człowiek określa „swoje własne działania, swoje własne osiągnięcia i ich rezultaty […] w odróżnieniu od tego, czym dysponuje się z natury” – używając w tym celu pary pojęć: „kultura” i „cywilizacja” „w najszerszym sensie zakresów przedmiotu”. „W takim ujęciu już sama ta sprawa stanowi element istnienia ludzkości.”18 (Byłoby pięknie, gdybyśmy mogli zawierzyć także i następującej wypowiedzi: „Podobnież, świadomość powyższego może zostać podporządkowana ludzkiej świadomości jako jej część”19). Gdy wszystko staje się kulturą, pojęcie polityki kulturalnej przestaje być zrozumiałe. Organizacja „United Nations Educational, Scientifical and Cultural Organization” miała początkowo nosić nazwę (bardziej stosownie pod względem językowym: jako osoba prawna nie może ona sama być kulturalną): „United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction”, później jednak na propozycję Stanów Zjednoczonych, a także w interesie nauki została w 1945 r. założona pod nazwą UNESCO. Jej poprzednikiem było z jednej strony genewskie „Bureau international d’education” (dyrektor 1929-1967 Jean Piaget), przede wszystkim jednak przyporządkowana Lidze Narodów „Commission internationale de la cooperation intellectuelle” (później: „Organisation”; 192146; m.in. Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Paul Valery, Jules Romains). Organizacja ta poświęciła się pracy w interesie międzynarodowego pokoju. Analogicznie, także ojcowie założyciele UNESCO chcieli utrzymywać organizację „destinee a instituer une veritable culture de la paix” stawiającą sobie za zadanie „etablir solidarite intellectuelle et morale de l’humanite et, ainsi, empecher le declenchement d’une nouvelle guerre mondiale”20. Humanitas oznacza tu ludzkość, nie humanitaryzm; pojęcie
„kultura” powinno mieć drugi człon, a mianowicie kultura pokoju; sztuki są środkiem do osiągnięcia wyższego celu, pełnią funkcję „bastionów pokoju”. Oto jak należy rozumieć misję UNESCO: „That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed. // Que, les guerres prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes, c’est dans l’esprit des hommes que doivent etre elevees les defenses de la paix. // [Ponieważ wojny powstają w umyśle człowieka, również w umyśle człowieka należy zakotwiczyć pokój {czytaj: bastion pokoju}.] (Preambuła: Wstęp).”21 Określenie, że sztuki służą pokojowi, wyraża godną szacunku nadzieję, ale ta charakterystyka jest niekompletna. Agresję młodych ludzi umyślnie podsycają najnowsze rodzaje sztuki, takie jak gry telewizyjne; wczesne Hollywood kryło pod płaszczykiem nowoczesnej formy sztuki patriotyczną mobilizację, a nieco później czyniło to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer pod przykrywką nowołacińskiej dewizy ars gratia artis (1924); opera XIX wieku opiera się w głównej mierze na marszu; eposy heroiczne nigdy nie służyły, ani nadal nie służą, pacyfizmowi. Człowiek nie jest jagnięciem, jak więc mogłaby być taka jego sztuka i dlaczego w ogóle miałaby taka być? Jednak fakt, iż jest ars gratia politiae22, że za pomocą sztuk i języków można uprawiać normatywną, afirmatywną, a zarazem także pacyfistyczną politykę, oraz że faktycznie stanowią one „trzeci filar” polityki (według Williego Brandta uznającego współzależność sztuki w odniesieniu do polityki zagranicznej)23, był oczywisty przynajmniej dla założycieli UNESCO. Brakuje danych dotyczących kwot, jakie zostały wydane i są nadal wydawane w tych celach w skali krajowej, ponadkrajowej i międzynarodowej.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Fisch 1978, s. 679.
218
17
Wyroki Federalnego Trybunału Konstytucyjnego 12, 205, (260); 57, 295 (320); 73, 118 (152).
Fisch 1978, ibid.
24
18
Brandt, Willy: Bedeutung und Aufgaben der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik, w: Bulletin (Urząd Prasy i Informacji Rządu Federalnego), nr 71, 5.07.1967 r., s. 613-614.- „To właśnie Willy Brandt i Walter Scheel, die 1967 mówili o państwowym wspieraniu międzynarodowych stosunków kulturalnych jako o „trzecim filarze” i „dźwigarze” polityki zagranicznej. Miałoby ono równorzędną wartość obok polityki pokojowej i polityki w dziedzinie handlu zagranicznego.” Hoffmann, Hilmar: „Dritte Säule“ der Außenpolitik. Zur aktuellen Diskussion um die auswärtige Kulturpolitik. W: Internationale Politik, 1996 (3).
UNESCO: [Autoprezentacja]. www.unesco.org.
23
19 Fisch 1978, ibid.
W klasycznej łacinie słowo politia jako słowo obce, pochodzące od greckiego słowa noAirsio, określa konstytucję państwa i administrację państwa (politicus jest, tak jak w języku greckim, jedynie derywatem przymiotnikowym). W języku rumuńskim słowo politia zachowało się do dziś; w języku niemieckim słowo zostało przekształcone w Polizey, z tego względu Politik odwołuje się do przymiotnika.
22
20
UNESCO: Prezentacja Statutu. Londyn 16.11.1945. Niemieckie tłumaczenie powstało później i jest nieprawidłowe.
21
UNESCO: Prezentacja Statutu. Londyn 16.11.1945. Niemieckie tłumaczenie powstało później i jest nieprawidłowe.
UNESCO: [Autoprezentacja]. www.unesco.org.
20
21
Fisch 1978, ibid.
19
22 W klasycznej łacinie słowo politia jako słowo obce, pochodzące od greckiego słowa noAirsio, określa konstytucję państwa i administrację państwa (politicus jest, tak jak w języku greckim, jedynie derywatem przymiotnikowym). W języku rumuńskim słowo politia zachowało się do dziś; w języku niemieckim słowo zostało przekształcone w Polizey, z tego względu Politik odwołuje się do przymiotnika.
Fisch 1978, ibid.
18
23 Brandt, Willy: Bedeutung und Aufgaben der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik, w: Bulletin (Urząd Prasy i Informacji Rządu Federalnego), nr 71, 5.07.1967 r., s. 613-614.- „To właśnie Willy Brandt i Walter Scheel, die 1967 mówili o państwowym wspieraniu międzynarodowych stosunków kulturalnych jako o „trzecim filarze” i „dźwigarze” polityki zagranicznej. Miałoby ono równorzędną wartość obok polityki pokojowej i polityki w dziedzinie handlu zagranicznego.” Hoffmann, Hilmar: „Dritte Säule“ der Außenpolitik. Zur aktuellen Diskussion um die auswärtige Kulturpolitik. W: Internationale Politik, 1996 (3).
Fisch 1978, s. 679.
17
Wyroki Federalnego Trybunału Konstytucyjnego 12, 205, (260); 57, 295 (320); 73, 118 (152).
„kultura” powinno mieć drugi człon, a mianowicie kultura pokoju; sztuki są środkiem do osiągnięcia wyższego celu, pełnią funkcję „bastionów pokoju”. Oto jak należy rozumieć misję UNESCO: „That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed. // Que, les guerres prenant naissance dans l’esprit des hommes, c’est dans l’esprit des hommes que doivent etre elevees les defenses de la paix. // [Ponieważ wojny powstają w umyśle człowieka, również w umyśle człowieka należy zakotwiczyć pokój {czytaj: bastion pokoju}.] (Preambuła: Wstęp).”21 Określenie, że sztuki służą pokojowi, wyraża godną szacunku nadzieję, ale ta charakterystyka jest niekompletna. Agresję młodych ludzi umyślnie podsycają najnowsze rodzaje sztuki, takie jak gry telewizyjne; wczesne Hollywood kryło pod płaszczykiem nowoczesnej formy sztuki patriotyczną mobilizację, a nieco później czyniło to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer pod przykrywką nowołacińskiej dewizy ars gratia artis (1924); opera XIX wieku opiera się w głównej mierze na marszu; eposy heroiczne nigdy nie służyły, ani nadal nie służą, pacyfizmowi. Człowiek nie jest jagnięciem, jak więc mogłaby być taka jego sztuka i dlaczego w ogóle miałaby taka być? Jednak fakt, iż jest ars gratia politiae22, że za pomocą sztuk i języków można uprawiać normatywną, afirmatywną, a zarazem także pacyfistyczną politykę, oraz że faktycznie stanowią one „trzeci filar” polityki (według Williego Brandta uznającego współzależność sztuki w odniesieniu do polityki zagranicznej)23, był oczywisty przynajmniej dla założycieli UNESCO. Brakuje danych dotyczących kwot, jakie zostały wydane i są nadal wydawane w tych celach w skali krajowej, ponadkrajowej i międzynarodowej.
24
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Jörga Fischa17, że człowiek określa „swoje własne działania, swoje własne osiągnięcia i ich rezultaty […] w odróżnieniu od tego, czym dysponuje się z natury” – używając w tym celu pary pojęć: „kultura” i „cywilizacja” „w najszerszym sensie zakresów przedmiotu”. „W takim ujęciu już sama ta sprawa stanowi element istnienia ludzkości.”18 (Byłoby pięknie, gdybyśmy mogli zawierzyć także i następującej wypowiedzi: „Podobnież, świadomość powyższego może zostać podporządkowana ludzkiej świadomości jako jej część”19). Gdy wszystko staje się kulturą, pojęcie polityki kulturalnej przestaje być zrozumiałe. Organizacja „United Nations Educational, Scientifical and Cultural Organization” miała początkowo nosić nazwę (bardziej stosownie pod względem językowym: jako osoba prawna nie może ona sama być kulturalną): „United Nations Organization for Educational and Cultural Reconstruction”, później jednak na propozycję Stanów Zjednoczonych, a także w interesie nauki została w 1945 r. założona pod nazwą UNESCO. Jej poprzednikiem było z jednej strony genewskie „Bureau international d’education” (dyrektor 1929-1967 Jean Piaget), przede wszystkim jednak przyporządkowana Lidze Narodów „Commission internationale de la cooperation intellectuelle” (później: „Organisation”; 192146; m.in. Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Paul Valery, Jules Romains). Organizacja ta poświęciła się pracy w interesie międzynarodowego pokoju. Analogicznie, także ojcowie założyciele UNESCO chcieli utrzymywać organizację „destinee a instituer une veritable culture de la paix” stawiającą sobie za zadanie „etablir solidarite intellectuelle et morale de l’humanite et, ainsi, empecher le declenchement d’une nouvelle guerre mondiale”20. Humanitas oznacza tu ludzkość, nie humanitaryzm; pojęcie
219
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
4. Stacje radiowe i telewizyjne jako „media i czynniki” kultury
4.1. Orientacja na podaż kontra orientacja na popyt?
W
N
Niemczech i w wielu innych krajach niektóre instytucje, w szczególności publicznoprawne stacje radiowe i telewizyjne, które od lat 20. XX wieku (od pamiętnego przerażenia spowodowanego fałszywym doniesieniem z dnia 9.11.1918 r. o objęciu władzy przez USPD) są instytucjami publicznymi i są bezpośrednio nadzorowane przez państwo. Finansowane są w oparciu o system poboru opłat podobny do systemu podatkowego. Za sprawą Federalnego Trybunału Konstytucyjnego, który sformułował opinię o „funkcji radia jako »medium i czynnika« komunikacji społecznej” 24, publicznoprawne stacje radiowe i telewizyjne, realizujące zadania mieszczące się w zakresie public good, mogą (ad. 1) zostać przyporządkowane polityce kulturalnej. 25 Na podstawie dokonanego przez same stacje zróżnicowania, istnieje możliwość (ad. 2) odrębnego potraktowania zakresu programowego „kultury i nauki”. W ślad za koordynatorem 3sat Danielem Fiedler (ad. 3) można argumentować: „Kultura nie jest dla nas kwestią gatunku programu, lecz mentalności. Chodzi o to, jak nasze redakcje podchodzą do zagadnień naszych czasów. Codzienne magazyny kulturalne i naukowe, które na bieżąco zajmują się tymi zagadnieniami, zajmują także stanowiska, które kształtują przebieg debat, i które to magazyny emitowane są w najlepszym czasie antenowym, stanowią wyraz takiej postawy mentalnej.”26 Na przykładzie poniższej dygresji dotyczącej stosunku polityki medialnej do polityki kulturalnej można wykazać, że polityka kulturalna stanowi z reguły fragment lepiej reprezentowanych społecznie dziedzin polityki.
akłady na stacje regionalne (ARD) współdziałające w „grupie roboczej publicznoprawnych stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych Republiki Federalnej Niemiec”, na drugi program niemieckiej telewizji publicznej – Zweites Deutsche Fernsehen (ZDF) oraz na Niemieckie Radio wynoszą ok. 8.398,0 mln euro rocznie, a więc są tego samego rzędu wielkości, jak według raportu finansowego dotyczącego spraw kulturalnych nakłady na dziedzinę kultury i sztuki. Ten budżet jest w 85% finansowany z opłat i w 5% z reklam.27 Centrala poboru opłat (GEZ) pobiera aktualnie miesięczną opłatę /abonament/ za „odbiornik telewizyjny, radiowy oraz odbiornik radiowy nowego typu” w gospodarstwie domowym lub w miejscu pracy, w wysokości 17,98 euro. W porównaniu z Francją (80 euro rocznie; bez reklam) kwota ta jest niemal trzykrotnie wyższa. Oferta stacji publicznoprawnych obejmuje w każdej minucie roku średnio 18,9 programów telewizyjnych (konkurując z przeszło 500 programami komercyjnymi) oraz 61 programów radiowych. Przy procentowym udziale stacji publicznoprawnych w rynku rzędu 42,9%, przy średnio 212 minutach oglądania telewizji dziennie przez Niemców od 3 roku życia i przy użytkowaniu telewizji przez 88% Niemców, dzienna oglądalność tych stacji wynosi 6,6 mld minut, co daje trudno wyobrażalną liczbę 2,4 bilionów minut rocznie. W szczycie oglądalności, tuż po godz. 21:00, telewizja docierała w 2009 r. do 37%, a stacje publicznoprawne do 16% ludności mieszkającej w Niemczech. Na podstawie stosunku 2,490 milionów minut emisji rocznie telewizji ZDF i jej siedmiu kanałów tematycznych do poniesionych przez nią łącznych
Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: „Zasadnicze kwestie, do których w sposób nieunikniony musi prowadzić zastanawianie się nad publicznymi zadaniami w zakresie kultury [stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych ], są odkrywane na nowo dopiero od niedawna i daleko jest jeszcze do tego, aby można było na nie w przekonujący sposób odpowiedzieć. Wyjaśnianie odniesień kulturowych radia i telewizji dotyka kwestii zasadniczych nie tylko dla zrozumienia ich funkcji, lecz również dla ich samozrozumienia i ich ukształtowania pod względem prawnym. Rozpoczyna się to już wraz z zapytaniem o status radia i telewizji jako części kultury, którą one jednocześnie współkształtują i które wpływają na jej rozwój. Takie radio i taką telewizję będzie można postrzegać zarówno jako przedmioty i podmioty, ich wytwory postrzegane są w równym stopniu jako ukształtowane przez kulturę jak i tę kulturę kształtujące”. W: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Zeszyty naukowe Instytutu ds. Ekonomii Radia przy Universität Köln, Zeszyt 201. Köln 2005. Referat odczytany na sympozjum zorganizowanym przez Grupę Inicjatywną Radia Publicznego w Köln w dniu 26 stycznia 2005 r. Der Kulturauftrag des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks. Także w druku: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge (Hrsg.): Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Münster, Hamburg, Londyn 2005.
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Basis unserer Arbeit ist nicht die Quote. Interview mit 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler zum 25-jährigen Bestehen des Drei-LänderKanals [2009]. W: Untergeschoß. Beobachtungen aus der Niederflurperspektive. ViSdP: Harald Keller, Berlin. http://untergeschoss. wordpress.com/2009/11/28/%E2%80%9Ebasis-unserer- arbeit-ist-nicht-die-quote%E2%80%9C/
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Dane według: Komisji ds. określania zapotrzebowania finansowego stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych: 17. KEF-Bericht. Mainz 2009.
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Dane według: Komisji ds. określania zapotrzebowania finansowego stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych: 17. KEF-Bericht. Mainz 2009.
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26 Basis unserer Arbeit ist nicht die Quote. Interview mit 3sat-Koordinator Daniel Fiedler zum 25-jährigen Bestehen des Drei-LänderKanals [2009]. W: Untergeschoß. Beobachtungen aus der Niederflurperspektive. ViSdP: Harald Keller, Berlin. http://untergeschoss. wordpress.com/2009/11/28/%E2%80%9Ebasis-unserer- arbeit-ist-nicht-die-quote%E2%80%9C/ 25 Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: „Zasadnicze kwestie, do których w sposób nieunikniony musi prowadzić zastanawianie się nad publicznymi zadaniami w zakresie kultury [stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych ], są odkrywane na nowo dopiero od niedawna i daleko jest jeszcze do tego, aby można było na nie w przekonujący sposób odpowiedzieć. Wyjaśnianie odniesień kulturowych radia i telewizji dotyka kwestii zasadniczych nie tylko dla zrozumienia ich funkcji, lecz również dla ich samozrozumienia i ich ukształtowania pod względem prawnym. Rozpoczyna się to już wraz z zapytaniem o status radia i telewizji jako części kultury, którą one jednocześnie współkształtują i które wpływają na jej rozwój. Takie radio i taką telewizję będzie można postrzegać zarówno jako przedmioty i podmioty, ich wytwory postrzegane są w równym stopniu jako ukształtowane przez kulturę jak i tę kulturę kształtujące”. W: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge: Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Zeszyty naukowe Instytutu ds. Ekonomii Radia przy Universität Köln, Zeszyt 201. Köln 2005. Referat odczytany na sympozjum zorganizowanym przez Grupę Inicjatywną Radia Publicznego w Köln w dniu 26 stycznia 2005 r. Der Kulturauftrag des öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks. Także w druku: Rossen-Stadtfeld, Helge (Hrsg.): Funktion und Bedeutung des öffentlich-rechtlichen Kulturauftrags im dualen Rundfunksystem. Münster, Hamburg, Londyn 2005.
akłady na stacje regionalne (ARD) współdziałające w „grupie roboczej publicznoprawnych stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych Republiki Federalnej Niemiec”, na drugi program niemieckiej telewizji publicznej – Zweites Deutsche Fernsehen (ZDF) oraz na Niemieckie Radio wynoszą ok. 8.398,0 mln euro rocznie, a więc są tego samego rzędu wielkości, jak według raportu finansowego dotyczącego spraw kulturalnych nakłady na dziedzinę kultury i sztuki. Ten budżet jest w 85% finansowany z opłat i w 5% z reklam.27 Centrala poboru opłat (GEZ) pobiera aktualnie miesięczną opłatę /abonament/ za „odbiornik telewizyjny, radiowy oraz odbiornik radiowy nowego typu” w gospodarstwie domowym lub w miejscu pracy, w wysokości 17,98 euro. W porównaniu z Francją (80 euro rocznie; bez reklam) kwota ta jest niemal trzykrotnie wyższa. Oferta stacji publicznoprawnych obejmuje w każdej minucie roku średnio 18,9 programów telewizyjnych (konkurując z przeszło 500 programami komercyjnymi) oraz 61 programów radiowych. Przy procentowym udziale stacji publicznoprawnych w rynku rzędu 42,9%, przy średnio 212 minutach oglądania telewizji dziennie przez Niemców od 3 roku życia i przy użytkowaniu telewizji przez 88% Niemców, dzienna oglądalność tych stacji wynosi 6,6 mld minut, co daje trudno wyobrażalną liczbę 2,4 bilionów minut rocznie. W szczycie oglądalności, tuż po godz. 21:00, telewizja docierała w 2009 r. do 37%, a stacje publicznoprawne do 16% ludności mieszkającej w Niemczech. Na podstawie stosunku 2,490 milionów minut emisji rocznie telewizji ZDF i jej siedmiu kanałów tematycznych do poniesionych przez nią łącznych
Niemczech i w wielu innych krajach niektóre instytucje, w szczególności publicznoprawne stacje radiowe i telewizyjne, które od lat 20. XX wieku (od pamiętnego przerażenia spowodowanego fałszywym doniesieniem z dnia 9.11.1918 r. o objęciu władzy przez USPD) są instytucjami publicznymi i są bezpośrednio nadzorowane przez państwo. Finansowane są w oparciu o system poboru opłat podobny do systemu podatkowego. Za sprawą Federalnego Trybunału Konstytucyjnego, który sformułował opinię o „funkcji radia jako »medium i czynnika« komunikacji społecznej” 24, publicznoprawne stacje radiowe i telewizyjne, realizujące zadania mieszczące się w zakresie public good, mogą (ad. 1) zostać przyporządkowane polityce kulturalnej. 25 Na podstawie dokonanego przez same stacje zróżnicowania, istnieje możliwość (ad. 2) odrębnego potraktowania zakresu programowego „kultury i nauki”. W ślad za koordynatorem 3sat Danielem Fiedler (ad. 3) można argumentować: „Kultura nie jest dla nas kwestią gatunku programu, lecz mentalności. Chodzi o to, jak nasze redakcje podchodzą do zagadnień naszych czasów. Codzienne magazyny kulturalne i naukowe, które na bieżąco zajmują się tymi zagadnieniami, zajmują także stanowiska, które kształtują przebieg debat, i które to magazyny emitowane są w najlepszym czasie antenowym, stanowią wyraz takiej postawy mentalnej.”26 Na przykładzie poniższej dygresji dotyczącej stosunku polityki medialnej do polityki kulturalnej można wykazać, że polityka kulturalna stanowi z reguły fragment lepiej reprezentowanych społecznie dziedzin polityki.
4.1. Orientacja na podaż kontra orientacja na popyt?
4. Stacje radiowe i telewizyjne jako „media i czynniki” kultury
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nakładów rzędu 2,0 mld euro rocznie (2008) można wyliczyć średni koszt minuty publicznej emisji w wysokości 804,35 euro. Jednakże częstotliwość powtórzeń wynosi przykładowo dla programu ZDFtheaterkanal 97%. Z kosztów Niemieckiego Radia w wysokości 202 mln euro przy 1,1 miliona minut emisji wynika kwota w wysokości 180,95 euro za minutę emisji radiowej. Obliczenie pełnych kosztów nie jest możliwe; stacje różnicują co prawda w analizie kosztów programu pomiędzy udziałem pierwszych minut emisji i udziałem kosztów własnych, jednakże bez logicznego przyporządkowywania pozostałych kosztów takich jak rezerwy na przyszłe roszczenia emerytalne, kosztów nieruchomości, administracji itd. do pierwszej grupy kosztów. Popyt na informację polityczną należy indukować; w razie braku muzyki ludowej w ZDF utraci się widzów programu heute-Journal. W interesie polityki, – która nadzoruje niemieckie stacje na poziomie landów, mimo że poziom landów nie odgrywa istotnej roli w takich programach jak tagesschau czy heute-Journal, – ważne jest, aby poprzez gromadzenie przed odbiornikami szerokich warstw publiczności wspierać autopromocję partii i komunikować jej cele szerokiemu gronu odbiorców; bliskość stacji prywatnych do nazywanej tak okazjonalnie w dyskusjach „telewizji dla niższych warstw społecznych” nie ma znaczenia z demokratyczno-teoretycznego punktu widzenia. „Przestrzeń pozarynkowa” po godz. 20 pozostaje fikcją. Finansowana z reklam telewizja mierzona jest każdego dnia w jednostkach po 1.000 widzów, do których dociera w ciągu 30 sekund, co stanowi podstawową normę dla sprzedaży reklam; finansowana z opłat telewizja mierzona jest każdego dnia w jednostkach po 1.000 potencjalnych głosów wyborczych; jednakże na podstawie tego strukturalnego podobieństwa nie można tutaj właściwie mówić o systemie „dualnym”. „Walka o udział procentowy” doprowadziła do wysokiego poziomu porównywalności zasadniczych udziałów emisji stacji sektora publicznoprawnego z ofertą stacji komercyjnych. Te mogą jednak oferować swoje usługi w znacznie bardziej wydajny sposób, a tym samym, rozsądniejszy z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia. Tak więc, w przypadku ARD udział pierwszych minut emisji programów sportowych wynosi 19,0%, a ich udział kosztów własnych 25,2%; stosunek ten wynosi dla
filmów fabularnych 12,8% do 17,2%. I odwrotnie, prawdziwe zadanie dostarczania informacji jest z reguły realizowane taniej, niż wynikałoby to na podstawie udziału pierwszych minut emisji: wiadomości Tagesschau/Tagesthemen 14,4% (udział pierwszych minut emisji) do 6% (udział kosztów własnych), polityka i sprawy społeczne 13,9% do 5,2%, religia 0,3% do 0,1%, muzyka 0,2% do 0,1%. Stacje publiczne nie spełniają o tyle zamysłu wyżej wspomnianych wytycznych dotyczących dotacji, że cel (opłat) mógłby być lepiej zrealizowany dzięki bardziej elastycznemu świadczeniu usług. Bez uwzględniania interesów polityki tzw. „podstawowe zaopatrywanie społeczeństwa” w filmy fabularne, talk-show itd. mogłoby zostać powierzone komercyjnym nadawcom; w przypadku rezygnacji tych ostatnich z reklam na rzecz zintegrowania usług wchodzących w zakres zadań publicznych stacji radiofonii i telewizji, możliwą hipotezą byłoby finansowanie ze środków pochodzących z opłat. Z punktu widzenia polityki medialnej i teorii polityki kwestia alokacji byłaby w takim modelu przynajmniej tak samo niezadowalająca jak stan istniejący. Z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej, wprowadzony w 1984 r. system dualny (orientacja na podaż versus orientacja na popyt) odniósł również klęskę, a stacje publicznoprawne dotąd nie dokonały jeszcze skoku kwantowego z Europejskiej Wspólnoty Gospodarczej do Unii Politycznej. Dotyczy to niemal w równej mierze samej Unii Europejskiej; wydatki na kulturę wynoszą tu 0,07 euro rocznie na jednego mieszkańca. Grupa28 stacji publicznych państw członkowskich Unii realizuje swoje zadanie informacyjne w dalszym ciągu w oparciu o wzorce krajowe i nie spełnia wspomnianej wyżej „funkcji radia i telewizji jako »medium i czynnika« komunikacji społecznej” bądź w tym przypadku: nie dokonuje procesu europeizacji, względem własnych obywateli oraz obywateli krajów partnerskich. Szansa na wprowadzenie cyfrowych systemów satelitarnych odbieranych w całym regionie UE nie została wykorzystana w skoordynowany sposób; poza takimi binarodowymi programami jak ARTE (którego niemiecko-polski odpowiednik nie wykroczył poza etap planowania) nie zrealizowano prawdziwie europejskiego krajobrazu telewizyjnego, mimo że produkcja filmowa w obrębie Europy stanowi w pewnym sensie kulturalną rodzinę i mogłaby przyczynić się do zbliżenia.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Współdziałanie w ramach European Broadcasting Union (EBU) od 1950/1954 r.; aktualnie 75 członków z 56 państw Europy geograficznej i basenu Morza Śródziemnego; dalsi stowarzyszeni członkowie z 5 kontynentów: http://www.ebu.ch.
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Cytat według: http://www.taz.de/1/leben/medien/artikel/1/ich-sehe-was-was-du-nicht-siehst/.
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Cytat według: http://www.taz.de/1/leben/medien/artikel/1/ich-sehe-was-was-du-nicht-siehst/.
Współdziałanie w ramach European Broadcasting Union (EBU) od 1950/1954 r.; aktualnie 75 członków z 56 państw Europy geograficznej i basenu Morza Śródziemnego; dalsi stowarzyszeni członkowie z 5 kontynentów: http://www.ebu.ch.
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filmów fabularnych 12,8% do 17,2%. I odwrotnie, prawdziwe zadanie dostarczania informacji jest z reguły realizowane taniej, niż wynikałoby to na podstawie udziału pierwszych minut emisji: wiadomości Tagesschau/Tagesthemen 14,4% (udział pierwszych minut emisji) do 6% (udział kosztów własnych), polityka i sprawy społeczne 13,9% do 5,2%, religia 0,3% do 0,1%, muzyka 0,2% do 0,1%. Stacje publiczne nie spełniają o tyle zamysłu wyżej wspomnianych wytycznych dotyczących dotacji, że cel (opłat) mógłby być lepiej zrealizowany dzięki bardziej elastycznemu świadczeniu usług. Bez uwzględniania interesów polityki tzw. „podstawowe zaopatrywanie społeczeństwa” w filmy fabularne, talk-show itd. mogłoby zostać powierzone komercyjnym nadawcom; w przypadku rezygnacji tych ostatnich z reklam na rzecz zintegrowania usług wchodzących w zakres zadań publicznych stacji radiofonii i telewizji, możliwą hipotezą byłoby finansowanie ze środków pochodzących z opłat. Z punktu widzenia polityki medialnej i teorii polityki kwestia alokacji byłaby w takim modelu przynajmniej tak samo niezadowalająca jak stan istniejący. Z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej, wprowadzony w 1984 r. system dualny (orientacja na podaż versus orientacja na popyt) odniósł również klęskę, a stacje publicznoprawne dotąd nie dokonały jeszcze skoku kwantowego z Europejskiej Wspólnoty Gospodarczej do Unii Politycznej. Dotyczy to niemal w równej mierze samej Unii Europejskiej; wydatki na kulturę wynoszą tu 0,07 euro rocznie na jednego mieszkańca. Grupa28 stacji publicznych państw członkowskich Unii realizuje swoje zadanie informacyjne w dalszym ciągu w oparciu o wzorce krajowe i nie spełnia wspomnianej wyżej „funkcji radia i telewizji jako »medium i czynnika« komunikacji społecznej” bądź w tym przypadku: nie dokonuje procesu europeizacji, względem własnych obywateli oraz obywateli krajów partnerskich. Szansa na wprowadzenie cyfrowych systemów satelitarnych odbieranych w całym regionie UE nie została wykorzystana w skoordynowany sposób; poza takimi binarodowymi programami jak ARTE (którego niemiecko-polski odpowiednik nie wykroczył poza etap planowania) nie zrealizowano prawdziwie europejskiego krajobrazu telewizyjnego, mimo że produkcja filmowa w obrębie Europy stanowi w pewnym sensie kulturalną rodzinę i mogłaby przyczynić się do zbliżenia.
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nakładów rzędu 2,0 mld euro rocznie (2008) można wyliczyć średni koszt minuty publicznej emisji w wysokości 804,35 euro. Jednakże częstotliwość powtórzeń wynosi przykładowo dla programu ZDFtheaterkanal 97%. Z kosztów Niemieckiego Radia w wysokości 202 mln euro przy 1,1 miliona minut emisji wynika kwota w wysokości 180,95 euro za minutę emisji radiowej. Obliczenie pełnych kosztów nie jest możliwe; stacje różnicują co prawda w analizie kosztów programu pomiędzy udziałem pierwszych minut emisji i udziałem kosztów własnych, jednakże bez logicznego przyporządkowywania pozostałych kosztów takich jak rezerwy na przyszłe roszczenia emerytalne, kosztów nieruchomości, administracji itd. do pierwszej grupy kosztów. Popyt na informację polityczną należy indukować; w razie braku muzyki ludowej w ZDF utraci się widzów programu heute-Journal. W interesie polityki, – która nadzoruje niemieckie stacje na poziomie landów, mimo że poziom landów nie odgrywa istotnej roli w takich programach jak tagesschau czy heute-Journal, – ważne jest, aby poprzez gromadzenie przed odbiornikami szerokich warstw publiczności wspierać autopromocję partii i komunikować jej cele szerokiemu gronu odbiorców; bliskość stacji prywatnych do nazywanej tak okazjonalnie w dyskusjach „telewizji dla niższych warstw społecznych” nie ma znaczenia z demokratyczno-teoretycznego punktu widzenia. „Przestrzeń pozarynkowa” po godz. 20 pozostaje fikcją. Finansowana z reklam telewizja mierzona jest każdego dnia w jednostkach po 1.000 widzów, do których dociera w ciągu 30 sekund, co stanowi podstawową normę dla sprzedaży reklam; finansowana z opłat telewizja mierzona jest każdego dnia w jednostkach po 1.000 potencjalnych głosów wyborczych; jednakże na podstawie tego strukturalnego podobieństwa nie można tutaj właściwie mówić o systemie „dualnym”. „Walka o udział procentowy” doprowadziła do wysokiego poziomu porównywalności zasadniczych udziałów emisji stacji sektora publicznoprawnego z ofertą stacji komercyjnych. Te mogą jednak oferować swoje usługi w znacznie bardziej wydajny sposób, a tym samym, rozsądniejszy z ekonomicznego punktu widzenia. Tak więc, w przypadku ARD udział pierwszych minut emisji programów sportowych wynosi 19,0%, a ich udział kosztów własnych 25,2%; stosunek ten wynosi dla
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4.2. Sprawozdania a medium sztuki
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bszar „kultury i nauki” obejmuje w Programie Pierwszym ARD udział pierwszych minut emisji na poziomie 7,0% i udział kosztów własnych na poziomie 2,5%. Po hipotetycznym przełożeniu na ogólny budżet wszystkich stacji i programów ARD, udział ten w wysokości 2,5% wyniósłby przeliczeniowo 154 mln euro lub dwukrotność środków Bawarskiej Opery Narodowej (78,7 mln euro; budżet 2007 r.). Jeśli chodzi o zadanie „podstawowego zaopatrywania w kulturę” rozumiane jako informowanie o wydarzeniach kulturalnych, to abstrahując od pojedynczych sprawozdań z efektownych wizualnie wydarzeń, jak otwarcie Stolicy Kultury „Ruhr 2010”, sztuka nie pojawia się zasadniczo w wiadomościach telewizyjnych. Sama produkcja artystyczna nigdy nie staje się tematem w prime time – ani w wiadomościach, ani też w żadnym innym miejscu w prime time. Sztuka, problemy intelektualne i tematy ambitne pojawiają się na ekranie dopiero wtedy, gdy przeciętny pracujący Kowalski właśnie położył się spać. Przeniesienie tych programów na kanały tematyczne jeszcze bardziej zwiększa dylemat. Przy powstaniu 3sat, dyrektor ZDF, Dieter Stolte, powiedział nowemu szefowi programu: „Jeśli wieczorem przekroczycie 3 procenty, wyłączymy was!”29 Kultura jest od tego daleka. W 2009 r. procentowy udział 3sat w rynku wynosił 1,1%; ARTE 0,7%; a ZDFtheaterkanal nawet nie pojawił się w statystyce grupy roboczej ds. badań nad telewizją niemiecką. 30 Z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej, sprowadzenie dokonań telewizji do „sprawozdań na temat sztuki” jest jednak niedopuszczalne, ponieważ jako platforma filmu, telewizja sama w sobie stanowi medium sztuki. Przeto najpierw przynajmniej uwzględnić należy produkcję własnych i emisję innych filmów fabularnych. Włącznie z telenowelami, których teatralny odpowiednik można odnaleźć również na publicznych i finansowanych bez ograniczeń scenach, daje to dziennie pokaźny czas emisji fikcji. Telewizja już dawno zastąpiła kino – przynajmniej w jego wymiarze ekonomicznym. Wyrażając się precyzyjnie, telewizja znacznie poszerzyła przestrzeń niezwiązanego z miejscem wystawiania dramatu. Ze swoimi orkiestrami, chórami i studiami nowej muzyki, radiofonia i telewizja w Niemczech, Polsce, Czechach, we Francji itd. stały się jednymi z najbardziej produktywnych i biorących największy udział aktorów sceny kulturalnej w historii
30
świata. W obrębie polityki medialnej dyskutuje się o tych aspektach znacznie rzadziej niż o wyżej wymienionych aspektach politycznych.
4.3. Telewizja jako wyraz mentalności
„K
ultura [ jako] kwestia [...] mentalności” (Daniel Fiedler) jest nieuchwytna z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej.
5. Kształtowanie warunków ramowych za pomocą norm
W
naszej pragmatycznej, opierającej się na kwotach budżetowych analizie zagadnienia „Czym jest polityka kulturalna?” rozpatrywaliśmy dotąd poziom publicznych terytorialnych podmiotów prawnych (landy, federacja, gminy, publicznoprawne związki gmin), poziom międzynarodowy, poziom struktur osobowych (kościół katolicki i ewangelicki), poziom instytucji publicznych (ARD, ZDF, Niemieckie Radio). Jednak polityka wywiera również wpływ na sferę twórczości artystycznej i usług kulturalnych, także poprzez szereg norm, oddziaływujących nie poprzez budżet, ale jednak posiadających bezpośrednie finansowe oddziaływanie. Oto drugie, właściwie polityczne pole dla analizy kwestii „Czym jest polityka kulturalna?” Formułowanie tych norm stanowi centralne zadanie polityki, przy czym nie mówi to jeszcze zbyt wiele o samym celu. Abstrahując od szeroko dyskutowanej, ale wątpliwej „suwerenności kulturalnej landów”, stanowi to w pierwszym rzędzie zadanie państwa centralnego. W obrębie państw UE wyjątkowy charakter miało powołanie przez niemiecki Bundestag komisji badawczej „Kultura w Niemczech” (2003-05 i 2006-07; przewodnicząca Gitta Connemann). W swojej przedmowie do sprawozdania końcowego z prac tej komisji prezydent Bundestagu Norbert Lammert wyjaśnia w pewnego rodzaju politia gratia artis z elegancką powściągliwością: „Państwo nie jest w naszym rozumieniu państwa i kultury odpowiedzialne za sztukę i kulturę, lecz za warunki, w których są one realizowane. Nie ma ono żadnej materialnej kompetencji co do formy i treści, w jakich sztuka i kultura rozwijają się w społeczeństwie. Jednak państwo ponosi polityczno-kulturalną odpowiedzialność za warunki ramowe, które taki rozwój w ogóle umożliwiają. 31
http://www.agf.de/daten/zuschauermarkt/marktanteile.
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30
http://www.agf.de/daten/zuschauermarkt/marktanteile.
bszar „kultury i nauki” obejmuje w Programie Pierwszym ARD udział pierwszych minut emisji na poziomie 7,0% i udział kosztów własnych na poziomie 2,5%. Po hipotetycznym przełożeniu na ogólny budżet wszystkich stacji i programów ARD, udział ten w wysokości 2,5% wyniósłby przeliczeniowo 154 mln euro lub dwukrotność środków Bawarskiej Opery Narodowej (78,7 mln euro; budżet 2007 r.). Jeśli chodzi o zadanie „podstawowego zaopatrywania w kulturę” rozumiane jako informowanie o wydarzeniach kulturalnych, to abstrahując od pojedynczych sprawozdań z efektownych wizualnie wydarzeń, jak otwarcie Stolicy Kultury „Ruhr 2010”, sztuka nie pojawia się zasadniczo w wiadomościach telewizyjnych. Sama produkcja artystyczna nigdy nie staje się tematem w prime time – ani w wiadomościach, ani też w żadnym innym miejscu w prime time. Sztuka, problemy intelektualne i tematy ambitne pojawiają się na ekranie dopiero wtedy, gdy przeciętny pracujący Kowalski właśnie położył się spać. Przeniesienie tych programów na kanały tematyczne jeszcze bardziej zwiększa dylemat. Przy powstaniu 3sat, dyrektor ZDF, Dieter Stolte, powiedział nowemu szefowi programu: „Jeśli wieczorem przekroczycie 3 procenty, wyłączymy was!”29 Kultura jest od tego daleka. W 2009 r. procentowy udział 3sat w rynku wynosił 1,1%; ARTE 0,7%; a ZDFtheaterkanal nawet nie pojawił się w statystyce grupy roboczej ds. badań nad telewizją niemiecką. 30 Z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej, sprowadzenie dokonań telewizji do „sprawozdań na temat sztuki” jest jednak niedopuszczalne, ponieważ jako platforma filmu, telewizja sama w sobie stanowi medium sztuki. Przeto najpierw przynajmniej uwzględnić należy produkcję własnych i emisję innych filmów fabularnych. Włącznie z telenowelami, których teatralny odpowiednik można odnaleźć również na publicznych i finansowanych bez ograniczeń scenach, daje to dziennie pokaźny czas emisji fikcji. Telewizja już dawno zastąpiła kino – przynajmniej w jego wymiarze ekonomicznym. Wyrażając się precyzyjnie, telewizja znacznie poszerzyła przestrzeń niezwiązanego z miejscem wystawiania dramatu. Ze swoimi orkiestrami, chórami i studiami nowej muzyki, radiofonia i telewizja w Niemczech, Polsce, Czechach, we Francji itd. stały się jednymi z najbardziej produktywnych i biorących największy udział aktorów sceny kulturalnej w historii
O
4.2. Sprawozdania a medium sztuki
naszej pragmatycznej, opierającej się na kwotach budżetowych analizie zagadnienia „Czym jest polityka kulturalna?” rozpatrywaliśmy dotąd poziom publicznych terytorialnych podmiotów prawnych (landy, federacja, gminy, publicznoprawne związki gmin), poziom międzynarodowy, poziom struktur osobowych (kościół katolicki i ewangelicki), poziom instytucji publicznych (ARD, ZDF, Niemieckie Radio). Jednak polityka wywiera również wpływ na sferę twórczości artystycznej i usług kulturalnych, także poprzez szereg norm, oddziaływujących nie poprzez budżet, ale jednak posiadających bezpośrednie finansowe oddziaływanie. Oto drugie, właściwie polityczne pole dla analizy kwestii „Czym jest polityka kulturalna?” Formułowanie tych norm stanowi centralne zadanie polityki, przy czym nie mówi to jeszcze zbyt wiele o samym celu. Abstrahując od szeroko dyskutowanej, ale wątpliwej „suwerenności kulturalnej landów”, stanowi to w pierwszym rzędzie zadanie państwa centralnego. W obrębie państw UE wyjątkowy charakter miało powołanie przez niemiecki Bundestag komisji badawczej „Kultura w Niemczech” (2003-05 i 2006-07; przewodnicząca Gitta Connemann). W swojej przedmowie do sprawozdania końcowego z prac tej komisji prezydent Bundestagu Norbert Lammert wyjaśnia w pewnego rodzaju politia gratia artis z elegancką powściągliwością: „Państwo nie jest w naszym rozumieniu państwa i kultury odpowiedzialne za sztukę i kulturę, lecz za warunki, w których są one realizowane. Nie ma ono żadnej materialnej kompetencji co do formy i treści, w jakich sztuka i kultura rozwijają się w społeczeństwie. Jednak państwo ponosi polityczno-kulturalną odpowiedzialność za warunki ramowe, które taki rozwój w ogóle umożliwiają. 31
W
5. Kształtowanie warunków ramowych za pomocą norm ultura [ jako] kwestia [...] mentalności” (Daniel Fiedler) jest nieuchwytna z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej.
„K
4.3. Telewizja jako wyraz mentalności świata. W obrębie polityki medialnej dyskutuje się o tych aspektach znacznie rzadziej niż o wyżej wymienionych aspektach politycznych.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
6. Kultura jako fenomen gospodarczy
Por. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 [drukl specjalny], tego samego autora: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [dodruk]. W: Netzwerk Kulturarbeit, Kognos-Verlag Augsburg 12/1998, str. 561 – 574, tego samego autora: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [dodruk]. W: bühnengenossenschaft. Wyd.: Hans Herdlein na zlecenie Genossenschaft der Deutschen Bühnenangehörigen. Hamburg. Część I Zeszyt 6-7/1998, s. 15-21; Część II Zeszyt 5/1999, s. 16 - 18; Część III Zeszyt 6-7/1999, s. 15 – 17, tego samego autora: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [dodruk]. W: Kulturpolitische Umschau. Wyd. Jörg-Dieter Gauger na zlecenie Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung. St. Augustin. Część I Zeszyt 2-3 / czerwiec 1998, s. 74 - 84; Część II Zeszyt 4-5 / marzec 1990 s. 90-105.
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celu zdefiniowania produkcji w dziedzinie sztuki, poczynając od obszarów poprzedzających (np. producentów instrumentów muzycznych) aż do obszarów następujących (organizatorów, osób korzystających, dystrybutorów) można sięgnąć do instrumentarium Unii Europejskiej „Nomenclature statistique des Activites economiques dans la Communaute Europeenne / Statystycznej Systematyki Gałęzi Gospodarki w Europejskiej Wspólnocie Gospodarczej / NACE weryf. 2, wydanie 2008”. Na tej systematyce opiera się „WZ 2008”, klasyfikacja gałęzi gospodarki niemieckiej w aktualnej wersji z 2008 r. Na zlecenie grupy roboczej Gospodarka w dziedzinie kultury Konferencji ministrów gospodarki, Michael Söndermann z Biura ds. badań nad gospodarką w dziedzinie kultury w Kolonii, przedłożył pod koniec 2009 r. „Przewodnik służący do opracowania statystycznej bazy danych na potrzeby gospodarki w dziedzinie kultury oraz do dokonania obejmującej wszystkie landy analizy i oceny danych odnoszących się do gospodarki w dziedzinie kultury”. Podana tam klasyfikacja nie jest przekonująca dla służącego za podstawę niniejszego wywodu pojęcia kultury. Sensowniejsze wydaje się nam opracowanie rubryk dla „Gospodarki w dziedzinie sztuki i rozrywki”. Takie opracowanie można sporządzić na podstawie zamieszczonego przez Söndermanna zestawienia 12 gałęzi gospodarki przyporządkowanych sektorowi kultury i sektorowi twórczemu według subrynków danych obszarów federacji. Kluczowe dane to 72.904 przedsiębiorstw i osób prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw, 40.204 mln euro obrotu, 247.502 osób pracujących zarobkowo, 174.599 osób zatrudnionych podlegających obowiązkowi ubezpieczenia społecznego, 162 tys. euro obrotu na osobę pracującą zarobkowo.
Lammert, Norbert: Vorwort. W: Deutscher Bundestag (wyd.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, s. 89 nn. s. 7
31
Ponadto, komisja poświęca z 625 stron głównego tekstu mniej niż 10%, a mianowicie strony 285-291, tematowi „Wspierania kultury we wspólnej odpowiedzialności państwa, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i gospodarki” oraz strony 292-321 wybranym „Wymagającym wsparcia obszarom o szczególnym znaczeniu”, przykładowo tematowi wspierania rdzennych mniejszości. Pomyślmy – choćby w odróżnieniu od praktyk stosowanych we Francji – o związaniu cen książek w Niemczech, obowiązującym nie tylko dla sieci księgarń, lecz także dla internetowych sprzedawców książek wydanych w Niemczech. Pomyślmy o obniżonym podatku VAT na książki. Wedle zwolenników tych instrumentów, za pomocą tych dwóch elementów wspierane są systematycznie, bez żadnych dotacji, współdziałające w Związku Niemieckiego Księgarstwa wydawnictwa, hurtownie i około 5.000 księgarń branżowych. Przychody z mega-sellerów mogą być wykorzystane na potrzeby druku liryki lub literatury specjalnej; wielkomiejskie księgarnie sprzedają książki w takich samych cenach jak duże sieci. Wydawnictwo Suhrkamp Verlag od dziesięcioleci skupia intelektualistów Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. Jego obrót roczny w wysokości 33 mln euro jest mniejszy niż dotacje landu Badenia-Wirtembergia na Badeński Teatr Narodowy w Karlsruhe (37 mln euro plus 3,5 mln euro przychodów własnych). Oparte na ryzyku i zorientowane na popyt działania w dziedzinie kultury okazują się bardzo skuteczne; w Niemczech uzyskują one przewagę w stosunku trzy do jednego nad publicznymi działaniami w dziedzinie kultury, o zminimalizowanym ryzyku, zorientowanymi na podaż. Nie powstał jeszcze „kodeks kulturalny”, w którym zebranoby warunki ramowe dotyczące sztuki i kultury, podobnie jak ma to miejsce w przypadku Kodeksu społecznego lub Kodeksu budowlanego. 32
celu zdefiniowania produkcji w dziedzinie sztuki, poczynając od obszarów poprzedzających (np. producentów instrumentów muzycznych) aż do obszarów następujących (organizatorów, osób korzystających, dystrybutorów) można sięgnąć do instrumentarium Unii Europejskiej „Nomenclature statistique des Activites economiques dans la Communaute Europeenne / Statystycznej Systematyki Gałęzi Gospodarki w Europejskiej Wspólnocie Gospodarczej / NACE weryf. 2, wydanie 2008”. Na tej systematyce opiera się „WZ 2008”, klasyfikacja gałęzi gospodarki niemieckiej w aktualnej wersji z 2008 r. Na zlecenie grupy roboczej Gospodarka w dziedzinie kultury Konferencji ministrów gospodarki, Michael Söndermann z Biura ds. badań nad gospodarką w dziedzinie kultury w Kolonii, przedłożył pod koniec 2009 r. „Przewodnik służący do opracowania statystycznej bazy danych na potrzeby gospodarki w dziedzinie kultury oraz do dokonania obejmującej wszystkie landy analizy i oceny danych odnoszących się do gospodarki w dziedzinie kultury”. Podana tam klasyfikacja nie jest przekonująca dla służącego za podstawę niniejszego wywodu pojęcia kultury. Sensowniejsze wydaje się nam opracowanie rubryk dla „Gospodarki w dziedzinie sztuki i rozrywki”. Takie opracowanie można sporządzić na podstawie zamieszczonego przez Söndermanna zestawienia 12 gałęzi gospodarki przyporządkowanych sektorowi kultury i sektorowi twórczemu według subrynków danych obszarów federacji. Kluczowe dane to 72.904 przedsiębiorstw i osób prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw, 40.204 mln euro obrotu, 247.502 osób pracujących zarobkowo, 174.599 osób zatrudnionych podlegających obowiązkowi ubezpieczenia społecznego, 162 tys. euro obrotu na osobę pracującą zarobkowo.
Lammert, Norbert: Vorwort. W: Deutscher Bundestag (wyd.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, s. 89 nn. s. 7
W
31
6. Kultura jako fenomen gospodarczy
32 Por. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 [drukl specjalny], tego samego autora: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [dodruk]. W: Netzwerk Kulturarbeit, Kognos-Verlag Augsburg 12/1998, str. 561 – 574, tego samego autora: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [dodruk]. W: bühnengenossenschaft. Wyd.: Hans Herdlein na zlecenie Genossenschaft der Deutschen Bühnenangehörigen. Hamburg. Część I Zeszyt 6-7/1998, s. 15-21; Część II Zeszyt 5/1999, s. 16 - 18; Część III Zeszyt 6-7/1999, s. 15 – 17, tego samego autora: Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland [dodruk]. W: Kulturpolitische Umschau. Wyd. Jörg-Dieter Gauger na zlecenie Konrad- Adenauer-Stiftung. St. Augustin. Część I Zeszyt 2-3 / czerwiec 1998, s. 74 - 84; Część II Zeszyt 4-5 / marzec 1990 s. 90-105.
Ponadto, komisja poświęca z 625 stron głównego tekstu mniej niż 10%, a mianowicie strony 285-291, tematowi „Wspierania kultury we wspólnej odpowiedzialności państwa, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i gospodarki” oraz strony 292-321 wybranym „Wymagającym wsparcia obszarom o szczególnym znaczeniu”, przykładowo tematowi wspierania rdzennych mniejszości. Pomyślmy – choćby w odróżnieniu od praktyk stosowanych we Francji – o związaniu cen książek w Niemczech, obowiązującym nie tylko dla sieci księgarń, lecz także dla internetowych sprzedawców książek wydanych w Niemczech. Pomyślmy o obniżonym podatku VAT na książki. Wedle zwolenników tych instrumentów, za pomocą tych dwóch elementów wspierane są systematycznie, bez żadnych dotacji, współdziałające w Związku Niemieckiego Księgarstwa wydawnictwa, hurtownie i około 5.000 księgarń branżowych. Przychody z mega-sellerów mogą być wykorzystane na potrzeby druku liryki lub literatury specjalnej; wielkomiejskie księgarnie sprzedają książki w takich samych cenach jak duże sieci. Wydawnictwo Suhrkamp Verlag od dziesięcioleci skupia intelektualistów Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. Jego obrót roczny w wysokości 33 mln euro jest mniejszy niż dotacje landu Badenia-Wirtembergia na Badeński Teatr Narodowy w Karlsruhe (37 mln euro plus 3,5 mln euro przychodów własnych). Oparte na ryzyku i zorientowane na popyt działania w dziedzinie kultury okazują się bardzo skuteczne; w Niemczech uzyskują one przewagę w stosunku trzy do jednego nad publicznymi działaniami w dziedzinie kultury, o zminimalizowanym ryzyku, zorientowanymi na podaż. Nie powstał jeszcze „kodeks kulturalny”, w którym zebranoby warunki ramowe dotyczące sztuki i kultury, podobnie jak ma to miejsce w przypadku Kodeksu społecznego lub Kodeksu budowlanego. 32
223
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
219.376
126.377
938.043
718.667
135
7,10%
2,60%
3,20%
2,70%
-
92.968
43.572
281.028
188.060
-
Krok II: *Suma podwójnie przeliczonych gałęzi gospodarki
*20.065
*3.369
*33.526
*13.462
-
Sektor sztuki i rozrywki
72.904
40.204
247.502
174.599
162
33%
32%
26%
24%
-
Udział w gospodarce ogólnej
2,36%
0,83%
0,84%
0,66%
-
1. Sektor muzyki
10.798
5.392
34.984
24.186
154
WZ 2003
Gałąź gospodarki
Sektor gospodarczy kultury i sektor twórczy nr.1.-12 według Söndermanna Udział w gospodarce ogólnej Krok I: Gospodarka w dziedzinie kultury, suma z podwójnym przeliczeniem
Udział w sektorze kultury i sektorze twórczym
Obrót na pracującego zarobkowo (5) w tys. euro
Pracujący zarobkowo (3) Liczba
Podlegający obowiązującemu ubezpieczniu społecznemu (4) Liczba
Obrót (2) w milionach euro
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki według subrynków (obszar RFN 2006)
Działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw (1) Liczba
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki
92.31.5
Muzycy i kompozytorzy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
2.337
244
2.471
134
99
92.31.2
Artystyczne zespoły muzyczne i taneczne
1.859
214
7.368
5.509
29
22.14.0
Wydawnictwa nagranych nośników dźwięku i wydawnictwa muzyczne
1.478
1.867
5.155
3.677
362
92.32.1
*Organizatorzy sztuk teatralnych/koncertów
*1.268
*1.301
*7.046
*5.778
*185
92.32.2
*Prowadzenie teatrów, oper, teatrów autorskich itd.
*207
*334
**3.347
**3.140
*100
92.32.5
*Pozostałe usługi pomocnicze sektora kultury i rozrywki
*1.358
*381
*3.677
*2.319
*104
52.45.3
Handel detaliczny instrumentami muzycznymi i zapisami nutowymi
2.291
1.051
5.920
3.629
178
13.638
14.743
81.497
67.859
181
2. Rynek księgarski
Kina
92.13.0
Wypożyczalnie filmów i oferenci programów video
92.12.0
Produkcja filmów, telewizyjna i produkcja filmów video
92.11.0
* Prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek artyści sceniczni
92.31.7
4. Sektor filmu Sklepy muzealne (wraz z sektorem prywatnym, dane szacunkowe), wystawy sztuki
92.52.1
Sprzedaż sztuki (dane szacunkowe)
52.48.2**
Artyści i plastycy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
92.31.3
3. Rynek sztuki 52.47.2
Sprzedaż detaliczna książek Wydawnictwa książkowe
22.11.1
Pisarze i autorzy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
92.31.6
2. Rynek księgarski Handel detaliczny instrumentami muzycznymi i zapisami nutowymi
52.45.3
*Pozostałe usługi pomocnicze sektora kultury i rozrywki
92.32.5
*Prowadzenie teatrów, oper, teatrów autorskich itd.
92.32.2
*Organizatorzy sztuk teatralnych/koncertów
92.32.1
Wydawnictwa nagranych nośników dźwięku i wydawnictwa muzyczne
22.14.0
Artystyczne zespoły muzyczne i taneczne
92.31.2
Muzycy i kompozytorzy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
92.31.5
985 1.145 6.600 *8.924 17.654 943 **2.003 8.039 10.985 5.049 2.674 5.915 13.638 2.291 *1.358 *207 *1.268 1.478 1.859 2.337 10.798
1. Sektor muzyki
2,36%
Udział w gospodarce ogólnej Udział w sektorze kultury i sektorze twórczym
33% 72.904
Sektor sztuki i rozrywki
*20.065
Krok II: *Suma podwójnie przeliczonych gałęzi gospodarki Krok I: Gospodarka w dziedzinie kultury, suma z podwójnym przeliczeniem Udział w gospodarce ogólnej Sektor gospodarczy kultury i sektor twórczy nr.1.-12 według Söndermanna WZ 2003
Gałąź gospodarki
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki według subrynków (obszar RFN 2006)
Pisarze i autorzy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
5.915
456
6.179
264
74
22.11.1
Wydawnictwa książkowe
2.674
10.294
43.136
40.462
239
52.47.2
Sprzedaż detaliczna książek
5.049
3.993
32.182
27.133
124
10.985
1.767
15.249
4.264
116
8.039
713
9.489
1.450
75
**2.003
**588
**3.670
**1.667
*160
943
466
**2.090
**1.147
223
4. Sektor filmu
17.654
7.609
53.850
36.196
141
92.31.7
* Prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek artyści sceniczni
*8.924
*754
*10.369
*1.445
*73
92.11.0
Produkcja filmów, telewizyjna i produkcja filmów video
6.600
3.788
30.682
24.082
123
92.12.0
Wypożyczalnie filmów i oferenci programów video
1.145
1.621
3.641
2.496
445
92.13.0
Kina
985
1.446
9.158
8.173
158
3. Rynek sztuki 92.31.3
Artyści i plastycy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
52.48.2**
Sprzedaż sztuki (dane szacunkowe)
92.52.1
Sklepy muzealne (wraz z sektorem prywatnym, dane szacunkowe), wystawy sztuki
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki
92.968 7,10% 219.376 Działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw (1) Liczba
1.446 1.621 3.788 *754 7.609 466 **588 713 1.767 3.993 10.294 456 14.743 1.051 *381 *334 *1.301 1.867 214 244 5.392 0,83% 32% 40.204 *3.369 43.572 2,60% 126.377 Obrót (2) w milionach euro
9.158 3.641 30.682 *10.369 53.850 **2.090 **3.670 9.489 15.249 32.182 43.136 6.179 81.497 5.920 *3.677 **3.347 *7.046 5.155 7.368 2.471 34.984 0,84% 26% 247.502 *33.526 281.028 3,20% 938.043 Pracujący zarobkowo (3) Liczba
8.173 2.496 24.082 *1.445 36.196 **1.147 **1.667 1.450 4.264 27.133 40.462 264 67.859 3.629 *2.319 **3.140 *5.778 3.677 5.509 134 24.186
158 445 123 *73 141 223 *160 75 116 124 239 74 181 178 *104 *100 *185 362 29 99 154 -
0,66%
-
24% 174.599
162 -
*13.462
-
188.060
-
2,70% 718.667 Podlegający obowiązującemu ubezpieczniu społecznemu (4) Liczba
135 Obrót na pracującego zarobkowo (5) w tys. euro
92.31.6
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
223
224
Obrót na pracującego zarobkowo (5) w tys. euro
Podlegający obowiązującemu ubezpieczniu społecznemu (4) Liczba
Pracujący zarobkowo (3) Liczba
Obrót(2) w milionach euro
Działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw (1) Liczba
770
470
271
66
92.33.0
Wesołe miasteczka i parki rozrywki
3.364
894
13.576
10.212
66
Działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw (1) Liczba
Obrót(2) w milionach euro
214
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Pracujący zarobkowo (3) Liczba
224
wolnego zawodu i prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek, osiągających obrót podlegający opodatkowaniu (2), w wysokości przynajmniej 17.500 euro rocznie. (3) Osoby pracujące zarobkowo obejmują wszystkie osoby prowadzące działalność na własny rachunek i zatrudnione
Podlegający obowiązującemu ubezpieczniu społecznemu (4) Liczba
Wskazówki według Söndermann: (*) Dane przyporządkowane większej ilości subrynków. (**) Dane szacunkowe Oszacowanie rynku handlu dziełami sztuki. (1) Przedsiębiorstwa podlegające obowiązkowi podatkowemu obejmują wszystkich przedsiębiorców pracujących na zasadzie
Obrót na pracującego zarobkowo (5) w tys. euro
Źródło: M. Vogt na podstawie Söndermann: Leitfaden (2009), tenże opierający się na danych statystycznych dotyczących podatku obrotowego, Destatis, Dane statystyczne Federalnej Agencji Pracy, obliczenia M. Söndermann.
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki
209
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki według subrynków (obszar RFN 2006)
300
Gałąź gospodarki
Ogrody botaniczne i zoologiczne oraz rezerwaty przyrody
WZ 2003
336
92.53.0
22.803
128
40.307
123
8.623
188
17.504
24
5. Sektor radia i telewizji
65
1.559
Obsługa miejsc zabytkowych
18.174
113
92.52.2
1.197
19
16.615
963
*Dziennikarze prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
33
1.037
92.40.2
185
20
21.244
100
74
22.133
92
Biblioteki/archiwa
7.426
73
104
92.51.0
889
51
Organizatorzy radia, audycji, progr. TV
1.405
92.20.0
2.671
19.579
136
Restauratorzy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
36.899
58
1.266
92.31.4
4.155
70
17.320
13.173
6. Rynek sztuk scenicznych
18.242
1.445
1.283
10.369
5.069
12. Pozostałe
754
0
8.924
0
*Artyści sceniczni prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
0
92.31.7
0
95
11. Przemysł oprogramowań / gier
626
0
36
0
531
0
Artyści/artystki cyrkowe prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
0
92.31.8
10. Rynek reklam
1.125
0
1.233
0
41
0
108
0
Teatralne zespoły artystyczne
9. Rynek prasy
92.31.1
0
5.778
0
7.046
0
1.301
0
1.268
8. Rynek architektury
*Organizatorzy sztuk teatralnych/koncertów
0
92.32.1
0
3.140
0
3.347
0
334
66
7. Sektor projektowania
207
153
*Obsługa teatrów, oper, teatrów aktorskich itd.
3.575
92.32.2
6.774
604
1.036
807
3.199
74
Inne instytucje kultury/rozrywki (cyrk, akrobaci, teatr lalek)
203
153
92.34.2
Varietes i małe sceny
66
92.32.3
1.498
2.319
3.020
3.677
198
381
1.522
1.358
Szkoły taneczne
*Pozostałe usługi pomocnicze sektora kultury i rozrywki
92.34.1
92.32.5
104
1.498
2.319
3.020
3.677
198
381
1.522
1.358
Szkoły taneczne
*Pozostałe usługi pomocnicze sektora kultury i rozrywki
92.34.1
92.32.5
3.575
92
6.774
604
1.036
807
3.199
74
Inne instytucje kultury/rozrywki (cyrk, akrobaci, teatr lalek)
203
92.34.2
Varietes i małe sceny
0
92.32.3
0
100
0
3.140
0
3.347
7. Sektor projektowania
334
0
207
0
*Obsługa teatrów, oper, teatrów aktorskich itd.
0
92.32.2
0
185
8. Rynek architektury
5.778
0
7.046
0
1.301
0
1.268
0
*Organizatorzy sztuk teatralnych/koncertów
9. Rynek prasy
92.32.1
0
33
0
1.125
0
1.233
0
41
10. Rynek reklam
108
0
Teatralne zespoły artystyczne
0
92.31.1
0
58
0
95
11. Przemysł oprogramowań / gier
70
626
13.173
36
18.242
531
1.283
Artyści/artystki cyrkowe prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
5.069
51
66
92.31.8
12. Pozostałe
73
1.405
1.445
2.671
10.369
136
754
*Artyści sceniczni prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
1.266
19
8.924
92.31.7
Restauratorzy prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
113
92.31.4
19.579
963
36.899
1.037
4.155
20
128
17.320
6. Rynek sztuk scenicznych
74
336
Biblioteki/archiwa
21.244
92.51.0
22.133
123
7.426
188
889
24
Organizatorzy radia, audycji, progr. TV
65
271
92.20.0
Obsługa miejsc zabytkowych
66
92.52.2
1.559
470
18.174
770
1.197
209
16.615
300
*Dziennikarze prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
Ogrody botaniczne i zoologiczne oraz rezerwaty przyrody
92.40.2
92.53.0
214
10.212
22.803
13.576
40.307
894
8.623
3.364
17.504
Wesołe miasteczka i parki rozrywki
5. Sektor radia i telewizji
92.33.0
Gałąź gospodarki
Źródło: M. Vogt na podstawie Söndermann: Leitfaden (2009), tenże opierający się na danych statystycznych dotyczących podatku obrotowego, Destatis, Dane statystyczne Federalnej Agencji Pracy, obliczenia M. Söndermann.
WZ 2003
wolnego zawodu i prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek, osiągających obrót podlegający opodatkowaniu (2), w wysokości przynajmniej 17.500 euro rocznie. (3) Osoby pracujące zarobkowo obejmują wszystkie osoby prowadzące działalność na własny rachunek i zatrudnione
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki według subrynków (obszar RFN 2006)
Wskazówki według Söndermann: (*) Dane przyporządkowane większej ilości subrynków. (**) Dane szacunkowe Oszacowanie rynku handlu dziełami sztuki. (1) Przedsiębiorstwa podlegające obowiązkowi podatkowemu obejmują wszystkich przedsiębiorców pracujących na zasadzie
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki
225
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Obrót (2) w milionach euro
Pracujący zarobkowo (3) Liczba
Podlegający obowiązującemu ubezpieczemiu społecznemu (4) Liczba
146.473
86.174
690.541
544.069
125
67%
68%
74%
76%
-
Udział w gospodarce ogółem
4,74%
1,77%
2,36%
2,04%
-
38.728
14.869
120.147
81.419
124
3.455
680
8.683
5.228
78
Sektory sztuki i rozrywki według subrynków (obszar RFN 2006)
WZ 2003
Gałąź gospodarki
w sposób zależny, których stanowiska pracy podlegają obowiązkowi ubezpieczenia społecznego (4) bez tzw. mini jobs. W powyższej tabeli „Sektory sztuki i rozrywki” nie uwzględniono szeregu gałęzi gospodarki podanych przez Söndermanna w zestawieniu wykonanym na zlecenie Konferencji ministrów gospodarki. Stanowią one między 67% a 75%
całkowitego obszaru „sektora kultury i sektora twórczego”, a więc większość. Przyjęte powyżej pojęcie „sektora sztuki i rozrywki” umożliwia węższe ujęcie sztuki i szersze ujęcie kultury z uwzględnieniem ogrodów zoologicznych (najbardziej pielęgnowanej w skali światowej komunalnej dziedziny kulturalnej), cyrku i sztukmistrzostwa, szkół tańca oraz całego sek-
Pozostałe sektory kultury i sektory twórcze Udział w sektorach kultury i sektorach twórczych
72.20.0
Producenci oprogramowania
35.719 35.719
11. Przemysł oprogramowania / gier
17.679
Reklama/ pośrednictwo reklamowe
74.40.2
7. Sektor projektowania
*Projektowanie komunikacji / projektowanie reklam
74.40.1
74.20.6
10. Rynek reklam
74.87.4
Pozostała działalność wydawnicza
22.15.0
74.40.1
Wydawanie czasopism
22.13.0
8. Rynek architektury
Wydawanie gazet
22.12.0
74.20.1
Obrót na pracującego zarobkowo (5) w tys. euro
Działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw (1) Liczba
pozostałe Sektory sztuki i rozrywki
169
Wydawanie książek adresowych
22.11.2
801
Biura korespondencyjne i biura informacyjne
92.40.1
Projektowanie przemysłowe Projektowanie produktu / projektowanie graficzne
13.445
1.595
19.133
5.688
83
*Projektowanie komunikacji/ projektowanie reklam
*21.828
*12.594
*92.331
*70.503
*136
39.737
7.286
99.626
59.889
73
Biura architektoniczne budownictwa naziemnego i architektura wnętrz
34.124
6.246
84.251
50.127
74
74.20.2
Biura architektoniczne planowania miejscowego, regionalnego i planowania na poziomie landów
3.132
626
9.425
6.293
66
74.20.3
Biura architektoniczne projektowania ogrodów i kształtowania krajobrazu
2.481
414
5.950
3.469
70
22.917
27.311
124.360
101.443
220
*16.615
*1.197
*18.174
*1.559
*66
9. Rynek prasy
92.40.2
*Dziennikarze prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
9. Rynek prasy
*21.828 39.507 2.900 1.732 700 *16.615 22.917
24.103 24.103 13.203 *12.594 25.797 3.419 10.172 10.617 1.102 804 *1.197 27.311
92.40.2
*Dziennikarze prowadzący działalność na własny rachunek
92.40.1
Biura korespondencyjne i biura informacyjne
801
804
7.201
6.400
112
22.11.2
Wydawanie książek adresowych
169
1.102
3.701
3.532
298
Wydawanie gazet
700
10.617
50.971
50.271
208
Wydawanie czasopism
1.732
10.172
36.759
35.027
277
*Projektowanie komunikacji/ projektowanie reklam
74.40.1
22.15.0
Pozostała działalność wydawnicza
2.900
3.419
7.554
4.654
453
Projektowanie produktu / projektowanie graficzne
74.87.4
10. Rynek reklam
39.507
25.797
142.021
102.514
182
Projektowanie przemysłowe
74.20.6
74.40.1
*Projektowanie komunikacji / projektowanie reklam
*21.828
*12.594
*92.331
*70.503
*136
14.869
38.728
7. Sektor projektowania
74.40.2
Reklama/ pośrednictwo reklamowe
17.679
13.203
49.690
32.011
266
1,77%
4,74%
Udział w gospodarce ogółem
35.719
24.103
305.805
270.086
79
68%
67%
35.719
24.103
305.805
270.086
79
74.20.3
Biura architektoniczne projektowania ogrodów i kształtowania krajobrazu Biura architektoniczne planowania miejscowego, regionalnego i planowania na poziomie landów
74.20.2
Biura architektoniczne budownictwa naziemnego i architektura wnętrz
74.20.1
22.12.0
8. Rynek architektury
22.13.0
11. Przemysł oprogramowania / gier 72.20.0
Producenci oprogramowania
Udział w sektorach kultury i sektorach twórczych Sektory sztuki i rozrywki według subrynków (obszar RFN 2006) pozostałe Sektory sztuki i rozrywki
39.737 *21.828 13.445 3.455
6.246 7.286 *12.594 1.595 680
*92.331 142.021 7.554 36.759 50.971 3.701 7.201 *18.174 124.360 5.950 9.425 84.251 99.626 *92.331 19.133 8.683 120.147 2,36%
32.011 *70.503 102.514 4.654 35.027 50.271 3.532 6.400 *1.559 101.443 3.469 6.293 50.127 59.889 *70.503 5.688 5.228 81.419 2,04% 76%
74%
544.069
690.541
86.174
146.473 Działalność na własny rachunek i przedsiębiorstw (1) Liczba
Gałąź gospodarki
34.124
626
49.690
270.086
Obrót (2) w milionach euro
WZ 2003
3.132
414
305.805
270.086
Pracujący zarobkowo (3) Liczba
Pozostałe sektory kultury i sektory twórcze
2.481
305.805
Podlegający obowiązującemu ubezpieczemiu społecznemu (4) Liczba
79 79 266 *136 182 453 277 208 298 112 *66 220 70 66 74 73 *136 83 78 124 -
125 Obrót na pracującego zarobkowo (5) w tys. euro
w sposób zależny, których stanowiska pracy podlegają obowiązkowi ubezpieczenia społecznego (4) bez tzw. mini jobs. W powyższej tabeli „Sektory sztuki i rozrywki” nie uwzględniono szeregu gałęzi gospodarki podanych przez Söndermanna w zestawieniu wykonanym na zlecenie Konferencji ministrów gospodarki. Stanowią one między 67% a 75%
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
całkowitego obszaru „sektora kultury i sektora twórczego”, a więc większość. Przyjęte powyżej pojęcie „sektora sztuki i rozrywki” umożliwia węższe ujęcie sztuki i szersze ujęcie kultury z uwzględnieniem ogrodów zoologicznych (najbardziej pielęgnowanej w skali światowej komunalnej dziedziny kulturalnej), cyrku i sztukmistrzostwa, szkół tańca oraz całego sek-
225
33 Por. www.unesco.de.
226
226
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
33 Por. www.unesco.de.
zarobkowo, lecz z uwagi na niedużą wielkość inicjatyw, niemal trzykrotnie wyższą liczbę przedsiębiorstw i osób prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek. Jego rdzeń, czyli produkcja i przekaz twórczości literackiej, muzycznej, dramatycznej, plastycznej i filmowej, obejmuje ciągle jeszcze 29,8 mld euro obrotu, przy czym z uwagi na wielorakie powiązania można ogólnie zakładać stosunek obrotu do wkładu w PKB wynoszący 2:1. Pod względem gospodarczo-politycznym można tym samym odnotować godną uwagi rentowność publicznych nakładów na kulturę. Podczas gdy Europejska Konwencja Kulturalna Rady Europy (1954) nie posiadała wiążących następstw dla samowyobrażenia państw sygnatariuszy i dla ich procesów gospodarczych, a tym samym nie spowodowała nieporozumień i oporu, to w związku z negocjacjami GATS utworzył się silny front wszystkich państw członkowskich UE jak również Unii Europejskiej. 20 października 2005 r. podczas generalnego zgromadzenia UNESCO uchwalono konwencję UNESCO Cultural Diversity / Różnorodność kulturowa, która zainicjowała szereg aktywności zarówno o charakterze krajowym, jak i międzynarodowym. 33 Można uznać, że polityka kulturalna jako element składowy polityki istotnej z gospodarczego punktu widzenia zdobyła i ugruntowała pozycję na płaszczyźnie międzynarodowej.
dukacja kulturalna” to aktualne hasło polityki kulturalnej, z punktu widzenia logiki jednak to czysty hendiadys. Cultura ukierunkowana była już przy pierwszym pojawieniu się w historii (Cyceron: Tusculanae Disputationes 45 p.n.e.) na proces kształcenia (młodych) ludzi; Edukacja / kształcenie/ stanowi zawsze zarówno zjawisko kultywowane jak również specyficzne dla miejsca występowania. Stosownym byłoby, w związku z regularnie wysuwanym kontekstem tego pojęcia w połączeniu ze słowem i muzyką, mówienie w tym przypadku o „edukacji artystycznej”. Tymczasem, dziewięć muz jest znacznie mniej nacechowanych emfatycznie niż posiadający pozytywne wydźwięk termin „kultura”. Z jego pomocą można uszlachetnić prawoznawstwo czyniąc z niego kulturę prawa, rzemiosło fryzjerskie czyniąc z niego kulturę głowy, a drugą najniższą potrzebę w hierarchii potrzeb Maslowa34 nazywając kulturą jedzenia. Pojęcie „edukacja artystyczna” posiada ze swej strony ma złożoną historię35, jak wyjaśnia Peez, i w pierwszej kolejności odnosi się do sformalizowanego procesu szkolenia: „Jego centralną cechę stanowi zasada
7. Społeczeństwo obywatelskie
„E
„E
7. Społeczeństwo obywatelskie
dukacja kulturalna” to aktualne hasło polityki kulturalnej, z punktu widzenia logiki jednak to czysty hendiadys. Cultura ukierunkowana była już przy pierwszym pojawieniu się w historii (Cyceron: Tusculanae Disputationes 45 p.n.e.) na proces kształcenia (młodych) ludzi; Edukacja / kształcenie/ stanowi zawsze zarówno zjawisko kultywowane jak również specyficzne dla miejsca występowania. Stosownym byłoby, w związku z regularnie wysuwanym kontekstem tego pojęcia w połączeniu ze słowem i muzyką, mówienie w tym przypadku o „edukacji artystycznej”. Tymczasem, dziewięć muz jest znacznie mniej nacechowanych emfatycznie niż posiadający pozytywne wydźwięk termin „kultura”. Z jego pomocą można uszlachetnić prawoznawstwo czyniąc z niego kulturę prawa, rzemiosło fryzjerskie czyniąc z niego kulturę głowy, a drugą najniższą potrzebę w hierarchii potrzeb Maslowa34 nazywając kulturą jedzenia. Pojęcie „edukacja artystyczna” posiada ze swej strony ma złożoną historię35, jak wyjaśnia Peez, i w pierwszej kolejności odnosi się do sformalizowanego procesu szkolenia: „Jego centralną cechę stanowi zasada
zarobkowo, lecz z uwagi na niedużą wielkość inicjatyw, niemal trzykrotnie wyższą liczbę przedsiębiorstw i osób prowadzących działalność na własny rachunek. Jego rdzeń, czyli produkcja i przekaz twórczości literackiej, muzycznej, dramatycznej, plastycznej i filmowej, obejmuje ciągle jeszcze 29,8 mld euro obrotu, przy czym z uwagi na wielorakie powiązania można ogólnie zakładać stosunek obrotu do wkładu w PKB wynoszący 2:1. Pod względem gospodarczo-politycznym można tym samym odnotować godną uwagi rentowność publicznych nakładów na kulturę. Podczas gdy Europejska Konwencja Kulturalna Rady Europy (1954) nie posiadała wiążących następstw dla samowyobrażenia państw sygnatariuszy i dla ich procesów gospodarczych, a tym samym nie spowodowała nieporozumień i oporu, to w związku z negocjacjami GATS utworzył się silny front wszystkich państw członkowskich UE jak również Unii Europejskiej. 20 października 2005 r. podczas generalnego zgromadzenia UNESCO uchwalono konwencję UNESCO Cultural Diversity / Różnorodność kulturowa, która zainicjowała szereg aktywności zarówno o charakterze krajowym, jak i międzynarodowym. 33 Można uznać, że polityka kulturalna jako element składowy polityki istotnej z gospodarczego punktu widzenia zdobyła i ugruntowała pozycję na płaszczyźnie międzynarodowej.
tora radia i telewizji. Brytyjskie pojęcie „creative industries” łączy natomiast branżę komunikacyjną (prasę, reklamę, projektowanie), architekturę bez budownictwa podziemnego oraz w szczególności przemysł oprogramowania / gier w sztuczną całość. Jednym z licznych problemów pojęcia creative, naznaczonego pozytywnością polityczną, jest to, że wszystkie inne nie-„kreatywne” przemysły muszą z logicznego punktu widzenia być uważane za „niekreatywne”. Jednak nie sposób myśleć w ten sposób nawet o brytyjskim przemyśle motoryzacyjnym, nie wspominając o brytyjskich usługach branży finansowej. Urok tego pojęcia polega z punktu widzenia gospodarki na tym, że zebrane tutaj gałęzie gospodarki wykazują największe w skali Europy wskaźniki wzrostu, dogoniły zasadniczo sektor budowy pojazdów samochodowych, czy też przemysł chemiczny i w związku z tym znajdują się w centrum uwagi polityki. Na niemieckiej Konferencji ministrów gospodarki w 2008 r. pojawiła się następująca definicja: „Sektor gospodarczy kultury i sektor twórczy obejmuje te przedsiębiorstwa kulturalne i twórcze, które w przeważającej mierze są zorientowane na zarobkowanie i zajmują się opracowywaniem, produkcją, dystrybucją oraz/ lub medialnym rozpowszechnianiem kulturalnych/ twórczych dóbr i usług”. Komisja badawcza „Kultura w Niemczech” próbowała posługiwać się pojęciem kluczowym „aktu tworzenia”. Jednakże ten stanowi, jako stała antropologiczna, podstawę wszystkich ludzkich artefaktów i nie można posługiwać się nim w tym przypadku w sposób oderwany. Debata ta posiada jednak pewien efekt uboczny, który jest ważny dla kultury w węższym rozumieniu, jak i samej gospodarki. Söndermann zauważa: „Należy [...] zdecydowanie zwrócić uwagę na to, że pojęcie aktu tworzenia w koncepcji gospodarki kulturalnej i kreatywnej musi być interpretowane dodatkowo także jako kategoria gospodarcza. Produkcja estetycznych treści musi postępować równolegle z procesem gospodarczym lub do niego prowadzić. Nie należy tutaj rozumieć procesu gospodarczego jako prostego szacowania prawnopodatkowego, lecz w znacznie szerszym znaczeniu”. U Petera Bendixena widać to podwójnie: każdy proces gospodarczy ma także pewien wymiar kulturowy, a każdy proces kulturalny ma wymiar gospodarczy. Z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej pojęcie gospodarki w dziedzinie kultury nie doprowadzi daleko, jeśli zostanie pomieszane ze sztucznym pojęciem gospodarki kreatywnej /twórczej/. Aby odciąć się od tej debaty, utworzono powyżej pojęcie „sektora gospodarczego sztuki i rozrywki”. Obejmuje on niecały procent obrotu gospodarczego ogółem i niecały procent osób pracujących
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
tora radia i telewizji. Brytyjskie pojęcie „creative industries” łączy natomiast branżę komunikacyjną (prasę, reklamę, projektowanie), architekturę bez budownictwa podziemnego oraz w szczególności przemysł oprogramowania / gier w sztuczną całość. Jednym z licznych problemów pojęcia creative, naznaczonego pozytywnością polityczną, jest to, że wszystkie inne nie-„kreatywne” przemysły muszą z logicznego punktu widzenia być uważane za „niekreatywne”. Jednak nie sposób myśleć w ten sposób nawet o brytyjskim przemyśle motoryzacyjnym, nie wspominając o brytyjskich usługach branży finansowej. Urok tego pojęcia polega z punktu widzenia gospodarki na tym, że zebrane tutaj gałęzie gospodarki wykazują największe w skali Europy wskaźniki wzrostu, dogoniły zasadniczo sektor budowy pojazdów samochodowych, czy też przemysł chemiczny i w związku z tym znajdują się w centrum uwagi polityki. Na niemieckiej Konferencji ministrów gospodarki w 2008 r. pojawiła się następująca definicja: „Sektor gospodarczy kultury i sektor twórczy obejmuje te przedsiębiorstwa kulturalne i twórcze, które w przeważającej mierze są zorientowane na zarobkowanie i zajmują się opracowywaniem, produkcją, dystrybucją oraz/ lub medialnym rozpowszechnianiem kulturalnych/ twórczych dóbr i usług”. Komisja badawcza „Kultura w Niemczech” próbowała posługiwać się pojęciem kluczowym „aktu tworzenia”. Jednakże ten stanowi, jako stała antropologiczna, podstawę wszystkich ludzkich artefaktów i nie można posługiwać się nim w tym przypadku w sposób oderwany. Debata ta posiada jednak pewien efekt uboczny, który jest ważny dla kultury w węższym rozumieniu, jak i samej gospodarki. Söndermann zauważa: „Należy [...] zdecydowanie zwrócić uwagę na to, że pojęcie aktu tworzenia w koncepcji gospodarki kulturalnej i kreatywnej musi być interpretowane dodatkowo także jako kategoria gospodarcza. Produkcja estetycznych treści musi postępować równolegle z procesem gospodarczym lub do niego prowadzić. Nie należy tutaj rozumieć procesu gospodarczego jako prostego szacowania prawnopodatkowego, lecz w znacznie szerszym znaczeniu”. U Petera Bendixena widać to podwójnie: każdy proces gospodarczy ma także pewien wymiar kulturowy, a każdy proces kulturalny ma wymiar gospodarczy. Z punktu widzenia polityki kulturalnej pojęcie gospodarki w dziedzinie kultury nie doprowadzi daleko, jeśli zostanie pomieszane ze sztucznym pojęciem gospodarki kreatywnej /twórczej/. Aby odciąć się od tej debaty, utworzono powyżej pojęcie „sektora gospodarczego sztuki i rozrywki”. Obejmuje on niecały procent obrotu gospodarczego ogółem i niecały procent osób pracujących
33 Por. www.unesco.de.
227
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
całościowego kształcenia człowieka, w którym na Najnowsze badania41 szwajcarskich naukowców pierwszy plan wysuwają się krytyczne nastawiedotyczące zachowań kulturalnych dojrzałego społenie do kultury i odwoływanie się do [sic!] twórczej czeństwa wykazują, że 2/3 członków społeczeństwa mocy człowieka.”36 regularnie (jeden do sześć razy w roku) uczestniczy w koncertach, zwiedza historyczne miejsca lub Jak wskazuje na to liczba mnoga określenia chodzi do kina; połowa udaje się do muzeum, cyrku „twórcze moce”, w edukacji kulturalnej lub lub teatru; 1/3 kieruje się na festiwale i do bibliotek. artystycznej człowieka nie chodzi początkowo WyjƑcia na wystħpy baletowe/taneczne 20% Badania prowadzone w innych krajach pokazują o zgłębianie sztuk jako celu samego w sobie, lecz WyjƑcia do bibliotek (praca, ksztaųcenie) 21% podobne wyniki.42 Różnice w wieku nie mają tutaj o ich zdolność rozwijania kreatywnych potencjaFestiwale (wszelkiego rodzaju) 35% łów indywiduum i pomoc w dotarciu przezWyjƑcia niegodo bibliotek większego znaczenia (w czasie wolnym) – w przeciwieństwie do różnic 36% do szczytu autoaktualizacji wg Maslowa WyjƑcia („Whatdo teatru w wykształceniu i dochodach. Wśród największych 42% a man can be, he must be.”37). Pianino i skrzypce przeszkód aktywności kulturalnej wyZwiedzanie muzeów sztuki, w realizacji galerii 43% to sprawdzone drogowskazy na tej drodze. Jak się brak czasu (w zależności oditd.) pola między Uczestnictwo wmienia pozostaųych przedstawieniach (cyrkowych 44% niedawno wykazał szereg przeprowadzonych 50% historycznych, a 70%), natomiast kosztyitp. stanowią przeszkodę Zwiedzanie muzeów technicznych 49% 63% badań38, kilka godzin matematyki w szkoleWyjƑcia mniejdo kinaśrednio jedynie w 15%. Odwiedzanie zabytków i historycznych miejsc 66% i kilka godzin muzyki więcej umożliwi osiągnięcie ZACHOWANIA KULTURALNE Uczestnictwo w koncertach 67% lepszych ocen z matematyki. Poza tą bezpośrednią (Szwajcaria 2008; w procentach dorosłego społeczeństwa) funkcją ars gratia culturae ponownie nie chodzi o sztuki stanowiące cel sam w sobie ars gratia Uczestnictwo w koncertach 67% artis, lecz o antropologiczną czołową funkcję y i historycznych y y miejsc j Odwiedzanie zabytków 66% ars gratia libertatis; a mianowicie wówczas, gdy Wyjścia do kina 63% powodują rozwój człowieka jako homo ludens39, Zwiedzanie muzeów historycznych, technicznych itp. 49% który według Schillera jest w pełni człowiekiem Uczestnictwo w pozostałych przedstawieniach (cyrkowych itd.) 44% tylko tam, gdzie się bawi i gra.40 Ich sfera stanowi Zwiedzanie muzeów sztuki, galerii 43% przeciwieństwo średnio-wysoko-niemieckiego Wyjścia do teatru 42% pojęcia „arebeit”, trudu i zmartwień związanych Wyjścia do bibliotek (w czasie wolnym) 36% z zaspokojeniem fizjologicznych potrzeb. Muzy Festiwale (wszelkiego rodzaju) 35% stanowią od epoki greckiej rdzeń europejskiego Wyjścia do bibliotek (praca, kształcenie) 21% samowyobrażenia społeczeństwa obywatelskieWyjścia na występy baletowe/taneczne 20% go, czy to poprzez dążenie do wznoszenia się 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% poprzez sztukę w rozumieniu mieszczańskim, czy to poprzez rozrywkę w rozumieniu ogólnospołeczŹródło: Schweizerisches Bundesamt für Statistik (2009): Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. nym, którą delektujemy się w sposób twórczy lub Erhebung 2008. Uczestnictwo w koncertach receptywny. Odwiedzanie zabytków i historycznych miejsc WyjĞcia do kina Zwiedzanie muzeów historycznych, technicznych itp. 34 Maslow, Abraham H.: A Theory of Human Motivation. W: Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96.-(cyrkowych Wielokrotnie itd.) cytowane Uczestnictwo w pozostaáych przedstawieniach pojęcie „piramidy” tutaj nie wystepuje.
35
Pojęcie to zostało utworzone w ramach pedagogiki reformacyjnej lat 20-stych; jego korzenie sięgają m.in. do ruchu młodzieżowego. [...] Od końca lat 60-tych [...] w strefie pracy socjalnej, w której z uwagi na ogólne deficyty teorii mogło się do tego czasu utrzymać, pojęcie to jest uznawane za staroświeckie. Tutaj wkroczyły koncepty estetycznego wychowania. Na podstawie wytycznych z dziedziny polityki, pojęcie „des Musischen” – artystycznego, jest ponownie używane przede wszystkim w pracy kulturalnej z młodzieżą (od połowy lat 80-tych) – w takich kombinacjach wyrazów jak „musisch-ästhetische Erziehung” (artystyczno-estetyczne wychowanie) lub „musische Bildung und Medienerziehung” (kształcenie artystyczne i wychowanie w kontakcie z mediami). Peez, Georg: Musische Bildung. W: Fachlexikon der sozialen Arbeit. Frankfurt a. M. (Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private Fürsorge) 6. Wydanie 2007, s. 662-663. Peetz (2007), a.a.O.
36 37
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and personality. New York 1954, s. 91. Por. Bastian, Hans Günther: Musik(erziehung) und ihre Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner Grundschulen. Mainz 2000.
38 39
Huizinga, Johan: Homo Ludens, proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur. Haarlem, 1938.
40 41
Schiller, Friedrich [o]: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795).
Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Eidgenössisches Deparement des Inneren, Bundesamt für Statistik: Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008. Erste Ergebnisse. Neuchätel, 2009.- Kompletne rezultaty mają zostać przedstawione w 2010 r.
42
Por. z Francją, Austrią, Unią Europejską i in. Donnat, O.: Les Pratiques culturelles des Frangais. Enquete 1997, La documentation frangaise, Paris 1998. IFES Institut für empirische Sozialforschung: Kultur- Monitoring. Bevölkerungsbefragung, Wien 2007. EUROSTAT: Uczestnictwo Europejczyków w aktywnościach kulturalnych. Ankieta Eurobarometer na zlecenie Komisji Europejskiej, Brüssel 2002. Europäische Kommission: European cultural values. Special Eurobarometer 278, Brüssel 2007.
Por. z Francją, Austrią, Unią Europejską i in. Donnat, O.: Les Pratiques culturelles des Frangais. Enquete 1997, La documentation frangaise, Paris 1998. IFES Institut für empirische Sozialforschung: Kultur- Monitoring. Bevölkerungsbefragung, Wien 2007. EUROSTAT: Uczestnictwo Europejczyków w aktywnościach kulturalnych. Ankieta Eurobarometer na zlecenie Komisji Europejskiej, Brüssel 2002. Europäische Kommission: European cultural values. Special Eurobarometer 278, Brüssel 2007.
42
Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Eidgenössisches Deparement des Inneren, Bundesamt für Statistik: Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. Erhebung 2008. Erste Ergebnisse. Neuchätel, 2009.- Kompletne rezultaty mają zostać przedstawione w 2010 r.
41
Schiller, Friedrich [o]: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795).
40
Huizinga, Johan: Homo Ludens, proeve eener bepaling van het spel-element der cultuur. Haarlem, 1938.
39
Por. Bastian, Hans Günther: Musik(erziehung) und ihre Wirkung. Eine Langzeitstudie an Berliner Grundschulen. Mainz 2000.
38
Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and personality. New york 1954, s. 91.
37
Peetz (2007), a.a.O.
36
Pojęcie to zostało utworzone w ramach pedagogiki reformacyjnej lat 20-stych; jego korzenie sięgają m.in. do ruchu młodzieżowego. [...] Od końca lat 60-tych [...] w strefie pracy socjalnej, w której z uwagi na ogólne deficyty teorii mogło się do tego czasu utrzymać, pojęcie to jest uznawane za staroświeckie. Tutaj wkroczyły koncepty estetycznego wychowania. Na podstawie wytycznych z dziedziny polityki, pojęcie „des Musischen” – artystycznego, jest ponownie używane przede wszystkim w pracy kulturalnej z młodzieżą (od połowy lat 80-tych) – w takich kombinacjach wyrazów jak „musisch-ästhetische Erziehung” (artystyczno-estetyczne wychowanie) lub „musische Bildung und Medienerziehung” (kształcenie artystyczne i wychowanie w kontakcie z mediami). Peez, Georg: Musische Bildung. W: Fachlexikon der sozialen Arbeit. Frankfurt a. M. (Deutscher Verein für öffentliche und private Fürsorge) 6. Wydanie 2007, s. 662-663.
35
Maslow, Abraham H.: A Theory of Human Motivation. W: Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96.-(cyrkowych Wielokrotnie itd.) cytowane Uczestnictwo w pozostaáych przedstawieniach pojęcie „piramidy” tutaj nie wystepuje.
34
2008. Uczestnictwo Erhebung w koncertach Odwiedzanie zabytków i historycznych miejsc WyjĞcia do kina Zwiedzanie muzeów historycznych, technicznych itp.
całościowego kształcenia człowieka, w którym na Najnowsze badania41 szwajcarskich naukowców pierwszy plan wysuwają się krytyczne nastawiedotyczące zachowań kulturalnych dojrzałego społenie do kultury i odwoływanie się do [sic!] twórczej czeństwa wykazują, że 2/3 członków społeczeństwa mocy człowieka.”36 regularnie (jeden do sześć razy w roku) uczestniczy w koncertach, zwiedza historyczne miejsca lub Jak wskazuje na to liczba mnoga określenia chodzi do kina; połowa udaje się do muzeum, cyrku „twórcze moce”, w edukacji kulturalnej lub lub teatru; 1/3 kieruje się na festiwale i do bibliotek. artystycznej człowieka nie chodzi początkowo WyjƑcia na wystħpy baletowe/taneczne 20% Badania prowadzone w innych krajach pokazują o zgłębianie sztuk jako celu samego w sobie, lecz WyjƑcia do bibliotek (praca, ksztaųcenie) 21% podobne wyniki.42 Różnice w wieku nie mają tutaj o ich zdolność rozwijania kreatywnych potencjaFestiwale (wszelkiego rodzaju) 35% łów indywiduum i pomoc w dotarciu przezWyjƑcia niegodo bibliotek większego znaczenia (w czasie wolnym) – w przeciwieństwie do różnic 36% do szczytu autoaktualizacji wg Maslowa WyjƑcia („Whatdo teatru w wykształceniu i dochodach. Wśród największych 42% a man can be, he must be.”37). Pianino i skrzypce przeszkód realizacji aktywności kulturalnej wyZwiedzanie muzeów sztuki, w galerii 43% to sprawdzone drogowskazy na tej drodze. Jak się brak czasu (w zależności oditd.) pola między Uczestnictwo wmienia pozostaųych przedstawieniach (cyrkowych 44% niedawno wykazał szereg przeprowadzonych 50% historycznych, a 70%), natomiast kosztyitp. stanowią przeszkodę Zwiedzanie muzeów technicznych 49% 63% badań38, kilka godzin matematyki w szkoleWyjƑcia mniejdo kinaśrednio jedynie w 15%. Odwiedzanie zabytków i historycznych miejsc 66% i kilka godzin muzyki więcej umożliwi osiągnięcie ZACHOWANIA KULTURALNE Uczestnictwo w koncertach 67% lepszych ocen z matematyki. Poza tą bezpośrednią (Szwajcaria 2008; w procentach dorosłego społeczeństwa) funkcją ars gratia culturae ponownie nie chodzi o sztuki stanowiące cel sam w sobie ars gratia Uczestnictwo w koncertach 67% artis, lecz o antropologiczną czołową funkcję y i historycznych y y miejsc j Odwiedzanie zabytków 66% ars gratia libertatis; a mianowicie wówczas, gdy Wyjścia do kina 63% powodują rozwój człowieka jako homo ludens39, Zwiedzanie muzeów historycznych, technicznych itp. 49% który według Schillera jest w pełni człowiekiem Uczestnictwo w pozostałych przedstawieniach (cyrkowych itd.) 44% tylko tam, gdzie się bawi i gra.40 Ich sfera stanowi Zwiedzanie muzeów sztuki, galerii 43% przeciwieństwo średnio-wysoko-niemieckiego Wyjścia do teatru 42% pojęcia „arebeit”, trudu i zmartwień związanych Wyjścia do bibliotek (w czasie wolnym) 36% z zaspokojeniem fizjologicznych potrzeb. Muzy Festiwale (wszelkiego rodzaju) 35% stanowią od epoki greckiej rdzeń europejskiego Wyjścia do bibliotek (praca, kształcenie) 21% samowyobrażenia społeczeństwa obywatelskieWyjścia na występy baletowe/taneczne 20% go, czy to poprzez dążenie do wznoszenia się 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% poprzez sztukę w rozumieniu mieszczańskim, czy to poprzez rozrywkę w rozumieniu ogólnospołeczŹródło: Schweizerisches Bundesamt für Statistik (2009): Kulturverhalten in der Schweiz. nym, którą delektujemy się w sposób twórczy lub receptywny.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
33 Por. www.unesco.de.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
8. Nauki humanistyczne w sposób nieuchronny do ukształtowanego poziomu państwowego i regionalnego. Rozumienie kultury jako bastionu wspólnoty ma w Niemczech pewną tradycję. Późniejszy wykładowca Uniwersytetu we Freiburgu Ernst Wolfgang Böckenförde postawił w 1967 r. pytanie: „Z czego żyje państwo, w czym znajduje dźwigającą je, gwarantującą jednolitość siłę i wewnętrzne regulacyjne moce wolności, których potrzebuje?” i odpowiedział w otwarty sposób: „Wolnościowe, zeświecczone państwo żyje z przesłanek i założeń, których samo nie może zapewnić.”45 Nawiązując do stowarzyszeń kształcenia pracowników w XIX w. w tak zwanych landach A (tradycyjnie rządzonych przez SPD), stosowne resorty funkcjonują jako „Ministerstwa ds. nauki i kultury”. W tak zwanych landach B (tradycyjnie rządzonych przez CDU), dominuje z kolei pojęcie „Ministerstwo ds. nauki i sztuki”. W rzeczywistości oba z nich odnoszą się do jednej i tej samej „kultury artystycznej” i funkcji sztuki w samorozwoju społeczeństwa i jego członków (ars gratia culturae).
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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rząd Statystyczny Unii Europejskiej Eurostat (i inne badania dotyczące nakładów na kulturę) konsekwentnie pomijają centralne zasoby kultury: nauki humanistyczne. To w UE cecha właściwa systemowi. Maksymą jest zasada Fichtego: „praktyczna sztuka zastosowania w życiu”.46 Nazywa ona scienda, to co należy wiedzieć, jako „science” i tak oto już w pierwotnym rozumieniu językowym ogranicza kanon nauk do nauk przyrodniczych, nauk o życiu i nauk technicznych. Zajmują one w 7. Ramowym Programie Badawczym (2007-2013)
Salutati, Coluccio: List kondolencyjny do Ugolino Orsini de’ Conti di Manupello z okazji śmierci jego ojca, którego dzieła zostały podkreślone. Epistolario I, List XVIII, Viterbii, pridie kalendas octobris [1369]: „Omnium consensu divinarum humanarumque rerum volumina, quasi Parnassus biceps pariter continens, utriusque sophie non sophistico, non ventoso sensu, sed vere realitatis solidam existentiam attingebat, et denique omnia humanitatis studia longa exercitatione complexus ad universas vite partes et sibi et ceteris consulebat.” W: Epistolario di Coluccio Salutati, a cura di Francesaco Movati, Roma, 1891 (vol. I) 1893 (vol. II), 1896 (vol. III), 1905 (vol. IV/t), 1911 (vol. IV/2). Tutaj Vol. 1, S. 106.
48
Wydatki każdego Niemca, związane z zajmowaniem się we własnym zakresie literaturą i innymi formami sztuki, przeznaczone na usługi kulturalne lub produkty, zgodnie z terminologią koszyka produktów Federalnego Urzędu Statystycznego, wynoszą 344 euro rocznie; łącznie 28 mld euro. Pierwotne beockie trio43 muz Melete, Mneme i Aoide – Burckhardt44 tłumaczy jako Eifer (gorliwość, pilność) [w sensie studium], Erinnerung (pamięć, wspomnienie) i Gesang (śpiew). W rzeczywistości centralne pojęcie, które było dostępne starożytnym Grekom w praktyce naukowej, stanowiła grupa pojęć: rozważać, studiować, ćwiczyć – (μελετάω). Tym czynnościom współcześni uczniowie poświęcają połowę swojego tygodnia, w epoce life long learning stanowią decydującą dla Europy szansę potencjału gospodarczego. Za pomocą sztuki wspominania Mneme można scharakteryzować uwzględnienie historycznego myślenia, w takim znaczeniu, jak interesuje ono coraz szersze kręgi społeczeństwa od czasu sukcesu wystawy krajowej o Staufach, która odbyła się w Stuttgarcie w 1976 r. (Stuttgarter StauferLandesausstellung). Metafora Aoide oznacza wreszcie twórcze wykorzystanie przemyślanego i zapamiętanego, umożliwiając nadanie artystycznej lub humanistycznej formy rezultatom przemyśleń i historycznej refleksji. Grupa odnoszących się do sztuki aktywności społeczeństwa obywatelskiego może być w tym sensie traktowana jako „kultura artystyczna”. Stanowi ona w wystarczająco wyraźnej definicji przedmiot nauki o polityce kulturalnej dla segmentu polityki kulturalnej pochodzącego od pierwszego aktora polityki, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Πολιτεία oznacza przecież w pierwszym rzędzie interakcję „więcej niż dwojga” (πολύ) ludzi i nie ogranicza sztuki dobra ogółu
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/budget_en.html.
47
Pausanias IX, 29,2.- Por. z dalszymi opracowaniami Ettlinger, L. D.: Die Verwandlung der Musen in die sieben Freien Künste. W: Sitzungsberichte der Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft, Berlin 1960/61.
Wiele z wykładanych dotąd na uniwersytetach przedmiotów (jak wspomniana już teologia, jurysprudencja, medycyna) posiada elementy, które nie zaliczają się do sztuki naukowej, lecz do bardzo różnorodnej praktycznej sztuki zastosowania w życiu.« Fichte: Deduzierter Plan, § 22. Por. Schelsky: Einsamkeit und Freiheit. Reinbek 1963, s. 88.
46
43
Böckenförde, Ernst Wolfgang: Die Entstehung des Staates als Vorgang der Säkularisation (1967), ponowna publikacja w: tym samym: Recht, Staat, Freiheit, Frankfurt am Main 1991. S. 111 bzw. 112.
45
Burckhardt, Jacob: Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Band 20. Griechische Kulturgeschichte. Zweiter Band, Dritter Abschnitt: Religion und Kultus. II. Die Griechen und ihre Götter. München, Basel 2005. Nr wiersza s. 67 kolumna 24.
Burckhardt, Jacob: Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe, Band 20. Griechische Kulturgeschichte. Zweiter Band, Dritter Abschnitt: Religion und Kultus. II. Die Griechen und ihre Götter. München, Basel 2005. Nr wiersza s. 67 kolumna 24.
44
44
Böckenförde, Ernst Wolfgang: Die Entstehung des Staates als Vorgang der Säkularisation (1967), ponowna publikacja w: tym samym: Recht, Staat, Freiheit, Frankfurt am Main 1991. S. 111 bzw. 112.
Pausanias IX, 29,2.- Por. z dalszymi opracowaniami Ettlinger, L. D.: Die Verwandlung der Musen in die sieben Freien Künste. W: Sitzungsberichte der Kunstgeschichtliche Gesellschaft, Berlin 1960/61.
43
45
rząd Statystyczny Unii Europejskiej Eurostat (i inne badania dotyczące nakładów na kulturę) konsekwentnie pomijają centralne zasoby kultury: nauki humanistyczne. To w UE cecha właściwa systemowi. Maksymą jest zasada Fichtego: „praktyczna sztuka zastosowania w życiu”.46 Nazywa ona scienda, to co należy wiedzieć, jako „science” i tak oto już w pierwotnym rozumieniu językowym ogranicza kanon nauk do nauk przyrodniczych, nauk o życiu i nauk technicznych. Zajmują one w 7. Ramowym Programie Badawczym (2007-2013)
46 Wiele z wykładanych dotąd na uniwersytetach przedmiotów (jak wspomniana już teologia, jurysprudencja, medycyna) posiada elementy, które nie zaliczają się do sztuki naukowej, lecz do bardzo różnorodnej praktycznej sztuki zastosowania w życiu.« Fichte: Deduzierter Plan, § 22. Por. Schelsky: Einsamkeit und Freiheit. Reinbek 1963, s. 88.
U
http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/budget_en.html.
8. Nauki humanistyczne
47
w sposób nieuchronny do ukształtowanego poziomu państwowego i regionalnego. Rozumienie kultury jako bastionu wspólnoty ma w Niemczech pewną tradycję. Późniejszy wykładowca Uniwersytetu we Freiburgu Ernst Wolfgang Böckenförde postawił w 1967 r. pytanie: „Z czego żyje państwo, w czym znajduje dźwigającą je, gwarantującą jednolitość siłę i wewnętrzne regulacyjne moce wolności, których potrzebuje?” i odpowiedział w otwarty sposób: „Wolnościowe, zeświecczone państwo żyje z przesłanek i założeń, których samo nie może zapewnić.”45 Nawiązując do stowarzyszeń kształcenia pracowników w XIX w. w tak zwanych landach A (tradycyjnie rządzonych przez SPD), stosowne resorty funkcjonują jako „Ministerstwa ds. nauki i kultury”. W tak zwanych landach B (tradycyjnie rządzonych przez CDU), dominuje z kolei pojęcie „Ministerstwo ds. nauki i sztuki”. W rzeczywistości oba z nich odnoszą się do jednej i tej samej „kultury artystycznej” i funkcji sztuki w samorozwoju społeczeństwa i jego członków (ars gratia culturae).
48 Salutati, Coluccio: List kondolencyjny do Ugolino Orsini de’ Conti di Manupello z okazji śmierci jego ojca, którego dzieła zostały podkreślone. Epistolario I, List XVIII, Viterbii, pridie kalendas octobris [1369]: „Omnium consensu divinarum humanarumque rerum volumina, quasi Parnassus biceps pariter continens, utriusque sophie non sophistico, non ventoso sensu, sed vere realitatis solidam existentiam attingebat, et denique omnia humanitatis studia longa exercitatione complexus ad universas vite partes et sibi et ceteris consulebat.” W: Epistolario di Coluccio Salutati, a cura di Francesaco Movati, Roma, 1891 (vol. I) 1893 (vol. II), 1896 (vol. III), 1905 (vol. IV/t), 1911 (vol. IV/2). Tutaj Vol. 1, S. 106.
Wydatki każdego Niemca, związane z zajmowaniem się we własnym zakresie literaturą i innymi formami sztuki, przeznaczone na usługi kulturalne lub produkty, zgodnie z terminologią koszyka produktów Federalnego Urzędu Statystycznego, wynoszą 344 euro rocznie; łącznie 28 mld euro. Pierwotne beockie trio43 muz Melete, Mneme i Aoide – Burckhardt44 tłumaczy jako Eifer (gorliwość, pilność) [w sensie studium], Erinnerung (pamięć, wspomnienie) i Gesang (śpiew). W rzeczywistości centralne pojęcie, które było dostępne starożytnym Grekom w praktyce naukowej, stanowiła grupa pojęć: rozważać, studiować, ćwiczyć – (μελετάω). Tym czynnościom współcześni uczniowie poświęcają połowę swojego tygodnia, w epoce life long learning stanowią decydującą dla Europy szansę potencjału gospodarczego. Za pomocą sztuki wspominania Mneme można scharakteryzować uwzględnienie historycznego myślenia, w takim znaczeniu, jak interesuje ono coraz szersze kręgi społeczeństwa od czasu sukcesu wystawy krajowej o Staufach, która odbyła się w Stuttgarcie w 1976 r. (Stuttgarter StauferLandesausstellung). Metafora Aoide oznacza wreszcie twórcze wykorzystanie przemyślanego i zapamiętanego, umożliwiając nadanie artystycznej lub humanistycznej formy rezultatom przemyśleń i historycznej refleksji. Grupa odnoszących się do sztuki aktywności społeczeństwa obywatelskiego może być w tym sensie traktowana jako „kultura artystyczna”. Stanowi ona w wystarczająco wyraźnej definicji przedmiot nauki o polityce kulturalnej dla segmentu polityki kulturalnej pochodzącego od pierwszego aktora polityki, społeczeństwa obywatelskiego. Πολιτεία oznacza przecież w pierwszym rzędzie interakcję „więcej niż dwojga” (πολύ) ludzi i nie ogranicza sztuki dobra ogółu
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dziewięć z dziesięciu tematów. Na „socio-economic sciences and the humanities”47 przypada 623 mln euro lub 1,9% z 32.413 mln euro. Odpowiada to wielkości wsparcia w wysokości 0,18 euro na jednego mieszkańca rocznie. Niemiecka wersja „Geistes- Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften” (nauki humanistyczne, gospodarcze i społeczne) popada w przesadę; wersja angielska wspomina jedynie o dziedzinie „badań socjoekonomicznych”, a więc o humanistycznych czynnikach w obrębie rozwoju gospodarki, a więc o humaniora.
8.1. Czym są humaniora?
S
tosowany przez UE termin „humanities” pochodzi od późniejszego florenckiego kanclerza miasta Coluccio Salutatiego (1331-1406). W liście kondolencyjnym wspomina on w 1369 r. o studia humanitatis.48 Zajmowanie się gramatyką, retoryką, historią, literaturą i filozofią moralną (a więc wszystkimi powszechnie uznawanymi wtedy dyscyplinami poza trzema naukami ścisłymi i przyrodniczymi) służyło w okresie trecento nabyciu zdolności do Dobrej Służby we wspólnocie (et sibi et ceteris consulebat), a nie temu, aby stawać się bardziej wykształconym (non quo doctiores efficiamur), lecz jako osobowościowa przesłanka kompetencji do współkształtowania pod pieczęcią ludzkości (quo meliores [jednak nie: melius] efficiamur).49 Nie jest jednak wyraźne – tak jak w dzisiejszym języku francuskim lub angielskim, czy humanitas odnosi się do ludzkości czy, do człowieczeństwa (Menschheit oder Menschlichkeit); skoro jednak użyto dopełniacza zamiast celownika, należy przyjąć to pierwsze. Studia, starania w żadnym razie nie są ukierunkowane na samo zdobywanie wiedzy, lecz na ulepszanie charakteru. Boski porządek, porządek świata i porządek ciała stanowiły w średniowiecznych uniwersytetach trzy wyższe fakultety teologii, obu praw i medycyny. Z punktu widzenia techniki studiowania wysuwał się przed nie fakultet sztuk wyzwolonych. W oświeceniu przypisano mu – zgodnie z wypowiedzią chętnie cytowanego w tym kontekście jeszcze obecnie Immanuela
49
50
51
Kanta50 – specyficzną funkcję: „Dolnym [filozoficznym] fakultetem można nazwać tę klasę uniwersytetu, która zajmuje się jedynie naukami, które zostaną uznane jako normy nie na rozkaz wyżej postawionej osoby.”51 Taki kanon przedmiotów stanowi centralne zadanie przekazywanej nadmiernej praktyczności, aby znów argumentować za Kantem, który tu, całkowicie w tradycji Salutatisa, wyraźnie nawiązuje do pojęcia wolności, a tym samym do późnoantycznego uzasadnienia nauki i badań jako wyzwolenia człowieka do samego siebie: „Teraz umiejętność wydawania sądów w autonomii, tj. w swobodny sposób (w ogóle zgodnie z zasadami myślenia) jest nazywana rozsądkiem. Tak więc filozoficzny fakultet dlatego, ponieważ musi opowiedzieć się za prawdziwością nauk, których się podejmuje, musi być w zamyśle wolny i poddany jedynie ustawodawstwu rozsądku, nie rządu. Na uniwersytecie musi być jednak ufundowany także i taki wydział, tj. musi istnieć filozoficzny fakultet. Patrząc na powyższe trzy, służy on do sprawowania kontroli nad nimi i przez to właśnie jest im przydatny, bo opiera się na prawdzie (najważniejszym i pierwszym warunku uczoności); użyteczność jednakże, którą obiecują wyższe fakultety na cele rządowe, stanowi sprawę drugorzędną.”52 W czasie gdy po 1800 r. kraje Europy kontynentalnej załamywały się pod naporem armii Napoleona i wymagały obrony intelektualnej, powstał nowy model uniwersytecki, który nazywany jest od nazwiska Wilhelma von Humboldta. Zgodnie z tym modelem naukom humanistycznym przypadła centralna funkcja – bez nich i bez ich finansowanej przez państwo, legitymizacji, państwo nie chciało i nie mogło już istnieć. Blanki budowli państwowych nadawały obrazowi zewnętrznemu państwa znaczenie historyczne i rację bytu; wydanie Pieśni o Nibelungach nadało znaczenie obrazowi wewnętrznemu. Germanistyka ustanowiła tak pilnie potrzebne połączenie z Germanami; historiografia nawiązywała do antycznych autorów i umożliwiła poprowadzenie ducha świata wprost do prusackości. Wśród fakultetów filozofia zajmowała z reguły drugie miejsce, nie ustąpiła
Aspekt normatywny jest jeszcze bardziej wyraźny w liście Salutatisa z 1398 r.: „Alterum in quo tibi gratulor est, quod ad litterarum studia te convertas. nichil enim perseverantius nobiscum est quam habitus scientificus et humanitatis studia. habitum autem volo, non quo doctiores solum, sed quo meliores efficiamur, cuius magna pars philosophie moralis preceptis doctrinaque continetur.” Libro Nono [Brief] XXV. A Giovanni di Paoluccio Manzini della Motta di Fivizzano. Firenze, 3 dicembre 1398. Movati ecc.. Rom 1896. Vol. III, S. 330.
Gethmann, Carl Friedrich; Langewiesche, Dieter; Mittelstraß, Jürgen; Simon, Dieter; Stock, Günter: Manifest Geisteswissenschaft. BerlinBrandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 2005.
Kant (1794): Der Streit der Facultäten in drei Abschnitten. Eingang des zweiten Abschnitts.
52
Ibid.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
229
52 51
Ibid.
Kant (1794): Der Streit der Facultäten in drei Abschnitten. Eingang des zweiten Abschnitts.
50
Gethmann, Carl Friedrich; Langewiesche, Dieter; Mittelstraß, Jürgen; Simon, Dieter; Stock, Günter: Manifest Geisteswissenschaft. BerlinBrandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 2005.
49 Aspekt normatywny jest jeszcze bardziej wyraźny w liście Salutatisa z 1398 r.: „Alterum in quo tibi gratulor est, quod ad litterarum studia te convertas. nichil enim perseverantius nobiscum est quam habitus scientificus et humanitatis studia. habitum autem volo, non quo doctiores solum, sed quo meliores efficiamur, cuius magna pars philosophie moralis preceptis doctrinaque continetur.” Libro Nono [Brief] XXV. A Giovanni di Paoluccio Manzini della Motta di Fivizzano. Firenze, 3 dicembre 1398. Movati ecc.. Rom 1896. Vol. III, S. 330.
tosowany przez UE termin „humanities” pochodzi od późniejszego florenckiego kanclerza miasta Coluccio Salutatiego (1331-1406). W liście kondolencyjnym wspomina on w 1369 r. o studia humanitatis.48 Zajmowanie się gramatyką, retoryką, historią, literaturą i filozofią moralną (a więc wszystkimi powszechnie uznawanymi wtedy dyscyplinami poza trzema naukami ścisłymi i przyrodniczymi) służyło w okresie trecento nabyciu zdolności do Dobrej Służby we wspólnocie (et sibi et ceteris consulebat), a nie temu, aby stawać się bardziej wykształconym (non quo doctiores efficiamur), lecz jako osobowościowa przesłanka kompetencji do współkształtowania pod pieczęcią ludzkości (quo meliores [jednak nie: melius] efficiamur).49 Nie jest jednak wyraźne – tak jak w dzisiejszym języku francuskim lub angielskim, czy humanitas odnosi się do ludzkości czy, do człowieczeństwa (Menschheit oder Menschlichkeit); skoro jednak użyto dopełniacza zamiast celownika, należy przyjąć to pierwsze. Studia, starania w żadnym razie nie są ukierunkowane na samo zdobywanie wiedzy, lecz na ulepszanie charakteru. Boski porządek, porządek świata i porządek ciała stanowiły w średniowiecznych uniwersytetach trzy wyższe fakultety teologii, obu praw i medycyny. Z punktu widzenia techniki studiowania wysuwał się przed nie fakultet sztuk wyzwolonych. W oświeceniu przypisano mu – zgodnie z wypowiedzią chętnie cytowanego w tym kontekście jeszcze obecnie Immanuela
S
8.1. Czym są humaniora? dziewięć z dziesięciu tematów. Na „socio-economic sciences and the humanities”47 przypada 623 mln euro lub 1,9% z 32.413 mln euro. Odpowiada to wielkości wsparcia w wysokości 0,18 euro na jednego mieszkańca rocznie. Niemiecka wersja „Geistes- Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften” (nauki humanistyczne, gospodarcze i społeczne) popada w przesadę; wersja angielska wspomina jedynie o dziedzinie „badań socjoekonomicznych”, a więc o humanistycznych czynnikach w obrębie rozwoju gospodarki, a więc o humaniora.
Kanta50 – specyficzną funkcję: „Dolnym [filozoficznym] fakultetem można nazwać tę klasę uniwersytetu, która zajmuje się jedynie naukami, które zostaną uznane jako normy nie na rozkaz wyżej postawionej osoby.”51 Taki kanon przedmiotów stanowi centralne zadanie przekazywanej nadmiernej praktyczności, aby znów argumentować za Kantem, który tu, całkowicie w tradycji Salutatisa, wyraźnie nawiązuje do pojęcia wolności, a tym samym do późnoantycznego uzasadnienia nauki i badań jako wyzwolenia człowieka do samego siebie: „Teraz umiejętność wydawania sądów w autonomii, tj. w swobodny sposób (w ogóle zgodnie z zasadami myślenia) jest nazywana rozsądkiem. Tak więc filozoficzny fakultet dlatego, ponieważ musi opowiedzieć się za prawdziwością nauk, których się podejmuje, musi być w zamyśle wolny i poddany jedynie ustawodawstwu rozsądku, nie rządu. Na uniwersytecie musi być jednak ufundowany także i taki wydział, tj. musi istnieć filozoficzny fakultet. Patrząc na powyższe trzy, służy on do sprawowania kontroli nad nimi i przez to właśnie jest im przydatny, bo opiera się na prawdzie (najważniejszym i pierwszym warunku uczoności); użyteczność jednakże, którą obiecują wyższe fakultety na cele rządowe, stanowi sprawę drugorzędną.”52 W czasie gdy po 1800 r. kraje Europy kontynentalnej załamywały się pod naporem armii Napoleona i wymagały obrony intelektualnej, powstał nowy model uniwersytecki, który nazywany jest od nazwiska Wilhelma von Humboldta. Zgodnie z tym modelem naukom humanistycznym przypadła centralna funkcja – bez nich i bez ich finansowanej przez państwo, legitymizacji, państwo nie chciało i nie mogło już istnieć. Blanki budowli państwowych nadawały obrazowi zewnętrznemu państwa znaczenie historyczne i rację bytu; wydanie Pieśni o Nibelungach nadało znaczenie obrazowi wewnętrznemu. Germanistyka ustanowiła tak pilnie potrzebne połączenie z Germanami; historiografia nawiązywała do antycznych autorów i umożliwiła poprowadzenie ducha świata wprost do prusackości. Wśród fakultetów filozofia zajmowała z reguły drugie miejsce, nie ustąpiła
230
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Cyt. wg: Are We Beyond the Two Cultures? http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/are_we_beyond_the_two_cultures/
jej jedynie teologia, która pozostała na pierwszym miejscu. W pewnym sensie do dzisiaj ma rangę symbolicznego sekundanta. W drugiej połowie XX w. fizyk Charles Percy Snow stwierdził w 1959 r. podczas wykładu na Uniwersytecie Cambridge fakt niemożności podejmowania dialogu między „literary intellectuals” humanities z jednej strony a przedstawicielami science, nauki przyrodniczej odnotowującej obiektywne wyniki badań, z drugiej strony. Jego obronna postawa: „Science [is] not understood or respected by the dominant culture [der literary intellectuals], to the detriment of all”53 zaowocowała artykułem w gazecie w 1956 r.,54 wykładem względzie jego drukiem w 1959 r. 55 i książką rozpowszechniającą ten pogląd w 1964 r. 56 Skontrastowanie Dwóch Kultur nawiązuje do twórcy pojęcia „Humanismus” (humanizmu) (1808), teoretyka wychowania, bawarskiego reformatora szkolnictwa i przyjaciela Hegla, Friedricha Immanuela Niethammera (1766-1848). Jako „dualizm między humanistycznymi gimnazjami a gimnazjami realnymi”57, kontrast ten w sposób istotny kształtował długi XIX w. Jego humanizm był wzorcem idealnym: kształtowanie charakteru poprzez „ideały humanizmu” 58 jako cel wychowawczy. Bezpośrednio w tradycji pojęcia Niethammera znajdują się humanities w Stanach Zjednoczonych. National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act (1965) definiuje promowaną przez siebie dziedzinę w następujący sposób: „Termin „nauki humanistyczne” obejmuje m.in. naukę języków, zarówno nowożytnych, jak i klasycznych, lingwistykę, literaturę, historię, jurysprudencję, filozofię, archeologię, religię porównawczą, etykę, historię, krytykę i teorię
sztuki, aspekty nauk ścisłych, które zawierają treści humanistyczne i posługują się metodami humanistycznymi, oraz badanie i wykorzystanie nauk ścisłych w środowisku człowieka ze szczególny uwzględnieniem naszego zróżnicowanego dorobku, tradycji i historii oraz roli nauk ścisłych w aktualnych warunkach życia narodowego.”59 Do zasygnalizowanej przez Kanta nadmiernej użyteczności danych przedmiotów nawiązuje wspaniały nakaz („democracy demands wisdom”), jednakże nieustalony nakaz ze strony państwa („conveying the lessons of history to all Americans”) z National Endowment for the Humanities, pochodzący w wyraźny sposób zza Atlantyku i czerpiący z jeszcze jak najbardziej żywej ideologii XIX w.: „Narodowa Fundacja Humanistyki (NEH) jest niezależną agencją federalną założoną w 1965. [...] Ponieważ demokracja wymaga mądrości, Narodowa Fundacja Humanistyki (NEH) służy naszej Republice i wzmacnia ją poprzez promowanie doskonałości w naukach humanistycznych oraz nauczania historii wszystkich Amerykanów.”60 To, co jest uznawane za „humanizm” (a było nim w tak niewielkim stopniu jak Konstantynopol był bizantyjski), było porównywalne z ideologią użyteczności Waszyngtona i z ukształtowanym przez Droysena61 pojmowaniem „nauk humanistycznych”.62 Podczas gdy Leopold von Ranke zadowalał się tym, „co się stało”, Droysen domagał się sensu: „Historia powinna umożliwiać orientację, współtworzyć przyszłość, ściślej mówiąc, być polityką realizowaną poprzez inne środki.”63 Powróćmy do Snowa 1959. Dla niego główną kwestię stanowił inny problem również zorientowany na Dobrą Służbę: Co mogą zrobić bogate
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
53
230
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures. New Statesman, październik, 6, 1956 r.
Prantl, ibid.
58
54
Por. Prantl, Carl: Artikel Niethammer, Friedrich Immanuel. W: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, wydajnej przez Komisję Historyczną przy Bawarskiej Akademii Nauk, Tom 23 (1886), s. 689-691: „W roku 1808 Montgelas powołał go [Niethammera] do Monachium i zlecił w imieniu Centralnej Rady Szkolnej oraz Wyższej Rady Kościelnej opracowanie nowego planu nauczania dla gimnazjów; w celu przygotowania i uzasadnienia tegoż planu, opublikował on „Spór filantropii i humanizmu w teorii nauki wychowawczej naszych czasów“ (1808), w którym na podstawie rozgraniczenia intelektualnej i zwierzęcej strony człowieka, z jednej strony wykazał znaczenie kształcenia rozsądku w oparciu o ideały humanizmu, a z drugiej strony, rozwijanie realnych umiejętności z zasadniczym podkreśleniem wyższości pierwszego kierunku. [...] Dualizm między humanistycznymi gimnazjami a gimnazjami realnymi był więc sumiennie realizowany, a podczas gdy w pierwszych istotę stanowiło kultywowanie klasycznej starożytności, w przypadku ostatnich została uwzględniona także strona idealna – mianowicie w takiej postaci, że wyższe klasy tych samych miały wprowadzone jako przedmioty nauczania niektóre dyscypliny filozoficzne (w ten sposób N. mógł jeszcze w 1808 r. przyczynić się do powołania Hegla do norymberskiego gimnazjum realnego).”
57
55 Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The Rede Lecture 1959. 7 maja 1959 r., Senate House, University of Cambridge. Opublikowany: Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1959. [52 s.] Niemieckie tłumaczenie jako Snow, C. P.: Die zwei Kulturen. 1959. W: Kreuzer, Helmut (wyd.): Die zwei Kulturen. Literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz. C. P. Snows These in der Diskussion. dtv, München 1987.
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press 1964. [100 s.]
56
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures: And a Second Look: An Expanded Version of The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. Cambridge University Press 1964. [100 s.]
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. The Rede Lecture 1959. 7 maja 1959 r., Senate House, University of Cambridge. Opublikowany: Cambridge University Press Cambridge 1959. [52 s.] Niemieckie tłumaczenie jako Snow, C. P.: Die zwei Kulturen. 1959. W: Kreuzer, Helmut (wyd.): Die zwei Kulturen. Literarische und naturwissenschaftliche Intelligenz. C. P. Snows These in der Diskussion. dtv, München 1987.
55
56
Snow, Charles Percy: The Two Cultures. New Statesman, październik, 6, 1956 r.
54
57 Por. Prantl, Carl: Artikel Niethammer, Friedrich Immanuel. W: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, wydajnej przez Komisję Historyczną przy Bawarskiej Akademii Nauk, Tom 23 (1886), s. 689-691: „W roku 1808 Montgelas powołał go [Niethammera] do Monachium i zlecił w imieniu Centralnej Rady Szkolnej oraz Wyższej Rady Kościelnej opracowanie nowego planu nauczania dla gimnazjów; w celu przygotowania i uzasadnienia tegoż planu, opublikował on „Spór filantropii i humanizmu w teorii nauki wychowawczej naszych czasów“ (1808), w którym na podstawie rozgraniczenia intelektualnej i zwierzęcej strony człowieka, z jednej strony wykazał znaczenie kształcenia rozsądku w oparciu o ideały humanizmu, a z drugiej strony, rozwijanie realnych umiejętności z zasadniczym podkreśleniem wyższości pierwszego kierunku. [...] Dualizm między humanistycznymi gimnazjami a gimnazjami realnymi był więc sumiennie realizowany, a podczas gdy w pierwszych istotę stanowiło kultywowanie klasycznej starożytności, w przypadku ostatnich została uwzględniona także strona idealna – mianowicie w takiej postaci, że wyższe klasy tych samych miały wprowadzone jako przedmioty nauczania niektóre dyscypliny filozoficzne (w ten sposób N. mógł jeszcze w 1808 r. przyczynić się do powołania Hegla do norymberskiego gimnazjum realnego).”
Cyt. wg: Are We Beyond the Two Cultures? http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/are_we_beyond_the_two_cultures/
53
Prantl, ibid.
sztuki, aspekty nauk ścisłych, które zawierają treści humanistyczne i posługują się metodami humanistycznymi, oraz badanie i wykorzystanie nauk ścisłych w środowisku człowieka ze szczególny uwzględnieniem naszego zróżnicowanego dorobku, tradycji i historii oraz roli nauk ścisłych w aktualnych warunkach życia narodowego.”59 Do zasygnalizowanej przez Kanta nadmiernej użyteczności danych przedmiotów nawiązuje wspaniały nakaz („democracy demands wisdom”), jednakże nieustalony nakaz ze strony państwa („conveying the lessons of history to all Americans”) z National Endowment for the Humanities, pochodzący w wyraźny sposób zza Atlantyku i czerpiący z jeszcze jak najbardziej żywej ideologii XIX w.: „Narodowa Fundacja Humanistyki (NEH) jest niezależną agencją federalną założoną w 1965. [...] Ponieważ demokracja wymaga mądrości, Narodowa Fundacja Humanistyki (NEH) służy naszej Republice i wzmacnia ją poprzez promowanie doskonałości w naukach humanistycznych oraz nauczania historii wszystkich Amerykanów.”60 To, co jest uznawane za „humanizm” (a było nim w tak niewielkim stopniu jak Konstantynopol był bizantyjski), było porównywalne z ideologią użyteczności Waszyngtona i z ukształtowanym przez Droysena61 pojmowaniem „nauk humanistycznych”.62 Podczas gdy Leopold von Ranke zadowalał się tym, „co się stało”, Droysen domagał się sensu: „Historia powinna umożliwiać orientację, współtworzyć przyszłość, ściślej mówiąc, być polityką realizowaną poprzez inne środki.”63 Powróćmy do Snowa 1959. Dla niego główną kwestię stanowił inny problem również zorientowany na Dobrą Służbę: Co mogą zrobić bogate
58
jej jedynie teologia, która pozostała na pierwszym miejscu. W pewnym sensie do dzisiaj ma rangę symbolicznego sekundanta. W drugiej połowie XX w. fizyk Charles Percy Snow stwierdził w 1959 r. podczas wykładu na Uniwersytecie Cambridge fakt niemożności podejmowania dialogu między „literary intellectuals” humanities z jednej strony a przedstawicielami science, nauki przyrodniczej odnotowującej obiektywne wyniki badań, z drugiej strony. Jego obronna postawa: „Science [is] not understood or respected by the dominant culture [der literary intellectuals], to the detriment of all”53 zaowocowała artykułem w gazecie w 1956 r.,54 wykładem względzie jego drukiem w 1959 r. 55 i książką rozpowszechniającą ten pogląd w 1964 r. 56 Skontrastowanie Dwóch Kultur nawiązuje do twórcy pojęcia „Humanismus” (humanizmu) (1808), teoretyka wychowania, bawarskiego reformatora szkolnictwa i przyjaciela Hegla, Friedricha Immanuela Niethammera (1766-1848). Jako „dualizm między humanistycznymi gimnazjami a gimnazjami realnymi”57, kontrast ten w sposób istotny kształtował długi XIX w. Jego humanizm był wzorcem idealnym: kształtowanie charakteru poprzez „ideały humanizmu” 58 jako cel wychowawczy. Bezpośrednio w tradycji pojęcia Niethammera znajdują się humanities w Stanach Zjednoczonych. National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act (1965) definiuje promowaną przez siebie dziedzinę w następujący sposób: „Termin „nauki humanistyczne” obejmuje m.in. naukę języków, zarówno nowożytnych, jak i klasycznych, lingwistykę, literaturę, historię, jurysprudencję, filozofię, archeologię, religię porównawczą, etykę, historię, krytykę i teorię
231
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
narody, aby pomóc tym biedniejszym? Socjolog Rudolf Stichweh, aktualny rektor Uniwersytetu w Lucernie zanotował: „Może zaskakiwać jednostronność tego rozwiązania, które postrzega on jako jedyną możliwą odpowiedź na zacofanie: kształcenie dostatecznej liczby naukowców i inżynierów. [ … ] To ekstremalne ograniczenie postrzegania jest związane z tym, że Snow nawet przez chwilę nie zastanawia się nad tym, że bogate kraje zachodnie nie różnią się od innych regionów świata liczbą inżynierów i naukowców, lecz swoimi porządkami społecznymi, prawnymi i gospodarczymi, których nie da się stworzyć na bazie techniczno-naukowej kultury. [ … ] Funkcja nauk społecznych [tkwi] dla niego tylko w tym, aby odtwórczo reflektować skutki rewolucji przemysłowej, której nadejście zawdzięczamy według niego samym jedynie przełomom w dziedzinie techniczno-naukowej.”64 Stichweh powraca do pobrzmiewającej już u Snowa i podjętej później przez innych idei „Trzeciej Kultury” i przypisuje prymat swojej własnej dyscyplinie. Przeciw Johnowi Brockmannowi 65 odnotowuje: „Trzecia kultura poza literacką inteligencją i naukami przyrodniczymi [ … ] – powstała w imponujący sposób w naukach systematycznych kultury, w naukach gospodarczych i naukach prawniczych oraz w szerokim spektrum nauk społecznych ostatniego stulecia. To, co dzięki niej wiemy i to, co jest dla nas możliwe dzięki niej w zakresie twórczej ingerencji, zabrania zredukowania tego, co społeczne i tego, co kulturalne, do problemów zastosowania naukowo-technicznego postępu, zredukowania, które obserwujemy u Snowa jako błąd kategorii i które ciągle będziemy później znajdować w polityce naukowej wczesnego XXI wieku.66
59
Także i tutaj zatem, choć z innego punktu widzenia, niewiele słyszymy o „literary intellectuals” Snowa. Gdyby chciało się nazwać je za Snowem „Pierwszą Kulturą”, uległyby przytłumieniu z jednej strony na skutek działania „Drugiej Kultury” – kanonu przedmiotów science /nauki/ – domagającej się lwiej części przynajmniej europejskich środków wsparcia. Co do skromnej pozostałości wysuwa do znacznej jej części roszczenia „Trzeciej Kultury” nauk społecznych włącznie z naukami ekonomicznymi, których zadaniem jest naukowy spór z realiami Niethammera. Gdzie znajduje się więc miejsce dla przedmiotów filozoficznych w węższym rozumieniu? Dla nakazu Salutatisa odwołującego się do człowieczeństwa i ludzkości (studia humanitatis), dla sygnalizowanej przez Kanta nadmiernej użyteczności (fakultetu filozoficznego), dla kształtowania charakteru Niethammera (humanizmu), dla „literary intellectuells” Snowa, dla „strengthens our Republic” National Endowment (humanities), dla programu nadawania sensu Droysena (nauk humanistycznych)? Dla sporu z idealia – a może lepiej z imaginaria67?
8.2. Humaniora w niemieckim systemie szkolnictwa wyższego
W
edług aktualnego zestawienia Federalnego Urzędu Statystycznego w Wiesbaden dla „językoznawstwa i kulturoznawstwa” oraz „sztuki, nauki o sztuce” w dziedzinie nauk humanistycznych jest zatrudnionych łącznie 61.860 osób. To 11,51% personelu niemieckich szkół wyższych.
National Endowment for the Humanities: Who We are http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html. Ibid.
60
§ 48. „Opierając się i pracując na swoich indywiduach, będąc w pracy, ludzkość tworzy kosmos etycznego świata. Ich dzieło stanowiłyby góry zbudowane z jednokomórkowców, bez niestrudzonego wzrostu i kształtowania etycznych podobieństw, bez historii. Ich praca byłaby nieurodzajna niczym wydmy, a gra wiatru bez świadomości ciągłości – pozbawiona historii. Ciągłość stanowiłby tylko powtarzający się ruch koła – bez pewności celów i celu najwyższego, bez teodycei historii.” Droysen, Johann Gustav: Historik. Rekonstruktion der ersten vollständigen Fassung der Vorlesungen (1857), zarys historyki w pierwszym rękopisie (1857/1858) i w ostatniej drukowanej wersji. Wydanie tekstu przez Petera Leyh, Stuttgart 1977, s. IX i 435 n.
61
Por. Nippel, Wilfried: Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. München 2008.
62 63
Schnyder, Caroline: Zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Wilfried Nippel entzaubert den Almeister Johann Gustav Droysen. NZZ Zürich 11.04.2008. Stichweh, Rudolf: Die zwei Kulturen? Eine Korrektur. FAZ 2 grudnia 2008 r..
64 65
Brockman, John: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster 1995 Stichweh, ibid
66
Por. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was wir nicht wissen können und dennoch wissen müssen. Kulturpolitik als Ertüchtigung des Imaginärsinnes. W: Vogt, Matthias Theodor; Sokol, Jan; Ociepka, Beata; Pollack, Detlef; Mikotajczyk, Beata (wyd.): Die Stärke der Schwäche. Pisma Collegium Pontes Tom 3. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2009, s. 219-232.
67
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
231
67 Por. Vogt, Matthias Theodor: Was wir nicht wissen können und dennoch wissen müssen. Kulturpolitik als Ertüchtigung des Imaginärsinnes. W: Vogt, Matthias Theodor; Sokol, Jan; Ociepka, Beata; Pollack, Detlef; Mikotajczyk, Beata (wyd.): Die Stärke der Schwäche. Pisma Collegium Pontes Tom 3. Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Wien, 2009, s. 219-232.
Stichweh, ibid
66 65
Brockman, John: The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution. Simon & Schuster 1995 Stichweh, Rudolf: Die zwei Kulturen? Eine Korrektur. FAZ 2 grudnia 2008 r..
64 63
Schnyder, Caroline: Zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. Wilfried Nippel entzaubert den Almeister Johann Gustav Droysen. NZZ Zürich 11.04.2008. Por. Nippel, Wilfried: Johann Gustav Droysen. Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik. München 2008.
62
61 § 48. „Opierając się i pracując na swoich indywiduach, będąc w pracy, ludzkość tworzy kosmos etycznego świata. Ich dzieło stanowiłyby góry zbudowane z jednokomórkowców, bez niestrudzonego wzrostu i kształtowania etycznych podobieństw, bez historii. Ich praca byłaby nieurodzajna niczym wydmy, a gra wiatru bez świadomości ciągłości – pozbawiona historii. Ciągłość stanowiłby tylko powtarzający się ruch koła – bez pewności celów i celu najwyższego, bez teodycei historii.” Droysen, Johann Gustav: Historik. Rekonstruktion der ersten vollständigen Fassung der Vorlesungen (1857), zarys historyki w pierwszym rękopisie (1857/1858) i w ostatniej drukowanej wersji. Wydanie tekstu przez Petera Leyh, Stuttgart 1977, s. IX i 435 n.
Ibid.
60 59
National Endowment for the Humanities: Who We are http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/overview.html.
narody, aby pomóc tym biedniejszym? Socjolog Rudolf Stichweh, aktualny rektor Uniwersytetu w Lucernie zanotował: „Może zaskakiwać jednostronność tego rozwiązania, które postrzega on jako jedyną możliwą odpowiedź na zacofanie: kształcenie dostatecznej liczby naukowców i inżynierów. [ … ] To ekstremalne ograniczenie postrzegania jest związane z tym, że Snow nawet przez chwilę nie zastanawia się nad tym, że bogate kraje zachodnie nie różnią się od innych regionów świata liczbą inżynierów i naukowców, lecz swoimi porządkami społecznymi, prawnymi i gospodarczymi, których nie da się stworzyć na bazie techniczno-naukowej kultury. [ … ] Funkcja nauk społecznych [tkwi] dla niego tylko w tym, aby odtwórczo reflektować skutki rewolucji przemysłowej, której nadejście zawdzięczamy według niego samym jedynie przełomom w dziedzinie techniczno-naukowej.”64 Stichweh powraca do pobrzmiewającej już u Snowa i podjętej później przez innych idei „Trzeciej Kultury” i przypisuje prymat swojej własnej dyscyplinie. Przeciw Johnowi Brockmannowi 65 odnotowuje: „Trzecia kultura poza literacką inteligencją i naukami przyrodniczymi [ … ] – powstała w imponujący sposób w naukach systematycznych kultury, w naukach gospodarczych i naukach prawniczych oraz w szerokim spektrum nauk społecznych ostatniego stulecia. To, co dzięki niej wiemy i to, co jest dla nas możliwe dzięki niej w zakresie twórczej ingerencji, zabrania zredukowania tego, co społeczne i tego, co kulturalne, do problemów zastosowania naukowo-technicznego postępu, zredukowania, które obserwujemy u Snowa jako błąd kategorii i które ciągle będziemy później znajdować w polityce naukowej wczesnego XXI wieku.66
edług aktualnego zestawienia Federalnego Urzędu Statystycznego w Wiesbaden dla „językoznawstwa i kulturoznawstwa” oraz „sztuki, nauki o sztuce” w dziedzinie nauk humanistycznych jest zatrudnionych łącznie 61.860 osób. To 11,51% personelu niemieckich szkół wyższych.
W
8.2. Humaniora w niemieckim systemie szkolnictwa wyższego Także i tutaj zatem, choć z innego punktu widzenia, niewiele słyszymy o „literary intellectuals” Snowa. Gdyby chciało się nazwać je za Snowem „Pierwszą Kulturą”, uległyby przytłumieniu z jednej strony na skutek działania „Drugiej Kultury” – kanonu przedmiotów science /nauki/ – domagającej się lwiej części przynajmniej europejskich środków wsparcia. Co do skromnej pozostałości wysuwa do znacznej jej części roszczenia „Trzeciej Kultury” nauk społecznych włącznie z naukami ekonomicznymi, których zadaniem jest naukowy spór z realiami Niethammera. Gdzie znajduje się więc miejsce dla przedmiotów filozoficznych w węższym rozumieniu? Dla nakazu Salutatisa odwołującego się do człowieczeństwa i ludzkości (studia humanitatis), dla sygnalizowanej przez Kanta nadmiernej użyteczności (fakultetu filozoficznego), dla kształtowania charakteru Niethammera (humanizmu), dla „literary intellectuells” Snowa, dla „strengthens our Republic” National Endowment (humanities), dla programu nadawania sensu Droysena (nauk humanistycznych)? Dla sporu z idealia – a może lepiej z imaginaria67?
232
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Źródło: Federalny Urząd Statystyczny: Bildung und Kultur. Personal an Hochschulen. Seria 11 Szereg 4.4. Wiesbaden 2009. Zestawienie własne. 537 335
Łączna liczba personelu Nauki humanistyczne w niemieckich szkołach wyższych (2008) Nauki humanistyczne
61 860
11,51%
Nauki humanistyczne
44 567 Języko- i kulturoznawstwo
17 293 Sztuka i nauka o sztuce
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
16 188
232
39 304
Źródło: Federalny Urząd Statystyczny: Bildung und Kultur. Personal an Hochschulen. Seria 11 Szereg 4.4. Wiesbaden 2009. Zestawienie własne.
20,20%
25
55 492
4,35%
274 769
159
Łączna liczba personelu w dziedzinie nauki i sztuki
3 657
Dodatkowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
6 135
9
21 889
63
15,16%
8,54%
28 024
63
184 797
738
Praktykanci
Podstawowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
19
3 363
36
5 587
0,38%
23,21%
55
8 950
14 571
38 564
Pracownicy a trakcie szkolenia
Profesorowie
-
136
1
757
0,00%
18,37%
1
893
59 798
4 862
Personel pielęgniarski
Docenci i asystenci
121
1 729
425
12 724
1,11%
10,83%
546
14 453
49 293
133 497
Pozostały personelz pominięciem wyższego szczebla
Pracownicy z dziedziny nauki i sztuki
2
907
28
2 821
2,20%
47,35%
30
3 728
1 362
Pozostały personel wyższego szczebla
7 874
435
Nauczyciele do zadań specjalnych
455
10 053
1,71%
17 415
890
30,53%
51 986
Personel techniczny z pominięciem wyższego szczebla
27 468
8
89 972
12
Dodatkowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
1,31%
59
20
65
1 527
30,92%
Personel techniczny wyższego szczebla
124
44
401
387
Profesorowie wizytujący
4,34%
33
431
217
9 924
27,32%
Personel bibliotek z pominięciem wyższego szczebla
250
-
915
13
Profesorowie emerytowani
1,67%
9 093
13
11 967
779
Personel bibliotek wyższego szczebla
35,39%
415
21 060
3 580
59 516
6,62%
Wykładowcy
3 995
109
60 303
Personel administracyjny z pominięciem wyższego szczebla
236
36
23,57%
129
345
1,91%
1 464
165
Profesorowie honorowi
8 628
Personel administracyjny wyższego szczebla
54
1 080
1 141
5 129
19,11%
2,40%
1 195
6 209
6 252
258 909
Docenci nieetatowi, profesorowie pozaetatowi
Podstawowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
705
1 105
3 789
5 263
20,98%
2,43%
4 494
6 368
21 424
262 566
Pracownicy naukowi
Personel administracyjny, techniczny i pozostały – łącznie
1 105
705
5 263
3 789
2,43%
20,98%
6 368
4 494
262 566
21 424
Pracownicy naukowi
Personel administracyjny, techniczny i pozostały – łącznie
54
1 080
1 141
5 129
19,11%
2,40%
1 195
6 209
6 252
258 909
Docenci nieetatowi, profesorowie pozaetatowi
Podstawowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
109
36
236
129
23,57%
1,91%
345
165
1 464
8 628
Profesorowie honorowi
Personel administracyjny wyższego szczebla
9 093
415
11 967
3 580
35,39%
6,62%
21 060
3 995
59 516
Wykładowcy
60 303
33
Personel administracyjny z pominięciem wyższego szczebla
217
-
27,32%
13
250
1,67%
915
13
Profesorowie emerytowani
779
59
Personel bibliotek wyższego szczebla
65
44
30,92%
387
124
4,34%
401
431
Profesorowie wizytujący
9 924
10 053
Personel bibliotek z pominięciem wyższego szczebla
17 415
8
30,53%
12
27 468
1,31%
89 972
Dodatkowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
20
907
1 527
2 821
Personel techniczny wyższego szczebla
47,35%
435
3 728
455
7 874
Nauczyciele do zadań specjalnych
1,71%
1 729
890
12 724
51 986
10,83%
Personel techniczny z pominięciem wyższego szczebla
14 453
2
133 497
Pracownicy z dziedziny nauki i sztuki
28
136
2,20%
757
30
18,37%
1 362
893
Pozostały personel wyższego szczebla
4 862
Docenci i asystenci
121
3 363
425
5 587
1,11%
23,21%
546
8 950
49 293
38 564
Profesorowie
Pozostały personelz pominięciem wyższego szczebla
6 135
-
21 889
1
15,16%
0,00%
28 024
1
184 797
59 798
Podstawowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
Personel pielęgniarski
16 188
19
39 304
36
20,20%
0,38%
55 492
55
274 769
14 571
Łączna liczba personelu w dziedzinie nauki i sztuki
Pracownicy a trakcie szkolenia
9
17 293
63
44 567
8,54%
11,51%
63
61 860
738
537 335
Praktykanci
25
Łączna liczba personelu
4,35%
Sztuka i nauka o sztuce
159
Języko- i kulturoznawstwo
Nauki humanistyczne
3 657
Nauki humanistyczne w niemieckich szkołach wyższych (2008)
Dodatkowy rodzaj aktywności zawodowej – łącznie
Nauki humanistyczne
233
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Ze średnich kosztów dla obszaru federacji niemieckiej wynoszących 53.187,71 euro na stanowisko, w saldzie nakładu personalnego i rzeczowego (2007)68, wynikają na podstawie obliczeń nakłady 3,3 mld euro rocznie. Udział intensywnie nauczających, a z tego względu atrakcyjnych pod względem kosztów „nauczycieli do zadań specjalnych”, wynosi nie 11%, lecz 47%. Udział bezpłatnych profesorów – gości 31%. Udział niedrogich wykładowców 35%. Rozwój nauk humanistycznych w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach można najlepiej prześledzić przyglądając się liczbie emerytów, którzy stanowią 27% w stosunku do 23% aktywnych profesorów. Oznacza to skurczenie się o 20% na przestrzeni połowy pokolenia i wskazuje na słabnącą funkcję nauk humanistycznych w oczach społeczeństwa. Gdzie pozostaje jego Dobra Służba z cytatów Kanta? Ponieważ szkoły wyższe nie przeprowadzają rachunku pełnych kosztów, rzeczywiste nakłady na nauki humanistyczne można oszacować jedynie w zbliżeniu. Z 33,3 mld euro aktualnego państwowego i prywatnego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego należy najpierw odliczyć koszty medycyny człowieka (15,8 mld euro) i medycyny weterynaryjnej (48%). Pozostaje 17,0 mld euro na szkoły wyższe bez medycyny. Grupy przedmiotów bez medycyny otrzymują 10,7 mld, obiekty centralne (ogólne sale wykładowe, biblioteki, administracja itd.) 6,6 mld. Wśród tych pierwszych nauki humanistyczne otrzymują 2,0 mld euro lub 19%. Po przełożeniu tej stopy procentowej na obiekty centralne otrzymuje się dalsze 1,2 mld euro. Łącznie „językoznawstwo oraz kulturoznawstwo” i „sztuka, nauka o sztuce” wykazują 3,289 mld euro, co stanowi potwierdzenie obliczonej powyżej kwoty. Odpowiada to 19,5% ogólnego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego (bez medycyny), lecz tylko 9,5% inwestycji. Systematyka Federalnego Urzędu Statystycznego nie może zadowalać. Powstawała ona historycznie, jednak nie jest całkowicie jasne, dlaczego psychologia i pedagogika nie są przyporządkowywane do nauk społecznych. Ponadto obie teologie są co prawda niewielkie, lecz z wielu względów należałoby przedstawić je oddzielnie. Zestawienie może więc zostać bardziej precyzyjnie podzielone na nauki humanistyczne w szerszym i węższym znaczeniu. Jeśli przyporządkuje się te przedmioty wyłącznie pod względem ich kosztów, na czele niespodziewanie pojawi się muzyka z 15% wydatków (i 26% inwestycji), tuż po niej historia z 11%
Wydatki szkół wyższych 2007 Wydatki szkół wyższych – łącznie
Wydatki
Bieżące wydatki
33.314.103 311,3%
30.611.346 309,8%
Obiekty centralne (bez klinik uniwersyteckich)
5.233.180
481.418
Szkoły wyższe (łacznie bez klinik)
1.370.982
238.726
Obiekty centralne klinik uniwersyteckich (tylko medycyna człowieka)
4.859.565
4.419.356
440.209
Grupy przedmiotów (łacznie)
21.850.376 204,2%
20.307.971 205,6%
1.542.405 187,9%
Medycyna człowieka / nauki o zdrowiu
10.992.957 102,7%
10.289.224
703.733
157.082 1,5%
139.311
17.772
10.700.336 100%
9.879.436 100%
820.900 100%
1.475.096 13,8%
1.448.927 14,7%
26.169 3,2%
127.808 1,2%
117.826 1,2%
9.982 1,2%
Nauki prawne, ekonomiczne i społeczne
1.858.943 17,4%
1.775.684 18,0%
83.259 10,1%
Matematyka, nauki przyrodnicze
3.548.480 33,2%
3.154.315 31,9%
394.165 48,0%
366.701 3,4%
347.649 3,5%
19.053 2,3%
2.764.232 25,8%
2.527.580 25,6%
236.652 28,8%
559.076 5,2%
507.455 5,1%
51.621 6,3%
Nauki humanistyczne
2.034.172 19,0%
1.956.382 19,8%
77.790 9,5%
Udział obiektów centralnych i szkoły wyższe (łącznie)
1.255.475 [19,0%]
1.165.187 [19,8%]
68.242 19,5%]
Nauki humanistyczne (łącznie z udziałem w obiektach centralnych)
3.289.648 19,0%
3.121.569 19,8%
146.033 9,5%
Medycyna weterynaryjna Grupy przedmiotów bez medycyny Językoznawstwo i kulturoznawstwo Sport
Nauki rolnicze, leśnictwo i dietetyka Nauki inżynieryjne Sztuka, nauka o sztuce
2.702.757 329,2%
Źródło: Federalny Urząd Statystyczny: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Seria 11 Szereg 4.5. Wiesbaden 2009. Zestawienie własne.
wydatków (i 3% inwestycji). Filologie obejmują razem 42% nauk humanistycznych w węższym rozumieniu, nauki o sztuce 22%. Włącznie z przyporządkowanymi kosztami obiektów centralnych nakłady na nauki humani-
Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al.: Serbski ludowy ansambl. Frankfurt 2009, s. 34.
68
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Inwestycje
233
Vogt, Matthias Theodor et al.: Serbski ludowy ansambl. Frankfurt 2009, s. 34.
68
Ze średnich kosztów dla obszaru federacji niemieckiej wynoszących 53.187,71 euro na stanowisko, w saldzie nakładu personalnego i rzeczowego (2007)68, wynikają na podstawie obliczeń nakłady 3,3 mld euro rocznie. Udział intensywnie nauczających, a z tego względu atrakcyjnych pod względem kosztów „nauczycieli do zadań specjalnych”, wynosi nie 11%, lecz 47%. Udział bezpłatnych profesorów – gości 31%. Udział niedrogich wykładowców 35%. Rozwój nauk humanistycznych w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach można najlepiej prześledzić przyglądając się liczbie emerytów, którzy stanowią 27% w stosunku do 23% aktywnych profesorów. Oznacza to skurczenie się o 20% na przestrzeni połowy pokolenia i wskazuje na słabnącą funkcję nauk humanistycznych w oczach społeczeństwa. Gdzie pozostaje jego Dobra Służba z cytatów Kanta? Ponieważ szkoły wyższe nie przeprowadzają rachunku pełnych kosztów, rzeczywiste nakłady na nauki humanistyczne można oszacować jedynie w zbliżeniu. Z 33,3 mld euro aktualnego państwowego i prywatnego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego należy najpierw odliczyć koszty medycyny człowieka (15,8 mld euro) i medycyny weterynaryjnej (48%). Pozostaje 17,0 mld euro na szkoły wyższe bez medycyny. Grupy przedmiotów bez medycyny otrzymują 10,7 mld, obiekty centralne (ogólne sale wykładowe, biblioteki, administracja itd.) 6,6 mld. Wśród tych pierwszych nauki humanistyczne otrzymują 2,0 mld euro lub 19%. Po przełożeniu tej stopy procentowej na obiekty centralne otrzymuje się dalsze 1,2 mld euro. Łącznie „językoznawstwo oraz kulturoznawstwo” i „sztuka, nauka o sztuce” wykazują 3,289 mld euro, co stanowi potwierdzenie obliczonej powyżej kwoty. Odpowiada to 19,5% ogólnego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego (bez medycyny), lecz tylko 9,5% inwestycji. Systematyka Federalnego Urzędu Statystycznego nie może zadowalać. Powstawała ona historycznie, jednak nie jest całkowicie jasne, dlaczego psychologia i pedagogika nie są przyporządkowywane do nauk społecznych. Ponadto obie teologie są co prawda niewielkie, lecz z wielu względów należałoby przedstawić je oddzielnie. Zestawienie może więc zostać bardziej precyzyjnie podzielone na nauki humanistyczne w szerszym i węższym znaczeniu. Jeśli przyporządkuje się te przedmioty wyłącznie pod względem ich kosztów, na czele niespodziewanie pojawi się muzyka z 15% wydatków (i 26% inwestycji), tuż po niej historia z 11%
wydatków (i 3% inwestycji). Filologie obejmują razem 42% nauk humanistycznych w węższym rozumieniu, nauki o sztuce 22%. Włącznie z przyporządkowanymi kosztami obiektów centralnych nakłady na nauki humaniŹródło: Federalny Urząd Statystyczny: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Seria 11 Szereg 4.5. Wiesbaden 2009. Zestawienie własne. 3.289.648 19,0%
Nauki humanistyczne (łącznie z udziałem w obiektach centralnych)
1.165.187 [19,8%]
1.255.475 [19,0%]
Udział obiektów centralnych i szkoły wyższe (łącznie)
1.956.382 19,8%
2.034.172 19,0%
Nauki humanistyczne
507.455 5,1%
559.076 5,2%
2.527.580 25,6%
2.764.232 25,8%
Sztuka, nauka o sztuce Nauki inżynieryjne Nauki rolnicze, leśnictwo i dietetyka
366.701 3,4%
3.121.569 19,8%
3.548.480 33,2%
1.775.684 18,0%
1.858.943 17,4%
Nauki prawne, ekonomiczne i społeczne
117.826 1,2%
127.808 1,2%
Językoznawstwo i kulturoznawstwo Grupy przedmiotów bez medycyny
1.475.096 13,8%
3.154.315 31,9% 9.879.436 100% 139.311
157.082 1,5%
10.289.224
10.992.957 102,7%
Medycyna człowieka / nauki o zdrowiu
20.307.971 205,6%
21.850.376 204,2%
Grupy przedmiotów (łacznie)
4.859.565
Obiekty centralne klinik uniwersyteckich (tylko medycyna człowieka)
1.370.982
Szkoły wyższe (łacznie bez klinik)
5.233.180
Obiekty centralne (bez klinik uniwersyteckich) Wydatki szkół wyższych – łącznie Wydatki szkół wyższych 2007
33.314.103 311,3% Wydatki
77.790 9,5% 51.621 6,3% 236.652 28,8% 19.053 2,3% 394.165 48,0% 83.259 10,1% 9.982 1,2%
1.448.927 14,7%
10.700.336 100%
Medycyna weterynaryjna
68.242 19,5%]
347.649 3,5%
Matematyka, nauki przyrodnicze Sport
146.033 9,5%
4.419.356
26.169 3,2% 820.900 100% 17.772 703.733 1.542.405 187,9% 440.209
238.726 481.418 30.611.346 309,8% Bieżące wydatki
2.702.757 329,2% Inwestycje
234 71.499 127.696 6,53%
Teologia Nauki humanistyczne w szerszym rozumieniu Wydatki szkół wyższych 2007
2.034.172 Wydatki
1.956.382 Bieżące wydatki
591 950 1,22% 77.790 9,5% Inwestycje
styczne w węższym rozumieniu wynoszą 2,4 mld euro lub 14% niemieckiego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego bez medycyny. Zasadnicza część tych wydatków obejmuje kształcenie nauczycieli i stanowi inwestycję w przyszłość „kultury artystycznej” (ars gratia culturae).
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
128.646 6,32%
234
Źródło: Federalny Urząd Statystyczny: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Seria 11 Szereg 4.5. Wiesbaden 2009. Zestawienie własne.
72.090
126.456
Teologia ewangelicka
2.281.288
9. Polityka kulturalna jako przedmiot nauki o polityce kulturalnej
2.421.121 14,0%
Nauki humanistyczne w węższym rozumieniu łącznie z obiektami centralnymi
359
59.094
56.197
851.535
56.556
924.007
Teologia katolicka
Udział nauk humanistycznych w węższym rozumieniu w obiektach centralnych
9.479 12,18%
356 0,53%
398.934 20,39%
20.236 1,42%
408.412 20,08%
20.591 1,38%
Pedagogika, Psychologia
Kulturoznawstwo w węższym rozumieniu
N
90 0,13%
7.202
25.433 1,78%
1.486
25.523 1,70%
175.031
Slawistyka, bałtystyka, filologia ugrofińska
190.922
582 0,86%
182.233
34.786 2,43%
192.408
35.368 2,36%
Psychologia
Filologia starożytna (filologia klasyczna)
Nauki wychowawcze
2.246 3,33%
790
49.182 3,44%
32.981
51.428 3,44%
33.770
Bibliotekoznawstwo, dokumentacja, Publicystyka
Pedagogika specjalna
11 116 16,50%
67.362 100%
50 525 3,53%
1.429.752 100%
61 641 4,12%
1.497.114 100%
Sztuka plastyczna
Nauki humanistyczne w węższym rozumieniu
3 272 4,86%
17 651 26,20%
66 542 4,65%
218194 15,26%
69 814 4,66%
235 845 15,75%
Sztuka, nauka o sztuce, ogółem
Muzyka, muzykologia
1.229 1,82%
1.874 2,78%
68.674 4,80%
164.372 11,50%
69.903 4,67%
166.246 11,10%
Filozofia
Historia
846 1,26%
1.703 2,53%
70.963 4,96%
157.137 10,99%
71.809 4,80%
158.840 10,61%
Romanistyka
Germanistyka (język niemiecki, języki germańskie bez anglistyki)
14 662 21,77%
4 921 7,31%
57 421 4,02%
114 772 8,03%
72 084 4,81%
119 693 7,99%
Sztuka sceniczna, film i telewizja, teatroznawstwo
Projektowanie
1.384 2,05%
796 1,18%
73.693 5,15%
90.087 6,30%
75.076 5,01%
90.883 6,07%
Pozostałe/pozaeuropejskie językoznawstwo i kulturoznawstwo
Anglistyka, amerykanistyka
1.466 2,18%
3.169 4,70%
84.044 5,88%
83.690 5,85%
85.510 5,71%
86.858 5,80%
Literaturoznawstwo i językoznawstwo ogólne i porównawcze
Językoznawstwo i kulturoznawstwo ogólnie
3.169 4,70%
1.466 2,18%
83.690 5,85%
84.044 5,88%
86.858 5,80%
85.510 5,71%
Językoznawstwo i kulturoznawstwo ogólnie
Literaturoznawstwo i językoznawstwo ogólne i porównawcze
796 1,18%
1.384 2,05%
90.087 6,30%
73.693 5,15%
90.883 6,07%
75.076 5,01%
Anglistyka, amerykanistyka
Pozostałe/pozaeuropejskie językoznawstwo i kulturoznawstwo
4 921 7,31%
14 662 21,77%
114 772 8,03%
57 421 4,02%
119 693 7,99%
72 084 4,81%
Projektowanie
Sztuka sceniczna, film i telewizja, teatroznawstwo
1.703 2,53%
846 1,26%
157.137 10,99%
70.963 4,96%
158.840 10,61%
71.809 4,80%
Germanistyka (język niemiecki, języki germańskie bez anglistyki)
Romanistyka
1.874 2,78%
1.229 1,82%
164.372 11,50%
68.674 4,80%
166.246 11,10%
69.903 4,67%
Historia
Filozofia
17 651 26,20%
3 272 4,86%
218194 15,26%
66 542 4,65%
235 845 15,75%
69 814 4,66%
Muzyka, muzykologia
Sztuka, nauka o sztuce, ogółem
67.362 100%
11 116 16,50%
1.429.752 100%
50 525 3,53%
1.497.114 100%
Nauki humanistyczne w węższym rozumieniu
61 641 4,12%
790
Sztuka plastyczna
7.202
32.981
2.246 3,33%
175.031
33.770
49.182 3,44%
182.233
Pedagogika specjalna
ie praktyka, lecz niemiecki termin „polityka kulturalna” jest młody. Po politycznej zmianie ustrojowej lat 1918/19 z cesarstwa w republikę demokratyczną Niemcy wybudowały „świątynię swojej czci” (Richard Wagner).69 Z jednej strony doprowadziło to do upaństwowienia instytucji dworskich, a z drugiej strony utworzyło obejmującą praktycznie całe terytorium infrastrukturę kulturalną na fali komunalizacji stanowiących uprzednio własność prywatną i utrzymywanych prywatnie teatrów, muzeów i instytucji oświatowych. Nazywana tak teraz „polityka kulturalna”70 wchodzi do programów partyjnych wczesnej Republiki Weimarskiej.71 Becker, pruski podsekretarz stanu i późniejszy minister kultury, poświęca jej w 1919 r. własną publikację.72 Państwowy leksykon Herdera definiuje w 1929 r. w osobliwym rozgraniczeniu ducha i kultury: „Polityka kulturalna jest zastosowaniem środków intelektualnych i kulturalnych przez państwo”.73 W czasie narodowego socjalizmu sztuka i artyści zostali powołani do służby totalitarnemu państwu. Obydwa połowicznie suwerenne „fragmenty państwa”74 na Wschodzie i Zachodzie, po „godzinie zero” w 1945 r. zaaplikowały z zaskakującą zgodnością narodowo-obywatelski model interpretacji życia kulturalnego. Polityka kulturalna zyskała rangę nieomal konstytucyjną 3 października 1990 r. na podstawie traktatu zjednoczeniowego głoszącego w art. 35 ust. 1: „W latach podziału kultura i sztuka, mimo różnego rozwoju obu państw w Niemczech, stanowiła podstawę stale utrzymującej się jedności narodu niemieckiego. Wnoszą one do procesu państwowego jednoczenia się Niemców na drodze do zjednoczenia europejskiego swój niezależny i nieodzowny wkład. Pozycja i poważanie zjednoczonych Niemiec na świecie zależą, poza aspektami politycznymi i siłą ekonomiczną Niemiec, również od ich znaczenia jako państwa będącego ośrodkiem kultury.”
51.428 3,44%
Psychologia
N
Bibliotekoznawstwo, dokumentacja, Publicystyka
1.486
582 0,86%
190.922
34.786 2,43%
192.408
35.368 2,36%
Nauki wychowawcze
Filologia starożytna (filologia klasyczna)
9.479 12,18%
90 0,13%
398.934 20,39%
25.433 1,78%
408.412 20,08%
25.523 1,70%
Pedagogika, Psychologia
9. Polityka kulturalna jako przedmiot nauki o polityce kulturalnej
Slawistyka, bałtystyka, filologia ugrofińska
359
ie praktyka, lecz niemiecki termin „polityka kulturalna” jest młody. Po politycznej zmianie ustrojowej lat 1918/19 z cesarstwa w republikę demokratyczną Niemcy wybudowały „świątynię swojej czci” (Richard Wagner).69 Z jednej strony doprowadziło to do upaństwowienia instytucji dworskich, a z drugiej strony utworzyło obejmującą praktycznie całe terytorium infrastrukturę kulturalną na fali komunalizacji stanowiących uprzednio własność prywatną i utrzymywanych prywatnie teatrów, muzeów i instytucji oświatowych. Nazywana tak teraz „polityka kulturalna”70 wchodzi do programów partyjnych wczesnej Republiki Weimarskiej.71 Becker, pruski podsekretarz stanu i późniejszy minister kultury, poświęca jej w 1919 r. własną publikację.72 Państwowy leksykon Herdera definiuje w 1929 r. w osobliwym rozgraniczeniu ducha i kultury: „Polityka kulturalna jest zastosowaniem środków intelektualnych i kulturalnych przez państwo”.73 W czasie narodowego socjalizmu sztuka i artyści zostali powołani do służby totalitarnemu państwu. Obydwa połowicznie suwerenne „fragmenty państwa”74 na Wschodzie i Zachodzie, po „godzinie zero” w 1945 r. zaaplikowały z zaskakującą zgodnością narodowo-obywatelski model interpretacji życia kulturalnego. Polityka kulturalna zyskała rangę nieomal konstytucyjną 3 października 1990 r. na podstawie traktatu zjednoczeniowego głoszącego w art. 35 ust. 1: „W latach podziału kultura i sztuka, mimo różnego rozwoju obu państw w Niemczech, stanowiła podstawę stale utrzymującej się jedności narodu niemieckiego. Wnoszą one do procesu państwowego jednoczenia się Niemców na drodze do zjednoczenia europejskiego swój niezależny i nieodzowny wkład. Pozycja i poważanie zjednoczonych Niemiec na świecie zależą, poza aspektami politycznymi i siłą ekonomiczną Niemiec, również od ich znaczenia jako państwa będącego ośrodkiem kultury.”
591
56.197
356 0,53%
71.499
56.556
20.236 1,42%
72.090
Teologia katolicka
20.591 1,38%
Teologia ewangelicka
Kulturoznawstwo w węższym rozumieniu
950 1,22%
59.094
127.696 6,53%
851.535
128.646 6,32%
Teologia
924.007
77.790 9,5%
Udział nauk humanistycznych w węższym rozumieniu w obiektach centralnych
1.956.382
Źródło: Federalny Urząd Statystyczny: Bildung und Kultur. Finanzen der Hochschulen. Seria 11 Szereg 4.5. Wiesbaden 2009. Zestawienie własne.
2.034.172
126.456
Inwestycje
2.281.288
Nauki humanistyczne w szerszym rozumieniu
Bieżące wydatki
2.421.121 14,0%
Wydatki
Nauki humanistyczne w węższym rozumieniu łącznie z obiektami centralnymi
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Wydatki szkół wyższych 2007
styczne w węższym rozumieniu wynoszą 2,4 mld euro lub 14% niemieckiego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego bez medycyny. Zasadnicza część tych wydatków obejmuje kształcenie nauczycieli i stanowi inwestycję w przyszłość „kultury artystycznej” (ars gratia culturae).
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Można mówić o Republice Federalnej Niemiec jako o „państwie kultury” w podwójnym sensie. Po pierwsze pod względem prawnym: z powodu niezrealizowania nakazu uchwalenia konstytucji z art. 146, stara wersja ustawy zasadniczej posiada rangę konstytucyjną i stanowi podstawę dla wszystkich kolejnych ustaw.75 Już wcześniej Federalny Trybunał Konstytucyjny potwierdzał przy wielu różnych okazjach „cel państwa: kulturę”. Według niektórych specjalistów w zakresie prawa państwowego zbędne staje się tym samym, zaproponowane przez komisję badawczą Kultura w Niemczech Niemieckiego Bundestagu, przejęcie art. 20b do konstytucji (proponowane jest, nawiązujące do Zgromadzenia Narodowego we frankfurckim kościele św. Pawła [Pauluskirche] i do konstytucji Republiki Weimarskiej, sformułowanie „Państwo chroni i wspiera kulturę”).76 Z drugiej strony pod względem finansowym: tak jak to przedstawiono, jednostki terytorialne i landy jak również federacja wydają rocznie 8 mld euro na finansowaną ze środków publicznych sferę kulturalną Niemiec. Dochodzą jeszcze do tego publiczno-prawne instytucje obydwóch Kościołów z przewidywanymi kolejnymi 4 mld euro oraz rezygnacja z podatku w wys. 1,5 mld euro.77 Daje to razem 13,5 mld euro lub 165 euro publicznych nakładów na jednego mieszkańca. Prywatne nakłady obywateli na usługi lub produkty kulturalne (na przykład opłaty abonamentowe za radiofonię i telewizję) wynoszą 344 euro na miesz-
kańca, co stanowi kolejne 28 mld euro. Mogą zostać one bezpośrednio dodane do powyższych kwot (natomiast obroty gospodarki w dziedzinie kulturalnej są szacowane jako wartość paralelna, a tym samym nie są tutaj uwzględniane ani dodawane do tej kwoty). Na nauki humanistyczne w węższym rozumieniu wynika nakład w wysokości 2,4 mld euro. Sektor kulturalny w węższym rozumieniu, finansowany ze środków publicznych i prywatnych, wykazuje razem 44 mld euro rocznie wzgl. okrągłą kwotę 500 euro na mieszkańca. Ten sektor kulturalny stanowi przedmiot nauk o polityce kulturalnej. Z typową dla kulturoznawstwa definicją kultury rozumianej jako suma decyzji wartościujących, wybrana tu pragmatyczna analiza jest związana bezpośrednio o tyle, że te 44 mld euro stanowią centralną decyzję wartościującą suwerena, a mianowicie obywateli i ich przedstawiciela, czyli polityki konstytucyjnej. Powołując się na Clausewitza należałoby dokonać rozgraniczenia w kierunku malejącym pomiędzy sensem, celem a środkami. Celem ars gratia politiae, uprawiania sztuk dla dobra społeczności, jest rozwój społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i jego członków. Tutaj posłużono się w tym celu pojęciem „artystycznej kultury” (ars gratia culturae). Celem politia gratia artis, bezpośredniego i przede wszystkim pośredniego wspierania sztuk ze strony polityki, jest wzmocnienie kondycji społeczeństwa wewnątrz i na zewnątrz. Trudno
Wagner, Richard: Rede zur Grundsteinlegung des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (2.05.1872). W: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen. Tom IX. Lipsk 1873, s. 392.
69
Lepenies odnosi się do Fontane 1871 i Bethmann Hollweg, który w 1913 r. w swoim słynnym liście do Lamprechta kładzie nacisk na „politykę kulturalną wielkiego stylu”. Lepenies, Wolf: Kultur und Politik. Deutsche Geschichten. Bonn 2006. Szczeg. Rozdział III „Deutscher Geist und Deutsches Reich”, s. 24 n.- Do pewnych wskazówek odnośnie tła genezy pojęcia „Culturpolicey” por. Bernd Wagner: Das Stichwort. Kulturpolitik (1). Der Begriff. W: Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen nr 110, III/2005.
70
Wezwanie i wytyczne niemieckiej partii Deutschen Zentrumspartei w 1918 r.; Görlitzer Programm der SPD 1921, Heidelberger Programm der SPD 1925, Deutsche Staatspartei Manifest 1930. Wydruk. Wilhelm Mommsen: Deutsche Parteiprogramme. München 1960. Wyjątek stanowiły tylko ekstremalne prawa.
71
Becker, Carl Heinrichs: Kulturpolitische Aufgaben des Reiches. Eine dem Verfassungsausschuß der Nationalversammlung vorgelegte Denkschrift. Leipzig 1919. Por. ze współczesnym kontekstem rozgraniczenia oświaty od kościoła – raport w Ernst Troeltsch: Kritische Gesamtausgabe: Wyd. v. Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm / Albrecht, Christian / Drehsen, Volker / Hübinger, Gangolf / Rendtorff, Trutz. Band 15: Schriften zur Politik und Kulturphilosophie (1918-1923). Wyd. V. Gangolf Hübinger we współpracy z Johannes Mikuteit. Berlin, New York 2002. Propozycja Beckera dotycząca utworzenia urzędu kultury Rzeszy zarówno dla polityki wewnętrznej, jak i zewnętrznej, z zestawieniem różnych resortowych referatów, jest nadal widoczna we współczesnej polityce federalnej.
72
73
74
Herders Staatslexikon. Wyd. w oparciu o pracę wielu specjalistów na zlecenie Görres-Gesellschaft ds. wspierania nauki w katolickich Niemczech przez Julius Bachem. Tom. III, 5. nakł., Freiburg i. Br. 1929, kratka 693.
Carlo Schmid w Radzie Parlamentarnej, 8 wrzesień 1948 r. Por. Hertfelder, Thomas; Jürgen Hess (wyd.), Streiten um das Staatsfragment. Theodor Heuss und Thomas Dehler berichten von der Entstehung des Grundgesetzes. Ze wstępem Michaela F. Feldkampa, oprac. Patrick Ostermann i Michael F. Feldkamp, (Fundacja prezydenta federalnego -Theodor-Heuss-Haus, Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Tom. 1), Stuttgart 1999 r.
75
Por. Vogt, Matthias Theodor (1998): Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 et alt.
76
Deutscher Bundestag (wyd.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, s. 89nn.
Schätzung nach Söndermann, Michael: Öffentliche Kulturfinanzierung in Deutschland 2005. Ergebnisse aus der Kulturstatistik. w: Institut für Kulturpolitik (Hrsg.). Jahrbuch für Kulturpolitik 2006. Essen 2006.
77
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
235
235
Schätzung nach Söndermann, Michael: Öffentliche Kulturfinanzierung in Deutschland 2005. Ergebnisse aus der Kulturstatistik. w: Institut für Kulturpolitik (Hrsg.). Jahrbuch für Kulturpolitik 2006. Essen 2006.
77
76 75
Deutscher Bundestag (wyd.): Schlußbericht der Enquete-Kommission des Deutschen Bundestages. Regensburg 2008, s. 89nn.
Por. Vogt, Matthias Theodor (1998): Was soll ein Bundeskulturminister tun? Perspektiven der Kulturpolitik in Deutschland. Dresden 1998 et alt.
74 Carlo Schmid w Radzie Parlamentarnej, 8 wrzesień 1948 r. Por. Hertfelder, Thomas; Jürgen Hess (wyd.), Streiten um das Staatsfragment. Theodor Heuss und Thomas Dehler berichten von der Entstehung des Grundgesetzes. Ze wstępem Michaela F. Feldkampa, oprac. Patrick Ostermann i Michael F. Feldkamp, (Fundacja prezydenta federalnego -Theodor-Heuss-Haus, Wissenschaftliche Reihe, Tom. 1), Stuttgart 1999 r. 73
Herders Staatslexikon. Wyd. w oparciu o pracę wielu specjalistów na zlecenie Görres-Gesellschaft ds. wspierania nauki w katolickich Niemczech przez Julius Bachem. Tom. III, 5. nakł., Freiburg i. Br. 1929, kratka 693.
72 Becker, Carl Heinrichs: Kulturpolitische Aufgaben des Reiches. Eine dem Verfassungsausschuß der Nationalversammlung vorgelegte Denkschrift. Leipzig 1919. Por. ze współczesnym kontekstem rozgraniczenia oświaty od kościoła – raport w Ernst Troeltsch: Kritische Gesamtausgabe: Wyd. v. Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm / Albrecht, Christian / Drehsen, Volker / Hübinger, Gangolf / Rendtorff, Trutz. Band 15: Schriften zur Politik und Kulturphilosophie (1918-1923). Wyd. V. Gangolf Hübinger we współpracy z Johannes Mikuteit. Berlin, New York 2002. Propozycja Beckera dotycząca utworzenia urzędu kultury Rzeszy zarówno dla polityki wewnętrznej, jak i zewnętrznej, z zestawieniem różnych resortowych referatów, jest nadal widoczna we współczesnej polityce federalnej. 71 Wezwanie i wytyczne niemieckiej partii Deutschen Zentrumspartei w 1918 r.; Görlitzer Programm der SPD 1921, Heidelberger Programm der SPD 1925, Deutsche Staatspartei Manifest 1930. Wydruk. Wilhelm Mommsen: Deutsche Parteiprogramme. München 1960. Wyjątek stanowiły tylko ekstremalne prawa. 70 Lepenies odnosi się do Fontane 1871 i Bethmann Hollweg, który w 1913 r. w swoim słynnym liście do Lamprechta kładzie nacisk na „politykę kulturalną wielkiego stylu”. Lepenies, Wolf: Kultur und Politik. Deutsche Geschichten. Bonn 2006. Szczeg. Rozdział III „Deutscher Geist und Deutsches Reich”, s. 24 n.- Do pewnych wskazówek odnośnie tła genezy pojęcia „Culturpolicey” por. Bernd Wagner: Das Stichwort. Kulturpolitik (1). Der Begriff. W: Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen nr 110, III/2005.
Wagner, Richard: Rede zur Grundsteinlegung des Bayreuther Festspielhauses (2.05.1872). W: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen. Tom IX. Lipsk 1873, s. 392.
69
Można mówić o Republice Federalnej Niemiec jako o „państwie kultury” w podwójnym sensie. Po pierwsze pod względem prawnym: z powodu niezrealizowania nakazu uchwalenia konstytucji z art. 146, stara wersja ustawy zasadniczej posiada rangę konstytucyjną i stanowi podstawę dla wszystkich kolejnych ustaw.75 Już wcześniej Federalny Trybunał Konstytucyjny potwierdzał przy wielu różnych okazjach „cel państwa: kulturę”. Według niektórych specjalistów w zakresie prawa państwowego zbędne staje się tym samym, zaproponowane przez komisję badawczą Kultura w Niemczech Niemieckiego Bundestagu, przejęcie art. 20b do konstytucji (proponowane jest, nawiązujące do Zgromadzenia Narodowego we frankfurckim kościele św. Pawła [Pauluskirche] i do konstytucji Republiki Weimarskiej, sformułowanie „Państwo chroni i wspiera kulturę”).76 Z drugiej strony pod względem finansowym: tak jak to przedstawiono, jednostki terytorialne i landy jak również federacja wydają rocznie 8 mld euro na finansowaną ze środków publicznych sferę kulturalną Niemiec. Dochodzą jeszcze do tego publiczno-prawne instytucje obydwóch Kościołów z przewidywanymi kolejnymi 4 mld euro oraz rezygnacja z podatku w wys. 1,5 mld euro.77 Daje to razem 13,5 mld euro lub 165 euro publicznych nakładów na jednego mieszkańca. Prywatne nakłady obywateli na usługi lub produkty kulturalne (na przykład opłaty abonamentowe za radiofonię i telewizję) wynoszą 344 euro na miesz-
kańca, co stanowi kolejne 28 mld euro. Mogą zostać one bezpośrednio dodane do powyższych kwot (natomiast obroty gospodarki w dziedzinie kulturalnej są szacowane jako wartość paralelna, a tym samym nie są tutaj uwzględniane ani dodawane do tej kwoty). Na nauki humanistyczne w węższym rozumieniu wynika nakład w wysokości 2,4 mld euro. Sektor kulturalny w węższym rozumieniu, finansowany ze środków publicznych i prywatnych, wykazuje razem 44 mld euro rocznie wzgl. okrągłą kwotę 500 euro na mieszkańca. Ten sektor kulturalny stanowi przedmiot nauk o polityce kulturalnej. Z typową dla kulturoznawstwa definicją kultury rozumianej jako suma decyzji wartościujących, wybrana tu pragmatyczna analiza jest związana bezpośrednio o tyle, że te 44 mld euro stanowią centralną decyzję wartościującą suwerena, a mianowicie obywateli i ich przedstawiciela, czyli polityki konstytucyjnej. Powołując się na Clausewitza należałoby dokonać rozgraniczenia w kierunku malejącym pomiędzy sensem, celem a środkami. Celem ars gratia politiae, uprawiania sztuk dla dobra społeczności, jest rozwój społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i jego członków. Tutaj posłużono się w tym celu pojęciem „artystycznej kultury” (ars gratia culturae). Celem politia gratia artis, bezpośredniego i przede wszystkim pośredniego wspierania sztuk ze strony polityki, jest wzmocnienie kondycji społeczeństwa wewnątrz i na zewnątrz. Trudno
236
Feyerabend, Paul: Naturphilosphie. Wyd. Helmut Heim i Eric Oberheim. Frankfurt a.M. 2009. Passim.
- poznać, da poznaü, Īe czáowiek Īyje chlebem, jedynie chlebem, lecz Īyje ze wszystkiego, coopinia, pochodzi [= opinia, – da że człowiek nie żyjenie jedynie lecz żyje ze wszystkiego, co pochodzi [= pogląd] z ust Jahwe«.pogląd] z ust Jahwe«.Schulze. München, za tĊ wskazówkĊ. Dziękuję Wolfgangowi Schulze, DziĊkujĊ München,Wolfgangowi za tę wskazówkę. Fuchs Max: ibid. W jĊzyku hebrajskim pojĊcie „sáowa” nie pojawia siĊ bezpoĞrednio;
języku hebrajskim pojęcie „słowa” nie pojawia się bezpośrednio;
Fuchs, Max: Kulturpolitik. Elemente der Politik, herausgegeben von Hans-Georg Ehrhardt u.a. Wiesbayden. moĪna zebraü w jedną kulturalną infrastrukturĊ i dla których analizy istnieją stosowne
wymaga wieloĞci prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunków ramowych, które to rzuca siĊ w oczy nakáadanie siĊ na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr Comment [A3]: Soll gelöscht werden., da im gleichen Satz wiederholt sich.
Comment [A3]: Soll gelöscht werden., da im gleichen Satz wiederholt sich.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
byłoby znaleźć ars gratia artis, sztukę samą dla że należy stwierdzić pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). siebie, z uwagi na charakter wykraczający poza Istnieje jak najbardziej wiele przemyśleń na temat samo wyobrażenie. Książka, dźwięk, obraz, sztuka sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzone są służą pracy zarobkowej, kształceniu, przyjemności także debaty na temat kierunku, w jakim zmierza i indoktrynacji; nie można o nich myśleć w odenasze społeczeństwo. To, czego brakuje, to możliwa rwaniu od człowieka. do identyfikacji scientific community, dysponująca podstawowej i dodatkowej dziaáalnoĞci zawodowej zajmują siĊ polityki kulturalną i Sformułowanie racjonalnych kontekstów własnymi naukowymi organami publikacyjnymi, towarzyszącymi jej zagadnieniami, jest krótka i obejmuje jedynie 15 nazwisk. Przykáadowo polityczno-kulturalnych na poziomie państwa, a może nawet szkołami o sprzecznych poglądach jednostek i społeczeństwa oby- Szkoáa i ichWyĪsza zwolennikami, aby każdy,w kto porusza się aktywnie terytorialnych dziaáa w tej dziedzinie Pedagogiczna w Ludwigsburgu Badenii watelskiego, sformułowanie ich celów i krytyka na tym polu badawczo i twórczo, mógł obecnie Wirtembergii, posiadająca jedną katedrĊ i jeden kierunek studiów 80magisterskich, ich strategicznych środków przebiegały dotąd stworzyć własną tradycję.” wtowarzyszących niewystarczającym zakresie. Polityka kultural- kulturą”. W ramach swojego panowania Starożytny pracy zawodowej: „Zarządzanie Fuchs pisze ponadto: na jest często redukowana do tego, co jest przez Rzym stworzył w ramach dobroczynności hasło Amerykanów niezawoalowany sposób panem et circenses ( Juvenal: Satyry bez 10, 81), tj. Nie w oznacza to, Īe caáy ten nazywaobszar realizuje swoją praktyczną dziaáalnoĞü ne mianem advocacy, czyli do instrumentarium chleba i igrzysk – czyli pożywienie dla konkretgáĊbszego zastanowienia (mimo Īe naleĪy stwierdziü pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). Istnieje służącego do akwizycji pieniędzy i zainteresowanego zaspokojenia i rozrywka dla symbolicznego nia perspektywy konsumpcyjnej. zaspokojenia Reprezentowane jakznajbardziej wiele przemyĞleĔ naSzczególnie temat sztuki, kultury, polityki mas. i edukacji. Prowadzoneprzez są nas łatwa do zauważenia jest dysproporcja między twierdzenie wyjściowe nauki o polityce kulturaltakĪe debaty na temat kierunku, w jakim zmierza nasze spoáeczeĔstwo. To, czego nauki, brakuje, to obfitością zebranych w całej Europie empirycznych nej jest takie, że na poziomie przedstawidanych a brakiem indukcyjnego pozyskiwania ciele „chleba” i przedstawiciele „słowa” muszą moĪliwa do identyfikacji scientific community, dysponująca wáasnymi naukowymi organami teorii na podstawie tych samych danych. „Prawnawiązać ze sobą dialog, aby móc we wspólnej publikacyjnymi, moĪeFuchs, nawetprzewodniczący szkoáami o sprzecznych poglądach i ichkompleksowego zwolennikami, aby dopodobnie” piszea Max analizie podjąć się ujęcia zjaniemieckiej Kultury wiska polityki Rozróżnienie kaĪdy, kto Rady porusza siĊ nai dyrektor tym poluAkademii badawczo i twórczo, mógá kulturalnej. obecnie stworzyü wáasnąmiędzy Remscheid, w 2007 r. „pośród wszystkich możlimaterialnym substratem a niematerialną interpretradycjĊ.80 wych do wyobrażenia pól działalności politycznej tacją za pomocą pojęć „chleba” i „słowa” zostało polityka kulturalna jest tą, która w najmniejszym zrealizowane już w Starym Testamencie i zostało W ramach swojego panowania StaroĪytny Rzym stworzyá w ramach dobroczynnoĞci stopniu dysponuje (polityczno-) naukowym twoponownie podjęte w Nowym Testamencie (Dtn 78 hasáo panem circenses (Juvenal: Satyry 10, 81), tj. chleba igrzysk czyli poĪywienie dla rzeniem teorii”.et Klaus von Beyme podsumowuje 8,3; por. iMt 4,1-11),– przynajmniej w popularnym dla swojej dziedziny politologii: „Pole polityczne niemieckim tłumaczeniu brzmi to „Nie samym konkretnego zaspokojenia i rozrywka dla symbolicznego zaspokojenia mas. Reprezentowane chlebem żyje człowiek, lecz każdym słowem »sztuka i kultura« odgrywa [...] marginalną ro79 81 przez nas twierdzenie wyjĞciowe nauki o polityce kulturalnej jest na poziomie pochodzącym z usttakie, Boga”.Īe lꔫ. Lista osób zatrudnionych w niemieckich szkołach wyższych, które w ramach swojej podJeżeli pozostaniemy przy przykładzie circenses nauki, przedstawiciele „chleba” i przedstawiciele „sáowa” muszą nawiązaü ze sobą dialog, (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance), to rzuca się stawowej i dodatkowej działalności zawodowej aby móc we wspólnej analizie podjąü siĊ kompleksowego ujĊcia polityki zajmują się polityką kulturalną i towarzyszącymi w oczy nakładanie się zjawiska na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr wymaga wielości jej zagadnieniami, jest krótka i obejmuje jedynie kulturalnej. RozróĪnienie miĊdzy materialnym substratem a niematerialną interpretacją za 15 nazwisk. Przykładowo, aktywnie działa w tej prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunpomocą pojĊü „chleba” iSzkoła „sáowa” zostaáowzrealizowane w Starym Testamencie i zostaáo ków juĪ ramowych, które można zebrać w jedną kuldziedzinie Pedagogiczna Wyższa Ludwigsburgu w Badenii Wirtembergii, posiadająca turalną infrastrukturę i dla których analizy istnieją ponownie podjĊte w Nowym Testamencie (Dtn 8,3; por. Mt 4,1-11), przynajmniej w jedną katedrę i jeden kierunek studiów magisterstosowne narzędzia w postaci nauk społecznych skich, towarzyszących pracytáumaczeniu zawodowej: brzmi „Zarzą-to „Nie i nauk ekonomicznych. przynajmniej popularnym niemieckim samym chlebem ĪyjeTutaj czáowiek, lecz częściowo można operować liczbami. dzanie kulturą”. Fuchs pisze ponadto: „Nie oznacza kaĪdym sáowem pochodzącym z ust Boga”.81 to, że cały ten obszar realizuje swoją praktyczną Z drugiej zaś strony, teatr stanowi przykład poszukiwania przez człowieka sensu w różnych działalność bez pozostaniemy głębszego zastanowienia (mimocircenses JeĪeli przy przykáadzie (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance),
Feyerabend, Paul: Naturphilosphie. Wyd. Helmut Heim i Eric Oberheim. Frankfurt a.M. 2009. Passim.
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78
- poznać, da poznaü, Īe czáowiek Īyje chlebem, jedynie chlebem, lecz Īyje ze wszystkiego, coopinia, pochodzi [= opinia, – da że człowiek nie żyjenie jedynie lecz żyje ze wszystkiego, co pochodzi [= pogląd] z ust Jahwe«.pogląd] z ust Jahwe«.Schulze. München, za tĊ wskazówkĊ. Dziękuję Wolfgangowi Schulze, DziĊkujĊ München,Wolfgangowi za tę wskazówkę.
Beyme, Klaus von: Die Kunst der Macht und die Gegenmacht der Kunst. Studien zum Spannungsverhältnis von Kunst und Politik. Frankfurt am Main 1998. Tu: Rozdz. 1: Obrys politologii sztuki. 2007, s. 22.
Fuchs Max: ibid. W jĊzyku hebrajskim pojĊcie „sáowa” nie pojawia siĊ bezpoĞrednio;
79
80
81W języku hebrajskim pojęcie „słowa” nie pojawia się bezpośrednio;
81
Fuchs Max: ibid.
Fuchs Max: ibid.
80
80
moĪna zebraü w jedną kulturalną infrastrukturĊ i dla których analizy istnieją stosowne
Beyme, Klaus von: Die Kunst der Macht und die Gegenmacht der Kunst. Studien zum Spannungsverhältnis von Kunst und Politik. Frankfurt am Main 1998. Tu: Rozdz. 1: Obrys politologii sztuki. 2007, s. 22.
80
Fuchs, Max: Kulturpolitik. Elemente der Politik, herausgegeben von Hans-Georg Ehrhardt u.a. Wiesbayden.
79
81W
wymaga wieloĞci prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunków ramowych, które 78
81
to rzuca siĊ w oczy nakáadanie siĊ na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr
82
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
byłoby znaleźć ars gratia artis, sztukę samą dla że należy stwierdzić pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). siebie, z uwagi na charakter wykraczający poza Istnieje jak najbardziej wiele przemyśleń na temat samo wyobrażenie. Książka, dźwięk, obraz, sztuka sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzone są służą pracy zarobkowej, kształceniu, przyjemności także debaty na temat kierunku, w jakim zmierza i indoktrynacji; nie można o nich myśleć w odenasze społeczeństwo. To, czego brakuje, to możliwa rwaniu od człowieka. do identyfikacji scientific community, dysponująca podstawowej i dodatkowej dziaáalnoĞci zawodowej zajmują siĊ polityki kulturalną i Sformułowanie racjonalnych kontekstów własnymi naukowymi organami publikacyjnymi, towarzyszącymi jej zagadnieniami, krótka i obejmuje 15 nazwisk. Przykáadowo polityczno-kulturalnych na poziomiejest państwa, a możejedynie nawet szkołami o sprzecznych poglądach jednostek i społeczeństwa oby- Szkoáa i ichWyĪsza zwolennikami, aby każdy,w kto porusza się aktywnie terytorialnych dziaáa w tej dziedzinie Pedagogiczna w Ludwigsburgu Badenii watelskiego, sformułowanie ich celów i krytyka na tym polu badawczo i twórczo, mógł obecnie Wirtembergii, jedną katedrĊ kierunek ich strategicznychposiadająca środków przebiegały dotąd i jeden stworzyć własną studiów tradycję.”80magisterskich, w niewystarczającym zakresie. Polityka kultural- kulturą”. W ramach swojego panowania Starożytny towarzyszących pracy zawodowej: „Zarządzanie Fuchs pisze ponadto: na jest często redukowana do tego, co jest przez Rzym stworzył w ramach dobroczynności hasło Amerykanów sposób panem et circenses ( Juvenal: Satyry bez 10, 81), tj. Nie w niezawoalowany oznacza to, Īe caáy ten nazywaobszar realizuje swoją praktyczną dziaáalnoĞü ne mianem advocacy, czyli do instrumentarium chleba i igrzysk – czyli pożywienie dla konkretgáĊbszegodozastanowienia (mimoi zainteresowaĪe naleĪy stwierdziü pewien rodzaj praktycyzmu). Istnieje służącego akwizycji pieniędzy nego zaspokojenia i rozrywka dla symbolicznego nia z perspektywy konsumpcyjnej. Szczególnie zaspokojenia mas. Reprezentowane jak najbardziej wiele przemyĞleĔ na temat sztuki, kultury, polityki i edukacji. Prowadzoneprzez są nas łatwa do zauważenia jest dysproporcja między twierdzenie wyjściowe nauki o polityce kulturaltakĪe debaty na temat kierunku, jakim zmierza nasze spoáeczeĔstwo. czego nauki, brakuje, to obfitością zebranych w całej Europiewempirycznych nej jest takie, że na To, poziomie przedstawidanych a brakiem indukcyjnego pozyskiwania ciele „chleba” i przedstawiciele „słowa” muszą moĪliwa do identyfikacji scientific community, dysponująca wáasnymi naukowymi organami teorii na podstawie tych samych danych. „Prawnawiązać ze sobą dialog, aby móc we wspólnej publikacyjnymi, moĪeFuchs, nawetprzewodniczący szkoáami o sprzecznych poglądach i ichkompleksowego zwolennikami, aby dopodobnie” piszea Max analizie podjąć się ujęcia zjaniemieckiej Rady Kultury i dyrektor Akademii wiska polityki kulturalnej. Rozróżnienie kaĪdy, kto porusza siĊ na tym polu badawczo i twórczo, mógá obecnie stworzyü wáasnąmiędzy Remscheid, w 2007 r. „pośród wszystkich możlimaterialnym substratem a niematerialną interpre80 tradycjĊ. wych do wyobrażenia pól działalności politycznej tacją za pomocą pojęć „chleba” i „słowa” zostało polityka kulturalna jest tą, która w najmniejszym zrealizowane już w Starym Testamencie i zostało W ramach swojego panowania StaroĪytny Rzym stworzyá w ramach dobroczynnoĞci stopniu dysponuje (polityczno-) naukowym twoponownie podjęte w Nowym Testamencie (Dtn 78 hasáo panem circenses (Juvenal: Satyry 10, 81), tj.8,3; chleba igrzysk czyli poĪywienie dla rzeniem teorii”.et Klaus von Beyme podsumowuje por. iMt 4,1-11),– przynajmniej w popularnym dla swojej dziedziny politologii: „Pole polityczne niemieckim tłumaczeniu brzmi to „Nie samym konkretnego zaspokojenia i rozrywka dla symbolicznego zaspokojenia mas. Reprezentowane chlebem żyje człowiek, lecz każdym słowem »sztuka i kultura« odgrywa [...] marginalną ro79 81 przez nas twierdzenie wyjĞciowe nauki o politycepochodzącym kulturalnej jest na poziomie z usttakie, Boga”.Īe lꔫ. Lista osób zatrudnionych w niemieckich szkołach wyższych, które w ramach swojej podJeżeli pozostaniemy przy przykładzie circenses nauki, przedstawiciele „chleba” i przedstawiciele „sáowa” muszą nawiązaü ze sobą dialog, (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance), to rzuca się stawowej i dodatkowej działalności zawodowej aby móc we wspólnej analizie podjąü siĊ kompleksowego ujĊcia polityki zajmują się polityką kulturalną i towarzyszącymi w oczy nakładanie się zjawiska na siebie hard facts i soft values. Z jednej strony teatr wymaga wielości jej zagadnieniami, jest krótka i obejmuje jedynie kulturalnej. RozróĪnienie miĊdzy materialnym substratem a niematerialną interpretacją za 15 nazwisk. Przykładowo, aktywnie działa w tej prawnych, ekonomicznych i technicznych warunpomocą pojĊü „chleba” iSzkoła „sáowa” zostaáow zrealizowane w Starym Testamencie i zostaáo ków juĪ ramowych, które można zebrać w jedną kuldziedzinie Pedagogiczna Wyższa Ludwigsburgu w Badenii Wirtembergii, posiadająca turalną infrastrukturę i dla których analizy istnieją ponownie podjĊte w Nowym Testamencie (Dtn 8,3; por. Mt 4,1-11), przynajmniej w jedną katedrę i jeden kierunek studiów magisterstosowne narzędzia w postaci nauk społecznych skich, towarzyszących pracytáumaczeniu zawodowej: brzmi „Zarzą-to „Nie i nauk ekonomicznych. przynajmniej popularnym niemieckim samym chlebem ĪyjeTutaj czáowiek, lecz częściowo można operować liczbami. dzanie kulturą”. Fuchs pisze ponadto: „Nie oznacza 81 kaĪdym sáowem pochodzącym z ust Boga”. to, że cały ten obszar realizuje swoją praktyczną Z drugiej zaś strony, teatr stanowi przykład działalność bez pozostaniemy głębszego zastanowienia (mimocircenses poszukiwania przez człowieka sensu w różnych JeĪeli przy przykáadzie (lub ludi, strefie sztuk performance),
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społeczeństwach. Aby umożliwić zrozumienie tych poszukiwań sensu i móc przypisywać im odpowiednie konteksty, z germanistyki rozwinęło się teatroznawstwo, które w połączeniu z filozofią, naukami historycznymi i wielorakimi naukami o poszczególnych sztukach bada teksty i interpretacje, czyniąc je przedmiotem publicznych dyskursów; jest krótko mówiąc nauką humanistyczną. Nie sposób dopatrywać się tu ukrytych systemów liczbowych (por. Paul Feyerabend82 odnośnie parmenidejskiego przełomu); impact poszukiwania sensu może być jednak badany w relacji do innych społecznych decyzji wartościujących i może stano-
wić ewentualny wkład w optymalizację alokacji technicystycznych redukcji. Niecałe sto lat po wielokrotnym pojawieniu się pojęcia polityki kulturalnej w niemieckim obszarze językowym (1913; 1919), od pewnego czasu można zauważyć początek rozwoju nauki o polityce kulturalnej rozumianej jako połączenie analizy realia (aspektów rzeczywistych) i imaginaria (aspektów umysłowych). Pod względem funkcjonalnym nauka o polityce kulturalnej jest pragmatyczna nie w sensie πρãξισ jako danego faktu, lecz w sensie πρãγμα jako płodnego czynu w budowie mostu między humaniora a naukami społecznymi
społeczeństwach. Aby umożliwić zrozumienie tych poszukiwań sensu i móc przypisywać im odpowiednie konteksty, z germanistyki rozwinęło się teatroznawstwo, które w połączeniu z filozofią, naukami historycznymi i wielorakimi naukami o poszczególnych sztukach bada teksty i interpretacje, czyniąc je przedmiotem publicznych dyskursów; jest krótko mówiąc nauką humanistyczną. Nie sposób dopatrywać się tu ukrytych systemów liczbowych (por. Paul Feyerabend82 odnośnie parmenidejskiego przełomu); impact poszukiwania sensu może być jednak badany w relacji do innych społecznych decyzji wartościujących i może stanoZarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
237
wić ewentualny wkład w optymalizację alokacji technicystycznych redukcji. Niecałe sto lat po wielokrotnym pojawieniu się pojęcia polityki kulturalnej w niemieckim obszarze językowym (1913; 1919), od pewnego czasu można zauważyć początek rozwoju nauki o polityce kulturalnej rozumianej jako połączenie analizy realia (aspektów rzeczywistych) i imaginaria (aspektów umysłowych). Pod względem funkcjonalnym nauka o polityce kulturalnej jest pragmatyczna nie w sensie πρãξισ jako danego faktu, lecz w sensie πρãγμα jako płodnego czynu w budowie mostu między humaniora a naukami społecznymi
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Ten problem chyba najlepiej byłby zrozumiany przez Irlandczyków i Basków, którzy będąc zdominowani przez mocniejszą obcą kulturę walczą o swój zanikający język.
3
Takie narody, które najmniej podległy rusyfikacji za czasów ZSRR, np. Ormianie, Gruzini, Estończycy.
2
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna
Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), Minsk, Białoruś.
1
Takie narody, które najmniej podległy rusyfikacji za czasów ZSRR, np. Ormianie, Gruzini, Estończycy.
2
Ten problem chyba najlepiej byłby zrozumiany przez Irlandczyków i Basków, którzy będąc zdominowani przez mocniejszą obcą kulturę walczą o swój zanikający język.
3
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna
Independent Institute of Socio-Economic and Political Studies (IISEPS), Minsk, Białoruś.
1
Nastassia Chmiel
ruskim?3 Problem wyboru języka jest najbardziej wyrazisty w postaci dwóch, czasem współistniejących, a czasem sobie wrogich, kierunków kultury białoruskiej: białoruskojęzycznej i rosyjskojęzycznej, dzielących działaczy kultury na dwa obozy, co moim zdaniem, przyczynia się do hamowania jej rozwoju, ponieważ zabiera siły i czas oraz uniemożliwia współpracę z obopólną korzyścią. Jaka jest wizja kultury teraz? Jaką chcielibyśmy widzieć w przyszłości? Jak się prezentuje w świecie? – to są niewątpliwie ważne pytania, odpowiedzieć na które (nie w formie deklaratywnej, lecz w postaci koncepcji, strategii, działań według realistycznego, osiągalnego planu) nie ma komu, bo dla władzy kultura jest jednym z narzędzi utrzymania status quo, a przedstawiciele undergroundu są najczęściej jedynie natchnionymi amatorami nieposiadającymi odpowiednich kompetencji, biznesmenami od kultury traktującymi ją w sposób wulgarny. „Kto płaci, ten wybiera muzykę” – wystarczy posłuchać miejscowych przebojów radiowych. Sfera kultury w kraju jest podzielona na: MM kulturę oficjalną, wspieraną, finansowaną, inicjowaną [Smoleń, 2003], kontrolowaną poprzez władzę (co jest deklarowane w ustawach prawnych i innych dokumentach); MM kulturę nieoficjalną, czyli nieliczne NGO, underground, muzyczną, artystyczną, literacką twórczość młodzieży, finansowaną z własnych środków lub z grantów zagranicznych, wypływającą głównie z wielkiego entuzjazmu i protestu przeciw kulturze oficjalnej. Kultura nieoficjalna najczęściej wyraża się rzadko zarejestrowanymi zespołami twórczymi;
W
spółczesna Białoruś jest krajem, który historycznie stoi jedną nogą na Zachodzie, drugą na Wschodzie. Ta sprzeczność stanowi podstawową cechę kształtującą białoruską mentalność i kulturę. Kościół czy Cerkiew, Unia Europejska czy związek z Rosją, demokracja czy „renesans radziecki”, gospodarka wolnorynkowa czy gospodarka planowana centralnie, społeczeństwo obywatelskie czy władza totalitarna, język białoruski czy rosyjski – to wybory przed którymi staje każdy Białorusin. W rzeczywistości jednak musi się godzić i z tym i z tym, próbując łączyć w swojej świadomości te przeciwstawne pojęcia. W ciągu ostatnich 10-15 lat, jak sądzi socjolog Oleg Manajew1, społeczeństwo białoruskie uległo głębokiemu rozszczepieniu. Tak władza jak i opozycja dążą do uzyskania jak największych korzyści. Ludzie łączą w sobie dwie Białorusie – taką, która jest budowana przez władzę oraz taką, jaką widzą w swoich projektach przedstawiciele opozycji. Podstawowym problemem, od którego rozwiązania rozpoczyna się życie duchowe i kulturalne nacji, jest zdefiniowanie jej tożsamości. Wtedy możliwe jest postrzeganie kultury danego narodu jako zjawiska całościowego, niepowtarzalnego, a nie jako sumę osobnych dzieł sztuki, które zostały stworzone w tym kraju lub ich autorem jest ktoś, pochodzący z tego obszaru. W ciągu ostatnich 20 lat prawie wszystkie byłe republiki ZSRR w mniejszym lub większym stopniu uporały się ze zdefiniowaniem własnej tożsamości (jeżeli w ogóle miały taką potrzebę)2. Społeczeństwo białoruskie natomiast ciągle nie może się zdecydować się na to, co tak naprawdę oznacza bycie Białorusinem. Czy dla Białorusina niezbędne jest posługiwanie się językiem biało-
Nastassia Chmiel stypendystka programu stypendialnego im. Lane’a Kirklanda. Absolwentka wydziału Twórczości Scenicznej Białoruskiego Państwowego Uniwersytetu Kultury i Sztuki. Kierownik młodzieżowego zespołu muzyki etnicznej „Dżambibum”, organizatorka wydarzeń kulturalnych, m.in. warsztatów muzyki ludowej. Obszar jej badań obejmuje zarządzanie kulturą ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem możliwości rozwoju kultury niszowej, niekomercyjnej, animację kultury, aktywizację życia kulturalnego na prowincji, tradycyjną kulturę pojmowaną jako zasób rozwoju eko-turystyki.
W
ruskim?3 Problem wyboru języka jest najbardziej wyrazisty w postaci dwóch, czasem współistniejących, a czasem sobie wrogich, kierunków kultury białoruskiej: białoruskojęzycznej i rosyjskojęzycznej, dzielących działaczy kultury na dwa obozy, co moim zdaniem, przyczynia się do hamowania jej rozwoju, ponieważ zabiera siły i czas oraz uniemożliwia współpracę z obopólną korzyścią. Jaka jest wizja kultury teraz? Jaką chcielibyśmy widzieć w przyszłości? Jak się prezentuje w świecie? – to są niewątpliwie ważne pytania, odpowiedzieć na które (nie w formie deklaratywnej, lecz w postaci koncepcji, strategii, działań według realistycznego, osiągalnego planu) nie ma komu, bo dla władzy kultura jest jednym z narzędzi utrzymania status quo, a przedstawiciele undergroundu są najczęściej jedynie natchnionymi amatorami nieposiadającymi odpowiednich kompetencji, biznesmenami od kultury traktującymi ją w sposób wulgarny. „Kto płaci, ten wybiera muzykę” – wystarczy posłuchać miejscowych przebojów radiowych. Sfera kultury w kraju jest podzielona na: MM kulturę oficjalną, wspieraną, finansowaną, inicjowaną [Smoleń, 2003], kontrolowaną poprzez władzę (co jest deklarowane w ustawach prawnych i innych dokumentach); MM kulturę nieoficjalną, czyli nieliczne NGO, underground, muzyczną, artystyczną, literacką twórczość młodzieży, finansowaną z własnych środków lub z grantów zagranicznych, wypływającą głównie z wielkiego entuzjazmu i protestu przeciw kulturze oficjalnej. Kultura nieoficjalna najczęściej wyraża się rzadko zarejestrowanymi zespołami twórczymi;
Nastassia Chmiel stypendystka programu stypendialnego im. Lane’a Kirklanda. Absolwentka wydziału Twórczości Scenicznej Białoruskiego Państwowego Uniwersytetu Kultury i Sztuki. Kierownik młodzieżowego zespołu muzyki etnicznej „Dżambibum”, organizatorka wydarzeń kulturalnych, m.in. warsztatów muzyki ludowej. Obszar jej badań obejmuje zarządzanie kulturą ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem możliwości rozwoju kultury niszowej, niekomercyjnej, animację kultury, aktywizację życia kulturalnego na prowincji, tradycyjną kulturę pojmowaną jako zasób rozwoju eko-turystyki.
spółczesna Białoruś jest krajem, który historycznie stoi jedną nogą na Zachodzie, drugą na Wschodzie. Ta sprzeczność stanowi podstawową cechę kształtującą białoruską mentalność i kulturę. Kościół czy Cerkiew, Unia Europejska czy związek z Rosją, demokracja czy „renesans radziecki”, gospodarka wolnorynkowa czy gospodarka planowana centralnie, społeczeństwo obywatelskie czy władza totalitarna, język białoruski czy rosyjski – to wybory przed którymi staje każdy Białorusin. W rzeczywistości jednak musi się godzić i z tym i z tym, próbując łączyć w swojej świadomości te przeciwstawne pojęcia. W ciągu ostatnich 10-15 lat, jak sądzi socjolog Oleg Manajew1, społeczeństwo białoruskie uległo głębokiemu rozszczepieniu. Tak władza jak i opozycja dążą do uzyskania jak największych korzyści. Ludzie łączą w sobie dwie Białorusie – taką, która jest budowana przez władzę oraz taką, jaką widzą w swoich projektach przedstawiciele opozycji. Podstawowym problemem, od którego rozwiązania rozpoczyna się życie duchowe i kulturalne nacji, jest zdefiniowanie jej tożsamości. Wtedy możliwe jest postrzeganie kultury danego narodu jako zjawiska całościowego, niepowtarzalnego, a nie jako sumę osobnych dzieł sztuki, które zostały stworzone w tym kraju lub ich autorem jest ktoś, pochodzący z tego obszaru. W ciągu ostatnich 20 lat prawie wszystkie byłe republiki ZSRR w mniejszym lub większym stopniu uporały się ze zdefiniowaniem własnej tożsamości (jeżeli w ogóle miały taką potrzebę)2. Społeczeństwo białoruskie natomiast ciągle nie może się zdecydować się na to, co tak naprawdę oznacza bycie Białorusinem. Czy dla Białorusina niezbędne jest posługiwanie się językiem biało-
Nastassia Chmiel
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
239
rzed zapoznaniem się z aktami prawnymi, w których została sformułowana polityka kulturalna państwa, chciałabym przedstawić kilka zdań jej dotyczących z tekstu pod nazwą „Główne zasady polityki państwa Republiki Białoruś”, umieszczonego na stronie oficjalnej Prezydenta RB: „Główne zasady polityki państwa w naszym kraju są zdefiniowane przez Prezydenta Republiki Białorusi Aleksandra Łukaszenko. Przez cały okres kadencji prezydenta zasady planowania, spójności, ciągłości i gradualizmu wyrażone są w następujący sposób: MM W ekonomii, idziemy od tego, co jest: nie burzymy, nie rozpraszamy, nie niszczymy. MM Mocna, skuteczna władza państwowa, stabilność polityczna w naszym kraju – to najważniejsze warunki dla porządku publicznego w ewolucji i stopniowym rozwoju gospodarki narodowej, stopniowej integracji z gospodarką światową. MM W sferze kultury i życia społecznego dla naszej republiki nie jest właściwy agresywny nacjonalizm, lecz pomoc państwa na rzecz historycznej dwujęzyczności, odrodzenia duchowości i kultywowania tradycyjnych religii, sztuki we wszystkich formach. MM Państwo prowadzi konsekwentną politykę w celu zachowania dziedzictwa kulturowego Białorusi, najlepszych cech charakteru Białorusinów: szacunku dla ludzi innych narodowości i wyznań, tolerancji, humanizmu i spokoju.
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna Nastassia Chmiel
MM kulturę komercyjną („przemysły kultury”). Choć w wypadku Białorusi słowo „przemysł” brzmi zbyt patetycznie, tak naprawdę przemysł kultury jest zjawiskiem właściwym gospodarce wolnorynkowej, gdzie popyt i podaż są regulowane przez mechanizmy rynkowe, a zwłaszcza konkurencję, gdzie istnieją prywatne (niezależne) media, wydawnictwa, firmy fonograficzne, które, co najważniejsze, są w stanie inwestować w produkt o wysokiej jakości. Sprzyjających temu warunków na Białorusi nie ma. Zaprezentowany podział jest nieproporcjonalny, bowiem największy wpływ należy do państwa, gdyż instytucje państwowe dążą do kontroli nad wszystkimi organizacjami, prowadzącymi działalność kulturalną, nawet gdy są to NGO czy komercyjne agencje koncertowe. Jak podkreśla Monika Smoleń [Smoleń, 2003], sektor kultury należy rozpatrywać w kategoriach systemu, który współtworzą instytucje kultury finansowane ze środków publicznych, organizacje non-profit i przedsięwzięcia na polu kultury działające według zasad rynkowych – przemysły kultury. Oddzielenie tych obszarów od siebie staje się coraz częściej niemożliwe i niesie negatywne skutki dla wszystkich sfer, tym bardziej, iż mocno od siebie uzależnione są wzajemnie powiązane mocnymi więziami. W przypadku Białorusi pierwsze dwa składniki, kultura oficjalna i nieoficjalna, są w gruncie rzeczy opozycyjne względem siebie. Proeuropejski underground kulturalny, niestety nie za pomocą, lecz wbrew działaniom państwa w zakresie kultury, próbuje (i to dość skutecznie, na ile jest to możliwe w istniejących warunkach) prowadzić alternatywną politykę kulturalną. Trzeba powiedzieć, że wiele NGO, zespołów artystycznych, rozumiejąc, że taka izolacja nie sprzyja rozwojowi, chce współpracować z instytucjami państwowymi, zaprasza je do udziału w projektach i wydarzeniach kulturalnych, proponuje pomoc w rozwiązywaniu problemów. Dla organizacji pozarządowych państwowe instytucje kultury często są przedmiotem zainteresowania z tego względu, iż posiadają pomieszczenia i techniczne wyposażenie. Ale na poziomie systemowym centralizacja, hierarchia i subordynacja definiujące rzeczywistość, w której działają instytucje państwowe, w wielu wypadkach uniemożliwiają taką współpracę, ponieważ masywnemu biurokratycznemu aparatowi brakuje elastyczności, szybkiego reagowania na możliwe zmiany. Dominuje administracyjny sposób podejmowania decyzji, w którym daje się zauważyć zbyt duży wpływ urzędników, a zbyt małą rolę artystów i twórców kultury. Przeciętny dyrektor domu kultury nie jest prawdziwym kierownikiem swojej instytucji, raczej wykonawcą rozporządzeń
„z góry”. Nie może samodzielnie decydować nawet o tak „prozaicznej” rzeczy jak wynajem sali koncertowej, na co musi uzyskać na to zgodę organizatora. Z tego powodu bywa również i tak, że kiedy do dyrektora zgłasza się z jakąkolwiek propozycją czy inicjatywą ktoś z organizacji pozarządowej lub zespołu artystycznego, to zwykle słyszymy odpowiedź: „to jest dobry pomysł, ale nie mogę w tym pomóc, ponieważ nie ma tego w planie, jestem tylko urzędnikiem, nie mogę podjąć takiej decyzji”. Przykłady ignorowania przez państwo inicjatyw „z dołu”, których jest wiele, pokazują niewątpliwą paternalistyczność władz i są odpowiedzią na pytanie „dlaczego wychodzi nam tak źle, gdy wymyśliliśmy tak dobrze?” To jest oczywiste: ludziom nie podoba się, gdy ktoś za nich myśli, gdy powinni robić coś, co jest dla nich wymyślone przez kogoś, nawet „dla ich własnego dobra”. W takim wypadku mamy kulturę sformalizowaną, biurokratyczną. Natomiast głównym zadaniem państwa jest stworzenie warunków sprzyjających dla rozwoju kultury.
Pozycja państwa wobec kultury
P
rzed zapoznaniem się z aktami prawnymi, w których została sformułowana polityka kulturalna państwa, chciałabym przedstawić kilka zdań jej dotyczących z tekstu pod nazwą „Główne zasady polityki państwa Republiki Białoruś”, umieszczonego na stronie oficjalnej Prezydenta RB: „Główne zasady polityki państwa w naszym kraju są zdefiniowane przez Prezydenta Republiki Białorusi Aleksandra Łukaszenko. Przez cały okres kadencji prezydenta zasady planowania, spójności, ciągłości i gradualizmu wyrażone są w następujący sposób: MM W ekonomii, idziemy od tego, co jest: nie burzymy, nie rozpraszamy, nie niszczymy. MM Mocna, skuteczna władza państwowa, stabilność polityczna w naszym kraju – to najważniejsze warunki dla porządku publicznego w ewolucji i stopniowym rozwoju gospodarki narodowej, stopniowej integracji z gospodarką światową. MM W sferze kultury i życia społecznego dla naszej republiki nie jest właściwy agresywny nacjonalizm, lecz pomoc państwa na rzecz historycznej dwujęzyczności, odrodzenia duchowości i kultywowania tradycyjnych religii, sztuki we wszystkich formach. MM Państwo prowadzi konsekwentną politykę w celu zachowania dziedzictwa kulturowego Białorusi, najlepszych cech charakteru Białorusinów: szacunku dla ludzi innych narodowości i wyznań, tolerancji, humanizmu i spokoju.
Nastassia Chmiel
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna
kulturę komercyjną („przemysły kultury”). Choć w wypadku Białorusi słowo „przemysł” brzmi zbyt patetycznie, tak naprawdę przemysł kultury jest zjawiskiem właściwym gospodarce wolnorynkowej, gdzie popyt i podaż są regulowane przez mechanizmy rynkowe, a zwłaszcza konkurencję, gdzie istnieją prywatne (niezależne) media, wydawnictwa, firmy fonograficzne, które, co najważniejsze, są w stanie inwestować w produkt o wysokiej jakości. Sprzyjających temu warunków na Białorusi nie ma. Zaprezentowany podział jest nieproporcjonalny, bowiem największy wpływ należy do państwa, gdyż instytucje państwowe dążą do kontroli nad wszystkimi organizacjami, prowadzącymi działalność kulturalną, nawet gdy są to NGO czy komercyjne agencje koncertowe. Jak podkreśla Monika Smoleń [Smoleń, 2003], sektor kultury należy rozpatrywać w kategoriach systemu, który współtworzą instytucje kultury finansowane ze środków publicznych, organizacje non-profit i przedsięwzięcia na polu kultury działające według zasad rynkowych – przemysły kultury. Oddzielenie tych obszarów od siebie staje się coraz częściej niemożliwe i niesie negatywne skutki dla wszystkich sfer, tym bardziej, iż mocno od siebie uzależnione są wzajemnie powiązane mocnymi więziami. W przypadku Białorusi pierwsze dwa składniki, kultura oficjalna i nieoficjalna, są w gruncie rzeczy opozycyjne względem siebie. Proeuropejski underground kulturalny, niestety nie za pomocą, lecz wbrew działaniom państwa w zakresie kultury, próbuje (i to dość skutecznie, na ile jest to możliwe w istniejących warunkach) prowadzić alternatywną politykę kulturalną. Trzeba powiedzieć, że wiele NGO, zespołów artystycznych, rozumiejąc, że taka izolacja nie sprzyja rozwojowi, chce współpracować z instytucjami państwowymi, zaprasza je do udziału w projektach i wydarzeniach kulturalnych, proponuje pomoc w rozwiązywaniu problemów. Dla organizacji pozarządowych państwowe instytucje kultury często są przedmiotem zainteresowania z tego względu, iż posiadają pomieszczenia i techniczne wyposażenie. Ale na poziomie systemowym centralizacja, hierarchia i subordynacja definiujące rzeczywistość, w której działają instytucje państwowe, w wielu wypadkach uniemożliwiają taką współpracę, ponieważ masywnemu biurokratycznemu aparatowi brakuje elastyczności, szybkiego reagowania na możliwe zmiany. Dominuje administracyjny sposób podejmowania decyzji, w którym daje się zauważyć zbyt duży wpływ urzędników, a zbyt małą rolę artystów i twórców kultury. Przeciętny dyrektor domu kultury nie jest prawdziwym kierownikiem swojej instytucji, raczej wykonawcą rozporządzeń
MM
P
Pozycja państwa wobec kultury „z góry”. Nie może samodzielnie decydować nawet o tak „prozaicznej” rzeczy jak wynajem sali koncertowej, na co musi uzyskać na to zgodę organizatora. Z tego powodu bywa również i tak, że kiedy do dyrektora zgłasza się z jakąkolwiek propozycją czy inicjatywą ktoś z organizacji pozarządowej lub zespołu artystycznego, to zwykle słyszymy odpowiedź: „to jest dobry pomysł, ale nie mogę w tym pomóc, ponieważ nie ma tego w planie, jestem tylko urzędnikiem, nie mogę podjąć takiej decyzji”. Przykłady ignorowania przez państwo inicjatyw „z dołu”, których jest wiele, pokazują niewątpliwą paternalistyczność władz i są odpowiedzią na pytanie „dlaczego wychodzi nam tak źle, gdy wymyśliliśmy tak dobrze?” To jest oczywiste: ludziom nie podoba się, gdy ktoś za nich myśli, gdy powinni robić coś, co jest dla nich wymyślone przez kogoś, nawet „dla ich własnego dobra”. W takim wypadku mamy kulturę sformalizowaną, biurokratyczną. Natomiast głównym zadaniem państwa jest stworzenie warunków sprzyjających dla rozwoju kultury.
239
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
240
wet gdyby udało się skutecznie zakonserwować pewne formy funkcjonowania społeczeństwa, to jak poradzić sobie z jego rozwojem zgodnie ze współczesnymi zapotrzebowaniami? Inne, a raczej przeciwstawne spojrzenie na kwestie rozwoju kultury proponuje Wladimir Mackiewicz [Mackiewicz, 2006], białoruski metodolog, kierownik Agencji Technologii Humanitarnych: „Podstawowy społeczno-kulturowy problem współczesnej Białorusi polega na tym, że tradycja oraz istniejące obyczaje dążą ku przeszłości, ku społeczeństwu typu zamkniętego, które wręcz spowodowało ogólny kryzys systemowy. Pozytywne rozwiązanie kryzysu możliwe jest wyłącznie za pomocą innych środków, należących do przyszłości, do społeczeństwa otwartego. Ogólne rozwiązanie tego problemu można sformułować słowami niemieckiego filozofa Rudolfa Hermanna Lotze: »To, co powinno być, jest podstawą tego, co jest.« To znaczy, iż przyszłość definiuje dzisiejsza rzeczywistość, to co się toczy z przeszłości już »niby« nie istnieje.” Takimi środkami mają być, według Mackiewicza, technologie humanitarne, polegające na kreowaniu i wprowadzaniu w życie społeczne nowych zasad działania, nowych wzorów zachowania, które, w wypadku skutecznego rozpowszechniania się w społeczeństwie, przekształcą się w tradycję. Tego typu praktyka niezbędna jest w sytuacjach kryzysu, transformacji i rozwoju, gdy tradycyjna droga nie odpowiada postawionym celom. Ale wróćmy jednak do tematu pozycji oficjalnej wobec kultury. Obecnie polityka kulturalna państwa opiera się na międzynarodowych zasadach zapisanych w konwencjach UNESCO – Konwencji Haskiej o ochronie dóbr kultury w razie konfliktu zbrojnego (1954), ochronie światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i przyrodniczego UNESCO (1972), ochronie niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego (2003), ochronie i promowaniu różnorodności form wyrazu kulturowego (2005). A także: MM krajowa strategia na rzecz zrównoważonego rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczego Białorusi na okres do 2020 r. zatwierdzona przez Prezydium Rady Ministrów Republiki Białoruś (raport z 23/03/2004 numer 12), MM ustawa Republiki Białoruś z dnia 04.06.1991 (№832-XII) (red. dnia 18.07.2007) O kulturze Republiki Białoruś, MM program rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczego Białorusi na lata 2006-2010, MM zintegrowany program rozwoju usług w Republice Białoruś w latach 2006-2010, MM program państwa Pamięć Białorusi, program Zachowanie i rozwój kultury Republiki Białoruś na lata 2006-2010,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
MM
240
wet gdyby udało się skutecznie zakonserwować pewne formy funkcjonowania społeczeństwa, to jak poradzić sobie z jego rozwojem zgodnie ze współczesnymi zapotrzebowaniami? Inne, a raczej przeciwstawne spojrzenie na kwestie rozwoju kultury proponuje Wladimir Mackiewicz [Mackiewicz, 2006], białoruski metodolog, kierownik Agencji Technologii Humanitarnych: „Podstawowy społeczno-kulturowy problem współczesnej Białorusi polega na tym, że tradycja oraz istniejące obyczaje dążą ku przeszłości, ku społeczeństwu typu zamkniętego, które wręcz spowodowało ogólny kryzys systemowy. Pozytywne rozwiązanie kryzysu możliwe jest wyłącznie za pomocą innych środków, należących do przyszłości, do społeczeństwa otwartego. Ogólne rozwiązanie tego problemu można sformułować słowami niemieckiego filozofa Rudolfa Hermanna Lotze: »To, co powinno być, jest podstawą tego, co jest.« To znaczy, iż przyszłość definiuje dzisiejsza rzeczywistość, to co się toczy z przeszłości już »niby« nie istnieje.” Takimi środkami mają być, według Mackiewicza, technologie humanitarne, polegające na kreowaniu i wprowadzaniu w życie społeczne nowych zasad działania, nowych wzorów zachowania, które, w wypadku skutecznego rozpowszechniania się w społeczeństwie, przekształcą się w tradycję. Tego typu praktyka niezbędna jest w sytuacjach kryzysu, transformacji i rozwoju, gdy tradycyjna droga nie odpowiada postawionym celom. Ale wróćmy jednak do tematu pozycji oficjalnej wobec kultury. Obecnie polityka kulturalna państwa opiera się na międzynarodowych zasadach zapisanych w konwencjach UNESCO – Konwencji Haskiej o ochronie dóbr kultury w razie konfliktu zbrojnego (1954), ochronie światowego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i przyrodniczego UNESCO (1972), ochronie niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego (2003), ochronie i promowaniu różnorodności form wyrazu kulturowego (2005). A także: MM krajowa strategia na rzecz zrównoważonego rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczego Białorusi na okres do 2020 r. zatwierdzona przez Prezydium Rady Ministrów Republiki Białoruś (raport z 23/03/2004 numer 12), MM ustawa Republiki Białoruś z dnia 04.06.1991 (№832-XII) (red. dnia 18.07.2007) O kulturze Republiki Białoruś, MM program rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczego Białorusi na lata 2006-2010, MM zintegrowany program rozwoju usług w Republice Białoruś w latach 2006-2010, MM program państwa Pamięć Białorusi, MM program Zachowanie i rozwój kultury Republiki Białoruś na lata 2006-2010,
MM Państwo i budżet państwa są zobowiązane do zagwarantowania wsparcia finansowego dla rozwoju kultury i sztuki. Zasada ciągłości polityki kulturalnej wyraża się utrzymaniem infrastruktury instytucji publicznych, kultury i sztuki. MM Podstawą polityki państwa jest określenie trwałych punktów pamięci historycznej narodu – Zwycięstwa w Wielkiej Wojnie Ojczyźnianej. Wierność pamięci znajduje odzwierciedlenie w decyzji kierownictwa kraju odnośnie wprowadzenia w szkołach przedmiotu Wielka Wojna Ojczyźniana narodu radzieckiego. MM Kraj wypracował sposób tworzenia ideologii państwa białoruskiego, krystalizacji białoruskiej idei narodowej. Najbardziej pojemna i zwięzła idea narodowa została zawarta w haśle Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś: „Za Białoruś silną i kwitnącą!” Myślę, że każdy, komu zdarzyło się przeżyć czasy komunizmu, od razu pozna ów charakterystyczny optymistyczno-demagogiczny styl, którym przemawiano z wysokich trybun. Trudno go krytykować, gdyż pozornie wszystko jest napisane poprawnie, lecz między wierszami jawią się pytania: co to tak naprawdę mogą znaczyć określenia „mocna, skuteczna władza państwowa”, na czym polega jej moc? Czy dążenie ku „stabilności politycznej” powoduje prześladowania np. studentów – autorów serialu animowanego, w którym jednym z bohaterów jest Aleksander Łukaszenko? Nie wiem, co mógłby zrozumieć przeciętny Europejczyk ze zdania „w sferze kultury i życia społecznego dla naszej republiki nie jest właściwy agresywny nacjonalizm”. Dlaczego podkreślać to, co nie jest właściwe? Przeciętny Białorusin dobrze rozumie przesłanie – agresywnym nacjonalizmem nazywano politykę „Belaruskaga Adradżennia” (renesans białoruski), wprowadzaną na początku lat 90., kiedy to jedynym językiem urzędowym był język białoruski. Celem tej polityki był jego rozwój i stopniowe wprowadzanie we wszystkie sfery życia społecznego po to, aby wyraźnie przyczynić się do rozwiązania problemu identyfikacji narodowej Białorusinów jako osobnej europejskiej nacji, a nie prowincji Rosji. Innymi słowy polityka państwowa, w tym kulturalna, opiera się na hasłach „stabilności”, „porządku” oraz na idei wykorzystania „dziedzictwa” pozostałego po Związku Radzieckim jako podstawy dla dalszego rozwoju. Z jednej strony totalne niszczenie starego i próba budowy czegoś zupełnie nowego to jak wiadomo z historii droga donikąd. Ten nieudany eksperyment skończył się 20 lat temu. Nie zawsze sprawdza się takie podejście, gdyż jakość, walory i witalność tego „dziedzictwa” rodzą wielkie wątpliwości. A na-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Państwo i budżet państwa są zobowiązane do zagwarantowania wsparcia finansowego dla rozwoju kultury i sztuki. Zasada ciągłości polityki kulturalnej wyraża się utrzymaniem infrastruktury instytucji publicznych, kultury i sztuki. MM Podstawą polityki państwa jest określenie trwałych punktów pamięci historycznej narodu – Zwycięstwa w Wielkiej Wojnie Ojczyźnianej. Wierność pamięci znajduje odzwierciedlenie w decyzji kierownictwa kraju odnośnie wprowadzenia w szkołach przedmiotu Wielka Wojna Ojczyźniana narodu radzieckiego. MM Kraj wypracował sposób tworzenia ideologii państwa białoruskiego, krystalizacji białoruskiej idei narodowej. Najbardziej pojemna i zwięzła idea narodowa została zawarta w haśle Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś: „Za Białoruś silną i kwitnącą!” Myślę, że każdy, komu zdarzyło się przeżyć czasy komunizmu, od razu pozna ów charakterystyczny optymistyczno-demagogiczny styl, którym przemawiano z wysokich trybun. Trudno go krytykować, gdyż pozornie wszystko jest napisane poprawnie, lecz między wierszami jawią się pytania: co to tak naprawdę mogą znaczyć określenia „mocna, skuteczna władza państwowa”, na czym polega jej moc? Czy dążenie ku „stabilności politycznej” powoduje prześladowania np. studentów – autorów serialu animowanego, w którym jednym z bohaterów jest Aleksander Łukaszenko? Nie wiem, co mógłby zrozumieć przeciętny Europejczyk ze zdania „w sferze kultury i życia społecznego dla naszej republiki nie jest właściwy agresywny nacjonalizm”. Dlaczego podkreślać to, co nie jest właściwe? Przeciętny Białorusin dobrze rozumie przesłanie – agresywnym nacjonalizmem nazywano politykę „Belaruskaga Adradżennia” (renesans białoruski), wprowadzaną na początku lat 90., kiedy to jedynym językiem urzędowym był język białoruski. Celem tej polityki był jego rozwój i stopniowe wprowadzanie we wszystkie sfery życia społecznego po to, aby wyraźnie przyczynić się do rozwiązania problemu identyfikacji narodowej Białorusinów jako osobnej europejskiej nacji, a nie prowincji Rosji. Innymi słowy polityka państwowa, w tym kulturalna, opiera się na hasłach „stabilności”, „porządku” oraz na idei wykorzystania „dziedzictwa” pozostałego po Związku Radzieckim jako podstawy dla dalszego rozwoju. Z jednej strony totalne niszczenie starego i próba budowy czegoś zupełnie nowego to jak wiadomo z historii droga donikąd. Ten nieudany eksperyment skończył się 20 lat temu. Nie zawsze sprawdza się takie podejście, gdyż jakość, walory i witalność tego „dziedzictwa” rodzą wielkie wątpliwości. A naMM
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
program do wykonania zadań określonych w Programie odrodzenia i rozwoju obszarów wiejskich na lata 2005-2010, MM program rozwoju muzeów Republiki Białoruś w latach 2005-2010, MM program odbudowy i technicznej modernizacji publicznych teatrów Republiki Białoruś w latach 2004-2010. W grudniu 2009 została wypracowana koncepcja programu państwa Kultura Białorusi (2011-2015), zgodnie z którą głównym celem ewolucji kultury jest zwiększenie roli, jaką odgrywa w rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczym, tworzenie wysokiej duchowości zgodnie z historycznymi, społecznymi i kulturalnymi wartościami narodu białoruskiego i cywilizacji świata. Polityka państwa w tej dziedzinie ma na celu zachowanie tożsamości kulturowej narodu białoruskiego oraz tradycji narodowych, odrodzenie i zachowanie dziedzictwa i możliwości rozwoju, zapewnienie dostępności dóbr kultury dla ogółu ludności, ochronę dorobku duchowego, intelektualnego, dóbr kultury oraz integracjię z globalną kulturą prawa równości uczestników globalnych procesów kulturowych. Priorytetami polityki państwa w dziedzinie kultury (zgodnie z ustępem 3 artykułu 10 ustawy O kulturze w Republice Białoruś) są: MM ochrona, rozwój i rozpowszechnianie kultury białoruskiej i języka narodowego, MM tworzenie, upowszechnianie oraz propagowanie literatury i sztuki dla dzieci i młodzieży, stwarzanie warunków do estetycznego wychowania, edukacji w zakresie kultury i sztuki, MM promowanie klasycznej literatury i sztuki oraz innych estetycznych oraz moralnych wartości kultury narodu i świata, MM utrzymanie i rozwój kultury na wsi. Koncepcja powstała w oparciu o raport o stanie kultury, w którym miedzy innymi określone zostały podstawowe problemy tego sektora w kraju. Gdy porównać je z listą „podstawowych słabości występujących w obszarze kultury” [Raport o promocji Polski poprzez kulturę, 2009], których w Polsce, jako w kraju niewątpliwie wyprzedzającym w rozwoju RB, wydawałoby się, że powinno być mniej, rzuca się w oczy, że oto polskich „słabości” jest jednak o wiele więcej niż białoruskich, które polegają (nie trudno zgadnąć) na „braku środków ”. Narodowa Strategia Rozwoju Kultury (polskiej) na lata 2004-2013 uwidoczniła na następujące podstawowe niedomagania występujące w obszarze kultury (i trzeba przyznać, że ta diagnoza pozostaje nadal aktualna, nawet jeśli za sprawą większego finansowania w niektórych sytuacjach uległa złagodzeniu): MM
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brak spójnej i jasno określonej polityki kulturalnej państwa, MM brak planowania (zarządzania) strategicznego w kulturze, MM niskie wydatki na kulturę w przeliczeniu na jednego mieszkańca w porównaniu z pozostałymi krajami Unii Europejskiej, MM zadłużenie instytucji kultury, MM zły stan infrastruktury instytucji kultury, MM brak systemu oceny jakości funkcjonowania instytucji kultury oraz brak powiązania systemu dystrybucji środków ministerialnych z systemem oceny jakości instytucji i przedsięwzięć kulturalnych, MM zbyt wysoka specjalizacja instytucji upowszechniania kultury, MM brak efektywnych instrumentów motywujących przedstawicieli sektora prywatnego do inwestowania w kulturę, MM wysoka zależność instytucji kultury i dyrektorów od organizatorów tych instytucji. W następujący sposób problemy kultury białoruskiej przedstawione są w koncepcji programu państwa Kultura Białorusi (2011-2015): „Jednakże, biorąc pod uwagę znaczne postępy w dziedzinie kultury w naszym kraju, należy uznać, że poziom jej rozwoju nie odpowiada wymogom wzrastającej konkurencji międzynarodowej w sferze gospodarczej, społecznej, politycznej, duchowej. W sferze społecznej i biznesowej kultura nie jest uznana za znaczący paradygmat rozwoju. Uświadomić sobie należy, iż nakazy moralne i duchowe, jak również ekologiczne i ekonomiczne mają kluczowe znaczenie w procesie przejścia do zrównoważonego rozwoju. W związku z tym istotny stosunek społeczeństwa do kultury wyraża się w niedostatecznym wydawaniu środków na jej rozwój. Ograniczenia finansowe komplikują realizację działań na rzecz ochrony i jakościowego wzmacniania sieci instytucji kulturalnych, logistyki, dostępności i różnorodności usług instytucji kulturalnych dla całej ludności. Potencjał kultury białoruskiej nie jest wystarczająco wykorzystywany do budowy i wzmocnienia pozytywnego, międzynarodowego wizerunku kraju. Sfera kultury nie jest dobrze dostosowana do realiów pracy w warunkach gospodarki rynkowej w kraju i przeżywa znaczne problemy finansowe. Zgodnie z Ustawą Republiki Białoruś „O Kulturze Republiki Białoruś” począwszy od roku 2009, wysokość środków budżetowych na utrzymanie i rozwój kultury i sztuki powinna być ustawiona na 1,0% PKB. Rzeczywiste wydatki na kulturę w 2008 r. (w tym fundusze na budownictwo) wyniosły 0,83% PKB. W roku 2009 wydatki budżetowe przewidziano na poziomie 0,62% planowanego PKB. W 2010 r. na podstawie prognoz danych MM
MM program do wykonania zadań określonych w Programie odrodzenia i rozwoju obszarów wiejskich na lata 2005-2010, MM program rozwoju muzeów Republiki Białoruś w latach 2005-2010, MM program odbudowy i technicznej modernizacji publicznych teatrów Republiki Białoruś w latach 2004-2010. W grudniu 2009 została wypracowana koncepcja programu państwa Kultura Białorusi (2011-2015), zgodnie z którą głównym celem ewolucji kultury jest zwiększenie roli, jaką odgrywa w rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczym, tworzenie wysokiej duchowości zgodnie z historycznymi, społecznymi i kulturalnymi wartościami narodu białoruskiego i cywilizacji świata. Polityka państwa w tej dziedzinie ma na celu zachowanie tożsamości kulturowej narodu białoruskiego oraz tradycji narodowych, odrodzenie i zachowanie dziedzictwa i możliwości rozwoju, zapewnienie dostępności dóbr kultury dla ogółu ludności, ochronę dorobku duchowego, intelektualnego, dóbr kultury oraz integracjię z globalną kulturą prawa równości uczestników globalnych procesów kulturowych. Priorytetami polityki państwa w dziedzinie kultury (zgodnie z ustępem 3 artykułu 10 ustawy O kulturze w Republice Białoruś) są: MM ochrona, rozwój i rozpowszechnianie kultury białoruskiej i języka narodowego, MM tworzenie, upowszechnianie oraz propagowanie literatury i sztuki dla dzieci i młodzieży, stwarzanie warunków do estetycznego wychowania, edukacji w zakresie kultury i sztuki, MM promowanie klasycznej literatury i sztuki oraz innych estetycznych oraz moralnych wartości kultury narodu i świata, MM utrzymanie i rozwój kultury na wsi. Koncepcja powstała w oparciu o raport o stanie kultury, w którym miedzy innymi określone zostały podstawowe problemy tego sektora w kraju. Gdy porównać je z listą „podstawowych słabości występujących w obszarze kultury” [Raport o promocji Polski poprzez kulturę, 2009], których w Polsce, jako w kraju niewątpliwie wyprzedzającym w rozwoju RB, wydawałoby się, że powinno być mniej, rzuca się w oczy, że oto polskich „słabości” jest jednak o wiele więcej niż białoruskich, które polegają (nie trudno zgadnąć) na „braku środków ”. Narodowa Strategia Rozwoju Kultury (polskiej) na lata 2004-2013 uwidoczniła na następujące podstawowe niedomagania występujące w obszarze kultury (i trzeba przyznać, że ta diagnoza pozostaje nadal aktualna, nawet jeśli za sprawą większego finansowania w niektórych sytuacjach uległa złagodzeniu):
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
MM brak spójnej i jasno określonej polityki kulturalnej państwa, MM brak planowania (zarządzania) strategicznego w kulturze, MM niskie wydatki na kulturę w przeliczeniu na jednego mieszkańca w porównaniu z pozostałymi krajami Unii Europejskiej, MM zadłużenie instytucji kultury, MM zły stan infrastruktury instytucji kultury, MM brak systemu oceny jakości funkcjonowania instytucji kultury oraz brak powiązania systemu dystrybucji środków ministerialnych z systemem oceny jakości instytucji i przedsięwzięć kulturalnych, MM zbyt wysoka specjalizacja instytucji upowszechniania kultury, MM brak efektywnych instrumentów motywujących przedstawicieli sektora prywatnego do inwestowania w kulturę, MM wysoka zależność instytucji kultury i dyrektorów od organizatorów tych instytucji. W następujący sposób problemy kultury białoruskiej przedstawione są w koncepcji programu państwa Kultura Białorusi (2011-2015): „Jednakże, biorąc pod uwagę znaczne postępy w dziedzinie kultury w naszym kraju, należy uznać, że poziom jej rozwoju nie odpowiada wymogom wzrastającej konkurencji międzynarodowej w sferze gospodarczej, społecznej, politycznej, duchowej. W sferze społecznej i biznesowej kultura nie jest uznana za znaczący paradygmat rozwoju. Uświadomić sobie należy, iż nakazy moralne i duchowe, jak również ekologiczne i ekonomiczne mają kluczowe znaczenie w procesie przejścia do zrównoważonego rozwoju. W związku z tym istotny stosunek społeczeństwa do kultury wyraża się w niedostatecznym wydawaniu środków na jej rozwój. Ograniczenia finansowe komplikują realizację działań na rzecz ochrony i jakościowego wzmacniania sieci instytucji kulturalnych, logistyki, dostępności i różnorodności usług instytucji kulturalnych dla całej ludności. Potencjał kultury białoruskiej nie jest wystarczająco wykorzystywany do budowy i wzmocnienia pozytywnego, międzynarodowego wizerunku kraju. Sfera kultury nie jest dobrze dostosowana do realiów pracy w warunkach gospodarki rynkowej w kraju i przeżywa znaczne problemy finansowe. Zgodnie z Ustawą Republiki Białoruś „O Kulturze Republiki Białoruś” począwszy od roku 2009, wysokość środków budżetowych na utrzymanie i rozwój kultury i sztuki powinna być ustawiona na 1,0% PKB. Rzeczywiste wydatki na kulturę w 2008 r. (w tym fundusze na budownictwo) wyniosły 0,83% PKB. W roku 2009 wydatki budżetowe przewidziano na poziomie 0,62% planowanego PKB. W 2010 r. na podstawie prognoz danych
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Pionierska Republiki Białoruś i Komsomołu – obecnie Związek Młodzieży Republiki Białoruś. W roku 2007 powstała kolejna organizacja z podobną misją, ale innym audytorium docelowym (ludzie dorośli) – „Biała Ruś” Organizacja Społeczna Republiki. Charakterystyczną cechą ich działalności jest to, że „dobrowolny” udział w nich jest nieoficjalnie wymagany od wszystkich pracowników instytucji państwowych (zwłaszcza instytucji kultury i edukacji), studentów, uczniów szkół.
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Pozarządowe instytucje kultury. Underground kulturalny
1 złoty = około 1000 rubli.
4
B
ędąc pod koniec 2009 roku na festiwalu w Mołdawii, usłyszałam zdanie porównujące Białoruś z Mołdawią: „U was wszystkiego się zabrania, lecz wszyscy coś robią – u nas jest dozwolone wszystko, a nikt nic nie chce robić”. Rzeczywiście, prowadzić działalność kulturalną (zresztą jakąkolwiek) w tak ciężkich warunkach materialnych, prawnych, ideologicznych, w atmosferze kryzysu jest wielkim wyzwaniem. A z drugiej strony z historia pokazuje, iż sztuka rodzi się czasami w najgorszych warunkach, kryzys pobudza twórców. Czyli w tej sytuacji można nawet spodziewać się pewnego rozkwitu kultury, przynajmniej kultury protestu, czego wyniki będą miały wielkie znaczenie dla kraju, a być może dla całej Europy… Takim przykładem jest twórczość Emira Kusturicy, serbskiego reżysera znanego na całym świecie. Anatol Mialguj, białoruski krytyk muzyczny w eseju o muzyce młodzieżowej pisze: „Ideologiczne represje państwa wobec alternatywnej białoruskojęzycznej muzyki powodują, że jej rozwój obecnie idzie w kierunku DIY-kultury (ang. „do it yourself”). Wykonawcy nie są wspierani przez swoje państwo w żaden sposób i licząc tylko na siebie działają w kierunku globalnym dla Białorusi – rozwoju kultury narodowej w czasach IT-technologii. Natomiast na poziomie lokalnym również działają według zasad DIY: stwarzają sieci komunikacyjne niecenzurowane, niepodległe wydawnictwa na własny rachunek oraz „dystro” – struktury, zajmujące się dystrybucją płyt zespołów undergroundowych, produkcji wydawnictw. Tego rodzaju inicjatywy, stwarzające alternatywę dla wspieranej poprzez państwo kultury „ideologicznie poprawnej”, istnieją na Białorusi w warunkach nieznanych w Europie przeszkód.” Jakie to są przeszkody? To mogą być przeszkody i trudności o charakterze „naturalnym”, które
ędąc pod koniec 2009 roku na festiwalu w Mołdawii, usłyszałam zdanie porównujące Białoruś z Mołdawią: „U was wszystkiego się zabrania, lecz wszyscy coś robią – u nas jest dozwolone wszystko, a nikt nic nie chce robić”. Rzeczywiście, prowadzić działalność kulturalną (zresztą jakąkolwiek) w tak ciężkich warunkach materialnych, prawnych, ideologicznych, w atmosferze kryzysu jest wielkim wyzwaniem. A z drugiej strony z historia pokazuje, iż sztuka rodzi się czasami w najgorszych warunkach, kryzys pobudza twórców. Czyli w tej sytuacji można nawet spodziewać się pewnego rozkwitu kultury, przynajmniej kultury protestu, czego wyniki będą miały wielkie znaczenie dla kraju, a być może dla całej Europy… Takim przykładem jest twórczość Emira Kusturicy, serbskiego reżysera znanego na całym świecie. Anatol Mialguj, białoruski krytyk muzyczny w eseju o muzyce młodzieżowej pisze: „Ideologiczne represje państwa wobec alternatywnej białoruskojęzycznej muzyki powodują, że jej rozwój obecnie idzie w kierunku DIY-kultury (ang. „do it yourself”). Wykonawcy nie są wspierani przez swoje państwo w żaden sposób i licząc tylko na siebie działają w kierunku globalnym dla Białorusi – rozwoju kultury narodowej w czasach IT-technologii. Natomiast na poziomie lokalnym również działają według zasad DIY: stwarzają sieci komunikacyjne niecenzurowane, niepodległe wydawnictwa na własny rachunek oraz „dystro” – struktury, zajmujące się dystrybucją płyt zespołów undergroundowych, produkcji wydawnictw. Tego rodzaju inicjatywy, stwarzające alternatywę dla wspieranej poprzez państwo kultury „ideologicznie poprawnej”, istnieją na Białorusi w warunkach nieznanych w Europie przeszkód.” Jakie to są przeszkody? To mogą być przeszkody i trudności o charakterze „naturalnym”, które
B
PKB i poprzednich danych na temat wydatków na kulturę – około 0,5% PKB. Pracownicy instytucji kultury w zakresie wysokości pensji są na jednym z ostatnich miejsc w rankingach. Według Narodowego Komitetu Statystycznego, średnia płaca pracowników kultury i sztuki w 2008 r. wyniosła 656,1 tysięcy rubli4 (74% średniej pensji w Republice). Średni zarobek pracowników kultury na ogólnokrajowym poziomie zmniejszył się z 73,6% w okresie od stycznia do października 2008 do 73,2% w okresie od stycznia do października 2009.” Bliższa analiza wskazuje na zbyt ogólny charakter podejścia do określenia problemów stojących przed kulturą białoruską. Moim zdaniem jest to z jednej strony efekt działania zwyczaju typowo radzieckiego – mówienia tylko o „naszych zwycięstwach” i sprawiania wrażenia, że problemy nie istnieją (a przecież autorzy raportu to urzędnicy Ministerstwa Kultury). Z drugiej strony można widzieć w tym przejaw kryzysu zarządzania strategicznego w kulturze. Prawie wszystkie wymienione w Raporcie o promocji Polski poprzez kulturę słabości są właściwie mniej lub bardziej adekwatne również dla Białorusi. Oprócz tego występują także inne problemy, takie jak: MM kontrola ideologiczna państwa – jako charakterystyczny element państwowego modelu biurokratycznego polityki kulturalnej, według M. Dragićević-Śeśić [Dragićević-Śeśić, 2000], rodzi następujące problemy: bardzo ograniczone i niekorzystne warunki do wprowadzania innowacji, odrzucanie nowych wzorów działalności artystycznej i kulturalnej, szczególnie prezentowanych przez artystów młodej generacji, MM drenaż mózgów – najbardziej utalentowani, zdolni fachowcy, zwłaszcza młodzi, wyjeżdżają za granicę z powodu braku dobrych warunków pracy, braku efektywnej motywacji pracowników, niskich pensji oraz kontraktowego systemu zatrudniania (kontrakt podpisuje się na rok i pracodawca może go nie przedłużyć z dowolnego powodu), MM niski poziom rozwoju kultury w małych miastach i na wsi, MM słaby rozwój turystyki, brak turystyki kulturalnej. Należy dodać, że wśród podmiotów prowadzących działalność kulturalną w kierunku realizacji polityki państwa znajdują się organizacje społeczne powołane przez państwo i podtrzymywane przez rząd. Są to spadkobiercy radzieckich organizacji: Pionierskiej (Harcerzy) – obecnie Organizacja
Pozarządowe instytucje kultury. Underground kulturalny
1 złoty = około 1000 rubli.
Pionierska Republiki Białoruś i Komsomołu – obecnie Związek Młodzieży Republiki Białoruś. W roku 2007 powstała kolejna organizacja z podobną misją, ale innym audytorium docelowym (ludzie dorośli) – „Biała Ruś” Organizacja Społeczna Republiki. Charakterystyczną cechą ich działalności jest to, że „dobrowolny” udział w nich jest nieoficjalnie wymagany od wszystkich pracowników instytucji państwowych (zwłaszcza instytucji kultury i edukacji), studentów, uczniów szkół.
4
PKB i poprzednich danych na temat wydatków na kulturę – około 0,5% PKB. Pracownicy instytucji kultury w zakresie wysokości pensji są na jednym z ostatnich miejsc w rankingach. Według Narodowego Komitetu Statystycznego, średnia płaca pracowników kultury i sztuki w 2008 r. wyniosła 656,1 tysięcy rubli4 (74% średniej pensji w Republice). Średni zarobek pracowników kultury na ogólnokrajowym poziomie zmniejszył się z 73,6% w okresie od stycznia do października 2008 do 73,2% w okresie od stycznia do października 2009.” Bliższa analiza wskazuje na zbyt ogólny charakter podejścia do określenia problemów stojących przed kulturą białoruską. Moim zdaniem jest to z jednej strony efekt działania zwyczaju typowo radzieckiego – mówienia tylko o „naszych zwycięstwach” i sprawiania wrażenia, że problemy nie istnieją (a przecież autorzy raportu to urzędnicy Ministerstwa Kultury). Z drugiej strony można widzieć w tym przejaw kryzysu zarządzania strategicznego w kulturze. Prawie wszystkie wymienione w Raporcie o promocji Polski poprzez kulturę słabości są właściwie mniej lub bardziej adekwatne również dla Białorusi. Oprócz tego występują także inne problemy, takie jak: MM kontrola ideologiczna państwa – jako charakterystyczny element państwowego modelu biurokratycznego polityki kulturalnej, według M. Dragićević-Śeśić [Dragićević-Śeśić, 2000], rodzi następujące problemy: bardzo ograniczone i niekorzystne warunki do wprowadzania innowacji, odrzucanie nowych wzorów działalności artystycznej i kulturalnej, szczególnie prezentowanych przez artystów młodej generacji, MM drenaż mózgów – najbardziej utalentowani, zdolni fachowcy, zwłaszcza młodzi, wyjeżdżają za granicę z powodu braku dobrych warunków pracy, braku efektywnej motywacji pracowników, niskich pensji oraz kontraktowego systemu zatrudniania (kontrakt podpisuje się na rok i pracodawca może go nie przedłużyć z dowolnego powodu), MM niski poziom rozwoju kultury w małych miastach i na wsi, MM słaby rozwój turystyki, brak turystyki kulturalnej. Należy dodać, że wśród podmiotów prowadzących działalność kulturalną w kierunku realizacji polityki państwa znajdują się organizacje społeczne powołane przez państwo i podtrzymywane przez rząd. Są to spadkobiercy radzieckich organizacji: Pionierskiej (Harcerzy) – obecnie Organizacja
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
przynosi „samo życie”: brak wolnego czasu, brak środków na wyposażenie techniczne (instrumenty muzyczne, komputery), na wydawanie książek, płyt. Drugi rodzaj spotykanych przeszkód to „przeszkody sztuczne”. Wynikają one z paternalistycznego charakteru państwowej polityki kulturalnej, którą A. Moles [Moles, 1973] określa jako dogmatyczną, według której prawa i główne kanały rozpowszechnienia wartości kulturalnych posiada „rada administracyjna”. Polityka w sferze kultury, rozwijając się według tego standardu, może służyć celom dowolnej partii politycznej, związku wyznaniowego lub państwa jako całości. W przypadku, gdy działalność którejś organizacji nie odpowiada państwowym interesom, urzędnicy posiadają wiele narzędzi, aby tę działalność zablokować, na przykład poprzez: MM zakaz wydarzeń kulturalnych, MM blokowanie działalności z różnych „legalnych” powodów – bardzo „popularnym” sposobem jest odmowa rejestracji organizacji społecznych, MM blokowanie dostępu do odbiorców – na przykład za pomocą rozporządzenia o zakazie sprzedaży niektórych gazet prasy niezależnej przez pocztę i kioski prasowe, MM nadmiernie skomplikowaną procedurę rejestracji i prowadzenia działalności (częste inspekcje finansowe, podatkowe, sanitarne, pożarowe), co demotywuje potencjalnych założycieli pozarządowych instytucji kultury. Zostają oni zmuszeni do wyboru: albo walczyć z urzędnikami, co zajmuje sporo czasu i energii potrzebnej dla działalności „statutowej” albo działać nielegalnie, mając świadomość, iż mogą być za to oskarżeni zgodnie z istniejącym prawem (p.193.1 KK RB). Taka sytuacja znacznie zmniejsza chęć obywateli do uczestnictwa w instytucjach kulturalnych sektora NGO, MM warunki prawne, w których prowadzą swoją działalność pozarządowe instytucje kultury, pozwalają na cenzurę i kontrolę ideologiczną ze strony państwa (Dekret prezydencki N259 od 13.05.2008). Skutkiem tej polityki jest np. wielki festiwal białoruskiej muzyki rock „Be Free” prowadzany od trzech lat… na Ukrainie, bo w swoim kraju organizatorzy nigdy by nie dostali „pozwolenia na organizowanie i prowadzenie działalności rozrywkowej na terytorium Republiki Białoruś” – tak zwanego świadectwa koncertowego, MM trudność w pozyskiwaniu alternatywnych źródeł finansowania (środków sponsorskich) zarówno na rynku wewnętrznym, jak i zagranicznym. W artykule o podstawowych problemach rozwoju trzeciego sektora w sferze kultury w RB L. Osmołowska [Osmołowska,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
2008], komentując Dekret Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś Nr 24 O otrzymaniu i wykorzystaniu pomocy nieodpłatnej od 28.11.2003, mówi o tym, że doprowadził on do formalizacji i ograniczeń w otrzymaniu i wykorzystaniu zagranicznej pomocy nieodpłatnej, która musi być rejestrowana przez odbiorcę w Departamencie Działalności Humanitarnej Biura Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś. Oprócz tego, w lipcu 2005 roku państwo zdecydowało się na objęcie kontrolą również wewnętrzną pomoc sponsorów. Dekret Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś z 01.07.2005 Nr 300 O przedstawieniu i wykorzystaniu nieodpłatnej pomocy określił dwanaście celów, na realizację których można przeznaczyć pozyskane w ten sposób środki. Przekazanie pomocy sponsorowanej na inne cele możliwe jest tylko za zgodą Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś. Według art. 193.1 Kodeksu Karnego RB za aktywność niezarejestrowanej spółki, organizacji religijnej lub funduszu grozi wyrokiem do dwóch lat więzienia. Uchwalony niedługo przed wyborami prezydenckimi w 2006 roku, artykuł ten został natychmiast wykorzystany do walki z organizacjami niepożądanymi dla władzy; na jego podstawie zostało oskarżonych 17 osób. Istnienie artykułu 193.1 stanowi przeszkodę w rozwoju społeczności obywatelskiej w kraju, szczególnie biorąc pod uwagę zbyt skomplikowaną (przy czym to nadmierne skomplikowanie jest sztuczne i nieprzypadkowe) procedurę rejestracji publicznych stowarzyszeń. Według niego dowolna, samodzielna inicjatywa obywatelska może być traktowana jako przestępstwo. Narusza prawo obywateli do swobody zjednoczeń (artykuł 36 Konstytucji RB), zaprzecza Powszechnej Deklaracji Praw Człowieka, Międzynarodowemu Paktоwi Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych i innym międzynarodowym zobowiązaniom prawnym, podjętym przez Republikę Białoruś. Odpowiedzialność karna za działalność niezarejestrowanych organizacji istnieje także w Turkmenistanie, Tadżykistanie, Chinach, Korei Północnej. W sytuacji, gdy podstawowe kanały dystrybucji kultury są mało dostępne dla twórców alternatywnych, Internet stał się jedynym polem informacyjnym, gdzie toczyć się może niezależne życie kulturalne. W tym przypadku państwo znów skorzystało z doświadczenia Chin: w końcu roku 2009 pojawił się Szkic Dekretu prezydenckiego W sprawie środków służących poprawie wykorzystania krajowych segmentów globalnej sieci komputerowej Internet. Według tego dokumentu, kontrola nad zasobami Internetu na Białorusi powinna być realizowana w sposób określony przez
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przynosi „samo życie”: brak wolnego czasu, brak środków na wyposażenie techniczne (instrumenty muzyczne, komputery), na wydawanie książek, płyt. Drugi rodzaj spotykanych przeszkód to „przeszkody sztuczne”. Wynikają one z paternalistycznego charakteru państwowej polityki kulturalnej, którą A. Moles [Moles, 1973] określa jako dogmatyczną, według której prawa i główne kanały rozpowszechnienia wartości kulturalnych posiada „rada administracyjna”. Polityka w sferze kultury, rozwijając się według tego standardu, może służyć celom dowolnej partii politycznej, związku wyznaniowego lub państwa jako całości. W przypadku, gdy działalność którejś organizacji nie odpowiada państwowym interesom, urzędnicy posiadają wiele narzędzi, aby tę działalność zablokować, na przykład poprzez: MM zakaz wydarzeń kulturalnych, MM blokowanie działalności z różnych „legalnych” powodów – bardzo „popularnym” sposobem jest odmowa rejestracji organizacji społecznych, MM blokowanie dostępu do odbiorców – na przykład za pomocą rozporządzenia o zakazie sprzedaży niektórych gazet prasy niezależnej przez pocztę i kioski prasowe, MM nadmiernie skomplikowaną procedurę rejestracji i prowadzenia działalności (częste inspekcje finansowe, podatkowe, sanitarne, pożarowe), co demotywuje potencjalnych założycieli pozarządowych instytucji kultury. Zostają oni zmuszeni do wyboru: albo walczyć z urzędnikami, co zajmuje sporo czasu i energii potrzebnej dla działalności „statutowej” albo działać nielegalnie, mając świadomość, iż mogą być za to oskarżeni zgodnie z istniejącym prawem (p.193.1 KK RB). Taka sytuacja znacznie zmniejsza chęć obywateli do uczestnictwa w instytucjach kulturalnych sektora NGO, MM warunki prawne, w których prowadzą swoją działalność pozarządowe instytucje kultury, pozwalają na cenzurę i kontrolę ideologiczną ze strony państwa (Dekret prezydencki N259 od 13.05.2008). Skutkiem tej polityki jest np. wielki festiwal białoruskiej muzyki rock „Be Free” prowadzany od trzech lat… na Ukrainie, bo w swoim kraju organizatorzy nigdy by nie dostali „pozwolenia na organizowanie i prowadzenie działalności rozrywkowej na terytorium Republiki Białoruś” – tak zwanego świadectwa koncertowego, MM trudność w pozyskiwaniu alternatywnych źródeł finansowania (środków sponsorskich) zarówno na rynku wewnętrznym, jak i zagranicznym. W artykule o podstawowych problemach rozwoju trzeciego sektora w sferze kultury w RB L. Osmołowska [Osmołowska,
243
2008], komentując Dekret Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś Nr 24 O otrzymaniu i wykorzystaniu pomocy nieodpłatnej od 28.11.2003, mówi o tym, że doprowadził on do formalizacji i ograniczeń w otrzymaniu i wykorzystaniu zagranicznej pomocy nieodpłatnej, która musi być rejestrowana przez odbiorcę w Departamencie Działalności Humanitarnej Biura Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś. Oprócz tego, w lipcu 2005 roku państwo zdecydowało się na objęcie kontrolą również wewnętrzną pomoc sponsorów. Dekret Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś z 01.07.2005 Nr 300 O przedstawieniu i wykorzystaniu nieodpłatnej pomocy określił dwanaście celów, na realizację których można przeznaczyć pozyskane w ten sposób środki. Przekazanie pomocy sponsorowanej na inne cele możliwe jest tylko za zgodą Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś. Według art. 193.1 Kodeksu Karnego RB za aktywność niezarejestrowanej spółki, organizacji religijnej lub funduszu grozi wyrokiem do dwóch lat więzienia. Uchwalony niedługo przed wyborami prezydenckimi w 2006 roku, artykuł ten został natychmiast wykorzystany do walki z organizacjami niepożądanymi dla władzy; na jego podstawie zostało oskarżonych 17 osób. Istnienie artykułu 193.1 stanowi przeszkodę w rozwoju społeczności obywatelskiej w kraju, szczególnie biorąc pod uwagę zbyt skomplikowaną (przy czym to nadmierne skomplikowanie jest sztuczne i nieprzypadkowe) procedurę rejestracji publicznych stowarzyszeń. Według niego dowolna, samodzielna inicjatywa obywatelska może być traktowana jako przestępstwo. Narusza prawo obywateli do swobody zjednoczeń (artykuł 36 Konstytucji RB), zaprzecza Powszechnej Deklaracji Praw Człowieka, Międzynarodowemu Paktоwi Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych i innym międzynarodowym zobowiązaniom prawnym, podjętym przez Republikę Białoruś. Odpowiedzialność karna za działalność niezarejestrowanych organizacji istnieje także w Turkmenistanie, Tadżykistanie, Chinach, Korei Północnej. W sytuacji, gdy podstawowe kanały dystrybucji kultury są mało dostępne dla twórców alternatywnych, Internet stał się jedynym polem informacyjnym, gdzie toczyć się może niezależne życie kulturalne. W tym przypadku państwo znów skorzystało z doświadczenia Chin: w końcu roku 2009 pojawił się Szkic Dekretu prezydenckiego W sprawie środków służących poprawie wykorzystania krajowych segmentów globalnej sieci komputerowej Internet. Według tego dokumentu, kontrola nad zasobami Internetu na Białorusi powinna być realizowana w sposób określony przez
244
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
procesy. Promocja i dystrybucja dóbr kultury za granicę nie ma charakteru systematycznego, jest raczej zbiorem pojedynczych inicjatyw. Z tego wynika, że na poziomie globalnym kultura białoruska jest nieznana, niemal nie istnieje jako zjawisko rozpoznawalne. Z pewnością można powiedzieć, że na Białorusi powstaje produkt artystyczny o wysokiej jakości, są wybitni twórcy dobrze znani za granicą np. etno-trio Troitsa (world-music), Stary Olsa (folk, muzyka średniowieczna), zespół jazzowy Apple-tea, zespół wokalny Kamerata, teatr plastyczny InZest, orkiestra kameralna Classic-avangard. Tylko że te dziedziny sztuki nie są tak nagłośnione w środkach masowego przekazu „globalnej wioski”, jak kino lub muzyka pop. Natomiast wewnątrz państwa ruch kulturalny jest bardzo ożywiony, chociaż zasadniczo skupiony w Mińsku jako stolicy. Wokół licznych zespołów muzycznych, teatralnych, artystów i pisarzy powstają stowarzyszenia działające na rzecz rozwoju tych dziedzin sztuki. Niezależni eksperci, krytycy sztuki, dziennikarze, organizatorzy wydarzeń kulturalnych, wydawnictwa fonograficzne na różne sposoby wspierają twórców, których produkt twórczości nie jest obliczony na zysk. Aby zarabiać wystarczy bowiem dobrze grać cover’y na weselach i imprezach korporacyjnych. Twórczość ta w najlepszym wypadku jest odpowiedzią na wyzwania rzeczywistości, analizą sytuacji, samoanalizą kreatorów jako członków społeczeństwa, wykorzystaniem folkloru jako fundamentu sztuki współczesnej. W gorszym – naśladownictwem „gwiazd”. Jest to głos zapewnie zbyt cichy, żeby go usłyszano na całym świecie, tym niemniej bardzo cenny, przede wszystkim tam, gdzie się rodzi. W tabeli pokazano podstawowe problemy trzeciego sektora w zakresie kultury, próby ich rozwiązania albo przyczyny neutralizacji zjawisk o charakterze negatywnym.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Radę Ministrów w porozumieniu ze specjalną służbą – Centrum Wywiadu i Analizy Biura Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś. Poważnym problemem jest punkt 1.5. proponowany w projekcie rozporządzenia. Brzmi on następująco: „dostawcy usług internetowych na życzenie użytkownika świadczą usługę ograniczenia dostępu do treści informacji, które są skierowane do: przeprowadzenia ekstremistycznych działań”, itp. Ponadto punkt ten jednoznacznie wyjaśnia, że: „Autoryzowanego Dostawcę usług internetowych obowiązuje ograniczenie dostępu do tych informacji w przypadku świadczenia usług […] urzędom państwowym, instytucjom publicznym, instytucjom edukacji, kultury”. Państwowa polityka stopniowego zawężania przestrzeni wolności obywateli (ponieważ stopniowość to jedna z „zasad głównych” polityki państwa), niestety, skutecznie sprawdza się w ciągu ostatnich lat. Jak więc zareaguje społeczeństwo, gdy ten Szkic zostanie uchwalony? Czy stanie się to kroplą przepełniającą czarę goryczy? Czy dopasujemy się również do tych „nowych warunków”? Jakie ma to znaczenie dla sektora kultury? Wydaje się, że to kwestia typowo polityczna. Ale czy kultura, a zwłaszcza sztuka, mogą istnieć poza polityką? Owszem, ale w przypadku tak sfrustrowanego społeczeństwa, znajdującego się przez co najmniej ostatnie 20 lat w permanentnym kryzysie, sztuka apolityczna raczej jest rozrywką (świętem w czasie zarazy) albo ucieczką od rzeczywistości. Ponieważ sztuka jest najbardziej wrażliwa na niesprawiedliwość, na kłamstwa i oszustwa (Beethoven, Dostojewski), w czasach kiedy człowiek nie może być pewny jutrzejszego dnia, to ona (w postaci książki, muzyki, spektaklu lub samodzielnej twórczości amatorskiej) może dać nadzieję na lepsze, uchronić przed rozczarowaniem. Życie kulturalne na Białorusi jest nieco zamknięte, słabo wpisujące się w europejskie
244
+
Udział w imprezach międzynarodowych, organizacja dni/tygodni kultury białoruskiej za granicą
–
Zamknięcie →
Entuzjazm, potencjał twórczy
Strategie pojedynczych związków artystycznych
Przeważa twórczość amatorska →
Brak zarządzania →
Konkursy, krytyka, nagrody
Powstają stowarzyszenia artystyczne m.in. szkolące nowe kadry
Niski poziom wykonania →
Brak fachowców →
Fundusze (w bardzo małym stopniu), mecenat (biznes, osoby prywatne)
Fundusze (w bardzo małym stopniu), mecenat (biznes, osoby prywatne)
Brak pieniędzy →
Brak pieniędzy →
Powstają stowarzyszenia artystyczne m.in. szkolące nowe kadry
Konkursy, krytyka, nagrody
Brak fachowców →
Niski poziom wykonania →
Strategie pojedynczych związków artystycznych
Entuzjazm, potencjał twórczy
Brak zarządzania →
Przeważa twórczość amatorska →
Na koniec chciałabym podać kilka przykładów skutecznych działań z zakresu rozwoju kultury, podejmowanych przez organizacje pozarządowe. Kampania społeczno-kulturalna „Budzma!”. W celu zainteresowania mieszkańców Białorusi kulturą w swoim kraju, uświadomienia, że jest ona własnym dobrem i poprzez to zjednoczenia społeczeństwa, w ramach kampanii odbywają się liczne akcje oświatowe i kulturalne: wykłady z historii i kultury, koncerty, wystawy, spotkania literackie, prezentacje książek, magazynów, projektów muzycznych. Experty.by – internetowy projekt stworzony dla systematycznego przeglądu i oceny płyt wykonawców białoruskich różnych stylów. W ramach projektu odbywa się coroczna ceremonia „Nagrody Experty.by”. W składzie jury są krytycy muzyczni
+
Na koniec chciałabym podać kilka przykładów skutecznych działań z zakresu rozwoju kultury, podejmowanych przez organizacje pozarządowe. Kampania społeczno-kulturalna „Budzma!”. W celu zainteresowania mieszkańców Białorusi kulturą w swoim kraju, uświadomienia, że jest ona własnym dobrem i poprzez to zjednoczenia społeczeństwa, w ramach kampanii odbywają się liczne akcje oświatowe i kulturalne: wykłady z historii i kultury, koncerty, wystawy, spotkania literackie, prezentacje książek, magazynów, projektów muzycznych. Experty.by – internetowy projekt stworzony dla systematycznego przeglądu i oceny płyt wykonawców białoruskich różnych stylów. W ramach projektu odbywa się coroczna ceremonia „Nagrody Experty.by”. W składzie jury są krytycy muzyczni
Udział w imprezach międzynarodowych, organizacja dni/tygodni kultury białoruskiej za granicą
–
procesy. Promocja i dystrybucja dóbr kultury za granicę nie ma charakteru systematycznego, jest raczej zbiorem pojedynczych inicjatyw. Z tego wynika, że na poziomie globalnym kultura białoruska jest nieznana, niemal nie istnieje jako zjawisko rozpoznawalne. Z pewnością można powiedzieć, że na Białorusi powstaje produkt artystyczny o wysokiej jakości, są wybitni twórcy dobrze znani za granicą np. etno-trio Troitsa (world-music), Stary Olsa (folk, muzyka średniowieczna), zespół jazzowy Apple-tea, zespół wokalny Kamerata, teatr plastyczny InZest, orkiestra kameralna Classic-avangard. Tylko że te dziedziny sztuki nie są tak nagłośnione w środkach masowego przekazu „globalnej wioski”, jak kino lub muzyka pop. Natomiast wewnątrz państwa ruch kulturalny jest bardzo ożywiony, chociaż zasadniczo skupiony w Mińsku jako stolicy. Wokół licznych zespołów muzycznych, teatralnych, artystów i pisarzy powstają stowarzyszenia działające na rzecz rozwoju tych dziedzin sztuki. Niezależni eksperci, krytycy sztuki, dziennikarze, organizatorzy wydarzeń kulturalnych, wydawnictwa fonograficzne na różne sposoby wspierają twórców, których produkt twórczości nie jest obliczony na zysk. Aby zarabiać wystarczy bowiem dobrze grać cover’y na weselach i imprezach korporacyjnych. Twórczość ta w najlepszym wypadku jest odpowiedzią na wyzwania rzeczywistości, analizą sytuacji, samoanalizą kreatorów jako członków społeczeństwa, wykorzystaniem folkloru jako fundamentu sztuki współczesnej. W gorszym – naśladownictwem „gwiazd”. Jest to głos zapewnie zbyt cichy, żeby go usłyszano na całym świecie, tym niemniej bardzo cenny, przede wszystkim tam, gdzie się rodzi. W tabeli pokazano podstawowe problemy trzeciego sektora w zakresie kultury, próby ich rozwiązania albo przyczyny neutralizacji zjawisk o charakterze negatywnym.
Zamknięcie →
Radę Ministrów w porozumieniu ze specjalną służbą – Centrum Wywiadu i Analizy Biura Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś. Poważnym problemem jest punkt 1.5. proponowany w projekcie rozporządzenia. Brzmi on następująco: „dostawcy usług internetowych na życzenie użytkownika świadczą usługę ograniczenia dostępu do treści informacji, które są skierowane do: przeprowadzenia ekstremistycznych działań”, itp. Ponadto punkt ten jednoznacznie wyjaśnia, że: „Autoryzowanego Dostawcę usług internetowych obowiązuje ograniczenie dostępu do tych informacji w przypadku świadczenia usług […] urzędom państwowym, instytucjom publicznym, instytucjom edukacji, kultury”. Państwowa polityka stopniowego zawężania przestrzeni wolności obywateli (ponieważ stopniowość to jedna z „zasad głównych” polityki państwa), niestety, skutecznie sprawdza się w ciągu ostatnich lat. Jak więc zareaguje społeczeństwo, gdy ten Szkic zostanie uchwalony? Czy stanie się to kroplą przepełniającą czarę goryczy? Czy dopasujemy się również do tych „nowych warunków”? Jakie ma to znaczenie dla sektora kultury? Wydaje się, że to kwestia typowo polityczna. Ale czy kultura, a zwłaszcza sztuka, mogą istnieć poza polityką? Owszem, ale w przypadku tak sfrustrowanego społeczeństwa, znajdującego się przez co najmniej ostatnie 20 lat w permanentnym kryzysie, sztuka apolityczna raczej jest rozrywką (świętem w czasie zarazy) albo ucieczką od rzeczywistości. Ponieważ sztuka jest najbardziej wrażliwa na niesprawiedliwość, na kłamstwa i oszustwa (Beethoven, Dostojewski), w czasach kiedy człowiek nie może być pewny jutrzejszego dnia, to ona (w postaci książki, muzyki, spektaklu lub samodzielnej twórczości amatorskiej) może dać nadzieję na lepsze, uchronić przed rozczarowaniem. Życie kulturalne na Białorusi jest nieco zamknięte, słabo wpisujące się w europejskie
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
z Rosji, Ukrainy, Litwy, Polski. Inicjatywa powstała w roku 2008. Projekt „Swobodnyj teatr” (teatr wolny). Jego zadania to: MM sprzyjanie rozwojowi nowego dramatu na Białorusi i poza nią, MM zjednoczenie sił młodych dramaturgów w poszukiwaniu nowych idei, MM stworzenie mostów komunikacyjnych między Białorusią teatralną a światem zewnętrznym, MM stworzenie alternatywnego systemu edukacyjnego dla aktorów i reżyserów, MM promowanie idei i wolności twórczej oraz zasad demokratycznych w teatralnej sferze Białorusi. Działania podejmowane przez organizatorów projektu to: MM warsztaty z udziałem wybitnych działaczy teatralnych, MM międzynarodowy konkurs dramaturgii współczesnej „Swobodnyj teatr”, wydawanie almanachu, MM czytania publiczne utworów dramaturgów białoruskich na Białorusi, Ukrainie, w Rosji i krajach bałtyckich oraz na festiwalach teatralnych w Europie, MM tłumaczenie dramatów młodych dramaturgów na języki obce. Na szczęście takiego rodzaju inicjatyw powstaje coraz więcej. I są to między innymi skutki integracji kulturalnej, wymiany doświadczeń z Europą, które powoli zaczynają oddziaływać na rzecz transformacji, zarządzania kulturą w kierunku demokratycznym. Mimo wszystkich trudności, najważniejsze jest to, że Białoruś posiada zasoby w postaci kapitału ludzkiego, ludzi, którzy nie są obojętni na los kultury w swoim kraju, którzy „coś robią” w kraju, gdzie „wszystkiego się zabrania”.
Przemysły kultury
P
rodukcja przemysłów kultury to nie tylko wyraz tożsamości, wartości i treści, ale również czynnik rozwoju gospodarczego i społecznego. Dla ochrony i promowania różnorodności kulturowej warto wspierać rozwój przemysłów kultury, które zdolne są zaprezentować siebie zarówno na poziomie lokalnym, jak i międzynarodowym. Białoruś jest stosunkowo małym państwem o niewielkim rynku wewnętrznym – około 9.5 milionów mieszkańców. Oprócz tego, w ciągu niedługiego okresu swej niepodległości politycznej nie osiągnęła niepodległości kulturalnej i wciąż jest zdominowana przez kulturę rosyjską (w największym stopniu) oraz częściowo przez kulturę Zachodu.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Państwo, znajdujące się w ciężkich warunkach ekonomicznych, chętnie odstępuje część przestrzeni kulturalnej dla biznesowych struktur, kontrolując ich działalność poprzez ustawy prawne. Peter Bendixen [Bendixen, 2001] opisuje proces zmian, wynikających z ukierunkowania się na wolny rynek: „Gospodarka rynkowa, dokładniej mówiąc, szukający zysków i żądny inwestycji kapitał kreuje własną kulturę; działalność kulturalną o komercyjnym obliczu, ukierunkowaną na „show” instytucję kulturalną, której efekty pracy zaczęły upodabniać się do estetyki towarów na bogatych w wydarzenia scenach centrów handlowych.” Niestety, białoruskie „centrum handlowe” jest w gruncie rzeczy filią olbrzymiej „galerii” Moskwy, gdzie najlepszy „towar” made in Belarus dąży do sprzedania się, gdyż tam „kręci się” wielki pieniądz, bo Moskwa otwiera ogromny rynek, oczywiście dla towaru w języku rosyjskim. Monika Smoleń określa przemysły kultury jako wszelkie komercyjne inicjatywy na polu kultury, których ważnym kryterium wyodrębniania staje się nastawienie na zysk. Dla niektórych podmiotów komercyjnej działalności kulturalnej owo nastawienie na zysk jest celem, gdy sprzedaje się obojętnie co, byle na tym zarobić jak najwięcej. Inni traktują zysk jako środek dla osiągnięcia niepodległości, możliwości bycia wolnym artystą, który może rozwijać i promować „swój” gatunek sztuki. Więc, gdy przed wykonawcą z Białorusi powstaje dylemat – czy tworzyć produkt rosyjskojęzyczny, mając szanse „rozkręcić się” w Moskwie, czy działać na potrzebę rynku wewnętrznego, stwarzając produkt białoruski, to wierność swojej kulturze rzadko zwycięża zdrowe dążenie ku dobrobytowi. Teoretycznie istnieje jeszcze jedna droga rozwoju: wejście produktu białoruskiego na światowy rynek w celu uczynienia z kultury białoruskiej rozpoznawalnego trendu. Tego przykładem są popularne na całym świecie hiszpańskie flamenco, irlandzki step-dance, bellydance (taniec brzucha), chińska ceremonia picia herbaty, muzyka balkan-beat, japońskie anime, czy nawet turecki kebab. Monika Smoleń pisze o tym: „Znaczenie przemysłów kultury, podkreślających specyfikę kraju, rośnie także wraz z postępującym procesem globalizacji i „zapotrzebowaniem” na symbole kulturowe, będące wyróżnikiem naszego miejsca w „globalnej wiosce”. Bez wątpienia po to, aby kultura białoruska przestała niezdecydowanie spełniać się w jednym miejscu, Białoruś potrzebuje „wielkiego zwycięstwa”, potrzebuje swoich „bohaterów” kultury, którzy promowaliby kraj na poziomie globalnym, a jednocześnie zjednoczyliby rozszczepione społeczeństwo białoruskie wspólną dumą. Działania w tym kierunku są na razie ograniczone do corocznych dramatycznych przeżyć na
245
rodukcja przemysłów kultury to nie tylko wyraz tożsamości, wartości i treści, ale również czynnik rozwoju gospodarczego i społecznego. Dla ochrony i promowania różnorodności kulturowej warto wspierać rozwój przemysłów kultury, które zdolne są zaprezentować siebie zarówno na poziomie lokalnym, jak i międzynarodowym. Białoruś jest stosunkowo małym państwem o niewielkim rynku wewnętrznym – około 9.5 milionów mieszkańców. Oprócz tego, w ciągu niedługiego okresu swej niepodległości politycznej nie osiągnęła niepodległości kulturalnej i wciąż jest zdominowana przez kulturę rosyjską (w największym stopniu) oraz częściowo przez kulturę Zachodu.
P
Przemysły kultury z Rosji, Ukrainy, Litwy, Polski. Inicjatywa powstała w roku 2008. Projekt „Swobodnyj teatr” (teatr wolny). Jego zadania to: MM sprzyjanie rozwojowi nowego dramatu na Białorusi i poza nią, MM zjednoczenie sił młodych dramaturgów w poszukiwaniu nowych idei, MM stworzenie mostów komunikacyjnych między Białorusią teatralną a światem zewnętrznym, MM stworzenie alternatywnego systemu edukacyjnego dla aktorów i reżyserów, MM promowanie idei i wolności twórczej oraz zasad demokratycznych w teatralnej sferze Białorusi. Działania podejmowane przez organizatorów projektu to: MM warsztaty z udziałem wybitnych działaczy teatralnych, MM międzynarodowy konkurs dramaturgii współczesnej „Swobodnyj teatr”, wydawanie almanachu, MM czytania publiczne utworów dramaturgów białoruskich na Białorusi, Ukrainie, w Rosji i krajach bałtyckich oraz na festiwalach teatralnych w Europie, MM tłumaczenie dramatów młodych dramaturgów na języki obce. Na szczęście takiego rodzaju inicjatyw powstaje coraz więcej. I są to między innymi skutki integracji kulturalnej, wymiany doświadczeń z Europą, które powoli zaczynają oddziaływać na rzecz transformacji, zarządzania kulturą w kierunku demokratycznym. Mimo wszystkich trudności, najważniejsze jest to, że Białoruś posiada zasoby w postaci kapitału ludzkiego, ludzi, którzy nie są obojętni na los kultury w swoim kraju, którzy „coś robią” w kraju, gdzie „wszystkiego się zabrania”.
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Państwo, znajdujące się w ciężkich warunkach ekonomicznych, chętnie odstępuje część przestrzeni kulturalnej dla biznesowych struktur, kontrolując ich działalność poprzez ustawy prawne. Peter Bendixen [Bendixen, 2001] opisuje proces zmian, wynikających z ukierunkowania się na wolny rynek: „Gospodarka rynkowa, dokładniej mówiąc, szukający zysków i żądny inwestycji kapitał kreuje własną kulturę; działalność kulturalną o komercyjnym obliczu, ukierunkowaną na „show” instytucję kulturalną, której efekty pracy zaczęły upodabniać się do estetyki towarów na bogatych w wydarzenia scenach centrów handlowych.” Niestety, białoruskie „centrum handlowe” jest w gruncie rzeczy filią olbrzymiej „galerii” Moskwy, gdzie najlepszy „towar” made in Belarus dąży do sprzedania się, gdyż tam „kręci się” wielki pieniądz, bo Moskwa otwiera ogromny rynek, oczywiście dla towaru w języku rosyjskim. Monika Smoleń określa przemysły kultury jako wszelkie komercyjne inicjatywy na polu kultury, których ważnym kryterium wyodrębniania staje się nastawienie na zysk. Dla niektórych podmiotów komercyjnej działalności kulturalnej owo nastawienie na zysk jest celem, gdy sprzedaje się obojętnie co, byle na tym zarobić jak najwięcej. Inni traktują zysk jako środek dla osiągnięcia niepodległości, możliwości bycia wolnym artystą, który może rozwijać i promować „swój” gatunek sztuki. Więc, gdy przed wykonawcą z Białorusi powstaje dylemat – czy tworzyć produkt rosyjskojęzyczny, mając szanse „rozkręcić się” w Moskwie, czy działać na potrzebę rynku wewnętrznego, stwarzając produkt białoruski, to wierność swojej kulturze rzadko zwycięża zdrowe dążenie ku dobrobytowi. Teoretycznie istnieje jeszcze jedna droga rozwoju: wejście produktu białoruskiego na światowy rynek w celu uczynienia z kultury białoruskiej rozpoznawalnego trendu. Tego przykładem są popularne na całym świecie hiszpańskie flamenco, irlandzki step-dance, bellydance (taniec brzucha), chińska ceremonia picia herbaty, muzyka balkan-beat, japońskie anime, czy nawet turecki kebab. Monika Smoleń pisze o tym: „Znaczenie przemysłów kultury, podkreślających specyfikę kraju, rośnie także wraz z postępującym procesem globalizacji i „zapotrzebowaniem” na symbole kulturowe, będące wyróżnikiem naszego miejsca w „globalnej wiosce”. Bez wątpienia po to, aby kultura białoruska przestała niezdecydowanie spełniać się w jednym miejscu, Białoruś potrzebuje „wielkiego zwycięstwa”, potrzebuje swoich „bohaterów” kultury, którzy promowaliby kraj na poziomie globalnym, a jednocześnie zjednoczyliby rozszczepione społeczeństwo białoruskie wspólną dumą. Działania w tym kierunku są na razie ograniczone do corocznych dramatycznych przeżyć na
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
skalę narodową, związanych z udziałem Białorusi w konkursie Eurowizji. Konkurs jako mechanizm łączący nacje we wspólnym kibicowaniu działa skutecznie. A jednak czy warto, żeby Białoruś była promowana jako kraj w którym gwiazdy pop skaczą po scenie w jakiś wyjątkowy sposób albo potrafią uwodzić publiczność za pomocą magicznych sztuczek technicznych? Moim zdaniem, porażka Białorusi polega na prezentowaniu na światowym rynku produktu, naśladującego popularne trendy – jest to zawsze coś, co już istnieje u potężnych konkurentów. Natomiast jakościowa, wyjątkowa, podkreślająca specyfikę kraju produkcja przemysłów kultury połączona z dobrze przemyślaną strategią marketingową ma więcej szans, aby zawojować rynek zewnętrzny i powiększyć zyski. Zysk otrzymywany w sektorze przemysłów kultury jest generalnie związany z powielaniem, przerabianiem, reprezentowaniem, dystrybucją produktów własności intelektualnej. Ważnym warunkiem jest tu skutecznie działający system ochrony praw autorskich. Według badań IDC (International Data Corporation, USA), poziom piractwa na Białorusi jest bardzo wysoki – około 80% objętości produkcji cyfrowej wwiezionej do kraju. Tak wysoki procent można również obserwować prawie we wszystkich krajach byłego Związku Radzieckiego z wykluczeniem krajów bałtyckich. Problem piractwa ma wymiar globalny, walka z nim trwa kilkadziesiąt lat, lecz Białoruś razem z innymi państwami postsowieckimi znajduje się dopiero na początku tej drogi. Innymi słowy, konieczność ochrony własności intelektualnej jest oczywista, ale na razie nie powstały skutecznie działające mechanizmy walki z tym problemem. Z drugiej strony, wielu wykonawców (przeważnie muzyków) z różnych powodów nie chcąc rozpoczynać walki z piratami, zmienia taktykę swej działalności: zamiast organizowania tras koncertowych dla promocji nowej płyty, sprzedaż której przynosi najwięcej zysków, rozmieszczają swoje nowe nagrania w Internecie za darmo (czasem w ogóle rezygnując z wydawania płyt), a zysk otrzymują z występów na koncertach czy imprezach korporacyjnych. Takim powodem może być świadome pojmowanie, iż swobodny dostęp do nagrań w Internecie, a nawet sprzedaż nielicencjonowanych płyt (które dzięki niskiej cenie są bardziej dostępne) nie jest „złem absolutnym”.
Lider białoruskiego zespołu „Lapis Trubieckoj” („zespół roku 2009” według Rock Alternative Music Prize, Rosja) o piractwie mówi: „Ja osobiście jestem zainteresowany popularyzacją: im więcej ludzi usłyszy naszą muzykę, im więcej będzie wykorzystywana w filmach i serialach, tym lepiej. Ponieważ my żyjemy z koncertów5. [...] Nie jestem idiotą, żeby walczyć z piratami. To jest wielka obłuda, szczególnie ze strony muzyków byłego Związku Radzieckiego. Piraci – to dystrybutorzy świeżej, modnej, żywej, najbardziej aktualnej muzyki, podczas gdy korporacje fonograficzne zajmują się wyłącznie dwoma rodzajami współczesnej kultury masowej – muzyką pop oraz „szansonem”6. W takim spojrzeniu piraci wyglądają nieco jak Robin Hood. To, co ukradną bogatym, rozdają biednym. Lecz wciąż jest to przestępstwem. Przyczyny takiego stosunku do instytucji własności intelektualnej kryją się w nieodpowiedzialności ludzi (po co płacić za coś, co można mieć za darmo), braku kultury prawnej właściwej krajom ze słabo rozwiniętym społeczeństwem obywatelskim. W rozwiązaniu tego problemu konieczne jest dalsze dostosowanie się do wymogów Unii Europejskiej i budowanie normalnego społeczeństwa otwartego. Oprócz niedoskonale funkcjonującej Ustawy Republiki Białoruś z dnia 16 maja 1996 o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych (koncepcja nowej redakcji Ustawy zaprojektowana w roku 2008 na razie nie została uchwalona), ustaw o środkach masowego przekazu, reklamie, kinematografii, istnieją inne mechanizmy prawne, regulujące działalność przemysłów kultury: MM Ustawa Ministerstwa Informacji nakazująca dominację muzyki białoruskiej (75%) w stacjach radiowych FM (01.01.2005), MM Ustawa o działalności koncertowej na terytorium Republiki Białoruś (01.06.2008). 75% muzyki białoruskiej w stacjach radiowych to wymóg, który został usankcjonowany z inicjatywy Ministerstwa Kultury w celu popularyzacji miejscowych wykonawców i umożliwienia rozwoju młodym artystom. Zastępca ministra informacji, Aleksandr Słobodczuk tłumaczył, iż wprowadzając tę kwotę, państwo oczekiwało nastąpienia „bumu białoruskiego”, zjawienia się nowych gwiazd i oryginalnych utworów. Z kolei, w środowisku komercyjnych stacji zobowiązanie do nadawania 75% muzyki biało-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Dzięki temu, iż autentyczny odbiór, tzn. „bycie obecnym”, pozostał bardzo ważnym aspektem współczesnej (młodzieżowej) kultury.
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Russkij szanson – gatunek rosyjskiej, sowieckiej muzyki opowiadający o „romantycznym” życiu przestępców, pobycie w więzieniu itd. Od lat 90. staje się przedmiotem kultury masowej. Paradoksalnie jest popularny na przestrzeni byłego Związku Radzieckiego.
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Russkij szanson – gatunek rosyjskiej, sowieckiej muzyki opowiadający o „romantycznym” życiu przestępców, pobycie w więzieniu itd. Od lat 90. staje się przedmiotem kultury masowej. Paradoksalnie jest popularny na przestrzeni byłego Związku Radzieckiego.
Dzięki temu, iż autentyczny odbiór, tzn. „bycie obecnym”, pozostał bardzo ważnym aspektem współczesnej (młodzieżowej) kultury.
5
6
Lider białoruskiego zespołu „Lapis Trubieckoj” („zespół roku 2009” według Rock Alternative Music Prize, Rosja) o piractwie mówi: „Ja osobiście jestem zainteresowany popularyzacją: im więcej ludzi usłyszy naszą muzykę, im więcej będzie wykorzystywana w filmach i serialach, tym lepiej. Ponieważ my żyjemy z koncertów5. [...] Nie jestem idiotą, żeby walczyć z piratami. To jest wielka obłuda, szczególnie ze strony muzyków byłego Związku Radzieckiego. Piraci – to dystrybutorzy świeżej, modnej, żywej, najbardziej aktualnej muzyki, podczas gdy korporacje fonograficzne zajmują się wyłącznie dwoma rodzajami współczesnej kultury masowej – muzyką pop oraz „szansonem”6. W takim spojrzeniu piraci wyglądają nieco jak Robin Hood. To, co ukradną bogatym, rozdają biednym. Lecz wciąż jest to przestępstwem. Przyczyny takiego stosunku do instytucji własności intelektualnej kryją się w nieodpowiedzialności ludzi (po co płacić za coś, co można mieć za darmo), braku kultury prawnej właściwej krajom ze słabo rozwiniętym społeczeństwem obywatelskim. W rozwiązaniu tego problemu konieczne jest dalsze dostosowanie się do wymogów Unii Europejskiej i budowanie normalnego społeczeństwa otwartego. Oprócz niedoskonale funkcjonującej Ustawy Republiki Białoruś z dnia 16 maja 1996 o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych (koncepcja nowej redakcji Ustawy zaprojektowana w roku 2008 na razie nie została uchwalona), ustaw o środkach masowego przekazu, reklamie, kinematografii, istnieją inne mechanizmy prawne, regulujące działalność przemysłów kultury: MM Ustawa Ministerstwa Informacji nakazująca dominację muzyki białoruskiej (75%) w stacjach radiowych FM (01.01.2005), MM Ustawa o działalności koncertowej na terytorium Republiki Białoruś (01.06.2008). 75% muzyki białoruskiej w stacjach radiowych to wymóg, który został usankcjonowany z inicjatywy Ministerstwa Kultury w celu popularyzacji miejscowych wykonawców i umożliwienia rozwoju młodym artystom. Zastępca ministra informacji, Aleksandr Słobodczuk tłumaczył, iż wprowadzając tę kwotę, państwo oczekiwało nastąpienia „bumu białoruskiego”, zjawienia się nowych gwiazd i oryginalnych utworów. Z kolei, w środowisku komercyjnych stacji zobowiązanie do nadawania 75% muzyki biało-
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skalę narodową, związanych z udziałem Białorusi w konkursie Eurowizji. Konkurs jako mechanizm łączący nacje we wspólnym kibicowaniu działa skutecznie. A jednak czy warto, żeby Białoruś była promowana jako kraj w którym gwiazdy pop skaczą po scenie w jakiś wyjątkowy sposób albo potrafią uwodzić publiczność za pomocą magicznych sztuczek technicznych? Moim zdaniem, porażka Białorusi polega na prezentowaniu na światowym rynku produktu, naśladującego popularne trendy – jest to zawsze coś, co już istnieje u potężnych konkurentów. Natomiast jakościowa, wyjątkowa, podkreślająca specyfikę kraju produkcja przemysłów kultury połączona z dobrze przemyślaną strategią marketingową ma więcej szans, aby zawojować rynek zewnętrzny i powiększyć zyski. Zysk otrzymywany w sektorze przemysłów kultury jest generalnie związany z powielaniem, przerabianiem, reprezentowaniem, dystrybucją produktów własności intelektualnej. Ważnym warunkiem jest tu skutecznie działający system ochrony praw autorskich. Według badań IDC (International Data Corporation, USA), poziom piractwa na Białorusi jest bardzo wysoki – około 80% objętości produkcji cyfrowej wwiezionej do kraju. Tak wysoki procent można również obserwować prawie we wszystkich krajach byłego Związku Radzieckiego z wykluczeniem krajów bałtyckich. Problem piractwa ma wymiar globalny, walka z nim trwa kilkadziesiąt lat, lecz Białoruś razem z innymi państwami postsowieckimi znajduje się dopiero na początku tej drogi. Innymi słowy, konieczność ochrony własności intelektualnej jest oczywista, ale na razie nie powstały skutecznie działające mechanizmy walki z tym problemem. Z drugiej strony, wielu wykonawców (przeważnie muzyków) z różnych powodów nie chcąc rozpoczynać walki z piratami, zmienia taktykę swej działalności: zamiast organizowania tras koncertowych dla promocji nowej płyty, sprzedaż której przynosi najwięcej zysków, rozmieszczają swoje nowe nagrania w Internecie za darmo (czasem w ogóle rezygnując z wydawania płyt), a zysk otrzymują z występów na koncertach czy imprezach korporacyjnych. Takim powodem może być świadome pojmowanie, iż swobodny dostęp do nagrań w Internecie, a nawet sprzedaż nielicencjonowanych płyt (które dzięki niskiej cenie są bardziej dostępne) nie jest „złem absolutnym”.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
ruskiej wywołało wielki, lecz bezskuteczny, odpór i oburzenie. W ciągu pięciu lat starania o obniżenie ilości nadawanej muzyki narodowej chociażby do 50%7 doprowadziły tylko do zmniejszenia czasu, w którym obowiązuje 75% wymóg do dziewięciu godzin dziennie. Dlaczego przemysł radiowy nie chce podtrzymywać starań o produkt lokalny? Ponieważ: MM wykonawcy białoruscy nie wydają takiej ilości nagrań odpowiedniego formatu i jakości, żeby wypełnić ¾ eteru, MM 75% sprawia, że wszystkie radia są do siebie podobne, MM stacje radiowe przestają być atrakcyjne tak dla słuchaczy, jak i dla reklamodawców, MM brak konkurencji hamuje rozwój twórczy białoruskich wykonawców. Niewątpliwie, podtrzymywanie lokalnego przemysłu muzycznego jest niezbędne, lecz tak duża ilość produktu własnego w kraju o tak małym rynku wewnętrznym nie jest najlepszym pomysłem. I praktyka to potwierdza. Ustawa o działalności koncertowej na terytorium Republiki Białoruś jest nakierowana na ochronę praw konsumentów. Główne cele regulacji tej działalności na terytorium Republiki są następujące: MM unikanie działalności kulturalnej i rozrywkowej, które stanowią zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa narodowego, porządku publicznego, zdrowia i moralności, praw oraz wolności obywateli, MM zapewnienie wysokiego poziomu artystycznego koncertów, występów cyrkowych i innej działalności kulturalnej i rozrywkowej, MM promowanie najlepszych osiągnięć krajowej oraz światowej kultury i sztuki, MM zaspokojenie potrzeb duchowych, ideologicznych, moralnych i estetycznych, MM edukacja społeczeństwa. Zgodnie z Ustawą, podczas organizacji każdego wydarzenia kulturalnego lub rozrywkowego (zarówno komercyjnego, jak i charytatywnego, imprez weselnych, korporacyjnych, dyskotek)
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organizator zobowiązany jest do zgłoszenia go w wydziale kultury miejscowej administracji, która, po wniesieniu przez organizatorów opłat, wydaje (lub nie wydaje) „świadectwo koncertowe”. Punkt 11 Ustawy głosi, iż: „W celu wzmocnienia programu kontroli jakości rozrywki, wydziały kultury stwarzają komisje (rady) artystyczno-ekspertowe, które mają prawo do zapoznania się z treścią audio, wideo i drukowanych materiałów wydarzeń kulturalnorozrywkowych lub przeglądu (przesłuchania) występów i wydania opinii w sprawie zgodności treści z głównymi zadaniami Ustawy.” Bez dodatkowych wyjaśnień widać, że Ustawa komplikuje działalność agencji koncertowych i innych podmiotów, zajmujących się organizacją wydarzeń kulturalnych. W żaden sposób nie sprzyja to działalności przedsiębiorców indywidualnych, gdyż wedle punktu 5. Ustawy ogranicza im możliwość organizacji wydarzeń na placówkach scenicznych o ilości miejsc nie większej niż 150. Czy „działalność kulturalna i rozrywkowa, która stanowi zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa narodowego, porządku publicznego, zdrowia i moralności, praw i wolności obywateli” tak duże, że konieczne jest sprawdzanie treści programów przez urzędników? Wątpię. Przynajmniej na całym świecie państwa jakoś sobie z tym radzą… Zasłaniając się troską o konsumenta, Ustawa Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś o działalności koncertowej de facto sankcjonuje cenzurę oraz kontrolę ideologiczną i pozwala blokować dostęp niepożądanych artystów do publiczności.8 Innymi słowy, przemysły kultury istnieją, pracują i wypracowują zyski, rozwijają się nie przy pomocy, lecz wbrew działaniom państwa. I nie jest to wyjątkiem, ponieważ warunki dla wszystkich rodzajów biznesu i przedsiębiorstw w Białorusi są równie ciężkie, powodują różnego rodzaju niecywilizowane rozwiązania (korupcję, „szare strefy”). Tak rozmowa o polityce kulturalnej w Białorusi kończy się rozmową o kulturze politycznej.
Taka ilość, na przykład, została wprowadzona na Ukrainie, gdzie rynek muzyczny jest o wiele większy.
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W maju 2007 roku organizatorom koncertu, podczas którego miano prezentować nową płytę zespołu „Krama” (białoruskojęzycznego zespołu rockowego, jednego z najbardziej popularnych w kraju) odmówiono otrzymania świadectwa koncertowego z powodu „niskiego poziomu artystycznego”.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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8 W maju 2007 roku organizatorom koncertu, podczas którego miano prezentować nową płytę zespołu „Krama” (białoruskojęzycznego zespołu rockowego, jednego z najbardziej popularnych w kraju) odmówiono otrzymania świadectwa koncertowego z powodu „niskiego poziomu artystycznego”. 7
Taka ilość, na przykład, została wprowadzona na Ukrainie, gdzie rynek muzyczny jest o wiele większy.
ruskiej wywołało wielki, lecz bezskuteczny, odpór i oburzenie. W ciągu pięciu lat starania o obniżenie ilości nadawanej muzyki narodowej chociażby do 50%7 doprowadziły tylko do zmniejszenia czasu, w którym obowiązuje 75% wymóg do dziewięciu godzin dziennie. Dlaczego przemysł radiowy nie chce podtrzymywać starań o produkt lokalny? Ponieważ: MM wykonawcy białoruscy nie wydają takiej ilości nagrań odpowiedniego formatu i jakości, żeby wypełnić ¾ eteru, MM 75% sprawia, że wszystkie radia są do siebie podobne, MM stacje radiowe przestają być atrakcyjne tak dla słuchaczy, jak i dla reklamodawców, MM brak konkurencji hamuje rozwój twórczy białoruskich wykonawców. Niewątpliwie, podtrzymywanie lokalnego przemysłu muzycznego jest niezbędne, lecz tak duża ilość produktu własnego w kraju o tak małym rynku wewnętrznym nie jest najlepszym pomysłem. I praktyka to potwierdza. Ustawa o działalności koncertowej na terytorium Republiki Białoruś jest nakierowana na ochronę praw konsumentów. Główne cele regulacji tej działalności na terytorium Republiki są następujące: MM unikanie działalności kulturalnej i rozrywkowej, które stanowią zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa narodowego, porządku publicznego, zdrowia i moralności, praw oraz wolności obywateli, MM zapewnienie wysokiego poziomu artystycznego koncertów, występów cyrkowych i innej działalności kulturalnej i rozrywkowej, MM promowanie najlepszych osiągnięć krajowej oraz światowej kultury i sztuki, MM zaspokojenie potrzeb duchowych, ideologicznych, moralnych i estetycznych, MM edukacja społeczeństwa. Zgodnie z Ustawą, podczas organizacji każdego wydarzenia kulturalnego lub rozrywkowego (zarówno komercyjnego, jak i charytatywnego, imprez weselnych, korporacyjnych, dyskotek)
organizator zobowiązany jest do zgłoszenia go w wydziale kultury miejscowej administracji, która, po wniesieniu przez organizatorów opłat, wydaje (lub nie wydaje) „świadectwo koncertowe”. Punkt 11 Ustawy głosi, iż: „W celu wzmocnienia programu kontroli jakości rozrywki, wydziały kultury stwarzają komisje (rady) artystyczno-ekspertowe, które mają prawo do zapoznania się z treścią audio, wideo i drukowanych materiałów wydarzeń kulturalnorozrywkowych lub przeglądu (przesłuchania) występów i wydania opinii w sprawie zgodności treści z głównymi zadaniami Ustawy.” Bez dodatkowych wyjaśnień widać, że Ustawa komplikuje działalność agencji koncertowych i innych podmiotów, zajmujących się organizacją wydarzeń kulturalnych. W żaden sposób nie sprzyja to działalności przedsiębiorców indywidualnych, gdyż wedle punktu 5. Ustawy ogranicza im możliwość organizacji wydarzeń na placówkach scenicznych o ilości miejsc nie większej niż 150. Czy „działalność kulturalna i rozrywkowa, która stanowi zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa narodowego, porządku publicznego, zdrowia i moralności, praw i wolności obywateli” tak duże, że konieczne jest sprawdzanie treści programów przez urzędników? Wątpię. Przynajmniej na całym świecie państwa jakoś sobie z tym radzą… Zasłaniając się troską o konsumenta, Ustawa Prezydenta Republiki Białoruś o działalności koncertowej de facto sankcjonuje cenzurę oraz kontrolę ideologiczną i pozwala blokować dostęp niepożądanych artystów do publiczności.8 Innymi słowy, przemysły kultury istnieją, pracują i wypracowują zyski, rozwijają się nie przy pomocy, lecz wbrew działaniom państwa. I nie jest to wyjątkiem, ponieważ warunki dla wszystkich rodzajów biznesu i przedsiębiorstw w Białorusi są równie ciężkie, powodują różnego rodzaju niecywilizowane rozwiązania (korupcję, „szare strefy”). Tak rozmowa o polityce kulturalnej w Białorusi kończy się rozmową o kulturze politycznej.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach: Konieczność oceny polityki kulturalnej Anda Laķe
Wstęp. Wywód Analityk polityki kulturalnej John Hocks przyznaje, że „planowanie rozwoju społecznego jest w istocie rozwojem, wyrazem i zastosowaniem tych wartości społecznych, które społeczeństwo uważa za istotne dla swej tożsamości” [Hocks, 2007]. W kontekście tej tezy nasuwa się następujące pytanie: jak można osiągnąć to, że wartości wyznawane przez twórców polityki publicznej dokładnie odbijają te reprezentowane przez społeczeństwo, któremu służą? Pytanie to można również rozważyć pod innym kątem: jak doprowadzić do tego, aby główne zasady tworzenia polityki publicznej brały początek w próbach rozwiązania dominujących problemów społecznych zgodnie z panującym systemem wartości? W związku z kryzysem gospodarczym dyskusje na temat funkcji rządowych w ogóle oraz jakości polityki planowania i rozwoju poszczególnych sektorów stały się ożywione. Zawierają one surową krytykę nieodpowiedzialnych czynów twórców polityki i osób podejmujących polityczne decyzje, które doprowadziły państwo do ryzyka bankructwa i nie wskazały właściwego rozwiązania fiskalnych i innych związanych z kryzysem problemów. W warunkach konfliktu pomiędzy rządem a społeczeństwem cywilnym argumentacja jest istotnym narzędziem w rękach rządu, która może zapewnić wymagane zrozumienie między twórcami polityki a społeczeństwem. Ponadto, istotne jest to, aby rząd wziął pod uwagę fakt, że tylko pewien typ informacji ułatwia zrozumienie społeczeństwa i może być uważany za demokratyczny i niemanipulacyjny [Ijabs, 2007].
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Kwestia tego, na jakich wartościach i argumentach twórcy polityki opierali dotąd swoje decyzje staje się bardziej aktualna i niejasna. Jednakże doprowadziło to do drastycznego obniżenia dochodu budżetowego państwa w 2009 i konieczności międzynarodowej pożyczki. Warunki, na których pożyczka została udzielona i potrzeba doprowadzenia budżetu do równowagi wymagają obniżenia wydatków budżetu państwa o 510 milionów LVL w 2010 w porównaniu z wydatkami w 2009. W dziedzinie realizacji polityki kulturalnej obserwujemy zmniejszenie finansowania Łotewskiego Ministerstwa Kultury o 28,3 milionów LVL, co stanowi jedną trzecią budżetu Ministerstwa w 2009. Równocześnie na Łotwie wydano cały szereg wzajemnie powiązanych dekretów, które przewidują wsparcie rządu dla dziedziny kultury. Na przykład 12 maja 2009 doszło do spotkania ministrów kultury z 27 państw należących do UE, na którym poparli oni wniosek Rady Europy mówiący o tym, że kultura jest katalizatorem dla twórczości i innowacji. W dokumencie tym podkreśla się, że strategiczne inwestowanie w kulturę jest szalenie ważne, gdyż zapewnia dynamikę i kreatywność społeczeństwa UE oraz dostarcza miejsc pracy. Inwestowanie w kulturę ułatwia kreatywność jako siłę napędową innowacji, co jest konieczne dla rozwoju gospodarczego i konkurencji [http://culturelablv.wordpress.com/ category/radosas–industrijas]. Jednakże nie tylko zgodność z powyższymi zasadami i osiągnięcie odpowiednich celów są jawnie zagrożone na Łotwie. Rozwiązanie szeregu problemów związanych z kulturą i zachowanie odpowiednich wartości również podlega zagrożeniu.
249
Anda Laķe doktorantka w łotewskim Rīga Stradiņš University. Zastępca dyrektora Wydziału Socjologii Kultury i Zarządzania Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Członek Łotewskiego Stowarzyszenia Socjologów. Obszar jej badań obejmuje metodologię badań socjologicznych, interdyscyplinarność w badaniach, metodologię analizy, ochronę dziedzictwa narodowego. Koordynatorka badań dotyczących idei łotewskiej młodzieży o kanonie kulturalnym. W 2008 roku minister kultury łotewskiej.
Analityk polityki kulturalnej John Hocks przyznaje, że „planowanie rozwoju społecznego jest w istocie rozwojem, wyrazem i zastosowaniem tych wartości społecznych, które społeczeństwo uważa za istotne dla swej tożsamości” [Hocks, 2007]. W kontekście tej tezy nasuwa się następujące pytanie: jak można osiągnąć to, że wartości wyznawane przez twórców polityki publicznej dokładnie odbijają te reprezentowane przez społeczeństwo, któremu służą? Pytanie to można również rozważyć pod innym kątem: jak doprowadzić do tego, aby główne zasady tworzenia polityki publicznej brały początek w próbach rozwiązania dominujących problemów społecznych zgodnie z panującym systemem wartości? W związku z kryzysem gospodarczym dyskusje na temat funkcji rządowych w ogóle oraz jakości polityki planowania i rozwoju poszczególnych sektorów stały się ożywione. Zawierają one surową krytykę nieodpowiedzialnych czynów twórców polityki i osób podejmujących polityczne decyzje, które doprowadziły państwo do ryzyka bankructwa i nie wskazały właściwego rozwiązania fiskalnych i innych związanych z kryzysem problemów. W warunkach konfliktu pomiędzy rządem a społeczeństwem cywilnym argumentacja jest istotnym narzędziem w rękach rządu, która może zapewnić wymagane zrozumienie między twórcami polityki a społeczeństwem. Ponadto, istotne jest to, aby rząd wziął pod uwagę fakt, że tylko pewien typ informacji ułatwia zrozumienie społeczeństwa i może być uważany za demokratyczny i niemanipulacyjny [Ijabs, 2007].
Wstęp. Wywód
Anda Laķe
249
Kwestia tego, na jakich wartościach i argumentach twórcy polityki opierali dotąd swoje decyzje staje się bardziej aktualna i niejasna. Jednakże doprowadziło to do drastycznego obniżenia dochodu budżetowego państwa w 2009 i konieczności międzynarodowej pożyczki. Warunki, na których pożyczka została udzielona i potrzeba doprowadzenia budżetu do równowagi wymagają obniżenia wydatków budżetu państwa o 510 milionów LVL w 2010 w porównaniu z wydatkami w 2009. W dziedzinie realizacji polityki kulturalnej obserwujemy zmniejszenie finansowania Łotewskiego Ministerstwa Kultury o 28,3 milionów LVL, co stanowi jedną trzecią budżetu Ministerstwa w 2009. Równocześnie na Łotwie wydano cały szereg wzajemnie powiązanych dekretów, które przewidują wsparcie rządu dla dziedziny kultury. Na przykład 12 maja 2009 doszło do spotkania ministrów kultury z 27 państw należących do UE, na którym poparli oni wniosek Rady Europy mówiący o tym, że kultura jest katalizatorem dla twórczości i innowacji. W dokumencie tym podkreśla się, że strategiczne inwestowanie w kulturę jest szalenie ważne, gdyż zapewnia dynamikę i kreatywność społeczeństwa UE oraz dostarcza miejsc pracy. Inwestowanie w kulturę ułatwia kreatywność jako siłę napędową innowacji, co jest konieczne dla rozwoju gospodarczego i konkurencji [http://culturelablv.wordpress.com/ category/radosas–industrijas]. Jednakże nie tylko zgodność z powyższymi zasadami i osiągnięcie odpowiednich celów są jawnie zagrożone na Łotwie. Rozwiązanie szeregu problemów związanych z kulturą i zachowanie odpowiednich wartości również podlega zagrożeniu.
Anda Laķe doktorantka w łotewskim Rīga Stradiņš University. Zastępca dyrektora Wydziału Socjologii Kultury i Zarządzania Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Członek Łotewskiego Stowarzyszenia Socjologów. Obszar jej badań obejmuje metodologię badań socjologicznych, interdyscyplinarność w badaniach, metodologię analizy, ochronę dziedzictwa narodowego. Koordynatorka badań dotyczących idei łotewskiej młodzieży o kanonie kulturalnym. W 2008 roku minister kultury łotewskiej.
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach: Konieczność oceny polityki kulturalnej
problemy pozostają nierozwiązane w obrębie polityki kulturalnej w wyniku zmniejszonego finansowania i jakie problemy twórcy polityki kulturalnej będą próbowali rozwiązać jako podstawowy priorytet. Zarówno wartości, jak i cele rządu są niezrozumiałe [http://www.mk.gov.lv/ lv/aktuali/zinas/2009gads/09/300909-03-copy]. Społeczeństwo nie jest w stanie nadążać za racjonalną argumentacją decyzji politycznych, co, według znanej klasyfikacji modeli podejmowania wyborów politycznych zaproponowanej przez H. Simona, odpowiada kolejnym fazom. Definicja problemu i wyznaczone metody do jego rozwiązania: 1. B adanie wszystkich strategii osiągnięcia alternatywnego celu. 2. P rzewidywanie wszelkich ważnych konsekwencji wynikających z danej alternatywy. 3. Wreszcie, wybór strategii, która rozwiązuje problem w najlepszy sposób lub okazuje się być najmniej kosztownym rozwiązaniem. Oczywiście, nie można w pełni zastosować zasady racjonalności w tworzeniu polityki, jednakże pewna racjonalność przyczyniłaby się znacznie do stworzenia koncepcji zachowania i aktywacji pewnych wartości w polityce jak również identyfikacji, aktywacji i osiągnięcia bardziej określonych celów politycznych. W wielu nowoczesnych systemach politycznych zastosowanie zasad ewaluacji wpływu politycznego, a w szczególności badania ewaluacji uważa się za najbardziej skuteczne narzędzia w racjonalizacji polityki (strategii) i polepszaniu jakości. Baza Danych Badań i Publikacji stworzona przez Łotewski Sekretariat Państwowy [zob. http://petijumi.mk.gov.lv/ui/] posiada wszystkie analizy, które zostały kiedykolwiek zlecone przez rząd. Ocena sfery politycznej jest rodzajem badania, które służy jako kryterium dla struktury bazy danych. W tego rodzaju kategoriach zawartych jest 51 analiz. Wszystkie są wymagane przez Komisję Europejską. Żadne badanie w dziedzinie oceny wpływów politycznych nie zostało przeprowadzone na żądanie łotewskiej instytucji rządowej. Ponadto, baza danych nie dostarcza informacji dotyczących testów, które można by zaliczyć do oceny sfery politycznej, a zostały zlecone przez Ministerstwo Kultury. Pozwala mi to wnioskować, że takie narządzie polepszania jakości polityki jak ocena wpływu polityki wraz z badaniem oceny, które jest szeroko stosowane przy tworzeniu polityki (strategii) w wielu krajach, jest ledwo wykorzystywane w tworzeniu polityki, szczególnie polityki kulturalnej na Łotwie. W celu szczegółowego zanalizowania sytuacji opisanej wyżej, chciałabym scharakteryzować sferę badań społecznych na Łotwie.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Sytuacja ta wymaga podjęcia istotnych decyzji dotyczących priorytetów wykorzystania funduszy budżetowych, rozwiązywania aktualnych problemów na bieżąco, jak również gospodarczych możliwości rozwoju strukturalnego sfery kultury. Dokumenty dotyczące poprzedniego planowania strategii (na przykład Wytyczne polityki kulturalnej państwa w 2006-2015, Państwo narodowe, itd.) z pewnością zawierają formalne definicje celów, wartości i priorytetów polityki kulturalnej; jednakże, w istniejących okolicznościach, które implikują rewizję funkcji rządowych w poszczególnych dziedzinach politycznych, należy przyznać, że osiągnięcie tych wszystkich założeń nie wydaje się możliwe. Z jednej strony, pewne istniejące zadania będą stanowiły najwyższy cel. Z drugiej zaś będą na pewno pojawiać się takie cele polityczne, które okażą się niemożliwe do osiągnięcia. Aby zoptymalizować kryterium listy nowych priorytetów politycznych, działający pod aktywną presją publiczną rząd łotewski spróbował ocenić znaczenie funkcji ministerstw, biorąc pod uwagę opinie społeczeństwa i partnerów społecznych. Bieżąca perspektywa finansowa na 2010 przewiduje gruntowny przegląd i ocenę wielu programów polityki kulturalnej w celu uzasadnienia ich konieczności. Charakterystyczne dla Łotwy jest to, że twórcy polityki nie są w stanie dostarczyć jasnych i wiarygodnych argumentów na poparcie decyzji politycznych i niekonwencjonalnej polityki, nawet w przypadkach, gdy polityka ta ma ogromny wpływ na interesy i potrzeby pewnej grupy społecznej. Powoduje to napięcie między twórcami polityki a społeczeństwem, co jest oparte na społecznym niezrozumieniu wartości i prawdziwych celów twórców polityki. W porozumiewaniu się twórców polityki ze społeczeństwem główną rolę przypisuje się informacjom dotyczącym alternatywy politycznej, a nie informacjom dotyczącym argumentów za taką czy inną alternatywą. Społeczeństwu często brak informacji dotyczących uzasadnienia wybranej opcji politycznej. Daje to pole do swobodnej interpretacji zagadnienia politycznego, czego wynikiem jest zarówno sceptycyzm społeczny odnoszący się do tego, jak demokratyczne są decyzje rządu i jak prowokujące okazują się spekulacje na temat starań rządu mające na celu promowanie interesów grup nieznanych społecznemu lobby. Na przykład z informacji na temat zmniejszenia funduszy na sferę kulturalną dostarczanych przez rząd łotewski społeczeństwo może się dowiedzieć o połączeniu pewnych muzeów, redukcji funkcji Narodowego Centrum Kinowego itp. [ „Diena”, 26.10.2009, s. 4], ale twórcy polityki (strategii) nie ujawniają informacji dotyczących tego, jakie
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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problemy pozostają nierozwiązane w obrębie polityki kulturalnej w wyniku zmniejszonego finansowania i jakie problemy twórcy polityki kulturalnej będą próbowali rozwiązać jako podstawowy priorytet. Zarówno wartości, jak i cele rządu są niezrozumiałe [http://www.mk.gov.lv/ lv/aktuali/zinas/2009gads/09/300909-03-copy]. Społeczeństwo nie jest w stanie nadążać za racjonalną argumentacją decyzji politycznych, co, według znanej klasyfikacji modeli podejmowania wyborów politycznych zaproponowanej przez H. Simona, odpowiada kolejnym fazom. Definicja problemu i wyznaczone metody do jego rozwiązania: 1. B adanie wszystkich strategii osiągnięcia alternatywnego celu. 2. P rzewidywanie wszelkich ważnych konsekwencji wynikających z danej alternatywy. 3. Wreszcie, wybór strategii, która rozwiązuje problem w najlepszy sposób lub okazuje się być najmniej kosztownym rozwiązaniem. Oczywiście, nie można w pełni zastosować zasady racjonalności w tworzeniu polityki, jednakże pewna racjonalność przyczyniłaby się znacznie do stworzenia koncepcji zachowania i aktywacji pewnych wartości w polityce jak również identyfikacji, aktywacji i osiągnięcia bardziej określonych celów politycznych. W wielu nowoczesnych systemach politycznych zastosowanie zasad ewaluacji wpływu politycznego, a w szczególności badania ewaluacji uważa się za najbardziej skuteczne narzędzia w racjonalizacji polityki (strategii) i polepszaniu jakości. Baza Danych Badań i Publikacji stworzona przez Łotewski Sekretariat Państwowy [zob. http://petijumi.mk.gov.lv/ui/] posiada wszystkie analizy, które zostały kiedykolwiek zlecone przez rząd. Ocena sfery politycznej jest rodzajem badania, które służy jako kryterium dla struktury bazy danych. W tego rodzaju kategoriach zawartych jest 51 analiz. Wszystkie są wymagane przez Komisję Europejską. Żadne badanie w dziedzinie oceny wpływów politycznych nie zostało przeprowadzone na żądanie łotewskiej instytucji rządowej. Ponadto, baza danych nie dostarcza informacji dotyczących testów, które można by zaliczyć do oceny sfery politycznej, a zostały zlecone przez Ministerstwo Kultury. Pozwala mi to wnioskować, że takie narządzie polepszania jakości polityki jak ocena wpływu polityki wraz z badaniem oceny, które jest szeroko stosowane przy tworzeniu polityki (strategii) w wielu krajach, jest ledwo wykorzystywane w tworzeniu polityki, szczególnie polityki kulturalnej na Łotwie. W celu szczegółowego zanalizowania sytuacji opisanej wyżej, chciałabym scharakteryzować sferę badań społecznych na Łotwie.
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Sytuacja ta wymaga podjęcia istotnych decyzji dotyczących priorytetów wykorzystania funduszy budżetowych, rozwiązywania aktualnych problemów na bieżąco, jak również gospodarczych możliwości rozwoju strukturalnego sfery kultury. Dokumenty dotyczące poprzedniego planowania strategii (na przykład Wytyczne polityki kulturalnej państwa w 2006-2015, Państwo narodowe, itd.) z pewnością zawierają formalne definicje celów, wartości i priorytetów polityki kulturalnej; jednakże, w istniejących okolicznościach, które implikują rewizję funkcji rządowych w poszczególnych dziedzinach politycznych, należy przyznać, że osiągnięcie tych wszystkich założeń nie wydaje się możliwe. Z jednej strony, pewne istniejące zadania będą stanowiły najwyższy cel. Z drugiej zaś będą na pewno pojawiać się takie cele polityczne, które okażą się niemożliwe do osiągnięcia. Aby zoptymalizować kryterium listy nowych priorytetów politycznych, działający pod aktywną presją publiczną rząd łotewski spróbował ocenić znaczenie funkcji ministerstw, biorąc pod uwagę opinie społeczeństwa i partnerów społecznych. Bieżąca perspektywa finansowa na 2010 przewiduje gruntowny przegląd i ocenę wielu programów polityki kulturalnej w celu uzasadnienia ich konieczności. Charakterystyczne dla Łotwy jest to, że twórcy polityki nie są w stanie dostarczyć jasnych i wiarygodnych argumentów na poparcie decyzji politycznych i niekonwencjonalnej polityki, nawet w przypadkach, gdy polityka ta ma ogromny wpływ na interesy i potrzeby pewnej grupy społecznej. Powoduje to napięcie między twórcami polityki a społeczeństwem, co jest oparte na społecznym niezrozumieniu wartości i prawdziwych celów twórców polityki. W porozumiewaniu się twórców polityki ze społeczeństwem główną rolę przypisuje się informacjom dotyczącym alternatywy politycznej, a nie informacjom dotyczącym argumentów za taką czy inną alternatywą. Społeczeństwu często brak informacji dotyczących uzasadnienia wybranej opcji politycznej. Daje to pole do swobodnej interpretacji zagadnienia politycznego, czego wynikiem jest zarówno sceptycyzm społeczny odnoszący się do tego, jak demokratyczne są decyzje rządu i jak prowokujące okazują się spekulacje na temat starań rządu mające na celu promowanie interesów grup nieznanych społecznemu lobby. Na przykład z informacji na temat zmniejszenia funduszy na sferę kulturalną dostarczanych przez rząd łotewski społeczeństwo może się dowiedzieć o połączeniu pewnych muzeów, redukcji funkcji Narodowego Centrum Kinowego itp. [ „Diena”, 26.10.2009, s. 4], ale twórcy polityki (strategii) nie ujawniają informacji dotyczących tego, jakie
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Tematyka badań przedstawicieli łotewskich nauk społecznych i zakres metod wykorzystywanych w tych badaniach poszerzają się w odniesieniu do rzeczywistości społecznej, która jest dynamiczna i przepełniona innowacjami, zgodnie z zakresem stawianych problemów badawczych. W świecie demokratycznym jedną z dziedzin, w których badania społeczne są szeroko stosowane jest sfera tworzenia polityki. Na Łotwie zlecają je zazwyczaj organizacje międzynarodowe, administracje rządowe i struktury administracyjne zarządu miast. W zleceniach tych jeden z głównych interesów twórców polityki jest często związany z koniecznością zdobycia informacji, które pozwoliłyby na ocenę. W różnych systemach politycznych istnieją różne tradycje dotyczące tej ewaluacji wpływu polityki. Niemniej jednak, jednym z narzędzi badawczych tradycyjnie stosowanych w opiniowaniu polityki jest tak zwane badanie ewaluacyjne. Twórcy polityki mogą zdobywać informacje poprzez badania ewaluacyjne, które pozwala na racjonalizowanie podejmowania decyzji w administracji rządowej, i w związku z tym polepszanie jakości tworzenia polityki (strategii) i powiększenie zakresu problemów rozwiązywanych przy jej pomocy. Bez względu na teoretyczną konieczność ewaluacji danych analitycznych, twórcy polityki i władze wykonawcze często nie posiadają informacji na temat realizacji pewnej polityki/ programu i wiedzy jak osiągnąć najwyższe wskaźniki realizacji. Badacze z wielu krajów zauważyli, że twórcy polityki nie zawsze uważają promocję realizacji programu oraz osiągnięcie wymaganych wyników za dominujący priorytet. Równocześnie wymagania społeczeństwa zwiększają się. Często rządy nie są w stanie zareagować właściwie na te problemy lub reagują nieumiejętnie i nieskutecznie [Wholey, Kathryn, 1989]. Podstawowy problem badawczy jest następujący. Poprzednie badania sytuacji pokazują, że w systemowym i konceptualnym sensie istnieją różne praktyki w administracji Łotwy (np. ministerstwa, podległe im urzędy) dotyczące realizacji oceny wpływu polityki i zastosowania w niej metodologicznych zasad badania ewaluacyjnego. Co więcej, ocena nie spełnia swojej funkcji ulepszania tworzenia strategii, nie stymuluje integracji właściwych rozwiązań problemów przy decyzjach politycznych ani też nie zapewnia kontynuacji polityki.
Specyficzny charakter badania ewaluacyjnego
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pecyficzny charakter badania ewaluacyjnego ma swoje korzenie w rozumieniu pojęcia ‘ewaluacja’. Termin ten oznacza systematyczną ocenę
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
rezultatów polityki, programu lub wyników, które są porównywane z wyraźnie sformułowanymi albo niejasnymi, pośrednimi standardami w celu promowania udoskonalenia tego programu czy polityki. Z jednej strony, to pojęcie jest związane z opisem istoty działania/osiągnięcia/wykonania, z drugiej strony, jest ono związane ze standardami i kryteriami,według których określone działanie/ osiągnięcie/wykonanie jest oceniane [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. Jest to rodzaj badania socjo-politycznego (strategicznego) mającego na celu ocenę zamierzonych i niezamierzonych konsekwencji, programu nowej lub istniejącej polityki i praktyki, w tym określenie do jakiego stopnia wyznaczone cele są zrealizowane oraz identyfikację przeniesienia skutków [Słownik Socjologii Oxford, 1994]. Metodologia analiz ewaluacyjnych obejmuje określoną logikę badania, stosowaną wówczas, gdy należy ocenić społeczny lub polityczny program działania. Badanie ewaluacyjne jest interdyscyplinarne, często są w nim wykorzystywane podstawowe zasady metodologiczne badań socjologicznych, politologicznych i ekonomicznych. Ponadto są one tradycyjnie przeprowadzane zgodnie z powszechnymi międzynarodowymi standardami. Wybór metodologii oraz projekt badania jest związany z następującym zadaniem: rozpoznaniem zmiany określonych zmiennych w czasie poprzez stwierdzenie, w jakim stopniu kroki podjęte w programie miały na nie wpływ oraz w jakim stopniu otaczające środowisko miało wpływ na odpowiednie zmienne. Celem analizy jest ocenienie wpływu. Proces oceny lub podjęte kroki i narzędzia są ogólnie nazywane ‘programem’, a efekty osiągnięte dzięki podjętym krokom są postrzegane we wzajemnych związkach w sposób metodologicznie kontrolowany, natomiast związek pomiędzy celami działania i ich konsekwencjami jest oceniany. W takich badaniach należy wziąć pod uwagę to, że każdy program może być realizowany tylko w ścisłym powiązaniu ze środowiskiem społecznym, nie może być oddzielony od otaczających go wpływów. Techniki oceny można łatwo przystosować do analizy polityki społecznej i zdrowotnej, środowiskowej, edukacyjnej i kulturalnej. Opisana metodologia jest z powodzeniem stosowana do badania, oceniania i udoskonalania, na przykład programów społecznych we wszystkich istotnych aspektach: w ukazywaniu problemów społecznych, konceptualizacji celów, wdrażaniu i administracji programów, pomiarach wyników i skuteczności [tamże]. Logiczna struktura metodologii oceny zakłada następujący projekt badawczy: 1. Opis programu (sformułowanie problemu, identyfikacja celów, zespołów celów, wskaźników interwencji i wpływu)
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pecyficzny charakter badania ewaluacyjnego ma swoje korzenie w rozumieniu pojęcia ‘ewaluacja’. Termin ten oznacza systematyczną ocenę
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Specyficzny charakter badania ewaluacyjnego Tematyka badań przedstawicieli łotewskich nauk społecznych i zakres metod wykorzystywanych w tych badaniach poszerzają się w odniesieniu do rzeczywistości społecznej, która jest dynamiczna i przepełniona innowacjami, zgodnie z zakresem stawianych problemów badawczych. W świecie demokratycznym jedną z dziedzin, w których badania społeczne są szeroko stosowane jest sfera tworzenia polityki. Na Łotwie zlecają je zazwyczaj organizacje międzynarodowe, administracje rządowe i struktury administracyjne zarządu miast. W zleceniach tych jeden z głównych interesów twórców polityki jest często związany z koniecznością zdobycia informacji, które pozwoliłyby na ocenę. W różnych systemach politycznych istnieją różne tradycje dotyczące tej ewaluacji wpływu polityki. Niemniej jednak, jednym z narzędzi badawczych tradycyjnie stosowanych w opiniowaniu polityki jest tak zwane badanie ewaluacyjne. Twórcy polityki mogą zdobywać informacje poprzez badania ewaluacyjne, które pozwala na racjonalizowanie podejmowania decyzji w administracji rządowej, i w związku z tym polepszanie jakości tworzenia polityki (strategii) i powiększenie zakresu problemów rozwiązywanych przy jej pomocy. Bez względu na teoretyczną konieczność ewaluacji danych analitycznych, twórcy polityki i władze wykonawcze często nie posiadają informacji na temat realizacji pewnej polityki/ programu i wiedzy jak osiągnąć najwyższe wskaźniki realizacji. Badacze z wielu krajów zauważyli, że twórcy polityki nie zawsze uważają promocję realizacji programu oraz osiągnięcie wymaganych wyników za dominujący priorytet. Równocześnie wymagania społeczeństwa zwiększają się. Często rządy nie są w stanie zareagować właściwie na te problemy lub reagują nieumiejętnie i nieskutecznie [Wholey, Kathryn, 1989]. Podstawowy problem badawczy jest następujący. Poprzednie badania sytuacji pokazują, że w systemowym i konceptualnym sensie istnieją różne praktyki w administracji Łotwy (np. ministerstwa, podległe im urzędy) dotyczące realizacji oceny wpływu polityki i zastosowania w niej metodologicznych zasad badania ewaluacyjnego. Co więcej, ocena nie spełnia swojej funkcji ulepszania tworzenia strategii, nie stymuluje integracji właściwych rozwiązań problemów przy decyzjach politycznych ani też nie zapewnia kontynuacji polityki.
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rezultatów polityki, programu lub wyników, które są porównywane z wyraźnie sformułowanymi albo niejasnymi, pośrednimi standardami w celu promowania udoskonalenia tego programu czy polityki. Z jednej strony, to pojęcie jest związane z opisem istoty działania/osiągnięcia/wykonania, z drugiej strony, jest ono związane ze standardami i kryteriami,według których określone działanie/ osiągnięcie/wykonanie jest oceniane [Rossi, Freeman, Lipsey, 1999]. Jest to rodzaj badania socjo-politycznego (strategicznego) mającego na celu ocenę zamierzonych i niezamierzonych konsekwencji, programu nowej lub istniejącej polityki i praktyki, w tym określenie do jakiego stopnia wyznaczone cele są zrealizowane oraz identyfikację przeniesienia skutków [Słownik Socjologii Oxford, 1994]. Metodologia analiz ewaluacyjnych obejmuje określoną logikę badania, stosowaną wówczas, gdy należy ocenić społeczny lub polityczny program działania. Badanie ewaluacyjne jest interdyscyplinarne, często są w nim wykorzystywane podstawowe zasady metodologiczne badań socjologicznych, politologicznych i ekonomicznych. Ponadto są one tradycyjnie przeprowadzane zgodnie z powszechnymi międzynarodowymi standardami. Wybór metodologii oraz projekt badania jest związany z następującym zadaniem: rozpoznaniem zmiany określonych zmiennych w czasie poprzez stwierdzenie, w jakim stopniu kroki podjęte w programie miały na nie wpływ oraz w jakim stopniu otaczające środowisko miało wpływ na odpowiednie zmienne. Celem analizy jest ocenienie wpływu. Proces oceny lub podjęte kroki i narzędzia są ogólnie nazywane ‘programem’, a efekty osiągnięte dzięki podjętym krokom są postrzegane we wzajemnych związkach w sposób metodologicznie kontrolowany, natomiast związek pomiędzy celami działania i ich konsekwencjami jest oceniany. W takich badaniach należy wziąć pod uwagę to, że każdy program może być realizowany tylko w ścisłym powiązaniu ze środowiskiem społecznym, nie może być oddzielony od otaczających go wpływów. Techniki oceny można łatwo przystosować do analizy polityki społecznej i zdrowotnej, środowiskowej, edukacyjnej i kulturalnej. Opisana metodologia jest z powodzeniem stosowana do badania, oceniania i udoskonalania, na przykład programów społecznych we wszystkich istotnych aspektach: w ukazywaniu problemów społecznych, konceptualizacji celów, wdrażaniu i administracji programów, pomiarach wyników i skuteczności [tamże]. Logiczna struktura metodologii oceny zakłada następujący projekt badawczy: 1. Opis programu (sformułowanie problemu, identyfikacja celów, zespołów celów, wskaźników interwencji i wpływu)
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
jeśli środowisko programu działa pozytywnie i vice versa. Skuteczny program może również powodować tylko małe zmiany zmiennych, jeśli wpływ środowiska jest negatywny. Rodzaje badań ewaluacyjnych skupiają się zazwyczaj na wartościach i zastosowaniu polityki, ich zadaniem jest nie tylko zbieranie informacji na temat zamierzonych lub niezamierzonych skutków, ich główną misją jest sprawdzenie czy skutek polityki jest skutkiem działań podjętych w celu rozwiązania problemu. Badanie ewaluacyjne zazwyczaj sprawdza czy polityka osiągnęła swój cel.
politologii ocena wpływu polityki jest uważana za jeden z rodzajów analizy, której zasady metodologiczne odpowiadają stadiom procesu polityki lub stadiom procesu podejmowania decyzji. Logika oceny oddziaływania startegii i jej związek ze stadiami procesu politycznego jest opisana przez W. N. Dunn, L Diamond., K. Faulks oraz w innych pracach. Logiczna struktura tego badania stosuje następującą kolejność czynności: 1. Analiza i definicja problemów społecznych, które należy rozwiązać przy pomocy instrumentów polityki 2. Określenie celu polityki 3. Wybór jej alternatyw 4. P orównanie alternatyw i najlepszy ich wybór 5. Podjęcie decyzji dotyczącej strategii 6. Wdrożenie polityki 7. Ocena w celu ustalenia, czy cel został osiągnięty i czy zdefiniowany na początku problem został rozwiązany [Birkland, 2005], [Peters, 2006]. Oczywiście, logiczna struktura oceny wpływu polityki różni się trochę w poszczególnych źródłach. Większość badaczy podkreśla rolę analizy problemu i dokładnego definiowania oceny: ponieważ najczęstszą ujemną stroną w oszacowaniu wpływu jest niemożność zidentyfikowania zdefiniowanego na początku problemu, który ma być rozwiązany w procesie oceny w celu sprawdzenia, czy problem społeczny został rozwiązany z racji osiągnięcia spełnienia. Tak zwana ocena formalna przy pomocy określonych wskaźników osiągnięć sprawdza, czy dążenie został osiągnięte, co w konsekwencji nie zawsze oznacza rozwiązanie problemu. Precyzyjna definicja trudności, która ma być rozwiązana, jak również odpowiednie cele są znaczącym krokiem we wzmacnianiu jakości tworzenia polityki. Mimo że państwowe struktury administracyjne Łotwy stosują stosunkowo szeroką praktykę
Badanie ewaluacyjne jako część systemu oceny wpływu polityki
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Badanie ewaluacyjne jako część systemu oceny wpływu polityki
politologii ocena wpływu polityki jest uważana za jeden z rodzajów analizy, której zasady metodologiczne odpowiadają stadiom procesu polityki lub stadiom procesu podejmowania decyzji. Logika oceny oddziaływania startegii i jej związek ze stadiami procesu politycznego jest opisana przez W. N. Dunn, L Diamond., K. Faulks oraz w innych pracach. Logiczna struktura tego badania stosuje następującą kolejność czynności: 1. Analiza i definicja problemów społecznych, które należy rozwiązać przy pomocy instrumentów polityki 2. Określenie celu polityki 3. Wybór jej alternatyw 4. Porównanie alternatyw i najlepszy ich wybór 5. Podjęcie decyzji dotyczącej strategii 6. Wdrożenie polityki 7. Ocena w celu ustalenia, czy cel został osiągnięty i czy zdefiniowany na początku problem został rozwiązany [Birkland, 2005], [Peters, 2006]. Oczywiście, logiczna struktura oceny wpływu polityki różni się trochę w poszczególnych źródłach. Większość badaczy podkreśla rolę analizy problemu i dokładnego definiowania oceny: ponieważ najczęstszą ujemną stroną w oszacowaniu wpływu jest niemożność zidentyfikowania zdefiniowanego na początku problemu, który ma być rozwiązany w procesie oceny w celu sprawdzenia, czy problem społeczny został rozwiązany z racji osiągnięcia spełnienia. Tak zwana ocena formalna przy pomocy określonych wskaźników osiągnięć sprawdza, czy dążenie został osiągnięte, co w konsekwencji nie zawsze oznacza rozwiązanie problemu. Precyzyjna definicja trudności, która ma być rozwiązana, jak również odpowiednie cele są znaczącym krokiem we wzmacnianiu jakości tworzenia polityki. Mimo że państwowe struktury administracyjne Łotwy stosują stosunkowo szeroką praktykę
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jeśli środowisko programu działa pozytywnie i vice versa. Skuteczny program może również powodować tylko małe zmiany zmiennych, jeśli wpływ środowiska jest negatywny. Rodzaje badań ewaluacyjnych skupiają się zazwyczaj na wartościach i zastosowaniu polityki, ich zadaniem jest nie tylko zbieranie informacji na temat zamierzonych lub niezamierzonych skutków, ich główną misją jest sprawdzenie czy skutek polityki jest skutkiem działań podjętych w celu rozwiązania problemu. Badanie ewaluacyjne zazwyczaj sprawdza czy polityka osiągnęła swój cel.
2. Przygotowanie próbnej oceny (zaangażowanie zainteresowanych stron, określenie głównego celu oceny, sformułowanie głównych pytań badawczych i identyfikacja zasobów) 3. Opracowanie projektu oceny (określenie projektu, wybór metod gromadzenia danych i przygotowanie do tego odpowiednich narzędzi). 4. Zbieranie danych 5. Analiza i interpretacja danych 6. Formatowanie i dystrybucja danych badania ewaluacyjnego [Round, Marshall, Horton, 2005, s. 6] Niektórzy teoretycy uważają, że logika oceny musi być powiązana z logiką tworzenia programu i proponują następujący schemat poziomów oceny: 1. Zdefiniowanie problemu 2. Identyfikacja rozwiązań problemu 3. Testowanie innowacji 4. Demonstracja interwencji 5. Dystrybucja interwencji 6. Zarządzanie programem [Nutbeam, 1998] Specyfika metodologii jest związana z faktem, że punktem wyjścia i punktem odniesienia jest oceniany program. Czasami pojęcie ‘program’ jest używane jako synonim określenia ‘polityka’ oznaczającego strategię, plan działania, taktykę określoną w dokumencie lub postanowieniu (np. polityka kształcenia uniwersyteckiego). Zgodnie z takim rozumieniem pojęć, wspólnym celem programu/polityki jest zmiana wiedzy, nastawień, wartości i zachowania ludzi lub zmiana organizacji, w których pracują, lub instytucji, z którymi są związani, lub społeczności, w których żyją. Wspólną cechą wszystkich programów/polityk jest cel budowy lepszego życia. Jednakże, aby zapewnić właściwą interpretację danych przeprowadzający badanie muszą dobrze rozumieć, czego dotyczy program i jak powinien działać w poszczególnych przypadkach w ramach badawczej oceny [Weiss, 1998]. Specyficzną częścią ewaluacji w takim badaniu jest ocena osiągniętego sukcesu, konsekwencji i wyników programu. Cele programu, w rezultacie jego zamierzone skutki są używane jako miara w oszacowniu wyników programu (sukces, konsekwencje). Zamierzone wpływy mogą istnieć w większym lub mniejszym stopniu. Sukces programu jest określany nie według ustalonych zmian, lecz według korzyści wynikających z rezultatów wdrożenia projektu. Program jest udany, jeśli podjęte kroki wpływają na zmienne celu z wystarczającą intensywnością i w sposób zaplanowany. Nawet w przypadku najbardziej nieskutecznego przedsięwzięcia możliwe są zmiany zmiennych celu w sposób zaplanowany,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
2. Przygotowanie próbnej oceny (zaangażowanie zainteresowanych stron, określenie głównego celu oceny, sformułowanie głównych pytań badawczych i identyfikacja zasobów) 3. Opracowanie projektu oceny (określenie projektu, wybór metod gromadzenia danych i przygotowanie do tego odpowiednich narzędzi). 4. Zbieranie danych 5. Analiza i interpretacja danych 6. Formatowanie i dystrybucja danych badania ewaluacyjnego [Round, Marshall, Horton, 2005, s. 6] Niektórzy teoretycy uważają, że logika oceny musi być powiązana z logiką tworzenia programu i proponują następujący schemat poziomów oceny: 1. Zdefiniowanie problemu 2. Identyfikacja rozwiązań problemu 3. Testowanie innowacji 4. Demonstracja interwencji 5. Dystrybucja interwencji 6. Zarządzanie programem [Nutbeam, 1998] Specyfika metodologii jest związana z faktem, że punktem wyjścia i punktem odniesienia jest oceniany program. Czasami pojęcie ‘program’ jest używane jako synonim określenia ‘polityka’ oznaczającego strategię, plan działania, taktykę określoną w dokumencie lub postanowieniu (np. polityka kształcenia uniwersyteckiego). Zgodnie z takim rozumieniem pojęć, wspólnym celem programu/polityki jest zmiana wiedzy, nastawień, wartości i zachowania ludzi lub zmiana organizacji, w których pracują, lub instytucji, z którymi są związani, lub społeczności, w których żyją. Wspólną cechą wszystkich programów/polityk jest cel budowy lepszego życia. Jednakże, aby zapewnić właściwą interpretację danych przeprowadzający badanie muszą dobrze rozumieć, czego dotyczy program i jak powinien działać w poszczególnych przypadkach w ramach badawczej oceny [Weiss, 1998]. Specyficzną częścią ewaluacji w takim badaniu jest ocena osiągniętego sukcesu, konsekwencji i wyników programu. Cele programu, w rezultacie jego zamierzone skutki są używane jako miara w oszacowniu wyników programu (sukces, konsekwencje). Zamierzone wpływy mogą istnieć w większym lub mniejszym stopniu. Sukces programu jest określany nie według ustalonych zmian, lecz według korzyści wynikających z rezultatów wdrożenia projektu. Program jest udany, jeśli podjęte kroki wpływają na zmienne celu z wystarczającą intensywnością i w sposób zaplanowany. Nawet w przypadku najbardziej nieskutecznego przedsięwzięcia możliwe są zmiany zmiennych celu w sposób zaplanowany,
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
zlecania badań społecznych, uzyskane dane są w nikłym stopniu wykorzystywane w decyzjach; co więcej, czasami opinie i zalecenia przedstawione w badaniach społecznych są krytykowane przez twórców polityki. Istotne jest, aby zintegrować otrzymane dane w dokumentach i decyzjach szczególnie w przypadkach, gdy jest prowadzone badanie ewaluacyjne. Kwestie bardziej skutecznej i właściwej współpracy wśród przeprowadzających badania i twórców polityki, zastosowania odpowiedniejszej metodologii w realizacji badań zleconych przez autorów, tworzeniu polityki i systemu oceny stają się coraz bardziej aktualne. W łotewskim obszarze sociopolitycznym procesy tworzenia taktyki i decyzji politycznych są często poddawane ostrej krytyce i mogą powodować różne formy protestu. Nieumiejętność podejmowania decyzji politycznych, które miałyby na celu skuteczniejsze rozwiązywanie problemów w sektorze gospodarczym, społecznym i kulturalnym powoduje poważne konsekwencje w obecnym kryzysie gospodarczym. Twórcy polityki w różnych sferach zbierają coraz więcej słów krytyki w związku z tym, że państwo nie posiada strategicznych długoterminowych celów i idącej w ślad za nimi strategii, co doprowadziło do nieefektywnego wykorzystywania instrumentów politycznofinansowych w tworzeniu polityki. Jednym ze środków, który promowałby opracowanie konsekwentnej strategii jest stworzenie pojęciowo sprecyzowanego systemu oceny jej wpływu. Tak więc ważne jest, aby stworzyć sytuację, w której omawiany system działałby nie tylko formalnie (ponieważ w wielu miejscach w dokumentach dotyczących planowania możemy znaleźć cele, które są związane z tworzeniem tego systemu na Łotwie, np. wytyczne co do systemu wyników i wskaźników osiągnięć na 2008-2013), lecz także praktycznie (funkcjonowałby również w ramach działania). Deklaracje rządu odnośnie konieczności badań w tworzeniu polityki wydają się niewystarczające: Ministerstwo Edukacji i Nauki wskazuje na konieczność ściślejszego powiązania pomiędzy wnioskami z badań edukacyjnych a inicjatywą nowej strategii, opracowaniem ustaw i przepisów, zmianami w treściach edukacyjnych, opracowaniem zaplecza metodologicznego, organizacji pracy szkolnej i w innych aspektach. Wyniki badań o podłożu naukowym muszą być wykorzystane do oceny wyników inicjatywy polityki edukacyjnej i do celowego kontynuowania osiągania celów określonych przez dokumenty zarówno ustawodawcze, jak i te, które związane są z planowaniem polityki [http://izm.izm. gov.lv/aktualitates/informacija-medijiem/2359. html]. Wzmocnienie systemu oceny wpływu polityki w tworzeniu strategii państwa wymaga
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
od prowadzących analizy społeczne pojęciowo bardziej precyzyjnej świadomości i stosowania metodologicznych zasad badania ewaluacyjnego w praktyce badawczej.
Właściwa definicja celu programu jako jednego z warunków udanej realizacji oceny programu i wpływu: studium przypadku w kontekście łotewskiej polityki kulturalnej
B
ardzo znacząca rola w ocenie wkładu polityki i wdrażaniu badań ewaluacyjnych należy do sfer polityki, w których lepsze rozwiązanie problemu i wybór alternatywy, jeśli chodzi o strategię byłby związany z interesami różnych grup społecznych, ich potrzebami, zyskami i stratami. Odnosi się to również do polityki kulturalnej. Jednym z jej celów, który jest aktualny i znajduje się w dokumentach dotyczących polityki różnego szczebla (Wytyczne państwowej polityki kulturalnej 2006-2015. Państwo narodowe, Koncepcja zachowania niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego) jest zachowanie niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zmiany socjokulturowe stymulowane przez globalizację, tak zwana deterytorializacja kulturowa, tworzą dodatkowe zagrożenia dla zachowania tradycyjnej kultury, a szczególnie niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. W takim wypadku każda społeczność, która rości sobie prawo do określonego dziedzictwa i której celem jest jego promowanie, musi odpowiedzieć na pytanie, co zawiera dziedzictwo i jakie wartości dziedziczone są najważniejsze. Jednym z instrumentów polityki kulturalnej używanych przez Ministerstwo Kultury Republiki Łotwy po to aby osiągnąć wspomniany cel jest stworzenie projektu Kanonu Kultury Łotewskiej. Do tego projektu Ministerstwo zaprosiło komisje eksperckie z 7 dziedzin kultury, które uzgodniły pewną ilość wartości kulturowych w każdym sektorze, które powinny być zawarte w Kanonie Kultury. Twórcy polityki przyznali, że głównym celem tworzenia Kanonu jest sporządzenie listy najwybitniejszych i najbardziej godnych uwagi dzieł sztuki i wartości, które odzwierciedlają najważniejsze osiągnięcia kulturowe Łotwy. Sporządzenie listy najbardziej znaczących wartości ma na celu zwiększenie świadomości dziedzictwa, jej wzbudzanie i promowanie ciągłości. Listy Kanonu Kultury zostały sporządzone na podstawie opinii ekspertów z danej dziedziny. Jednakże, pojęcia wartości kulturalnych społeczeństwa, które byłoby kiedyś spadkobiercą dziedzictwa były nieznane podczas sporządzania listy. Jako że jedną z funkcji Kanonu jest funkcja edukacyjna,
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zlecania badań społecznych, uzyskane dane są w nikłym stopniu wykorzystywane w decyzjach; co więcej, czasami opinie i zalecenia przedstawione w badaniach społecznych są krytykowane przez twórców polityki. Istotne jest, aby zintegrować otrzymane dane w dokumentach i decyzjach szczególnie w przypadkach, gdy jest prowadzone badanie ewaluacyjne. Kwestie bardziej skutecznej i właściwej współpracy wśród przeprowadzających badania i twórców polityki, zastosowania odpowiedniejszej metodologii w realizacji badań zleconych przez autorów, tworzeniu polityki i systemu oceny stają się coraz bardziej aktualne. W łotewskim obszarze sociopolitycznym procesy tworzenia taktyki i decyzji politycznych są często poddawane ostrej krytyce i mogą powodować różne formy protestu. Nieumiejętność podejmowania decyzji politycznych, które miałyby na celu skuteczniejsze rozwiązywanie problemów w sektorze gospodarczym, społecznym i kulturalnym powoduje poważne konsekwencje w obecnym kryzysie gospodarczym. Twórcy polityki w różnych sferach zbierają coraz więcej słów krytyki w związku z tym, że państwo nie posiada strategicznych długoterminowych celów i idącej w ślad za nimi strategii, co doprowadziło do nieefektywnego wykorzystywania instrumentów politycznofinansowych w tworzeniu polityki. Jednym ze środków, który promowałby opracowanie konsekwentnej strategii jest stworzenie pojęciowo sprecyzowanego systemu oceny jej wpływu. Tak więc ważne jest, aby stworzyć sytuację, w której omawiany system działałby nie tylko formalnie (ponieważ w wielu miejscach w dokumentach dotyczących planowania możemy znaleźć cele, które są związane z tworzeniem tego systemu na Łotwie, np. wytyczne co do systemu wyników i wskaźników osiągnięć na 2008-2013), lecz także praktycznie (funkcjonowałby również w ramach działania). Deklaracje rządu odnośnie konieczności badań w tworzeniu polityki wydają się niewystarczające: Ministerstwo Edukacji i Nauki wskazuje na konieczność ściślejszego powiązania pomiędzy wnioskami z badań edukacyjnych a inicjatywą nowej strategii, opracowaniem ustaw i przepisów, zmianami w treściach edukacyjnych, opracowaniem zaplecza metodologicznego, organizacji pracy szkolnej i w innych aspektach. Wyniki badań o podłożu naukowym muszą być wykorzystane do oceny wyników inicjatywy polityki edukacyjnej i do celowego kontynuowania osiągania celów określonych przez dokumenty zarówno ustawodawcze, jak i te, które związane są z planowaniem polityki [http://izm.izm. gov.lv/aktualitates/informacija-medijiem/2359. html]. Wzmocnienie systemu oceny wpływu polityki w tworzeniu strategii państwa wymaga
ardzo znacząca rola w ocenie wkładu polityki i wdrażaniu badań ewaluacyjnych należy do sfer polityki, w których lepsze rozwiązanie problemu i wybór alternatywy, jeśli chodzi o strategię byłby związany z interesami różnych grup społecznych, ich potrzebami, zyskami i stratami. Odnosi się to również do polityki kulturalnej. Jednym z jej celów, który jest aktualny i znajduje się w dokumentach dotyczących polityki różnego szczebla (Wytyczne państwowej polityki kulturalnej 2006-2015. Państwo narodowe, Koncepcja zachowania niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego) jest zachowanie niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. Zmiany socjokulturowe stymulowane przez globalizację, tak zwana deterytorializacja kulturowa, tworzą dodatkowe zagrożenia dla zachowania tradycyjnej kultury, a szczególnie niematerialnego dziedzictwa kulturowego. W takim wypadku każda społeczność, która rości sobie prawo do określonego dziedzictwa i której celem jest jego promowanie, musi odpowiedzieć na pytanie, co zawiera dziedzictwo i jakie wartości dziedziczone są najważniejsze. Jednym z instrumentów polityki kulturalnej używanych przez Ministerstwo Kultury Republiki Łotwy po to aby osiągnąć wspomniany cel jest stworzenie projektu Kanonu Kultury Łotewskiej. Do tego projektu Ministerstwo zaprosiło komisje eksperckie z 7 dziedzin kultury, które uzgodniły pewną ilość wartości kulturowych w każdym sektorze, które powinny być zawarte w Kanonie Kultury. Twórcy polityki przyznali, że głównym celem tworzenia Kanonu jest sporządzenie listy najwybitniejszych i najbardziej godnych uwagi dzieł sztuki i wartości, które odzwierciedlają najważniejsze osiągnięcia kulturowe Łotwy. Sporządzenie listy najbardziej znaczących wartości ma na celu zwiększenie świadomości dziedzictwa, jej wzbudzanie i promowanie ciągłości. Listy Kanonu Kultury zostały sporządzone na podstawie opinii ekspertów z danej dziedziny. Jednakże, pojęcia wartości kulturalnych społeczeństwa, które byłoby kiedyś spadkobiercą dziedzictwa były nieznane podczas sporządzania listy. Jako że jedną z funkcji Kanonu jest funkcja edukacyjna,
B
Właściwa definicja celu programu jako jednego z warunków udanej realizacji oceny programu i wpływu: studium przypadku w kontekście łotewskiej polityki kulturalnej od prowadzących analizy społeczne pojęciowo bardziej precyzyjnej świadomości i stosowania metodologicznych zasad badania ewaluacyjnego w praktyce badawczej.
254
Wnioski
Na Łotwie realizacja metodologicznych zasad badania oceniającego w tworzeniu polityki i ewaluacji jest nieokreślona i zróżnicowana; badania ewaluacyjne nie spełniają jednej z jego funkcji – funkcji komunikatywne.j Udana realizacja metodologicznych zasad badania ewaluacyjnego na Łotwie zależy od specyfiki systemu oceny wpływu polityki w administracji państwowej i od tradycji dotyczących projektowania badania. Istotną rolę w realizacji ewaluacji polityki stanowi dokładne opracowanie celów programu. Skuteczność projektu Kanonu Kultury (między innymi możliwości dokonania jego oceny w przyszłości) wzrosłaby poprzez ustalenie głównych funkcji i celów Kanonu Kultury.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
niejednoznaczna konceptualizacja zadania programu uniemożliwia poprawne przeprowadzenie retrospektywnej oceny. Projekt Kanonu nie jest jedynym przykładem w polityce kulturalnej Łotwy, gdzie program polityki ma niejasno określony cel i problem, który ma być rozwiązany poprzez projekt. Innym przykładem jest budowa Biblioteki Narodowej Łotwy/Zamek Światła. Mimo ogromnych kosztów projektu: 135,2 mln łatów, w tym VAT, głównie manipulacyjna, a nie racjonalna i jasna argumentacja była używana dla poparcia przedsięwzięcia. Brak precyzji na etapie planowania programu polityki kulturalnej: analiza problemu (która ukazuje wartości) i określenie celów zmniejsza zakres racjonalizmu w procesie tworzenia polityki i znacznie ogranicza możliwości jej oceny i udoskonalenia. Konceptualnie i komunikatywnie jasno określone problemy, które wymagają uprzedniego rozwiązania i logicznie odpowiednich celów zracjonalizowałyby komunikację polityczną i zmniejszyłyby element manipulacyjny w niej. Byłby to jeden z kroków w celu pokonania alienacji pomiędzy rządem a społeczeństwem cywilnym, co jest szczególnie niebezpieczne przy rozpoczynającym się kryzysie gospodarczym.
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
MM
Wnioski
Na Łotwie realizacja metodologicznych zasad badania oceniającego w tworzeniu polityki i ewaluacji jest nieokreślona i zróżnicowana; badania ewaluacyjne nie spełniają jednej z jego funkcji – funkcji komunikatywne.j Udana realizacja metodologicznych zasad badania ewaluacyjnego na Łotwie zależy od specyfiki systemu oceny wpływu polityki w administracji państwowej i od tradycji dotyczących projektowania badania. Istotną rolę w realizacji ewaluacji polityki stanowi dokładne opracowanie celów programu. Skuteczność projektu Kanonu Kultury (między innymi możliwości dokonania jego oceny w przyszłości) wzrosłaby poprzez ustalenie głównych funkcji i celów Kanonu Kultury.
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niejednoznaczna konceptualizacja zadania programu uniemożliwia poprawne przeprowadzenie retrospektywnej oceny. Projekt Kanonu nie jest jedynym przykładem w polityce kulturalnej Łotwy, gdzie program polityki ma niejasno określony cel i problem, który ma być rozwiązany poprzez projekt. Innym przykładem jest budowa Biblioteki Narodowej Łotwy/Zamek Światła. Mimo ogromnych kosztów projektu: 135,2 mln łatów, w tym VAT, głównie manipulacyjna, a nie racjonalna i jasna argumentacja była używana dla poparcia przedsięwzięcia. Brak precyzji na etapie planowania programu polityki kulturalnej: analiza problemu (która ukazuje wartości) i określenie celów zmniejsza zakres racjonalizmu w procesie tworzenia polityki i znacznie ogranicza możliwości jej oceny i udoskonalenia. Konceptualnie i komunikatywnie jasno określone problemy, które wymagają uprzedniego rozwiązania i logicznie odpowiednich celów zracjonalizowałyby komunikację polityczną i zmniejszyłyby element manipulacyjny w niej. Byłby to jeden z kroków w celu pokonania alienacji pomiędzy rządem a społeczeństwem cywilnym, co jest szczególnie niebezpieczne przy rozpoczynającym się kryzysie gospodarczym.
tzn. popularyzacja w obrębie środowiska wielokulturowego świadomości narodowych wartości kulturalnych Łotwy i dziedzictwa, stosunek szkół łotewskich i uczącej się młodzieży do osiągnięć Łotwy, ich wiedza o nich stały się zagadnieniem aktualnym. Podczas sporządzania listy Kanonu Kultury zostało przeprowadzone badanie mające na celu ustalenie, jakie jest pojęcie młodzieży łotewskiej o najistotniejszych wartościach kulturalnych i jaka jest opinia tej grupy na temat wartości podanych przez ekspertów każdej dziedziniy. Projekt badania był oparty na metodologii mieszanej. Sposoby badania, ilościowa metoda badania, ankieta. Grupa badawcza – uczniowie łotewscy, planowana zbiorowość próbna – 600 respondentów, całkowita zbiorowość próbna – 685 respondentów. Jakościowa metoda badania: dyskusja grupowa, grupa: młodzież łotewska w wieku 18-25 lat, wybrana według kryterium: różne zainteresowania kulturalne; 10 grup. Wyniki badań w gronie młodzieży łotewskiej wykazały niską świadomość zespołów treści, które okazały się być zawarte przez ekspertów w Kanonie Kultury na listach wartości. Ponadto, wiedza młodzieży różni się co do określonych wartości wymienionych przez ekspertów z różnych dziedzin. Te, które młodzież znała najlepiej odnoszą się do łotewskich tradycji, zwyczajów i literatury; najsłabsza wiedza dotyczyła sztuk wizualnych; młodzież posiadała niewiele informacji z dziedziny filmu i teatru. Uzyskane dane pozwalają na dostrzeżenie innego problemu związanego z tworzeniem Kanonu: mając różne zainteresowania kulturalne łotewska młodzież odnosiła się sceptycznie do konieczności stworzenia Kanonu Kultury, a jednym z motywów przeważających w tej argumentacji był brak zrozumienia celu jego tworzenia. Produkt polityki oceniany przez grupę badawczą w ten sposób może znacznie skomplikować możliwości oszacowania wkładu polityki w przyszłości, jeśli przedmiotem ewaluacji będzie Kanon Kultury jako instrument zachowania dziedzictwa kulturowego. W sferze publicznej i dokumentacji tego projektu kilka motywów utworzenia Kanonu i jego funkcji zostało uaktualnionych. Jednakże zgodna, uporządkowana koncepcja celu projektu i jego konieczności nie została stworzona. Taka
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
tzn. popularyzacja w obrębie środowiska wielokulturowego świadomości narodowych wartości kulturalnych Łotwy i dziedzictwa, stosunek szkół łotewskich i uczącej się młodzieży do osiągnięć Łotwy, ich wiedza o nich stały się zagadnieniem aktualnym. Podczas sporządzania listy Kanonu Kultury zostało przeprowadzone badanie mające na celu ustalenie, jakie jest pojęcie młodzieży łotewskiej o najistotniejszych wartościach kulturalnych i jaka jest opinia tej grupy na temat wartości podanych przez ekspertów każdej dziedziniy. Projekt badania był oparty na metodologii mieszanej. Sposoby badania, ilościowa metoda badania, ankieta. Grupa badawcza – uczniowie łotewscy, planowana zbiorowość próbna – 600 respondentów, całkowita zbiorowość próbna – 685 respondentów. Jakościowa metoda badania: dyskusja grupowa, grupa: młodzież łotewska w wieku 18-25 lat, wybrana według kryterium: różne zainteresowania kulturalne; 10 grup. Wyniki badań w gronie młodzieży łotewskiej wykazały niską świadomość zespołów treści, które okazały się być zawarte przez ekspertów w Kanonie Kultury na listach wartości. Ponadto, wiedza młodzieży różni się co do określonych wartości wymienionych przez ekspertów z różnych dziedzin. Te, które młodzież znała najlepiej odnoszą się do łotewskich tradycji, zwyczajów i literatury; najsłabsza wiedza dotyczyła sztuk wizualnych; młodzież posiadała niewiele informacji z dziedziny filmu i teatru. Uzyskane dane pozwalają na dostrzeżenie innego problemu związanego z tworzeniem Kanonu: mając różne zainteresowania kulturalne łotewska młodzież odnosiła się sceptycznie do konieczności stworzenia Kanonu Kultury, a jednym z motywów przeważających w tej argumentacji był brak zrozumienia celu jego tworzenia. Produkt polityki oceniany przez grupę badawczą w ten sposób może znacznie skomplikować możliwości oszacowania wkładu polityki w przyszłości, jeśli przedmiotem ewaluacji będzie Kanon Kultury jako instrument zachowania dziedzictwa kulturowego. W sferze publicznej i dokumentacji tego projektu kilka motywów utworzenia Kanonu i jego funkcji zostało uaktualnionych. Jednakże zgodna, uporządkowana koncepcja celu projektu i jego konieczności nie została stworzona. Taka
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Literatura Hoks Dz., Ilgtspejigas attistibas 4. Pilars. Kulturas nozime valsts attistibas planosana, Culturelab, 2007. Ijabs, I., Argumentcija un manipulacija politiskaja komunikacija: diskursa teorijas perspektiva. Politiska komunikacija, ētika un kultura. Latvijas Republikas 9. Saeimas vēlēsanas, Latvijas Universitate, 2007.
Oxford Dictionary of Sociology., red. G. Marshall, Oxford, New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994. Rossi, P. H., Freeman, H. F., Lipsey M. W., Evaluation. A Systematic Approach Thouthand Oaks, 1999. Round, R., Marshall, B., Horton, K., Planning for effective health promotion evaluation, Melbourne: Victorian
Nutbeam, D., Evaluating health promotion – progress,
Government Department of Human Services, 2005.
problems and solutions. Health promotion interna-
Weiss, C. H., Evaluation, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
tional, Oxford University Press, 1998.
River, 1998.
tional, Oxford University Press, 1998.
River, 1998. Weiss, C. H., Evaluation, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
problems and solutions. Health promotion interna-
Government Department of Human Services, 2005.
Nutbeam, D., Evaluating health promotion – progress,
health promotion evaluation, Melbourne: Victorian
Saeimas vēlēsanas, Latvijas Universitate, 2007. komunikacija, ētika un kultura. Latvijas Republikas 9. munikacija: diskursa teorijas perspektiva. Politiska Ijabs, I., Argumentcija un manipulacija politiskaja kovalsts attistibas planosana, Culturelab, 2007. Hoks Dz., Ilgtspejigas attistibas 4. Pilars. Kulturas nozime
Literatura Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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Round, R., Marshall, B., Horton, K., Planning for effective A Systematic Approach Thouthand Oaks, 1999. Rossi, P. H., Freeman, H. F., Lipsey M. W., Evaluation. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994. Oxford Dictionary of Sociology., red. G. Marshall, Oxford,
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Florida Richard, The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, New York, 2002. Nie jest oczywiste, że środowiska miejskie są siedliskiem kultury w perspektywie: dawniej takimi siedliskami mogły być naród, imperium, kościół, itp. Miasto jako produkt nowoczesności zyskało szczególną wagę. Jest to bardzo „zachodnie” podejście, ponieważ wiele mega-miast w krajach rozwijających się odbiega daleko od cech, które kojarzymy z miastem i środowiskiem miejskim. Jednak ta cecha miasta jest tym, co kojarzymy z kulturą w naszym kontekście.
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
1
budzi wątpliwości; lecz to, co dokładnie podlega zarządzaniu w obrębie tego segmentu kultury zależy w dużym stopniu od różnych koncepcji gospodarowania i od środowiska społecznego. Zarządzanie kulturą jako dyscyplina akademicka jest od dwudziestu lat kierunkiem umożliwiającym zdobycie stopnia naukowego w niemieckim szkolnictwie wyższym. Jest to wyraźny efekt oraz warunek specjalizacji zróżnicowanego pola działalności zawodowej. Istotnie, ścisła zależność pomiędzy teorią a praktyką jest niezbędnym elementem profesjonalizacji dziedziny kultury w społeczeństwie. Przez długi czas kultura była ideologicznie postrzegana jako przeciwieństwo pracy zawodowej i wciąż w konserwatywnym podejściu znajduje oponentów merkantylizacji „całej” kultury. Zarządzanie kulturą rozwija się na dwóch poziomach, jako dyscyplina akademicka i jako segment działalności menadżerskiej [Klein, 2008]. Ze względu na współzależność pomiędzy tymi dwoma poziomami zarządzanie kulturą jako dyscyplina plasuje się pomiędzy nauką społeczną, ekonomią i sztuką. Tak więc jest ono z natury interdyscyplinarne; obejmuje szerokie spektrum działań odnoszących się do zarządzania organizacjami i działaniami kulturalnymi, zorientowanych na osiągnięcie różnorodnych celów, takich jak produkcja, dystrybucja, wystawiennictwo, edukacja. Dotyczy to wszystkich sektorów, profit, non-profit i publicznych. Filantropia, działalność charytatywna i kulturalne przedsięwzięcia korporacyjne są polami, na których zachodzą zmiany. Pola te zapożyczają metody, sposób działania, a nawet motywy, od innych pól w zależności od zaistniałych potrzeb wynikających z utylitarnych
D
yskusje na temat związku między kulturą a biznesem istniały od zawsze; ale przez ostatnie kilkadziesiąt lat nabrały impetu. Od momentu pojawienia się książki Richarda Florida Powstanie klasy twórczej (Rise of the Creative Class, 2002) miasto stało się centrum zainteresowania za każdym razem, gdy omawia się rozwój kulturalny i funkcje społeczne kultury.1 Według Richarda Floridy istnieją trzy czynniki warunkujące rozwój w gospodarce postindustrialnej tych miast: technologia, talent, i tolerancja. Te elementy są zespolone w nowej konfiguracji siły roboczej, którą Florida nazywa „klasą twórczą”. Są to naukowcy, inżynierowie, architekci, nauczyciele, pisarze, artyści, przedstawiciele świata rozrywki, których rolą jest generowanie nowych pomysłów, technologii i treści twórczych. Główną tezą Floridy jest to, że gospodarka się zmienia i że kreatywność jest najważniejszą siłą produkcji i źródłem rozwoju w XXI wieku. Zawody twórcze mnożą się obecnie, a firmy są nastawione na przyciąganie osób twórczych. Miejskim przesłaniem książki Floridy jest to, że celem miast, które chcą osiągnąć sukces, musi być przyciąganie osób twórczych. Florida, jak również inni autorzy formułują założenia popierające strategię Zarządzania Kulturą jako kluczowego zagadnienia we współzawodnictwie pomiędzy ośrodkami miejskimi, to znaczy miastami (nie odnosi się to do aglomeracji bez minimum zasobów miejskich). Debata toczy się zarówno na poziomie praktycznym, jak i teoretycznym. Jednakże nie mamy powszechnie zaakceptowanej definicji zarządzania kulturą. Nie jest moim zamiarem omawianie „kultury”, ponieważ zakres działań kulturalnych w miastach nie
budzi wątpliwości; lecz to, co dokładnie podlega zarządzaniu w obrębie tego segmentu kultury zależy w dużym stopniu od różnych koncepcji gospodarowania i od środowiska społecznego. Zarządzanie kulturą jako dyscyplina akademicka jest od dwudziestu lat kierunkiem umożliwiającym zdobycie stopnia naukowego w niemieckim szkolnictwie wyższym. Jest to wyraźny efekt oraz warunek specjalizacji zróżnicowanego pola działalności zawodowej. Istotnie, ścisła zależność pomiędzy teorią a praktyką jest niezbędnym elementem profesjonalizacji dziedziny kultury w społeczeństwie. Przez długi czas kultura była ideologicznie postrzegana jako przeciwieństwo pracy zawodowej i wciąż w konserwatywnym podejściu znajduje oponentów merkantylizacji „całej” kultury. Zarządzanie kulturą rozwija się na dwóch poziomach, jako dyscyplina akademicka i jako segment działalności menadżerskiej [Klein, 2008]. Ze względu na współzależność pomiędzy tymi dwoma poziomami zarządzanie kulturą jako dyscyplina plasuje się pomiędzy nauką społeczną, ekonomią i sztuką. Tak więc jest ono z natury interdyscyplinarne; obejmuje szerokie spektrum działań odnoszących się do zarządzania organizacjami i działaniami kulturalnymi, zorientowanych na osiągnięcie różnorodnych celów, takich jak produkcja, dystrybucja, wystawiennictwo, edukacja. Dotyczy to wszystkich sektorów, profit, non-profit i publicznych. Filantropia, działalność charytatywna i kulturalne przedsięwzięcia korporacyjne są polami, na których zachodzą zmiany. Pola te zapożyczają metody, sposób działania, a nawet motywy, od innych pól w zależności od zaistniałych potrzeb wynikających z utylitarnych
D
yskusje na temat związku między kulturą a biznesem istniały od zawsze; ale przez ostatnie kilkadziesiąt lat nabrały impetu. Od momentu pojawienia się książki Richarda Florida Powstanie klasy twórczej (Rise of the Creative Class, 2002) miasto stało się centrum zainteresowania za każdym razem, gdy omawia się rozwój kulturalny i funkcje społeczne kultury.1 Według Richarda Floridy istnieją trzy czynniki warunkujące rozwój w gospodarce postindustrialnej tych miast: technologia, talent, i tolerancja. Te elementy są zespolone w nowej konfiguracji siły roboczej, którą Florida nazywa „klasą twórczą”. Są to naukowcy, inżynierowie, architekci, nauczyciele, pisarze, artyści, przedstawiciele świata rozrywki, których rolą jest generowanie nowych pomysłów, technologii i treści twórczych. Główną tezą Floridy jest to, że gospodarka się zmienia i że kreatywność jest najważniejszą siłą produkcji i źródłem rozwoju w XXI wieku. Zawody twórcze mnożą się obecnie, a firmy są nastawione na przyciąganie osób twórczych. Miejskim przesłaniem książki Floridy jest to, że celem miast, które chcą osiągnąć sukces, musi być przyciąganie osób twórczych. Florida, jak również inni autorzy formułują założenia popierające strategię Zarządzania Kulturą jako kluczowego zagadnienia we współzawodnictwie pomiędzy ośrodkami miejskimi, to znaczy miastami (nie odnosi się to do aglomeracji bez minimum zasobów miejskich). Debata toczy się zarówno na poziomie praktycznym, jak i teoretycznym. Jednakże nie mamy powszechnie zaakceptowanej definicji zarządzania kulturą. Nie jest moim zamiarem omawianie „kultury”, ponieważ zakres działań kulturalnych w miastach nie
Birgit Katharine Seemann historyk, dyrektor Departamentu Kultury i Muzeów w Poczdamie. Doktorat uzyskała na Uniwersytecie w Hamburgu. Jest ostatnie badania obejmują obszar zarządzania kulturą oraz historię europejskich polityk kulturalnych.
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Birgit Katharine Seemann historyk, dyrektor Departamentu Kultury i Muzeów w Poczdamie. Doktorat uzyskała na Uniwersytecie w Hamburgu. Jest ostatnie badania obejmują obszar zarządzania kulturą oraz historię europejskich polityk kulturalnych.
Florida Richard, The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, New York, 2002. Nie jest oczywiste, że środowiska miejskie są siedliskiem kultury w perspektywie: dawniej takimi siedliskami mogły być naród, imperium, kościół, itp. Miasto jako produkt nowoczesności zyskało szczególną wagę. Jest to bardzo „zachodnie” podejście, ponieważ wiele mega-miast w krajach rozwijających się odbiega daleko od cech, które kojarzymy z miastem i środowiskiem miejskim. Jednak ta cecha miasta jest tym, co kojarzymy z kulturą w naszym kontekście.
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
1. Wzmocnić wewnętrzne procesy spójnej identyfikacji 2. U zyskać przewagę we współzawodnictwie z innymi miastami 3. Stworzyć lepszy wizerunek na wszystkich poziomach – regionalnym, narodowym, międzynarodowym, np. jako Stolica Kulturalna przez wdrożenie efektywnego zarządzania kulturą w strukturze gospodarowania. Na poziomie międzynarodowym proces ten okazał się być idealnym podejściem w celu zmaksymalizowania ekonomicznej wartości kultury. Jednakże dosyć często dotowanie wydarzeń proponowanych przez zarządzanie kulturą jest bardziej kosztowne dla podatników niż przynoszące korzyści dla społeczeństwa, a zyski odnoszą jedynie menadżerowie i agenci. Ekonomiczne zawężenie kultury do roli czynnika zysków lokalnych i wsparcia dla biznesu czyni z niej narzędzie kształtowania zewnętrznego wizerunku w międzynarodowym współzawodnictwie miast; stwarza to automatycznie poważny problem wewnętrznej pozycji, ponieważ reprezentacja (miasta) na zewnątrz nie oznacza już korzyści dla społeczeństwa miejskiego. Nic więc dziwnego, że w wielu miastach obserwuje się sprzeciw wobec tego trendu, często powiązany z krytyką gentryfikacji. Imponującym przykładem tego ruchu protestującego było okupowanie przez artystów tak zwanej dzielnicy „Gaenge” w Hamburgu w lecie 2009 [http://www.nzz.ch] Powodem tego poruszenia był zamiar sprzedaży przez władze miejskie tego terenu inwestorowi, który planował zastąpić stare budynki i ich otoczenie nową zabudową. Inicjatywa artystów była tak silnie popierana przez społeczność Hamburga, że władze miejskie musiały wycofać się ze swojego zamiaru. Obecnie teren ten będzie odnawiany i zostanie przeznaczony na działalność socjalno-kulturalną; będzie to również niedroga przestrzeń do mieszkania i pracy [http://das-gaengeviertel.info]. Krytyka wyrażona przez artystów była jednocześnie protestem przeciwko narastającej merkantylizacji kultury. W manifeście (Hamburger Manifest) czytamy: „Odkąd amerykański ekonomista Richard Florida przedstawił swoje poglądy, w Europie pojawia się złudne przekonanie, że tylko te miasta będą istnieć, w których chce przebywać klasa twórcza... Dla Hamburga oznacza to, że nasze miasto coraz bardziej podporządkowuje się „miastu wizerunkowemu” [http://gentrificationblog.wordpress.com]. Biorąc pod uwagę strukturę miast wewnętrznych, wielu mieszkańców jest coraz bardziej niezadowolonych z faktu, że ich kultura jest redukowana do wydarzeń turystycznych i wielkich projektów. Odnosi się to nie tylko do Europy, ale również do
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
1. Wzmocnić wewnętrzne procesy spójnej identyfikacji 2. U zyskać przewagę we współzawodnictwie z innymi miastami 3. Stworzyć lepszy wizerunek na wszystkich poziomach – regionalnym, narodowym, międzynarodowym, np. jako Stolica Kulturalna przez wdrożenie efektywnego zarządzania kulturą w strukturze gospodarowania. Na poziomie międzynarodowym proces ten okazał się być idealnym podejściem w celu zmaksymalizowania ekonomicznej wartości kultury. Jednakże dosyć często dotowanie wydarzeń proponowanych przez zarządzanie kulturą jest bardziej kosztowne dla podatników niż przynoszące korzyści dla społeczeństwa, a zyski odnoszą jedynie menadżerowie i agenci. Ekonomiczne zawężenie kultury do roli czynnika zysków lokalnych i wsparcia dla biznesu czyni z niej narzędzie kształtowania zewnętrznego wizerunku w międzynarodowym współzawodnictwie miast; stwarza to automatycznie poważny problem wewnętrznej pozycji, ponieważ reprezentacja (miasta) na zewnątrz nie oznacza już korzyści dla społeczeństwa miejskiego. Nic więc dziwnego, że w wielu miastach obserwuje się sprzeciw wobec tego trendu, często powiązany z krytyką gentryfikacji. Imponującym przykładem tego ruchu protestującego było okupowanie przez artystów tak zwanej dzielnicy „Gaenge” w Hamburgu w lecie 2009 [http://www.nzz.ch] Powodem tego poruszenia był zamiar sprzedaży przez władze miejskie tego terenu inwestorowi, który planował zastąpić stare budynki i ich otoczenie nową zabudową. Inicjatywa artystów była tak silnie popierana przez społeczność Hamburga, że władze miejskie musiały wycofać się ze swojego zamiaru. Obecnie teren ten będzie odnawiany i zostanie przeznaczony na działalność socjalno-kulturalną; będzie to również niedroga przestrzeń do mieszkania i pracy [http://das-gaengeviertel.info]. Krytyka wyrażona przez artystów była jednocześnie protestem przeciwko narastającej merkantylizacji kultury. W manifeście (Hamburger Manifest) czytamy: „Odkąd amerykański ekonomista Richard Florida przedstawił swoje poglądy, w Europie pojawia się złudne przekonanie, że tylko te miasta będą istnieć, w których chce przebywać klasa twórcza... Dla Hamburga oznacza to, że nasze miasto coraz bardziej podporządkowuje się „miastu wizerunkowemu” [http://gentrificationblog.wordpress.com]. Biorąc pod uwagę strukturę miast wewnętrznych, wielu mieszkańców jest coraz bardziej niezadowolonych z faktu, że ich kultura jest redukowana do wydarzeń turystycznych i wielkich projektów. Odnosi się to nie tylko do Europy, ale również do
Birgit-Katherine Seemann
przesłanek efektywności i sukcesu [Deveraux, 2009, s. 155]. Czasami również sprzeciwiają się one podejściu utylitarnemu. Zarządzanie kulturą traktowane jako rama przez władze miejskie może wnieść znaczący wkład w rozwój polityki miejskiej. Peter Bendixen poszerza definicję zarządzanie kulturą również w odniesieniu do Internetu: „Zarządzanie kulturą oznacza przygotowanie fizycznego, kognitywnego i estetycznego dostępu publiki (do kultury, B.S.). Jest to forma kształtowania środowisk społecznych, tzn. fizycznego otoczenia w miejscach działania i ich lokalnego środowiska, ale również w środowiskach społecznych, sceneriach, sieciach, atmosferach; ostatnio w środowiskach wirtualnych elektronicznej publiki Internetu.” [Bendixen , 2007, s. 4] Florida zawęża wartość kultury dla miasta tylko do wymiaru ekonomicznego. Jeśli zarządzanie kulturą ma być zgodne z tym podejściem, to musi służyć tworzeniu i stymulowaniu kultury jako czynnika wzmacniającego miejsce i intensyfikującego jego potencjał biznesowy; scenerię tworzą tak zwane przemysły twórcze (creative industries). Bliższe spojrzenie ujawnia, że podejście Floridy jest zbyt powierzchowne; nie jest ono funkcjonalne dla strategii miejskiej na dłuższą metę. Jednakże tymczasowo można osiągnąć pozytywne skutki poprzez skoncentrowanie się na prestiżowych projektach kulturalnych. Prestiż jest z natury przypisany do efektu, na przykład duża wystawa albo mega-koncert przyciągają więcej turystów. Tak więc funkcje brandingu, marketingu i public relations dominują nad treścią, ich kontury są rozmyte, a kontekst kulturalny jedynie wyznacza cele ekonomiczne. Z powodu wzrastającego współzawodnictwa między miastami, kultura jest używana jako narzędzie (między innymi) globalnego pozycjonowania, jako wezwanie skierowane do firm, handlu i zamożnych nowych mieszkańców. Tak więc kultura jest coraz bardziej legitymizowana przez inne cele; jest ona ekonomicznym stymulatorem, narzędziem poprawiającym wizerunek miasta lub atrakcją dla turystów. Wszystkie te cele nie są bezprawne same w sobie; w tym procesie istnieje odwrotna relacja pomiędzy celem a środkami: kultura jest pozbawiona swojej oryginalnej wartości i kontekstu społecznego. Wiele miast niemieckich opiera się na zarządzaniu kulturą zapoczątkowanym i prowadzonym przez samą administrację miejską, zazwyczaj jako wypadkowa działań wydziałów kultury i marketingu. Niektóre miasta w Niemczech, takie jak Berlin, stolica państwa, budują specjalne biura poza administracją, które są przypisane tylko do zarządzania kulturą miejską. Według Floridy i innych miasta obecnie powinny:
Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska
przesłanek efektywności i sukcesu [Deveraux, 2009, s. 155]. Czasami również sprzeciwiają się one podejściu utylitarnemu. Zarządzanie kulturą traktowane jako rama przez władze miejskie może wnieść znaczący wkład w rozwój polityki miejskiej. Peter Bendixen poszerza definicję zarządzanie kulturą również w odniesieniu do Internetu: „Zarządzanie kulturą oznacza przygotowanie fizycznego, kognitywnego i estetycznego dostępu publiki (do kultury, B.S.). Jest to forma kształtowania środowisk społecznych, tzn. fizycznego otoczenia w miejscach działania i ich lokalnego środowiska, ale również w środowiskach społecznych, sceneriach, sieciach, atmosferach; ostatnio w środowiskach wirtualnych elektronicznej publiki Internetu.” [Bendixen , 2007, s. 4] Florida zawęża wartość kultury dla miasta tylko do wymiaru ekonomicznego. Jeśli zarządzanie kulturą ma być zgodne z tym podejściem, to musi służyć tworzeniu i stymulowaniu kultury jako czynnika wzmacniającego miejsce i intensyfikującego jego potencjał biznesowy; scenerię tworzą tak zwane przemysły twórcze (creative industries). Bliższe spojrzenie ujawnia, że podejście Floridy jest zbyt powierzchowne; nie jest ono funkcjonalne dla strategii miejskiej na dłuższą metę. Jednakże tymczasowo można osiągnąć pozytywne skutki poprzez skoncentrowanie się na prestiżowych projektach kulturalnych. Prestiż jest z natury przypisany do efektu, na przykład duża wystawa albo mega-koncert przyciągają więcej turystów. Tak więc funkcje brandingu, marketingu i public relations dominują nad treścią, ich kontury są rozmyte, a kontekst kulturalny jedynie wyznacza cele ekonomiczne. Z powodu wzrastającego współzawodnictwa między miastami, kultura jest używana jako narzędzie (między innymi) globalnego pozycjonowania, jako wezwanie skierowane do firm, handlu i zamożnych nowych mieszkańców. Tak więc kultura jest coraz bardziej legitymizowana przez inne cele; jest ona ekonomicznym stymulatorem, narzędziem poprawiającym wizerunek miasta lub atrakcją dla turystów. Wszystkie te cele nie są bezprawne same w sobie; w tym procesie istnieje odwrotna relacja pomiędzy celem a środkami: kultura jest pozbawiona swojej oryginalnej wartości i kontekstu społecznego. Wiele miast niemieckich opiera się na zarządzaniu kulturą zapoczątkowanym i prowadzonym przez samą administrację miejską, zazwyczaj jako wypadkowa działań wydziałów kultury i marketingu. Niektóre miasta w Niemczech, takie jak Berlin, stolica państwa, budują specjalne biura poza administracją, które są przypisane tylko do zarządzania kulturą miejską. Według Floridy i innych miasta obecnie powinny:
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zapewnienie jakości i kontrola będą potrzebne w celu zapewnienia obywateli, że ich podatki są dobrze wykorzystywane; z drugiej strony zarządzanie kulturą powinno koordynować i służyć polepszeniu jakości poprzez włączenie obywateli w szeroką debatę i struktury partycypacyjne. Niełatwym celem jest łączenie instrumentów marketingowych i złożonych sposobów podejmowania decyzji na zasadach partycypacji w sprawach kultury, szczególnie na poziomie miejskim. Należy zadbać o utrzymanie zaangażowania obywateli i skoncentrować je na poszczególnych problemach [Wagner, s. 111]. Takie podejście nie marginalizuje zarządzania biznesowego i nowoczesnego marketingu, lecz jest ich częścią i jest z nimi zintegrowane, ponieważ zarządzanie kulturą nie może być oddzielone od „treści” kulturalnych i nie może być nadużywane w celu sprowadzenia kultury do funkcji towaru. Jednakże musimy również dostrzegać sprawę kosztów i wydatków na strategie miejskie, które mają na celu służenie wszystkim obywatelom w sferze kulturalnej. Zarządzanie kulturą powinno również być osią dla generowania dochodu – w przeciwnym razie kultura zawsze będzie pierwszym sektorem, którego dotkną cięcia. Nie ulega wątpliwości, że potrzeba uzasadnienia istnienia programów kulturalnych będzie podkreślana bardziej niż w przeszłości, gdy wyłącznie administracja decydowała o kontynuowaniu lub zniesieniu instytucji czy o zakończeniu projektu. Przy takiej różnorodności potrzeb zyskają na wadze procesy negocjacji. Planowanie jest wciąż centralne, ale nie takie, jak tradycyjne planowanie rozwoju przez władze budżetowe. Włączenie obywateli spowoduje to, że efekty będą mniej przewidywalne niż wcześniej, lecz również wynika z tego rzecz następująca: skoro możliwość utrzymania jest warunkiem istnienia stałego i dynamicznego środowiska kulturalnego należy wzmocnić odpowiedzialność obywateli za nadawanie priorytetów sprawom kultury w stosunku do innych miejskich potrzeb – a nie tylko za pomyślny rozwój kulturalny. Takie strategie inkluzywne są testowane w kilku miastach niemieckich; między innymi w Dreźnie, Oldenburgu, Lipsku i Poczdamie [www.dresden.de, www.oldenburg.de, www. leipzig.de]. O priorytetach dyskutuje i decyduje się w procedurach, które obejmują działaczy politycznych czy administracyjnych, procedury kulturalne, przedstawicieli instytucji i projektów i oczywiście oddanych obywateli. Bardzo ważne są zasady, w myśl jakich procedury są wdrażane, oraz inne przekonujące sposoby przekazu. Zasady procedur uczestnictwa są albo tradycyjne, takie jak zgromadzenia, fora i świadectwa, lub wykorzystują nowe środki przekazu informacji, takie
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Stanów Zjednoczonych [Whyte, Murray, 2009]. Obywatele domagają się, aby ich „potrzeby kulturalne” były akceptowane i uznawane przez administracje miejskie. Stanowi to wyzwanie dla władz, ponieważ potrzeby społeczności miejskiej i projekty turystyczne to niekoniecznie to samo. W celu sprostania wymaganiom obu stron miasta muszą zainicjować nowe procesy uczestnictwa, w które są zaangażowani wszyscy udziałowcy. Tu właśnie będzie odpowiednie miejsce dla zarządzania kulturą: ma ono pomóc w stworzeniu atmosfery kulturalnej, która sprawia, że warto mieszkać w mieście, jak również przyciąga turystów i biznes. Jest to przedsięwzięcie złożone i nie może być zrealizowane tradycyjnymi metodami. Odpowiadając na wyzwanie wiele miast stara się uwzględnić zarządzanie kulturą w swoich strategiach. Chcą one stworzyć struktury partycypacyjne i inkluzywne z wysokim potencjałem osiągnięcia integracyjnych i spójnych efektów. Siły wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne powinny być połączone w sposób synergiczny, a nie antagonistyczny; jednakże oznacza to stałe dostosowywanie, ponieważ istnieje obawa ciągłego pojawiania się konfliktów w obrębie zarówno wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych interesów, jak i pomiędzy nimi. Bernd Wagner upatruje w takiej zmianie perspektywy przejście od zarządzania kulturalnego zorientowanego na państwo w kierunku zarządzania kulturalnego, pluralistycznego [Wagner, s. 108]. Ale oczywiście ośrodki miejskie i władze miejskie nigdy nie były niższym poziomem „państwa”. Te nowe struktury zmienią przywódców władz miejskich w pośrednich aktorów, którzy próbują stworzyć kooperacyjne, horyzontalne struktury zarządzania zastępujące dotychczasową hierarchię. Oczywiście siła kształtująca cechy kulturalne zostanie zachowana, ale będzie wzbogacona poprzez włączenie przyszłych grup aktorów. Takie podejście mogło nigdy nie zaistnieć w starych hierarchiach. Będzie ono zorientowane na użytkownika, a użytkownikami są obywatele. Użytkownik będzie postrzegany inaczej niż klient czy konsument. Korzystanie z kultury miejskiej wymaga pewnej umiejętności. Jak dotąd jednakże możliwości uczestniczenia obywateli w podejmowaniu decyzji i monitorowaniu są ograniczone. Zarządzanie kulturą może być częścią ogólnej reformy, która odda w ręce obywateli pewną odpowiedzialność, jeżeli zechcą ją podjąć. Nowe zarządzanie kulturą spełni jednocześnie swoją rolę gospodarczą poprzez polepszenie efektywności i wydajności wykorzystania coraz bardziej ograniczonych zasobów dla realizacji rosnących potrzeb w coraz bardziej zróżnicowanym spektrum kultury miejskiej, i zwiększenia ich roli w zarządzaniu i kierowaniu. Przejrzystość,
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zapewnienie jakości i kontrola będą potrzebne w celu zapewnienia obywateli, że ich podatki są dobrze wykorzystywane; z drugiej strony zarządzanie kulturą powinno koordynować i służyć polepszeniu jakości poprzez włączenie obywateli w szeroką debatę i struktury partycypacyjne. Niełatwym celem jest łączenie instrumentów marketingowych i złożonych sposobów podejmowania decyzji na zasadach partycypacji w sprawach kultury, szczególnie na poziomie miejskim. Należy zadbać o utrzymanie zaangażowania obywateli i skoncentrować je na poszczególnych problemach [Wagner, s. 111]. Takie podejście nie marginalizuje zarządzania biznesowego i nowoczesnego marketingu, lecz jest ich częścią i jest z nimi zintegrowane, ponieważ zarządzanie kulturą nie może być oddzielone od „treści” kulturalnych i nie może być nadużywane w celu sprowadzenia kultury do funkcji towaru. Jednakże musimy również dostrzegać sprawę kosztów i wydatków na strategie miejskie, które mają na celu służenie wszystkim obywatelom w sferze kulturalnej. Zarządzanie kulturą powinno również być osią dla generowania dochodu – w przeciwnym razie kultura zawsze będzie pierwszym sektorem, którego dotkną cięcia. Nie ulega wątpliwości, że potrzeba uzasadnienia istnienia programów kulturalnych będzie podkreślana bardziej niż w przeszłości, gdy wyłącznie administracja decydowała o kontynuowaniu lub zniesieniu instytucji czy o zakończeniu projektu. Przy takiej różnorodności potrzeb zyskają na wadze procesy negocjacji. Planowanie jest wciąż centralne, ale nie takie, jak tradycyjne planowanie rozwoju przez władze budżetowe. Włączenie obywateli spowoduje to, że efekty będą mniej przewidywalne niż wcześniej, lecz również wynika z tego rzecz następująca: skoro możliwość utrzymania jest warunkiem istnienia stałego i dynamicznego środowiska kulturalnego należy wzmocnić odpowiedzialność obywateli za nadawanie priorytetów sprawom kultury w stosunku do innych miejskich potrzeb – a nie tylko za pomyślny rozwój kulturalny. Takie strategie inkluzywne są testowane w kilku miastach niemieckich; między innymi w Dreźnie, Oldenburgu, Lipsku i Poczdamie [www.dresden.de, www.oldenburg.de, www. leipzig.de]. O priorytetach dyskutuje i decyduje się w procedurach, które obejmują działaczy politycznych czy administracyjnych, procedury kulturalne, przedstawicieli instytucji i projektów i oczywiście oddanych obywateli. Bardzo ważne są zasady, w myśl jakich procedury są wdrażane, oraz inne przekonujące sposoby przekazu. Zasady procedur uczestnictwa są albo tradycyjne, takie jak zgromadzenia, fora i świadectwa, lub wykorzystują nowe środki przekazu informacji, takie
258
Stanów Zjednoczonych [Whyte, Murray, 2009]. Obywatele domagają się, aby ich „potrzeby kulturalne” były akceptowane i uznawane przez administracje miejskie. Stanowi to wyzwanie dla władz, ponieważ potrzeby społeczności miejskiej i projekty turystyczne to niekoniecznie to samo. W celu sprostania wymaganiom obu stron miasta muszą zainicjować nowe procesy uczestnictwa, w które są zaangażowani wszyscy udziałowcy. Tu właśnie będzie odpowiednie miejsce dla zarządzania kulturą: ma ono pomóc w stworzeniu atmosfery kulturalnej, która sprawia, że warto mieszkać w mieście, jak również przyciąga turystów i biznes. Jest to przedsięwzięcie złożone i nie może być zrealizowane tradycyjnymi metodami. Odpowiadając na wyzwanie wiele miast stara się uwzględnić zarządzanie kulturą w swoich strategiach. Chcą one stworzyć struktury partycypacyjne i inkluzywne z wysokim potencjałem osiągnięcia integracyjnych i spójnych efektów. Siły wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne powinny być połączone w sposób synergiczny, a nie antagonistyczny; jednakże oznacza to stałe dostosowywanie, ponieważ istnieje obawa ciągłego pojawiania się konfliktów w obrębie zarówno wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych interesów, jak i pomiędzy nimi. Bernd Wagner upatruje w takiej zmianie perspektywy przejście od zarządzania kulturalnego zorientowanego na państwo w kierunku zarządzania kulturalnego, pluralistycznego [Wagner, s. 108]. Ale oczywiście ośrodki miejskie i władze miejskie nigdy nie były niższym poziomem „państwa”. Te nowe struktury zmienią przywódców władz miejskich w pośrednich aktorów, którzy próbują stworzyć kooperacyjne, horyzontalne struktury zarządzania zastępujące dotychczasową hierarchię. Oczywiście siła kształtująca cechy kulturalne zostanie zachowana, ale będzie wzbogacona poprzez włączenie przyszłych grup aktorów. Takie podejście mogło nigdy nie zaistnieć w starych hierarchiach. Będzie ono zorientowane na użytkownika, a użytkownikami są obywatele. Użytkownik będzie postrzegany inaczej niż klient czy konsument. Korzystanie z kultury miejskiej wymaga pewnej umiejętności. Jak dotąd jednakże możliwości uczestniczenia obywateli w podejmowaniu decyzji i monitorowaniu są ograniczone. Zarządzanie kulturą może być częścią ogólnej reformy, która odda w ręce obywateli pewną odpowiedzialność, jeżeli zechcą ją podjąć. Nowe zarządzanie kulturą spełni jednocześnie swoją rolę gospodarczą poprzez polepszenie efektywności i wydajności wykorzystania coraz bardziej ograniczonych zasobów dla realizacji rosnących potrzeb w coraz bardziej zróżnicowanym spektrum kultury miejskiej, i zwiększenia ich roli w zarządzaniu i kierowaniu. Przejrzystość,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
jak Internet czy blog. Połączenie wirtualnych i rzeczywistych procesów komunikacji wydaje się być najlepszą praktyką. Planowanie strategii kulturalnej obowiązującej dla miasta wymaga następujących podstawowych celów i odpowiedzi na kluczowe pytania: Cele i efekty: 1. Inwentaryzacja i analiza mocnych i słabych stron obecnego stanu rzeczy 2. Opracowanie wytycznych i zamierzeń 3. P orozumienie między wszystkimi udziałowcami 4. Struktury partycypacyjne 5. Maksymalna przejrzystość Istnieje współzależność między wszystkimi tymi celami i napotkają one na pewno różne przeszkody w strukturze społecznej każdej wspólnoty. Na przykład nie wszyscy obywatele będą chcieli uczestniczyć w procesie dyskusji i deliberacji, ale prawie każdy z nich odczuje wynik procesu planowania. Należy szanować ich prawo do sprzeciwiania się temu wynikowi nawet, jeśli można krytykować ich małe zaangażowanie w proces decydowania. Istnieją również pewne ograniczenia podyktowane ograniczoną autonomią władz miejskich podporządkowanych państwowym i federalnym prerogatywom, itd. Jednakże możemy pominąć te aspekty empiryczne, ponieważ ukazują one jedynie złożoność problemów, podczas gdy tak naprawdę nie zagrażają zasadom. Wiodące pytania: 1. Jaki jest kulturalny profil miasta i w jakim kierunku pragniemy, aby się rozwijało? Np. więcej uwagi poświęconej młodzieży czy grupom wielo-etnicznym, kobietom czy też sztukom klasycznym, itp. 2. Jakie potencjały i współzależności mogą ujawniać się w obrębie istniejących struktur i gdzie należy je zmienić? Jest to ważne pytanie, ponieważ w wielu przypadkach istniejące struk-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
tury mają silniejsze poparcie niż innowacyjne poszukiwanie nowych obszarów. 3. Jak zdefiniować priorytety funkcjonalne kultury dla naszej społeczności? To pytanie będzie oczywiście wymagało najbardziej wyrafinowanych i cierpliwych dyskusji: odczują to wszystkie części społecznego systemu. Struktura kulturalna miasta jest dana, ale nie oczywista. Jej odkrycie jest częścią procesu planowania. 4. J eśli stworzyliśmy wizję miasta kultury, co należy zrobić w celu jej rozwinięcia? Należy skoordynować rozwój wewnętrzny i zewnętrzny, budżet nie powinien skupiać się jedynie na inwestycjach i nowych projektach, ale również brać pod uwagę koszty utrzymania i odnowy. Kryteria kończenia programów i projektów muszą być tak jasno określone, jak kryteria wprowadzania nowych do rozważania. Zarządzanie kulturą miejską może działać z powodzeniem tylko jeśli biorący w nim udział rozumieją ją jako zintegrowany model planowania. Wszyscy uczestnicy powinni być wzięci pod uwagę i należy rozwinąć adekwatne demokratyczne struktury partycypacji. Nie jest wymagane jedynie włączenie udziałowców, lecz również funkcjonalne zróżnicowanie instytucji – miejskich, artystycznych, społecznych, itp. – należy wziąć pod uwagę przy planowaniu struktury procesu dyskusji. To, co głównie odróżnia ten schemat od wcześniejszych modeli, to fakt, że planowanie nie wynika z instytucji, lecz wyłania się z miejskiego krajobrazu kulturalnego. Wymaga to kompleksowego rozumienia kultury – oraz poinformowanych i kompetentnych obywateli: jest to sposób na stanie się użytkownikami. Gospodarka i instytucje formalne powinny być uwzględnione, ale kultura nie może zostać zredukowana do roli ich przedmiotu. Dyskurs miejski wykracza daleko poza model kreatywności jako środek lokacji ekonomicznej i nosi w sobie potencjał humanizacji naszych miast.
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jak Internet czy blog. Połączenie wirtualnych i rzeczywistych procesów komunikacji wydaje się być najlepszą praktyką. Planowanie strategii kulturalnej obowiązującej dla miasta wymaga następujących podstawowych celów i odpowiedzi na kluczowe pytania: Cele i efekty: 1. Inwentaryzacja i analiza mocnych i słabych stron obecnego stanu rzeczy 2. Opracowanie wytycznych i zamierzeń 3. P orozumienie między wszystkimi udziałowcami 4. Struktury partycypacyjne 5. Maksymalna przejrzystość Istnieje współzależność między wszystkimi tymi celami i napotkają one na pewno różne przeszkody w strukturze społecznej każdej wspólnoty. Na przykład nie wszyscy obywatele będą chcieli uczestniczyć w procesie dyskusji i deliberacji, ale prawie każdy z nich odczuje wynik procesu planowania. Należy szanować ich prawo do sprzeciwiania się temu wynikowi nawet, jeśli można krytykować ich małe zaangażowanie w proces decydowania. Istnieją również pewne ograniczenia podyktowane ograniczoną autonomią władz miejskich podporządkowanych państwowym i federalnym prerogatywom, itd. Jednakże możemy pominąć te aspekty empiryczne, ponieważ ukazują one jedynie złożoność problemów, podczas gdy tak naprawdę nie zagrażają zasadom. Wiodące pytania: 1. Jaki jest kulturalny profil miasta i w jakim kierunku pragniemy, aby się rozwijało? Np. więcej uwagi poświęconej młodzieży czy grupom wielo-etnicznym, kobietom czy też sztukom klasycznym, itp. 2. Jakie potencjały i współzależności mogą ujawniać się w obrębie istniejących struktur i gdzie należy je zmienić? Jest to ważne pytanie, ponieważ w wielu przypadkach istniejące struk-
259
tury mają silniejsze poparcie niż innowacyjne poszukiwanie nowych obszarów. 3. Jak zdefiniować priorytety funkcjonalne kultury dla naszej społeczności? To pytanie będzie oczywiście wymagało najbardziej wyrafinowanych i cierpliwych dyskusji: odczują to wszystkie części społecznego systemu. Struktura kulturalna miasta jest dana, ale nie oczywista. Jej odkrycie jest częścią procesu planowania. 4. J eśli stworzyliśmy wizję miasta kultury, co należy zrobić w celu jej rozwinięcia? Należy skoordynować rozwój wewnętrzny i zewnętrzny, budżet nie powinien skupiać się jedynie na inwestycjach i nowych projektach, ale również brać pod uwagę koszty utrzymania i odnowy. Kryteria kończenia programów i projektów muszą być tak jasno określone, jak kryteria wprowadzania nowych do rozważania. Zarządzanie kulturą miejską może działać z powodzeniem tylko jeśli biorący w nim udział rozumieją ją jako zintegrowany model planowania. Wszyscy uczestnicy powinni być wzięci pod uwagę i należy rozwinąć adekwatne demokratyczne struktury partycypacji. Nie jest wymagane jedynie włączenie udziałowców, lecz również funkcjonalne zróżnicowanie instytucji – miejskich, artystycznych, społecznych, itp. – należy wziąć pod uwagę przy planowaniu struktury procesu dyskusji. To, co głównie odróżnia ten schemat od wcześniejszych modeli, to fakt, że planowanie nie wynika z instytucji, lecz wyłania się z miejskiego krajobrazu kulturalnego. Wymaga to kompleksowego rozumienia kultury – oraz poinformowanych i kompetentnych obywateli: jest to sposób na stanie się użytkownikami. Gospodarka i instytucje formalne powinny być uwzględnione, ale kultura nie może zostać zredukowana do roli ich przedmiotu. Dyskurs miejski wykracza daleko poza model kreatywności jako środek lokacji ekonomicznej i nosi w sobie potencjał humanizacji naszych miast.
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Literatura Bendixen P., Allgemeine Grundlagen des Kulturmanagements (Beitrag A 1.1.) [w:] „Kulturmanagement & Kulturpolitik”, 2007. Deveraux, C., Cultural Management and the Discourse of Practice [w:] Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, Sigrid et al., Forschen im Kulturmanagement. Jahrbuch für Kulturmanagement, Bielefeld, 2009, s.155-169.
www.das-gaengeviertel.info/gaengefiertel/entwicklungskonzept.html www.dresden.de/de/05/02/01/c_03.php www.leipzig.de/de/buerger/kultur/kep/ www.nzz.ch/nachrichten/kultur/kunst_architektur/ hausbesetzung_mit_beifall_1.4286252/ www.oldenburg.de/stadtol/index.php?id=375
Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s
www.potsdam.de/cms/dokumente/10011105_66476/
Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, New
c25b9e54/Kulturpolitische%20Konzepte%20der%20
York, 2002.
LHP%202008-2012.pdf
www./gentrificationblog.wordpress.com/2009/10/30/ hamburg-manifest-gegen-gentrification/Klein, Armin, ed. (2008). Kompendium Kulturmanagement, München.
München. min, ed. (2008). Kompendium Kulturmanagement, hamburg-manifest-gegen-gentrification/Klein, Arwww./gentrificationblog.wordpress.com/2009/10/30/ LHP%202008-2012.pdf
York, 2002.
c25b9e54/Kulturpolitische%20Konzepte%20der%20
Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life, New
www.potsdam.de/cms/dokumente/10011105_66476/
Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class. And How It’s turmanagement, Bielefeld, 2009, s.155-169. Forschen im Kulturmanagement. Jahrbuch für Kulof Practice [w:] Bekmeier-Feuerhahn, Sigrid et al., Deveraux, C., Cultural Management and the Discourse Kulturpolitik”, 2007. gements (Beitrag A 1.1.) [w:] „Kulturmanagement & Bendixen P., Allgemeine Grundlagen des Kulturmana-
www.oldenburg.de/stadtol/index.php?id=375 hausbesetzung_mit_beifall_1.4286252/ www.nzz.ch/nachrichten/kultur/kunst_architektur/ www.leipzig.de/de/buerger/kultur/kep/ www.dresden.de/de/05/02/01/c_03.php klungskonzept.html www.das-gaengeviertel.info/gaengefiertel/entwic-
Literatura 260
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Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania Małgorzata Ćwikła
Z
ainteresowanie twórczym zarządzaniem jest naturalnym efektem społecznych zmian, które w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach spowodowały ewolucję społeczeństwa przemysłowego w poprzemysłowe. Zgodnie z tezami Daniela Bella, przejście od gospodarki nastawionej na produkowanie do kapitalizmu bazującego na obrocie informacjami, odbiło się wyraźnie na modelu pracowników, którzy albo operują wciąż na nowo zdobywaną wiedzą, albo świadczą usługi wykonawcze [Bell, 1994, s. 233]. W obu przypadkach kładziony jest duży nacisk na kreację, obecną także w procesie wytwarzania przedmiotów codziennego użytku czy innych czynnościach, które dotychczas uważano za odległe od pracy twórczej. Kumulacja takich tendencji szczególnie silnie odbija się na aktywności kulturalnej, często niebędącej w stanie nadążyć za zmianami ekonomicznymi i potrzebującej lat na dostosowanie się [Sadler, 1997, s. 7]. Zdarza się jednak, że sytuacja jest odwrotna. Ciekawość i odwaga w testowaniu nowych dróg rozwoju kultury mogą prowadzić do odkrycia innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania. Przykładem tego jest moda na rewitalizację opuszczonych przestrzeni poprzemysłowych na potrzeby sztuki. Słuszne wydaje się w tym świetle stwierdzenie, że z punktu widzenia dwóch współczesnych procesów – z jednej strony chęci odkrywania spuścizny postindustrialnej i z drugiej kładzenia nacisku na twórcze myślenie w zarządzaniu – dochodzi na polu kultury do ciekawej symbiozy. Widoczna od
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
kilkunastu lat synchronizacja tych dwóch zjawisk doprowadziła do sytuacji, w której ośrodki kulturalne ożywiające stare fabryki i warsztaty, dzięki ciekawym pomysłom stają się miejscami kultowymi i w lepszym stopniu niż tradycyjne instytucje odpowiadają oczekiwaniom nowoczesnego odbiorcy. W niniejszym artykule omówione zostaną czynniki stymulujące twórczy rozwój organizacji działających w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych, ze wskazaniem kilku charakterystycznych cech, gwarantujących możliwość rozwoju w gąszczu kulturalnej produkcji.
Fundamenty działalności
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dkrywanie budynków i terenów opuszczonych przez przemysł nie jest procesem nowym i charakterystycznym jedynie dla kultury. Rozpowszechniona moda na adaptacje tego typu obiektów w celach biznesowych i mieszkaniowych trwa od dawna, wpisując się w miejski krajobraz tworzony przez i dla tak zwanej klasy kreatywnej. Twórca tego terminu – Richard Florida – precyzyjnie określa zawody twórcze, które niekoniecznie związane są z pracą artystyczną, ale raczej z szukaniem nowych dróg rozwoju różnych dziedzin i pól zawodowych, od mediów po zarządzanie [Florida, 2002, s. 68]. Profesjonaliści tego typu grupują się w miastach spełniających kilka kryteriów – są otwarte, wieloetniczne i świadome swojej histo-
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Małgorzata Ćwikła absolwentka filologii polskiej na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. Pracowała między innymi w teatrze Hebbel am Ufer w Berlinie, Międzynarodowej Fabryce Kultury Kampnagel w Hamburgu i Teatrze Dramatycznym w Warszawie. W latach 2008/2009 stypendystka Fundacji Roberta Boscha w ramach programu „Menedżer kultury z Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej”, w 2010 roku stażystka Ambasady Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Sarajewie.
ainteresowanie twórczym zarządzaniem jest naturalnym efektem społecznych zmian, które w ostatnich dziesięcioleciach spowodowały ewolucję społeczeństwa przemysłowego w poprzemysłowe. Zgodnie z tezami Daniela Bella, przejście od gospodarki nastawionej na produkowanie do kapitalizmu bazującego na obrocie informacjami, odbiło się wyraźnie na modelu pracowników, którzy albo operują wciąż na nowo zdobywaną wiedzą, albo świadczą usługi wykonawcze [Bell, 1994, s. 233]. W obu przypadkach kładziony jest duży nacisk na kreację, obecną także w procesie wytwarzania przedmiotów codziennego użytku czy innych czynnościach, które dotychczas uważano za odległe od pracy twórczej. Kumulacja takich tendencji szczególnie silnie odbija się na aktywności kulturalnej, często niebędącej w stanie nadążyć za zmianami ekonomicznymi i potrzebującej lat na dostosowanie się [Sadler, 1997, s. 7]. Zdarza się jednak, że sytuacja jest odwrotna. Ciekawość i odwaga w testowaniu nowych dróg rozwoju kultury mogą prowadzić do odkrycia innowacyjnych modeli zarządzania. Przykładem tego jest moda na rewitalizację opuszczonych przestrzeni poprzemysłowych na potrzeby sztuki. Słuszne wydaje się w tym świetle stwierdzenie, że z punktu widzenia dwóch współczesnych procesów – z jednej strony chęci odkrywania spuścizny postindustrialnej i z drugiej kładzenia nacisku na twórcze myślenie w zarządzaniu – dochodzi na polu kultury do ciekawej symbiozy. Widoczna od
Z
dkrywanie budynków i terenów opuszczonych przez przemysł nie jest procesem nowym i charakterystycznym jedynie dla kultury. Rozpowszechniona moda na adaptacje tego typu obiektów w celach biznesowych i mieszkaniowych trwa od dawna, wpisując się w miejski krajobraz tworzony przez i dla tak zwanej klasy kreatywnej. Twórca tego terminu – Richard Florida – precyzyjnie określa zawody twórcze, które niekoniecznie związane są z pracą artystyczną, ale raczej z szukaniem nowych dróg rozwoju różnych dziedzin i pól zawodowych, od mediów po zarządzanie [Florida, 2002, s. 68]. Profesjonaliści tego typu grupują się w miastach spełniających kilka kryteriów – są otwarte, wieloetniczne i świadome swojej histo-
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Fundamenty działalności kilkunastu lat synchronizacja tych dwóch zjawisk doprowadziła do sytuacji, w której ośrodki kulturalne ożywiające stare fabryki i warsztaty, dzięki ciekawym pomysłom stają się miejscami kultowymi i w lepszym stopniu niż tradycyjne instytucje odpowiadają oczekiwaniom nowoczesnego odbiorcy. W niniejszym artykule omówione zostaną czynniki stymulujące twórczy rozwój organizacji działających w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych, ze wskazaniem kilku charakterystycznych cech, gwarantujących możliwość rozwoju w gąszczu kulturalnej produkcji.
Małgorzata Ćwikła
Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania
Małgorzata Ćwikła absolwentka filologii polskiej na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. Pracowała między innymi w teatrze Hebbel am Ufer w Berlinie, Międzynarodowej Fabryce Kultury Kampnagel w Hamburgu i Teatrze Dramatycznym w Warszawie. W latach 2008/2009 stypendystka Fundacji Roberta Boscha w ramach programu „Menedżer kultury z Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej”, w 2010 roku stażystka Ambasady Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Sarajewie.
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W chwili obecnej, te dwa typy różnią się od siebie w istotny sposób, co u jednych prowadzi do stagnacji, w drugich wyzwala siły kreatywne.
zynnikiem wpływającym na twórcze myślenie jest swoboda w wyszukiwaniu nowych rozwiązań i umiarkowane przywiązanie do logicznego myślenia. Inny istotny, budzący jednak najwięcej strachu, składnik to zmiana [Proctor, 1998, s. 36]. Być może dlatego istnieje w Polsce taka duża przepaść między instytucjami tradycyjnymi i nowo powstałymi. Te drugie w naturalny sposób reagują na szybkie przemiany wpisując się w dynamikę dzisiejszych czasów. Natomiast ośrodki „zakorzenione” w większości przypadków wyposażone są w skuteczną zaporę odbijającą wszelkie nowości, uparcie broniąc się przed wpływem uwarunkowań zewnętrznych. Silne pozostałości postkomunistyczne nie ułatwiają pracy i podejmowania wyzwań. Dla zatrudnionych w młodych ośrodkach nie stanowią już głównego punktu odniesienia, dzięki czemu mogą oni zainwestować energię w zadania wycelowane w przyszłość. Co charakterystyczne, schronienie w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych znajdują zazwyczaj instytucje wywodzące się ze sceny alternatywnej, nierzadko chaotyczne w wizerunku i działaniu. Jak się jednak okazuje, takie wolnomyślicielstwo przekradające się do zarządzania, może w jego pierwszej fazie usprawnić proces kreatywnego pracowania i doprowadzić do powstania najlepszych pomysłów. Trudność polega na tym, by w odpowiednim momencie zareagować i tak zarządzać, by profitować z „luźniejszej” atmosfery w organizacji, będąc zarazem skutecznym i profesjonalnym. Tylko wówczas można „utrzymać” się na rynku i robić coś nowego. Równie ważne jest zrozumienie specyfiki przestrzeni wywierającej ogromny wpływ na pojmowanie miasta i kształtujących się w nim relacji. Analizująca problematykę współczesnych metropolii Ewa Rewers zauważa: „Epoka ponowoczesna i postnihilistyczna zarazem, której nadejścia oczekiwał Heidegger, objawiła się w postaci refleksyjnej, postindustrialnej nowoczesności, zamieszkiwanie czyniącej coraz bardziej skomplikowanym i uzależniając je od innowacji technologicznych” [Rewers, 2005, s. 235]. Te inżynieryjne nowości konieczne są w europejskiej konwergencji poprzemysłowej. Tworzą one środowisko mieszkania i pracy, wpływając dodatkowo na model spędzania wolnego czasu i wyboru rozrywki. To dzięki rozwojowi technicznemu możliwe było zakończenie epoki przemysłu ciężkiego,
Tryby funkcjonowania
C
C
Tryby funkcjonowania
zynnikiem wpływającym na twórcze myślenie jest swoboda w wyszukiwaniu nowych rozwiązań i umiarkowane przywiązanie do logicznego myślenia. Inny istotny, budzący jednak najwięcej strachu, składnik to zmiana [Proctor, 1998, s. 36]. Być może dlatego istnieje w Polsce taka duża przepaść między instytucjami tradycyjnymi i nowo powstałymi. Te drugie w naturalny sposób reagują na szybkie przemiany wpisując się w dynamikę dzisiejszych czasów. Natomiast ośrodki „zakorzenione” w większości przypadków wyposażone są w skuteczną zaporę odbijającą wszelkie nowości, uparcie broniąc się przed wpływem uwarunkowań zewnętrznych. Silne pozostałości postkomunistyczne nie ułatwiają pracy i podejmowania wyzwań. Dla zatrudnionych w młodych ośrodkach nie stanowią już głównego punktu odniesienia, dzięki czemu mogą oni zainwestować energię w zadania wycelowane w przyszłość. Co charakterystyczne, schronienie w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych znajdują zazwyczaj instytucje wywodzące się ze sceny alternatywnej, nierzadko chaotyczne w wizerunku i działaniu. Jak się jednak okazuje, takie wolnomyślicielstwo przekradające się do zarządzania, może w jego pierwszej fazie usprawnić proces kreatywnego pracowania i doprowadzić do powstania najlepszych pomysłów. Trudność polega na tym, by w odpowiednim momencie zareagować i tak zarządzać, by profitować z „luźniejszej” atmosfery w organizacji, będąc zarazem skutecznym i profesjonalnym. Tylko wówczas można „utrzymać” się na rynku i robić coś nowego. Równie ważne jest zrozumienie specyfiki przestrzeni wywierającej ogromny wpływ na pojmowanie miasta i kształtujących się w nim relacji. Analizująca problematykę współczesnych metropolii Ewa Rewers zauważa: „Epoka ponowoczesna i postnihilistyczna zarazem, której nadejścia oczekiwał Heidegger, objawiła się w postaci refleksyjnej, postindustrialnej nowoczesności, zamieszkiwanie czyniącej coraz bardziej skomplikowanym i uzależniając je od innowacji technologicznych” [Rewers, 2005, s. 235]. Te inżynieryjne nowości konieczne są w europejskiej konwergencji poprzemysłowej. Tworzą one środowisko mieszkania i pracy, wpływając dodatkowo na model spędzania wolnego czasu i wyboru rozrywki. To dzięki rozwojowi technicznemu możliwe było zakończenie epoki przemysłu ciężkiego,
262
W chwili obecnej, te dwa typy różnią się od siebie w istotny sposób, co u jednych prowadzi do stagnacji, w drugich wyzwala siły kreatywne.
rii. Dlatego też przeglądając listę odpowiednich miast, stworzoną przez zespół Floridy, widoczna jest analogia – każde z nich wykorzystuje swoje poprzemysłowe ślady i przekształca je w miejsca o nowych funkcjach. Transformacji ulega przestrzeń, dostosowywana do rosnących oczekiwań jej mieszkańców. Warto w tym miejscu podkreślić, że obiekty postindustrialne znajdują się nie tylko na obszarach miejskich. Mimo to w dalszych rozważaniach punkt ciężkości kładziony jest na sytuację w miastach. Oczywiście wskazane by było także sporządzanie opracowania na temat mniejszych jednostek osadniczych, co wymaga jednak dalszych, szczegółowych badań. Potencjał związany z dziedzictwem postindustrialnym także z innego powodu został dostrzeżony przez przedstawicieli dziedzin technicznych i ekonomicznych. Nie zawsze było to zainteresowanie zgodne z pozycją obrońców tego typu obiektów. Dla przykładu w Niemczech jeszcze na początku 2009 roku, wiele starych fabryk, kopalni i hut było zagrożonych zburzeniem, gdyż z uwagi na ceny złomu, właścicielom opłacało się rozebrać budynek, a związane z tym koszty pokryć ze sprzedaży odzyskanych materiałów [http://www.industrie-kultur.de]. Paradoksalnie, tak zdawać by się mogło odległy dla kultury fakt, jak spadek cen odpadów metalowych w ostatnich miesiącach, uczynił tego typu plany nieopłacalnymi. Jednocześnie należy zaznaczyć, że w niektórych przypadkach rozbiórka jest rozwiązaniem tańszym niż prace renowacyjne. Obiekty znajdujące się pod ochroną konserwatora zabytków muszą być remontowane w ściśle określony sposób, co oczywiście generuje koszty. Zresztą to właśnie ogromne środki pieniężne konieczne do dywersyfikacji funkcji dotychczasowych fabryk oziębiają entuzjazm ożywiania poprzemysłowych krajobrazów. Poza przebudowami, duże są koszty utrzymania wielkich hal produkcyjnych. Należy także być na bieżąco z normami przepisów regulujących pracę instytucji organizujących imprezy masowe. Mimo piętrzących się trudności, okazuje się, że podjęcie tego typu wyzwania w wielu przypadkach jest rentowne. Z uwagi na specyfikę działalności kulturalnej, opłacalność ta nie dotyczy konkretnych zysków finansowych i na dzień dzisiejszy nie może zapewnić samodzielnej egzystencji. Jest ona natomiast istotna na polu edukacyjnym, społecznym i rozwojowym, gdyż konieczność dostosowania się do nietypowych warunków prowadzi do powstawania licznych innowacji, testowania nieznanych rozwiązań. Być może w dalszej perspektywie, podobne ośrodki stworzą optymalne modele funkcjonowania samowystarczalnej instytucji, adekwatne także do bardziej tradycyjnych centrów kulturalnych.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
rii. Dlatego też przeglądając listę odpowiednich miast, stworzoną przez zespół Floridy, widoczna jest analogia – każde z nich wykorzystuje swoje poprzemysłowe ślady i przekształca je w miejsca o nowych funkcjach. Transformacji ulega przestrzeń, dostosowywana do rosnących oczekiwań jej mieszkańców. Warto w tym miejscu podkreślić, że obiekty postindustrialne znajdują się nie tylko na obszarach miejskich. Mimo to w dalszych rozważaniach punkt ciężkości kładziony jest na sytuację w miastach. Oczywiście wskazane by było także sporządzanie opracowania na temat mniejszych jednostek osadniczych, co wymaga jednak dalszych, szczegółowych badań. Potencjał związany z dziedzictwem postindustrialnym także z innego powodu został dostrzeżony przez przedstawicieli dziedzin technicznych i ekonomicznych. Nie zawsze było to zainteresowanie zgodne z pozycją obrońców tego typu obiektów. Dla przykładu w Niemczech jeszcze na początku 2009 roku, wiele starych fabryk, kopalni i hut było zagrożonych zburzeniem, gdyż z uwagi na ceny złomu, właścicielom opłacało się rozebrać budynek, a związane z tym koszty pokryć ze sprzedaży odzyskanych materiałów [http://www.industrie-kultur.de]. Paradoksalnie, tak zdawać by się mogło odległy dla kultury fakt, jak spadek cen odpadów metalowych w ostatnich miesiącach, uczynił tego typu plany nieopłacalnymi. Jednocześnie należy zaznaczyć, że w niektórych przypadkach rozbiórka jest rozwiązaniem tańszym niż prace renowacyjne. Obiekty znajdujące się pod ochroną konserwatora zabytków muszą być remontowane w ściśle określony sposób, co oczywiście generuje koszty. Zresztą to właśnie ogromne środki pieniężne konieczne do dywersyfikacji funkcji dotychczasowych fabryk oziębiają entuzjazm ożywiania poprzemysłowych krajobrazów. Poza przebudowami, duże są koszty utrzymania wielkich hal produkcyjnych. Należy także być na bieżąco z normami przepisów regulujących pracę instytucji organizujących imprezy masowe. Mimo piętrzących się trudności, okazuje się, że podjęcie tego typu wyzwania w wielu przypadkach jest rentowne. Z uwagi na specyfikę działalności kulturalnej, opłacalność ta nie dotyczy konkretnych zysków finansowych i na dzień dzisiejszy nie może zapewnić samodzielnej egzystencji. Jest ona natomiast istotna na polu edukacyjnym, społecznym i rozwojowym, gdyż konieczność dostosowania się do nietypowych warunków prowadzi do powstawania licznych innowacji, testowania nieznanych rozwiązań. Być może w dalszej perspektywie, podobne ośrodki stworzą optymalne modele funkcjonowania samowystarczalnej instytucji, adekwatne także do bardziej tradycyjnych centrów kulturalnych.
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a następnie dostosowanie jego spuścizny do dzisiejszych potrzeb – wspieranej we wszystkich zakątkach Europy drugiej młodości fabryk. Mimo oczywistych zbieżności, powszechna moda na rewitalizację starych obiektów postindustrialnych rozpatrywana w aspekcie glokalizacji okazuje się bardziej złożona. Widoczna jest różnica między Europą Wschodnią i Zachodnią, a także miastami typowo przemysłowymi i tymi o innym profilu. Wyjątkowo istotne jest ponadto położenie danego budynku – zazwyczaj peryferyjne, które w dużym stopniu rzutuje na określenie zakresu pracy. Takimi terenami zajmuje się aktywny w Polsce i w Niemczech Instytut Nowej Kultury Industrialnej. Menadżerowie ożywiający byłe obiekty przemysłowe konfrontowani są z podstawowym problemem obecnej działalności kulturalnej – koniecznością współzawodnictwa o widza z nowoczesnymi mediami. Wspomniany rozwój technologiczny umożliwił pewne innowacje, równocześnie przeniesiony został punkt ciężkości życia społecznego, które oparte na komunikacji elektronicznej stało się bardziej anonimowe i odległe od wcześniejszej tradycji bezpośredniego uczestnictwa w wydarzeniach. Według Alvina Tofflera od epoki agrarnej (pierwszej fali rozwoju ludzkości), poprzez przemysłową (drugą falę), aż do obecnej – poprzemysłowej (trzeciej fali) aktualny był następujący model przywiązania pracowników: DOM –> FABRYKA –> DOM [Toffler, 2006, s. 177]. Zgodnie z tym ustaleniem, zarządzając instytucją kulturalną w starej fabryce, należy w pewien sposób być w opozycji do aktualnego społecznego porządku i z powrotem sprowadzić ludzi – w celu brania udziału w organizowanym tam życiu kulturalnym – do byłych fabryk. Dzisiejsza przewaga telekomunikacji nad transportem oczywiście zadanie to utrudnia. Rozwiązaniem może być w tym przypadku bezpłatny przejazd z punktów centralnych w mieście do peryferyjnie położonych instytucji. Oferowane jest to zresztą coraz częściej. Na przykład Ziemia obiecana, przedstawienie w reżyserii Jana Klaty, wyprodukowane przez Teatr Polski we Wrocławiu pokazywane jest na terenie pompowni Świątniki. Na miejsce widzowie przewożeni są specjalnymi autokarami, co wizycie w teatrze nadaje dodatkowy charakter. Szczególnie istotnym elementem pracy ośrodków mieszczących się w „mniej modnych” dzielnicach jest przymus generowania dwóch różnych rodzajów publiczności. Z jednej strony liczyć się należy ze społeczność lokalną, zazwyczaj mniej zainteresowaną akcjami artystycznymi. Jest to dziedzictwo wcześniejszego planowania miast i określania funkcji poszczególnych dzielnic, które dopiero w ostatnim czasie na skutek społecznej i ekonomicznej gentryfikacji zaczynają się zmieniać
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
i „wędrować”, czego przykładem jest dzisiejszy Berlin. Z drugiej, żeby liczyć się na kulturalnej mapie miasta, należy oferować imprezy odbijające się szerszym echem, najlepiej krajowym. Przeglądając repertuary można zauważyć pewną tendencję – na co dzień oferta skierowana jest do okolicznych mieszkańców, nacisk kładzie się na dydaktykę. Z dużym wyprzedzeniem planowane są natomiast większe wydarzenia, które przyciągają znanymi nazwiskami (zazwyczaj koncerty) bądź atrakcyjnym pomysłem (na przykład nowatorskie festiwale). W związku z tym narzekania dużych teatrów państwowych na brak widzów wydają się mocno przesadzone i sygnalizują błędne podejście do dzisiejszej widowni, która jest rozpieszczana ogromnym wyborem, przez co staje się kapryśna i oczekuje, że się o nią będzie zabiegać. Oczywiście, mimo najlepszych chęci i twórczych rozwiązań instytucje peryferyjne zawsze są w gorszej sytuacji, niż te położone w centrum, które mają szanse na zdobycie widzów w efekcie spontanicznych decyzji. Z pewnością dlatego odmienne są strategie marketingowe wybierane przez organizacje znajdujące się w oddali. Nie bazują one na powtarzalności, a raczej na jednorazowych skojarzeniach z danym projektem. Widoczne jest to w materiałach graficznych – ośrodki tradycyjne pozostają wierne jednemu, od lat stałemu, wzorcowi druków. Organizacje nowatorskie, nie tylko w obiektach postindustrialnych, prześcigają się w atrakcyjnych wizualnie reklamach oraz wykorzystują wszystkie możliwe komunikacyjne kanały Internetu, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem portali społecznościowych.
Kulturalne przetargi
D
zięki wkroczeniu do Unii Europejskiej otworzyły się nowe możliwości finansowania kultury. Pisanie wniosków o granty i gorączkowe przestrzeganie terminów ich rozliczania, to już codzienność, podobnie jak fakt organizowania licznych projektów z zagranicznymi partnerami. Ważnym elementem każdego wniosku jest umiejętność „dopasowania go” do oczekiwań danego fundatora. Warunkiem powodzenia jest więc w tym przypadku kreatywne postrzeganie tematu, a także zdolność wykorzystania wszystkich przekonujących czynników. W przypadku instytucji działających w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych dodatkowym atutem w wyścigu o fundusze, jest podkreślanie potencjału miejsca, jak to miało na przykład miejsce podczas starań miasta Essen i Zagłębia Ruhry o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2010. Wśród europejskich priorytetów z ostatnich lat, większość może być w twórczy sposób dostosowana do miejsca o nietypowym rodowodzie.
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a następnie dostosowanie jego spuścizny do dzisiejszych potrzeb – wspieranej we wszystkich zakątkach Europy drugiej młodości fabryk. Mimo oczywistych zbieżności, powszechna moda na rewitalizację starych obiektów postindustrialnych rozpatrywana w aspekcie glokalizacji okazuje się bardziej złożona. Widoczna jest różnica między Europą Wschodnią i Zachodnią, a także miastami typowo przemysłowymi i tymi o innym profilu. Wyjątkowo istotne jest ponadto położenie danego budynku – zazwyczaj peryferyjne, które w dużym stopniu rzutuje na określenie zakresu pracy. Takimi terenami zajmuje się aktywny w Polsce i w Niemczech Instytut Nowej Kultury Industrialnej. Menadżerowie ożywiający byłe obiekty przemysłowe konfrontowani są z podstawowym problemem obecnej działalności kulturalnej – koniecznością współzawodnictwa o widza z nowoczesnymi mediami. Wspomniany rozwój technologiczny umożliwił pewne innowacje, równocześnie przeniesiony został punkt ciężkości życia społecznego, które oparte na komunikacji elektronicznej stało się bardziej anonimowe i odległe od wcześniejszej tradycji bezpośredniego uczestnictwa w wydarzeniach. Według Alvina Tofflera od epoki agrarnej (pierwszej fali rozwoju ludzkości), poprzez przemysłową (drugą falę), aż do obecnej – poprzemysłowej (trzeciej fali) aktualny był następujący model przywiązania pracowników: DOM –> FABRYKA –> DOM [Toffler, 2006, s. 177]. Zgodnie z tym ustaleniem, zarządzając instytucją kulturalną w starej fabryce, należy w pewien sposób być w opozycji do aktualnego społecznego porządku i z powrotem sprowadzić ludzi – w celu brania udziału w organizowanym tam życiu kulturalnym – do byłych fabryk. Dzisiejsza przewaga telekomunikacji nad transportem oczywiście zadanie to utrudnia. Rozwiązaniem może być w tym przypadku bezpłatny przejazd z punktów centralnych w mieście do peryferyjnie położonych instytucji. Oferowane jest to zresztą coraz częściej. Na przykład Ziemia obiecana, przedstawienie w reżyserii Jana Klaty, wyprodukowane przez Teatr Polski we Wrocławiu pokazywane jest na terenie pompowni Świątniki. Na miejsce widzowie przewożeni są specjalnymi autokarami, co wizycie w teatrze nadaje dodatkowy charakter. Szczególnie istotnym elementem pracy ośrodków mieszczących się w „mniej modnych” dzielnicach jest przymus generowania dwóch różnych rodzajów publiczności. Z jednej strony liczyć się należy ze społeczność lokalną, zazwyczaj mniej zainteresowaną akcjami artystycznymi. Jest to dziedzictwo wcześniejszego planowania miast i określania funkcji poszczególnych dzielnic, które dopiero w ostatnim czasie na skutek społecznej i ekonomicznej gentryfikacji zaczynają się zmieniać
zięki wkroczeniu do Unii Europejskiej otworzyły się nowe możliwości finansowania kultury. Pisanie wniosków o granty i gorączkowe przestrzeganie terminów ich rozliczania, to już codzienność, podobnie jak fakt organizowania licznych projektów z zagranicznymi partnerami. Ważnym elementem każdego wniosku jest umiejętność „dopasowania go” do oczekiwań danego fundatora. Warunkiem powodzenia jest więc w tym przypadku kreatywne postrzeganie tematu, a także zdolność wykorzystania wszystkich przekonujących czynników. W przypadku instytucji działających w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych dodatkowym atutem w wyścigu o fundusze, jest podkreślanie potencjału miejsca, jak to miało na przykład miejsce podczas starań miasta Essen i Zagłębia Ruhry o tytuł Europejskiej Stolicy Kultury 2010. Wśród europejskich priorytetów z ostatnich lat, większość może być w twórczy sposób dostosowana do miejsca o nietypowym rodowodzie.
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Kulturalne przetargi i „wędrować”, czego przykładem jest dzisiejszy Berlin. Z drugiej, żeby liczyć się na kulturalnej mapie miasta, należy oferować imprezy odbijające się szerszym echem, najlepiej krajowym. Przeglądając repertuary można zauważyć pewną tendencję – na co dzień oferta skierowana jest do okolicznych mieszkańców, nacisk kładzie się na dydaktykę. Z dużym wyprzedzeniem planowane są natomiast większe wydarzenia, które przyciągają znanymi nazwiskami (zazwyczaj koncerty) bądź atrakcyjnym pomysłem (na przykład nowatorskie festiwale). W związku z tym narzekania dużych teatrów państwowych na brak widzów wydają się mocno przesadzone i sygnalizują błędne podejście do dzisiejszej widowni, która jest rozpieszczana ogromnym wyborem, przez co staje się kapryśna i oczekuje, że się o nią będzie zabiegać. Oczywiście, mimo najlepszych chęci i twórczych rozwiązań instytucje peryferyjne zawsze są w gorszej sytuacji, niż te położone w centrum, które mają szanse na zdobycie widzów w efekcie spontanicznych decyzji. Z pewnością dlatego odmienne są strategie marketingowe wybierane przez organizacje znajdujące się w oddali. Nie bazują one na powtarzalności, a raczej na jednorazowych skojarzeniach z danym projektem. Widoczne jest to w materiałach graficznych – ośrodki tradycyjne pozostają wierne jednemu, od lat stałemu, wzorcowi druków. Organizacje nowatorskie, nie tylko w obiektach postindustrialnych, prześcigają się w atrakcyjnych wizualnie reklamach oraz wykorzystują wszystkie możliwe komunikacyjne kanały Internetu, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem portali społecznościowych.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
wany jest pod kątem aktualnych tematów, takich jak zmiana klimatu czy rozsądne obchodzenie się z surowcami. Przemycanie haseł dydaktycznych nie rzutuje bynajmniej na artystyczny wymiar festiwalu. O palących problemach mówi się za pośrednictwem prac Christopha Schlingensiefa, Needcompany czy Natural Theater of Oklahoma. Zresztą w najbliższym czasie będą mnożyć się zaangażowane w ekologię działania artystyczne. Byłe fabryki oferują w tej kwestii wiarygodne stare dekoracje.
ontynuując szukanie zbieżności pomiędzy nowoczesnym zarządzaniem i socjologicznym rozumieniem zmian zachodzących w ostatnim czasie w gospodarce, można określić instytucje kultury jako przedsiębiorstwa wiedzochłonne. Wywodzące się z teorii Bella i Druckera stwierdzenie, zostało później przez Sadlera zmodyfikowane do terminu: talentochłonne, co jeszcze lepiej pasuje do specyfiki pracy w instytucjach artystycznych [Sadler, dz. cyt., s. 141]. Uogólniając można stwierdzić, że współczesne podejście do zarządzania zasobami ludzkimi jest efektem funkcjonowania w społeczeństwie postindustrialnym i wynika z konieczności dostosowania się do oczekiwań coraz bardziej liczącej się strony pracowniczego dialogu – samych zatrudnionych. Odnalezienie odpowiedniej struktury łatwiejsze jest w przypadku tworzenia od podstaw niż przekształcania – szczególnie mając za punkt wyjścia wspomniany wcześniej model komunistyczny. Dlatego też powstające na nowo organizacje – często wywodzące się z trzeciego sektora – mogą w określaniu zasad swojego funkcjonowania, opierać się o aktualne modele. Charakterystyczne zjawisko to skrócenie dróg komunikacyjnych i bardziej kolegialna atmosfera. Widoczne jest to między innymi w organizowaniu częstych zebrań całego zespołu, wspólnym podejmowaniu decyzji i jawnym rozwiązywaniu problemów bez konieczności budowania labiryntów informacyjnych. Priorytetem skutecznego zarządzania jest dążenie do tego samego celu, co powinno łączyć wszystkich pracowników [Drucker, 2001, s. 173]. W przypadku niektórych instytucji funkcjonujących w anachroniczny sposób, brak jest nie tylko wspólnego celu, ale w ogóle jakiegokolwiek zadania, jakie stawia sobie organizacja. Dlatego też tak ważne jest przed rozpoczęciem aktywności, precyzyjne określenie zadań i podejmowanie grupowego wysiłku by je zrealizować. Stowarzyszenie i fundacje mają w tej kwestii łatwiej, gdyż w swoich statutach muszą dokładnie rozrysować
Inny wymiar korporacji
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Inny wymiar korporacji
ontynuując szukanie zbieżności pomiędzy nowoczesnym zarządzaniem i socjologicznym rozumieniem zmian zachodzących w ostatnim czasie w gospodarce, można określić instytucje kultury jako przedsiębiorstwa wiedzochłonne. Wywodzące się z teorii Bella i Druckera stwierdzenie, zostało później przez Sadlera zmodyfikowane do terminu: talentochłonne, co jeszcze lepiej pasuje do specyfiki pracy w instytucjach artystycznych [Sadler, dz. cyt., s. 141]. Uogólniając można stwierdzić, że współczesne podejście do zarządzania zasobami ludzkimi jest efektem funkcjonowania w społeczeństwie postindustrialnym i wynika z konieczności dostosowania się do oczekiwań coraz bardziej liczącej się strony pracowniczego dialogu – samych zatrudnionych. Odnalezienie odpowiedniej struktury łatwiejsze jest w przypadku tworzenia od podstaw niż przekształcania – szczególnie mając za punkt wyjścia wspomniany wcześniej model komunistyczny. Dlatego też powstające na nowo organizacje – często wywodzące się z trzeciego sektora – mogą w określaniu zasad swojego funkcjonowania, opierać się o aktualne modele. Charakterystyczne zjawisko to skrócenie dróg komunikacyjnych i bardziej kolegialna atmosfera. Widoczne jest to między innymi w organizowaniu częstych zebrań całego zespołu, wspólnym podejmowaniu decyzji i jawnym rozwiązywaniu problemów bez konieczności budowania labiryntów informacyjnych. Priorytetem skutecznego zarządzania jest dążenie do tego samego celu, co powinno łączyć wszystkich pracowników [Drucker, 2001, s. 173]. W przypadku niektórych instytucji funkcjonujących w anachroniczny sposób, brak jest nie tylko wspólnego celu, ale w ogóle jakiegokolwiek zadania, jakie stawia sobie organizacja. Dlatego też tak ważne jest przed rozpoczęciem aktywności, precyzyjne określenie zadań i podejmowanie grupowego wysiłku by je zrealizować. Stowarzyszenie i fundacje mają w tej kwestii łatwiej, gdyż w swoich statutach muszą dokładnie rozrysować
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wany jest pod kątem aktualnych tematów, takich jak zmiana klimatu czy rozsądne obchodzenie się z surowcami. Przemycanie haseł dydaktycznych nie rzutuje bynajmniej na artystyczny wymiar festiwalu. O palących problemach mówi się za pośrednictwem prac Christopha Schlingensiefa, Needcompany czy Natural Theater of Oklahoma. Zresztą w najbliższym czasie będą mnożyć się zaangażowane w ekologię działania artystyczne. Byłe fabryki oferują w tej kwestii wiarygodne stare dekoracje.
Ogłoszenie roku 2009 Europejskim Rokiem Kreatywności i Innowacji było jawnym sygnałem, że stawianie na rozwój we wszystkich dziedzinach, ułatwia zdobycie środków finansowych i jest zgodne z liniami programowymi Unii Europejskiej. Podobnie z innymi organizacjami wspierającymi sztukę, które regularnie powstają w Europie. Przeglądając programy, ulotki i strony internetowe instytucji kultury mieszczących się w ośrodkach poprzemysłowych często można zobaczyć nieznane logotypy fundatorów, odkryć nowe programy i międzynarodowe sieci wymiany. Takie twórcze „podglądanie” i puszczanie w obieg niezbędnej w tej dziedzinie wiedzy, jest szczególnie istotne dla menadżerów kultury – nierzadko szybciej można w ten sposób dotrzeć do informacji o ciągle rodzących się możliwościach finansowania, niż szukając w oficjalnych źródłach. Dla przykładu dwie ważne w Polsce instytucje – Teatr Łaźnia Nowa i Fabryka Trzciny – zrzeszone są w sieci Trans Europe Halles, łączącej niezależne centra tego typu od Moskwy po Barcelonę. W przypadku szukania partnerów do projektów takie platformy są nieocenione, także dla ośrodków niebędących ich członkami. Poza tym zbierając środki na realizację danego projektu, na jednej stronie internetowej można odnaleźć przykłady z prawie pięćdziesięciu instytucji, opatrzone linkami do konkretnych programów. Ta często przeklinana przez praktyków nadgorliwość różnych fundacji ma swój oczywisty wymiar pozytywny w społeczeństwie uzależnionym od danych i informacji. Większa swoboda w interdyscyplinarnych inicjatywach pozwala na angażowanie się w projekty o zabarwieniu społecznym, a także uczestnictwo w dialogu o najpilniejszych sprawach. Odpowiednie podejście gwarantuje także w tym przypadku możliwość powodzenia. Ośrodki ulokowane w obiektach postindustrialnych – dzięki swojej elastyczności – odkryły ważny priorytet europejski, hojnie wspomaganą ochronę środowiska. Opozycja w stosunku do negatywnej roli przemysłu w tym zakresie, stawia podobne przedsięwzięcia w ciekawym świetle i niejako u źródła stara się o myślenie o odpowiedzialności i konieczności rychłych zmian. Największy pod względem ilości miejsc dla widzów ośrodek teatru niezależnego w Europie – hamburski Kampnagel, mieszczący się w byłej fabryce portowych kranów – w 2009 roku, dzięki otrzymanej dotacji mógł zamontować ponad tysiąc metrów kwadratowych ogniw słonecznych. Dzięki temu zredukowane zostały koszty eksploatacji, odbył się remont powierzchni dachowej, a zyski osiągane z produkcji prądu przy użyciu ogniw fotowoltanicznych zasilają budżet artystyczny teatru. Dodatkowo coroczny festiwal odbywający się na terenie starej fabryki, organizo-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Ogłoszenie roku 2009 Europejskim Rokiem Kreatywności i Innowacji było jawnym sygnałem, że stawianie na rozwój we wszystkich dziedzinach, ułatwia zdobycie środków finansowych i jest zgodne z liniami programowymi Unii Europejskiej. Podobnie z innymi organizacjami wspierającymi sztukę, które regularnie powstają w Europie. Przeglądając programy, ulotki i strony internetowe instytucji kultury mieszczących się w ośrodkach poprzemysłowych często można zobaczyć nieznane logotypy fundatorów, odkryć nowe programy i międzynarodowe sieci wymiany. Takie twórcze „podglądanie” i puszczanie w obieg niezbędnej w tej dziedzinie wiedzy, jest szczególnie istotne dla menadżerów kultury – nierzadko szybciej można w ten sposób dotrzeć do informacji o ciągle rodzących się możliwościach finansowania, niż szukając w oficjalnych źródłach. Dla przykładu dwie ważne w Polsce instytucje – Teatr Łaźnia Nowa i Fabryka Trzciny – zrzeszone są w sieci Trans Europe Halles, łączącej niezależne centra tego typu od Moskwy po Barcelonę. W przypadku szukania partnerów do projektów takie platformy są nieocenione, także dla ośrodków niebędących ich członkami. Poza tym zbierając środki na realizację danego projektu, na jednej stronie internetowej można odnaleźć przykłady z prawie pięćdziesięciu instytucji, opatrzone linkami do konkretnych programów. Ta często przeklinana przez praktyków nadgorliwość różnych fundacji ma swój oczywisty wymiar pozytywny w społeczeństwie uzależnionym od danych i informacji. Większa swoboda w interdyscyplinarnych inicjatywach pozwala na angażowanie się w projekty o zabarwieniu społecznym, a także uczestnictwo w dialogu o najpilniejszych sprawach. Odpowiednie podejście gwarantuje także w tym przypadku możliwość powodzenia. Ośrodki ulokowane w obiektach postindustrialnych – dzięki swojej elastyczności – odkryły ważny priorytet europejski, hojnie wspomaganą ochronę środowiska. Opozycja w stosunku do negatywnej roli przemysłu w tym zakresie, stawia podobne przedsięwzięcia w ciekawym świetle i niejako u źródła stara się o myślenie o odpowiedzialności i konieczności rychłych zmian. Największy pod względem ilości miejsc dla widzów ośrodek teatru niezależnego w Europie – hamburski Kampnagel, mieszczący się w byłej fabryce portowych kranów – w 2009 roku, dzięki otrzymanej dotacji mógł zamontować ponad tysiąc metrów kwadratowych ogniw słonecznych. Dzięki temu zredukowane zostały koszty eksploatacji, odbył się remont powierzchni dachowej, a zyski osiągane z produkcji prądu przy użyciu ogniw fotowoltanicznych zasilają budżet artystyczny teatru. Dodatkowo coroczny festiwal odbywający się na terenie starej fabryki, organizo-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
cele i plany. Ten oczywisty element jest równie istotny, jak inne potwierdzone przez doświadczenie ostatnich lat metody typu: zasada odroczenia oceny zgłaszanych pomysłów, burza mózgów czy open space. Edward Nęcka wymienia dodatkowe uwarunkowania mogące w danej organizacji wpłynąć na pobudzenia twórczych sił. Są to: poczucie wolności oraz wsparcia, brak lęku przed ośmieszeniem się, swobodna atmosfera dyskusji, zgoda na umiarkowane ryzyko i posiadanie wyzwań [Nęcka, 2003, s. 151]. Przykładem imprezy kiełkującej z kumulacji tych wszystkich czynników jest festiwal „Podwodny Wrocław”, który po raz pierwszy odbył się w 2008 roku w Browarze Mieszczańskim w opozycji do organizowanego od lat dużego festiwalu „Wrocław Non Stop”. Impreza miała charakter w pełni alternatywny, mimo to spełniała oficjalne wymogi działania twórczego – nowości i użyteczności. Przedsięwzięcie było ryzykowne, gdyż zostało zorganizowane w bardzo krótkim czasie przez twórców pominiętych przez „Wrocław Non Stop”. Nie akwirowano środków, a informacje o festiwalu rozchodziły się drogą nieoficjalną i przy zastosowaniu marketingu partyzanckiego. Mimo to wydarzenie było dużym sukcesem. W 2009 roku nie zorganizowano „Wrocławia Non Stop”, odbył się natomiast po raz drugi „Podwodny Wrocław”. W zupełnie innych warunkach organizacyjnych, z nieporównywalnym rozmachem i wsparciem władz miasta. Co także jest godne podkreślenia – w chwili obecnej Browar Mieszczański, znajdujący się poza psychologicznymi granicami centrum miasta (faktyczne odległości nie są w tym przypadku duże) przyciąga coraz większą publiczność, a różne imprezy odbywają się regularnie, także w zimie. Jeszcze parę lat temu stanowiło to problem. Niewątpliwie dzieje się tak dzięki oferowaniu wydarzeń z różnych dziedzin – spektakli teatralnych, koncertów, występów dj’ów i artystów multimedialnych, co ubarwia program, ale daje też widzom możliwość częstego decydowania i zmian w tej artystycznej polifonii. Za doskonały przykład tak funkcjonującego ośrodka służy w Berlinie były browar, kultowe miejsce spotkań – Kulturbrauerei. Ponad milion odwiedzających rocznie to wynik niespotykany w miejscach praktykowania kultury niezależnej. Ogromne przestrzenie zostały jednak zagospodarowane w przemyślany sposób – w ciągu jednej nocy odbywa się równocześnie wiele imprez, przez które można przechodzić jak w wesołym miasteczku. Stworzona została blisko centrum miasta prawdziwa osada kulturalna, która żyje swoim rytmem – co zresztą jest bardzo pożądane przez jej wielbicieli. Podsumowując można stwierdzić, że główną zaletą instytucji znajdujących się w obiektach postindustrialnych jest ich alternatywny charakter.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Zazwyczaj w kwestiach ekonomicznych zaleta ta szybko okazuje się wadą, gdyż zmniejsza szanse na państwową subwencję. Przy odpowiednim podejściu może to być jednak rekompensowane inaczej, niejednokrotnie bardziej atrakcyjnie. Po przezwyciężeniu pierwszych trudności możliwe jest finansowanie na różne sposoby, również dzięki współpracy kultury i biznesu, tak by naciski ekonomiczne nie stanowiły głównego tematu, rzucającego cień na warstwę artystyczną. W wielu uznanych już na świecie byłych fabrykach dochodzi do ciekawych połączeń – wynajmowane są atrakcyjne biura i mieszkania, prowadzi się działalność kulturalną, swoje miejsce znajdują modne butiki, kluby i restauracje. Przy odpowiednim wykorzystaniu potencjału organizacyjnego, materialnego, informacyjnego i przede wszystkim ludzkiego możliwe są takie imprezy cykliczne jak „Genius Loci” czy „Sacrum Profanum” stawiające sobie za cel konfrontację sztuki z postindustrialną przeszłością widoczną w prawie każdym mieście. Szczególnie zaś w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej doświadczonej przez epokę wzmożonego przemysłu w XIX wieku, jak i później w czasach dominacji gospodarki komunistycznej. Budynki z połowu XX wieku nie przedstawiają wprawdzie wartości zabytkowej, nie są też ciekawe z uwagi na myśl inżynieryjną, mimo to coraz większe jest zainteresowanie także powojennymi obiektami, a ich specyficzny charakter bywa podkreślany, by unaocznić i ten rozdział w historii przemysłu, dokumentowany w chwili obecnej głównie przez pozostałości architektoniczne. Alvin Toffler za wyróżnik trzeciej fali w rozwoju naszej cywilizacji uznał fakt podboju Kosmosu i oceanów [Toffler, dz. cyt., s. 172]. W jeszcze dalszej perspektywie i te miejsca działania muszą się zdezaktualizować i kto wie – może kiedyś koncerty i spektakle organizować się będzie na stacjach kosmicznych. Wizja ta wymaga nadal wiele wyobraźni, być może dlatego najlepsi, twórczo myślący menedżerowie powinni uznać ją z czasem za osiągalną. Tak jak jeszcze sto lat temu zmiana przeznaczenia fabryk była nie do pomyślenia. Wszystkie te kroki i dywagacje na temat nowych rozwiązań możliwe są dzięki odważnym ideom, poszukiwaniom poza granicami przyjętego konwenansu. Obecnie dzieje się tak w odniesieniu do obiektów wzniesionych na potrzeby przemysłu i opuszczonych przez niego w dobie innych uwarunkowań gospodarczych. Nadal pozostaje jednak wiele do zrobienia z popadającymi często w ruinę budynkami, tak by przemysł w nich ponownie kwitł. Tym razem kulturalny, dla równowagi w postępowej myśli ekonomicznej – co można uznać za fakt potwierdzony – równie ważny jak tradycyjny.
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cele i plany. Ten oczywisty element jest równie istotny, jak inne potwierdzone przez doświadczenie ostatnich lat metody typu: zasada odroczenia oceny zgłaszanych pomysłów, burza mózgów czy open space. Edward Nęcka wymienia dodatkowe uwarunkowania mogące w danej organizacji wpłynąć na pobudzenia twórczych sił. Są to: poczucie wolności oraz wsparcia, brak lęku przed ośmieszeniem się, swobodna atmosfera dyskusji, zgoda na umiarkowane ryzyko i posiadanie wyzwań [Nęcka, 2003, s. 151]. Przykładem imprezy kiełkującej z kumulacji tych wszystkich czynników jest festiwal „Podwodny Wrocław”, który po raz pierwszy odbył się w 2008 roku w Browarze Mieszczańskim w opozycji do organizowanego od lat dużego festiwalu „Wrocław Non Stop”. Impreza miała charakter w pełni alternatywny, mimo to spełniała oficjalne wymogi działania twórczego – nowości i użyteczności. Przedsięwzięcie było ryzykowne, gdyż zostało zorganizowane w bardzo krótkim czasie przez twórców pominiętych przez „Wrocław Non Stop”. Nie akwirowano środków, a informacje o festiwalu rozchodziły się drogą nieoficjalną i przy zastosowaniu marketingu partyzanckiego. Mimo to wydarzenie było dużym sukcesem. W 2009 roku nie zorganizowano „Wrocławia Non Stop”, odbył się natomiast po raz drugi „Podwodny Wrocław”. W zupełnie innych warunkach organizacyjnych, z nieporównywalnym rozmachem i wsparciem władz miasta. Co także jest godne podkreślenia – w chwili obecnej Browar Mieszczański, znajdujący się poza psychologicznymi granicami centrum miasta (faktyczne odległości nie są w tym przypadku duże) przyciąga coraz większą publiczność, a różne imprezy odbywają się regularnie, także w zimie. Jeszcze parę lat temu stanowiło to problem. Niewątpliwie dzieje się tak dzięki oferowaniu wydarzeń z różnych dziedzin – spektakli teatralnych, koncertów, występów dj’ów i artystów multimedialnych, co ubarwia program, ale daje też widzom możliwość częstego decydowania i zmian w tej artystycznej polifonii. Za doskonały przykład tak funkcjonującego ośrodka służy w Berlinie były browar, kultowe miejsce spotkań – Kulturbrauerei. Ponad milion odwiedzających rocznie to wynik niespotykany w miejscach praktykowania kultury niezależnej. Ogromne przestrzenie zostały jednak zagospodarowane w przemyślany sposób – w ciągu jednej nocy odbywa się równocześnie wiele imprez, przez które można przechodzić jak w wesołym miasteczku. Stworzona została blisko centrum miasta prawdziwa osada kulturalna, która żyje swoim rytmem – co zresztą jest bardzo pożądane przez jej wielbicieli. Podsumowując można stwierdzić, że główną zaletą instytucji znajdujących się w obiektach postindustrialnych jest ich alternatywny charakter.
265
Zazwyczaj w kwestiach ekonomicznych zaleta ta szybko okazuje się wadą, gdyż zmniejsza szanse na państwową subwencję. Przy odpowiednim podejściu może to być jednak rekompensowane inaczej, niejednokrotnie bardziej atrakcyjnie. Po przezwyciężeniu pierwszych trudności możliwe jest finansowanie na różne sposoby, również dzięki współpracy kultury i biznesu, tak by naciski ekonomiczne nie stanowiły głównego tematu, rzucającego cień na warstwę artystyczną. W wielu uznanych już na świecie byłych fabrykach dochodzi do ciekawych połączeń – wynajmowane są atrakcyjne biura i mieszkania, prowadzi się działalność kulturalną, swoje miejsce znajdują modne butiki, kluby i restauracje. Przy odpowiednim wykorzystaniu potencjału organizacyjnego, materialnego, informacyjnego i przede wszystkim ludzkiego możliwe są takie imprezy cykliczne jak „Genius Loci” czy „Sacrum Profanum” stawiające sobie za cel konfrontację sztuki z postindustrialną przeszłością widoczną w prawie każdym mieście. Szczególnie zaś w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej doświadczonej przez epokę wzmożonego przemysłu w XIX wieku, jak i później w czasach dominacji gospodarki komunistycznej. Budynki z połowu XX wieku nie przedstawiają wprawdzie wartości zabytkowej, nie są też ciekawe z uwagi na myśl inżynieryjną, mimo to coraz większe jest zainteresowanie także powojennymi obiektami, a ich specyficzny charakter bywa podkreślany, by unaocznić i ten rozdział w historii przemysłu, dokumentowany w chwili obecnej głównie przez pozostałości architektoniczne. Alvin Toffler za wyróżnik trzeciej fali w rozwoju naszej cywilizacji uznał fakt podboju Kosmosu i oceanów [Toffler, dz. cyt., s. 172]. W jeszcze dalszej perspektywie i te miejsca działania muszą się zdezaktualizować i kto wie – może kiedyś koncerty i spektakle organizować się będzie na stacjach kosmicznych. Wizja ta wymaga nadal wiele wyobraźni, być może dlatego najlepsi, twórczo myślący menedżerowie powinni uznać ją z czasem za osiągalną. Tak jak jeszcze sto lat temu zmiana przeznaczenia fabryk była nie do pomyślenia. Wszystkie te kroki i dywagacje na temat nowych rozwiązań możliwe są dzięki odważnym ideom, poszukiwaniom poza granicami przyjętego konwenansu. Obecnie dzieje się tak w odniesieniu do obiektów wzniesionych na potrzeby przemysłu i opuszczonych przez niego w dobie innych uwarunkowań gospodarczych. Nadal pozostaje jednak wiele do zrobienia z popadającymi często w ruinę budynkami, tak by przemysł w nich ponownie kwitł. Tym razem kulturalny, dla równowagi w postępowej myśli ekonomicznej – co można uznać za fakt potwierdzony – równie ważny jak tradycyjny.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Literatura Bell D., Kulturowe sprzeczności kapitalizmu, Warszawa 1994. Drucker P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Warszawa 2001. Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class, New York 2002. http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?modu-
Nęcka E., Psychologia twórczości, Gdańsk 2003. Proctor T., Zarządzanie twórcze, Warszawa 1998. Rewers E., Post-polis. Wstęp do filozofii ponowoczesnego miasta, Kraków 2005. Sadler P., Zarządzanie w społeczeństwie postindustrialnym, Kraków 1997. Toffler A., Trzecia fala, Poznań 2006.
le=html01pages&func=display&pid=159 (odczyt 30.11.2009).
30.11.2009). le=html01pages&func=display&pid=159 (odczyt http://www.industrie-kultur.de/index.php?modu2002. Florida R., The Rise of the Creative Class, New York 2001. Drucker P., Myśli przewodnie Druckera, Warszawa 1994. Bell D., Kulturowe sprzeczności kapitalizmu, Warszawa
Toffler A., Trzecia fala, Poznań 2006. nym, Kraków 1997. Sadler P., Zarządzanie w społeczeństwie postindustrialgo miasta, Kraków 2005. Rewers E., Post-polis. Wstęp do filozofii ponowoczesneProctor T., Zarządzanie twórcze, Warszawa 1998. Nęcka E., Psychologia twórczości, Gdańsk 2003.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie Jānis Garjāns
W
celu opisu łotewskich muzeów można stosować różne podejścia. Historycznie należałoby sięgnąć do roku 1773, kiedy to rada miasta Rygi postanowiła utworzyć pierwsze publiczne muzeum ryskie, po otrzymaniu darowizny N. Himzela obejmującej zbiory z dziedziny biologii, sztuki i historii. Stało się to podwaliną Muzeum Historii Rygi i Nawigacji oraz innych muzeów, które działają na Łotwie do dziś. Po uchwaleniu niepodległości Łotwy w 1918, utworzono narodowy system muzeów, który obejmował najbardziej znaczące dziedziny nauki. Pierwszy okres niepodległości w latach dwudziestych i trzydziestych, charakteryzował się rozwojem sieci muzeów państwowych oraz zarządzanych przez władze lokalne. Po drugiej wojnie światowej ów system muzealny został przemodelowany w celu odzwierciedlenia standardów obowiązujących w ZSRR. Bez względu na restrykcje ideologiczne do czasu ponownego uzyskania niepodległości w 1991, sieć muzeów została poszerzona i objęła różne rodzaje muzeów wszystkich regionów Łotwy. Socjopolityczne procesy we wczesnych latach dziewięćdziesiątych również znalazły odbicie w systemie muzeów i ich działalności. Opisując zawartość łotewskich muzeów należałoby przeanalizować różnorodność ich rodzajów, uzyskując w ten sposób obraz zainteresowań społeczeństwa łotewskiego, jego potrzeb poznawczych w dziedzinie dziedzictwa narodowego, jak również motywacji ukazywania świata za pośrednictwem muzeów. Wyjątkowym zjawiskiem w muzeach łotewskich jest duży procent tzw. muzeów pamięci, zarówno w sieciach finansowanych publicznie, jak i w muzeach prywatnych. Niemniej jednak najważniejszym aspektem, który charakteryzuje obecnie muzea łotewskie są według mnie pytania, które stale pojawiają się podczas analizy charakteru muzeów, nie tylko jako wynik doświadczenia empirycznego, lecz również przy pomocy wniosków teoretycznych. Pytania te stały się zasadne z powodu wielu czynników.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Muzeolog czeski, Z. Z. Stransky, uzasadniając konieczność teoretycznego rozumienia pracy muzeum twierdzi: „Obecna kondycja człowieka wskazuje, że nie można być już usatysfakcjonowanym powierzchowną i przypadkową wiedzą i doświadczeniem odnoszącym sie do zjawiska, które jest tak ściśle związane z istnieniem ludzkim [to jest, muzeów – J. G]. Społeczeństwo post-liberalne nie będzie chciało inwestować w to, co nie przyniesie mu korzyści. Jeśli niektórzy muzealnicy wciąż nie zrozumieli tego faktu i uważają, że przyszłość pozwoli im ‘po prostu zajmować się swoimi sprawami’, zarówno oni, jaki i muzea zapłacą za to” [Stransky, 1995, s. 18]. W celu określenia i uregulowania związku między państwem a muzealnictwem, stworzono podstawę prawną dla działalności muzeów. Jej powstanie jest istotne nie tylko z punktu widzenia prawnego, ale również profesjonalnego. Definiując podstawowe pojęcia, określając funkcje oraz mechanizm zarządzania w dokumentach regulujących działalność muzeów, zainicjowano myślenie muzeologiczne i muzeograficzne, jak również wyznaczono granice i problemy do dyskusji dla dalszego rozwoju i działalności muzealnictwa łotewskiego. Mówienie o granicach muzeów w czasach, gdy wśród muzealników krążą pojęcia takie jak muzea bez granic i muzea wirtualne jest może trochę ryzykowne. Niemniej jednak, nie sądzę, aby problem ten należało łączyć z konserwatywnym rozumieniem procesów we współczesnym świecie muzealnym.
Co to jest muzeum?
G
dy pod koniec lat dziewięćdziesiątych ustanowiono Łotewskie Państwowe Władze Muzealne, jednym z naszych zadań było sporządzenie dokładnego rejestru muzeów. Przygotowaliśmy formularz rejestracyjny, rozesłaliśmy go i otrzymaliśmy bardzo bogate, wręcz zaskakująco ob-
267
Janis Garjans doktor nauk humanistycznych, absolwent Wydziału Filologicznego Uniwersytetu Łotewskiego, dyrektor działu Muzeów i Sztuk Wizualnych Ministerstwa Kultury Republiki Łotwy. W latach 1998-2009 był szefem Państwowego Zarządu Muzeów Łotewskich. Od 2000 wykłada teorię i historię muzeologii na Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Z muzealnictwem związany od 1976. Pracował jako specjalista naukowy i kurator w muzeum Andrejs Upits Memorial. We wczesnych latach 90. zaangażował się w działalność publiczną pracowników łotewskich muzeów, w latach 1993-1998 był dyrektorem Łotewskiego Stowarzyszenia Muzeów. Od 1994 jest członkiem ICOM. Wiedzę z zakresu muzeologii zdobywał w Republice Czeskiej, Kanadzie i Holandii. Jest autorem artykułów naukowych z dziedziny historii literatury łotewskiej i muzeologii po łotewsku, angielsku i rosyjsku.
celu opisu łotewskich muzeów można stosować różne podejścia. Historycznie należałoby sięgnąć do roku 1773, kiedy to rada miasta Rygi postanowiła utworzyć pierwsze publiczne muzeum ryskie, po otrzymaniu darowizny N. Himzela obejmującej zbiory z dziedziny biologii, sztuki i historii. Stało się to podwaliną Muzeum Historii Rygi i Nawigacji oraz innych muzeów, które działają na Łotwie do dziś. Po uchwaleniu niepodległości Łotwy w 1918, utworzono narodowy system muzeów, który obejmował najbardziej znaczące dziedziny nauki. Pierwszy okres niepodległości w latach dwudziestych i trzydziestych, charakteryzował się rozwojem sieci muzeów państwowych oraz zarządzanych przez władze lokalne. Po drugiej wojnie światowej ów system muzealny został przemodelowany w celu odzwierciedlenia standardów obowiązujących w ZSRR. Bez względu na restrykcje ideologiczne do czasu ponownego uzyskania niepodległości w 1991, sieć muzeów została poszerzona i objęła różne rodzaje muzeów wszystkich regionów Łotwy. Socjopolityczne procesy we wczesnych latach dziewięćdziesiątych również znalazły odbicie w systemie muzeów i ich działalności. Opisując zawartość łotewskich muzeów należałoby przeanalizować różnorodność ich rodzajów, uzyskując w ten sposób obraz zainteresowań społeczeństwa łotewskiego, jego potrzeb poznawczych w dziedzinie dziedzictwa narodowego, jak również motywacji ukazywania świata za pośrednictwem muzeów. Wyjątkowym zjawiskiem w muzeach łotewskich jest duży procent tzw. muzeów pamięci, zarówno w sieciach finansowanych publicznie, jak i w muzeach prywatnych. Niemniej jednak najważniejszym aspektem, który charakteryzuje obecnie muzea łotewskie są według mnie pytania, które stale pojawiają się podczas analizy charakteru muzeów, nie tylko jako wynik doświadczenia empirycznego, lecz również przy pomocy wniosków teoretycznych. Pytania te stały się zasadne z powodu wielu czynników.
W
Jānis Garjāns
dy pod koniec lat dziewięćdziesiątych ustanowiono Łotewskie Państwowe Władze Muzealne, jednym z naszych zadań było sporządzenie dokładnego rejestru muzeów. Przygotowaliśmy formularz rejestracyjny, rozesłaliśmy go i otrzymaliśmy bardzo bogate, wręcz zaskakująco ob-
G
Co to jest muzeum? Muzeolog czeski, Z. Z. Stransky, uzasadniając konieczność teoretycznego rozumienia pracy muzeum twierdzi: „Obecna kondycja człowieka wskazuje, że nie można być już usatysfakcjonowanym powierzchowną i przypadkową wiedzą i doświadczeniem odnoszącym sie do zjawiska, które jest tak ściśle związane z istnieniem ludzkim [to jest, muzeów – J. G]. Społeczeństwo post-liberalne nie będzie chciało inwestować w to, co nie przyniesie mu korzyści. Jeśli niektórzy muzealnicy wciąż nie zrozumieli tego faktu i uważają, że przyszłość pozwoli im ‘po prostu zajmować się swoimi sprawami’, zarówno oni, jaki i muzea zapłacą za to” [Stransky, 1995, s. 18]. W celu określenia i uregulowania związku między państwem a muzealnictwem, stworzono podstawę prawną dla działalności muzeów. Jej powstanie jest istotne nie tylko z punktu widzenia prawnego, ale również profesjonalnego. Definiując podstawowe pojęcia, określając funkcje oraz mechanizm zarządzania w dokumentach regulujących działalność muzeów, zainicjowano myślenie muzeologiczne i muzeograficzne, jak również wyznaczono granice i problemy do dyskusji dla dalszego rozwoju i działalności muzealnictwa łotewskiego. Mówienie o granicach muzeów w czasach, gdy wśród muzealników krążą pojęcia takie jak muzea bez granic i muzea wirtualne jest może trochę ryzykowne. Niemniej jednak, nie sądzę, aby problem ten należało łączyć z konserwatywnym rozumieniem procesów we współczesnym świecie muzealnym.
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie
Janis Garjans doktor nauk humanistycznych, absolwent Wydziału Filologicznego Uniwersytetu Łotewskiego, dyrektor działu Muzeów i Sztuk Wizualnych Ministerstwa Kultury Republiki Łotwy. W latach 1998-2009 był szefem Państwowego Zarządu Muzeów Łotewskich. Od 2000 wykłada teorię i historię muzeologii na Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Z muzealnictwem związany od 1976. Pracował jako specjalista naukowy i kurator w muzeum Andrejs Upits Memorial. We wczesnych latach 90. zaangażował się w działalność publiczną pracowników łotewskich muzeów, w latach 1993-1998 był dyrektorem Łotewskiego Stowarzyszenia Muzeów. Od 1994 jest członkiem ICOM. Wiedzę z zakresu muzeologii zdobywał w Republice Czeskiej, Kanadzie i Holandii. Jest autorem artykułów naukowych z dziedziny historii literatury łotewskiej i muzeologii po łotewsku, angielsku i rosyjsku.
profesjonalna działalność muzeum, jeśli muzeum ma tylko jednego pracownika (czasami zatrudnionego jedynie na niepełny etat). Jak jedna osoba może odpowiednio realizować wszystkie podstawowe funkcje muzeum? Odpowiadamy na to pytanie innym pytaniem – dlaczego musi to być wyłącznie stały członek personelu muzeum? Należy się spodziewać, że kultura wolontariatu w muzeach zacznie się rozwijać w naszym kraju, jak również outsourcing usług, zapewniając w ten sposób jakościowy produkt lub usługę. Pojawia się potrzeba usług konsultantów muzealnych na Łotwie, podobnie jak w innych krajach. Jedynym głównym zadaniem pracownika muzeum w tej sytuacji byłoby zapewnienie funkcji komunikacji – praca z odwiedzającymi. Należy przyznać, że patrząc z perspektywy muzeologicznej, muzea obejmują tylko część tego, co jest dziedzictwem kulturowym. Muzealność – określona cecha przypisana obiektowi – może charakteryzować i charakteryzuje o wiele szerszy zakres dziedzictwa kulturowego niż tylko zbiory muzealne. Są również inne instytucje i osoby, które są związane z tworzeniem i rozpoznawaniem dziedzictwa kulturowego. W związku z wyżej wspomnianym rejestrem muzeów, okazało się, że utworzono wiele kolekcji na Łotwie i można obejrzeć liczne wystawy. W oczach zwykłego odwiedzającego lub w rozumieniu konsumenta, zjawiska związane z dziedzictwem kulturowym to często muzea. Takie rozumienie jest również często spotykane u menadżerów i właścicieli tak zwanych muzeów – pracowników miejscowych rad. I kto może ich winić? Może my sami, specjaliści muzealnicy zawiniliśmy, ponieważ, jeśli porównamy muzeum z górą lodową, która szczyci się wystawami, ekspozycjami, uroczystościami i imprezami, które można zobaczyć ponad linią wody, to za mało powiedzieliśmy, pokazaliśmy i wyjaśniliśmy społeczeństwu o niewidocznej części góry lodowej, która jest jej podstawą: podstawą realizowania komunikacji muzeum. W kontekście łotewskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego, muzealnictwo jest najbardziej uporządkowane i przewidywalne, jeśli chodzi o ustawodawstwo, obok sektora zabytków nieruchomych. Ludzie, którzy chcą coś zdziałać na polu dziedzictwa kulturowego znajdują jedyne punkty odniesienia w dziedzinie muzeów i próbują pójść w tym kierunku. Dla specjalistów w tej dziedzinie ważne jest, aby nie zatracić ogólnego spojrzenia i wiedzieć jak nakreślić linię podziału między tym co jest a tym co nie jest muzeum. Powodem tego nie jest arogancja, zazdrość, itp. Realizacja ich funkcji i misji; pozornie nudne, może nawet biurokratyczne prowadzenie rejestru, przechowywanie i konserwacja sprawiły, że przez dziesiątki i setki
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
szerne informacje z dużego przekroju muzeów ze wszystkich regionów Łotwy. Otrzymaliśmy nowe informacje, wcześniej nam nieznane, od małych lokalnych rad i instytucji prywatnych – stowarzyszeń, fundacji jak również osób prywatnych. Sporządziliśmy rejestr, do którego odnosiliśmy się, gdy, zgodnie z Ustawą o Muzeach, rozpoczynaliśmy akredytację muzeów. I wtedy pojawił się problem, związany z podstawowym pytaniem – czy instytucja, która chce być akredytowana jest muzeum? Bez określonych kryteriów – zaznaczeń granic – bardzo trudno jest odpowiedzieć na to pytanie i każdy może podać swoją odpowiedź, która nie koniecznie będzie zła. Akredytacja muzeów była praktycznym bodźcem, który skłonił nas do rozważenia tych kryteriów. Definicja pojęcia muzeum w Ustawie o Muzeach zatwierdzonej w 1997 była ogólna i opisowa. Została sformułowana przy użyciu Statutu ICOM i Kodeksu Etyki Zawodowej jako wzorca. Niemniej jednak, definicja ta nie pomogła nam wiele w rozwiązaniu problemu. Dlatego też w 2006 roku, przygotowując poprawione wydanie Ustawy o Muzeach, postanowiliśmy poszerzyć paragraf, który odnosił się do funkcji muzeów: „Muzea spełniają następujące funkcje: 1. Zbieranie, dokumentacja i zachowywanie materialnego oraz nienaruszalnego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i środowiskowego. 2. Badanie zbiorów muzealnych i związanych z nimi informacji. 3. Edukacja społeczeństwa i popularyzacja materialnego oraz nienaruszalnego kulturalnego i przyrodniczego dziedzictwa, poprzez przygotowywanie wystaw i ekspozycji, jak również wykorzystywanie innych metod edukacji i popularyzacji związanych z działalnością muzeów.” Aby instytucja została sklasyfikowana jako muzeum musi być aktywna we wszystkich wyżej wymienionych funkcjach. Jednakże chciałbym podkreślić, że Ustawa nie określa jak szeroka powinna być każda z tych funkcji. Jest to całkowicie zrozumiałe, że proporcje funkcji są różne w różnych muzeach. Odnosi się to szczególnie do badań naukowych. W Muzeum Uniwersyteckim badania mogą mieć dominującą funkcję, podczas gdy w muzeach poświęconych zagadnieniom regionalnym badania nierzadko są przeprowadzane tylko podczas dokumentacji zbiorów. Niemniej jednak jeśli uznamy, że wszystkie wystawy i ekspozycje muzealne lub inne formy działalności edukacyjnej są wynikiem badań, to staje się jasne, że bez badań nie można zapewnić funkcji komunikacyjnej muzeum – ani w małych, ani w dużych placówkach. Ustawa nie określa również, kto ma realizować te funkcje muzealne. Od czasu do czasu na Łotwie ożywa dyskusja na temat tego, jak możliwa jest
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profesjonalna działalność muzeum, jeśli muzeum ma tylko jednego pracownika (czasami zatrudnionego jedynie na niepełny etat). Jak jedna osoba może odpowiednio realizować wszystkie podstawowe funkcje muzeum? Odpowiadamy na to pytanie innym pytaniem – dlaczego musi to być wyłącznie stały członek personelu muzeum? Należy się spodziewać, że kultura wolontariatu w muzeach zacznie się rozwijać w naszym kraju, jak również outsourcing usług, zapewniając w ten sposób jakościowy produkt lub usługę. Pojawia się potrzeba usług konsultantów muzealnych na Łotwie, podobnie jak w innych krajach. Jedynym głównym zadaniem pracownika muzeum w tej sytuacji byłoby zapewnienie funkcji komunikacji – praca z odwiedzającymi. Należy przyznać, że patrząc z perspektywy muzeologicznej, muzea obejmują tylko część tego, co jest dziedzictwem kulturowym. Muzealność – określona cecha przypisana obiektowi – może charakteryzować i charakteryzuje o wiele szerszy zakres dziedzictwa kulturowego niż tylko zbiory muzealne. Są również inne instytucje i osoby, które są związane z tworzeniem i rozpoznawaniem dziedzictwa kulturowego. W związku z wyżej wspomnianym rejestrem muzeów, okazało się, że utworzono wiele kolekcji na Łotwie i można obejrzeć liczne wystawy. W oczach zwykłego odwiedzającego lub w rozumieniu konsumenta, zjawiska związane z dziedzictwem kulturowym to często muzea. Takie rozumienie jest również często spotykane u menadżerów i właścicieli tak zwanych muzeów – pracowników miejscowych rad. I kto może ich winić? Może my sami, specjaliści muzealnicy zawiniliśmy, ponieważ, jeśli porównamy muzeum z górą lodową, która szczyci się wystawami, ekspozycjami, uroczystościami i imprezami, które można zobaczyć ponad linią wody, to za mało powiedzieliśmy, pokazaliśmy i wyjaśniliśmy społeczeństwu o niewidocznej części góry lodowej, która jest jej podstawą: podstawą realizowania komunikacji muzeum. W kontekście łotewskiego dziedzictwa kulturowego, muzealnictwo jest najbardziej uporządkowane i przewidywalne, jeśli chodzi o ustawodawstwo, obok sektora zabytków nieruchomych. Ludzie, którzy chcą coś zdziałać na polu dziedzictwa kulturowego znajdują jedyne punkty odniesienia w dziedzinie muzeów i próbują pójść w tym kierunku. Dla specjalistów w tej dziedzinie ważne jest, aby nie zatracić ogólnego spojrzenia i wiedzieć jak nakreślić linię podziału między tym co jest a tym co nie jest muzeum. Powodem tego nie jest arogancja, zazdrość, itp. Realizacja ich funkcji i misji; pozornie nudne, może nawet biurokratyczne prowadzenie rejestru, przechowywanie i konserwacja sprawiły, że przez dziesiątki i setki
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szerne informacje z dużego przekroju muzeów ze wszystkich regionów Łotwy. Otrzymaliśmy nowe informacje, wcześniej nam nieznane, od małych lokalnych rad i instytucji prywatnych – stowarzyszeń, fundacji jak również osób prywatnych. Sporządziliśmy rejestr, do którego odnosiliśmy się, gdy, zgodnie z Ustawą o Muzeach, rozpoczynaliśmy akredytację muzeów. I wtedy pojawił się problem, związany z podstawowym pytaniem – czy instytucja, która chce być akredytowana jest muzeum? Bez określonych kryteriów – zaznaczeń granic – bardzo trudno jest odpowiedzieć na to pytanie i każdy może podać swoją odpowiedź, która nie koniecznie będzie zła. Akredytacja muzeów była praktycznym bodźcem, który skłonił nas do rozważenia tych kryteriów. Definicja pojęcia muzeum w Ustawie o Muzeach zatwierdzonej w 1997 była ogólna i opisowa. Została sformułowana przy użyciu Statutu ICOM i Kodeksu Etyki Zawodowej jako wzorca. Niemniej jednak, definicja ta nie pomogła nam wiele w rozwiązaniu problemu. Dlatego też w 2006 roku, przygotowując poprawione wydanie Ustawy o Muzeach, postanowiliśmy poszerzyć paragraf, który odnosił się do funkcji muzeów: „Muzea spełniają następujące funkcje: 1. Zbieranie, dokumentacja i zachowywanie materialnego oraz nienaruszalnego dziedzictwa kulturalnego i środowiskowego. 2. Badanie zbiorów muzealnych i związanych z nimi informacji. 3. Edukacja społeczeństwa i popularyzacja materialnego oraz nienaruszalnego kulturalnego i przyrodniczego dziedzictwa, poprzez przygotowywanie wystaw i ekspozycji, jak również wykorzystywanie innych metod edukacji i popularyzacji związanych z działalnością muzeów.” Aby instytucja została sklasyfikowana jako muzeum musi być aktywna we wszystkich wyżej wymienionych funkcjach. Jednakże chciałbym podkreślić, że Ustawa nie określa jak szeroka powinna być każda z tych funkcji. Jest to całkowicie zrozumiałe, że proporcje funkcji są różne w różnych muzeach. Odnosi się to szczególnie do badań naukowych. W Muzeum Uniwersyteckim badania mogą mieć dominującą funkcję, podczas gdy w muzeach poświęconych zagadnieniom regionalnym badania nierzadko są przeprowadzane tylko podczas dokumentacji zbiorów. Niemniej jednak jeśli uznamy, że wszystkie wystawy i ekspozycje muzealne lub inne formy działalności edukacyjnej są wynikiem badań, to staje się jasne, że bez badań nie można zapewnić funkcji komunikacyjnej muzeum – ani w małych, ani w dużych placówkach. Ustawa nie określa również, kto ma realizować te funkcje muzealne. Od czasu do czasu na Łotwie ożywa dyskusja na temat tego, jak możliwa jest
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
lat muzea zdołały zachować i wykorzystać dziedzictwo kulturowe zgodnie z zainteresowaniami społeczeństwa. A społeczeństwo ceni to sobie. W przypadku Łotwy chciałbym podać przykłady, które świadczą o pozytywnym stosunku społeczeństwa do muzeów: zainteresowanie różnych grup społecznych tworzeniem nowych muzeów; darowanie muzeom unikatowych dzieł sztuki i przedmiotów wartościowych z historycznego punktu widzenia, w tym często pamiątek rodzinnych oraz wzrastająca liczba odwiedzających muzea. Jednakże, nie można zignorować przykładów, gdy po przejściu na emeryturę nauczyciela historii, tak zwane szkolne muzeum nie znalazło nikogo, kto mógłby kontynuować badania historyczne na lokalnym obszarze i już po kilku latach nikt nie pamiętał, gdzie znajdują się cenne dokumenty czy fotografie podarowane przez ludzi. Osoby pracujące w sektorze muzealnym nie powinny nadużywać zaufania społeczeństwa. Jest to również dla nas główny argument przemawiający za koniecznością wyznaczenia wyraźnej granicy pomiędzy muzeami a innymi rodzajami pracy związanymi z dziedzictwem kulturowym, tak abyśmy mogli przy pomocy standardów muzealnych spróbować zagwarantować profesjonalne, przewidywalne i długofalowe podejście do dziedzictwa kulturowego.
Muzeum Akredytowane
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zy Ustawa o Muzeach, definiując pojęcie muzeum i określając funkcje dla niego charakterystyczne gwarantuje, że słowo muzeum będzie używane tylko i wyłącznie przez prawdziwe muzea? Oczywiście, że nie. Aczkolwiek znanym mechanizmem obronnym profesjonalnych muzeów jest akredytacja, co jest zalecane przez prawo łotewskie w dziedzinie muzeów. Muzeum akredytowane, innymi słowy, jest to instytucja, która została uznana przez państwo. Status muzeum akredytowanego zaczyna stawać się bardziej określony w kontekście życia kulturalnego Łotwy a uzyskanie akredytacji staje się coraz ważniejsze. Na przykład, część budżetu narodowego, który jest rozdzielany cyklicznie przez Państwową Fundację Kapitału Kulturalnego, jest przeznaczona tylko dla muzeów akredytowanych. Jednym z kryteriów, jakie musi spełnić placówka, aby ubiegać się o fundusz rządu norweskiego, który jest przeznaczony na łotewskie dziedzictwo kulturowe, jest status muzeum akredytowanego. W społeczeństwie wzrasta przekonanie, że akredytacja jest gwarancją jakości i profesjonalizmu. Społeczność muzealna również zdaje sobie z tego sprawę. Jeśli akredytacja jest obowiązkowa
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
dla instytucji państwowych i lokalnych, to muzea prywatne mają prawo zdecydować, czy chcą być akredytowane, czy nie. Co roku również placówki prywatne uzyskują status akredytowanych i muszę przyznać, że są to naprawdę poważne instytucje, które myślą o swojej przyszłości i rozumieją znaczenie profesjonalizmu. Analizując mechanizmy i kryteria akredytacji należy rozpocząć od wyjaśnienia, że na Łotwie muzeum kwalifikuje się do akredytacji, jeśli jego działania spełniają podstawowe wymagania lub minimalne standardy. Przygotowując plan akredytacji, oczywiście mieliśmy nadzieję spowodować tym rozwój muzeów i wzrost profesjonalizmu. Niemniej jednak nie mogliśmy ignorować sytuacji obiektywnej: środków dostępnych dla rozwoju muzeów. Dlatego też muzeum akredytowane na Łotwie nie jest czymś specjalnym, wyróżniającym się czy nowoczesnym. Jest to instytucja, która wypełnia swoją misję i uczciwie realizuje swoje funkcje. Akredytacja muzeów przede wszystkim pozwala nam ocenić każdą placówkę i odpowiedzieć na wcześniej postawione pytanie – czy jest to muzeum, czy też nie. Poza tym podstawowym pytaniem ważną kwestią było to, aby nie czekać na gospodarczą zdolność narodu do rozwoju, podczas gdy muzea byłyby w stanie realizować swoje idee bez ograniczeń. Uważaliśmy, że rozwój musi rozpocząć się od udoskonalenia nas samych, że trzeba pracować nad tym, co związane jest z administracją, specjalistami i personelem usługowym. Ważnym komponentem administracji jest samoanaliza pracy muzeum, badanie istniejącej sytuacji i opracowanie strategii rozwoju. Proces akredytacji ukazał, że zasada tak powszechna wśród pracowników – „dajcie nam pieniądze, a pokażemy wam jak pracować” nie zawsze jest tym, o co chodzi. Akredytacja muzeów istnieje na Łotwie od dziesięciu lat i największą satysfakcję daje to, że sami pracownicy są świadomi tego, że jest to bezcenny bodziec do tego, by stać się aktywnym, zorganizowanym – a co za tym idzie – stworzyć warunki dla dalszego rozwoju. Jakie są kryteria otrzymania statusu muzeum akredytowanego? Ustawa o Muzeach mówi: „Muzeum może być akredytowane, jeśli spełnia następujące warunki: 1. Posiada statut muzeum, który został przyjęty przez założyciela. 2. Prowadzony jest spis inwentarzowy zbiorów. 3. Ma siedzibę, sprzęt i system zabezpieczający, które gwarantują zachowanie zbiorów muzealnych. 4. Zapewniony jest dostęp społeczeństwa do zbiorów. 5. Została opracowana strategia doskonalenia pracy muzeum”.
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zy Ustawa o Muzeach, definiując pojęcie muzeum i określając funkcje dla niego charakterystyczne gwarantuje, że słowo muzeum będzie używane tylko i wyłącznie przez prawdziwe muzea? Oczywiście, że nie. Aczkolwiek znanym mechanizmem obronnym profesjonalnych muzeów jest akredytacja, co jest zalecane przez prawo łotewskie w dziedzinie muzeów. Muzeum akredytowane, innymi słowy, jest to instytucja, która została uznana przez państwo. Status muzeum akredytowanego zaczyna stawać się bardziej określony w kontekście życia kulturalnego Łotwy a uzyskanie akredytacji staje się coraz ważniejsze. Na przykład, część budżetu narodowego, który jest rozdzielany cyklicznie przez Państwową Fundację Kapitału Kulturalnego, jest przeznaczona tylko dla muzeów akredytowanych. Jednym z kryteriów, jakie musi spełnić placówka, aby ubiegać się o fundusz rządu norweskiego, który jest przeznaczony na łotewskie dziedzictwo kulturowe, jest status muzeum akredytowanego. W społeczeństwie wzrasta przekonanie, że akredytacja jest gwarancją jakości i profesjonalizmu. Społeczność muzealna również zdaje sobie z tego sprawę. Jeśli akredytacja jest obowiązkowa
C
Muzeum Akredytowane lat muzea zdołały zachować i wykorzystać dziedzictwo kulturowe zgodnie z zainteresowaniami społeczeństwa. A społeczeństwo ceni to sobie. W przypadku Łotwy chciałbym podać przykłady, które świadczą o pozytywnym stosunku społeczeństwa do muzeów: zainteresowanie różnych grup społecznych tworzeniem nowych muzeów; darowanie muzeom unikatowych dzieł sztuki i przedmiotów wartościowych z historycznego punktu widzenia, w tym często pamiątek rodzinnych oraz wzrastająca liczba odwiedzających muzea. Jednakże, nie można zignorować przykładów, gdy po przejściu na emeryturę nauczyciela historii, tak zwane szkolne muzeum nie znalazło nikogo, kto mógłby kontynuować badania historyczne na lokalnym obszarze i już po kilku latach nikt nie pamiętał, gdzie znajdują się cenne dokumenty czy fotografie podarowane przez ludzi. Osoby pracujące w sektorze muzealnym nie powinny nadużywać zaufania społeczeństwa. Jest to również dla nas główny argument przemawiający za koniecznością wyznaczenia wyraźnej granicy pomiędzy muzeami a innymi rodzajami pracy związanymi z dziedzictwem kulturowym, tak abyśmy mogli przy pomocy standardów muzealnych spróbować zagwarantować profesjonalne, przewidywalne i długofalowe podejście do dziedzictwa kulturowego.
269
dla instytucji państwowych i lokalnych, to muzea prywatne mają prawo zdecydować, czy chcą być akredytowane, czy nie. Co roku również placówki prywatne uzyskują status akredytowanych i muszę przyznać, że są to naprawdę poważne instytucje, które myślą o swojej przyszłości i rozumieją znaczenie profesjonalizmu. Analizując mechanizmy i kryteria akredytacji należy rozpocząć od wyjaśnienia, że na Łotwie muzeum kwalifikuje się do akredytacji, jeśli jego działania spełniają podstawowe wymagania lub minimalne standardy. Przygotowując plan akredytacji, oczywiście mieliśmy nadzieję spowodować tym rozwój muzeów i wzrost profesjonalizmu. Niemniej jednak nie mogliśmy ignorować sytuacji obiektywnej: środków dostępnych dla rozwoju muzeów. Dlatego też muzeum akredytowane na Łotwie nie jest czymś specjalnym, wyróżniającym się czy nowoczesnym. Jest to instytucja, która wypełnia swoją misję i uczciwie realizuje swoje funkcje. Akredytacja muzeów przede wszystkim pozwala nam ocenić każdą placówkę i odpowiedzieć na wcześniej postawione pytanie – czy jest to muzeum, czy też nie. Poza tym podstawowym pytaniem ważną kwestią było to, aby nie czekać na gospodarczą zdolność narodu do rozwoju, podczas gdy muzea byłyby w stanie realizować swoje idee bez ograniczeń. Uważaliśmy, że rozwój musi rozpocząć się od udoskonalenia nas samych, że trzeba pracować nad tym, co związane jest z administracją, specjalistami i personelem usługowym. Ważnym komponentem administracji jest samoanaliza pracy muzeum, badanie istniejącej sytuacji i opracowanie strategii rozwoju. Proces akredytacji ukazał, że zasada tak powszechna wśród pracowników – „dajcie nam pieniądze, a pokażemy wam jak pracować” nie zawsze jest tym, o co chodzi. Akredytacja muzeów istnieje na Łotwie od dziesięciu lat i największą satysfakcję daje to, że sami pracownicy są świadomi tego, że jest to bezcenny bodziec do tego, by stać się aktywnym, zorganizowanym – a co za tym idzie – stworzyć warunki dla dalszego rozwoju. Jakie są kryteria otrzymania statusu muzeum akredytowanego? Ustawa o Muzeach mówi: „Muzeum może być akredytowane, jeśli spełnia następujące warunki: 1. Posiada statut muzeum, który został przyjęty przez założyciela. 2. Prowadzony jest spis inwentarzowy zbiorów. 3. Ma siedzibę, sprzęt i system zabezpieczający, które gwarantują zachowanie zbiorów muzealnych. 4. Zapewniony jest dostęp społeczeństwa do zbiorów. 5. Została opracowana strategia doskonalenia pracy muzeum”.
270
Tak więc nacisk w podstawowych wymaganiach jest położony na klarowność kwestii prawnych, spis inwentaryzacyjny zbiorów i bezpieczeństwo. Badawcza i komunikacyjna funkcja muzeum wyrażają się sposobem, w jaki muzeum udostępnia zbiory społeczeństwu. Placówka jest akredytowane na czas określony, dlatego też ważna jest strategia jego rozwoju. Ustawa określa te kryteria, jak również funkcje muzeum raczej w ogólny sposób. Czasem pojawia się pytanie czy kryteria te są idealne do oceny każdego rodzaju muzeum – czy to muzeum o randze państwowej, czy też małej, lokalnej placówki. Od samego początku akredytacji wiadomo było, że konieczne jest jeszcze jedno oznaczenie granicy – to znaczy definicja misji muzeum. Termin misja muzeum przetrwał okres dyskusji, braku zrozumienia, a nawet gwałtownej opozycji i jest obecnie szeroko stosowany wśród pracowników instytucji łotewskich i nabiera poważniejszego znaczenia. Odnosząc się do misji, nie spodziewamy się fraz pięknych i poetyckich, lecz ogólnych. Definicja misji jest związana z charakterem danego muzeum w najbardziej bezpośredni sposób i powinna odpowiadać na następujące pytania: 1. Jaka jest tematyka (profil) i ogólne cele muzeum? 2. Jakie są chronologiczne i geograficzne granice muzeum? 3. Jaka jest docelowa publiczność muzeum? Dobrze przemyślana i uzasadniona misja, zawierająca odpowiedzi na wspomniane wcześniej pytania, przedstawia jasno kwestię, dlaczego muzeum to jest konieczne dla społeczeństwa. Z drugiej strony, jego praktyczna działalność pozwala na ocenę tego, jak funkcje muzealne są zorientowane w danej placówce i jak realizuje ona swoją misję. Misja pokazuje, czy dane muzeum odnalazło swój własny kierunek i wyjątkową niszę pośród łotewskich instytucji. Tylko te placówki, które przeprowadziły poważną analizę i opracowały plan działania, mogą zdefiniować misję, która służy jako narzędzie i punkt odniesienia w różnych aspektach pracy muzealnej, w tym akredytacji.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
społeczeństwa. Nikt inny nie może określać misji muzeum, zamiast niego samego. Skoro podczas wstępnej akredytacji naszym podstawowym zadaniem było określenie, czy wszystkie funkcje charakterystyczne dla muzeum były realizowane, to kolejna akredytacja skłania je do polepszenia jakości. Muzea mają wyznaczać zadania robocze, które są związane z priorytetami polityki kulturalnej państwa. Priorytety te to polepszenie dostępności muzeów i ich potencjału długofalowego rozwoju. Długofalowy rozwój w szczególności jest związany z profesjonalną działalnością placówek, od których wymaga się, aby sformułowały i wsparły konkretami dokumenty dotyczące strategii działania w celu realizacji swoich podstawowych funkcji. Tym razem to muzea muszą wytyczyć oznaczenia granic i określić kryteria, aby one same, ich instytucje zarządzające i oczywiście społeczeństwo mieli jasność co do sposobu, w jaki postępuje się ze zbiorami oraz w jaki prowadzone są badania w danym muzeum i jak realizowana jest komunikacja. Dokumenty te pomagają skoncentrować się na celu i zapewniają profesjonalizm, pozwalając realizować zadanie społeczne, jakim jest inicjowanie pozytywnych zmian w społeczeństwie. Epoka, w której obecnie żyjemy i w której nasze muzea prowadzą działalność, wymaga dokładnie tego rodzaju podejścia. Muzea potrzebują punktów odniesienia, które kierują nas w stronę skutecznego działania, a nie granic, które izolują nas od społeczeństwa. W muzeach łotewskich coraz bardziej aktualne staje się pytanie, czego się spodziewamy – produktu, tzn. wystawy, wykładu, imprezy, czy wyniku, znaczenia, realizacji głównego zadania muzeum – np. wiedzy, którą czerpie odwiedzający z ekspozycji. Używając słów Stephena Weila: „Rezultaty, to te pozytywne zmiany u odbiorców – te wpływy, te inne serca i umysły – które są ostatecznym celem muzeum” [Weil, 2005]. Oczywiście produkty są konieczne do osiągnięcia tego rezultatu. Niemniej jednak, tworząc nasze produkty zbyt często zapominamy o efekcie, który chcemy osiągnąć lub zbadać, czy został osiągnięty. Dokumenty dotyczące polityki muzeum są zewnętrznym bodźcem dla każdeej profesjonalnej instytucji do myślenia nie tylko o produkcie, ale też o efektach.
o takiego wyznacza te oznaczenia granic i znaki drogowe dla łotewskich muzeów? Po pierwsze jest to prawo, które reguluje działalność na tym polu – Ustawa o Muzeach i przepisy wydane przez Radę Ministrów, które z nich wypływają, jak rów-
Następne oznaczenia granic
C
Znaki drogowe
270
Znaki drogowe
M
ając na uwadze oznaczenia granic, które zostały wytyczone dla działalności muzeów przez prawo łotewskie, jestem głęboko przekonany, że działają one bardziej jako znaki drogowe niż ograniczające ramy. Muzea mają same decydować, jak każda z podstawowych funkcji powinna być wypełniona – co i jak kolekcjonować, jak dobierać tematykę badań, jakie formy komunikacji można stosować w odniesieniu do
C
M
o takiego wyznacza te oznaczenia granic i znaki drogowe dla łotewskich muzeów? Po pierwsze jest to prawo, które reguluje działalność na tym polu – Ustawa o Muzeach i przepisy wydane przez Radę Ministrów, które z nich wypływają, jak rów-
Następne oznaczenia granic
społeczeństwa. Nikt inny nie może określać misji muzeum, zamiast niego samego. Skoro podczas wstępnej akredytacji naszym podstawowym zadaniem było określenie, czy wszystkie funkcje charakterystyczne dla muzeum były realizowane, to kolejna akredytacja skłania je do polepszenia jakości. Muzea mają wyznaczać zadania robocze, które są związane z priorytetami polityki kulturalnej państwa. Priorytety te to polepszenie dostępności muzeów i ich potencjału długofalowego rozwoju. Długofalowy rozwój w szczególności jest związany z profesjonalną działalnością placówek, od których wymaga się, aby sformułowały i wsparły konkretami dokumenty dotyczące strategii działania w celu realizacji swoich podstawowych funkcji. Tym razem to muzea muszą wytyczyć oznaczenia granic i określić kryteria, aby one same, ich instytucje zarządzające i oczywiście społeczeństwo mieli jasność co do sposobu, w jaki postępuje się ze zbiorami oraz w jaki prowadzone są badania w danym muzeum i jak realizowana jest komunikacja. Dokumenty te pomagają skoncentrować się na celu i zapewniają profesjonalizm, pozwalając realizować zadanie społeczne, jakim jest inicjowanie pozytywnych zmian w społeczeństwie. Epoka, w której obecnie żyjemy i w której nasze muzea prowadzą działalność, wymaga dokładnie tego rodzaju podejścia. Muzea potrzebują punktów odniesienia, które kierują nas w stronę skutecznego działania, a nie granic, które izolują nas od społeczeństwa. W muzeach łotewskich coraz bardziej aktualne staje się pytanie, czego się spodziewamy – produktu, tzn. wystawy, wykładu, imprezy, czy wyniku, znaczenia, realizacji głównego zadania muzeum – np. wiedzy, którą czerpie odwiedzający z ekspozycji. Używając słów Stephena Weila: „Rezultaty, to te pozytywne zmiany u odbiorców – te wpływy, te inne serca i umysły – które są ostatecznym celem muzeum” [Weil, 2005]. Oczywiście produkty są konieczne do osiągnięcia tego rezultatu. Niemniej jednak, tworząc nasze produkty zbyt często zapominamy o efekcie, który chcemy osiągnąć lub zbadać, czy został osiągnięty. Dokumenty dotyczące polityki muzeum są zewnętrznym bodźcem dla każdeej profesjonalnej instytucji do myślenia nie tylko o produkcie, ale też o efektach.
ając na uwadze oznaczenia granic, które zostały wytyczone dla działalności muzeów przez prawo łotewskie, jestem głęboko przekonany, że działają one bardziej jako znaki drogowe niż ograniczające ramy. Muzea mają same decydować, jak każda z podstawowych funkcji powinna być wypełniona – co i jak kolekcjonować, jak dobierać tematykę badań, jakie formy komunikacji można stosować w odniesieniu do
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Tak więc nacisk w podstawowych wymaganiach jest położony na klarowność kwestii prawnych, spis inwentaryzacyjny zbiorów i bezpieczeństwo. Badawcza i komunikacyjna funkcja muzeum wyrażają się sposobem, w jaki muzeum udostępnia zbiory społeczeństwu. Placówka jest akredytowane na czas określony, dlatego też ważna jest strategia jego rozwoju. Ustawa określa te kryteria, jak również funkcje muzeum raczej w ogólny sposób. Czasem pojawia się pytanie czy kryteria te są idealne do oceny każdego rodzaju muzeum – czy to muzeum o randze państwowej, czy też małej, lokalnej placówki. Od samego początku akredytacji wiadomo było, że konieczne jest jeszcze jedno oznaczenie granicy – to znaczy definicja misji muzeum. Termin misja muzeum przetrwał okres dyskusji, braku zrozumienia, a nawet gwałtownej opozycji i jest obecnie szeroko stosowany wśród pracowników instytucji łotewskich i nabiera poważniejszego znaczenia. Odnosząc się do misji, nie spodziewamy się fraz pięknych i poetyckich, lecz ogólnych. Definicja misji jest związana z charakterem danego muzeum w najbardziej bezpośredni sposób i powinna odpowiadać na następujące pytania: 1. Jaka jest tematyka (profil) i ogólne cele muzeum? 2. Jakie są chronologiczne i geograficzne granice muzeum? 3. Jaka jest docelowa publiczność muzeum? Dobrze przemyślana i uzasadniona misja, zawierająca odpowiedzi na wspomniane wcześniej pytania, przedstawia jasno kwestię, dlaczego muzeum to jest konieczne dla społeczeństwa. Z drugiej strony, jego praktyczna działalność pozwala na ocenę tego, jak funkcje muzealne są zorientowane w danej placówce i jak realizuje ona swoją misję. Misja pokazuje, czy dane muzeum odnalazło swój własny kierunek i wyjątkową niszę pośród łotewskich instytucji. Tylko te placówki, które przeprowadziły poważną analizę i opracowały plan działania, mogą zdefiniować misję, która służy jako narzędzie i punkt odniesienia w różnych aspektach pracy muzealnej, w tym akredytacji.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
nież narodowa polityka kulturalna, np. dokument Nacionālā valsts, zatwierdzony w 2006. Należy zauważyć, że specjaliści z dziedziny muzealnictwa również aktywnie uczestniczyli w opracowaniu tej bazy legislacyjnej. To właśnie Łotewska Rada Muzeów zaproponowała poprawki do Ustawy o Muzeach, czyniąc ją bardziej odpowiednią dla działań profesjonalnych, w tym uznania muzeologicznych i międzynarodowych praktyk muzealnych. Na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych, gdy nasze kraje przeżyły szok polityczny i ekonomiczny, stworzono Ustawę o Muzeach w celu ochrony tej dziedziny przed upadkiem, a szczególne obwarowania i granice wprowadzono w prawodawstwie. Muzea, podobnie jak inne instytucje kulturalne, działają obecnie na bardzo konkurencyjnym rynku. Ponieważ finansowanie ze środków publicznych jest głównym źródłem utrzymania, coraz częściej zadaje się im pytanie o korzyści, jakie muzea oferują dzisiejszemu (a nie mistycznemu, przyszłemu) społeczeństwu. Sądzę, że minął czas, kiedy mogliśmy sobie pozwolić na poświęcenie lat, a nawet dziesięcioleci na wynalezienie naszego własnego koła poprzez praktykę i działanie empiryczne oraz osiągniecie tą drogą profesjonalizmu w działalności muzealnej. Obecnie wszyscy oczekują od placówki natychmiastowego zwrotu inwestycji. A jeśli muzeum nie jest w stanie tego zaoferować, to pojawia sie pytanie: „Dlaczego tracimy na to pieniądze?”
Aby muzea mogły istnieć i być w pełni skuteczne w sferze społecznej, profesjonalizm staje się decydującym czynnikiem. Na Łotwie poświęciliśmy dużo energii w celu stworzenia profesjonalnego systemu edukacji dla pracowników muzeów. Od roku 2000 można uzyskać stopień magistra muzeologii w Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Tym, którzy pracują w muzeach, Państwowa Rada Muzealna oferuje kursy dalszego kształcenia. Przy Państwowej Radzie Muzealnej znajduje się biblioteka zawierająca literaturę muzeologiczną, przeznaczoną do studiów własnych, obejmująca monografie wydane za granicą, jak również naszą własną serię wydawniczą „Bibiloteka Muzeologii”. Specjalnym projektem edukacyjnym jest „Szkoła Muzeologii Bałtyckiej”, w którym pracownicy muzeów z Łotwy, Litwy i Estonii mają sposobność spotkać się ze światowymi sławami muzealnymi, takimi jak: Steven Weil, Martin Scherer, Peter van Mensch, Francoise Mairesse, Anja Dauschek i inni. To, jakie są nasze muzea, gdzie zmierzają, jakie ograniczenia i znaki drogowe wybieramy, w dużym stopniu zależy od profesjonalizmu pracowników. Dlatego też, w sytuacji, gdy hasła o muzeach bez granic brzmią tak świeżo i innowacyjnie, ważne jest też podkreślanie konieczności wytyczania profesjonalnie uzasadnionych granic i punktów odniesienia i ich ważnej roli na drodze usprawnienia działalności muzeum na rzecz społeczeństwa.
Literatura Stransky Z., Wstęp do badań muzeologicznych, Brno, 1995.
Weil S. E., A Success/Failure Matrix for Museums, „Museum News”, January/February, 2005.
Ustawa o Muzeach, Łotwa 2006.
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Ustawa o Muzeach, Łotwa 2006. 1995. Stransky Z., Wstęp do badań muzeologicznych, Brno,
seum News”, January/February, 2005. Weil S. E., A Success/Failure Matrix for Museums, „Mu-
Literatura nież narodowa polityka kulturalna, np. dokument Nacionālā valsts, zatwierdzony w 2006. Należy zauważyć, że specjaliści z dziedziny muzealnictwa również aktywnie uczestniczyli w opracowaniu tej bazy legislacyjnej. To właśnie Łotewska Rada Muzeów zaproponowała poprawki do Ustawy o Muzeach, czyniąc ją bardziej odpowiednią dla działań profesjonalnych, w tym uznania muzeologicznych i międzynarodowych praktyk muzealnych. Na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych, gdy nasze kraje przeżyły szok polityczny i ekonomiczny, stworzono Ustawę o Muzeach w celu ochrony tej dziedziny przed upadkiem, a szczególne obwarowania i granice wprowadzono w prawodawstwie. Muzea, podobnie jak inne instytucje kulturalne, działają obecnie na bardzo konkurencyjnym rynku. Ponieważ finansowanie ze środków publicznych jest głównym źródłem utrzymania, coraz częściej zadaje się im pytanie o korzyści, jakie muzea oferują dzisiejszemu (a nie mistycznemu, przyszłemu) społeczeństwu. Sądzę, że minął czas, kiedy mogliśmy sobie pozwolić na poświęcenie lat, a nawet dziesięcioleci na wynalezienie naszego własnego koła poprzez praktykę i działanie empiryczne oraz osiągniecie tą drogą profesjonalizmu w działalności muzealnej. Obecnie wszyscy oczekują od placówki natychmiastowego zwrotu inwestycji. A jeśli muzeum nie jest w stanie tego zaoferować, to pojawia sie pytanie: „Dlaczego tracimy na to pieniądze?”
Aby muzea mogły istnieć i być w pełni skuteczne w sferze społecznej, profesjonalizm staje się decydującym czynnikiem. Na Łotwie poświęciliśmy dużo energii w celu stworzenia profesjonalnego systemu edukacji dla pracowników muzeów. Od roku 2000 można uzyskać stopień magistra muzeologii w Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Tym, którzy pracują w muzeach, Państwowa Rada Muzealna oferuje kursy dalszego kształcenia. Przy Państwowej Radzie Muzealnej znajduje się biblioteka zawierająca literaturę muzeologiczną, przeznaczoną do studiów własnych, obejmująca monografie wydane za granicą, jak również naszą własną serię wydawniczą „Bibiloteka Muzeologii”. Specjalnym projektem edukacyjnym jest „Szkoła Muzeologii Bałtyckiej”, w którym pracownicy muzeów z Łotwy, Litwy i Estonii mają sposobność spotkać się ze światowymi sławami muzealnymi, takimi jak: Steven Weil, Martin Scherer, Peter van Mensch, Francoise Mairesse, Anja Dauschek i inni. To, jakie są nasze muzea, gdzie zmierzają, jakie ograniczenia i znaki drogowe wybieramy, w dużym stopniu zależy od profesjonalizmu pracowników. Dlatego też, w sytuacji, gdy hasła o muzeach bez granic brzmią tak świeżo i innowacyjnie, ważne jest też podkreślanie konieczności wytyczania profesjonalnie uzasadnionych granic i punktów odniesienia i ich ważnej roli na drodze usprawnienia działalności muzeum na rzecz społeczeństwa.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Autorytet animatora kultury
W dalszej części wykorzystam fragment tekstu: J. Kargul, Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić dylematy? [w:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, pod red. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2001.
Józef Kargul
1
atrybutach i jest realizowana spontanicznie w sposób nieuregulowany z góry. Natomiast wewnątrz stosunków społecznych wynika ona z reguł, określających prawa i obowiązki partnerów, z których jeden uzyskuje prerogatywy władcze zależne od zajmowanej przez niego pozycji społecznej (statusu). Władza ma charakter legitymizowany, a autorytet nie ma charakteru osobistego tylko jest autorytetem pozycji (statusu) [por. Sztompka, dz. cyt., s. 374-375]. Pedagodzy z kolei, przy analizach autorytetu, częściej do odwołują się do filozofii. Katarzyna Olbrycht na przykład zauważa, że wspomniane analizy socjologiczne nie mają odniesień do aksjologii, która jej zdaniem jest jednym z fundamentów autorytetu. W swoich analizach z aprobatą przywołuje poglądy W. Stróżewskiego, który wskazał warunki, jakie powinna spełniać osoba będąca autorytetem. Autorka podkreśla więc, że: „Podstawowym – jest zespolenie wysokiej sprawności w danej dziedzinie z osobowością, kompetencji z urzeczywistnianymi wartościami osobowymi. Autorytet musi być przykładem obiektywnych, ponadprzeciętnych cech, które osiągnęły w nim tak wybitny poziom, że może on być wzorcem, którego naśladowanie gwarantuje osiągnięcie określonych wartości.” [Olbrycht, 2007, s. 31] Sądzę więc, że ten aspekt przy mówieniu o autorytecie animatorów kultury również trzeba uwzględniać, ale proponuję jego analizę z punktu widzenia miejsca, jakie można animatorom teoretycznie wyznaczać w określonej przestrzeni1. Pierwszą z nich jest przestrzeń społeczna, określana przez socjologów jako swoisty „rynek interakcji”, na którym jednostki tworzą więzi społeczne. Sieć zależności i powiązań między
P
roblematykę autorytetu animatorów kultury w tej wypowiedzi będę rozpatrywał w dwóch płaszczyznach. W płaszczyźnie rzeczywistości praktycznej, w której można zauważyć rozmaite procesy i zjawiska w dziedzinie upowszechniania kultury i animacji społeczno-kulturalnej oraz w płaszczyźnie refleksji teoretycznej nad działalnością animatorów kultury. Na początek jednak słów kilka o samym autorytecie jako kategorii pojęciowej. Otóż przyjmuję słownikowe znaczenie tego terminu. W Słowniku języka polskiego znajdujemy wyjaśnienie autorytetu przez podanie dwóch znaczeń: „1. Ogólnie uznana czyjaś powaga, wpływ, znacznie. 2. Człowiek, instytucja, doktryna pismo cieszące się w jakieś dziedzinie lub opinii pewnych ludzi szczególnym uznaniem, poważaniem” [Słownik języka polskiego, 1978, s. 102]. Socjologowie problematykę autorytetu rozpatrują w teoriach wzoru, a w ich ramach w teoriach wpływu [por. Merton, 1892] i/lub w teoriach władzy [por. Sztompka, 2002]. Taką sytuację, kiedy podmiot wywiera wpływ na bardzo zróżnicowane i rozmaite dziedziny, a jego powaga jest powszechnie uznawana, jego znaczenie w socjologicznych teoriach wpływu określa się mianem wpływów polimorficznych. Jeżeli natomiast podmiot wywiera wpływ w jednej, ograniczonej dziedzinie i wpływ ten nie rozprzestrzenia się na inne, wówczas mówi się, że jest to wpływ monomorficzny [Merton, dz. cyt.]. Z kolei autorytet rozpatrywany w teoriach władzy uwidacznia, że elementarną jej odmianą jest wpływ, który – jeżeli jest realizowany za przyzwoleniem i akceptacją drugiej osoby, pozwala na zyskanie formy osobistego autorytetu. Władza ma miejsce w obrębie kontaktu lub interakcji, opiera się na osobistych
atrybutach i jest realizowana spontanicznie w sposób nieuregulowany z góry. Natomiast wewnątrz stosunków społecznych wynika ona z reguł, określających prawa i obowiązki partnerów, z których jeden uzyskuje prerogatywy władcze zależne od zajmowanej przez niego pozycji społecznej (statusu). Władza ma charakter legitymizowany, a autorytet nie ma charakteru osobistego tylko jest autorytetem pozycji (statusu) [por. Sztompka, dz. cyt., s. 374-375]. Pedagodzy z kolei, przy analizach autorytetu, częściej do odwołują się do filozofii. Katarzyna Olbrycht na przykład zauważa, że wspomniane analizy socjologiczne nie mają odniesień do aksjologii, która jej zdaniem jest jednym z fundamentów autorytetu. W swoich analizach z aprobatą przywołuje poglądy W. Stróżewskiego, który wskazał warunki, jakie powinna spełniać osoba będąca autorytetem. Autorka podkreśla więc, że: „Podstawowym – jest zespolenie wysokiej sprawności w danej dziedzinie z osobowością, kompetencji z urzeczywistnianymi wartościami osobowymi. Autorytet musi być przykładem obiektywnych, ponadprzeciętnych cech, które osiągnęły w nim tak wybitny poziom, że może on być wzorcem, którego naśladowanie gwarantuje osiągnięcie określonych wartości.” [Olbrycht, 2007, s. 31] Sądzę więc, że ten aspekt przy mówieniu o autorytecie animatorów kultury również trzeba uwzględniać, ale proponuję jego analizę z punktu widzenia miejsca, jakie można animatorom teoretycznie wyznaczać w określonej przestrzeni1. Pierwszą z nich jest przestrzeń społeczna, określana przez socjologów jako swoisty „rynek interakcji”, na którym jednostki tworzą więzi społeczne. Sieć zależności i powiązań między
P
roblematykę autorytetu animatorów kultury w tej wypowiedzi będę rozpatrywał w dwóch płaszczyznach. W płaszczyźnie rzeczywistości praktycznej, w której można zauważyć rozmaite procesy i zjawiska w dziedzinie upowszechniania kultury i animacji społeczno-kulturalnej oraz w płaszczyźnie refleksji teoretycznej nad działalnością animatorów kultury. Na początek jednak słów kilka o samym autorytecie jako kategorii pojęciowej. Otóż przyjmuję słownikowe znaczenie tego terminu. W Słowniku języka polskiego znajdujemy wyjaśnienie autorytetu przez podanie dwóch znaczeń: „1. Ogólnie uznana czyjaś powaga, wpływ, znacznie. 2. Człowiek, instytucja, doktryna pismo cieszące się w jakieś dziedzinie lub opinii pewnych ludzi szczególnym uznaniem, poważaniem” [Słownik języka polskiego, 1978, s. 102]. Socjologowie problematykę autorytetu rozpatrują w teoriach wzoru, a w ich ramach w teoriach wpływu [por. Merton, 1892] i/lub w teoriach władzy [por. Sztompka, 2002]. Taką sytuację, kiedy podmiot wywiera wpływ na bardzo zróżnicowane i rozmaite dziedziny, a jego powaga jest powszechnie uznawana, jego znaczenie w socjologicznych teoriach wpływu określa się mianem wpływów polimorficznych. Jeżeli natomiast podmiot wywiera wpływ w jednej, ograniczonej dziedzinie i wpływ ten nie rozprzestrzenia się na inne, wówczas mówi się, że jest to wpływ monomorficzny [Merton, dz. cyt.]. Z kolei autorytet rozpatrywany w teoriach władzy uwidacznia, że elementarną jej odmianą jest wpływ, który – jeżeli jest realizowany za przyzwoleniem i akceptacją drugiej osoby, pozwala na zyskanie formy osobistego autorytetu. Władza ma miejsce w obrębie kontaktu lub interakcji, opiera się na osobistych
Józef Kargul pedagog, andragog. Od 1997 profesor zwyczajny Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, od 2006 profesor zwyczajny Dolnośląskiej Szkoły Wyższej. Obszar jego badań obejmuje próbę konstrukcji teorii upowszechniania kultury i animacji społecznokulturalnej oraz teorii edukacji całożyciowej. Dorobek naukowy to ponad 200 publikacji w tym 10 książek (7 autorskich i 3 współautorskie). Od 1999 roku jest organizatorem i kierownikiem naukowym Letniej Szkoły Młodych Andragogów. W latach 2006-2009 redagował cykliczne wydawnictwo naukowe Dyskursy młodych andragogów. Członek wielu organizacji naukowych (Komitetu Nauk Pedagogicznych PAN w latach 19932002), Wrocławskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, Akademickiego Towarzystwa Andragogicznego (członek ZG) oraz rad redakcyjnych czasopism naukowych. Przewodniczący Rady Naukowej Edukacja Dorosłych.
Józef Kargul pedagog, andragog. Od 1997 profesor zwyczajny Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, od 2006 profesor zwyczajny Dolnośląskiej Szkoły Wyższej. Obszar jego badań obejmuje próbę konstrukcji teorii upowszechniania kultury i animacji społecznokulturalnej oraz teorii edukacji całożyciowej. Dorobek naukowy to ponad 200 publikacji w tym 10 książek (7 autorskich i 3 współautorskie). Od 1999 roku jest organizatorem i kierownikiem naukowym Letniej Szkoły Młodych Andragogów. W latach 2006-2009 redagował cykliczne wydawnictwo naukowe Dyskursy młodych andragogów. Członek wielu organizacji naukowych (Komitetu Nauk Pedagogicznych PAN w latach 19932002), Wrocławskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego, Akademickiego Towarzystwa Andragogicznego (członek ZG) oraz rad redakcyjnych czasopism naukowych. Przewodniczący Rady Naukowej Edukacja Dorosłych.
W dalszej części wykorzystam fragment tekstu: J. Kargul, Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić dylematy? [w:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, pod red. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2001.
Józef Kargul
1
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Autorytet animatora kultury
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3) 2
Autorytet animatora kultury
2 Zwróciły na to uwagę A. Kargulowa i K. Ferenz, Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa 1991. Autorki chyba po raz pierwszy w literaturze dla analiz aktywności kulturalnooświatowej oferowanej przez domy kultury proponują spojrzenie na te instytucje jako miejsce szerokich i wielorakich wpływów i procesów o charakterze otwartym i niekontrolowanym, zbliżone do greckiej agory.
jednostkami w dużej mierze wyznacza jednostce szanse poprawienia swojej sytuacji życiowej [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, dz. cyt., s. 28]. Animator kultury działa właśnie w takiej przestrzeni społecznej, pobudzając, stymulując aktywność społeczną lub kulturalną poszczególnych osób, pomagając im samym odkryć swoje twórcze zasoby. Często robi to tworząc jednocześnie warunki do nawiązywania interakcji międzyludzkich, co sprzyja wytworzeniu się całej sieci interakcji społecznych2. W ten sposób powiększają się zasoby stosunków społecznych, które mogą być swoistym społecznym kapitałem. Wbrew potocznemu mniemaniu, kapitał ten pozwala realizować rozmaite, przede wszystkim nieekonomiczne interesy. Takimi interesami jest często radość tworzenia, jaka rodzi się pod wpływem zachęt animatora i dostarcza nowych, nieznanych dotychczas przeżyć. Bowiem nawet sam fakt nawiązania silnych więzi społecznych między osobami uprawiającymi określoną dziedzinę kultury owocuje nawiązaniem przyjacielskich stosunków, a to dla niektórych osób już jest niesłychanie ważnym „interesem”. Działalność i postawa animatorów kultury harmonizuje z „wolnym rynkiem” w tym znaczeniu, że w kontakcie z animatorem ludzie zaczynają wierzyć w swoje talenty, w swoje zdolności, jednocześnie bardzo często uczą się realizować indywidualne pragnienia, co nie przeszkadza w osiąganiu wyniku korzystnego dla grupy. Animator, który ożywi, pobudzi do działania w rozmaitych dziedzinach życia, zaakceptuje każdy pomysł, ułatwi, zachęci, ale nie będzie oceniał, nie podejmie arbitralnych decyzji, nie potępi, nie podda druzgocącej krytyce tego, co spontanicznie ujawni grupa czy indywidualna jednostka, to aktor działający w przestrzeni społecznej, który wprawdzie rzadko ma jasno sformułowany cel, a jeszcze rzadziej spójny zamiar, ale pozwala na spontaniczny rozwój partnerów interakcji i w tym właśnie tkwi jego moc społeczna. Partnerzy interakcji nie mogą zarzucić mu manipulacji, gdyż rozbudzona w nich wiara we własne siły może powodować, że bez oporów wezmą do ręki przysłowiową „wędkę” i będą wiedzieć do czego jest im ona przydatna. Jeżeli zatem taka sytuacja ma miejsce i uczestnicy interakcji zaakceptują luźne propozycje animatora i podejmą wysiłki, aby zmienić swoje dotychczasowe zachowania to będziemy mieli do czynienia z autorytetem osobistym. Animator
oczywiście sprawuje tutaj również władzę nad jednostką lub grupą, ale jest to sprawowanie władzy w wydaniu miękkim, łagodnym, jak pisze P. Sztompka – eleganckim. Animator wywiera wpływ osobisty dzięki konkretnym cechom osobowościowym, potrafi drugą osobę, która okazuje się na to podatna, przekonać do swoich intencji, poprosić, wyperswadować. W tym przypadku autorytet animatora ma wymiar monomorficzny, bowiem wpływa nie na wielki krąg osób, ale indywidualne jednostki lub jednorodne pod jakimś względem grupy. Jeśli jednak zdolności przekonywania byłyby silne do tego stopnia, że wpływ animatora manifestowałby się w zmianach zachowań partnerów interakcji w wielu dziedzinach ich życia, wówczas mielibyśmy do czynienia z autorytetem polimorficznym. Przestrzeń publiczna jest kolejnym obszarem, w którym moim zdaniem można lokować aktywność animatora kultury. Przestrzeń ta definiowana jest przez socjologów jako obszar, na którym toczy się gra o wpływ na sprawy publiczne, o kontrolę nad dobrami i zasobami publicznymi. „Dobra publiczne można zdefiniować jako te dobra, które wytwarzane są i konsumowane zbiorowo, oraz z partycypacji w których nie można wykluczyć żadnej jednostki” [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, dz. cyt., s. 33]. Aktywność w tej przestrzeni rodzi najwięcej sprzeczności i rozmaitych dylematów. Również animator kultury może w swej działalności spotkać się z sytuacjami, a nawet sam wykreować takie, które mają charakter dylematów. Wspomniana poprzednio postawa animatora wyzwalającego zdolności, ożywiającego, zachęcającego, rozpalającego, dodającego sił i odwagi do działania, może wyzwolić w poszczególnych osobach ambicje do realizowania własnych interesów nie tylko wbrew, ale nawet kosztem innych. Tak może być na przykład wówczas, gdy animator prowadzący zespół teatralny dzięki swoim działaniom wydobędzie i ujawni zdolności artystyczne nieśmiałego chłopca, uczestnika zespołu, i z przerażeniem stwierdzi, iż ów uczestnik, początkowo poza grupą, a później w grupie pracującej z animatorem staje się „gwiazdą” starającą się dominować nad innymi a nawet wymuszającą „wyrazy uznania swojej wielkości”. Tak będzie, gdy dziewczyna o postawie życiowej „szarej myszki” uwierzy w swój talent taneczny i domagać się zacznie w agresywny sposób od animatora, aby tylko jej
Józef Kargul
oczywiście sprawuje tutaj również władzę nad jednostką lub grupą, ale jest to sprawowanie władzy w wydaniu miękkim, łagodnym, jak pisze P. Sztompka – eleganckim. Animator wywiera wpływ osobisty dzięki konkretnym cechom osobowościowym, potrafi drugą osobę, która okazuje się na to podatna, przekonać do swoich intencji, poprosić, wyperswadować. W tym przypadku autorytet animatora ma wymiar monomorficzny, bowiem wpływa nie na wielki krąg osób, ale indywidualne jednostki lub jednorodne pod jakimś względem grupy. Jeśli jednak zdolności przekonywania byłyby silne do tego stopnia, że wpływ animatora manifestowałby się w zmianach zachowań partnerów interakcji w wielu dziedzinach ich życia, wówczas mielibyśmy do czynienia z autorytetem polimorficznym. Przestrzeń publiczna jest kolejnym obszarem, w którym moim zdaniem można lokować aktywność animatora kultury. Przestrzeń ta definiowana jest przez socjologów jako obszar, na którym toczy się gra o wpływ na sprawy publiczne, o kontrolę nad dobrami i zasobami publicznymi. „Dobra publiczne można zdefiniować jako te dobra, które wytwarzane są i konsumowane zbiorowo, oraz z partycypacji w których nie można wykluczyć żadnej jednostki” [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, dz. cyt., s. 33]. Aktywność w tej przestrzeni rodzi najwięcej sprzeczności i rozmaitych dylematów. Również animator kultury może w swej działalności spotkać się z sytuacjami, a nawet sam wykreować takie, które mają charakter dylematów. Wspomniana poprzednio postawa animatora wyzwalającego zdolności, ożywiającego, zachęcającego, rozpalającego, dodającego sił i odwagi do działania, może wyzwolić w poszczególnych osobach ambicje do realizowania własnych interesów nie tylko wbrew, ale nawet kosztem innych. Tak może być na przykład wówczas, gdy animator prowadzący zespół teatralny dzięki swoim działaniom wydobędzie i ujawni zdolności artystyczne nieśmiałego chłopca, uczestnika zespołu, i z przerażeniem stwierdzi, iż ów uczestnik, początkowo poza grupą, a później w grupie pracującej z animatorem staje się „gwiazdą” starającą się dominować nad innymi a nawet wymuszającą „wyrazy uznania swojej wielkości”. Tak będzie, gdy dziewczyna o postawie życiowej „szarej myszki” uwierzy w swój talent taneczny i domagać się zacznie w agresywny sposób od animatora, aby tylko jej
Józef Kargul
273
Autorytet animatora kultury
jednostkami w dużej mierze wyznacza jednostce szanse poprawienia swojej sytuacji życiowej [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, dz. cyt., s. 28]. Animator kultury działa właśnie w takiej przestrzeni społecznej, pobudzając, stymulując aktywność społeczną lub kulturalną poszczególnych osób, pomagając im samym odkryć swoje twórcze zasoby. Często robi to tworząc jednocześnie warunki do nawiązywania interakcji międzyludzkich, co sprzyja wytworzeniu się całej sieci interakcji społecznych2. W ten sposób powiększają się zasoby stosunków społecznych, które mogą być swoistym społecznym kapitałem. Wbrew potocznemu mniemaniu, kapitał ten pozwala realizować rozmaite, przede wszystkim nieekonomiczne interesy. Takimi interesami jest często radość tworzenia, jaka rodzi się pod wpływem zachęt animatora i dostarcza nowych, nieznanych dotychczas przeżyć. Bowiem nawet sam fakt nawiązania silnych więzi społecznych między osobami uprawiającymi określoną dziedzinę kultury owocuje nawiązaniem przyjacielskich stosunków, a to dla niektórych osób już jest niesłychanie ważnym „interesem”. Działalność i postawa animatorów kultury harmonizuje z „wolnym rynkiem” w tym znaczeniu, że w kontakcie z animatorem ludzie zaczynają wierzyć w swoje talenty, w swoje zdolności, jednocześnie bardzo często uczą się realizować indywidualne pragnienia, co nie przeszkadza w osiąganiu wyniku korzystnego dla grupy. Animator, który ożywi, pobudzi do działania w rozmaitych dziedzinach życia, zaakceptuje każdy pomysł, ułatwi, zachęci, ale nie będzie oceniał, nie podejmie arbitralnych decyzji, nie potępi, nie podda druzgocącej krytyce tego, co spontanicznie ujawni grupa czy indywidualna jednostka, to aktor działający w przestrzeni społecznej, który wprawdzie rzadko ma jasno sformułowany cel, a jeszcze rzadziej spójny zamiar, ale pozwala na spontaniczny rozwój partnerów interakcji i w tym właśnie tkwi jego moc społeczna. Partnerzy interakcji nie mogą zarzucić mu manipulacji, gdyż rozbudzona w nich wiara we własne siły może powodować, że bez oporów wezmą do ręki przysłowiową „wędkę” i będą wiedzieć do czego jest im ona przydatna. Jeżeli zatem taka sytuacja ma miejsce i uczestnicy interakcji zaakceptują luźne propozycje animatora i podejmą wysiłki, aby zmienić swoje dotychczasowe zachowania to będziemy mieli do czynienia z autorytetem osobistym. Animator
Zwróciły na to uwagę A. Kargulowa i K. Ferenz, Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności kulturalno-oświatowej, Warszawa 1991. Autorki chyba po raz pierwszy w literaturze dla analiz aktywności kulturalnooświatowej oferowanej przez domy kultury proponują spojrzenie na te instytucje jako miejsce szerokich i wielorakich wpływów i procesów o charakterze otwartym i niekontrolowanym, zbliżone do greckiej agory.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
273
nostkom i grupom zarówno możliwości działania, jak i stwarza warunki ograniczające te możliwości. Jednakże występuje zasadnicza odmienność roli instytucji w tak zwanych okresach stabilnych i okresach radykalnych zmian. „W pierwszej z tych sytuacji instytucje pełnią role ograniczającą dla prowadzenia na różnych poziomach życia społecznego gier. W sytuacji drugiej, sama gra toczy się o kształt owych gier. Instytucje z roli ogranicznika i stabilizatora gry wchodzą w role przedmiotu i celu tej gry” [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, dz. cyt., s. 39]. Takie gry o zasady gry, w przypadku animacji kulturalnej miały miejsce pierwszym okresie przemian ustrojowych na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych i na dobrą sprawę trwają do dnia dzisiejszego. W dalszym ciągu, już po roku 2000, możemy obserwować, jak odziedziczony system instytucjonalnego upowszechniania kultury w postaci domów kultury, klubów czy świetlic regulujący zachowania aktorów jest jeszcze tak silny, że zatrudnieni w wymienionych instytucjach pracownicy działają w nich standardowo, rutynowo, organizując identyczne formy uczestnictwa w kulturze jak w okresie PRL-u, ujawniając niezmienioną postawę wobec swoich zadań zawodowych3. Ale jednocześnie w tych instytucjach pojawiają się animatorzy, którzy współzawodniczą z innymi pracownikami starając się, aby ich strategie i zachowania były aprobowane, aby uzyskiwały społeczne wzmocnienia. Tworzy się zatem nowa jakość instytucji kulturalnej, w której równolegle mają miejsce dwa zachowania – z jednej strony grupy pracowników – ekspansja i sterowanie zachowaniami uczestników z silnymi tendencjami do narzucania, kierowania i kontrolowania, z drugiej strony – animatorów kultury. Interakcje między animatorami i uczestnikami oparte są na poszanowaniu suwerenności podmiotów i uznaniu ich autonomii. Interakcje te przybierają postać dyskursu, a strategie zachowania animatora mają charakter komunikacyjny, w których dominuje inspirowanie, uzgadnianie, wspieranie, współpraca, sprzyjanie [por. Schindler, 2000]. Można zatem powiedzieć, że w obecnej sytuacji w dalszym ciągu toczy się permanentna gra o grę w instytucjach kultury i jedni aktorzy pragną, aby był to tradycyjny dom kultury, inni natomiast chcą stworzyć ośrodek animacji społeczno-kulturalnej, w którym ma miejsce twórcza aktywność, a nie behawiorystyczny trening, wspieranie jednostkowego rozwoju, a nie kolektywizm działania,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
poświęcał czas i prowadził intensywny trening, bowiem ona postanowiła zwyciężyć w konkursie tanecznym lub wówczas, gdy grupa artystyczna młodzieży tak się zafascynuje pracą, a może lepiej przebywaniem w swoim towarzystwie w ośrodku kultury, że będzie domagała się w sposób obcesowy od kierownictwa, aby zlikwidował „klub seniora” a pomieszczenie po nim przekazał do jej wyłącznego użytku. Podobnych dylematów jest wiele w życiu społecznym, w kręgu pracy animatora, a ich opisów dostarcza nam zarówno obserwacja, jak i codzienna prasa. Opisy te świadczą, że w tym przypadku mechanizm wolnego rynku jest najmniej efektywny w tym znaczeniu, że rynek rodzi popyt na określone usługi, usługi te zgodnie z prawami rynku są wykonywane i przez to zostają zaspokojone potrzeby określonych jednostek lub grup społecznych, ale uboczne skutki procesu zaspokajania potrzeb rodzą sytuacje konfliktowe. Jeśli animator zdobył wśród tych osób autorytet osobisty, nie tylko w dziedzinie fachowej, ale i w sferze moralnej, wówczas z rozwiązywaniem konfliktów nie będzie miał trudności. Gorzej, jeśli takiego autorytetu nie ma. Wówczas sam animator może przeżywać poważny dylemat. Może bowiem wykorzystać swoje prerogatywy władcze wynikające ze statusu, czyli wykorzystać autorytet pozycji społecznej. Oto bowiem z racji swoich kompetencji, bądź z tytułu zatrudnienia w jakieś instytucji „ma przypisaną możliwość decydowania za innych, żądania czegoś od innych, wydawania im poleceń, rozkazów, a w razie potrzeby przymuszania do posłuszeństwa” [Sztompka, dz. cyt., s. 375]. Mając więc takie prerogatywy, w krótkim czasie może rozwiązać konflikt. Problem jednak leży w tym, że skorzystanie w nich podważy ideę animacji. Od tego jak rodzące przez codzienność rozmaite dylematy animator będzie rozwiązywał zależeć będzie albo wzmocnienie autorytetu osobistego, albo jego osłabienie, a nawet utrata. Nieco inaczej przedstawia się kwestia działania animatorów, jeżeli ulokujemy je w przestrzeni instytucjonalnej. Przestrzeń ta oznacza obszar, w którym dokonuje się utrwalanie reguł działania. Reguły te tworzone są w dwojaki sposób albo na poziomie makropolitycznym i wówczas jednostki mniej lub bardziej aktywnie się do nich dostosowują, albo są to reguły tworzone w codziennych praktykach jednostek, grup społecznych i organizacji. Przestrzeń instytucjonalna umożliwia jed-
274
Przykładem może być organizowanie wielkich imprez propagandowych od lat realizowanych wedle jednego scenariusza, które różnicuje jedynie treść – przedmiot propagandy.
Przykładem może być organizowanie wielkich imprez propagandowych od lat realizowanych wedle jednego scenariusza, które różnicuje jedynie treść – przedmiot propagandy.
3
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3) 3
nostkom i grupom zarówno możliwości działania, jak i stwarza warunki ograniczające te możliwości. Jednakże występuje zasadnicza odmienność roli instytucji w tak zwanych okresach stabilnych i okresach radykalnych zmian. „W pierwszej z tych sytuacji instytucje pełnią role ograniczającą dla prowadzenia na różnych poziomach życia społecznego gier. W sytuacji drugiej, sama gra toczy się o kształt owych gier. Instytucje z roli ogranicznika i stabilizatora gry wchodzą w role przedmiotu i celu tej gry” [Giza-Poleszczuk, Marody, Rychard, dz. cyt., s. 39]. Takie gry o zasady gry, w przypadku animacji kulturalnej miały miejsce pierwszym okresie przemian ustrojowych na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych i na dobrą sprawę trwają do dnia dzisiejszego. W dalszym ciągu, już po roku 2000, możemy obserwować, jak odziedziczony system instytucjonalnego upowszechniania kultury w postaci domów kultury, klubów czy świetlic regulujący zachowania aktorów jest jeszcze tak silny, że zatrudnieni w wymienionych instytucjach pracownicy działają w nich standardowo, rutynowo, organizując identyczne formy uczestnictwa w kulturze jak w okresie PRL-u, ujawniając niezmienioną postawę wobec swoich zadań zawodowych3. Ale jednocześnie w tych instytucjach pojawiają się animatorzy, którzy współzawodniczą z innymi pracownikami starając się, aby ich strategie i zachowania były aprobowane, aby uzyskiwały społeczne wzmocnienia. Tworzy się zatem nowa jakość instytucji kulturalnej, w której równolegle mają miejsce dwa zachowania – z jednej strony grupy pracowników – ekspansja i sterowanie zachowaniami uczestników z silnymi tendencjami do narzucania, kierowania i kontrolowania, z drugiej strony – animatorów kultury. Interakcje między animatorami i uczestnikami oparte są na poszanowaniu suwerenności podmiotów i uznaniu ich autonomii. Interakcje te przybierają postać dyskursu, a strategie zachowania animatora mają charakter komunikacyjny, w których dominuje inspirowanie, uzgadnianie, wspieranie, współpraca, sprzyjanie [por. Schindler, 2000]. Można zatem powiedzieć, że w obecnej sytuacji w dalszym ciągu toczy się permanentna gra o grę w instytucjach kultury i jedni aktorzy pragną, aby był to tradycyjny dom kultury, inni natomiast chcą stworzyć ośrodek animacji społeczno-kulturalnej, w którym ma miejsce twórcza aktywność, a nie behawiorystyczny trening, wspieranie jednostkowego rozwoju, a nie kolektywizm działania,
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poświęcał czas i prowadził intensywny trening, bowiem ona postanowiła zwyciężyć w konkursie tanecznym lub wówczas, gdy grupa artystyczna młodzieży tak się zafascynuje pracą, a może lepiej przebywaniem w swoim towarzystwie w ośrodku kultury, że będzie domagała się w sposób obcesowy od kierownictwa, aby zlikwidował „klub seniora” a pomieszczenie po nim przekazał do jej wyłącznego użytku. Podobnych dylematów jest wiele w życiu społecznym, w kręgu pracy animatora, a ich opisów dostarcza nam zarówno obserwacja, jak i codzienna prasa. Opisy te świadczą, że w tym przypadku mechanizm wolnego rynku jest najmniej efektywny w tym znaczeniu, że rynek rodzi popyt na określone usługi, usługi te zgodnie z prawami rynku są wykonywane i przez to zostają zaspokojone potrzeby określonych jednostek lub grup społecznych, ale uboczne skutki procesu zaspokajania potrzeb rodzą sytuacje konfliktowe. Jeśli animator zdobył wśród tych osób autorytet osobisty, nie tylko w dziedzinie fachowej, ale i w sferze moralnej, wówczas z rozwiązywaniem konfliktów nie będzie miał trudności. Gorzej, jeśli takiego autorytetu nie ma. Wówczas sam animator może przeżywać poważny dylemat. Może bowiem wykorzystać swoje prerogatywy władcze wynikające ze statusu, czyli wykorzystać autorytet pozycji społecznej. Oto bowiem z racji swoich kompetencji, bądź z tytułu zatrudnienia w jakieś instytucji „ma przypisaną możliwość decydowania za innych, żądania czegoś od innych, wydawania im poleceń, rozkazów, a w razie potrzeby przymuszania do posłuszeństwa” [Sztompka, dz. cyt., s. 375]. Mając więc takie prerogatywy, w krótkim czasie może rozwiązać konflikt. Problem jednak leży w tym, że skorzystanie w nich podważy ideę animacji. Od tego jak rodzące przez codzienność rozmaite dylematy animator będzie rozwiązywał zależeć będzie albo wzmocnienie autorytetu osobistego, albo jego osłabienie, a nawet utrata. Nieco inaczej przedstawia się kwestia działania animatorów, jeżeli ulokujemy je w przestrzeni instytucjonalnej. Przestrzeń ta oznacza obszar, w którym dokonuje się utrwalanie reguł działania. Reguły te tworzone są w dwojaki sposób albo na poziomie makropolitycznym i wówczas jednostki mniej lub bardziej aktywnie się do nich dostosowują, albo są to reguły tworzone w codziennych praktykach jednostek, grup społecznych i organizacji. Przestrzeń instytucjonalna umożliwia jed-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
emancypacja jednostki, a nie przystosowanie do wymagań podmiotu zewnętrznego, współudział w podejmowaniu decyzji, a nie autorytarne kierowanie, gotowość reagowania na ujawniane indywidualne potrzeby, a nie wymuszanie rezygnacji z nich w imię „dobra ogółu”. Empirycznych dowodów na wspomniane permanentne „gry o grę”, toczone współcześnie przez animatorów między sobą, między nimi i uczestnikami, między nimi i przedstawicielami władzy, dostarczyły badania, których wyniki przedstawione są w monografii pt.: Z prądem i pod prąd [Kargul, Słowińska, Gancarz, 2004]. Z badań tych wynika, że na wypracowanie reguł gry nie zawsze mają wpływ animatorzy, którzy wprawdzie mają autorytet osobisty, ale jest to autorytet o charakterze monomorficznym, który nie przekłada się na możliwość wywierania wpływu na przedstawicieli rozmaitych instytucji w społecznościach lokalnych. Zwycięzcami są osoby z autorytetem osobistym o charakterze polimorficznym, ale dopóty, dopóki nie pojawi się inna osoba, niekoniecznie będąca animatorem, wywierająca również wpływ polimorficzny na szerszą zbiorowość. Wówczas animator musi się zmierzyć z konkurentem, a wynik tej konfrontacji nie zawsze jest dla animatora korzystny. Chyba, że animator ma autorytet charyzmatyczny. Charyzmę socjologowie określają jako „zdefiniowanie i zinterpretowanie pewnych zdolności, talentów czy umiejętności jednostki jako niezwykłych, nadzwyczajnych wręcz ponadludzkich. Pewne walory jednostki – moralne, intelektualne, organizatorskie, przywódcze – zostają dostrzeżone, uwypuklone, wyidealizowane przez zbiorowość, które stają się w tym czasie bazą społeczną charyzmy. Nikt nie posiada charyzmy sam w sobie, lecz dopiero wtedy, gdy znajdzie zwolenników, wyznawców, fanów, wielbicieli, wiernych. Aby zyskać charyzmę, trzeba porwać, pociągnąć za sobą, uwieść innych [...] zdobyć rezonans społeczny. Takie przypisanie jednostce charyzmy oznacza nadanie jej uprawnień do decydowania za zbiorowość i zarazem gotowość bezrefleksyjnego podporządkowania się jej decyzjom” [Sztompka, dz. cyt., s. 379]. W związku z tym K. Olbrycht zgłasza bardzo trafną uwagę, że: „Trzeba jednak równocześnie pamiętać, że autorytet charyzmatyczny często bywa podejrzewany, i to nie bez podstaw, o stosowanie
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
w rzeczywistości własnego „ukrytego programu” służącego zdobywaniu władzy nad innymi łatwo podporządkowującymi się, uciekającymi od odpowiedzialności” [Olbrycht, dz. cyt, s. 31]. Zachodzi zatem pytanie, czy animator mając nawet autorytet charyzmatyczny, działając w przestrzeni instytucjonalnej winien za wszelką cenę starać się wygrać kształt tej instytucji wedle swojej wizji, ponieważ jest przekonany, że tylko duch działań animacyjnych i postawa animacji każdego aktora może zapewnić poszczególnym uczestnikom autentyczne, aktywne, i twórcze uczestnictwo w kulturze, czy też winien grać o to, by on sam i jego zwolennicy, mieli zagwarantowane miejsce do bycia z sobą, na równi z innymi aktorami społecznymi, których działania mogą przynieść równie wartościowe skutki obserwowane zarówno na płaszczyźnie indywidualnych doznań i przeżyć, jak i w przestrzeni społecznej. Czy za wszelką cenę starać się realizować cel animacji, jakim jest wspieranie aktywnej roli człowieka, który w przestrzeni społecznej spełnia się poprzez wybory wartości spośród szerokiego ich repertuaru oferowanego przez rynek i poprzez poszukiwanie dla nich własnych form ekspresji, czy też zaakceptować pogląd, że są ludzie zewnątrzsterowni, którzy mogą się rozwijać jedynie wówczas, gdy zewnętrzny podmiot nie tylko nakreśli im drogę rozwoju, ale również dokładnie przedstawi strategię pokonania jej poszczególnych odcinków i będzie systematycznie kontrolował, czy wędrowiec nie zbacza z wytyczonej trasy. Osobiście opowiadam się za pluralizmem ofert aktywności kulturalnej i upatruję wielką wartość zarówno w ofercie proponowanej przez pracowników kulturalno-oświatowych, jak i animatorów kultury. W pierwszym przypadku mamy bowiem do czynienia z istnieniem człowieka w kulturze, a w drugim z intensywnością istnienia indywidualnej jednostki w określonej kulturze wspieranej przez animatora w pełnieniu przez nią podmiotowej i aktywnej roli i spełniania się poprzez własną działalność oraz wybory określonych wartości spośród oferowanego kulturowego repertuaru i poprzez szukanie dla nich własnych form ekspresji. Mam nadzieję, że takie postrzeganie własnej roli społecznej przez animatorów kultury pozwoli im unikać wikłania się w sytuacje o charakterze dylematów.
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emancypacja jednostki, a nie przystosowanie do wymagań podmiotu zewnętrznego, współudział w podejmowaniu decyzji, a nie autorytarne kierowanie, gotowość reagowania na ujawniane indywidualne potrzeby, a nie wymuszanie rezygnacji z nich w imię „dobra ogółu”. Empirycznych dowodów na wspomniane permanentne „gry o grę”, toczone współcześnie przez animatorów między sobą, między nimi i uczestnikami, między nimi i przedstawicielami władzy, dostarczyły badania, których wyniki przedstawione są w monografii pt.: Z prądem i pod prąd [Kargul, Słowińska, Gancarz, 2004]. Z badań tych wynika, że na wypracowanie reguł gry nie zawsze mają wpływ animatorzy, którzy wprawdzie mają autorytet osobisty, ale jest to autorytet o charakterze monomorficznym, który nie przekłada się na możliwość wywierania wpływu na przedstawicieli rozmaitych instytucji w społecznościach lokalnych. Zwycięzcami są osoby z autorytetem osobistym o charakterze polimorficznym, ale dopóty, dopóki nie pojawi się inna osoba, niekoniecznie będąca animatorem, wywierająca również wpływ polimorficzny na szerszą zbiorowość. Wówczas animator musi się zmierzyć z konkurentem, a wynik tej konfrontacji nie zawsze jest dla animatora korzystny. Chyba, że animator ma autorytet charyzmatyczny. Charyzmę socjologowie określają jako „zdefiniowanie i zinterpretowanie pewnych zdolności, talentów czy umiejętności jednostki jako niezwykłych, nadzwyczajnych wręcz ponadludzkich. Pewne walory jednostki – moralne, intelektualne, organizatorskie, przywódcze – zostają dostrzeżone, uwypuklone, wyidealizowane przez zbiorowość, które stają się w tym czasie bazą społeczną charyzmy. Nikt nie posiada charyzmy sam w sobie, lecz dopiero wtedy, gdy znajdzie zwolenników, wyznawców, fanów, wielbicieli, wiernych. Aby zyskać charyzmę, trzeba porwać, pociągnąć za sobą, uwieść innych [...] zdobyć rezonans społeczny. Takie przypisanie jednostce charyzmy oznacza nadanie jej uprawnień do decydowania za zbiorowość i zarazem gotowość bezrefleksyjnego podporządkowania się jej decyzjom” [Sztompka, dz. cyt., s. 379]. W związku z tym K. Olbrycht zgłasza bardzo trafną uwagę, że: „Trzeba jednak równocześnie pamiętać, że autorytet charyzmatyczny często bywa podejrzewany, i to nie bez podstaw, o stosowanie
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w rzeczywistości własnego „ukrytego programu” służącego zdobywaniu władzy nad innymi łatwo podporządkowującymi się, uciekającymi od odpowiedzialności” [Olbrycht, dz. cyt, s. 31]. Zachodzi zatem pytanie, czy animator mając nawet autorytet charyzmatyczny, działając w przestrzeni instytucjonalnej winien za wszelką cenę starać się wygrać kształt tej instytucji wedle swojej wizji, ponieważ jest przekonany, że tylko duch działań animacyjnych i postawa animacji każdego aktora może zapewnić poszczególnym uczestnikom autentyczne, aktywne, i twórcze uczestnictwo w kulturze, czy też winien grać o to, by on sam i jego zwolennicy, mieli zagwarantowane miejsce do bycia z sobą, na równi z innymi aktorami społecznymi, których działania mogą przynieść równie wartościowe skutki obserwowane zarówno na płaszczyźnie indywidualnych doznań i przeżyć, jak i w przestrzeni społecznej. Czy za wszelką cenę starać się realizować cel animacji, jakim jest wspieranie aktywnej roli człowieka, który w przestrzeni społecznej spełnia się poprzez wybory wartości spośród szerokiego ich repertuaru oferowanego przez rynek i poprzez poszukiwanie dla nich własnych form ekspresji, czy też zaakceptować pogląd, że są ludzie zewnątrzsterowni, którzy mogą się rozwijać jedynie wówczas, gdy zewnętrzny podmiot nie tylko nakreśli im drogę rozwoju, ale również dokładnie przedstawi strategię pokonania jej poszczególnych odcinków i będzie systematycznie kontrolował, czy wędrowiec nie zbacza z wytyczonej trasy. Osobiście opowiadam się za pluralizmem ofert aktywności kulturalnej i upatruję wielką wartość zarówno w ofercie proponowanej przez pracowników kulturalno-oświatowych, jak i animatorów kultury. W pierwszym przypadku mamy bowiem do czynienia z istnieniem człowieka w kulturze, a w drugim z intensywnością istnienia indywidualnej jednostki w określonej kulturze wspieranej przez animatora w pełnieniu przez nią podmiotowej i aktywnej roli i spełniania się poprzez własną działalność oraz wybory określonych wartości spośród oferowanego kulturowego repertuaru i poprzez szukanie dla nich własnych form ekspresji. Mam nadzieję, że takie postrzeganie własnej roli społecznej przez animatorów kultury pozwoli im unikać wikłania się w sytuacje o charakterze dylematów.
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Literatura Giza-Poleszczuk A., Marody M., Rychard A., Strategie i system, Warszawa 2002. Kargul J. Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić dylematy? [w:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, pod red. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS, Lublin 2001. Kargul J., Słowińska S., Gancarz M., Z prądem i pod prąd. Lubuskie instytucje kultury w nowym ładzie społecznym, Oficyna Wydawnicza U.Z., Zielona Góra, 2004. Kargulowa A., Ferenz K., Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności
Merton R. K., Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna, PWN Warszawa 1982. Olbrycht K., O roli przykładu, wzoru, autorytetu mistrza w wychowaniu osobowym, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń, 2007. Schindler A., O istocie animacji [w:] Animacja społeczno-kulturalna wobec przemian cywilizacyjnych. Animacja – animator i jego kształcenie, pod red. K. Hrycyk, Wrocław 2000. Słownik języka polskiego, pod red. M. Szymczaka, PWN Warszawa 1978. Sztompka P., Socjologia. Analiza społeczeństwa, Wydawnictwo Znak, 2002.
kulturalno-oświatowej, COMUK Warszawa 1991.
kulturalno-oświatowej, COMUK Warszawa 1991. W poszukiwaniu szans dla poradnictwa w działalności Góra, 2004. społecznym, Oficyna Wydawnicza U.Z., Zielona prąd. Lubuskie instytucje kultury w nowym ładzie Kargul J., Słowińska S., Gancarz M., Z prądem i pod Lublin 2001. red. J. Gajdy i W. Żardeckiego, Wydawnictwo UMCS, dylematy? [w:] Dylematy animacji kulturalnej, pod Kargul J. Czy działalność animatorów kultury może rodzić i system, Warszawa 2002. Giza-Poleszczuk A., Marody M., Rychard A., Strategie
Literatura
dawnictwo Znak, 2002. Sztompka P., Socjologia. Analiza społeczeństwa, WyWarszawa 1978. Słownik języka polskiego, pod red. M. Szymczaka, PWN Hrycyk, Wrocław 2000. Animacja – animator i jego kształcenie, pod red. K. no-kulturalna wobec przemian cywilizacyjnych. Schindler A., O istocie animacji [w:] Animacja społeczMarszałek, Toruń, 2007. w wychowaniu osobowym, Wydawnictwo Adam Olbrycht K., O roli przykładu, wzoru, autorytetu mistrza PWN Warszawa 1982. Merton R. K., Teoria socjologiczna i struktura społeczna, Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Kargulowa A., Ferenz K., Społeczny kontekst poradnictwa.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
orządkowanie wiedzy o naszym świecie było i jest nadal klasyczną cnotą nauki i filozofii. Już Arystoteles (ok. 384 do 322 p.n.e.), średniowieczna scholastyka na czele z Tomaszem z Akwinu (1225 do 1274) i inni, jak Arthur Schopenhauer (1778 do 1860), zastanawiali się nad sposobami przekazywania wiedzy społeczeństwu, nad sposobem wielokrotnego opisywania przedmiotu, a tym samym dokumentowania go w sposób zróżnicowany, z uwzględnieniem indywidualnych potrzeb użytkownika. Najlepiej można to przedstawić na zasłyszanym przykładzie dotyczącym książek kucharskich. Istnieje wiele różnych książek kucharskich. Skierowane są one do różnego rodzaju grup czytelników i spotykają się w zależności od ich osobistych sympatii z aprobatą lub dezaprobatą. MM Dla teoretyków: Te książki kucharskie zostały napisane przez fizyków wzgl. chemików. W centrum zainteresowania znajdują się tutaj procesy fizyczne i chemiczne zachodzące podczas przygotowywaniu posiłków i ich przetwarzania w organizmie po spożyciu. Jeśli została zrozumiana fizyczno-chemiczna zasada tych procesów, to posiadają oni odpowiadającą ich sposobowi myślenia podstawę do przygotowywania posiłków. MM Dla formalistów: W centrum zainteresowania innych książek kucharskich znajdują się zasady dotyczące gotowania. Wystarczy przestrzegać ich jak algorytmów, a powstaną „zaprogramowane” wcześniej przysmaki. Kucharze, dla których ważne są zasady gotowania, będą preferować tego typu książki. MM Dla klasyfikatorów: W innych z kolei książkach kucharskich na plan pierwszy wysuwają się nie zasady dotyczące obróbki produktów, lecz składniki, a więc nie reguły dotyczące przebiegu procesu, tylko przepisy kucharskie uwzględniające konkretne ilości. Kucharze preferujący tego typu książki myślą w kategoriach zróżnicowania materiałowego.
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Dla dusz towarzystwa: W jeszcze innych książkach kucharskich najwięcej uwagi poświęca się specjalnym okazjom: urodzinom, świętom spędzanym w rodzinnym gronie, weekendom z przyjaciółmi itd. Tego rodzaju książki kucharskie kształtowane są według zasad wzbudzania motywacji. Na osobie z nich korzystającej wywierają wrażenie kompozycje dań przygotowywanych na specjalne okazje. Każdy rodzaj książki kucharskiej przyciąga swoją własną klientelę, a w obrębie każdej z tych grup klienteli znajdzie się całe spektrum korzystających, począwszy od notorycznych „przypalaczy” zup po mistrzów sztuki kulinarnej. Każdy gotuje zgodnie z własnym, indywidualnym rozumieniem treści książki i posiadaną wcześniej wiedzą. Podobnie dla każdego sposobu uczenia istnieje możliwość wyróżnienia odmiennych tendencji myślenia oraz ich stosownego uwzględniania w procesie nauczania. Każda droga może prowadzić do dobrych efektów. Jednakże kompetencji w zakresie wiedzy nie da się uzyskać poprzez przymus obierania konkretnej metody. Często udaje się osiągnąć kompromis. Również profil zadań menedżera kultury i muzyki nie został jeszcze obecnie dokładnie zdefiniowany. Nie można mówić o istnieniu w naszym społeczeństwie ugruntowanego obrazu tego zawodu. Przyczyny takiego stanu rzeczy tkwią w różnych tradycjach historycznych i politykach państw, w różnego rodzaju pojmowaniu kultury itd. Jednak nie należy traktować tej sytuacji jako niekorzystnej, gdyż stwarza ona możliwość zastosowania i wykorzystania niesprawdzonych jeszcze wariantów i tendencji jak również wypróbowania ich w ramach konkretnych koncepcji dotyczących programów nauczania. Gdy przed dwunastoma laty rozpoczęliśmy na Łotwie realizację programu kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania kulturą, oparliśmy się na modelu sławnego menedżera kultury i nauczyciela Petera Bendixena – „kształcenie”, „trening” i „praktyka”. MM
Ivars Bērziņš ukończył Łotewską Akademię Muzyczną, tytuł doktora uzyskał w Państwowym Konserwatorium w Sankt Petersburgu. Absolwent zarządzania kulturą Wyższej Szkoły Muzyczno-Teatralnej w Hamburgu. W roku 2005 obronił doktorat na Uniwersytecie w Münster na temat prywatyzacji w sferze kultury na przykładzie Łotwy. Od roku 2006 jako profesor wykłada zarządzanie kulturą w Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Muzyk, dyrygent Chóru Łotewskiego Radia (1978-1986), laureat licznych międzynarodowych konkursów chórów w Hiszpanii, Finlandii, Łotwie, ekspert ministerstwa kultury w kwestiach edukacji kulturalnej i ekonomiki kultury.
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
Ivars BērziņŠ
Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką
Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką Ivars BērziņŠ
P
orządkowanie wiedzy o naszym świecie było i jest nadal klasyczną cnotą nauki i filozofii. Już Arystoteles (ok. 384 do 322 p.n.e.), średniowieczna scholastyka na czele z Tomaszem z Akwinu (1225 do 1274) i inni, jak Arthur Schopenhauer (1778 do 1860), zastanawiali się nad sposobami przekazywania wiedzy społeczeństwu, nad sposobem wielokrotnego opisywania przedmiotu, a tym samym dokumentowania go w sposób zróżnicowany, z uwzględnieniem indywidualnych potrzeb użytkownika. Najlepiej można to przedstawić na zasłyszanym przykładzie dotyczącym książek kucharskich. Istnieje wiele różnych książek kucharskich. Skierowane są one do różnego rodzaju grup czytelników i spotykają się w zależności od ich osobistych sympatii z aprobatą lub dezaprobatą. MM Dla teoretyków: Te książki kucharskie zostały napisane przez fizyków wzgl. chemików. W centrum zainteresowania znajdują się tutaj procesy fizyczne i chemiczne zachodzące podczas przygotowywaniu posiłków i ich przetwarzania w organizmie po spożyciu. Jeśli została zrozumiana fizyczno-chemiczna zasada tych procesów, to posiadają oni odpowiadającą ich sposobowi myślenia podstawę do przygotowywania posiłków. MM Dla formalistów: W centrum zainteresowania innych książek kucharskich znajdują się zasady dotyczące gotowania. Wystarczy przestrzegać ich jak algorytmów, a powstaną „zaprogramowane” wcześniej przysmaki. Kucharze, dla których ważne są zasady gotowania, będą preferować tego typu książki. MM Dla klasyfikatorów: W innych z kolei książkach kucharskich na plan pierwszy wysuwają się nie zasady dotyczące obróbki produktów, lecz składniki, a więc nie reguły dotyczące przebiegu procesu, tylko przepisy kucharskie uwzględniające konkretne ilości. Kucharze preferujący tego typu książki myślą w kategoriach zróżnicowania materiałowego.
Tłumaczenie: Marta Białecka
MM Dla dusz towarzystwa: W jeszcze innych książkach kucharskich najwięcej uwagi poświęca się specjalnym okazjom: urodzinom, świętom spędzanym w rodzinnym gronie, weekendom z przyjaciółmi itd. Tego rodzaju książki kucharskie kształtowane są według zasad wzbudzania motywacji. Na osobie z nich korzystającej wywierają wrażenie kompozycje dań przygotowywanych na specjalne okazje. Każdy rodzaj książki kucharskiej przyciąga swoją własną klientelę, a w obrębie każdej z tych grup klienteli znajdzie się całe spektrum korzystających, począwszy od notorycznych „przypalaczy” zup po mistrzów sztuki kulinarnej. Każdy gotuje zgodnie z własnym, indywidualnym rozumieniem treści książki i posiadaną wcześniej wiedzą. Podobnie dla każdego sposobu uczenia istnieje możliwość wyróżnienia odmiennych tendencji myślenia oraz ich stosownego uwzględniania w procesie nauczania. Każda droga może prowadzić do dobrych efektów. Jednakże kompetencji w zakresie wiedzy nie da się uzyskać poprzez przymus obierania konkretnej metody. Często udaje się osiągnąć kompromis. Również profil zadań menedżera kultury i muzyki nie został jeszcze obecnie dokładnie zdefiniowany. Nie można mówić o istnieniu w naszym społeczeństwie ugruntowanego obrazu tego zawodu. Przyczyny takiego stanu rzeczy tkwią w różnych tradycjach historycznych i politykach państw, w różnego rodzaju pojmowaniu kultury itd. Jednak nie należy traktować tej sytuacji jako niekorzystnej, gdyż stwarza ona możliwość zastosowania i wykorzystania niesprawdzonych jeszcze wariantów i tendencji jak również wypróbowania ich w ramach konkretnych koncepcji dotyczących programów nauczania. Gdy przed dwunastoma laty rozpoczęliśmy na Łotwie realizację programu kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania kulturą, oparliśmy się na modelu sławnego menedżera kultury i nauczyciela Petera Bendixena – „kształcenie”, „trening” i „praktyka”.
Ivars Bērziņš ukończył Łotewską Akademię Muzyczną, tytuł doktora uzyskał w Państwowym Konserwatorium w Sankt Petersburgu. Absolwent zarządzania kulturą Wyższej Szkoły Muzyczno-Teatralnej w Hamburgu. W roku 2005 obronił doktorat na Uniwersytecie w Münster na temat prywatyzacji w sferze kultury na przykładzie Łotwy. Od roku 2006 jako profesor wykłada zarządzanie kulturą w Łotewskiej Akademii Kultury. Muzyk, dyrygent Chóru Łotewskiego Radia (1978-1986), laureat licznych międzynarodowych konkursów chórów w Hiszpanii, Finlandii, Łotwie, ekspert ministerstwa kultury w kwestiach edukacji kulturalnej i ekonomiki kultury.
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MM Kształcenie – to stworzenie, dydaktyczne przygotowywanie i przedstawianie podstaw wiedzy, niezbędnej do uzyskania podstawowych kwalifikacji. MM Trening – to oferta dalszego kształcenia, pozwalająca na ugruntowanie lub doskonalenie nabytych już umiejętności (podstawowych kwalifikacji) albo też zorientowana na konkretny, najczęściej praktyczny obszar zastosowania. MM Praktyka – to możliwość uzyskania dalszych kwalifikacji, służąca poszerzeniu i pogłębieniu zakresu doświadczeń w konkretnym kontekście działania. Duże znaczenie posiada włączenie do programu kształcenia realizacji praktycznych projektów. Rewolucja w mediach cyfrowych przyniosła nie tylko zmiany warunków produkcji artystycznej, w jakich pracuje twórca muzyki, ale też umożliwiła łatwiejszy dostęp do nowych środków produkcji muzycznej oraz dystrybucji w ramach struktur rynkowych. Tradycyjne różnice między muzykami, producentami i agentami muzycznymi ulegają coraz większemu zatarciu pod wpływem struktury współczesnego rynku i zmiennych zachowań konsumentów. W efekcie nowo powstałe profile zawodowe są bardziej przejrzyste i wyspecjalizowane. Na przykład menedżer muzyczny jest jednym z tych zawodów, które są jednocześnie sztuką, działalnością naukową i biznesem. Artystyczne kierowanie zasobami ludzkimi w imieniu artysty jest jedną z kluczowych funkcji w zarządzaniu muzyką. Zarządzanie artystyczne jest jednocześnie biznesem, działalnością naukową, sztuką i wiedzą o relacjach. W naszej opinii współczesny zawód menedżera muzycznego staje się coraz bardziej potrzebny tej części społeczeństwa, która wybiera rozwój kariery w sferze biznesu i muzyki – w środowisku branży muzycznej. Zapotrzebowanie na różnych fachowców muzycznych istnieje zarówno w prywatnych, jak i państwowych instytucjach, które zajmują się zarządzaniem muzyką i produkcją muzyczną. Również bułgarska profesor Lidia Varbanova mówi o zarządzających kulturą i ich klasyfikacji – administratorach, reprezentujących interesy organizacji państwowej i zajmujących się redystrybucją pieniędzy rządowych; producentach i agentach, w dużej mierze reprezentujących sektor prywatny oraz organizacjach pozarządowych, zorientowanych na biznes – w formie organizacji ds. koncertów, agencji itp. Z tego względu wydaje się, że zarządzanie muzyką staje się branżą zawodową i niesie ze sobą zapotrzebowanie na system edukacji w tym zakresie. Jednak zanim zaczniemy mówić o zarządzaniu, powinniśmy zwrócić uwagę na pojęcie muzyki
i jej różnorodność. Powszechnie wiadomo, że istnieją różne kierunki w muzyce (jak muzyka akademicka, popularna, ludowa), a każdy ma własną historię i własne cele. Powstaje pytanie, czy można je ze sobą wzajemnie połączyć lub odwrotnie – przeciwstawić je sobie. Najczęściej muzyka klasyczna jest przeciwstawiana muzyce popularnej. Brytyjski teoretyk kultury Paul Willis uważa, że kultura sztuki wysokiej reprezentuje wszystko co poważne i odległe od życia codziennego, czyli powinna wyrażać ostateczną naturę wartości istnienia człowieka. Tworzenie i rozumienie takiej kultury wymaga wysiłku i pewnego poziomu wiedzy. Na przykład prawdziwa muzyka jest sztuką głęboką, pełną znaczeń, złożoną, wyrafinowaną i zdyscyplinowaną – tylko dzięki edukacji i odpowiedniemu wychowaniu można ją zrozumieć i w pełni się nią cieszyć. Z drugiej strony muzyka popularna, a szczególnie pop jest tylko łagodna, wpadająca w ucho i melodyjna. Muzyka klasyczna jest sztuką; pop to tylko lekka rozrywka. Muzyka pop cechuje się prostotą, dostępnością i podobieństwem jej podstawowych elementów, co ma wynikać z produkcji masowej. Jest to produkt konsumpcji masowej. Jak zauważyłem wcześniej, muzyka popularna zdaje się być przeciwstawiana muzyce klasycznej – która dawniej była muzyką elit i wyższych warstw społecznych, a także tradycyjnej muzyce ludowej – którą rozpowszechniano w sposób niekomercyjny. Dlatego wyraźnie widać, że kultura popularna to produkowana masowo muzyka komercyjna, natomiast sztuka wysoka jest wynikiem indywidualnej pracy twórczej. Podobnie kultura jako tożsamość narodowa wraz z różnicami kulturowymi w każdym narodzie, o jakiej mówiła teoria Johanna Gottfrieda Herdera z drugiej połowy XIX wieku, jest niewątpliwie ważnym czynnikiem w dziedzinie muzyki. W sytuacji, w jakiej znajduje się Łotwa, więcej uwagi powinno się poświęcić dziedzictwu kulturowemu i tożsamości narodowej, które są mocno zakorzenione w muzyce i różnych niematerialnych, powiązanych z nimi tradycjach kulturowych, jak Festiwal Pieśni umieszczony na liście niematerialnego dziedzictwa UNESCO. Ta tradycja jest bardzo silnym czynnikiem tożsamości narodowej, więc powinna stanowić część polityki wagi państwowej i jeden z punktów programowych. Szybki rozwój i powiększenie zasięgu sektora kultury w ciągu kilku ostatnich dekad pociągnęły za sobą duże zapotrzebowanie na menedżerów o określonym zasięgu działania. Także zawód menedżera muzycznego cechuje się odrębnymi, właściwymi dla tej branży szczegółami funkcjonowania. W gospodarce narodowej również
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
i jej różnorodność. Powszechnie wiadomo, że istnieją różne kierunki w muzyce (jak muzyka akademicka, popularna, ludowa), a każdy ma własną historię i własne cele. Powstaje pytanie, czy można je ze sobą wzajemnie połączyć lub odwrotnie – przeciwstawić je sobie. Najczęściej muzyka klasyczna jest przeciwstawiana muzyce popularnej. Brytyjski teoretyk kultury Paul Willis uważa, że kultura sztuki wysokiej reprezentuje wszystko co poważne i odległe od życia codziennego, czyli powinna wyrażać ostateczną naturę wartości istnienia człowieka. Tworzenie i rozumienie takiej kultury wymaga wysiłku i pewnego poziomu wiedzy. Na przykład prawdziwa muzyka jest sztuką głęboką, pełną znaczeń, złożoną, wyrafinowaną i zdyscyplinowaną – tylko dzięki edukacji i odpowiedniemu wychowaniu można ją zrozumieć i w pełni się nią cieszyć. Z drugiej strony muzyka popularna, a szczególnie pop jest tylko łagodna, wpadająca w ucho i melodyjna. Muzyka klasyczna jest sztuką; pop to tylko lekka rozrywka. Muzyka pop cechuje się prostotą, dostępnością i podobieństwem jej podstawowych elementów, co ma wynikać z produkcji masowej. Jest to produkt konsumpcji masowej. Jak zauważyłem wcześniej, muzyka popularna zdaje się być przeciwstawiana muzyce klasycznej – która dawniej była muzyką elit i wyższych warstw społecznych, a także tradycyjnej muzyce ludowej – którą rozpowszechniano w sposób niekomercyjny. Dlatego wyraźnie widać, że kultura popularna to produkowana masowo muzyka komercyjna, natomiast sztuka wysoka jest wynikiem indywidualnej pracy twórczej. Podobnie kultura jako tożsamość narodowa wraz z różnicami kulturowymi w każdym narodzie, o jakiej mówiła teoria Johanna Gottfrieda Herdera z drugiej połowy XIX wieku, jest niewątpliwie ważnym czynnikiem w dziedzinie muzyki. W sytuacji, w jakiej znajduje się Łotwa, więcej uwagi powinno się poświęcić dziedzictwu kulturowemu i tożsamości narodowej, które są mocno zakorzenione w muzyce i różnych niematerialnych, powiązanych z nimi tradycjach kulturowych, jak Festiwal Pieśni umieszczony na liście niematerialnego dziedzictwa UNESCO. Ta tradycja jest bardzo silnym czynnikiem tożsamości narodowej, więc powinna stanowić część polityki wagi państwowej i jeden z punktów programowych. Szybki rozwój i powiększenie zasięgu sektora kultury w ciągu kilku ostatnich dekad pociągnęły za sobą duże zapotrzebowanie na menedżerów o określonym zasięgu działania. Także zawód menedżera muzycznego cechuje się odrębnymi, właściwymi dla tej branży szczegółami funkcjonowania. W gospodarce narodowej również
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Kształcenie – to stworzenie, dydaktyczne przygotowywanie i przedstawianie podstaw wiedzy, niezbędnej do uzyskania podstawowych kwalifikacji. MM Trening – to oferta dalszego kształcenia, pozwalająca na ugruntowanie lub doskonalenie nabytych już umiejętności (podstawowych kwalifikacji) albo też zorientowana na konkretny, najczęściej praktyczny obszar zastosowania. MM Praktyka – to możliwość uzyskania dalszych kwalifikacji, służąca poszerzeniu i pogłębieniu zakresu doświadczeń w konkretnym kontekście działania. Duże znaczenie posiada włączenie do programu kształcenia realizacji praktycznych projektów. Rewolucja w mediach cyfrowych przyniosła nie tylko zmiany warunków produkcji artystycznej, w jakich pracuje twórca muzyki, ale też umożliwiła łatwiejszy dostęp do nowych środków produkcji muzycznej oraz dystrybucji w ramach struktur rynkowych. Tradycyjne różnice między muzykami, producentami i agentami muzycznymi ulegają coraz większemu zatarciu pod wpływem struktury współczesnego rynku i zmiennych zachowań konsumentów. W efekcie nowo powstałe profile zawodowe są bardziej przejrzyste i wyspecjalizowane. Na przykład menedżer muzyczny jest jednym z tych zawodów, które są jednocześnie sztuką, działalnością naukową i biznesem. Artystyczne kierowanie zasobami ludzkimi w imieniu artysty jest jedną z kluczowych funkcji w zarządzaniu muzyką. Zarządzanie artystyczne jest jednocześnie biznesem, działalnością naukową, sztuką i wiedzą o relacjach. W naszej opinii współczesny zawód menedżera muzycznego staje się coraz bardziej potrzebny tej części społeczeństwa, która wybiera rozwój kariery w sferze biznesu i muzyki – w środowisku branży muzycznej. Zapotrzebowanie na różnych fachowców muzycznych istnieje zarówno w prywatnych, jak i państwowych instytucjach, które zajmują się zarządzaniem muzyką i produkcją muzyczną. Również bułgarska profesor Lidia Varbanova mówi o zarządzających kulturą i ich klasyfikacji – administratorach, reprezentujących interesy organizacji państwowej i zajmujących się redystrybucją pieniędzy rządowych; producentach i agentach, w dużej mierze reprezentujących sektor prywatny oraz organizacjach pozarządowych, zorientowanych na biznes – w formie organizacji ds. koncertów, agencji itp. Z tego względu wydaje się, że zarządzanie muzyką staje się branżą zawodową i niesie ze sobą zapotrzebowanie na system edukacji w tym zakresie. Jednak zanim zaczniemy mówić o zarządzaniu, powinniśmy zwrócić uwagę na pojęcie muzyki MM
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
następują znaczące zmiany. Paradygmaty społeczno-gospodarcze, tak powszechne w Europie, ulegają zmianom, a idea liberalizacji rynku staje się coraz bardziej popularna. Kraje ponownie rozpatrują funkcje tych paradygmatów, definiując je od zera. Centralną kwestią rozwoju branży jest finansowanie i możliwości jego pozyskania. Dzisiejsze społeczeństwo jest wystarczająco zepsute, aby wiedzieć, czego chce. Dlatego spojrzenie w stronę zarządzania muzyką otwarłoby drogę do szerokich możliwości dla muzyki i jej twórców, a także dla osób działających w organizacji imprez muzycznych – kierowników muzycznych, których zadaniem jest namierzanie wyżej wspomnianych trendów w rozwoju. Na wszystkie decyzje, podejmowane w dzisiejszych czasach w instytucjach, wywierają wpływ przynajmniej trzy elementy: 1. Niespełnione potrzeby i pragnienia społeczeństwa. 2. Osoby, które są gotowe i zdolne do zaspokajania tych potrzeb. 3. Zasoby, bez których potrzeby te nie mogłyby zostać spełnione. Dotyczy to również całego sektora non-profit. Do przeszłości odchodzi sytuacja, gdy istnienie instytucji kulturalnych odbierane było jako coś oczywistego. Kryteriami ich istnienia nie są wewnętrzne wartości, lecz zewnętrzna perspektywa pozytywnego rozwoju, jaki te instytucje mogą zaoferować zarówno pojedynczym osobom, jak i całemu społeczeństwu. Dzisiaj sukces muzyczny w dużej mierze polega na tworzeniu branży muzycznej i jej promowaniu. Zawód menedżera muzycznego jest dla młodych
Literatura Allen P., Artist management for the music business, Wielka Brytania: Elsevier Inc., 2007. Arystoteles, Physikalische Vorlesung, wyd. Paul Gohlke, Paderborn: Schöningh, 1956.
ludzi, którzy chętnie działają w tej branży sposobem na rozwijanie własnej wizji i podjęciem próby jej zrealizowania dzięki zdobyciu podstawowej wiedzy. Nowi fachowcy zarządzający muzyką powinni mieć szansę poznania różnorodnych aspektów branży, na przykład ustaw i praw, podstaw przedsiębiorczości, form kontraktów, prawa autorskiego i praw pokrewnych, zarządzania artystycznego, przemysłu płytowego itp., za pośrednictwem różnych kursów, seminariów i praktyki zawodowej wcielonej do programu edukacji. Kierownicy artystyczni powinni dysponować podstawową wiedzą na temat branży muzycznej. Bez tej wiedzy kierownik nie zapozna się z możliwościami, jakich może pragnąć klient. Zdobycie wykształcenia biznesowego jest kwestią tradycyjną, szczególnie w obszarach marketingu, zarządzania marką i sprzedaży. Dzięki edukacji z naciskiem na branżę tradycyjną możemy uzyskać bardzo szerokie spojrzenie na współczesny biznes; jest ono rzadkością w branży muzycznej. Również ważną rolę odgrywa praktyka w przedsiębiorstwie zarządzającym muzyką – taka, która dawałaby możliwość poszerzenia wiedzy o zarządzaniu oraz nawiązywania własnych kontaktów w branży. Nie do pomyślenia jest sytuacja, w której menedżerowie muzyczni nie dysponują podstawową wiedzą i praktyką. Co więcej, praktyka powinna odbywać się bezpośrednio w instytucji związanej z daną dziedziną muzyki lub projektem muzycznym. Osobiste doświadczenie artystyczne menedżera jest kwestią szczególnej wagi. Doświadczenie w kreacji artystycznej przynosi większą wydajność niż rozmowy o przedmiocie sztuki lub pojęciach pracy twórczej.
Clancy P., Skills and Competencies: The Cultural Manager // From Maestro to Manager. Critical issues in Arts & Culture Management, red. M. Fitzgibbon, A. Kelly, Dublin, 1999. Counterfactual history, management and organiza-
Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und Kunstma-
tions: Reflections and new directions// http://moh.
nagement, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften,
sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/49 [odczyt
Wiesbaden, 2006. Brugger W. Philosophisches Wörterbuch, Freiburg, Basel, Wien: Herder, 1976. Certo S. C., Modern management: adding digital focus,
dn. 26.04.2009.] Schopenhauer A., Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde [w:] Sämtliche Werke, red. A. Hübscher, Wiesbaden: Brockhaus, 1972.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
279
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. Certo S. C., Modern management: adding digital focus, Wien: Herder, 1976. Brugger W. Philosophisches Wörterbuch, Freiburg, Basel,
red. A. Hübscher, Wiesbaden: Brockhaus, 1972. vom zureichenden Grunde [w:] Sämtliche Werke, Schopenhauer A., Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes dn. 26.04.2009.]
Wiesbaden, 2006.
sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/49 [odczyt
nagement, VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften,
tions: Reflections and new directions// http://moh.
Bendixen P., Einführung in das Kultur- und KunstmaPaderborn: Schöningh, 1956. Arystoteles, Physikalische Vorlesung, wyd. Paul Gohlke, Wielka Brytania: Elsevier Inc., 2007. Allen P., Artist management for the music business,
Literatura następują znaczące zmiany. Paradygmaty społeczno-gospodarcze, tak powszechne w Europie, ulegają zmianom, a idea liberalizacji rynku staje się coraz bardziej popularna. Kraje ponownie rozpatrują funkcje tych paradygmatów, definiując je od zera. Centralną kwestią rozwoju branży jest finansowanie i możliwości jego pozyskania. Dzisiejsze społeczeństwo jest wystarczająco zepsute, aby wiedzieć, czego chce. Dlatego spojrzenie w stronę zarządzania muzyką otwarłoby drogę do szerokich możliwości dla muzyki i jej twórców, a także dla osób działających w organizacji imprez muzycznych – kierowników muzycznych, których zadaniem jest namierzanie wyżej wspomnianych trendów w rozwoju. Na wszystkie decyzje, podejmowane w dzisiejszych czasach w instytucjach, wywierają wpływ przynajmniej trzy elementy: 1. Niespełnione potrzeby i pragnienia społeczeństwa. 2. Osoby, które są gotowe i zdolne do zaspokajania tych potrzeb. 3. Zasoby, bez których potrzeby te nie mogłyby zostać spełnione. Dotyczy to również całego sektora non-profit. Do przeszłości odchodzi sytuacja, gdy istnienie instytucji kulturalnych odbierane było jako coś oczywistego. Kryteriami ich istnienia nie są wewnętrzne wartości, lecz zewnętrzna perspektywa pozytywnego rozwoju, jaki te instytucje mogą zaoferować zarówno pojedynczym osobom, jak i całemu społeczeństwu. Dzisiaj sukces muzyczny w dużej mierze polega na tworzeniu branży muzycznej i jej promowaniu. Zawód menedżera muzycznego jest dla młodych
Counterfactual history, management and organizaDublin, 1999. & Culture Management, red. M. Fitzgibbon, A. Kelly, // From Maestro to Manager. Critical issues in Arts Clancy P., Skills and Competencies: The Cultural Manager
ludzi, którzy chętnie działają w tej branży sposobem na rozwijanie własnej wizji i podjęciem próby jej zrealizowania dzięki zdobyciu podstawowej wiedzy. Nowi fachowcy zarządzający muzyką powinni mieć szansę poznania różnorodnych aspektów branży, na przykład ustaw i praw, podstaw przedsiębiorczości, form kontraktów, prawa autorskiego i praw pokrewnych, zarządzania artystycznego, przemysłu płytowego itp., za pośrednictwem różnych kursów, seminariów i praktyki zawodowej wcielonej do programu edukacji. Kierownicy artystyczni powinni dysponować podstawową wiedzą na temat branży muzycznej. Bez tej wiedzy kierownik nie zapozna się z możliwościami, jakich może pragnąć klient. Zdobycie wykształcenia biznesowego jest kwestią tradycyjną, szczególnie w obszarach marketingu, zarządzania marką i sprzedaży. Dzięki edukacji z naciskiem na branżę tradycyjną możemy uzyskać bardzo szerokie spojrzenie na współczesny biznes; jest ono rzadkością w branży muzycznej. Również ważną rolę odgrywa praktyka w przedsiębiorstwie zarządzającym muzyką – taka, która dawałaby możliwość poszerzenia wiedzy o zarządzaniu oraz nawiązywania własnych kontaktów w branży. Nie do pomyślenia jest sytuacja, w której menedżerowie muzyczni nie dysponują podstawową wiedzą i praktyką. Co więcej, praktyka powinna odbywać się bezpośrednio w instytucji związanej z daną dziedziną muzyki lub projektem muzycznym. Osobiste doświadczenie artystyczne menedżera jest kwestią szczególnej wagi. Doświadczenie w kreacji artystycznej przynosi większą wydajność niż rozmowy o przedmiocie sztuki lub pojęciach pracy twórczej.
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Bogusław Nierenberg
280
Wstęp
ydaje się, że jednym z najistotniejszych wyznaczników współczesnego świata jest jego medialność. Media są nie tylko powszechne, ale i wszechobecne. Przenikają właściwie wszystkie dziedziny życia społecznego, gospodarczego, politycznego. Są nieodłącznym elementem współczesnej kultury. Jednakże powszechność jakiegoś zjawiska nie oznacza wcale znajomości jego istoty. Nie oznacza też wiedzy o prawach nim rządzących. Wydaje się, że tak właśnie jest z zarządzaniem mediami. Na polskim gruncie nie ma w ogóle takiej subdyscypliny zarządzania, nie ma nawet takiego kierunku studiów. Prowadzone tu i ówdzie studia podyplomowe mają na celu raczej nauczenia pewnych określonych umiejętności niż przekazanie wiedzy akademickiej z zakresu zarządzania mediami. Studia II stopnia Zarządzanie mediami jako specjalność na kierunku Kulturoznawstwo jako pierwszy w Polsce wprowadza Instytut Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Podobnie akademicki charakter mają studia podyplomowe z tego zakresu prowadzone przez ten Instytut. Są to pierwsze kroki, naukowe i organizacyjne, by dogonić przodujące w tym zakresie kraje. Jak się wydaje, kluczowe dla zrozumienia istoty zarządzania mediami są dwa stwierdzenia P. Druckera: 1. Informacja będzie podstawowym zasobem XXI w. 2. Informacja jest tym cenniejsza, im jest powszechniejsza. O ile pierwsze wydaje się być dość powszechnie akceptowane, choć konsekwencje tej konstatacji nie zawsze i nie wszędzie bywają uświadamiane, o tyle to drugie chwieje podstawami powszechnie akceptowanej wiedzy z zakresu nauk ekonomicz-
W
W
nych. W klasycznej ekonomii przyjmuje się, że im jakieś dobro rzadsze, tym cenniejsze i odwrotnie. Powszechność określonego dobra obniża jego cenę. Tymczasem P. Drucker wywraca na nice nasze dotychczasowe rozumienie najbardziej kardynalnych zasad ekonomii zarządzania mediami. Tę pozorną sprzeczność możemy objaśnić poprzez opisany już w 1989 r. przez R. Picarda dualizm mediów oraz zaproponowaną przez autora niniejszego artykułu formułę „guzików informacyjnych”, która pozwala zrozumieć paradoks zawarty w stwierdzeniu P. Druckera. O czym będzie mowa w dalszej części. Jednocześnie, dla wyjaśnienia rozmaitych zjawisk odnoszących się do zarządzania mediami przyjęto metodologię systemową, wedle której badane zjawiska należy widzieć jako całość powiązaną ze sobą pośrednio lub bezpośrednio, bo – jak się wydaje – taki rodzaj opisu rzeczywistości pozwala oddać istotę zagadnienia, a nie jedynie jego strukturę. Niestety, wielu badaczy opis struktur nazywa systemem, co wydaje się być nadużyciem, nie tylko semantycznym, ale przede wszystkim metodologicznym. By nie odnosić się do przykładów negatywnych, autor woli wskazać przykład pozytywny. Jest nim monografia Daniela C. Halina i Paola Manciniego zatytułowana „Systemy medialne”. Jej autorzy nie ograniczali się jedynie do opisu badanych struktur, starali się wniknąć w istotę badanych zjawisk. Badanie systemowe jest żmudne i mozolne, ale pozwala wniknąć w samo jądro zjawiska i sformułować wnioski co do jego istoty. Autor starał się przy opisie badanych zjawisk nie tracić z pola widzenia trzech kluczowych (z punktu widzenia badań systemowych) pytań postawionych przez R. Ackoffa: 1. Dlaczego widzę to, co widzę? 2. Dlaczego rzeczy są takie, jakie są? 3. Dlaczego rzeczy się zmieniają?
Bogusław Nierenberg profesor Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Pracownik naukowy, dziennikarz, ekonomista. Dyrektor Instytutu Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz profesor w Zakładzie Dziennikarstwa i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Kieruje pracami jedynego w Polsce Zakładu Zrządzania i Ekonomiki Mediów na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Specjalizuje się w ekonomice mediów i kultury, zarządzaniu mediami, komunikacji rynkowej oraz reklamie. Autor 7 monografii oraz kilkudziesięciu artykułów naukowych dotyczących mediów, reklamy, zarządzania i komunikacji rynkowej, ale także dziennikarstwa oraz gatunków dziennikarskich. Jest autorem tomiku wierszy „Dychotomia uczuć”.
Wstęp
nych. W klasycznej ekonomii przyjmuje się, że im jakieś dobro rzadsze, tym cenniejsze i odwrotnie. Powszechność określonego dobra obniża jego cenę. Tymczasem P. Drucker wywraca na nice nasze dotychczasowe rozumienie najbardziej kardynalnych zasad ekonomii zarządzania mediami. Tę pozorną sprzeczność możemy objaśnić poprzez opisany już w 1989 r. przez R. Picarda dualizm mediów oraz zaproponowaną przez autora niniejszego artykułu formułę „guzików informacyjnych”, która pozwala zrozumieć paradoks zawarty w stwierdzeniu P. Druckera. O czym będzie mowa w dalszej części. Jednocześnie, dla wyjaśnienia rozmaitych zjawisk odnoszących się do zarządzania mediami przyjęto metodologię systemową, wedle której badane zjawiska należy widzieć jako całość powiązaną ze sobą pośrednio lub bezpośrednio, bo – jak się wydaje – taki rodzaj opisu rzeczywistości pozwala oddać istotę zagadnienia, a nie jedynie jego strukturę. Niestety, wielu badaczy opis struktur nazywa systemem, co wydaje się być nadużyciem, nie tylko semantycznym, ale przede wszystkim metodologicznym. By nie odnosić się do przykładów negatywnych, autor woli wskazać przykład pozytywny. Jest nim monografia Daniela C. Halina i Paola Manciniego zatytułowana „Systemy medialne”. Jej autorzy nie ograniczali się jedynie do opisu badanych struktur, starali się wniknąć w istotę badanych zjawisk. Badanie systemowe jest żmudne i mozolne, ale pozwala wniknąć w samo jądro zjawiska i sformułować wnioski co do jego istoty. Autor starał się przy opisie badanych zjawisk nie tracić z pola widzenia trzech kluczowych (z punktu widzenia badań systemowych) pytań postawionych przez R. Ackoffa: 1. Dlaczego widzę to, co widzę? 2. Dlaczego rzeczy są takie, jakie są? 3. Dlaczego rzeczy się zmieniają?
Bogusław Nierenberg profesor Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Pracownik naukowy, dziennikarz, ekonomista. Dyrektor Instytutu Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz profesor w Zakładzie Dziennikarstwa i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Opolskiego. Kieruje pracami jedynego w Polsce Zakładu Zrządzania i Ekonomiki Mediów na Wydziale Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Specjalizuje się w ekonomice mediów i kultury, zarządzaniu mediami, komunikacji rynkowej oraz reklamie. Autor 7 monografii oraz kilkudziesięciu artykułów naukowych dotyczących mediów, reklamy, zarządzania i komunikacji rynkowej, ale także dziennikarstwa oraz gatunków dziennikarskich. Jest autorem tomiku wierszy „Dychotomia uczuć”.
ydaje się, że jednym z najistotniejszych wyznaczników współczesnego świata jest jego medialność. Media są nie tylko powszechne, ale i wszechobecne. Przenikają właściwie wszystkie dziedziny życia społecznego, gospodarczego, politycznego. Są nieodłącznym elementem współczesnej kultury. Jednakże powszechność jakiegoś zjawiska nie oznacza wcale znajomości jego istoty. Nie oznacza też wiedzy o prawach nim rządzących. Wydaje się, że tak właśnie jest z zarządzaniem mediami. Na polskim gruncie nie ma w ogóle takiej subdyscypliny zarządzania, nie ma nawet takiego kierunku studiów. Prowadzone tu i ówdzie studia podyplomowe mają na celu raczej nauczenia pewnych określonych umiejętności niż przekazanie wiedzy akademickiej z zakresu zarządzania mediami. Studia II stopnia Zarządzanie mediami jako specjalność na kierunku Kulturoznawstwo jako pierwszy w Polsce wprowadza Instytut Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Podobnie akademicki charakter mają studia podyplomowe z tego zakresu prowadzone przez ten Instytut. Są to pierwsze kroki, naukowe i organizacyjne, by dogonić przodujące w tym zakresie kraje. Jak się wydaje, kluczowe dla zrozumienia istoty zarządzania mediami są dwa stwierdzenia P. Druckera: 1. Informacja będzie podstawowym zasobem XXI w. 2. Informacja jest tym cenniejsza, im jest powszechniejsza. O ile pierwsze wydaje się być dość powszechnie akceptowane, choć konsekwencje tej konstatacji nie zawsze i nie wszędzie bywają uświadamiane, o tyle to drugie chwieje podstawami powszechnie akceptowanej wiedzy z zakresu nauk ekonomicz-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Bogusław Nierenberg
280
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym
281
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
azwyczaj termin: zarządzanie kojarzony jest z komercją, z organizacjami nastawionymi na zysk. Tymczasem Frederic W. Taylor podczas wystąpienia w Kongresie amerykańskim w 1912 r. mówiąc o zarządzaniu posłużył się przykładem kliniki Eltona Mayo, organizacji nienastawionej na zysk. Przypomnijmy, że to właśnie F. W. Taylor był twórcą pojęcia naukowe zarządzanie. Także określenie zasady zarządzania zostało użyte po raz pierwszy w odniesieniu się do organizacji niemającej cech komercyjnych – armii amerykańskiej, a posłużył się nim Elihu Root, sekretarz ds. wojny w rządzie Teodora Roosevelta. W USA termin zarządzanie w czasach wielkiego kryzysu miał złe konotacje. By uniknąć złych skojarzeń, wprowadzono termin administracja publiczna – oznaczający w istocie zarządzanie w sektorze publicznym [Drucker, 2000, s. 6]. Po II wojnie światowej określenie zarządzanie wróciło do powszechnie używanej terminologii, choć do tej pory żywy jest pogląd, że zarządzanie odnosi się przede wszystkim do zarządzania biznesowego. Tymczasem według P. Druckera „teza ta jest błędna, podobnie jak błędne jest stwierdzenie, że np. medycyna ogranicza się jedynie do położnictwa” [Tamże, s. 7]. Współczesny menedżer winien koncentrować się na wydajności i osiąganiu wyników, a do tego potrzebne są mu wiedza i umiejętności z rozmaitych dziedzin [Drucker, 2002, s. 29], bez specjalnego zastanawiania się nad tym, co różni zarządzanie biznesowe od zarządzania nie-biznesowego. Zdaniem Druckera 90% problemów, którymi zajmuje się organizacja jest natury ogólnej, a pozostałe 10% determinowane jest misją, historią, kulturą i terminologią specyficzną dla danej organizacji [Drucker, 2000, s. 8]. Podobne poglądy prezentują także inni uczeni [por. Ansoff, 1985, s. 33; Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, 2004, s. 80; Krzyżanowski, 1992, s. 231-232]. Zarówno organizacje publiczne, jak i komercyjne oferują obecnym i potencjalnym konsumentom dobra prywatne bądź publiczne [por. Owsiak, 1997, s. 19-25; Bednarczyk, 2001, s. 18-22]. Najprostszym sposobem ich rozróżnienia jest przyjęcie założenia, że dobro prywatne to takie, które może być konsumowane przez jedną osobę i nie może być jednocześnie konsumowane przez kogoś innego [Begg, Fischer, Dornbusch, 2003, s. 99-100] (np. ciastko, koszula czy rower), natomiast dobro publiczne może być konsumowane jednocześnie przez wiele osób, bez uszczerbku dla którejkolwiek z nich (powietrze, którym oddychamy, publiczna służba zdrowia czy obronność kraju). Możemy zatem stwierdzić, że przedmiotem zarządzania
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Dobro medialne jako przedmiot zarządzania
Z
godnie z teorią systemów każda organizacja czerpie z otoczenia cztery podstawowe rodzaje nakładów i zasobów [tamże, s. 37]: 1. Ludzi 2. Pieniędzy 3. Rzeczy 4. Informacji. W tym kontekście należałoby też rozstrzygnąć, które elementy zarządzania biznesowego i publicznego byłyby odpowiednie dla rozważań związanych z zarządzaniem mediami. Badania prowadzone w obrębie ekonomiki mediów upoważniają nas do przyjęcia stwierdzenia, iż wszystkie media, bez względu na ich charakter i nośniki, mają do spełnienia dwie funkcje [Picard, dz. cyt., s. 17-18]: 1. Misji społecznej 2. Komercyjną. Należy także zauważyć, że organizacje medialne dostarczają nie tylko określonych dóbr czy świadczą określone usługi, ale mają też rzadką we współczesnym świecie zdolność skupiania na sobie uwagi. Ze względu na ten dualizm należy dobro medialne traktować jako specyficzne dobro rynkowe (por. rys. 1 Media jako dobro lub usługa rynkowa).
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym
Z
jest jakieś określone dobro. W przypadku mediów byłoby to dobro medialne. Wytwarzaniem tego specyficznego dobra zajmuje się przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Owo dobro ma dualną naturę (zagadnienie to zostanie omówione szerzej w dalszej części artykułu). Pionierem badań z tego zakresu jest Robert G. Picard [por. Picard, 1989]. Na polskim gruncie zagadnieniami dotyczącymi ekonomiki mediów zajmują się przede wszystkim Tadeusz Kowalski, Bogdan Jung oraz autor niniejszego artykułu [por. Kowalski 1998; Kowalski, Jung, 2006; Nierenberg, 2006; Nierenberg, 2007], natomiast problematykę zarządzania w mediach badają wyżej wymienieni oraz Jan Beliczyński [Beliczyński, 2005; Nierenberg, 2007; Kowalski, 2008]. Inni autorzy czynią to okazjonalnie i te dziedziny nie stanowią głównego nurtu ich prac badawczych. Zatem zarządzanie mediami byłoby procesem, w którym owo dualne dobro podlegałoby określonym działaniom. Wg Ricky’ego Griffina byłby to „zestaw działań (obejmujący planowanie i podejmowanie decyzji, organizowanie, przewodzenie, tj. kierowanie ludźmi i kontrolowanie) skierowanych na zasoby organizacji (…) i wykonywanych z zamiarem osiągnięcia celów organizacji w sposób sprawny i skuteczny” [Griffin, 1999, s. 38].
Bogusław Nierenberg
Z
Zakres i przedmiot zarządzania mediami
godnie z teorią systemów każda organizacja czerpie z otoczenia cztery podstawowe rodzaje nakładów i zasobów [tamże, s. 37]: 1. Ludzi 2. Pieniędzy 3. Rzeczy 4. Informacji. W tym kontekście należałoby też rozstrzygnąć, które elementy zarządzania biznesowego i publicznego byłyby odpowiednie dla rozważań związanych z zarządzaniem mediami. Badania prowadzone w obrębie ekonomiki mediów upoważniają nas do przyjęcia stwierdzenia, iż wszystkie media, bez względu na ich charakter i nośniki, mają do spełnienia dwie funkcje [Picard, dz. cyt., s. 17-18]: 1. Misji społecznej 2. Komercyjną. Należy także zauważyć, że organizacje medialne dostarczają nie tylko określonych dóbr czy świadczą określone usługi, ale mają też rzadką we współczesnym świecie zdolność skupiania na sobie uwagi. Ze względu na ten dualizm należy dobro medialne traktować jako specyficzne dobro rynkowe (por. rys. 1 Media jako dobro lub usługa rynkowa).
Bogusław Nierenberg
azwyczaj termin: zarządzanie kojarzony jest z komercją, z organizacjami nastawionymi na zysk. Tymczasem Frederic W. Taylor podczas wystąpienia w Kongresie amerykańskim w 1912 r. mówiąc o zarządzaniu posłużył się przykładem kliniki Eltona Mayo, organizacji nienastawionej na zysk. Przypomnijmy, że to właśnie F. W. Taylor był twórcą pojęcia naukowe zarządzanie. Także określenie zasady zarządzania zostało użyte po raz pierwszy w odniesieniu się do organizacji niemającej cech komercyjnych – armii amerykańskiej, a posłużył się nim Elihu Root, sekretarz ds. wojny w rządzie Teodora Roosevelta. W USA termin zarządzanie w czasach wielkiego kryzysu miał złe konotacje. By uniknąć złych skojarzeń, wprowadzono termin administracja publiczna – oznaczający w istocie zarządzanie w sektorze publicznym [Drucker, 2000, s. 6]. Po II wojnie światowej określenie zarządzanie wróciło do powszechnie używanej terminologii, choć do tej pory żywy jest pogląd, że zarządzanie odnosi się przede wszystkim do zarządzania biznesowego. Tymczasem według P. Druckera „teza ta jest błędna, podobnie jak błędne jest stwierdzenie, że np. medycyna ogranicza się jedynie do położnictwa” [Tamże, s. 7]. Współczesny menedżer winien koncentrować się na wydajności i osiąganiu wyników, a do tego potrzebne są mu wiedza i umiejętności z rozmaitych dziedzin [Drucker, 2002, s. 29], bez specjalnego zastanawiania się nad tym, co różni zarządzanie biznesowe od zarządzania nie-biznesowego. Zdaniem Druckera 90% problemów, którymi zajmuje się organizacja jest natury ogólnej, a pozostałe 10% determinowane jest misją, historią, kulturą i terminologią specyficzną dla danej organizacji [Drucker, 2000, s. 8]. Podobne poglądy prezentują także inni uczeni [por. Ansoff, 1985, s. 33; Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, 2004, s. 80; Krzyżanowski, 1992, s. 231-232]. Zarówno organizacje publiczne, jak i komercyjne oferują obecnym i potencjalnym konsumentom dobra prywatne bądź publiczne [por. Owsiak, 1997, s. 19-25; Bednarczyk, 2001, s. 18-22]. Najprostszym sposobem ich rozróżnienia jest przyjęcie założenia, że dobro prywatne to takie, które może być konsumowane przez jedną osobę i nie może być jednocześnie konsumowane przez kogoś innego [Begg, Fischer, Dornbusch, 2003, s. 99-100] (np. ciastko, koszula czy rower), natomiast dobro publiczne może być konsumowane jednocześnie przez wiele osób, bez uszczerbku dla którejkolwiek z nich (powietrze, którym oddychamy, publiczna służba zdrowia czy obronność kraju). Możemy zatem stwierdzić, że przedmiotem zarządzania
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym
Zakres i przedmiot zarządzania mediami
281
Z
Dobro medialne jako przedmiot zarządzania jest jakieś określone dobro. W przypadku mediów byłoby to dobro medialne. Wytwarzaniem tego specyficznego dobra zajmuje się przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Owo dobro ma dualną naturę (zagadnienie to zostanie omówione szerzej w dalszej części artykułu). Pionierem badań z tego zakresu jest Robert G. Picard [por. Picard, 1989]. Na polskim gruncie zagadnieniami dotyczącymi ekonomiki mediów zajmują się przede wszystkim Tadeusz Kowalski, Bogdan Jung oraz autor niniejszego artykułu [por. Kowalski 1998; Kowalski, Jung, 2006; Nierenberg, 2006; Nierenberg, 2007], natomiast problematykę zarządzania w mediach badają wyżej wymienieni oraz Jan Beliczyński [Beliczyński, 2005; Nierenberg, 2007; Kowalski, 2008]. Inni autorzy czynią to okazjonalnie i te dziedziny nie stanowią głównego nurtu ich prac badawczych. Zatem zarządzanie mediami byłoby procesem, w którym owo dualne dobro podlegałoby określonym działaniom. Wg Ricky’ego Griffina byłby to „zestaw działań (obejmujący planowanie i podejmowanie decyzji, organizowanie, przewodzenie, tj. kierowanie ludźmi i kontrolowanie) skierowanych na zasoby organizacji (…) i wykonywanych z zamiarem osiągnięcia celów organizacji w sposób sprawny i skuteczny” [Griffin, 1999, s. 38].
282
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Rys. 1. Media jako dobro lub usługa rynkowa
282
Rynek dóbr i usług mediów
Z pewnym uproszczeniem możemy przyjąć, że ów dualizm mediów polega na jednoczesnym oferowaniu tego samego produktu/usługi na dwóch różnych rynkach [tamże, s. 29-39]: 1. Medialnym 2. Reklamy. Ekonomiczne spojrzenie R. Picarda na media budzi u osób niezaznajomionych z jego istotą odruch sprzeciwu. Jak to możliwe – powiadają – by na przykład BBC pełniła obok funkcji społecznej, także rolę komercyjną, skoro w ogóle nie nadaje reklam? Odpowiadając na takie zarzuty wystarczy posłużyć się wskaźnikiem CPT (cost per thousand) – kosztem dotarcia do tysiąca odbiorców danej reklamy. Wyobraźmy sobie program nadawany przez BBC, który ogląda trzy miliony widzów. Czy w tym samym czasie te trzy miliony może oglądać program telewizji komercyjnej? Oczywiście, nie może. Zatem, gdyby nie było tego programu i BBC zapewne jakaś część widzów – być może znaczna – oglądałaby program telewizji komercyjnej. Tym samym wzrosłaby jego widownia, ergo spadłby wskaźnik CPT. A tym są żywotnie zainteresowani reklamodawcy. Zatem
Dostęp do odbiorców (dla reklamodawców)
Źródło: B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, 93.
Dobro – usługa medialna (zawartość mediów)
Oferowanie dostępu dla reklamodawców
Źródło: R. G. Piccard, Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage Publications, Newbury Park – London – New Delhi 1989, p. 18; T. Kowalski, Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty działalności środków komunikowania masowego, Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX, Warszawa 1998, s. 30; B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, s. 92.
Oferowanie dobra lub usługi medialnej oraz dostępu dla reklamodawców
Rys. 2. Trójpodział rynku medialnego
Oferowanie dobra lub usługi medialnej
Rynek dóbr i usług medialnych
Rynek dóbr i usług medialnych
Oferowanie dostępu dla reklamodawców
Rys. 2. Trójpodział rynku medialnego
Oferowanie dobra lub usługi medialnej oraz dostępu dla reklamodawców
Źródło: R. G. Piccard, Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage Publications, Newbury Park – London – New Delhi 1989, p. 18; T. Kowalski, Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty działalności środków komunikowania masowego, Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX, Warszawa 1998, s. 30; B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, s. 92.
Oferowanie dobra lub usługi medialnej
Dostęp do odbiorców (dla reklamodawców)
Źródło: B. Nierenberg, Publiczne przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Determinanty, systemy, modele, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007, 93.
Dobro – usługa medialna (zawartość mediów)
BBC, mimo że nie nadaje reklam, pełni także rolę komercyjną na rynku medialnym. Podział zaproponowany przez R. Picarda ma daleko idące konsekwencje. Oznacza bowiem, że media nie są „zwykłymi” przedsiębiorstwami, które mają jedynie przynosić zysk swoim właścicielom. Wydaje się zatem, że niektórzy badacze nieco na wyrost twierdzili, że „Środki masowe w ustroju kapitalistycznym, z nielicznymi wyjątkami odnoszącymi się do mediów publicznych, są normalnymi przedsiębiorstwami produkcyjnymi” [Goban-Klas, 1999, s. 151]. D. McQuail stwierdza wręcz: „Media nie są biznesem jak każdy inny, ze względu na interes społeczny” [McQuail, 2007, s. 242]. Wydaje się również, że dualizm mediów, wskazany przez R. Picarda, odwołujący się przede wszystkim do treści (content product) i aspektu ekonomicznego (for advertisers) także pozwala stwierdzić, że nie jest to biznes taki jak wszystkie inne. Dualne ujęcie rynku medialnego zaproponowane przez R. Picarda, za sprawą nowych zjawisk obserwowanych na rynku medialnym, winno być – jak się wydaje – zmodyfikowane. Dokładniejsza analiza rynku medialnego kieruje nas w stronę bardziej szczegółowego rozróżnienia oferowanych dóbr. Wydaje się, że dualny podział dóbr i usług winien być zastąpiony trójpodziałem (por. rys. 2 Trójpodział rynku medialnego). O ile, w przypadku komercyjnych przedsiębiorstw medialnych, podstawową kwestią jest takie zarządzanie organizacją, by zarówno interesy właścicieli (udziałowców), jak i odbiorców były zachowane i respektowane. Jest to założenie czasami bardzo trudne do realizacji w praktyce, bowiem bywają sytuacje, gdy interes społeczny i interes właścicieli są rozbieżne. Dotyczy to zwłaszcza niewielkich przedsiębiorstw medialnych, których byt ekonomiczny zależny jest na przykład od jedynego, działającego na danym terenie reklamodawcy. Może to być zarówno jednostka samorządu terytorialnego, jak i jedyne przedsiębiorstwo działające na danym obszarze. W przypadku mediów publicznych (na ogół są media elektroniczne) podstawowa kwestia zarządcza, to uniezależnienie tychże mediów od wpływów politycznych. Na ogół interes polityczny jest rozbieżny z interesem społecznym. D. C. Hallin i P. Mancini zaproponowali systemowy podział modeli medialnych na: 1. Śródziemnomorski albo spolaryzowanego pluralizmu. 2. Północno- i środkowoeuropejski albo demokratycznego korporacjonizmu. 3. Północnoatlantycki albo liberalny [por. Hallin, Mancini, 2007, s. 66-76]. Wydaje się, że polski model medialny bliski jest modelowi śródziemnomorskiemu (spolaryzowa-
Rynek dóbr i usług mediów
BBC, mimo że nie nadaje reklam, pełni także rolę komercyjną na rynku medialnym. Podział zaproponowany przez R. Picarda ma daleko idące konsekwencje. Oznacza bowiem, że media nie są „zwykłymi” przedsiębiorstwami, które mają jedynie przynosić zysk swoim właścicielom. Wydaje się zatem, że niektórzy badacze nieco na wyrost twierdzili, że „Środki masowe w ustroju kapitalistycznym, z nielicznymi wyjątkami odnoszącymi się do mediów publicznych, są normalnymi przedsiębiorstwami produkcyjnymi” [Goban-Klas, 1999, s. 151]. D. McQuail stwierdza wręcz: „Media nie są biznesem jak każdy inny, ze względu na interes społeczny” [McQuail, 2007, s. 242]. Wydaje się również, że dualizm mediów, wskazany przez R. Picarda, odwołujący się przede wszystkim do treści (content product) i aspektu ekonomicznego (for advertisers) także pozwala stwierdzić, że nie jest to biznes taki jak wszystkie inne. Dualne ujęcie rynku medialnego zaproponowane przez R. Picarda, za sprawą nowych zjawisk obserwowanych na rynku medialnym, winno być – jak się wydaje – zmodyfikowane. Dokładniejsza analiza rynku medialnego kieruje nas w stronę bardziej szczegółowego rozróżnienia oferowanych dóbr. Wydaje się, że dualny podział dóbr i usług winien być zastąpiony trójpodziałem (por. rys. 2 Trójpodział rynku medialnego). O ile, w przypadku komercyjnych przedsiębiorstw medialnych, podstawową kwestią jest takie zarządzanie organizacją, by zarówno interesy właścicieli (udziałowców), jak i odbiorców były zachowane i respektowane. Jest to założenie czasami bardzo trudne do realizacji w praktyce, bowiem bywają sytuacje, gdy interes społeczny i interes właścicieli są rozbieżne. Dotyczy to zwłaszcza niewielkich przedsiębiorstw medialnych, których byt ekonomiczny zależny jest na przykład od jedynego, działającego na danym terenie reklamodawcy. Może to być zarówno jednostka samorządu terytorialnego, jak i jedyne przedsiębiorstwo działające na danym obszarze. W przypadku mediów publicznych (na ogół są media elektroniczne) podstawowa kwestia zarządcza, to uniezależnienie tychże mediów od wpływów politycznych. Na ogół interes polityczny jest rozbieżny z interesem społecznym. D. C. Hallin i P. Mancini zaproponowali systemowy podział modeli medialnych na: 1. Śródziemnomorski albo spolaryzowanego pluralizmu. 2. Północno- i środkowoeuropejski albo demokratycznego korporacjonizmu. 3. Północnoatlantycki albo liberalny [por. Hallin, Mancini, 2007, s. 66-76]. Wydaje się, że polski model medialny bliski jest modelowi śródziemnomorskiemu (spolaryzowa-
Z pewnym uproszczeniem możemy przyjąć, że ów dualizm mediów polega na jednoczesnym oferowaniu tego samego produktu/usługi na dwóch różnych rynkach [tamże, s. 29-39]: 1. Medialnym 2. Reklamy. Ekonomiczne spojrzenie R. Picarda na media budzi u osób niezaznajomionych z jego istotą odruch sprzeciwu. Jak to możliwe – powiadają – by na przykład BBC pełniła obok funkcji społecznej, także rolę komercyjną, skoro w ogóle nie nadaje reklam? Odpowiadając na takie zarzuty wystarczy posłużyć się wskaźnikiem CPT (cost per thousand) – kosztem dotarcia do tysiąca odbiorców danej reklamy. Wyobraźmy sobie program nadawany przez BBC, który ogląda trzy miliony widzów. Czy w tym samym czasie te trzy miliony może oglądać program telewizji komercyjnej? Oczywiście, nie może. Zatem, gdyby nie było tego programu i BBC zapewne jakaś część widzów – być może znaczna – oglądałaby program telewizji komercyjnej. Tym samym wzrosłaby jego widownia, ergo spadłby wskaźnik CPT. A tym są żywotnie zainteresowani reklamodawcy. Zatem
Rys. 1. Media jako dobro lub usługa rynkowa
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
nego pluralizmu), w którym model zarządzania mediami elektronicznymi podporządkowany jest procesowi politycznemu, charakteryzującemu się silnym oddziaływaniem rządu lub parlamentu na media [tamże]. Z punktu widzenia rozważanych tu zagadnień istotna wydaje się kwestia: czy w sytuacji tego dualizmu organizacyjnego oraz podmiotowego zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem medialnym (dotyczy to zwłaszcza publicznych przedsiębiorstw) wymaga specjalnych form i narzędzi zarządczych? Jej rozstrzygnięcie wymaga przede wszystkim określenia zadań do wykonania (tzw. misja) oraz zrozumienia istoty zarządzania publicznego.
Zarządzanie w publicznych organizacjach medialnych
B
adanie ekonomicznych aspektów działalności mediów i organizacji medialnych pojawiło się wcześniej niż badanie procesów związanych z zarządzaniem mediami. Podobnie rzecz miała się z klasyczną nauką o zarządzaniu, która została skodyfikowana dopiero na przełomie XIX i XX w. [Piotrowski, 2004, s. 621], choć procesy zarządcze są tak stare jak sama cywilizacja [Pringle, Starr, 2006, s. 3]. Młoda, jeszcze nie do końca wykrystalizowana dziedzina badawcza, jaką jest zarządzanie mediami, pojawiła się w ślad za ekonomiką mediów. Niektórzy badacze zajmujący się tymi problemami wyrażają pogląd, iż połączenie badań z zakresu ekonomiki mediów i zarządzania mediami jest korzystne [Por. Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2006, p. 2-7; Kowalski, 2008, s. 36-38.], bowiem „ścisłe oddzielenie ekonomiki od zarządzania nie jest możliwe” [Kowalski, 2008, s. 36]. Ta ostatnia konstatacja jest bezdyskusyjna, jednakże wydaje się, że tak jak naukowe zarządzanie oddzieliło się od klasycznej ekonomii, tak samo zarządzanie mediami winno być oddzielone od ekonomiki mediów. Potrzeba do tego stworzenia osobnego instrumentarium naukowego i badaczy, którzy będą zajmowali się tą dziedziną badawczą. Oczywiście granica między zarządzaniem mediami a ekonomiką mediów będzie nieostra, ale jednak będzie. W Polsce dodatkowo rozdziałowi zarządzania mediami i ekonomiki mediów sprzyjać będzie usytuowanie mediów publicznych i problemy z nimi związane. Wydaje się, że polscy badacze zajmujący się ekonomiką mediów, w sposób niejako naturalny kierować się będą ku mediom komercyjnym, tam znajdując mnogość problemów badawczych, natomiast ci, w których centrum zainteresowania są problemy zarządzania, obszarów badawczych szukać będą raczej w obsza-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
rze mediów publicznych. Być może w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej ulegnie to zmianie, ale najbliższe lata wydają się wyznaczać taką właśnie dyferencjację obszarów badawczych. Wydaje się także, że w obszarze zarządzania mediami publicznymi jednym z naczelnych zadań będzie realizacja ich podstawowych zadań, czyli tego co określa się mianem misji mediów publicznych. Organizacje publiczne na ogół oferują dobra publiczne. Wyróżniamy dwie kategorie takich podmiotów [Bednarczyk, 2001, s. 19]: 1. Instytucje publiczne sensu stricte 2. Instytucje publiczne sensu largo. Do instytucji pierwszego rodzaju zaliczamy: administrację państwową i samorządową, wojsko, policję etc. One oferują dobra publiczne sensu stricte. Dobra publiczne sensu largo oferowane są przez: szkoły, biblioteki, teatry, muzea, placówki ochrony zdrowia, organizacje sportowe etc. Natomiast w przypadku mediów (niektórych) możemy mówić jedynie o ich „para-publicznym lub quasipublicznym charakterze” [Kowalski, 1998, s. 32], bowiem dobro publiczne jako kategoria ekonomiczna winno spełniać trzy cechy [tamże]: 1. Konsumowanie dobra publicznego przez jedną osobę nie ogranicza jego konsumpcji przez inną osobę. 2. Konsumowanie dobra publicznego przez jedną osobę nie wyklucza jego konsumpcji przez inną osobę. 3. Nie jest możliwe zrezygnowanie z konsumowania dobra publicznego. Zdaniem T. Kowalskiego, żadne media nie spełniają trzeciego warunku. I to właśnie przesądza o para-publicznym charakterze mediów [tamże]. Jednakże z punktu widzenia zarządzania insty tucjami publicznymi najistotniejsze są źródła finansowania i źródła władzy. W przypadku instytucji publicznych sensu stricte środki finansowe stanowią fundusze publiczne oraz mandat polityczny ugrupowania, które wygrało wybory. W przypadku instytucji publicznych sensu largo źródła finansowania mogą być mieszane: publiczne i/lub prywatne, a źródłem władzy jest własność: publiczna i/lub prywatna. Z punktu widzenia rozpatrywanych zagadnień istotne jest zdefiniowanie pojęcia „przedsiębiorstwo”, a w zasadzie szczególnego przypadku, jakim jest „przedsiębiorstwo publiczne”. W prawie Unii Europejskiej przyjęto, iż przedsiębiorstwo to: „podmiot (jednostka) prowadzący działalność na potrzeby rynku” [Emmerich, 1999, s. 666]. I nie ma znaczenia czy dany podmiot podlega prawu publicznemu czy prywatnemu [Dudzik, 2002, s. 137]. Zgodnie z unijnymi przepisami za kardynalną zasadę przyjęto domniemanie wywierania dominującego wpływu na przedsiębiorstwo.
283
adanie ekonomicznych aspektów działalności mediów i organizacji medialnych pojawiło się wcześniej niż badanie procesów związanych z zarządzaniem mediami. Podobnie rzecz miała się z klasyczną nauką o zarządzaniu, która została skodyfikowana dopiero na przełomie XIX i XX w. [Piotrowski, 2004, s. 621], choć procesy zarządcze są tak stare jak sama cywilizacja [Pringle, Starr, 2006, s. 3]. Młoda, jeszcze nie do końca wykrystalizowana dziedzina badawcza, jaką jest zarządzanie mediami, pojawiła się w ślad za ekonomiką mediów. Niektórzy badacze zajmujący się tymi problemami wyrażają pogląd, iż połączenie badań z zakresu ekonomiki mediów i zarządzania mediami jest korzystne [Por. Handbook of Media Management and Economics, 2006, p. 2-7; Kowalski, 2008, s. 36-38.], bowiem „ścisłe oddzielenie ekonomiki od zarządzania nie jest możliwe” [Kowalski, 2008, s. 36]. Ta ostatnia konstatacja jest bezdyskusyjna, jednakże wydaje się, że tak jak naukowe zarządzanie oddzieliło się od klasycznej ekonomii, tak samo zarządzanie mediami winno być oddzielone od ekonomiki mediów. Potrzeba do tego stworzenia osobnego instrumentarium naukowego i badaczy, którzy będą zajmowali się tą dziedziną badawczą. Oczywiście granica między zarządzaniem mediami a ekonomiką mediów będzie nieostra, ale jednak będzie. W Polsce dodatkowo rozdziałowi zarządzania mediami i ekonomiki mediów sprzyjać będzie usytuowanie mediów publicznych i problemy z nimi związane. Wydaje się, że polscy badacze zajmujący się ekonomiką mediów, w sposób niejako naturalny kierować się będą ku mediom komercyjnym, tam znajdując mnogość problemów badawczych, natomiast ci, w których centrum zainteresowania są problemy zarządzania, obszarów badawczych szukać będą raczej w obsza-
B
Zarządzanie w publicznych organizacjach medialnych nego pluralizmu), w którym model zarządzania mediami elektronicznymi podporządkowany jest procesowi politycznemu, charakteryzującemu się silnym oddziaływaniem rządu lub parlamentu na media [tamże]. Z punktu widzenia rozważanych tu zagadnień istotna wydaje się kwestia: czy w sytuacji tego dualizmu organizacyjnego oraz podmiotowego zarządzanie przedsiębiorstwem medialnym (dotyczy to zwłaszcza publicznych przedsiębiorstw) wymaga specjalnych form i narzędzi zarządczych? Jej rozstrzygnięcie wymaga przede wszystkim określenia zadań do wykonania (tzw. misja) oraz zrozumienia istoty zarządzania publicznego.
283
rze mediów publicznych. Być może w dłuższej perspektywie czasowej ulegnie to zmianie, ale najbliższe lata wydają się wyznaczać taką właśnie dyferencjację obszarów badawczych. Wydaje się także, że w obszarze zarządzania mediami publicznymi jednym z naczelnych zadań będzie realizacja ich podstawowych zadań, czyli tego co określa się mianem misji mediów publicznych. Organizacje publiczne na ogół oferują dobra publiczne. Wyróżniamy dwie kategorie takich podmiotów [Bednarczyk, 2001, s. 19]: 1. Instytucje publiczne sensu stricte 2. Instytucje publiczne sensu largo. Do instytucji pierwszego rodzaju zaliczamy: administrację państwową i samorządową, wojsko, policję etc. One oferują dobra publiczne sensu stricte. Dobra publiczne sensu largo oferowane są przez: szkoły, biblioteki, teatry, muzea, placówki ochrony zdrowia, organizacje sportowe etc. Natomiast w przypadku mediów (niektórych) możemy mówić jedynie o ich „para-publicznym lub quasipublicznym charakterze” [Kowalski, 1998, s. 32], bowiem dobro publiczne jako kategoria ekonomiczna winno spełniać trzy cechy [tamże]: 1. Konsumowanie dobra publicznego przez jedną osobę nie ogranicza jego konsumpcji przez inną osobę. 2. Konsumowanie dobra publicznego przez jedną osobę nie wyklucza jego konsumpcji przez inną osobę. 3. Nie jest możliwe zrezygnowanie z konsumowania dobra publicznego. Zdaniem T. Kowalskiego, żadne media nie spełniają trzeciego warunku. I to właśnie przesądza o para-publicznym charakterze mediów [tamże]. Jednakże z punktu widzenia zarządzania insty tucjami publicznymi najistotniejsze są źródła finansowania i źródła władzy. W przypadku instytucji publicznych sensu stricte środki finansowe stanowią fundusze publiczne oraz mandat polityczny ugrupowania, które wygrało wybory. W przypadku instytucji publicznych sensu largo źródła finansowania mogą być mieszane: publiczne i/lub prywatne, a źródłem władzy jest własność: publiczna i/lub prywatna. Z punktu widzenia rozpatrywanych zagadnień istotne jest zdefiniowanie pojęcia „przedsiębiorstwo”, a w zasadzie szczególnego przypadku, jakim jest „przedsiębiorstwo publiczne”. W prawie Unii Europejskiej przyjęto, iż przedsiębiorstwo to: „podmiot (jednostka) prowadzący działalność na potrzeby rynku” [Emmerich, 1999, s. 666]. I nie ma znaczenia czy dany podmiot podlega prawu publicznemu czy prywatnemu [Dudzik, 2002, s. 137]. Zgodnie z unijnymi przepisami za kardynalną zasadę przyjęto domniemanie wywierania dominującego wpływu na przedsiębiorstwo.
284
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3) Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
3. Duży stopień ingerencji – ingerencja w program jest uzasadniania interesem publicznym, finansowanie publiczne przekracza 50 dolarów na jednego mieszkańca (Niemcy, Holandia, Szwecja, Wielka Brytania). Wydaje się, że w przypadku zarządzania mediami publicznymi jednym z istotnych elementów jest brak motywacji komercyjnej. Jest to możliwe wtedy, gdy media publiczne nie muszą szukać środków na rynku komercyjnym. W takich krajach jak Wielka Brytania, Dania, Norwegia, Szwecja czy Japonia udział pieniędzy publicznych w przychodach publicznych instytucji medialnych wynosi niemal 100% [ Jędrzejewski, 2003, s. 39]. W Polsce publiczne przedsiębiorstwa medialne są zmuszone do szukania źródeł finansowania na rynku komercyjnym. Udział środków publicznych w realizacji zadań publicznych (tzw. misja) wynosi średniorocznie od około 27–28% (telewizja publiczna) do około 72–73% (radio publiczne) [http://www. krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/spr2008/ inf2008.pdf], a w przypadku regionalnych stacji TVP – blisko 100%. Zatem przy obecnym stanie prawnym1 zarządzanie polskimi mediami publicznymi musi stanowić połączenie dwóch celów: komercyjnego i interesu publicznego. Polskie media publiczne mają formę spółek prawa handlowego, które ze swej natury są nastawione na zysk. Takich zresztą oczekuje minister skarbu państwa, który w stosunku do spółek medialnych pełni funkcje właścicielskie. Z drugiej jednak strony polskie media publiczne poddano ustawie o radiofonii i telewizji, w której opisano interes publiczny (misja) [Ustawa z 29 XII 1992 r. o radiofonii i telewizji]. Od wielu lat kolejne rządy próbują rozwiązać tę kwadraturę koła, ale na ogół kończy się to na zapowiedziach i przejęciu wpływów nad mediami publicznymi. K. Jakubowicz mówi wręcz o kryzysie prawomocności istnienia mediów publicznych. W badaniach odbiorcy deklarują potrzebę ich istnienia, a z drugiej strony są rozczarowani praktyką ich działania [ Jakubowicz, 2007, s. 252].
284
Informacja jako przedmiot zarządzania
Opis odnosi się do stanu prawnego z pierwszej połowy 2010 r.
1
P
. Drucker twierdził, że XXI w. będzie wiekiem informacji [Drucker, 2000, s. 104-105]. To właśnie informacja stanie się podstawowym zasobem obecnego stulecia. Pazerność i chęć dominowania nad innymi sprawiały, że w przeszłości podsta-
. Drucker twierdził, że XXI w. będzie wiekiem informacji [Drucker, 2000, s. 104-105]. To właśnie informacja stanie się podstawowym zasobem obecnego stulecia. Pazerność i chęć dominowania nad innymi sprawiały, że w przeszłości podsta-
P
Ta zasada jest realizowana w jednym, dwóch lub trzech przypadkach, każdym z osobna lub łącznie [tamże, s. 174-175]: 1. Władze publiczne posiadają większą część kapitału zakładowego przedsiębiorstwa. 2. Władze publiczne kontrolują większość głosów przypadających na akcje (udziały) wyemitowane przez przedsiębiorstwo. 3. Władze publiczne mogą wyznaczać ponad połowę członków organów administracyjnych, zarządzających lub nadzorczych przedsiębiorstwa. W kontekście tychże przepisów instytucje zawiadujące polskimi mediami publicznymi, wymienione w artykułach 22-28 ustawy o radiofonii i telewizji [Ustawa z 29 XII 1992 r. o radiofonii i telewizji (Dz.U. z 2004 r. nr 253, poz. 2531), art. 22-28] spełniają wymogi przedsiębiorstw publicznych. Tego typu organizacje nie są na ogół nastawione na zysk. Ich zadania wyznacza właściciel, czyli społeczeństwo, a w jego imieniu winny to czynić organy państwa, które na ich realizację przeznaczają publiczne środki. Wymaga to jednak zdefiniowania zadań mediów publicznych, ergo samych mediów publicznych. Wielce symptomatyczny jest przykład komisji powołanej przez brytyjski rząd do opracowania koncepcji cyfryzacji BBC, w tym zdefiniowania na nowo istoty publicznej radiofonii brytyjskiej. Komisja w raporcie końcowym napisała: „Nie podjęliśmy się tak ambitnego zadania w ciągu tych sześciu miesięcy, jakie mieliśmy do dyspozycji. Kiedy każde z nas próbowało przedstawić jakąś definicję, zaczęły się pojawiać znane pojęcia – informacja, oświata, poszerzenie horyzontów, bezstronność, niezależność, powszechny dostęp, inkluzywność, służba na rzecz mniejszości, brak motywacji komercyjnej itp. itd. Doszliśmy do wniosku, że wprawdzie nie sformułujemy nowej definicji, ale wiemy, co to media publiczne” [ Jakubowicz, 2007, s. 27]. Karol Jakubowicz wskazuje na trzy główne orientacje, dotyczące stopnia ingerencji państwa w media [tamże, s. 96]: 1. Minimalistyczna – występuje w krajach, gdzie zawartość mediów komercyjnych nie jest regulowana, publiczne finansowanie mediów publicznych nie przekracza 30 dolarów na jednego mieszkańca (Włochy, Nowa Zelandia, Portugalia, Hiszpania, USA). 2. Media jako „wyjątek kulturalny” – na nadawców komercyjnych nakładany jest obowiązek produkcji programów wzmacniających tożsamość narodową, publiczne finansowanie nie przekracza 30 dolarów na jednego mieszkańca.
Informacja jako przedmiot zarządzania
Opis odnosi się do stanu prawnego z pierwszej połowy 2010 r.
3. Duży stopień ingerencji – ingerencja w program jest uzasadniania interesem publicznym, finansowanie publiczne przekracza 50 dolarów na jednego mieszkańca (Niemcy, Holandia, Szwecja, Wielka Brytania). Wydaje się, że w przypadku zarządzania mediami publicznymi jednym z istotnych elementów jest brak motywacji komercyjnej. Jest to możliwe wtedy, gdy media publiczne nie muszą szukać środków na rynku komercyjnym. W takich krajach jak Wielka Brytania, Dania, Norwegia, Szwecja czy Japonia udział pieniędzy publicznych w przychodach publicznych instytucji medialnych wynosi niemal 100% [ Jędrzejewski, 2003, s. 39]. W Polsce publiczne przedsiębiorstwa medialne są zmuszone do szukania źródeł finansowania na rynku komercyjnym. Udział środków publicznych w realizacji zadań publicznych (tzw. misja) wynosi średniorocznie od około 27–28% (telewizja publiczna) do około 72–73% (radio publiczne) [http://www. krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/spr2008/ inf2008.pdf], a w przypadku regionalnych stacji TVP – blisko 100%. Zatem przy obecnym stanie prawnym1 zarządzanie polskimi mediami publicznymi musi stanowić połączenie dwóch celów: komercyjnego i interesu publicznego. Polskie media publiczne mają formę spółek prawa handlowego, które ze swej natury są nastawione na zysk. Takich zresztą oczekuje minister skarbu państwa, który w stosunku do spółek medialnych pełni funkcje właścicielskie. Z drugiej jednak strony polskie media publiczne poddano ustawie o radiofonii i telewizji, w której opisano interes publiczny (misja) [Ustawa z 29 XII 1992 r. o radiofonii i telewizji]. Od wielu lat kolejne rządy próbują rozwiązać tę kwadraturę koła, ale na ogół kończy się to na zapowiedziach i przejęciu wpływów nad mediami publicznymi. K. Jakubowicz mówi wręcz o kryzysie prawomocności istnienia mediów publicznych. W badaniach odbiorcy deklarują potrzebę ich istnienia, a z drugiej strony są rozczarowani praktyką ich działania [ Jakubowicz, 2007, s. 252].
1
Ta zasada jest realizowana w jednym, dwóch lub trzech przypadkach, każdym z osobna lub łącznie [tamże, s. 174-175]: 1. Władze publiczne posiadają większą część kapitału zakładowego przedsiębiorstwa. 2. Władze publiczne kontrolują większość głosów przypadających na akcje (udziały) wyemitowane przez przedsiębiorstwo. 3. Władze publiczne mogą wyznaczać ponad połowę członków organów administracyjnych, zarządzających lub nadzorczych przedsiębiorstwa. W kontekście tychże przepisów instytucje zawiadujące polskimi mediami publicznymi, wymienione w artykułach 22-28 ustawy o radiofonii i telewizji [Ustawa z 29 XII 1992 r. o radiofonii i telewizji (Dz.U. z 2004 r. nr 253, poz. 2531), art. 22-28] spełniają wymogi przedsiębiorstw publicznych. Tego typu organizacje nie są na ogół nastawione na zysk. Ich zadania wyznacza właściciel, czyli społeczeństwo, a w jego imieniu winny to czynić organy państwa, które na ich realizację przeznaczają publiczne środki. Wymaga to jednak zdefiniowania zadań mediów publicznych, ergo samych mediów publicznych. Wielce symptomatyczny jest przykład komisji powołanej przez brytyjski rząd do opracowania koncepcji cyfryzacji BBC, w tym zdefiniowania na nowo istoty publicznej radiofonii brytyjskiej. Komisja w raporcie końcowym napisała: „Nie podjęliśmy się tak ambitnego zadania w ciągu tych sześciu miesięcy, jakie mieliśmy do dyspozycji. Kiedy każde z nas próbowało przedstawić jakąś definicję, zaczęły się pojawiać znane pojęcia – informacja, oświata, poszerzenie horyzontów, bezstronność, niezależność, powszechny dostęp, inkluzywność, służba na rzecz mniejszości, brak motywacji komercyjnej itp. itd. Doszliśmy do wniosku, że wprawdzie nie sformułujemy nowej definicji, ale wiemy, co to media publiczne” [ Jakubowicz, 2007, s. 27]. Karol Jakubowicz wskazuje na trzy główne orientacje, dotyczące stopnia ingerencji państwa w media [tamże, s. 96]: 1. Minimalistyczna – występuje w krajach, gdzie zawartość mediów komercyjnych nie jest regulowana, publiczne finansowanie mediów publicznych nie przekracza 30 dolarów na jednego mieszkańca (Włochy, Nowa Zelandia, Portugalia, Hiszpania, USA). 2. Media jako „wyjątek kulturalny” – na nadawców komercyjnych nakładany jest obowiązek produkcji programów wzmacniających tożsamość narodową, publiczne finansowanie nie przekracza 30 dolarów na jednego mieszkańca.
285
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
wowe zasoby były zawsze obiektami pożądania, a w efekcie wojen. Najpierw to była ziemia, która – zdaniem A. Smith – rodziła złote dukaty w procesie wymiany [por. Smith, 2003, s. 213-235]. Potem takim zasobem stały się surowce. Współczesny świat widział już niejedną wojnę o nośniki energii. Jeżeli ma rację P. Drucker, że tym podstawowym zasobem w XXI w. będzie informacja, to bez wątpienia kiedyś będziemy świadkami wojen o zasoby informacyjne. A być może już jesteśmy (byliśmy). Konflikty rosyjsko-litewski czy rosyjskogruziński są tu wielce symptomatyczne2. Współczesny człowiek pozbawiony jest pokory. Wydaje mu się, że to on tworzy dzieła największe i najwspanialsze, że to on stworzył rewolucję informacyjną. Tymczasem obecna rewolucja jest już czwartą w dziejach. Pierwsza wiązała się z wynalezieniem druku w Mezopotamii około 5–6 tys. lat temu. Druga zaczęła około 3,5 tysiąca lat temu w Chinach wraz z wynalezieniem książki. Trzecią zapoczątkował w 1456 r. Gutenberg wynalazkiem ruchomej czcionki [Drucker, 2000, s. 104-113]. P. Drucker zwraca uwagę na osobliwe właściwości informacji jako zasobu, który wymyka się podstawowym prawom ekonomicznym: „Jeżeli sprzedam jakąś rzecz, np. książkę, oznacza to, że już jej nie posiadam. Jeżeli udzielę komuś informacji, to nadal ją posiadam. W rzeczywistości informacja staje się bardziej cenna, ponieważ znana jest większej liczbie osób. W miarę zwiększania się liczby odbiorców informacji, jej wartość rośnie” [tamże, s. 27]. Ta właściwość informacji przeczy podstawowemu prawu ekonomii, prawu popytu (popyt na dane dobro maleje w miarę zwiększania się danego dobra na rynku). Objaśnienie tej pozornej sprzeczności wymaga odwołania się do dualnej natury rynku dóbr i usług medialnych zaproponowanej przez R. Picarda (o czym była już wcześniej mowa), ale także wskazania, że taką dualną naturę posiadają same przedsiębiorstwa medialne. Nie chcąc trywializować opisywanego zagadnienia, autor niniejszego pragnie odwołać się jednak do przykładu, który obrazuje istotę wywodu. Przykładem tym autor posłużył się swego czasu podczas wykładu, by objaśnić studentom tok rozumowania. Załóżmy, że mamy dwa przedsiębiorstwa: jedno produkuje zwykłe guziki, drugie – guziki informacyjne (przedsiębiorstwo medialne). By objaśnić różnicę między jednym a drugim przyjmijmy kolejne założenie, że
2
autor niniejszego jest egzemplifikacją przedsiębiorstwa produkującego zwykłe guziki, natomiast najsłynniejszy polski narciarz Adam Małysz uosabia przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Gdyby obaj stanęli na stoku, to na kombinezonie Małysza byłoby pełno reklam, a na kombinezonie autora niniejszego ani jednej. Sławny narciarz dostarcza contentu w postaci wybitnych osiągnięć sportowych, przez co ma zdolność skupiania na sobie rzadkiego dobra, jakim jest uwaga konsumentów (przedsiębiorstwo medialne produkujące guziki informacyjne). Autor niniejszego takiej zdolności nie posiada (przedsiębiorstwo produkujące zwykłe guziki). Skoro wiemy, na czym polega różnica pomiędzy zwykłym przedsiębiorstwem, a przedsiębiorstwem medialnym, spróbujmy wyobrazić sobie dwie niemal identyczne gazety. Każda z nich zawiera po sto „guzików” informacyjnych. Dokładnie takich samych. Jednak pierwsza gazeta ukazuje się w nakładzie miliona egzemplarzy, a druga w nakładzie tysiąca. Pytanie, które „guziki” informacyjne są cenniejsze, te zawarte w pierwszej czy w drugiej gazecie – jest w zasadzie pytaniem retorycznym. Ten wywód pozwala dowieść, iż w istocie informacja jest zasobem, którym wymyka się prawom tradycyjnej ekonomii.
Podsumowanie
Z
arządzanie mediami jest młodą dziedziną badawczą o stosunkowo skromnym dorobku naukowym. Wymaga stworzenia nowego aparatu badawczego, twórczego adaptowania istniejących pojęć do wymagań badawczych, a także wskazania zakresu badawczego nowej dyscypliny, jaką ma szanse stać się zarządzanie mediami. Wydaje się, że najbliższe lata będą wzmagały zainteresowanie zarządzaniem mediami i to zarówno ze strony środowiska naukowego, obecnych i potencjalnych badaczy oraz studentów, a także środowisk politycznych i biznesowych. Ma to, i mieć będzie, swoje źródło w stale rosnącym znaczeniu przemysłów medialnych, szerzej „przemysłów twórczych” (creative industries). Obecnie połowa PKB największej gospodarki świata, Stanów Zjednoczonych, powstaje w obszarze creative industries. Zakreślone w niniejszym artykule problemy wydają się być interesującym polem badawczym,
W pierwszym przypadku (2007 r.) chodziło o przeniesienie pomnika Spiżowego Żołnierza, upamiętniającego Armię Radziecką z centrum Tallina na cmentarz; w drugim (2008 r.) – już zbrojnym, podczas wojny rosyjsko-gruzińskiej – o tereny graniczne pomiędzy Rosją w Gruzją. W jednym i w drugim przypadku zaatakowane zostały serwery rządów estońskiego i gruzińskiego, w wyniku czego na pewien czas oba rządy zostały odcięte od dopływu informacji. Rząd Rosji twierdził, że nie miał z tym nic wspólnego, że był to atak jakichś anonimowych hakerów.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
285
2 W pierwszym przypadku (2007 r.) chodziło o przeniesienie pomnika Spiżowego Żołnierza, upamiętniającego Armię Radziecką z centrum Tallina na cmentarz; w drugim (2008 r.) – już zbrojnym, podczas wojny rosyjsko-gruzińskiej – o tereny graniczne pomiędzy Rosją w Gruzją. W jednym i w drugim przypadku zaatakowane zostały serwery rządów estońskiego i gruzińskiego, w wyniku czego na pewien czas oba rządy zostały odcięte od dopływu informacji. Rząd Rosji twierdził, że nie miał z tym nic wspólnego, że był to atak jakichś anonimowych hakerów.
wowe zasoby były zawsze obiektami pożądania, a w efekcie wojen. Najpierw to była ziemia, która – zdaniem A. Smith – rodziła złote dukaty w procesie wymiany [por. Smith, 2003, s. 213-235]. Potem takim zasobem stały się surowce. Współczesny świat widział już niejedną wojnę o nośniki energii. Jeżeli ma rację P. Drucker, że tym podstawowym zasobem w XXI w. będzie informacja, to bez wątpienia kiedyś będziemy świadkami wojen o zasoby informacyjne. A być może już jesteśmy (byliśmy). Konflikty rosyjsko-litewski czy rosyjskogruziński są tu wielce symptomatyczne2. Współczesny człowiek pozbawiony jest pokory. Wydaje mu się, że to on tworzy dzieła największe i najwspanialsze, że to on stworzył rewolucję informacyjną. Tymczasem obecna rewolucja jest już czwartą w dziejach. Pierwsza wiązała się z wynalezieniem druku w Mezopotamii około 5–6 tys. lat temu. Druga zaczęła około 3,5 tysiąca lat temu w Chinach wraz z wynalezieniem książki. Trzecią zapoczątkował w 1456 r. Gutenberg wynalazkiem ruchomej czcionki [Drucker, 2000, s. 104-113]. P. Drucker zwraca uwagę na osobliwe właściwości informacji jako zasobu, który wymyka się podstawowym prawom ekonomicznym: „Jeżeli sprzedam jakąś rzecz, np. książkę, oznacza to, że już jej nie posiadam. Jeżeli udzielę komuś informacji, to nadal ją posiadam. W rzeczywistości informacja staje się bardziej cenna, ponieważ znana jest większej liczbie osób. W miarę zwiększania się liczby odbiorców informacji, jej wartość rośnie” [tamże, s. 27]. Ta właściwość informacji przeczy podstawowemu prawu ekonomii, prawu popytu (popyt na dane dobro maleje w miarę zwiększania się danego dobra na rynku). Objaśnienie tej pozornej sprzeczności wymaga odwołania się do dualnej natury rynku dóbr i usług medialnych zaproponowanej przez R. Picarda (o czym była już wcześniej mowa), ale także wskazania, że taką dualną naturę posiadają same przedsiębiorstwa medialne. Nie chcąc trywializować opisywanego zagadnienia, autor niniejszego pragnie odwołać się jednak do przykładu, który obrazuje istotę wywodu. Przykładem tym autor posłużył się swego czasu podczas wykładu, by objaśnić studentom tok rozumowania. Załóżmy, że mamy dwa przedsiębiorstwa: jedno produkuje zwykłe guziki, drugie – guziki informacyjne (przedsiębiorstwo medialne). By objaśnić różnicę między jednym a drugim przyjmijmy kolejne założenie, że
arządzanie mediami jest młodą dziedziną badawczą o stosunkowo skromnym dorobku naukowym. Wymaga stworzenia nowego aparatu badawczego, twórczego adaptowania istniejących pojęć do wymagań badawczych, a także wskazania zakresu badawczego nowej dyscypliny, jaką ma szanse stać się zarządzanie mediami. Wydaje się, że najbliższe lata będą wzmagały zainteresowanie zarządzaniem mediami i to zarówno ze strony środowiska naukowego, obecnych i potencjalnych badaczy oraz studentów, a także środowisk politycznych i biznesowych. Ma to, i mieć będzie, swoje źródło w stale rosnącym znaczeniu przemysłów medialnych, szerzej „przemysłów twórczych” (creative industries). Obecnie połowa PKB największej gospodarki świata, Stanów Zjednoczonych, powstaje w obszarze creative industries. Zakreślone w niniejszym artykule problemy wydają się być interesującym polem badawczym,
Z
Podsumowanie autor niniejszego jest egzemplifikacją przedsiębiorstwa produkującego zwykłe guziki, natomiast najsłynniejszy polski narciarz Adam Małysz uosabia przedsiębiorstwo medialne. Gdyby obaj stanęli na stoku, to na kombinezonie Małysza byłoby pełno reklam, a na kombinezonie autora niniejszego ani jednej. Sławny narciarz dostarcza contentu w postaci wybitnych osiągnięć sportowych, przez co ma zdolność skupiania na sobie rzadkiego dobra, jakim jest uwaga konsumentów (przedsiębiorstwo medialne produkujące guziki informacyjne). Autor niniejszego takiej zdolności nie posiada (przedsiębiorstwo produkujące zwykłe guziki). Skoro wiemy, na czym polega różnica pomiędzy zwykłym przedsiębiorstwem, a przedsiębiorstwem medialnym, spróbujmy wyobrazić sobie dwie niemal identyczne gazety. Każda z nich zawiera po sto „guzików” informacyjnych. Dokładnie takich samych. Jednak pierwsza gazeta ukazuje się w nakładzie miliona egzemplarzy, a druga w nakładzie tysiąca. Pytanie, które „guziki” informacyjne są cenniejsze, te zawarte w pierwszej czy w drugiej gazecie – jest w zasadzie pytaniem retorycznym. Ten wywód pozwala dowieść, iż w istocie informacja jest zasobem, którym wymyka się prawom tradycyjnej ekonomii.
Griffin R., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wyd. Wydawnictwo Instytut Śląski w Opolu, Opole 2005. komunikacji rynkowej, red. M. Duczmal, B. Nierenberg,
wa–Kraków 2001.
nowego rynku [w:] Media elektroniczne w procesie
konkurencyjnością, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warsza-
Goban-Klas T., Nowe media elektroniczne w kształtowaniu
Bednarczyk M., Organizacje publiczne. Zarządzanie
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wyd. polskiego R. Skubisz, Warszawa 1999. spodarcze Unii Europejskiej, red. M. A. Dauses, red. Emmerich V., Prawo antymonopolowe [w:] Prawo goNaukowe PWN, Warszawa 1999 Gruszczyńska-Malec G., Zasady organizacji i zarządzania [w:] Podstawy zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem, red. H. Bieniok, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Katowicach, Katowice 1998. Hallin D. C., Mancini P., Systemy medialne. Trzy modele mediów i polityki w ujęciu porównawczym, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2007. Handbook of Media Management and Economics, (red.) A. B. Albarran, S. M. Chan-Olmsted, M. O. Wirth, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey 2006. Jakubowicz K., Media publiczne. Początek końca czy nowy początek, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2007. Jędrzejewski S., Radio w komunikacji społecznej, Wydawnictwo Profi-Press, Warszawa 2003.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
tylko mało efektywny, ale coraz mniej popularny. Ludzie poszukują nowych sposobów interakcji – co prawda – mediatyzowanej, ale interakcji” [tamże]. To z kolei wskazuje kierunek, w którym będą podążać procesy związane z zarządzaniem w tym obszarze. Media stają się rodzajem sieci [Castells, 2003, s. 11-12], a to oznacza, że sternicy mediów mogą stracić monopol na zarządzanie. Manuel Castells wskazał na zalety społecznych organizacji typu sieciowego (network society [Castels, 1996, s. 36]): „Przez większą część dziejów ludzkości, w przeciwieństwie do ewolucji biologicznej, sieci przegrywały jako narzędzie zarządzania z organizacjami, które potrafiły skupić zasoby na najważniejszych przedsięwzięciach…” [tamże, s. 12]. R. G. Picard uznał, że istotą organizacji medialnych w XXI w. winno stać się tworzenie wartości. Pisze wręcz: „Dziennikarstwo i organizacje medialne (news organizations) znajdują się w przełomowym momencie swojego istnienia. Te, które wybiorą zmianę i postawią na wzrost wartości dla odbiorców – mają przed sobą przyszłość; te, które będą kontynuować dotychczasową działalność – przepadną (wither – dosł. uschną)” [Picard, 2010, s. 158].
Wydawnictwo Instytut Śląski w Opolu, Opole 2005. Griffin R., Podstawy zarządzania organizacjami, Wyd.
zarówno w odniesieniu do mediów komercyjnych, jak i publicznych. Wydaje się, że badacze mediów komercyjnych, winni skupić się na rozpoznaniu zagadnień, które determinują (determinować będą) sposób zarządzania nimi, takimi jak: informacja i jej właściwości, cyfryzacja, konwergencja, organizacje typu sieciowego. Z kolei badanie mediów publicznych, obok wspomnianych zagadnień, winno również uwzględnić, że w nadchodzącym czasie raczej będą one odchodzić od polityki. Jej miejsce w programach zajmować będzie kultura, rozumiana jako sens i istota podstawowych zadań mediów publicznych. Już dziś wiele przedsięwzięć kulturowych czy wręcz artystycznych ma swój wymiar medialny. Przykładem mogą być choćby wirtualne muzea czy biblioteki. Owo wzajemne przenikanie kultury i mediów sprawi, że pojawią się kolejne obszary badawcze. Tomasz Goban-Klas wskazywał co prawda, że media elektroniczne narodziły się jako środki masowego przekazu „masujące mózgi masowych odbiorców” [Media elektroniczne w procesie komunikacji rynkowej, 2005, s. 20], jednakże postęp technologiczny sprawił, że „jednokierunkowy, standaryzowany przekaz jest nie
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Castells M., Galaktyka Internetu, Dom Wydawniczy
MT Biznes, Warszawa 2002.
Jakubowicz K., Media publiczne. Początek końca czy
wyd. polskiego R. Skubisz, Warszawa 1999.
konkurencyjnością, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warsza-
Beliczyński J., Radio jako obiekt zarządzania, Wyd. Aka-
Muza, Warszawa 2000.
spodarcze Unii Europejskiej, red. M. A. Dauses, red. Goban-Klas T., Nowe media elektroniczne w kształtowaniu
Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2003.
Drucker P., Zarządzanie w XXI wieku, Wydawnictwo
fesjonalne, Warszawa 2007. nowy początek, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Pro-
Emmerich V., Prawo antymonopolowe [w:] Prawo go-
Bednarczyk M., Organizacje publiczne. Zarządzanie
Begg D., Fischer, S., Dornbusch, R., Mikroekonomia,
Dudzik S., Pomoc państwa dla przedsiębiorstw publicz-
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PWE, Warszawa 1985.
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dawnictwo Profi-Press, Warszawa 2003.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
tylko mało efektywny, ale coraz mniej popularny. Ludzie poszukują nowych sposobów interakcji – co prawda – mediatyzowanej, ale interakcji” [tamże]. To z kolei wskazuje kierunek, w którym będą podążać procesy związane z zarządzaniem w tym obszarze. Media stają się rodzajem sieci [Castells, 2003, s. 11-12], a to oznacza, że sternicy mediów mogą stracić monopol na zarządzanie. Manuel Castells wskazał na zalety społecznych organizacji typu sieciowego (network society [Castels, 1996, s. 36]): „Przez większą część dziejów ludzkości, w przeciwieństwie do ewolucji biologicznej, sieci przegrywały jako narzędzie zarządzania z organizacjami, które potrafiły skupić zasoby na najważniejszych przedsięwzięciach…” [tamże, s. 12]. R. G. Picard uznał, że istotą organizacji medialnych w XXI w. winno stać się tworzenie wartości. Pisze wręcz: „Dziennikarstwo i organizacje medialne (news organizations) znajdują się w przełomowym momencie swojego istnienia. Te, które wybiorą zmianę i postawią na wzrost wartości dla odbiorców – mają przed sobą przyszłość; te, które będą kontynuować dotychczasową działalność – przepadną (wither – dosł. uschną)” [Picard, 2010, s. 158].
286
zarówno w odniesieniu do mediów komercyjnych, jak i publicznych. Wydaje się, że badacze mediów komercyjnych, winni skupić się na rozpoznaniu zagadnień, które determinują (determinować będą) sposób zarządzania nimi, takimi jak: informacja i jej właściwości, cyfryzacja, konwergencja, organizacje typu sieciowego. Z kolei badanie mediów publicznych, obok wspomnianych zagadnień, winno również uwzględnić, że w nadchodzącym czasie raczej będą one odchodzić od polityki. Jej miejsce w programach zajmować będzie kultura, rozumiana jako sens i istota podstawowych zadań mediów publicznych. Już dziś wiele przedsięwzięć kulturowych czy wręcz artystycznych ma swój wymiar medialny. Przykładem mogą być choćby wirtualne muzea czy biblioteki. Owo wzajemne przenikanie kultury i mediów sprawi, że pojawią się kolejne obszary badawcze. Tomasz Goban-Klas wskazywał co prawda, że media elektroniczne narodziły się jako środki masowego przekazu „masujące mózgi masowych odbiorców” [Media elektroniczne w procesie komunikacji rynkowej, 2005, s. 20], jednakże postęp technologiczny sprawił, że „jednokierunkowy, standaryzowany przekaz jest nie
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Kieżun W., Sprawne zarządzanie organizacją. Zarys teorii i praktyki, Oficyna Wydawnicza Szkoły Głównej Handlowej, Warszawa 1997. Kotarbiński T., Traktat o dobrej robocie, Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1965. Kowalski T., Jung B., Media na rynku, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2006. Kowalski T., Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty działalności środków komunikowania masowego, Wyd. Przedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX, Warszawa 1998. Kowalski T., Między twórczością a biznesem. Wprowadzenie do zarządzania mediami, Wydawnictwa Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2008. Koźmiński A. K., Zarządzanie [w:] Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, red. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. Kożuch B., Zarządzanie jako dyscyplina naukowa [w:] Zarządzanie publiczne, Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, 2005, nr 1. Krzyżanowski L., Podstawy nauk o organizacji i zarządzaniu, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1992. Looking to the Future of Modern Media Management.
Nierenberg B., Strategia publicznego przedsiębiorstwa medialnego, Wyd. Radio Opole, Opole 2006. Nierenberg B., Udział mediów w rynku reklamowym po akcesji Polski do Unii Europejskiej [w:] Śląsk Opolski i Opawski w kierunku standardów europejskich – Opolské a Opavské Selzsko ve směru evropských standardů, Wyd. Slezska univerzita Opava, Opava 2005. Owsiak S., Finanse publiczne. Teoria i praktyka, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1997. Picard R. G., Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, Sage, London 1989. Picard R. G., Value Creation and the Future of news Organizations, Media XXI, Barcelona 2010. Piotrowski W., Organizacja i zarządzanie – kierunki, koncepcje, punkty widzenia [w:] Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, red. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. Pringle P. K., Starr M. F., Electronic Media Management, Focal Press, Burlington – Oxford 2006. Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, red. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2004.
Changes, Challenges, Opportunities, red. Ch. Scholz, U. Eisenbeis, Media XXI, Lisboa 2008.
Ustawy, raporty, adresy internetowe: The Future Funding of the BBC. Report of the Independent Review Panel, Department for Culture, Media and Sport, London 1999.
Ustawa z 29 XII 1992 r. o radiofonii i telewizji. http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/ spr2008/inf2008.pdf
and Sport, London 1999. dent Review Panel, Department for Culture, Media The Future Funding of the BBC. Report of the Indepen-
spr2008/inf2008.pdf http://www.krrit.gov.pl/bip/Portals/0/sprawozdania/ Ustawa z 29 XII 1992 r. o radiofonii i telewizji.
Ustawy, raporty, adresy internetowe: U. Eisenbeis, Media XXI, Lisboa 2008. Changes, Challenges, Opportunities, red. Ch. Scholz, Looking to the Future of Modern Media Management. dzaniu, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 1992. Krzyżanowski L., Podstawy nauk o organizacji i zarząSpraw Publicznych, 2005, nr 1. Zarządzanie publiczne, Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Kożuch B., Zarządzanie jako dyscyplina naukowa [w:] dawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. i praktyka, red. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, WyKoźmiński A. K., Zarządzanie [w:] Zarządzanie. Teoria Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2008. wadzenie do zarządzania mediami, Wydawnictwa Kowalski T., Między twórczością a biznesem. WproPrzedsiębiorstwo Handlowe TEX, Warszawa 1998. łalności środków komunikowania masowego, Wyd. Kowalski T., Media i pieniądze. Ekonomiczne aspekty dziaAkademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2006. Kowalski T., Jung B., Media na rynku, Wydawnictwa Ossolineum, Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1965. Kotarbiński T., Traktat o dobrej robocie, Wydawnictwo Handlowej, Warszawa 1997. teorii i praktyki, Oficyna Wydawnicza Szkoły Głównej Kieżun W., Sprawne zarządzanie organizacją. Zarys
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Piotrowski, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa 2004. Zarządzanie. Teoria i praktyka, red. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Focal Press, Burlington – Oxford 2006. Pringle P. K., Starr M. F., Electronic Media Management, dawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2004. i praktyka, red. A. K. Koźmiński, W. Piotrowski, Wykoncepcje, punkty widzenia [w:] Zarządzanie. Teoria Piotrowski W., Organizacja i zarządzanie – kierunki, Organizations, Media XXI, Barcelona 2010. Picard R. G., Value Creation and the Future of news Sage, London 1989. Picard R. G., Media Economics. Concepts and Issues, nictwo PWN, Warszawa 1997. Owsiak S., Finanse publiczne. Teoria i praktyka, Wydaw2005. standardů, Wyd. Slezska univerzita Opava, Opava Opolské a Opavské Selzsko ve směru evropských i Opawski w kierunku standardów europejskich – akcesji Polski do Unii Europejskiej [w:] Śląsk Opolski Nierenberg B., Udział mediów w rynku reklamowym po medialnego, Wyd. Radio Opole, Opole 2006. Nierenberg B., Strategia publicznego przedsiębiorstwa
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2 Jest znamienne, że Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego nie zaprosiło do zespołu przygotowującego diagnozę ani jednego przedstawiciela środowisk twórczych. Świadczy to o protekcjonalnym podejściu do kultury, której twórców i animatorów nie traktuje się podmiotowo jako partnerów w dialogu, ale przedmiotowo jak obiekt badań i manipulacji.
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej1
1 Czuję się zobowiązany już na samym początku tego tekstu zdefiniować punkt widzenia, z jakiego jest on pisany. Chciałbym wystąpić tu nie tyle jako akademik – czyli ktoś, kto stara się neutralnie przedstawić pewne spektrum problemów i punktów widzenia – co raczej jako intelektualista. Ten ostatni to ktoś, kto – jak ujęła to kiedyś Julia Kristeva, komentując życie i twórczość Hanny Arendt – stara się zająć określoną pozycję w świecie, posługując się myśleniem jako jedynym narzędziem.
Jest znamienne, że Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego nie zaprosiło do zespołu przygotowującego diagnozę ani jednego przedstawiciela środowisk twórczych. Świadczy to o protekcjonalnym podejściu do kultury, której twórców i animatorów nie traktuje się podmiotowo jako partnerów w dialogu, ale przedmiotowo jak obiekt badań i manipulacji.
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Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej1
2
Jan Sowa
Czuję się zobowiązany już na samym początku tego tekstu zdefiniować punkt widzenia, z jakiego jest on pisany. Chciałbym wystąpić tu nie tyle jako akademik – czyli ktoś, kto stara się neutralnie przedstawić pewne spektrum problemów i punktów widzenia – co raczej jako intelektualista. Ten ostatni to ktoś, kto – jak ujęła to kiedyś Julia Kristeva, komentując życie i twórczość Hanny Arendt – stara się zająć określoną pozycję w świecie, posługując się myśleniem jako jedynym narzędziem.
1
Zarżnąć kulturę
a wiosnę zeszłego roku, 20 lat po rozpoczęciu neoliberalnej transformacji społecznogospodarczej, polska opinia publiczna została skonfrontowana z próbą poddania ekonomicznej racjonalizacji jednej z ostatnich dziedzin, która nie została jeszcze sformatowana zgodnie z wolno rynkową logiką późnego kapitalizmu: kultury. Tzw. raport Hausnera (a potem jego plan) [zob. Pawłowski, 2002] ogłoszony jako swoisty prequel do Kongresu Kultury Polskiej zawierał sformułowaną przez grupę urzędników i naukowców (głównie ekonomistów)2 diagnozę obecnej sytuacji w kulturze i rekomendacje dotyczące jej poprawy. Ten liczący ponad 100 stron dokument [http://www. kongreskultury.pl/] w swoim ogólnym zarysie nie wnosi do rozumienia rzeczywistości społeczno-gospodarczej nic, czego nie słyszelibyśmy już wcześniej w odniesieniu do innych jej dziedzin. Jako propozycja reformy kultury stanowi jednak projekt radykalnej rewolucji, ponieważ podchodzi do produkcji kulturalnej jak do rodzaju przemysłu – typu aktywności i gałęzi gospodarki, które można oceniać i racjonalizować przy pomocy tych samych narzędzi i w tym samym celu, co np. uprawę ziemniaków lub produkcję sprzętu
N
N
AGD. Projekt ten polega na aplikacji w dziedzinie kultury podstawowych zaleceń tzw. konsensusu waszyngtońskiego (zwanego również porozumieniem waszyngtońskim), czyli zasad reformy społeczno-gospodarczej sformułowanych przez ekonomistów amerykańskich w latach 80-tych XX wieku [Bresser Pereira, Maravall, Przeworski, 1993; Stiglitz, 2004; Sowa, 2008]. Jego trzy podstawowe postulaty – tworzące Świętą Trójcę neoliberalizmu – to prywatyzacja, liberalizacja oraz cięcie wydatków publicznych. Takie też zasady autorzy raportu proponują wprowadzić w dziedzinie kultury i zgodnie z nimi zreformować sposób funkcjonowania jej instytucji. Reforma taka miałaby polegać między innymi na zwiększeniu konkurencyjności w kulturze poprzez równoprawną aktywność podmiotów prywatnych, publicznych i trzeciosektorowych na wolnym rynku dotacji, zmniejszenie liczby instytucji publicznych poprzez ich prywatyzację podobną do prywatyzacji proponowanej w Polsce w odniesieniu do szpitali (przekształcanie ich w spółki), ograniczenie aktywności związków zawodowych, które utrudniają pracę menedżerom kultury i „artykułują oczekiwania wynikające z roszczeniowej i krótkookresowej postawy, typowej dla części pracowników tych instytucji, zwłaszcza starszych” [Buczek i in., s. 29],
AGD. Projekt ten polega na aplikacji w dziedzinie kultury podstawowych zaleceń tzw. konsensusu waszyngtońskiego (zwanego również porozumieniem waszyngtońskim), czyli zasad reformy społeczno-gospodarczej sformułowanych przez ekonomistów amerykańskich w latach 80-tych XX wieku [Bresser Pereira, Maravall, Przeworski, 1993; Stiglitz, 2004; Sowa, 2008]. Jego trzy podstawowe postulaty – tworzące Świętą Trójcę neoliberalizmu – to prywatyzacja, liberalizacja oraz cięcie wydatków publicznych. Takie też zasady autorzy raportu proponują wprowadzić w dziedzinie kultury i zgodnie z nimi zreformować sposób funkcjonowania jej instytucji. Reforma taka miałaby polegać między innymi na zwiększeniu konkurencyjności w kulturze poprzez równoprawną aktywność podmiotów prywatnych, publicznych i trzeciosektorowych na wolnym rynku dotacji, zmniejszenie liczby instytucji publicznych poprzez ich prywatyzację podobną do prywatyzacji proponowanej w Polsce w odniesieniu do szpitali (przekształcanie ich w spółki), ograniczenie aktywności związków zawodowych, które utrudniają pracę menedżerom kultury i „artykułują oczekiwania wynikające z roszczeniowej i krótkookresowej postawy, typowej dla części pracowników tych instytucji, zwłaszcza starszych” [Buczek i in., s. 29],
Zarżnąć kulturę
a wiosnę zeszłego roku, 20 lat po rozpoczęciu neoliberalnej transformacji społecznogospodarczej, polska opinia publiczna została skonfrontowana z próbą poddania ekonomicznej racjonalizacji jednej z ostatnich dziedzin, która nie została jeszcze sformatowana zgodnie z wolno rynkową logiką późnego kapitalizmu: kultury. Tzw. raport Hausnera (a potem jego plan) [zob. Pawłowski, 2002] ogłoszony jako swoisty prequel do Kongresu Kultury Polskiej zawierał sformułowaną przez grupę urzędników i naukowców (głównie ekonomistów)2 diagnozę obecnej sytuacji w kulturze i rekomendacje dotyczące jej poprawy. Ten liczący ponad 100 stron dokument [http://www. kongreskultury.pl/] w swoim ogólnym zarysie nie wnosi do rozumienia rzeczywistości społeczno-gospodarczej nic, czego nie słyszelibyśmy już wcześniej w odniesieniu do innych jej dziedzin. Jako propozycja reformy kultury stanowi jednak projekt radykalnej rewolucji, ponieważ podchodzi do produkcji kulturalnej jak do rodzaju przemysłu – typu aktywności i gałęzi gospodarki, które można oceniać i racjonalizować przy pomocy tych samych narzędzi i w tym samym celu, co np. uprawę ziemniaków lub produkcję sprzętu
Jan Sowa studiował filologię polską, psychologię i filozofię na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim i Uniwersytecie Paris VIII w Saint-Denis. Doktor socjologii. Teoretyk i praktyk kultury – jest współtwórcą Fundacji Korporacja Ha!art oraz Spółdzielni Goldex Poldex. Pracownik naukowy w Katedrze Kultury Współczesnej UJ. Autor książek Sezon w teatrze lalek (2004) oraz Ciesz się, późny wnuku. Kolonializm, globalizacja i demokracja radykalna” (2008). Opublikował kilkadziesiąt artykułów w kraju i za granicą m.in. w „Kulturze Współczesnej”, „Ha!arcie”, „Krytyce Politycznej”, „Problemach polityki społecznej”, „Praesens”, „Philosophie Magazine”, „Obiegu” i „Przeglądzie anarchistycznym”.
Jan Sowa studiował filologię polską, psychologię i filozofię na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim i Uniwersytecie Paris VIII w Saint-Denis. Doktor socjologii. Teoretyk i praktyk kultury – jest współtwórcą Fundacji Korporacja Ha!art oraz Spółdzielni Goldex Poldex. Pracownik naukowy w Katedrze Kultury Współczesnej UJ. Autor książek Sezon w teatrze lalek (2004) oraz Ciesz się, późny wnuku. Kolonializm, globalizacja i demokracja radykalna” (2008). Opublikował kilkadziesiąt artykułów w kraju i za granicą m.in. w „Kulturze Współczesnej”, „Ha!arcie”, „Krytyce Politycznej”, „Problemach polityki społecznej”, „Praesens”, „Philosophie Magazine”, „Obiegu” i „Przeglądzie anarchistycznym”.
Jan Sowa
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Dekonstruując Hausnera
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a reformami postulowanymi przez Hausnera – a podobne propozycje przedstawił ostatnio w sejmie minister Zdrojewski – kryje się szereg założeń, które stanowią kombinację idei konsensusu waszyngtońskiego oraz naszej polskiej, domorosłej refleksji na temat transformacji lat 90-tych i doświadczenia okresu PRL. Warto wyartykułować je expressis verbis.
Przekonanie o bezwzględnej wyższości własności prywatnej nad państwową
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tanowi ono kamień węgielny doktryny neoliberalnej i jest przytaczane jako uzasadnienie szeroko zakrojonej prywatyzacji wszystkich dziedzin życia społecznego. Dość łatwo jest znaleźć poparcie dla tego punktu widzenia w kraju takim jak Polska, gdzie spora część populacji zna z własnego doświadczenia koszmarne funkcjonowanie państwowych instytucji w epoce PRL-u. Jednak nie
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej1
Jednym z najgłośniejszych apologetów Singapuru jest Fareed Zakaria [zob. Zakaria, 2004; tenże, 1994].
3 Zob. również inne głosy w tej sprawie, m.in. Joanny Warszy Kulturalna doktryna szoku oraz Jacka Żakowskiego By balon nie stał się ciałem. Wszystkie artykuły na ten temat zgromadzone są na portalu „Gazety Wyborczej” pod adresem: http://wyborcza. pl/8,76842,6737667.html.
tanowi ono kamień węgielny doktryny neoliberalnej i jest przytaczane jako uzasadnienie szeroko zakrojonej prywatyzacji wszystkich dziedzin życia społecznego. Dość łatwo jest znaleźć poparcie dla tego punktu widzenia w kraju takim jak Polska, gdzie spora część populacji zna z własnego doświadczenia koszmarne funkcjonowanie państwowych instytucji w epoce PRL-u. Jednak nie
S
Przekonanie o bezwzględnej wyższości własności prywatnej nad państwową a reformami postulowanymi przez Hausnera – a podobne propozycje przedstawił ostatnio w sejmie minister Zdrojewski – kryje się szereg założeń, które stanowią kombinację idei konsensusu waszyngtońskiego oraz naszej polskiej, domorosłej refleksji na temat transformacji lat 90-tych i doświadczenia okresu PRL. Warto wyartykułować je expressis verbis.
Z
Dekonstruując Hausnera oraz lepsze wykorzystanie kultury jako gałęzi gospodarki przynoszącej wymierne materialne zyski. Jak piszą autorzy raportu: „w kulturze nie dostrzega się potencjału rozwojowego, który może zostać zaktywizowany i stanowić jeden z mechanizmów ożywiania gospodarki i wychodzenia z kryzysu. Przy czym niekoniecznie idzie tylko o turystykę. Ważniejsze wydaje się kreowanie nowych potrzeb inwestycyjnych i konsumpcyjnych, a więc stymulowanie dodatkowego popytu wewnętrznego (podkreślenie moje – JS)” [tamże, s. 27]. Ten krótki cytat pokazuje optykę przyjętą przez twórców raportu. Kultura traktowana jest w niej instrumentalnie, jako coś, co może zostać „zaktywizowane”, czyli bierny przedmiot manipulacji dokonywanych przez ekonomistów w celu „kreowania potrzeb inwestycyjnych i konsumpcyjnych”. Nie może więc dziwić, że raport i plan Hausnera spotkały się z miażdżącą krytyką środowisk twórczych. Jej kwintesencją jest tytuł artykułu Macieja Nowaka, dyrektora Instytutu Teatralnego w Warszawie, jednego z najważniejszych polskich krytyków teatralnych: Hausner chce zarżnąć kulturę [Nowak, 2009]3.
eoliberałowie chętnie i często posługują się schematem rozumowania opartym na przeciwstawieniu doskonale wydajnego wolnego rynku i sił państwowych, których interwencja może
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Antagonizm państwa i gospodarki
Jan Sowa
wszędzie było i jest tak samo. W wielu krajach świata przedsiębiorstwa państwowe działają na najwyższym poziomie zarówno jeśli chodzi o jakość świadczonych usług, jak i ekonomiczną wydajność. Wystarczy podać przykład francuskiego SCNCF (odpowiednika polskiego PKP), które obsługuje najnowocześniejszą i najsprawniejszą sieć kolejową na świecie. Prywatyzacja kolei w Wielkiej Brytanii dokonana na fali tacheryzmu w żaden sposób nie zbliżyła brytyjskich kolei do standardów francuskich, a pod wieloma względami jakość świadczonych usług uległa obniżeniu. Najlepszym przykładem wysokiej wydajności państwowej własności jest Singapur, stawiany często przez neoliberałów jako wzór dynamicznie rozwijającej się gospodarki i bogatego społeczeństwa4. Nie wspominają oni jednak, że 70% gospodarki Singapuru jest w rękach państwowych. Przedsiębiorstwa sektora państwowego wyznaczające światowe standardy jakości w swoich dziedzinach to np. Singapore Airlines czy The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, obsługujący największy na świecie port kontenerowy. Również w literaturze przedmiotu podkreśla się znaczenie zaangażowania państwa w różne dziedziny życia społecznego, w tym szczególnie tam, gdzie perspektywa czasowa realizowanych projektów jest szczególnie długa. (Do tej dziedziny bez wątpienia zalicza się kultura, której najciekawsze przejawy bywają efektem doświadczeń i pracy trwającej przez dziesięciolecia, a na efekty inwestycji czekać trzeba często nawet kilka pokoleń.) Jak pokazuje Lester C. Thurow, amerykański ekonomista i politolog, długoletni dyrektor MIT Sloan School of Management, horyzont czasowy, w którym operują firmy prywatne, wynosi około pięciu lat, przez co realizacja projektów bardziej długoterminowych wymaga z konieczności zaangażowania podmiotów z sektora państwowego [zob. Thurow, 1999, s. 380]. Redukując go, skazujemy się na chaotyczną grę rynkowych sił maksymalizujących wyłącznie swoje krótkoterminowe zyski.
Jan Sowa
4
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej1
oraz lepsze wykorzystanie kultury jako gałęzi gospodarki przynoszącej wymierne materialne zyski. Jak piszą autorzy raportu: „w kulturze nie dostrzega się potencjału rozwojowego, który może zostać zaktywizowany i stanowić jeden z mechanizmów ożywiania gospodarki i wychodzenia z kryzysu. Przy czym niekoniecznie idzie tylko o turystykę. Ważniejsze wydaje się kreowanie nowych potrzeb inwestycyjnych i konsumpcyjnych, a więc stymulowanie dodatkowego popytu wewnętrznego (podkreślenie moje – JS)” [tamże, s. 27]. Ten krótki cytat pokazuje optykę przyjętą przez twórców raportu. Kultura traktowana jest w niej instrumentalnie, jako coś, co może zostać „zaktywizowane”, czyli bierny przedmiot manipulacji dokonywanych przez ekonomistów w celu „kreowania potrzeb inwestycyjnych i konsumpcyjnych”. Nie może więc dziwić, że raport i plan Hausnera spotkały się z miażdżącą krytyką środowisk twórczych. Jej kwintesencją jest tytuł artykułu Macieja Nowaka, dyrektora Instytutu Teatralnego w Warszawie, jednego z najważniejszych polskich krytyków teatralnych: Hausner chce zarżnąć kulturę [Nowak, 2009]3.
Antagonizm państwa i gospodarki
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eoliberałowie chętnie i często posługują się schematem rozumowania opartym na przeciwstawieniu doskonale wydajnego wolnego rynku i sił państwowych, których interwencja może
Zob. również inne głosy w tej sprawie, m.in. Joanny Warszy Kulturalna doktryna szoku oraz Jacka Żakowskiego By balon nie stał się ciałem. Wszystkie artykuły na ten temat zgromadzone są na portalu „Gazety Wyborczej” pod adresem: http://wyborcza. pl/8,76842,6737667.html.
3
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Jednym z najgłośniejszych apologetów Singapuru jest Fareed Zakaria [zob. Zakaria, 2004; tenże, 1994].
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wszędzie było i jest tak samo. W wielu krajach świata przedsiębiorstwa państwowe działają na najwyższym poziomie zarówno jeśli chodzi o jakość świadczonych usług, jak i ekonomiczną wydajność. Wystarczy podać przykład francuskiego SCNCF (odpowiednika polskiego PKP), które obsługuje najnowocześniejszą i najsprawniejszą sieć kolejową na świecie. Prywatyzacja kolei w Wielkiej Brytanii dokonana na fali tacheryzmu w żaden sposób nie zbliżyła brytyjskich kolei do standardów francuskich, a pod wieloma względami jakość świadczonych usług uległa obniżeniu. Najlepszym przykładem wysokiej wydajności państwowej własności jest Singapur, stawiany często przez neoliberałów jako wzór dynamicznie rozwijającej się gospodarki i bogatego społeczeństwa4. Nie wspominają oni jednak, że 70% gospodarki Singapuru jest w rękach państwowych. Przedsiębiorstwa sektora państwowego wyznaczające światowe standardy jakości w swoich dziedzinach to np. Singapore Airlines czy The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore, obsługujący największy na świecie port kontenerowy. Również w literaturze przedmiotu podkreśla się znaczenie zaangażowania państwa w różne dziedziny życia społecznego, w tym szczególnie tam, gdzie perspektywa czasowa realizowanych projektów jest szczególnie długa. (Do tej dziedziny bez wątpienia zalicza się kultura, której najciekawsze przejawy bywają efektem doświadczeń i pracy trwającej przez dziesięciolecia, a na efekty inwestycji czekać trzeba często nawet kilka pokoleń.) Jak pokazuje Lester C. Thurow, amerykański ekonomista i politolog, długoletni dyrektor MIT Sloan School of Management, horyzont czasowy, w którym operują firmy prywatne, wynosi około pięciu lat, przez co realizacja projektów bardziej długoterminowych wymaga z konieczności zaangażowania podmiotów z sektora państwowego [zob. Thurow, 1999, s. 380]. Redukując go, skazujemy się na chaotyczną grę rynkowych sił maksymalizujących wyłącznie swoje krótkoterminowe zyski.
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Maynard Keynes, wielki zwolennik interwencji państwa w gospodarkę: w dłuższej perspektywie będziemy wszyscy martwi.
amę dla prezentacji swojego raportu Hausner ustanowił poprzez negatywną kontrę wobec realiów PRL-u. Z wywiadu, jakiego udzielił Romanowi Pawłowskiemu w czerwcu 2009 jeszcze przed upublicznieniem raportu, dowiedzieć się możemy, że „kultura to ostatnia dziedzina życia publicznego, która nie została w pełni zreformowana po 1989 r.” [Pawłowski, 2009]. Oczywiście, takie postawienie sprawy ma wielką wartość retoryczną. Nostalgia za PRL-em jest uczuciem wciąż obecnym w polskim społeczeństwie, jednak mało kto szukałby w tzw. minionym okresie wzorów dla instytucjonalnej organizacji jakiejkolwiek dziedziny życia. PRL kojarzy się z marazmem, złą jakością, małą wydajnością, biurokratyzacją itd. Jednak w kontekście kultury, w jakim się pojawia, demonizowanie PRL-u jest przynajmniej niefortunne. Moją intencją ani tutaj, ani nigdzie indziej nie jest i nigdy nie było chwalenie PRL-u czy stawianie go za wzór w jakiejkolwiek dziedzinie, jest jednak niezaprzeczalnym faktem, że kultura była dziedziną, która w zniewolonym PRL-u miała się nieco lepiej niż w wolnej III RP. Po 1989 roku powstało w polskiej kulturze niewiele rzeczy, które mogłyby równać się na przykład z osiągnięciami polskiego kina czy teatru lat 60tych i 70-tych (a kino bez wątpienia przeżyło wtedy swój złoty okres). Dziki wolny rynek najwyraźniej nie służy produkcji kulturalnej i moim zdaniem zaryzykować można tezę, że istnieje negatywna korelacja między stopniem urynkowienia danej dziedziny twórczości artystycznej w III RP, a jej jakością. Polskie sztuki wizualne, najmniej uzależnione od rynku (w sensie rynku odbiorców, którzy „głosują” swoimi pieniędzmi, jak mówią czasem zwolennicy paradoksalnego tworu zwanego „demokracją rynkową”), mają się dość dobrze, czego dowodem jest uznanie, z jakim za granicą spotykają się prace takich artystów jak Mirosław Bałka, Zbigniew Libera, Krzysztof Wodiczko czy Zofia Kulik. Równie cenieni są polscy kuratorzy. Wystarczy wspomnieć o Anecie Szyłak, Joannie Mytkowskiej czy Adamie Szymczyku. Gorzej ma się polski teatr, chociaż również jego międzynarodowa ocena nie jest najgorsza (na pewno jednak nie tak dobra jak w czasach Grotowskiego lub Kantora). Najgorzej wypadają dziedziny, w których rynek, biznes i sektor prywatny mają duże znaczenie: literatura (pomijając kilku młodych pisarzy), a szczególnie kino, które ostatnio zaczęło nieco odbijać się od
PRL jako egzemplifikacja zła pod każdą postacią
R
R
PRL jako egzemplifikacja zła pod każdą postacią
amę dla prezentacji swojego raportu Hausner ustanowił poprzez negatywną kontrę wobec realiów PRL-u. Z wywiadu, jakiego udzielił Romanowi Pawłowskiemu w czerwcu 2009 jeszcze przed upublicznieniem raportu, dowiedzieć się możemy, że „kultura to ostatnia dziedzina życia publicznego, która nie została w pełni zreformowana po 1989 r.” [Pawłowski, 2009]. Oczywiście, takie postawienie sprawy ma wielką wartość retoryczną. Nostalgia za PRL-em jest uczuciem wciąż obecnym w polskim społeczeństwie, jednak mało kto szukałby w tzw. minionym okresie wzorów dla instytucjonalnej organizacji jakiejkolwiek dziedziny życia. PRL kojarzy się z marazmem, złą jakością, małą wydajnością, biurokratyzacją itd. Jednak w kontekście kultury, w jakim się pojawia, demonizowanie PRL-u jest przynajmniej niefortunne. Moją intencją ani tutaj, ani nigdzie indziej nie jest i nigdy nie było chwalenie PRL-u czy stawianie go za wzór w jakiejkolwiek dziedzinie, jest jednak niezaprzeczalnym faktem, że kultura była dziedziną, która w zniewolonym PRL-u miała się nieco lepiej niż w wolnej III RP. Po 1989 roku powstało w polskiej kulturze niewiele rzeczy, które mogłyby równać się na przykład z osiągnięciami polskiego kina czy teatru lat 60tych i 70-tych (a kino bez wątpienia przeżyło wtedy swój złoty okres). Dziki wolny rynek najwyraźniej nie służy produkcji kulturalnej i moim zdaniem zaryzykować można tezę, że istnieje negatywna korelacja między stopniem urynkowienia danej dziedziny twórczości artystycznej w III RP, a jej jakością. Polskie sztuki wizualne, najmniej uzależnione od rynku (w sensie rynku odbiorców, którzy „głosują” swoimi pieniędzmi, jak mówią czasem zwolennicy paradoksalnego tworu zwanego „demokracją rynkową”), mają się dość dobrze, czego dowodem jest uznanie, z jakim za granicą spotykają się prace takich artystów jak Mirosław Bałka, Zbigniew Libera, Krzysztof Wodiczko czy Zofia Kulik. Równie cenieni są polscy kuratorzy. Wystarczy wspomnieć o Anecie Szyłak, Joannie Mytkowskiej czy Adamie Szymczyku. Gorzej ma się polski teatr, chociaż również jego międzynarodowa ocena nie jest najgorsza (na pewno jednak nie tak dobra jak w czasach Grotowskiego lub Kantora). Najgorzej wypadają dziedziny, w których rynek, biznes i sektor prywatny mają duże znaczenie: literatura (pomijając kilku młodych pisarzy), a szczególnie kino, które ostatnio zaczęło nieco odbijać się od
290
Maynard Keynes, wielki zwolennik interwencji państwa w gospodarkę: w dłuższej perspektywie będziemy wszyscy martwi.
tylko ten cudowny mechanizm zepsuć. Mówi się tu często o „niewidzialnej ręce rynku” (metafora wprowadzona przez Adama Smitha w książce Badania nad naturą i przyczynami bogactwa narodów), która w najlepszy z możliwych sposobów rozwiązuje każdy problem związany z podziałem gospodarczych zasobów. Historia dyskusji nad tym zagadnieniem w dwudziestowiecznej teorii ekonomicznej jest dość paradoksalna. Wręczono bowiem dwie Nagrody Nobla z ekonomii: jedną za udowodnienie, że niewidzialna ręka Smitha rzeczywiście działa – a mówiąc bardziej precyzyjnie, że „alokacja zasobów w stanie równowagi konkurencyjnej jest optymalna w sensie Pareto (żadna redystrybucja dóbr i zasobów produkcyjnych nie polepszyłaby czyjejkolwiek sytuacji bez pogarszania sytuacji przynajmniej jednej innej osoby) oraz przeciwnie – że każda Pareto-optymalna alokacja zasobów może być zrealizowana w stanie równowagi konkurencyjnej” [Arrow, Debreu, 1954, s. 265] – oraz drugą za udowodnienie, że prawo to ma zastosowanie wyłącznie w odniesieniu do świata idealnego, w którym, jak mówi Douglas C. North, gospodarka pozbawiona jest tarć (ang. frictionless economy) [North, b.r.], natomiast w świecie rzeczywistym nie działa nigdy ze względu na niespełnienie zasad doskonałej konkurencji. Dobrze komentuje to Joseph Stiglitz, zdobywca drugiej spośród wspomnianych powyżej Nagród Nobla: „Najnowsze osiągnięcia teorii ekonomicznej – paradoksalnie dokonane w okresie najbardziej nieustępliwej pogoni za realizacją polityki wynikającej z porozumienia waszyngtońskiego – wykazały, że ilekroć informacja jest niedoskonała i rynek niekompletny, [...] tylekroć działanie niewidzialnej ręki jest w najwyższym stopniu niedoskonałe. […] Pożądane są pewne interwencje rządu, które co do zasady mogą poprawić efektywność rynku. Te ograniczenia nałożone na warunki efektywności rynku są ważne – wiele kluczowych działań państwa można zrozumieć jako odpowiedź na zawodność rynku” [Stiglitz, 2004, s. 78-79]. Również historycy kapitalizmu udowadniają ponad wszelką wątpliwość, że gospodarka kapitalistyczna rozwinęła się i działa, dzięki zaangażowaniu państwa w procesy gospodarcze [Arrighi, 1994; Braudel, 1979; Wallerstein, 1974]. Widzieliśmy zresztą bezpośrednio, jak ważne dla kapitalizmu jest państwo: w czasie kryzysu finansowego 2008/2009 stabilność gospodarki została utrzymana tylko i wyłącznie dzięki interwencjom państwa. Oczywiście, rację mają fundamentaliści rynkowi, którzy twierdzą, że w dłuższej perspektywie rynek wyregulowałby się również sam, chociaż społeczne koszty takiej samoregulacji byłyby gigantyczne. Doskonały komentarz do takiego podejścia wygłosił dawno temu John
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
tylko ten cudowny mechanizm zepsuć. Mówi się tu często o „niewidzialnej ręce rynku” (metafora wprowadzona przez Adama Smitha w książce Badania nad naturą i przyczynami bogactwa narodów), która w najlepszy z możliwych sposobów rozwiązuje każdy problem związany z podziałem gospodarczych zasobów. Historia dyskusji nad tym zagadnieniem w dwudziestowiecznej teorii ekonomicznej jest dość paradoksalna. Wręczono bowiem dwie Nagrody Nobla z ekonomii: jedną za udowodnienie, że niewidzialna ręka Smitha rzeczywiście działa – a mówiąc bardziej precyzyjnie, że „alokacja zasobów w stanie równowagi konkurencyjnej jest optymalna w sensie Pareto (żadna redystrybucja dóbr i zasobów produkcyjnych nie polepszyłaby czyjejkolwiek sytuacji bez pogarszania sytuacji przynajmniej jednej innej osoby) oraz przeciwnie – że każda Pareto-optymalna alokacja zasobów może być zrealizowana w stanie równowagi konkurencyjnej” [Arrow, Debreu, 1954, s. 265] – oraz drugą za udowodnienie, że prawo to ma zastosowanie wyłącznie w odniesieniu do świata idealnego, w którym, jak mówi Douglas C. North, gospodarka pozbawiona jest tarć (ang. frictionless economy) [North, b.r.], natomiast w świecie rzeczywistym nie działa nigdy ze względu na niespełnienie zasad doskonałej konkurencji. Dobrze komentuje to Joseph Stiglitz, zdobywca drugiej spośród wspomnianych powyżej Nagród Nobla: „Najnowsze osiągnięcia teorii ekonomicznej – paradoksalnie dokonane w okresie najbardziej nieustępliwej pogoni za realizacją polityki wynikającej z porozumienia waszyngtońskiego – wykazały, że ilekroć informacja jest niedoskonała i rynek niekompletny, [...] tylekroć działanie niewidzialnej ręki jest w najwyższym stopniu niedoskonałe. […] Pożądane są pewne interwencje rządu, które co do zasady mogą poprawić efektywność rynku. Te ograniczenia nałożone na warunki efektywności rynku są ważne – wiele kluczowych działań państwa można zrozumieć jako odpowiedź na zawodność rynku” [Stiglitz, 2004, s. 78-79]. Również historycy kapitalizmu udowadniają ponad wszelką wątpliwość, że gospodarka kapitalistyczna rozwinęła się i działa, dzięki zaangażowaniu państwa w procesy gospodarcze [Arrighi, 1994; Braudel, 1979; Wallerstein, 1974]. Widzieliśmy zresztą bezpośrednio, jak ważne dla kapitalizmu jest państwo: w czasie kryzysu finansowego 2008/2009 stabilność gospodarki została utrzymana tylko i wyłącznie dzięki interwencjom państwa. Oczywiście, rację mają fundamentaliści rynkowi, którzy twierdzą, że w dłuższej perspektywie rynek wyregulowałby się również sam, chociaż społeczne koszty takiej samoregulacji byłyby gigantyczne. Doskonały komentarz do takiego podejścia wygłosił dawno temu John
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
dna dzięki młodym reżyserom takim jak Wojciech Smarzowski czy Ksewery Żuławski, jednak w latach dziewięćdziesiątych XX wieku przeżyło najgorszy okres w swoim istnieniu, kiedy to w kółko Pazura gonił Lindę lub na odwrót. Mówienie o tym, że kultura to ostatnia dziedzina, która nie została zreformowana po 1989 roku jest też o tyle absurdalne, że, jak zauważył Jarosław Suchan, dyrektor Muzeum Sztuki w Łodzi, w czasie jednej z dyskusji wokół raportu Hausnera, trudno byłoby wskazać osiągnięcie polskiego przemysłu – zreformowanego bezwzględnie i w pierwszym rzędzie na samym początku transformacji, które miałyby w świecie tak dobrą renomę, jak aktualna sztuka polska.
Menedżeryzm
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ecepta na uzdrowienie polskich instytucji kultury opiera się w opinii zespołu Hausnera w dużej mierze na wprowadzeniu zasad profesjonalnego zarządzania. Widzimy tu przykład tryumfu racjonalizacji i rozumu instrumentalnego, którego obawiali się teoretycy nowoczesności od Webera po Habermasa. Wiara w menedżeryzm jest współcześnie mentalnym reliktem, pozostałością po rynkowobiznesowym entuzjazmie lat 90-tych, kiedy to domniemany przez Fukuyamę „koniec historii” i tryumf liberalnego kapitalizmu nad wszelkimi innymi formami organizacji życia społeczno-gospodarczego pchnął świat w objęcia menedżerów: specjalistów od zapewniania wydajności w każdej dziedzinie życia. Dzisiaj wiara ta wydaje się naiwna, bo też Hausner przedstawia swoje propozycje neoliberalnej reformy polskiej kultury w momencie, gdy neoliberalizm odniósł spektakularne fiasko w swojej macierzystej dziedzinie, gdzie menedżerowie powinni wykazać się największymi osiągnięciami: w świecie wysokich finansów. Zamiast sukcesu widzieliśmy, jak wpisana w kult zarządzania obsesja nieustannego podnoszenia wszelkich liczbowych wskaźników (wydajności, wielkości obrotów, woluminu produkcji, liczby sprzedanych produktów, zysku itp.) doprowadziła liberalny kapitalizm do strukturalnego tąpnięcia, przed którego tragicznymi konsekwencjami uratowały nas tylko interwencje rządów.
Neoliberalna wiara w menedżeryzm ma również inną słabość, która dramatycznie manifestuje się, gdy mówimy o kulturze: podejście na zasadzie one-size-fits-all, zgodnie z którym z jednej dziedziny do drugiej przenosi się te same metody, narzędzia i recepty. Przypomina to zachowanie urzędników Międzynarodowego Funduszu Walutowego, którzy wożą w swoich laptopach z kraju do kraju gotowe szablony gospodarczych reform, wklejając potem tylko w odpowiednie miejsca nazwę kraju, w którym właśnie przebywają 5. Tymczasem specyfika kultury jako dziedziny aktywności ludzkiej sprawia, że zastosowanie w niej technik, metod i kryteriów opracowanych w kontekście zarządzania w biznesie – czego sztandarowym przykładem jest analiza SWOT, wszechobecna wśród diagnoz sporządzanych przez specjalistów od zarządzania w kulturze, również tych przedstawionych w raporcie Hausnera [zob. Kultura w kryzysie..., s. 86-111]6 – ma małe szanse doprowadzić do wartościowych rezultatów. Przede wszystkim dlatego, że produkcję kulturalną trudno jest w ogóle opisać w kategoriach precyzyjnie zdefiniowanych kroków, które prowadzą do zaplanowanych z góry celów i rezultatów. Kultura nie działa zgodnie z zasadami inwestycji i zysków. O wiele lepiej tłumaczą ją kategorie zaczerpnięte z ekonomii daru czy procesów wymiany symbolicznej [zob. Mauss, 2001, s. 165-310]. Homo economicus, który stanowi antropologiczne zaplecze menedżeryzmu, ma raczej małe szanse stworzyć zaskakującą i żywą kulturę. Jej działanie trafniej opisują pojęcia takie jak potlacz, karnawał, eksces, spotkanie, transgresja czy proces, których ekonomiści nie znają i nie rozumieją. Inna istotna sprawa to zasadnicza słabość metodologii, która ma legitymizować próby mierzenia tego, co dzieje się w kulturze. Jest to kwestia zasadnicza, bo po to, aby czymś dobrze zarządzać, trzeba posiadać przede wszystkim narzędzia pomiarowe pozwalające stwierdzić, jakie efekty wywołuje określone oddziaływanie. Kultura jest pod tym względem wyjątkowo niewdzięcznym przedmiotem badań, ponieważ wartość jej wytworów konstytuuje się w dużej mierze na podstawie historycznego wpływu, jaki wywierają i dlatego tworzy się retrospektywnie, ex post. Historia sztuki pokazuje, że wybitne dzieła sztuki to przede wszystkim te, które przełamały
5
Anegdota głosi, że jeden z urzędników zapomniał kiedyś zmienić nazwę kraju ze swojej poprzedniej podróży i przedstawił rządowi państwa, do którego przyjechał jako konsultant, dokument, mówiący o reformach w zupełnie innej części świata. W ostatecznej wersji poza usunięciem tej pomyłki nie zmienił właściwie niczego.
6
Na marginesie warto dodać, że analiza SWOT jest współcześnie kwestionowana nawet na gruncie samego zarządzania biznesowego [zob. http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304].
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Na marginesie warto dodać, że analiza SWOT jest współcześnie kwestionowana nawet na gruncie samego zarządzania biznesowego [zob. http://manyworlds.com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304].
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Anegdota głosi, że jeden z urzędników zapomniał kiedyś zmienić nazwę kraju ze swojej poprzedniej podróży i przedstawił rządowi państwa, do którego przyjechał jako konsultant, dokument, mówiący o reformach w zupełnie innej części świata. W ostatecznej wersji poza usunięciem tej pomyłki nie zmienił właściwie niczego.
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ecepta na uzdrowienie polskich instytucji kultury opiera się w opinii zespołu Hausnera w dużej mierze na wprowadzeniu zasad profesjonalnego zarządzania. Widzimy tu przykład tryumfu racjonalizacji i rozumu instrumentalnego, którego obawiali się teoretycy nowoczesności od Webera po Habermasa. Wiara w menedżeryzm jest współcześnie mentalnym reliktem, pozostałością po rynkowobiznesowym entuzjazmie lat 90-tych, kiedy to domniemany przez Fukuyamę „koniec historii” i tryumf liberalnego kapitalizmu nad wszelkimi innymi formami organizacji życia społeczno-gospodarczego pchnął świat w objęcia menedżerów: specjalistów od zapewniania wydajności w każdej dziedzinie życia. Dzisiaj wiara ta wydaje się naiwna, bo też Hausner przedstawia swoje propozycje neoliberalnej reformy polskiej kultury w momencie, gdy neoliberalizm odniósł spektakularne fiasko w swojej macierzystej dziedzinie, gdzie menedżerowie powinni wykazać się największymi osiągnięciami: w świecie wysokich finansów. Zamiast sukcesu widzieliśmy, jak wpisana w kult zarządzania obsesja nieustannego podnoszenia wszelkich liczbowych wskaźników (wydajności, wielkości obrotów, woluminu produkcji, liczby sprzedanych produktów, zysku itp.) doprowadziła liberalny kapitalizm do strukturalnego tąpnięcia, przed którego tragicznymi konsekwencjami uratowały nas tylko interwencje rządów.
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Menedżeryzm dna dzięki młodym reżyserom takim jak Wojciech Smarzowski czy Ksewery Żuławski, jednak w latach dziewięćdziesiątych XX wieku przeżyło najgorszy okres w swoim istnieniu, kiedy to w kółko Pazura gonił Lindę lub na odwrót. Mówienie o tym, że kultura to ostatnia dziedzina, która nie została zreformowana po 1989 roku jest też o tyle absurdalne, że, jak zauważył Jarosław Suchan, dyrektor Muzeum Sztuki w Łodzi, w czasie jednej z dyskusji wokół raportu Hausnera, trudno byłoby wskazać osiągnięcie polskiego przemysłu – zreformowanego bezwzględnie i w pierwszym rzędzie na samym początku transformacji, które miałyby w świecie tak dobrą renomę, jak aktualna sztuka polska.
Neoliberalna wiara w menedżeryzm ma również inną słabość, która dramatycznie manifestuje się, gdy mówimy o kulturze: podejście na zasadzie one-size-fits-all, zgodnie z którym z jednej dziedziny do drugiej przenosi się te same metody, narzędzia i recepty. Przypomina to zachowanie urzędników Międzynarodowego Funduszu Walutowego, którzy wożą w swoich laptopach z kraju do kraju gotowe szablony gospodarczych reform, wklejając potem tylko w odpowiednie miejsca nazwę kraju, w którym właśnie przebywają 5. Tymczasem specyfika kultury jako dziedziny aktywności ludzkiej sprawia, że zastosowanie w niej technik, metod i kryteriów opracowanych w kontekście zarządzania w biznesie – czego sztandarowym przykładem jest analiza SWOT, wszechobecna wśród diagnoz sporządzanych przez specjalistów od zarządzania w kulturze, również tych przedstawionych w raporcie Hausnera [zob. Kultura w kryzysie..., s. 86-111]6 – ma małe szanse doprowadzić do wartościowych rezultatów. Przede wszystkim dlatego, że produkcję kulturalną trudno jest w ogóle opisać w kategoriach precyzyjnie zdefiniowanych kroków, które prowadzą do zaplanowanych z góry celów i rezultatów. Kultura nie działa zgodnie z zasadami inwestycji i zysków. O wiele lepiej tłumaczą ją kategorie zaczerpnięte z ekonomii daru czy procesów wymiany symbolicznej [zob. Mauss, 2001, s. 165-310]. Homo economicus, który stanowi antropologiczne zaplecze menedżeryzmu, ma raczej małe szanse stworzyć zaskakującą i żywą kulturę. Jej działanie trafniej opisują pojęcia takie jak potlacz, karnawał, eksces, spotkanie, transgresja czy proces, których ekonomiści nie znają i nie rozumieją. Inna istotna sprawa to zasadnicza słabość metodologii, która ma legitymizować próby mierzenia tego, co dzieje się w kulturze. Jest to kwestia zasadnicza, bo po to, aby czymś dobrze zarządzać, trzeba posiadać przede wszystkim narzędzia pomiarowe pozwalające stwierdzić, jakie efekty wywołuje określone oddziaływanie. Kultura jest pod tym względem wyjątkowo niewdzięcznym przedmiotem badań, ponieważ wartość jej wytworów konstytuuje się w dużej mierze na podstawie historycznego wpływu, jaki wywierają i dlatego tworzy się retrospektywnie, ex post. Historia sztuki pokazuje, że wybitne dzieła sztuki to przede wszystkim te, które przełamały
Drugie ważne ograniczenie menedżeryzmu pojawia się na przeciwnym końcu produkcji kulturalnej, a mianowicie po stronie odbioru. Kwestia uczestnictwa w kulturze jest jednym z podstawowych problemów, które powinien rozwiązać każdy, kto za cel stawia sobie poprawę sposobu jej funkcjonowania8. Oczywiście, problem ten jest obecny w rozważaniach z zakresu zarządzania w kulturze, podejmuje się go jednak w sposób analogiczny do sposobu traktowania go przez działy PR i marketingu firm komercyjnych, czyli akcentując konieczność polepszenia wizerunku instytucji kultury oraz atrakcyjności i dostępności ich oferty. Bez wątpienia, można coś pod tym względem poprawić, są to jednak działania kosmetyczne. Zasadniczy problem uczestnictwa w kulturze jest problemem dystrybucji kapitału symbolicznego w społeczeństwie. Kapitałem tym jest przede wszystkim wykształcenie umożliwiające odbiór kultury, a w przypadku najbardziej wyrafinowanych form kultury wysokiej, jak na przykład sztuki konceptualnej, niezbędne do samego rozpoznania sztuki jako takiej. W rzeczywistości społecznej, w której żyjemy, kapitał symboliczny, tak jak wszystkie inne rodzaje kapitału, jest rozłożony w sposób nierówny. Zmiana tego stanu rzeczy to podstawowy warunek skutecznej reformy społecznego funkcjonowania kultury. Zmiana ta leży jednak całkowicie poza zasięgiem wpływu instytucji kultury, dlatego zarządzanie w kulturze pozostaje tu całkowicie bezsilne. Bardziej egalitarna redystrybucja kapitału symbolicznego wymaga głębokich zmian w sposobie funkcjonowania społeczeństwa: w organizacji produkcji i pracy, która zorientowana jest na maksymalne wykorzystanie mocy produkcyjnych jednostek kosztem ich rozwoju w sferach innych niż materialna, w działaniu mediów nastawionych na dostarczanie taniej, ogłupiającej rozrywki, w procesie edukacji, który przebiega coraz bardziej pod dyktat rynku pracy i stawia sobie za cel wykształcenie nie tyle świadomych obywateli, co bezmyślnych konsumentów i biernych, posłusznych pracowników. Innymi słowy: nie będzie lepszej partycypacji w kulturze bez gruntownej reorganizacji całokształtu stosunków społecznych. To leży jednak poza zasięgiem jakichkolwiek specjalistów od zarządzania w kulturze.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
konwencje, otwierając nowe perspektywy eksplorowane później przez kolejne pokolenia artystów. Tego rodzaju wybitne osiągnięcia bywają często nierozpoznane w momencie swojego pojawienia się. Zasługują pod każdym względem na nazwę niezwykle rzadkich zdarzeń w takim sensie jak termin ten rozumie na przykład Nicholas Taleb: po pierwsze leżą poza zakresem zwykłego prawdopodobieństwa, co znaczy, że nikt wcześniej nie może z rozsądną pewnością powiedzieć, że się wydarzą, po drugie wywołują ogromne skutki, po trzecie zostają post factum otoczone całą masą teorii mających uczynić je zrozumiałymi i przewidywalnymi [Taleb, 2007, s. XVI-XVII]. Specjaliści od zarządzania w kulturze posługują się kategoriami rozmijającymi się z istotą kultury jako dziedziny tworzenia wartości. Odwołują się najczęściej do kryteriów, które o kulturze mówią niewiele: średnim koszcie utrzymania jednego metra kwadratowego powierzchni galeryjnej lub muzealnej, liczbie odwiedzających przypadającej na jednego pracownika, średnim koszcie obsłużenia odwiedzającego, ilości wypożyczeń książki z biblioteki w danej jednostce czasu, liczbie osób odwiedzających daną instytucję w danej jednostce czasu, liczbie wypożyczeń pomiędzy muzeami, udziale wynagrodzeń pracowniczych w kosztach stałych, udziale w środkach pozyskanych samodzielnie w całkowitych przychodach danej instytucji, liczbie imprez zorganizowanych przez daną instytucję w danej jednostce czasu, satysfakcji odwiedzających z oferty instytucji, ocenie jakości obsługi, dogodności dojazdu czy godzin otwarcia itp.7 Kryteria te mają pewną wartość, ale nadają się dobrze do oceny tylko dwóch rodzajów aktywności mieszczących się w szeroko rozumianej kulturze, są jednak jej stosunkowo mało ważnymi elementami: prezentacją dziedzictwa narodowego oraz rozrywką. Nic nam one nie powiedzą, gdy będziemy badać najbardziej aktualne formy produkcji kulturalnej, na przykład eksperymentalne poszukiwania na polu sztuk wizualnych lub performatywnych. Są zbyt płynne i innowacyjne, aby dały się z powodzeniem analizować od strony formalnej przy pomocy wystandaryzowanych metod ekonomii, socjologii czy psychologii (bo tym posługuje się zarządzanie niebędące samoistną i samodzielną dyscypliną naukową, a tylko zbiorem technik zaczerpniętych z kilku nauk społecznych).
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Zob. dowolne opracowanie dotyczące podstawowych problemów zarządzania w kulturze, np. G. Prawelska-Skrzypek, Polityka kulturalna polskich samorządów: wybrane zagadnienia, Kraków 2003.
Dane dotyczące uczestnictwa Polaków w rożnych dziedzinach kultury i ciekawa dyskusja na ten temat zob. B. Fatyga, Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnictwo w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, 2009, nr 12.
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Dane dotyczące uczestnictwa Polaków w rożnych dziedzinach kultury i ciekawa dyskusja na ten temat zob. B. Fatyga, Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnictwo w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, 2009, nr 12.
Zob. dowolne opracowanie dotyczące podstawowych problemów zarządzania w kulturze, np. G. Prawelska-Skrzypek, Polityka kulturalna polskich samorządów: wybrane zagadnienia, Kraków 2003.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Drugie ważne ograniczenie menedżeryzmu pojawia się na przeciwnym końcu produkcji kulturalnej, a mianowicie po stronie odbioru. Kwestia uczestnictwa w kulturze jest jednym z podstawowych problemów, które powinien rozwiązać każdy, kto za cel stawia sobie poprawę sposobu jej funkcjonowania8. Oczywiście, problem ten jest obecny w rozważaniach z zakresu zarządzania w kulturze, podejmuje się go jednak w sposób analogiczny do sposobu traktowania go przez działy PR i marketingu firm komercyjnych, czyli akcentując konieczność polepszenia wizerunku instytucji kultury oraz atrakcyjności i dostępności ich oferty. Bez wątpienia, można coś pod tym względem poprawić, są to jednak działania kosmetyczne. Zasadniczy problem uczestnictwa w kulturze jest problemem dystrybucji kapitału symbolicznego w społeczeństwie. Kapitałem tym jest przede wszystkim wykształcenie umożliwiające odbiór kultury, a w przypadku najbardziej wyrafinowanych form kultury wysokiej, jak na przykład sztuki konceptualnej, niezbędne do samego rozpoznania sztuki jako takiej. W rzeczywistości społecznej, w której żyjemy, kapitał symboliczny, tak jak wszystkie inne rodzaje kapitału, jest rozłożony w sposób nierówny. Zmiana tego stanu rzeczy to podstawowy warunek skutecznej reformy społecznego funkcjonowania kultury. Zmiana ta leży jednak całkowicie poza zasięgiem wpływu instytucji kultury, dlatego zarządzanie w kulturze pozostaje tu całkowicie bezsilne. Bardziej egalitarna redystrybucja kapitału symbolicznego wymaga głębokich zmian w sposobie funkcjonowania społeczeństwa: w organizacji produkcji i pracy, która zorientowana jest na maksymalne wykorzystanie mocy produkcyjnych jednostek kosztem ich rozwoju w sferach innych niż materialna, w działaniu mediów nastawionych na dostarczanie taniej, ogłupiającej rozrywki, w procesie edukacji, który przebiega coraz bardziej pod dyktat rynku pracy i stawia sobie za cel wykształcenie nie tyle świadomych obywateli, co bezmyślnych konsumentów i biernych, posłusznych pracowników. Innymi słowy: nie będzie lepszej partycypacji w kulturze bez gruntownej reorganizacji całokształtu stosunków społecznych. To leży jednak poza zasięgiem jakichkolwiek specjalistów od zarządzania w kulturze.
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konwencje, otwierając nowe perspektywy eksplorowane później przez kolejne pokolenia artystów. Tego rodzaju wybitne osiągnięcia bywają często nierozpoznane w momencie swojego pojawienia się. Zasługują pod każdym względem na nazwę niezwykle rzadkich zdarzeń w takim sensie jak termin ten rozumie na przykład Nicholas Taleb: po pierwsze leżą poza zakresem zwykłego prawdopodobieństwa, co znaczy, że nikt wcześniej nie może z rozsądną pewnością powiedzieć, że się wydarzą, po drugie wywołują ogromne skutki, po trzecie zostają post factum otoczone całą masą teorii mających uczynić je zrozumiałymi i przewidywalnymi [Taleb, 2007, s. XVI-XVII]. Specjaliści od zarządzania w kulturze posługują się kategoriami rozmijającymi się z istotą kultury jako dziedziny tworzenia wartości. Odwołują się najczęściej do kryteriów, które o kulturze mówią niewiele: średnim koszcie utrzymania jednego metra kwadratowego powierzchni galeryjnej lub muzealnej, liczbie odwiedzających przypadającej na jednego pracownika, średnim koszcie obsłużenia odwiedzającego, ilości wypożyczeń książki z biblioteki w danej jednostce czasu, liczbie osób odwiedzających daną instytucję w danej jednostce czasu, liczbie wypożyczeń pomiędzy muzeami, udziale wynagrodzeń pracowniczych w kosztach stałych, udziale w środkach pozyskanych samodzielnie w całkowitych przychodach danej instytucji, liczbie imprez zorganizowanych przez daną instytucję w danej jednostce czasu, satysfakcji odwiedzających z oferty instytucji, ocenie jakości obsługi, dogodności dojazdu czy godzin otwarcia itp.7 Kryteria te mają pewną wartość, ale nadają się dobrze do oceny tylko dwóch rodzajów aktywności mieszczących się w szeroko rozumianej kulturze, są jednak jej stosunkowo mało ważnymi elementami: prezentacją dziedzictwa narodowego oraz rozrywką. Nic nam one nie powiedzą, gdy będziemy badać najbardziej aktualne formy produkcji kulturalnej, na przykład eksperymentalne poszukiwania na polu sztuk wizualnych lub performatywnych. Są zbyt płynne i innowacyjne, aby dały się z powodzeniem analizować od strony formalnej przy pomocy wystandaryzowanych metod ekonomii, socjologii czy psychologii (bo tym posługuje się zarządzanie niebędące samoistną i samodzielną dyscypliną naukową, a tylko zbiorem technik zaczerpniętych z kilku nauk społecznych).
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Reasumując: menedżeryzm jest ślepą uliczką w podejściu do kultury, ponieważ po pierwsze nie dysponuje adekwatnym aparatem pomiarowym pozwalającym w trafny sposób opisać i zmierzyć to, czym chciałby zarządzać, po drugie zaś narzędzia i metody konieczne do przeprowadzenia zmian większych niż tylko kosmetyczne leżą całkowicie poza zasięgiem menedżerów kultury. Problem jest tu nawet głębszy. Menedżeryzm nie tylko rozmija się z istotą wyzwań, przed jakimi stoi zasadnicza reforma kultury, ale wywiera zły wpływ na kierunek ewolucji sporej części instytucji, w tym zwłaszcza instytucji trzeciego sektora. Stanowią one ważną część każdego demokratycznego społeczeństwa, a badania przeprowadzone przez Roberta Putnama we Włoszech pokazują, że wszelkiego rodzaju stowarzyszenia są inkubatorem kapitału społecznego niezbędnego dla sprawnego funkcjonowania demokratycznej władzy [zob. Putnam, 1995]. Dzieje się tak, ponieważ organizacje obywatelskie 3-ego sektora działają w oparciu o entuzjazm, zaangażowanie i zaufanie. W ostatnich kilku dekadach obserwować można jednak proces erozji tych form obywatelskiej aktywności. Erozja ta idzie w parze z profesjonalizacją, komercjalizacją i urządowieniem 3-ego sektora [zob. Rymsza, 2005]. Instytucje 3-ego sektora, zarządzane, coraz częściej przy pomocy metod przeniesionych wprost z biznesu, przestają być strukturami społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i organizacjami pozarządowymi, stają się natomiast para-firmami realizującymi typowe działania komercyjne lub organizacjami para-rządowymi, którymi władza zarządza, manipulując systemem rozdzielania grantów (ustalanie priorytetów grantowych, wskazywanie tematów faworyzowanych, moderowanie tematyki sezonów kulturalnych, definiowanie problemów społecznych, na których rozwiązywanie przekazywane są pieniądze 3-emu sektorowi, jak np. uzależnienie od nikotyny czy alkoholu itp.)9 Pożytek, jaki szerokiemu społeczeństwu przynosiły zawsze organizacje 3-ego sektora, nie brał się z profesjonalizmu zarządzających nimi kadr ani ze skrupulatnej analizy efektywności w realizowaniu zadań, ale z tego, że były one sposobem instytucjonalizacji entuzjazmu oraz zaufania, co skutecznie zachęcało jednostki do większego zaangażowania w życie społeczne. Menedżeryzm ze swoją maszynerią biurokratycznej racjonalizacji i obsesją monitorowania wskaźników niewiele jest w stanie w tym pomóc, wiele natomiast może zepsuć.
Element ludzki
R
aport Hausnera, chociaż idący moim zdaniem w zdecydowanie błędnym kierunku, zawiera jednak pewien istotny i słuszny punkt: propozycję zmian w sposobie wyłaniania i organizacji pracy dyrektorów instytucji kultury. Ten element ludzki jest zdecydowanie ważniejszy niż kwestie efektywności, pozyskiwania własnych środków, PR-owego liftingu instytucji itd. Empiryczna analiza pokazuje bowiem, że instytucje, które są na kulturowej mapie Polski (i nie tylko) ważnymi punktami, są tymi placówkami, którymi kierują nie tyle sprawni menedżerowie, co merytoryczni fachowcy na najwyższym poziomie. Jako przykład proponuję przyjrzeć się jednej dziedzinie współczesnej kultury: sztukom wizualnym (zwanym też czasem „plastycznymi”, chociaż „plastyka” to raczej nazwa przedmiotu w szkole podstawowej niż dyscypliny artystycznej). Ze wszystkich dziedzin polskiej twórczości zyskują one największe uznanie za granicą. Są też dziedziną, którą znam najlepiej ze względu na moje związki z krakowskim Bunkrem Sztuki oraz współpracę z innymi instytucjami sztuki współczesnej w Polsce i za granicą. Dlatego właśnie wybieram je jako przykład do krótkiej analizy, chociaż myślę, że wnioski można by uogólnić na inne dziedziny kultury. W Polsce po reformie samorządowej w 1999 roku kilkadziesiąt instytucji zajmujących się sztuką współczesną zostało przekazanych samorządom. Wcześniej były one w znakomitej większości skupione w ogólnopolskim Biurze Wystaw Artystycznych lub w inny sposób podległe władzy centralnej. Żadne z nich nie było wybitnym i liczącym się w skali międzynarodowej ośrodkiem sztuki współczesnej, bo w latach 90-tych na nazwę tę zasługiwało tylko warszawskie CSW Zamek Ujazdowski. W czasie dekady, jaka upłynęła od przekazania tych kilkudziesięciu placówek samorządom, niektóre spośród nich przekształciły się w niewiele znaczące, prowincjonalne galerie pokazujące malarstwo materii i skóroplastykę produkowaną przez lokalnych przedstawicieli Związku Polskich Artystów Plastyków, inne natomiast stały się wysokiej klasy instytucjami rozpoznawalnymi w Polsce i za granicą. Co ciekawe, ich ranga nie jest wcale w 100% skorelowana z rozmiarami ośrodka miejskiego, w którym działają. Ważne i jakościowo dobre galerie działają na przykład w Białymstoku, Bytomiu czy Zielonej Górze. Jeśli przyglądniemy się tym dobrym przykładom, okaże się, że to, co
Ciekawa dyskusja na ten temat odbyła się ostatnio na łamach „Gazety Wyborczej” [zob. Graff, 2010; Nowicka, 2010; Bodnar, Kucharczyk, 2010; Sadura, 2010].
9
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
293
Ciekawa dyskusja na ten temat odbyła się ostatnio na łamach „Gazety Wyborczej” [zob. Graff, 2010; Nowicka, 2010; Bodnar, Kucharczyk, 2010; Sadura, 2010].
9
Reasumując: menedżeryzm jest ślepą uliczką w podejściu do kultury, ponieważ po pierwsze nie dysponuje adekwatnym aparatem pomiarowym pozwalającym w trafny sposób opisać i zmierzyć to, czym chciałby zarządzać, po drugie zaś narzędzia i metody konieczne do przeprowadzenia zmian większych niż tylko kosmetyczne leżą całkowicie poza zasięgiem menedżerów kultury. Problem jest tu nawet głębszy. Menedżeryzm nie tylko rozmija się z istotą wyzwań, przed jakimi stoi zasadnicza reforma kultury, ale wywiera zły wpływ na kierunek ewolucji sporej części instytucji, w tym zwłaszcza instytucji trzeciego sektora. Stanowią one ważną część każdego demokratycznego społeczeństwa, a badania przeprowadzone przez Roberta Putnama we Włoszech pokazują, że wszelkiego rodzaju stowarzyszenia są inkubatorem kapitału społecznego niezbędnego dla sprawnego funkcjonowania demokratycznej władzy [zob. Putnam, 1995]. Dzieje się tak, ponieważ organizacje obywatelskie 3-ego sektora działają w oparciu o entuzjazm, zaangażowanie i zaufanie. W ostatnich kilku dekadach obserwować można jednak proces erozji tych form obywatelskiej aktywności. Erozja ta idzie w parze z profesjonalizacją, komercjalizacją i urządowieniem 3-ego sektora [zob. Rymsza, 2005]. Instytucje 3-ego sektora, zarządzane, coraz częściej przy pomocy metod przeniesionych wprost z biznesu, przestają być strukturami społeczeństwa obywatelskiego i organizacjami pozarządowymi, stają się natomiast para-firmami realizującymi typowe działania komercyjne lub organizacjami para-rządowymi, którymi władza zarządza, manipulując systemem rozdzielania grantów (ustalanie priorytetów grantowych, wskazywanie tematów faworyzowanych, moderowanie tematyki sezonów kulturalnych, definiowanie problemów społecznych, na których rozwiązywanie przekazywane są pieniądze 3-emu sektorowi, jak np. uzależnienie od nikotyny czy alkoholu itp.)9 Pożytek, jaki szerokiemu społeczeństwu przynosiły zawsze organizacje 3-ego sektora, nie brał się z profesjonalizmu zarządzających nimi kadr ani ze skrupulatnej analizy efektywności w realizowaniu zadań, ale z tego, że były one sposobem instytucjonalizacji entuzjazmu oraz zaufania, co skutecznie zachęcało jednostki do większego zaangażowania w życie społeczne. Menedżeryzm ze swoją maszynerią biurokratycznej racjonalizacji i obsesją monitorowania wskaźników niewiele jest w stanie w tym pomóc, wiele natomiast może zepsuć.
aport Hausnera, chociaż idący moim zdaniem w zdecydowanie błędnym kierunku, zawiera jednak pewien istotny i słuszny punkt: propozycję zmian w sposobie wyłaniania i organizacji pracy dyrektorów instytucji kultury. Ten element ludzki jest zdecydowanie ważniejszy niż kwestie efektywności, pozyskiwania własnych środków, PR-owego liftingu instytucji itd. Empiryczna analiza pokazuje bowiem, że instytucje, które są na kulturowej mapie Polski (i nie tylko) ważnymi punktami, są tymi placówkami, którymi kierują nie tyle sprawni menedżerowie, co merytoryczni fachowcy na najwyższym poziomie. Jako przykład proponuję przyjrzeć się jednej dziedzinie współczesnej kultury: sztukom wizualnym (zwanym też czasem „plastycznymi”, chociaż „plastyka” to raczej nazwa przedmiotu w szkole podstawowej niż dyscypliny artystycznej). Ze wszystkich dziedzin polskiej twórczości zyskują one największe uznanie za granicą. Są też dziedziną, którą znam najlepiej ze względu na moje związki z krakowskim Bunkrem Sztuki oraz współpracę z innymi instytucjami sztuki współczesnej w Polsce i za granicą. Dlatego właśnie wybieram je jako przykład do krótkiej analizy, chociaż myślę, że wnioski można by uogólnić na inne dziedziny kultury. W Polsce po reformie samorządowej w 1999 roku kilkadziesiąt instytucji zajmujących się sztuką współczesną zostało przekazanych samorządom. Wcześniej były one w znakomitej większości skupione w ogólnopolskim Biurze Wystaw Artystycznych lub w inny sposób podległe władzy centralnej. Żadne z nich nie było wybitnym i liczącym się w skali międzynarodowej ośrodkiem sztuki współczesnej, bo w latach 90-tych na nazwę tę zasługiwało tylko warszawskie CSW Zamek Ujazdowski. W czasie dekady, jaka upłynęła od przekazania tych kilkudziesięciu placówek samorządom, niektóre spośród nich przekształciły się w niewiele znaczące, prowincjonalne galerie pokazujące malarstwo materii i skóroplastykę produkowaną przez lokalnych przedstawicieli Związku Polskich Artystów Plastyków, inne natomiast stały się wysokiej klasy instytucjami rozpoznawalnymi w Polsce i za granicą. Co ciekawe, ich ranga nie jest wcale w 100% skorelowana z rozmiarami ośrodka miejskiego, w którym działają. Ważne i jakościowo dobre galerie działają na przykład w Białymstoku, Bytomiu czy Zielonej Górze. Jeśli przyglądniemy się tym dobrym przykładom, okaże się, że to, co
R
Element ludzki
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
którą podpisało się ponad 400 przedstawicieli polskiego świata sztuki10. Również minister Zdrojewski i lokalne organy władzy centralnej mające wpływ na statut nowopowstającego muzeum – a konkretnie wojewoda Stanisław Kracik, który odrzucił poprawki Rady Miasta wprowadzające obowiązek ogłoszenia w Muzeum konkursu – swoimi decyzjami opowiedzieli się raczej po stronie feudalnych procedur o charakterze inwestytury niż przejrzystych mechanizmów otwartego i demokratycznego państwa. Drugim ważnym elementem obok konkursów powinno być wprowadzenie kadencyjności na wszystkich stanowiskach kierowniczych (obecnie dyrektorzy muzeów powoływani są na czas nieokreślony, co w większości przypadków oznacza pełnienie tej funkcji dożywotnio). Takie dokładnie zalecenia pojawiają się w raporcie Hausnera [zob. Kultura w kryzysie, s. 37]. Niestety, nic nie wskazuje na to, aby minister Zdrojewski miał zamiar wprowadzić tę część Raportu w życie. W czasie sejmowego exposé w styczniu 2010 roku Zdrojewski skoncentrował się przede wszystkim na problemach finansowych i promocyjnych. Taki rozkład akcentów nie odzwierciedla istoty problemu. Rozmiar budżetu przeznaczonego na kulturę nie jest główną kwestią, którą należy reformować. Pieniędzy na nią wcale nie jest tak mało, są one jednak niewłaściwie dzielone11. Praktyka pokazuje też, że nawet za małe pieniądze można robić w kulturze wartościowe rzeczy, czego przykładem jest krakowska Spółdzielnia Goldex Poldex: z bardzo niewielkim budżetem utrzymywana przez czwórkę entuzjastów z ich prywatnych pieniędzy trafiła w tym roku na listę 100 najważniejszych dla sztuki instytucji, wydarzeń i osób pisma „Obieg”, będącego najbardziej opiniotwórczym medium w środowisku polskiej sztuki współczesnej [zob. http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954]. Nadmierna koncentracja na kwestiach finansowych i marketingowych jest swoistym epifenomenem menedżeryzmu i pokazuje, że percepcja rzeczywistości jest uzależniona od języka, którego używamy, aby o niej mówić. Każda technika manipulacji czymkolwiek – i pod tym względem zarządzanie w kulturze nie różni się niczym od lądowania na księżycu – kładzie główny nacisk na czynniki mierzalne, ponieważ tylko to pozwala po
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
mają ze sobą wspólnego, to nie stosowanie określonych technik zarządzania czy szczególna aktywność własna w pozyskiwaniu środków, ale osoba charyzmatycznego i kompetentnego dyrektora lub dyrektorki, która przede wszystkim rozumiała sztukę współczesną, była w tej dziedzinie wybitnym specjalistą lub specjalistką, posiadała wizję rozwoju instytucji i kształtowała jej program nie tyle dostosowując się do gustów i oczekiwań publiczności zdiagnozowanych na podstawie badań kwestionariuszowych, ale stawiając na działalność odważną i eksperymentalną. Myślę tu o takich ludziach jak Monika Szewczyk w Białymstoku, Sebastian Cichocki w Bytomiu, Jarosław Suchan w Krakowie, Wojciech Kozłowski w Zielonej Górze czy Aneta Szyłak w Gdańsku. Ten element ludzki jest podstawowy w każdej dziedzinie produkcji kulturalnej. Za liczącymi się instytucjami sztuki współczesnej w sektorach innych niż publiczny też stoi nie wybitny menedżer czy sprytny fundraiser, ale fachowiec od sztuki: Łukasz Gorczyca i Michał Kaczyński z Rastra, Andrzej Przywara, Joanna Mytkowska i Adam Szymczyk z Fundacji Galerii Foksal czy Piotr Krajewski z WRO Center, aby podać tylko niektóre przykłady. Nie jest więc trudno stwierdzić, na czym powinna polegać podstawowa pozytywna zmiana w instytucjonalnym funkcjonowaniu kultury: promowanie demokratycznego i przejrzystego mechanizmu powoływania dyrektorów instytucji kultury, co jest najlepszą i jedyną gwarancją, że na stanowiskach kierowniczych znajdą się kompetentne osoby. Mechanizmu tego nie trzeba nawet specjalnie tworzyć, ponieważ on już istnieje – jest nim otwarty konkurs rozstrzygany przez jury złożone z ekspertów. Należałoby go konsekwentnie i powszechnie zaaplikować w skali całego kraju i każdej instytucji kultury. Obowiązujące w tym momencie prawo daje jednak podmiotowi nadrzędnemu wobec instytucji możliwość ogłoszenia konkursu lub całkowicie uznaniowego mianowania dyrektora. (Wyjątkiem jest kilkadziesiąt instytucji objętych specjalnym rozporządzeniem Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego). Z tej drugiej możliwości skorzystał ostatnio prezydent Krakowa, mianując dyrektora nowopowstającego Muzeum Sztuki Współczesnej, pomimo prośby o rozpisanie konkursu na to stanowisko, pod
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Informacje na ten temat zob. blog Komitetu na rzecz Przejrzystości w Polityce Kulturalnej Krakowa [http://inicjatywa2009.blogspot. com/].
Oto jeden przykład: Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe ma budżet wielkości kilkudziesięciu milionów złotych, chociaż jego działalność polega w dużej mierze na organizowaniu masowej rozrywki (np. WOW!night. Music Square Session, czyli Sylwester na krakowskim Rynku, w ramach którego zorganizowano m.in. „największe w Polsce confetti show wyprodukowane przy użyciu 80 kg confetti” [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/], podczas gdy Bunkier Sztuki musi zwalniać pracowników i ograniczać swój program ze względu na za niski budżet.
11
10
Informacje na ten temat zob. blog Komitetu na rzecz Przejrzystości w Polityce Kulturalnej Krakowa [http://inicjatywa2009.blogspot. com/].
10
11 Oto jeden przykład: Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe ma budżet wielkości kilkudziesięciu milionów złotych, chociaż jego działalność polega w dużej mierze na organizowaniu masowej rozrywki (np. WOW!night. Music Square Session, czyli Sylwester na krakowskim Rynku, w ramach którego zorganizowano m.in. „największe w Polsce confetti show wyprodukowane przy użyciu 80 kg confetti” [http://www.biurofestiwalowe.pl/], podczas gdy Bunkier Sztuki musi zwalniać pracowników i ograniczać swój program ze względu na za niski budżet.
którą podpisało się ponad 400 przedstawicieli polskiego świata sztuki10. Również minister Zdrojewski i lokalne organy władzy centralnej mające wpływ na statut nowopowstającego muzeum – a konkretnie wojewoda Stanisław Kracik, który odrzucił poprawki Rady Miasta wprowadzające obowiązek ogłoszenia w Muzeum konkursu – swoimi decyzjami opowiedzieli się raczej po stronie feudalnych procedur o charakterze inwestytury niż przejrzystych mechanizmów otwartego i demokratycznego państwa. Drugim ważnym elementem obok konkursów powinno być wprowadzenie kadencyjności na wszystkich stanowiskach kierowniczych (obecnie dyrektorzy muzeów powoływani są na czas nieokreślony, co w większości przypadków oznacza pełnienie tej funkcji dożywotnio). Takie dokładnie zalecenia pojawiają się w raporcie Hausnera [zob. Kultura w kryzysie, s. 37]. Niestety, nic nie wskazuje na to, aby minister Zdrojewski miał zamiar wprowadzić tę część Raportu w życie. W czasie sejmowego exposé w styczniu 2010 roku Zdrojewski skoncentrował się przede wszystkim na problemach finansowych i promocyjnych. Taki rozkład akcentów nie odzwierciedla istoty problemu. Rozmiar budżetu przeznaczonego na kulturę nie jest główną kwestią, którą należy reformować. Pieniędzy na nią wcale nie jest tak mało, są one jednak niewłaściwie dzielone11. Praktyka pokazuje też, że nawet za małe pieniądze można robić w kulturze wartościowe rzeczy, czego przykładem jest krakowska Spółdzielnia Goldex Poldex: z bardzo niewielkim budżetem utrzymywana przez czwórkę entuzjastów z ich prywatnych pieniędzy trafiła w tym roku na listę 100 najważniejszych dla sztuki instytucji, wydarzeń i osób pisma „Obieg”, będącego najbardziej opiniotwórczym medium w środowisku polskiej sztuki współczesnej [zob. http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954]. Nadmierna koncentracja na kwestiach finansowych i marketingowych jest swoistym epifenomenem menedżeryzmu i pokazuje, że percepcja rzeczywistości jest uzależniona od języka, którego używamy, aby o niej mówić. Każda technika manipulacji czymkolwiek – i pod tym względem zarządzanie w kulturze nie różni się niczym od lądowania na księżycu – kładzie główny nacisk na czynniki mierzalne, ponieważ tylko to pozwala po
294
mają ze sobą wspólnego, to nie stosowanie określonych technik zarządzania czy szczególna aktywność własna w pozyskiwaniu środków, ale osoba charyzmatycznego i kompetentnego dyrektora lub dyrektorki, która przede wszystkim rozumiała sztukę współczesną, była w tej dziedzinie wybitnym specjalistą lub specjalistką, posiadała wizję rozwoju instytucji i kształtowała jej program nie tyle dostosowując się do gustów i oczekiwań publiczności zdiagnozowanych na podstawie badań kwestionariuszowych, ale stawiając na działalność odważną i eksperymentalną. Myślę tu o takich ludziach jak Monika Szewczyk w Białymstoku, Sebastian Cichocki w Bytomiu, Jarosław Suchan w Krakowie, Wojciech Kozłowski w Zielonej Górze czy Aneta Szyłak w Gdańsku. Ten element ludzki jest podstawowy w każdej dziedzinie produkcji kulturalnej. Za liczącymi się instytucjami sztuki współczesnej w sektorach innych niż publiczny też stoi nie wybitny menedżer czy sprytny fundraiser, ale fachowiec od sztuki: Łukasz Gorczyca i Michał Kaczyński z Rastra, Andrzej Przywara, Joanna Mytkowska i Adam Szymczyk z Fundacji Galerii Foksal czy Piotr Krajewski z WRO Center, aby podać tylko niektóre przykłady. Nie jest więc trudno stwierdzić, na czym powinna polegać podstawowa pozytywna zmiana w instytucjonalnym funkcjonowaniu kultury: promowanie demokratycznego i przejrzystego mechanizmu powoływania dyrektorów instytucji kultury, co jest najlepszą i jedyną gwarancją, że na stanowiskach kierowniczych znajdą się kompetentne osoby. Mechanizmu tego nie trzeba nawet specjalnie tworzyć, ponieważ on już istnieje – jest nim otwarty konkurs rozstrzygany przez jury złożone z ekspertów. Należałoby go konsekwentnie i powszechnie zaaplikować w skali całego kraju i każdej instytucji kultury. Obowiązujące w tym momencie prawo daje jednak podmiotowi nadrzędnemu wobec instytucji możliwość ogłoszenia konkursu lub całkowicie uznaniowego mianowania dyrektora. (Wyjątkiem jest kilkadziesiąt instytucji objętych specjalnym rozporządzeniem Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego). Z tej drugiej możliwości skorzystał ostatnio prezydent Krakowa, mianując dyrektora nowopowstającego Muzeum Sztuki Współczesnej, pomimo prośby o rozpisanie konkursu na to stanowisko, pod
295
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
pierwsze na zdefiniowanie sytuacji problemowej, z którą mamy do czynienia, a po drugie na ocenę skuteczności przeprowadzanych manipulacji. Dlatego kwestie sprawności finansowej instytucji, jej struktury organizacyjnej i działań promocyjnych zajmują prominentne miejsce w każdej technice zarządzania – zarówno w biznesie, jak i wszędzie indziej. Jakość estetyczna jest o wiele trudniejsza do uchwycenia w ten sposób i ociera się o granice tego, co można w ogóle zoperacjonalizować, a coś takiego, jak znaczenie danego przedsięwzięcia w ogólnym dyskursie produkcji artystycznej i jego ewentualnie przełomowy charakter, jest w ogóle poza wszelkim sensownym pomiarem (między innymi dlatego, że musi upłynąć trochę czasu zanim stanie się to jasne). Oczywiście, człowiek posiada możliwość odczuwania i odgadywania tego rodzaju kwestii, jednak dokonuje się to w dużej mierze w oparciu o intuicję, a nie przy użyciu wystandaryzowanych technik pomiarowych. Na tym być może polega właśnie przewaga wybitnych ekspertów w danych dziedzinach twórczości artystycznej – kuratorów, reżyserów, dyrektorów teatrów czy galerii sztuki, redaktorów itd. – że potrafią intuicyjnie ocenić, jakie kierunki eksperymentalnych poszukiwań są obiecujące i jakie ich rezultaty zasługują na popularyzację. Jest wątpliwe, czy potrafią to menedżerowie kultury, a na pewno na nic nie przydają się tu jakiekolwiek kryteria używane do pomiaru efektywności instytucji kultury. Oprócz obszernych rozważań dotyczących finansowania polskiej kultury oraz jej lepszej promocji za granicą, minister Zdrojewski w swoim sejmowym wystąpieniu wspomniał jeszcze o potrzebie rozwoju edukacji artystycznej. Jest to słuszny kierunek działania, bo edukacja stanowi jeden z głównych mechanizmów redystrybucji kapitału symbolicznego. Jednak remedium, jakie zaproponował Minister i osiągnięcia, którymi się chwalił, nie wydają się szczególnie adekwatne. Ponowne wprowadzenie do szkół plastyki i muzyki jest oczywiście słusznym posunięciem, ale to zdecydowanie za mało, aby uczynić współczesną kulturę bardziej przystępną przeciętnemu obywatelowi. Obecna twórczość artystyczna w każdej właściwie dziedzinie ma charakter przede wszystkim konceptualny, co jest efektem przełomu awangardowego, jaki dokonał się w XX wieku w sztuce. Oczywiście, kategorie estetyczne wciąż się liczą, jednak dzieło sztuki pozbawione ładunku konceptualnego jest dziś raczej tylko designem, rozrywką lub dekoracją. Dlatego do odbioru współczesnej kultury kształcenie w dziedzinie pojęć i teorii jest nawet ważniejsze niż tradycyjnie pojęta edukacja artystyczna. Nauka plastyki i muzyki na niewiele się przyda, jeśli chodzi o zrozumienie współczesnej sztuki. O wiele lepszym pomysłem byłoby na przykład
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
wprowadzenie do liceów, wzorem Francji, filozofii jako przedmiotu obowiązkowego na maturze. Nic nie wskazuje jednak na to, aby obecne władze rozważały tego rodzaju zmiany w edukacji. Ich wprowadzenie w małym stopniu zależy też od Ministerstwa Kultury, co pokazuje, jak biurokratyczne podziały uniemożliwiają przeprowadzenie reform innych niż tylko kosmetyczne.
W poszukiwaniu alternatywy
P
onieważ zgadzam się z opinią, iż krytyka konstruktywna, czyli wskazująca alternatywę dla krytykowanych rozwiązań ma większą wartość niż krytyka czysto negatywna, objawiająca tylko i wyłącznie patologiczny charakter status quo, chciałbym na koniec przedstawić jeden z projektów, który traktować można jako alternatywę wobec strategii reformy kultury zaproponowanej przez raport Hausnera, Kongres Kultury Polskiej oraz sejmowe wystąpienie ministra Zdrojewskiego. Ma on charakter oddolnej inicjatywy obywatelskiej. Opracowała ją grupa ludzi związana w różny sposób z kulturą, w której skład oprócz mnie wchodzili: Roman Dziadkiewicz (artysta, prezes Fundacji 36,6), Grzegorz Jankowicz (filolog, redaktor wydawnictwa „Ha!art” oraz szef działu kultury w „Tygodniku Powszechnym”), Zbigniew Libera (artysta, jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich twórców współczesnych), Ewa Majewska (filozofka i feministka), Lidia Makowska (aktywistka, jedna z prowadzących portal Indeks73), Natalia Romik (politolożka i kuratorka), Janek Simon (artysta, współzałożyciel Spółdzielni Goldex Poldex), Kuba Szreder (socjolog i kurator), Bogna Świątkowska (kuratorka, prezes Fundacji Nowej Kultury Bęc Zmiana) oraz Joanna Warsza (kuratorka, prowadzi Fundację Laury Palmer). Manifest z programem reformy ogłoszony w listopadzie 2009 roku na stronie Komitetu na rzecz Radykalnych Zmian w Kulturze poparło do tej pory swoimi podpisami kilkaset osób [http://www.rewolucjakulturalna. pl/]. Ponieważ pełny tekst Manifestu dostępny jest w Internecie wraz z obszernym komentarzem [tamże], pragnę tutaj bardzo krótko przedstawić tylko jego podstawowe tezy i postulaty. Punktem wyjścia dla proponowanych zmian jest krytyczna diagnoza obecnej sytuacji i zaproponowanych reform. Manifest opowiada się przeciwko czterem negatywnym zjawiskom we współczesnej kulturze: przeciw rządom biurokratów i ekonomistów, przeciw komercjalizacji, przeciw jej instrumentalizacji oraz przeciw likwidacji bądź osłabianiu sektora publicznego. Jako remedium proponuje natomiast pięć radykalnych zmian:
295
pierwsze na zdefiniowanie sytuacji problemowej, z którą mamy do czynienia, a po drugie na ocenę skuteczności przeprowadzanych manipulacji. Dlatego kwestie sprawności finansowej instytucji, jej struktury organizacyjnej i działań promocyjnych zajmują prominentne miejsce w każdej technice zarządzania – zarówno w biznesie, jak i wszędzie indziej. Jakość estetyczna jest o wiele trudniejsza do uchwycenia w ten sposób i ociera się o granice tego, co można w ogóle zoperacjonalizować, a coś takiego, jak znaczenie danego przedsięwzięcia w ogólnym dyskursie produkcji artystycznej i jego ewentualnie przełomowy charakter, jest w ogóle poza wszelkim sensownym pomiarem (między innymi dlatego, że musi upłynąć trochę czasu zanim stanie się to jasne). Oczywiście, człowiek posiada możliwość odczuwania i odgadywania tego rodzaju kwestii, jednak dokonuje się to w dużej mierze w oparciu o intuicję, a nie przy użyciu wystandaryzowanych technik pomiarowych. Na tym być może polega właśnie przewaga wybitnych ekspertów w danych dziedzinach twórczości artystycznej – kuratorów, reżyserów, dyrektorów teatrów czy galerii sztuki, redaktorów itd. – że potrafią intuicyjnie ocenić, jakie kierunki eksperymentalnych poszukiwań są obiecujące i jakie ich rezultaty zasługują na popularyzację. Jest wątpliwe, czy potrafią to menedżerowie kultury, a na pewno na nic nie przydają się tu jakiekolwiek kryteria używane do pomiaru efektywności instytucji kultury. Oprócz obszernych rozważań dotyczących finansowania polskiej kultury oraz jej lepszej promocji za granicą, minister Zdrojewski w swoim sejmowym wystąpieniu wspomniał jeszcze o potrzebie rozwoju edukacji artystycznej. Jest to słuszny kierunek działania, bo edukacja stanowi jeden z głównych mechanizmów redystrybucji kapitału symbolicznego. Jednak remedium, jakie zaproponował Minister i osiągnięcia, którymi się chwalił, nie wydają się szczególnie adekwatne. Ponowne wprowadzenie do szkół plastyki i muzyki jest oczywiście słusznym posunięciem, ale to zdecydowanie za mało, aby uczynić współczesną kulturę bardziej przystępną przeciętnemu obywatelowi. Obecna twórczość artystyczna w każdej właściwie dziedzinie ma charakter przede wszystkim konceptualny, co jest efektem przełomu awangardowego, jaki dokonał się w XX wieku w sztuce. Oczywiście, kategorie estetyczne wciąż się liczą, jednak dzieło sztuki pozbawione ładunku konceptualnego jest dziś raczej tylko designem, rozrywką lub dekoracją. Dlatego do odbioru współczesnej kultury kształcenie w dziedzinie pojęć i teorii jest nawet ważniejsze niż tradycyjnie pojęta edukacja artystyczna. Nauka plastyki i muzyki na niewiele się przyda, jeśli chodzi o zrozumienie współczesnej sztuki. O wiele lepszym pomysłem byłoby na przykład
onieważ zgadzam się z opinią, iż krytyka konstruktywna, czyli wskazująca alternatywę dla krytykowanych rozwiązań ma większą wartość niż krytyka czysto negatywna, objawiająca tylko i wyłącznie patologiczny charakter status quo, chciałbym na koniec przedstawić jeden z projektów, który traktować można jako alternatywę wobec strategii reformy kultury zaproponowanej przez raport Hausnera, Kongres Kultury Polskiej oraz sejmowe wystąpienie ministra Zdrojewskiego. Ma on charakter oddolnej inicjatywy obywatelskiej. Opracowała ją grupa ludzi związana w różny sposób z kulturą, w której skład oprócz mnie wchodzili: Roman Dziadkiewicz (artysta, prezes Fundacji 36,6), Grzegorz Jankowicz (filolog, redaktor wydawnictwa „Ha!art” oraz szef działu kultury w „Tygodniku Powszechnym”), Zbigniew Libera (artysta, jeden z najwybitniejszych polskich twórców współczesnych), Ewa Majewska (filozofka i feministka), Lidia Makowska (aktywistka, jedna z prowadzących portal Indeks73), Natalia Romik (politolożka i kuratorka), Janek Simon (artysta, współzałożyciel Spółdzielni Goldex Poldex), Kuba Szreder (socjolog i kurator), Bogna Świątkowska (kuratorka, prezes Fundacji Nowej Kultury Bęc Zmiana) oraz Joanna Warsza (kuratorka, prowadzi Fundację Laury Palmer). Manifest z programem reformy ogłoszony w listopadzie 2009 roku na stronie Komitetu na rzecz Radykalnych Zmian w Kulturze poparło do tej pory swoimi podpisami kilkaset osób [http://www.rewolucjakulturalna. pl/]. Ponieważ pełny tekst Manifestu dostępny jest w Internecie wraz z obszernym komentarzem [tamże], pragnę tutaj bardzo krótko przedstawić tylko jego podstawowe tezy i postulaty. Punktem wyjścia dla proponowanych zmian jest krytyczna diagnoza obecnej sytuacji i zaproponowanych reform. Manifest opowiada się przeciwko czterem negatywnym zjawiskom we współczesnej kulturze: przeciw rządom biurokratów i ekonomistów, przeciw komercjalizacji, przeciw jej instrumentalizacji oraz przeciw likwidacji bądź osłabianiu sektora publicznego. Jako remedium proponuje natomiast pięć radykalnych zmian:
P
W poszukiwaniu alternatywy wprowadzenie do liceów, wzorem Francji, filozofii jako przedmiotu obowiązkowego na maturze. Nic nie wskazuje jednak na to, aby obecne władze rozważały tego rodzaju zmiany w edukacji. Ich wprowadzenie w małym stopniu zależy też od Ministerstwa Kultury, co pokazuje, jak biurokratyczne podziały uniemożliwiają przeprowadzenie reform innych niż tylko kosmetyczne.
np. licencji otwartych typu Creative Commons [http://creativecommons.pl/]. Ad. 3. Tematem ważniejszym od zwiększenia finansowania kultury – np. do 1% PKB – jest zmiana sposobu podziału przeznaczanych na nią środków. Kołem zamachowym rozwoju kulturalnego są przedsięwzięcia eksperymentalne, które pozostają jednak niedofinansowane w porównaniu z tym, jak wiele pieniędzy przeznacza się na konserwację i promocję dziedzictwa narodowego (np. rok Chopinowski), spektakularne festiwale z udziałem wielkoformatowych gwiazd (w tego rodzaju przedsięwzięciach specjalizuje się Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe) oraz imprezy o charakterze czysto rozrywkowym. W wielu wypadkach projekty eksperymentalne nie są wcale drogie. W praktyce zwiększenie ich finansowania mogłoby polegać na przykład na wprowadzeniu systemu mikrograntów (do kwoty 5 lub 10 tys. złotych) przydzielanych przy uproszczonych procedurach bezpośrednio twórcom i przeznaczonych na ryzykowne, ale też potencjalnie bardzo znaczące projekty. W ten sposób zamiast jednego festiwalu typu krakowski ArtBoom można by sfinansować kilkaset projektów eksperymentalnych. Bez wątpienia dałoby to lepsze rezultaty, włączając w to aspekt, o który najbardziej chodzi władzom, czyli promocji wizerunku miasta jako ośrodka żywej i prężnie rozwijającej się kultury. Ad. 4. Propozycja rozwiązania problemu bezpieczeństwa socjalnego twórców kultury wywołała największe kontrowersje i dyskusje. Co ciekawe, rozwiązania wprowadzające rodzaj minimalnego dochodu gwarantowanego, działają w niektórych krajach z powodzeniem od bardzo dawna. Tak na przykład we Francji od 1936 roku (sic!) istnieje specjalna kategoria zawodowa Intermittent du spectacle, która obejmuje twórców kultury nie zatrudnionych na etat. Ich okresy aktywności zawodowej przeplatają się z okresami braku dochodów. Jeśli osoba taka jest w stanie udowodnić, że przepracowała w roku 507 godzin (ekwiwalent mniej więcej trzech miesięcy pracy na pełny etat), otrzymuje przez resztę czasu wynagrodzenie w wysokości 75% swoich miesięcznych dochodów, ale nie mniej niż 787 euro [http://www.nidinfo. com/html/intermittent_spectacle.html.]. Rozwiązanie to sprawdza się we Francji doskonale. Fakt, że podobne pomysły spotykają się w Polsce z oburzonymi komentarzami o postawie roszczeniowej jest tylko i wyłącznie dowodem naszej ograniczonej wyobraźni i prowincjonalności. Ad. 5. Propozycje dotyczące edukacji idą w stronę inną niż to, o czym mówił w Sejmie Bogdan Zdrojewski. Nie chodzi o edukację artystyczną, ale o edukację w zakresie kultury współczesnej, która pozwoliłaby wyrobić w odbiorcach kompe-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
1. Likwidacja centralnego, biurokratycznego modelu zarządzania kulturą i utworzenie społecznych rad do spraw kultury i sztuki. 2. Równouprawnienie pod względem prawnym różnych form własności intelektualnej. 3. Zwiększenie finansowania ze środków publicznych działalności o charakterze eksperymentalnym. 4. Rozwiązanie problemu bezpieczeństwa socjalnego (nie tylko) twórców kultury. 5. Elementarną edukację w dziedzinie kultury aktualnej. Chciałbym bardzo krótko skomentować powyższe tezy. Ad. 1. Przy okazji Kongresu Kultury Polskiej w 2009 roku Leszek Balcerowicz krytykował tych, którym nie podobał się pomysł prywatyzacji kultury, mówiąc, że boją się oni ludzi, a ufają państwu. Propozycje Manifestu nie idą jednak w kierunku upaństwowienia kultury, ale jej uspołecznienia, czyli oddania kontroli nad nią samemu społeczeństwu, a nie elicie wybranych przedstawicieli. Przypominają więc postulaty sformułowane odnośnie sytuacji w mediach przez Obywatelski Komitet Mediów Publicznych. Jak miałoby to wyglądać? Otóż zalążki takiego systemu funkcjonują już w praktyce. Niestety nie w Polsce, ale w Wiedniu, gdzie od 2004 roku działa społeczna platforma o nazwie NetzNetz. Służy ona do dystrybucji środków przeznaczonych przez miasto Wiedeń na jeden tylko wąski wycinek produkcji artystycznej, a mianowicie na kulturę cyfrową (sztuka Internetu, sztuka wideo i inne formy wykorzystania nowych mediów w kulturze). Podział środków odbywa się w demokratyczny i inkluzywny sposób. Decyzje o tym, na co mają być wydane pieniądze, podejmują nie urzędnicy w magistracie, ale kolektywnie sami zainteresowani, głosując i przydzielając projektom prezentowanym wcześniej na internetowym forum odpowiednią liczbę punktów. Zarządzają w ten sposób budżetem wielkości ok. 500 tys. euro (ok. 2 miliony złotych). Ten sposób organizacji potraktować można jako wzór funkcjonowania społecznych rad d/s kultury i sztuki, których kompetencje powinny być jednak zdefiniowane o wiele szerzej i obejmować również nadzór nad szkołami artystycznymi [http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Netznetz]. Ad. 2. Kwestia własności intelektualnej jest tematem na osobny artykuł. Obecnie obowiązujące regulacje nie radzą sobie z praktyką twórczą, przez co wiele przejawów twórczości artystycznej (jak np. found footage czy mashup) jest z definicji nielegalna. Manifest domaga się równouprawnienia pod względem prawnym rozwiązań, które pozwolą na zmianę tej sytuacji,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
296
np. licencji otwartych typu Creative Commons [http://creativecommons.pl/]. Ad. 3. Tematem ważniejszym od zwiększenia finansowania kultury – np. do 1% PKB – jest zmiana sposobu podziału przeznaczanych na nią środków. Kołem zamachowym rozwoju kulturalnego są przedsięwzięcia eksperymentalne, które pozostają jednak niedofinansowane w porównaniu z tym, jak wiele pieniędzy przeznacza się na konserwację i promocję dziedzictwa narodowego (np. rok Chopinowski), spektakularne festiwale z udziałem wielkoformatowych gwiazd (w tego rodzaju przedsięwzięciach specjalizuje się Krakowskie Biuro Festiwalowe) oraz imprezy o charakterze czysto rozrywkowym. W wielu wypadkach projekty eksperymentalne nie są wcale drogie. W praktyce zwiększenie ich finansowania mogłoby polegać na przykład na wprowadzeniu systemu mikrograntów (do kwoty 5 lub 10 tys. złotych) przydzielanych przy uproszczonych procedurach bezpośrednio twórcom i przeznaczonych na ryzykowne, ale też potencjalnie bardzo znaczące projekty. W ten sposób zamiast jednego festiwalu typu krakowski ArtBoom można by sfinansować kilkaset projektów eksperymentalnych. Bez wątpienia dałoby to lepsze rezultaty, włączając w to aspekt, o który najbardziej chodzi władzom, czyli promocji wizerunku miasta jako ośrodka żywej i prężnie rozwijającej się kultury. Ad. 4. Propozycja rozwiązania problemu bezpieczeństwa socjalnego twórców kultury wywołała największe kontrowersje i dyskusje. Co ciekawe, rozwiązania wprowadzające rodzaj minimalnego dochodu gwarantowanego, działają w niektórych krajach z powodzeniem od bardzo dawna. Tak na przykład we Francji od 1936 roku (sic!) istnieje specjalna kategoria zawodowa Intermittent du spectacle, która obejmuje twórców kultury nie zatrudnionych na etat. Ich okresy aktywności zawodowej przeplatają się z okresami braku dochodów. Jeśli osoba taka jest w stanie udowodnić, że przepracowała w roku 507 godzin (ekwiwalent mniej więcej trzech miesięcy pracy na pełny etat), otrzymuje przez resztę czasu wynagrodzenie w wysokości 75% swoich miesięcznych dochodów, ale nie mniej niż 787 euro [http://www.nidinfo. com/html/intermittent_spectacle.html.]. Rozwiązanie to sprawdza się we Francji doskonale. Fakt, że podobne pomysły spotykają się w Polsce z oburzonymi komentarzami o postawie roszczeniowej jest tylko i wyłącznie dowodem naszej ograniczonej wyobraźni i prowincjonalności. Ad. 5. Propozycje dotyczące edukacji idą w stronę inną niż to, o czym mówił w Sejmie Bogdan Zdrojewski. Nie chodzi o edukację artystyczną, ale o edukację w zakresie kultury współczesnej, która pozwoliłaby wyrobić w odbiorcach kompe-
296
1. Likwidacja centralnego, biurokratycznego modelu zarządzania kulturą i utworzenie społecznych rad do spraw kultury i sztuki. 2. Równouprawnienie pod względem prawnym różnych form własności intelektualnej. 3. Zwiększenie finansowania ze środków publicznych działalności o charakterze eksperymentalnym. 4. Rozwiązanie problemu bezpieczeństwa socjalnego (nie tylko) twórców kultury. 5. Elementarną edukację w dziedzinie kultury aktualnej. Chciałbym bardzo krótko skomentować powyższe tezy. Ad. 1. Przy okazji Kongresu Kultury Polskiej w 2009 roku Leszek Balcerowicz krytykował tych, którym nie podobał się pomysł prywatyzacji kultury, mówiąc, że boją się oni ludzi, a ufają państwu. Propozycje Manifestu nie idą jednak w kierunku upaństwowienia kultury, ale jej uspołecznienia, czyli oddania kontroli nad nią samemu społeczeństwu, a nie elicie wybranych przedstawicieli. Przypominają więc postulaty sformułowane odnośnie sytuacji w mediach przez Obywatelski Komitet Mediów Publicznych. Jak miałoby to wyglądać? Otóż zalążki takiego systemu funkcjonują już w praktyce. Niestety nie w Polsce, ale w Wiedniu, gdzie od 2004 roku działa społeczna platforma o nazwie NetzNetz. Służy ona do dystrybucji środków przeznaczonych przez miasto Wiedeń na jeden tylko wąski wycinek produkcji artystycznej, a mianowicie na kulturę cyfrową (sztuka Internetu, sztuka wideo i inne formy wykorzystania nowych mediów w kulturze). Podział środków odbywa się w demokratyczny i inkluzywny sposób. Decyzje o tym, na co mają być wydane pieniądze, podejmują nie urzędnicy w magistracie, ale kolektywnie sami zainteresowani, głosując i przydzielając projektom prezentowanym wcześniej na internetowym forum odpowiednią liczbę punktów. Zarządzają w ten sposób budżetem wielkości ok. 500 tys. euro (ok. 2 miliony złotych). Ten sposób organizacji potraktować można jako wzór funkcjonowania społecznych rad d/s kultury i sztuki, których kompetencje powinny być jednak zdefiniowane o wiele szerzej i obejmować również nadzór nad szkołami artystycznymi [http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Netznetz]. Ad. 2. Kwestia własności intelektualnej jest tematem na osobny artykuł. Obecnie obowiązujące regulacje nie radzą sobie z praktyką twórczą, przez co wiele przejawów twórczości artystycznej (jak np. found footage czy mashup) jest z definicji nielegalna. Manifest domaga się równouprawnienia pod względem prawnym rozwiązań, które pozwolą na zmianę tej sytuacji,
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tencje niezbędne do obcowania ze współczesną produkcją artystyczną. Zajęcia takie powinny obejmować cały okres edukacji od przedszkola do szkoły średniej. Ich wprowadzenie jest jak najbardziej możliwe z praktycznego punktu widzenia. Obecnie w programie np. szkoły podstawowej przewiduje się 4 godziny wychowania fizycznego. Przeznaczenie jednej z nich na lekcje kultury współczesnej byłoby na pewno wyborem słusznym, ponieważ edukacja w zakresie kultury
jest ważnym elementem kształcenia obywateli nowoczesnych, demokratycznych państw12. Nie powinno być również problemu ze znalezieniem nauczycieli tego przedmiotu. Kulturoznawstwo jest obecnie w Polsce jednym z najbardziej obleganych kierunków kształcenia na poziomie wyższym. Wprowadzenie edukacji kulturalnej do szkół dałoby absolwentom tego kierunku możliwość lepszej realizacji zawodowej niż kariera kelnera czy sprzątaczki w Irlandii.
Nota bene, obsesyjne ćwiczenie sprawności fizycznej przywodzi na myśl totalitarne reżimy hitlerowskich Niemiec czy maoistowskich Chin.
12
Lecures, no. 7). nomic Growth, Warszawa [b.r.], s. 6 (Distinguish North D.C., Undesrtanding Economic Change and Ecotenże, Socjologia i antropologia, Warszawa 2001. w społeczeństwach archaicznych, tłum. K. Pomian [w:] Mauss M., Szkic o darze. Forma i podstawa wymiany rze, http://www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/. Manifest komitetu na rzecz radykalnych zmian w kultu-
Literatura Armstrong J. S., Don’t do SWOT: A Note on Marketing Planning, ManyWordls.com, http://manyworlds.
html/intermittent_spectacle.html. à l’heure de l’europe!, http://www.nidinfo.com/ Les intermittents du spectacle: Une spécificité française cjami kultury, http://www.kongreskultury.pl Hausner J., Raport o finansowaniu i zarządzaniu instytu-
com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304. Arrighi G., The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of our Times, London 1994, F. Braudel,
two w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 12/2009. Fatyga B., Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnici Dziedzictwa Narodowego, www.kongeskultury.pl
Civilisation Matérielle, Économie Et Capitalisme XVe-
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XVIIIe Siècle, Paris 1979. Arrow K.J., Debreu G., Existence of an Equilibrium for a Competitive Economy, „Econometrica” July 1954,
Buczek M. i in., Kultura w kryzysie czy kryzys w kulturze. Democratic Approach, Cambridge 1993. Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-
vol. 22, nr 3. Bresser Pereira L.C., Maravall J.M., Przeworski A., Economic Reforms in New Democracies: A Social-
Bresser Pereira L.C., Maravall J.M., Przeworski A., vol. 22, nr 3. a Competitive Economy, „Econometrica” July 1954,
Democratic Approach, Cambridge 1993. Buczek M. i in., Kultura w kryzysie czy kryzys w kulturze. Raport przygotowany na zlecenie Ministerstwa Kultury
Arrow K.J., Debreu G., Existence of an Equilibrium for XVIIIe Siècle, Paris 1979. Civilisation Matérielle, Économie Et Capitalisme XVe-
i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, www.kongeskultury.pl Fatyga B., Pozainstytucjonalne i nieformalne uczestnictwo w kulturze, „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 12/2009. Hausner J., Raport o finansowaniu i zarządzaniu instytucjami kultury, http://www.kongreskultury.pl Les intermittents du spectacle: Une spécificité française à l’heure de l’europe!, http://www.nidinfo.com/
and the Origins of our Times, London 1994, F. Braudel, Arrighi G., The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power com/exploreco.aspx?coid=CO85041445304. Planning, ManyWordls.com, http://manyworlds. Armstrong J. S., Don’t do SWOT: A Note on Marketing
at Home and Abroad, New York 2004. Zakaria F., The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy Affairs, March/April 1994. Zakaria F., A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew, Foreign Economy in the Sixteenth Century, New York 1974. Agriculture and the Origins of the European WorldWallerstein I., The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capitalist ski, Wrocław 1999. ekonomiczne kształtują świat jutra, tłum. L. CzyżewThurow L.C., Przyszłość kapitalizmu. Jak dzisiejsze siły Impropabel, New York 2007. Taleb N. N., The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly szawa 2004. Stiglitz J.E., Globalizacja, tłum. H. Simbierowicz, WarSetka „Obiegu”, http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954. „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 3/2005. publiczną w świetle doświadczeń amerykańskich, współpracy sektora poza-rządowego z administracją Rymsza A., Partnerzy służby publicznej? Wyzwania Kraków 1995. telskie we współczesnych Włoszech, tlum. J. Szacki, Putnam R.D., Demokracja w działaniu. Tradycje obywakultury.html wyborcza.pl/1,75475,6582681,Plan_Hausnera_dla_ borcza”, 8 maja 2009; wersja internetowa: http:// Pawłowski R., Plan Hausnera dla kultury, „Gazeta Wy-
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html/intermittent_spectacle.html. Manifest komitetu na rzecz radykalnych zmian w kulturze, http://www.rewolucjakulturalna.pl/. Mauss M., Szkic o darze. Forma i podstawa wymiany
Pawłowski R., Plan Hausnera dla kultury, „Gazeta Wyborcza”, 8 maja 2009; wersja internetowa: http:// wyborcza.pl/1,75475,6582681,Plan_Hausnera_dla_ kultury.html Putnam R.D., Demokracja w działaniu. Tradycje obywatelskie we współczesnych Włoszech, tlum. J. Szacki, Kraków 1995. Rymsza A., Partnerzy służby publicznej? Wyzwania współpracy sektora poza-rządowego z administracją publiczną w świetle doświadczeń amerykańskich, „Trzeci Sektor”, nr 3/2005. Setka „Obiegu”, http://obieg.pl/wydarzenie/15954. Stiglitz J.E., Globalizacja, tłum. H. Simbierowicz, Warszawa 2004. Taleb N. N., The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly Impropabel, New York 2007. Thurow L.C., Przyszłość kapitalizmu. Jak dzisiejsze siły ekonomiczne kształtują świat jutra, tłum. L. Czyżewski, Wrocław 1999. Wallerstein I., The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European WorldEconomy in the Sixteenth Century, New York 1974. Zakaria F., A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew, Foreign Affairs, March/April 1994. Zakaria F., The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad, New York 2004.
w społeczeństwach archaicznych, tłum. K. Pomian [w:] tenże, Socjologia i antropologia, Warszawa 2001. North D.C., Undesrtanding Economic Change and Economic Growth, Warszawa [b.r.], s. 6 (Distinguish Lecures, no. 7).
Nota bene, obsesyjne ćwiczenie sprawności fizycznej przywodzi na myśl totalitarne reżimy hitlerowskich Niemiec czy maoistowskich Chin.
12
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
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tencje niezbędne do obcowania ze współczesną produkcją artystyczną. Zajęcia takie powinny obejmować cały okres edukacji od przedszkola do szkoły średniej. Ich wprowadzenie jest jak najbardziej możliwe z praktycznego punktu widzenia. Obecnie w programie np. szkoły podstawowej przewiduje się 4 godziny wychowania fizycznego. Przeznaczenie jednej z nich na lekcje kultury współczesnej byłoby na pewno wyborem słusznym, ponieważ edukacja w zakresie kultury
jest ważnym elementem kształcenia obywateli nowoczesnych, demokratycznych państw12. Nie powinno być również problemu ze znalezieniem nauczycieli tego przedmiotu. Kulturoznawstwo jest obecnie w Polsce jednym z najbardziej obleganych kierunków kształcenia na poziomie wyższym. Wprowadzenie edukacji kulturalnej do szkół dałoby absolwentom tego kierunku możliwość lepszej realizacji zawodowej niż kariera kelnera czy sprzątaczki w Irlandii.
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Trzecia rzeczywistość
ozwój świata. Wzajemne oddziaływanie. Przypominanie sztuk – w kierunku strumienia świadomości. Od postmodernizmu do neointelektualizmu. Niedawno znajomy powiedział mi – „era postmodernizmu związana ze Steinerem zmierza ku końcowi...” i era licznych neoizmów – czego możemy się następnie spodziewać? Post, post? W latach dziewięćdziesiątych hiszpański teatrolog z Barcelony Jose Angel Gomez szeroko stosował i lansował teorię „Post-teatru”. Mając nadzieję na nowy teatr pisał artykuły i książki o post-Hamlecie, post-Don Juanie czy tak zwanych zagadnieniach post-teatru. Badanie sztuki jest filozofią sztuki. Współcześni historycy sztuki mogliby rzeczywiście być uważani za antropologów kultury. Od Wzajemnego oddziaływania do ekspresji multimedialnej. Nasza percepcja jest interaktywna, co utrzymuje wzajemne oddziaływanie w procesie naszej własnej ekspresji – można to jedynie osiągnąć poprzez multimedia. Istniejemy w pewnej liczbie rzeczywistości na raz – jedną z najważniejszych jest cyber-rzeczywistość – która wymaga wykorzystywania nowoczesnych technologii jako środka ekspresji własnej. Słuchamy, oglądamy, zastanawiamy się, piszemy w tym samym czasie. W cyber-świecie współpracujemy z kilkoma, może nawet dziesięcioma osobami na raz, które nie są tego świadome. Maskujemy się w cyber-świecie z fikcyjnymi bio, pożyczonymi indywidualnościami i twarzami. (Dosłownie – w teatrze antycznym sublimowaliśmy nasze pragnienia poprzez aktora lub postać na scenie, dzisiaj tylko od nas zależy ten proces – cyber-rzeczywistość dała nam okazję stania się tym, czym pragniemy i uczynienia tego nie tylko wyimaginowanym, ale i rzeczywistym). Płacimy za nowe życie (drugie życie – przestrzeń internetową dla drugiej rzeczywistości) i tak nasz język wyrazu staje się cyber-jezykiem – nowoczesne technologie świata liczb. Cyber-świat jest sferą bez czasu i granic, bez języka i bez rzeczywistości. W pewnym sensie istniejemy w wymiarze poza
Levan Khetaguri
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Nowy wymiar
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Nowy wymiar
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odejmowane od wieków wysiłki, mające na celu percepcję własną, okazały się bezskuteczne. Pomimo wielkiej ilości szkół i ruchów, pokolenia filozofów nie były w stanie odpowiedzieć na pytania dotyczące okresu antyku ani też sformułować nowych. Poruszając się w labiryntach czasu i historii nie otworzyliśmy ani jednych drzwi – prześcigaliśmy się w nadawaniu nazw tym samym wydarzeniom. Coraz bardziej odchodziliśmy od rzeczy świętych i ezoterycznych. Coraz bardziej znaczna część ludzkości prowadziła lepsze życie. Coraz bardziej odzieraliśmy się z duchowości. Krótko mówiąc jesteśmy w XXI wieku – w okresie, w którym miłość opiera się na religii i w erze, w której deficyt miłości doprowadził nas z jednej strony do duchowej epoki lodowcowej a z drugiej strony do globalnego ocieplenia. Żyjemy i istniejemy, ale gdzie i w jakim wymiarze? Calderon, hiszpański dramatopisarz renesansowy sformułował następującą historyczną zagadkę: Czy życie / istnienie / jest tylko snem? Oczywiście od wieków uważano, że te dwa światy można opisać przy pomocy wymiarów zestawionych w pary. Istnienie – Sen Życie – Śmierć Raj – Piekło Choć religia wprowadzała ustawicznie trzeci świat w obliczu czyśćca jako trzeciego wymiaru. Calderon formułuje pytanie o prawdziwą rzeczywistość i naszą prawdziwą egzystencję. Czy to właśnie nazywamy życiem, czy może nazywamy to snem? Gdzie jest to prawdziwe znaczenie? Patrząc nań z prostej perspektywy, możemy po prostu stwierdzić, że istniejemy fizycznie w tak zwanym prawdziwym życiu i nasza świadomość ujawnia się w przestrzeni snów – która jest równie rzeczywista dla naszej świadomości. Gdzie można znaleźć prawdziwą istotę człowieczeństwa? Istotę wyrażoną w antycznym sformułowaniu – „Pojmij siebie” czy „Bądź tym, kim jesteś”. Tutaj czy tam? W tak zwanym życiu czy we śnie? Psychologowie pewnie powiedzą, że jest to możliwe tylko w sferze marzeń (przestrzeni snów).
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ozwój świata. Wzajemne oddziaływanie. Przypominanie sztuk – w kierunku strumienia świadomości. Od postmodernizmu do neointelektualizmu. Niedawno znajomy powiedział mi – „era postmodernizmu związana ze Steinerem zmierza ku końcowi...” i era licznych neoizmów – czego możemy się następnie spodziewać? Post, post? W latach dziewięćdziesiątych hiszpański teatrolog z Barcelony Jose Angel Gomez szeroko stosował i lansował teorię „Post-teatru”. Mając nadzieję na nowy teatr pisał artykuły i książki o post-Hamlecie, post-Don Juanie czy tak zwanych zagadnieniach post-teatru. Badanie sztuki jest filozofią sztuki. Współcześni historycy sztuki mogliby rzeczywiście być uważani za antropologów kultury. Od Wzajemnego oddziaływania do ekspresji multimedialnej. Nasza percepcja jest interaktywna, co utrzymuje wzajemne oddziaływanie w procesie naszej własnej ekspresji – można to jedynie osiągnąć poprzez multimedia. Istniejemy w pewnej liczbie rzeczywistości na raz – jedną z najważniejszych jest cyber-rzeczywistość – która wymaga wykorzystywania nowoczesnych technologii jako środka ekspresji własnej. Słuchamy, oglądamy, zastanawiamy się, piszemy w tym samym czasie. W cyber-świecie współpracujemy z kilkoma, może nawet dziesięcioma osobami na raz, które nie są tego świadome. Maskujemy się w cyber-świecie z fikcyjnymi bio, pożyczonymi indywidualnościami i twarzami. (Dosłownie – w teatrze antycznym sublimowaliśmy nasze pragnienia poprzez aktora lub postać na scenie, dzisiaj tylko od nas zależy ten proces – cyber-rzeczywistość dała nam okazję stania się tym, czym pragniemy i uczynienia tego nie tylko wyimaginowanym, ale i rzeczywistym). Płacimy za nowe życie (drugie życie – przestrzeń internetową dla drugiej rzeczywistości) i tak nasz język wyrazu staje się cyber-jezykiem – nowoczesne technologie świata liczb. Cyber-świat jest sferą bez czasu i granic, bez języka i bez rzeczywistości. W pewnym sensie istniejemy w wymiarze poza
Khetaguri Levan prorektor Gruzińskiego Państwowego Uniwersytetu Teatru i Filmu im. Szoty Rustawelego w Tbilisi. Koordynator i moderator gruzińskich i międzynarodowych programów kulturalnych, festiwali, konferencji, seminariów, warsztatów i wykładów otwartych. Producent i autor programów telewizyjnych. Napisał i opublikował ponad 80 prac naukowych i artykułów m.in. po gruzińsku, rosyjsku, angielsku, azerbejdżańsku, białorusku, słowacku. Tłumacz kilku książek. Laureat wielu odznaczeń m.in. nagród Stowarzyszenia Szwedzkich Pisarzy (2000), Akademii Nauk Związku Radzieckiego (1985), Gruzińskiej Akademii Nauk (1982). Członek wielu prestiżowych instytucji. W latach 1996-1997 dyrektor Międzynarodowych Programów Kulturalnych gruzińskiego Ministerstwa Kultury. W 2008 członek Europejskiego Parlamentu Kultury. W 2007 kierownik magisterskich i doktoranckich studiów w Gruzińskim Państwowym Uniwersytecie Teatru i Filmu. Jako teatrolog uczestniczył
odejmowane od wieków wysiłki, mające na celu percepcję własną, okazały się bezskuteczne. Pomimo wielkiej ilości szkół i ruchów, pokolenia filozofów nie były w stanie odpowiedzieć na pytania dotyczące okresu antyku ani też sformułować nowych. Poruszając się w labiryntach czasu i historii nie otworzyliśmy ani jednych drzwi – prześcigaliśmy się w nadawaniu nazw tym samym wydarzeniom. Coraz bardziej odchodziliśmy od rzeczy świętych i ezoterycznych. Coraz bardziej znaczna część ludzkości prowadziła lepsze życie. Coraz bardziej odzieraliśmy się z duchowości. Krótko mówiąc jesteśmy w XXI wieku – w okresie, w którym miłość opiera się na religii i w erze, w której deficyt miłości doprowadził nas z jednej strony do duchowej epoki lodowcowej a z drugiej strony do globalnego ocieplenia. Żyjemy i istniejemy, ale gdzie i w jakim wymiarze? Calderon, hiszpański dramatopisarz renesansowy sformułował następującą historyczną zagadkę: Czy życie / istnienie / jest tylko snem? Oczywiście od wieków uważano, że te dwa światy można opisać przy pomocy wymiarów zestawionych w pary. Istnienie – Sen Życie – Śmierć Raj – Piekło Choć religia wprowadzała ustawicznie trzeci świat w obliczu czyśćca jako trzeciego wymiaru. Calderon formułuje pytanie o prawdziwą rzeczywistość i naszą prawdziwą egzystencję. Czy to właśnie nazywamy życiem, czy może nazywamy to snem? Gdzie jest to prawdziwe znaczenie? Patrząc nań z prostej perspektywy, możemy po prostu stwierdzić, że istniejemy fizycznie w tak zwanym prawdziwym życiu i nasza świadomość ujawnia się w przestrzeni snów – która jest równie rzeczywista dla naszej świadomości. Gdzie można znaleźć prawdziwą istotę człowieczeństwa? Istotę wyrażoną w antycznym sformułowaniu – „Pojmij siebie” czy „Bądź tym, kim jesteś”. Tutaj czy tam? W tak zwanym życiu czy we śnie? Psychologowie pewnie powiedzą, że jest to możliwe tylko w sferze marzeń (przestrzeni snów).
Levan Khetaguri
Khetaguri Levan prorektor Gruzińskiego Państwowego Uniwersytetu Teatru i Filmu im. Szoty Rustawelego w Tbilisi. Koordynator i moderator gruzińskich i międzynarodowych programów kulturalnych, festiwali, konferencji, seminariów, warsztatów i wykładów otwartych. Producent i autor programów telewizyjnych. Napisał i opublikował ponad 80 prac naukowych i artykułów m.in. po gruzińsku, rosyjsku, angielsku, azerbejdżańsku, białorusku, słowacku. Tłumacz kilku książek. Laureat wielu odznaczeń m.in. nagród Stowarzyszenia Szwedzkich Pisarzy (2000), Akademii Nauk Związku Radzieckiego (1985), Gruzińskiej Akademii Nauk (1982). Członek wielu prestiżowych instytucji. W latach 1996-1997 dyrektor Międzynarodowych Programów Kulturalnych gruzińskiego Ministerstwa Kultury. W 2008 członek Europejskiego Parlamentu Kultury. W 2007 kierownik magisterskich i doktoranckich studiów w Gruzińskim Państwowym Uniwersytecie Teatru i Filmu. Jako teatrolog uczestniczył
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Trzecia rzeczywistość
299
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Trzecia rzeczywistość
czasem i rzeczywistością. Jak wygląda sztuka naszych czasów, jakie są środki jej wyrazu – teatr – przedstawienie staje się jedynym narzędziem syntezy sztuk, ludzkiej myśli i wyrazem cyberrealizacji człowieka. Obecnie, jak nigdy dotąd sztuka jest syntezą. Proces wyrażania siebie jest nieograniczony, głęboki i niekończący się. Nie jesteśmy już w świecie wiadomości. Jesteśmy w świecie zamrożonej sekundy, gdzie sekundy stają się nieskończonością. Nie jesteśmy już w świecie ukończonych prac, lecz w niekończącym się świecie ruchów, słowa, dźwięku skierowanych w przestrzeń. Jesteśmy w epoce wiadomości wysyłanych w przestrzeń. Tradycyjne sposoby i formy myślenia zanikają jak nigdy dotąd. Konflikt pokoleń jest poważny jak nigdy dotychczas. Destrukcja świata, która rozpoczęła się w Babilonie znajduje drogi odbudowy w cyber-świecie. Stajemy się obywatelami cyber-świata. Posiadany wiedzę o nowych technologiach, a nawet technice – chociaż technika jest pojedynczym narzędziem naszej ekspresji własnej. Jesteśmy prawdopodobnie u schyłku ostatniej dekady książek drukowanych – wraz z hasłami ekologicznymi – wszystkie książki zaczną zanikać w cyber-świecie i powstaną w formie cyfrowej. Wkrótce będziemy się rodzić i umierać w cyberświecie – nasza egzystencja wyruszy w przestrzeń. Nasza egzystencja będzie nieskończona. Jak będzie teraz wyglądał teatr? Teatr interaktywny. Teatr mówi każdym językiem na raz, mówi do wszystkich bez żadnych granic, mówi językiem zrozumiałym dla wszystkich – poprzez dźwięk, szum, kolor, ruch, muzykę, światło i cień; obraz, projekcję i przedstawianie na żywo, w wielu kierunkach w tym samym czasie, w tym samym czasie w całej przestrzeni. Nie ma już czegoś takiego jak przestrzeń teatralna. Przestrzeń wyszła poza ściany teatru. Stała się nieograniczona. Wraz z wysoko rozwiniętymi technologiami teatr staje się bardziej tajemniczy i mistyczny. Jak nigdy dotąd teatr najbardziej ukazuje ducha i myśl... Dawniej teatr ukazywał życie i ludzi je prowadzących, obecnie teatr jest bardziej skoncentrowany na tym, co dzieje się wewnątrz ludzi podczas życia. Odsłania strumień świadomości wraz z szeregiem skojarzeń i procesami zachodzącymi w umyśle. Wyrażanie marzeń stało się rzeczywistością, ukazywanie myśli stało się prawdziwe – teatr może ukazywać nasze najbardziej skryte myśli,
nasze działania i to, co pragniemy uczynić. Jest to możliwe jedynie poprzez teatr multimedialny i nowoczesne technologie. Barwy stworzone przez światło rozproszone po całej scenie, każdy kąt jest przekształcony w miejsce projekcji – wszędzie widzimy projekcje naszych myśli i obrazów – docieramy głęboko do procesów zachodzących w naszej ludzkiej duszy – nie poprzez narrację, lecz poprzez samo spojrzenie, poprzez penetrację tajemniczych labiryntów. Teatr nigdy nie był tak blisko wyrażania świata mistycznego – teatr staje się globalny a równocześnie bardzo kameralny – przedstawienie porównać można do medytacji połączonej z magnetyzmem. Teatr zaczyna przypominać wizualną projekcję świata mistycznego. Teatr zaczyna tworzyć codzienny rytuał – teatr modli się za świat poprzez ukazywanie ludzkiego umysłu. Światło, muzyka, kolor, dźwięk – wszystkie stają się środkami zasłaniającymi nagie ludzkie ciało. Obecnie ludzie wyrażają siebie poprzez nagie ciało zamiast słów. Dzisiaj, jak nigdy do tej pory, teatr potrzebuje nowego języka i tym językiem jest człowiek – aktor, którego można traktować jako jednostkę miary dla przepływu myśli w przestrzeni, wartość doskonałą. Wartość współczesnej wysoko rozwiniętej cywilizacji – człowiek stał się dziełem sztuki dla tej cywilizacji i wszystko to, z czym wchodzi w kontakt może także stać się dziełem sztuki. Człowiek jako jednostka miary wolności, człowiek jako przykład piękna, człowiek jako środek samoekspresji natury i świata. W kulturze światowej – Bóg jest absolutem, który jednoczy wszystkie religie mimo ich różnych nazw, ludzi mimo różnic etnicznych – dzisiaj Bóg jest absolutem – Bóg jest sztuką, sztuką w tworzeniu, w procesie i efekcie. Dzisiaj rzeczywistości są względne w stosunku do siebie. Linia czasu jest zastąpiona przez jeden ogromny nieskończony wymiar, bez początku i końca, sekundy i minuty są jedynie częścią nieskończoności, nieskończoności cyfrowej. Absolutne jest Zero i plus Jeden, prosta prawda. Tylko jeden skok od Pitagorasa do Teraźniejszości. Świat jest otoczony liczbami. Podstawą Wszechświata jest Absolutna Harmonia – Zero i wszystko podlega zmianom i tworzeniu po prostu przez dodanie Jeden. Wszechświat to po prostu Zero i Jeden. Zero jako nieskończony Wszechświat i Jeden jako każda osoba w nim.
Levan Khetaguri
nasze działania i to, co pragniemy uczynić. Jest to możliwe jedynie poprzez teatr multimedialny i nowoczesne technologie. Barwy stworzone przez światło rozproszone po całej scenie, każdy kąt jest przekształcony w miejsce projekcji – wszędzie widzimy projekcje naszych myśli i obrazów – docieramy głęboko do procesów zachodzących w naszej ludzkiej duszy – nie poprzez narrację, lecz poprzez samo spojrzenie, poprzez penetrację tajemniczych labiryntów. Teatr nigdy nie był tak blisko wyrażania świata mistycznego – teatr staje się globalny a równocześnie bardzo kameralny – przedstawienie porównać można do medytacji połączonej z magnetyzmem. Teatr zaczyna przypominać wizualną projekcję świata mistycznego. Teatr zaczyna tworzyć codzienny rytuał – teatr modli się za świat poprzez ukazywanie ludzkiego umysłu. Światło, muzyka, kolor, dźwięk – wszystkie stają się środkami zasłaniającymi nagie ludzkie ciało. Obecnie ludzie wyrażają siebie poprzez nagie ciało zamiast słów. Dzisiaj, jak nigdy do tej pory, teatr potrzebuje nowego języka i tym językiem jest człowiek – aktor, którego można traktować jako jednostkę miary dla przepływu myśli w przestrzeni, wartość doskonałą. Wartość współczesnej wysoko rozwiniętej cywilizacji – człowiek stał się dziełem sztuki dla tej cywilizacji i wszystko to, z czym wchodzi w kontakt może także stać się dziełem sztuki. Człowiek jako jednostka miary wolności, człowiek jako przykład piękna, człowiek jako środek samoekspresji natury i świata. W kulturze światowej – Bóg jest absolutem, który jednoczy wszystkie religie mimo ich różnych nazw, ludzi mimo różnic etnicznych – dzisiaj Bóg jest absolutem – Bóg jest sztuką, sztuką w tworzeniu, w procesie i efekcie. Dzisiaj rzeczywistości są względne w stosunku do siebie. Linia czasu jest zastąpiona przez jeden ogromny nieskończony wymiar, bez początku i końca, sekundy i minuty są jedynie częścią nieskończoności, nieskończoności cyfrowej. Absolutne jest Zero i plus Jeden, prosta prawda. Tylko jeden skok od Pitagorasa do Teraźniejszości. Świat jest otoczony liczbami. Podstawą Wszechświata jest Absolutna Harmonia – Zero i wszystko podlega zmianom i tworzeniu po prostu przez dodanie Jeden. Wszechświat to po prostu Zero i Jeden. Zero jako nieskończony Wszechświat i Jeden jako każda osoba w nim.
Levan Khetaguri
Trzecia rzeczywistość
czasem i rzeczywistością. Jak wygląda sztuka naszych czasów, jakie są środki jej wyrazu – teatr – przedstawienie staje się jedynym narzędziem syntezy sztuk, ludzkiej myśli i wyrazem cyberrealizacji człowieka. Obecnie, jak nigdy dotąd sztuka jest syntezą. Proces wyrażania siebie jest nieograniczony, głęboki i niekończący się. Nie jesteśmy już w świecie wiadomości. Jesteśmy w świecie zamrożonej sekundy, gdzie sekundy stają się nieskończonością. Nie jesteśmy już w świecie ukończonych prac, lecz w niekończącym się świecie ruchów, słowa, dźwięku skierowanych w przestrzeń. Jesteśmy w epoce wiadomości wysyłanych w przestrzeń. Tradycyjne sposoby i formy myślenia zanikają jak nigdy dotąd. Konflikt pokoleń jest poważny jak nigdy dotychczas. Destrukcja świata, która rozpoczęła się w Babilonie znajduje drogi odbudowy w cyber-świecie. Stajemy się obywatelami cyber-świata. Posiadany wiedzę o nowych technologiach, a nawet technice – chociaż technika jest pojedynczym narzędziem naszej ekspresji własnej. Jesteśmy prawdopodobnie u schyłku ostatniej dekady książek drukowanych – wraz z hasłami ekologicznymi – wszystkie książki zaczną zanikać w cyber-świecie i powstaną w formie cyfrowej. Wkrótce będziemy się rodzić i umierać w cyberświecie – nasza egzystencja wyruszy w przestrzeń. Nasza egzystencja będzie nieskończona. Jak będzie teraz wyglądał teatr? Teatr interaktywny. Teatr mówi każdym językiem na raz, mówi do wszystkich bez żadnych granic, mówi językiem zrozumiałym dla wszystkich – poprzez dźwięk, szum, kolor, ruch, muzykę, światło i cień; obraz, projekcję i przedstawianie na żywo, w wielu kierunkach w tym samym czasie, w tym samym czasie w całej przestrzeni. Nie ma już czegoś takiego jak przestrzeń teatralna. Przestrzeń wyszła poza ściany teatru. Stała się nieograniczona. Wraz z wysoko rozwiniętymi technologiami teatr staje się bardziej tajemniczy i mistyczny. Jak nigdy dotąd teatr najbardziej ukazuje ducha i myśl... Dawniej teatr ukazywał życie i ludzi je prowadzących, obecnie teatr jest bardziej skoncentrowany na tym, co dzieje się wewnątrz ludzi podczas życia. Odsłania strumień świadomości wraz z szeregiem skojarzeń i procesami zachodzącymi w umyśle. Wyrażanie marzeń stało się rzeczywistością, ukazywanie myśli stało się prawdziwe – teatr może ukazywać nasze najbardziej skryte myśli,
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w międzynarodowych wykładach i sympozjach w Rosji, Azerbejdżanie, Hiszpanii, Słowacji, Białorusi i Wielkiej Brytanii. Prowadził kursy uniwersyteckie z zakresu powszechnej historii teatru, teorii dramatu, teorii krytyki, teatru XX wieku, historii cywilizacji europejskiej, zarządzania sztukami widowiskowymi. Od 1999 jako ekspert z zakresu m.in. zarządzania, sponsoringu, międzynarodowej współpracy dotyczącej sztuki i polityki kulturalnej współpracował z ośrodkami w Erywaniu, Baku, Sofii, Biszkeku, Wilnie, Kijowie, Görlitz, Goteborgu, St. Petersburgu.
w międzynarodowych wykładach i sympozjach w Rosji, Azerbejdżanie, Hiszpanii, Słowacji, Białorusi i Wielkiej Brytanii. Prowadził kursy uniwersyteckie z zakresu powszechnej historii teatru, teorii dramatu, teorii krytyki, teatru XX wieku, historii cywilizacji europejskiej, zarządzania sztukami widowiskowymi. Od 1999 jako ekspert z zakresu m.in. zarządzania, sponsoringu, międzynarodowej współpracy dotyczącej sztuki i polityki kulturalnej współpracował z ośrodkami w Erywaniu, Baku, Sofii, Biszkeku, Wilnie, Kijowie, Görlitz, Goteborgu, St. Petersburgu.
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Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Abstracts
Tadeusz Gadacz
Culture and Responsibility
Culture is built on the oppositions which decide about its character: the past – the future, exclusivity – popularization, spirituality – objective dimension, and which confront us with the questions: to live with culture or to live from culture? What is its place and role in the contemporary world? What is its responsibility? The 20th century is perceived as the time of the crisis, resulting mainly from the objective perception of the world, which obscures spiritual values. For this reason the culture seems so important today, it decides about the identity and it is not a value available for a narrow circle but a necessity for everyone. Matthias Theodor Vogt
What is Cultural Policy?
Matthias Theodor Vogt analyzes the situation of culture in the Federal Republic of Germany and describes the general rules the cultural policy of the country is subjected to. The author points out the necessity of perceiving the country as a structure shaping the culture. Analyzing financially enterprises in Germany Vogt shows that the art is an important sector of economy. The author recalls the slogan of cultural education being the most popular postulate of the cultural policy, turning at the same time attention to the groundless excluding of the humanities during the creation of the statistics concerning the culture and the cultural policy by the European Union. Natassia Chmiel
Belarus. Cultural Policy
Natassia Chmiel presents the characteristic of a culture sphere in the Republic of Belarus within
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
the space of the last twenty years, introducing a three-elements typology. Distinguishing official culture, unofficial culture and commercial culture and analyzing them from the perspective of culture industries proves the level of politicizing of this type activities and the dependence on state control. Moreover the author undertakes the subject matter connected with the processes of defining and forming cultural heritage and Belarusian national culture putting the analyze in the context of historical experiences of the country and its constant dependence on Russian influence. These aspects are described with cultural environments, creators and inhabitants of Belarus in mind, having the great potential of development but being at the beginning of the way to develop non-state culture. Anda Laķe
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment The author considers the problem of planning, development and managing of policy in Latvia in the face of an economic crisis of the country; shows the mistakes made in this area and the ways of correcting them, directing constructive criticism at the communication between politicians and society. The author shows the necessity of the rationalization of shaping the policy according to the model of making decisions by H. Simon. An effective tool for analyzing, rationalizing and improving the quality is an evaluative study. Defining evaluation as an interdisciplinary study comparing the results of established strategy and the stage of realization of its aims with the standards, the author presents the structure of an evaluation methodology.
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Natassia Chmiel presents the characteristic of a culture sphere in the Republic of Belarus within
Belarus. Cultural Policy Natassia Chmiel
Matthias Theodor Vogt analyzes the situation of culture in the Federal Republic of Germany and describes the general rules the cultural policy of the country is subjected to. The author points out the necessity of perceiving the country as a structure shaping the culture. Analyzing financially enterprises in Germany Vogt shows that the art is an important sector of economy. The author recalls the slogan of cultural education being the most popular postulate of the cultural policy, turning at the same time attention to the groundless excluding of the humanities during the creation of the statistics concerning the culture and the cultural policy by the European Union.
What is Cultural Policy? Matthias Theodor Vogt
Culture is built on the oppositions which decide about its character: the past – the future, exclusivity – popularization, spirituality – objective dimension, and which confront us with the questions: to live with culture or to live from culture? What is its place and role in the contemporary world? What is its responsibility? The 20th century is perceived as the time of the crisis, resulting mainly from the objective perception of the world, which obscures spiritual values. For this reason the culture seems so important today, it decides about the identity and it is not a value available for a narrow circle but a necessity for everyone.
Culture and Responsibility Tadeusz Gadacz
Abstracts
The author considers the problem of planning, development and managing of policy in Latvia in the face of an economic crisis of the country; shows the mistakes made in this area and the ways of correcting them, directing constructive criticism at the communication between politicians and society. The author shows the necessity of the rationalization of shaping the policy according to the model of making decisions by H. Simon. An effective tool for analyzing, rationalizing and improving the quality is an evaluative study. Defining evaluation as an interdisciplinary study comparing the results of established strategy and the stage of realization of its aims with the standards, the author presents the structure of an evaluation methodology.
Aspects of Culture Policy Development under Economically Critical Circumstances: The Necessity for Culture Policy Assessment Anda Laķe the space of the last twenty years, introducing a three-elements typology. Distinguishing official culture, unofficial culture and commercial culture and analyzing them from the perspective of culture industries proves the level of politicizing of this type activities and the dependence on state control. Moreover the author undertakes the subject matter connected with the processes of defining and forming cultural heritage and Belarusian national culture putting the analyze in the context of historical experiences of the country and its constant dependence on Russian influence. These aspects are described with cultural environments, creators and inhabitants of Belarus in mind, having the great potential of development but being at the beginning of the way to develop non-state culture.
302
Małgorzata Ćwikła Birgit-Katherine Seeman examines the changes which occurred in the approach to the discipline of culture management, using the management of city cultural space as an example. Taking as a starting point the analysis of Richard Florida’s book The Rise of Creative Class, the author draws attention to dualistic, academic and managerial character of the culture management. Seeman defines basic goals and effects necessary during the planning of the cultural strategy of a city and describes the phenomenon of social activation and the desire of citizens to participate actively in the creation of the cultural atmosphere of cities, notices the power of creative thinking and the significant role of the conscious users of a city humanization process.
The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strategy Birgit-Katherine Seeman
The authority of an animator of culture Józef Kargul became a starting point for the reflection about criteria ( inter alia clarity of low issues, an inventory of collection, its safety) and mechanisms for the accreditation of museums. According to the three main questions ( theme and goals of a museum, its chronological and geographical boundaries, target audience) Garjāns creates the definition of the mission of the Latvian museum.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
The author investigates the issue of the authority of an animator of culture on two levels: practical reality and theoretical reflection. Starting with the term authority itself (according to sociologists in the theories of influence and the theories of power, pedagogues) Kargul shows a few levels, on which we can distinguish specific features deciding about the importance of the work of an animator of culture. Within social space (where the social bonds are created), public space (where the dominant position and control over the public goods and resources are gained ), and institutional space (where the rules of acting become established) animators fulfill different but often complementary social roles.
Employing the system approach, the author presents the proposition of setting the range and the subject of media management and the rules it is governed by, outlines the problems which man-
Factory of initiatives, mine of ideas – employing postindustrial objects for cultural activity as an impulse for creative management
Management of media in the system approach
Ivars BērziņŠ
302
Bogusław Nierenberg
Major aspects of development of music management education
The author classified Latvian museums on the basis of the register commissioned by the Latvian State Authority on Museums which made it possible to define the essence of a museum and indicate its functions. Latvian Low on Museums
The text raises the problem of the lack of specialists in the field of culture management, possessing systematized knowledge. For a reason of such a situation the author regards the lack of specific professional profile, and what comes with that, the lack of proper educational system for culture managers. Berzins postulates looking for new educational solutions using the possibilities that modern technologies offer.
The text raises the problem of the lack of specialists in the field of culture management, possessing systematized knowledge. For a reason of such a situation the author regards the lack of specific professional profile, and what comes with that, the lack of proper educational system for culture managers. Berzins postulates looking for new educational solutions using the possibilities that modern technologies offer.
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian experience
Major aspects of development of music management education
The author presents and discusses factors having influence on the development of cultural organizations functioning within postindustrial spaces; characterizes the process of objects adapting and protection of postindustrial heritage. She considers using such objects in cultural activities, types of creators and receivers functioning in this kind of space, different types of enterprises, marketing strategies, means of funds obtaining. She shows that the initiatives realized in postindustrial space have many features different from traditional cultural enterprises. This type of differences imply different type of institution management, requiring understanding of social changes happening during the last years.
Jānis Garjāns
Ivars BērziņŠ
Bogusław Nierenberg
The author presents and discusses factors having influence on the development of cultural organizations functioning within postindustrial spaces; characterizes the process of objects adapting and protection of postindustrial heritage. She considers using such objects in cultural activities, types of creators and receivers functioning in this kind of space, different types of enterprises, marketing strategies, means of funds obtaining. She shows that the initiatives realized in postindustrial space have many features different from traditional cultural enterprises. This type of differences imply different type of institution management, requiring understanding of social changes happening during the last years.
The author investigates the issue of the authority of an animator of culture on two levels: practical reality and theoretical reflection. Starting with the term authority itself (according to sociologists in the theories of influence and the theories of power, pedagogues) Kargul shows a few levels, on which we can distinguish specific features deciding about the importance of the work of an animator of culture. Within social space (where the social bonds are created), public space (where the dominant position and control over the public goods and resources are gained ), and institutional space (where the rules of acting become established) animators fulfill different but often complementary social roles.
Jānis Garjāns
Factory of initiatives, mine of ideas – employing postindustrial objects for cultural activity as an impulse for creative management
The authority of an animator of culture
Management of media in the system approach
Małgorzata Ćwikła
Józef Kargul
Museum Boundaries: the Latvian experience
Birgit-Katherine Seeman examines the changes which occurred in the approach to the discipline of culture management, using the management of city cultural space as an example. Taking as a starting point the analysis of Richard Florida’s book The Rise of Creative Class, the author draws attention to dualistic, academic and managerial character of the culture management. Seeman defines basic goals and effects necessary during the planning of the cultural strategy of a city and describes the phenomenon of social activation and the desire of citizens to participate actively in the creation of the cultural atmosphere of cities, notices the power of creative thinking and the significant role of the conscious users of a city humanization process.
Employing the system approach, the author presents the proposition of setting the range and the subject of media management and the rules it is governed by, outlines the problems which man-
The Management of Culture as a Municipal Strategy
became a starting point for the reflection about criteria ( inter alia clarity of low issues, an inventory of collection, its safety) and mechanisms for the accreditation of museums. According to the three main questions ( theme and goals of a museum, its chronological and geographical boundaries, target audience) Garjāns creates the definition of the mission of the Latvian museum.
The author classified Latvian museums on the basis of the register commissioned by the Latvian State Authority on Museums which made it possible to define the essence of a museum and indicate its functions. Latvian Low on Museums
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Birgit-Katherine Seeman
303
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
agement encounters and constructs possible solutions. Assuming that the media goods are a specific type of the market goods, the author presents the basic media functions, reaches for the theory of the duality of media ( goods and services) by R. Picard and modifies it by proposing tri-division of media market. Nierenberg also presents the history of management study and media management study, constructs the model of education in this field, outlines the field which should be explored by the researchers of this subject and sets the direction which the media themselves must take. Jan Sowa
Cultural Revolution – yes, but what kind of revolution? About the possible directions of the Polish cultural policy The article is an attempt to assume an attitude to so-called Hausner’s report and plan, prepared by officials and specialists on the occasion of The Congress of Culture 2009 and to the parliamentary speech of the minister of arts and culture Bohdan Zdrojewski ( January 2010). The author reveals and criticizes a few theses which not expressed directly arise from the report. Concentrating on financing and promoting of culture and the need to develop art education contained in the exposé of the minister, and the
postulates formulated by Hausner is for Sowa a starting point to create a manifesto being a list of necessary changes in culture management, such as the liquidation of a central model of culture management, establishing social councils for art and culture, equality of rights in relation to low for different forms of intellectual property, increasing public funding for experimental activities, solving the problem of social safety of culture creators, elementary education in the field of current culture. Levan Khetaguri
Third Reality
The text is an attempt to establish categories according to which a man perceives himself and a question about the dimension of human existence. The author creates a thesis that the world contains three dimensions: real life, dreams and religion, and their coexistence makes it impossible to study the world using previous tools, such as: postmodernism and neo-intellectualism. Transferring the existence into the virtual level causes creation of a cyber world which is governed by different rules than previous reality and possesses significant influence on the form of art. Khetaguri finds the reflection of life in the field of art such as theatre, which unreality expresses digitization of the world and its deep mysticism.
The article is an attempt to assume an attitude to so-called Hausner’s report and plan, prepared by officials and specialists on the occasion of The Congress of Culture 2009 and to the parliamentary speech of the minister of arts and culture Bohdan Zdrojewski ( January 2010). The author reveals and criticizes a few theses which not expressed directly arise from the report. Concentrating on financing and promoting of culture and the need to develop art education contained in the exposé of the minister, and the
Cultural Revolution – yes, but what kind of revolution? About the possible directions of the Polish cultural policy Jan Sowa agement encounters and constructs possible solutions. Assuming that the media goods are a specific type of the market goods, the author presents the basic media functions, reaches for the theory of the duality of media ( goods and services) by R. Picard and modifies it by proposing tri-division of media market. Nierenberg also presents the history of management study and media management study, constructs the model of education in this field, outlines the field which should be explored by the researchers of this subject and sets the direction which the media themselves must take. Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
303
The text is an attempt to establish categories according to which a man perceives himself and a question about the dimension of human existence. The author creates a thesis that the world contains three dimensions: real life, dreams and religion, and their coexistence makes it impossible to study the world using previous tools, such as: postmodernism and neo-intellectualism. Transferring the existence into the virtual level causes creation of a cyber world which is governed by different rules than previous reality and possesses significant influence on the form of art. Khetaguri finds the reflection of life in the field of art such as theatre, which unreality expresses digitization of the world and its deep mysticism.
Third Reality
Levan Khetaguri postulates formulated by Hausner is for Sowa a starting point to create a manifesto being a list of necessary changes in culture management, such as the liquidation of a central model of culture management, establishing social councils for art and culture, equality of rights in relation to low for different forms of intellectual property, increasing public funding for experimental activities, solving the problem of social safety of culture creators, elementary education in the field of current culture.
Resümees
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Tadeusz Gadacz
304
Kultur und Verantwortung
In seinem Beitrag Was ist Kulturpolitik? Matthias Theodor Vogt analysiert die kulturelle Situation in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und unterstreicht grundsätzliche Regelungen eines Staates im Bereich Kulturpolitik. Der Autor weist darauf hin, dass die Kulturpolitik in der Praxis zum Element des Budgetplans eines Staates wird. Er basiert auf den Erfahrungen Deutschlands und vergleicht zahlreiche statistische Quellen, die kulturelle Aufwendungen im öffentlichen sowie privaten Sektor zeigen. Der Wissenschaftler beweist außerdem, dass der Kulturbegriff, der durch die internationale Staatengemeinschaft verbreitet wird, diffus bleibt. Der Kulturtermin ist auch von einem unmessbaren Charakter gekennzeichnet,
Tadeusz Gadacz in seinem Artikel, der anlässlich des Kulturkongresses 2009 verfasst wurde, zeigt auf die Kondition der Kultur in Polen, die einerseits aus ihrer Natur resultiert und andererseits ein Effekt von national spezifischen Rahmenbedingungen ist. Die Kultur stützt sich auf die Spannungen, die ihren Charakter bestimmen, z.B. Vergangenheit – Zukunft, Elitarismus – Massencharakter, Geistigkeit – objektive Dimension. Diese Spannungen stellen uns die folgenden Fragen: Kultur leben oder von Kultur leben? Wie ist ihr Standpunkt und ihre Rolle in der gegenwärtigen Welt? Wie ist ihre Verantwortung? Das 20. Jh. wird als die Zeit der Krise betrachtet, die sich vor allem aus einer materiellen Weltbetrachtung ergibt, die wiederum geistige Werte verschleiert. So bedeutend ist also die Kultur, die die Identität bestimmt und kein Gut für einen engen Kreis, sondern Notwendigkeit für alle ist.
Was ist Kulturpolitik?
Matthias Theodor Vogt
Matthias Theodor Vogt
Was ist Kulturpolitik?
Tadeusz Gadacz in seinem Artikel, der anlässlich des Kulturkongresses 2009 verfasst wurde, zeigt auf die Kondition der Kultur in Polen, die einerseits aus ihrer Natur resultiert und andererseits ein Effekt von national spezifischen Rahmenbedingungen ist. Die Kultur stützt sich auf die Spannungen, die ihren Charakter bestimmen, z.B. Vergangenheit – Zukunft, Elitarismus – Massencharakter, Geistigkeit – objektive Dimension. Diese Spannungen stellen uns die folgenden Fragen: Kultur leben oder von Kultur leben? Wie ist ihr Standpunkt und ihre Rolle in der gegenwärtigen Welt? Wie ist ihre Verantwortung? Das 20. Jh. wird als die Zeit der Krise betrachtet, die sich vor allem aus einer materiellen Weltbetrachtung ergibt, die wiederum geistige Werte verschleiert. So bedeutend ist also die Kultur, die die Identität bestimmt und kein Gut für einen engen Kreis, sondern Notwendigkeit für alle ist.
was es unmöglich macht, diesen Konstrukt zu operationalisieren. Vogts Meinung nach ist es unentbehrlich, den Staat als eine Struktur zu betrachten, die Kultur und ihre praktischen Umsetzungen bildet und beeinflusst. Dies bedeutet entsprechende Rahmenbedingungen und einen Normenkatalog für die Regelung künstlerischen Schaffens und kultureller Leistungen zu gestalten, wie auch eine indirekte Funktion des Kreierens den Künstlern zu überlassen. Anhand der Finanzanalyse von deutschen Unternehmen deutet Vogt auf die Kunst als ein erheblicher Wirtschaftssektor und auf die wachsende Bedeutung dieses Sektors aus der Sicht der Weltwirtschaft. Ferner erinnert er uns an das Stichwort kulturelle Bildung, die die populärste Voraussetzung der Durchführung von Kulturpolitik ist, und macht uns aufmerksam darauf, dass Geisteswissenschaften in den Kultur und Kulturpolitik betreffenden Statistiken ungerecht von der Europäischen Union übersehen werden. Der Autor erläutert die Geschichte von Kulturpolitikwissenschaft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und bemerkt, dass nicht die Praxis, aber der deutsche Terminus „Kulturpolitik“ jung ist, und ein bewusster theoretischer Gedanke immer noch unterentwickelt bleibt. Die Kultur, die traditionell als eine Summe von Wertentscheidungen verstanden ist, kann nicht von ihrem wirtschaftlich-ökonomischen Hintergrund abgetrennt werden. Unter den führenden Methoden, sie zu erforschen, befinden sich statistische Daten und finanzielle Aufstellungen. Die Anführung von Analysen kann jedoch zu einer ganzheitlichen Methode der Kulturpolitikbeschreibung nicht werden. Der theoretische Hintergrund von Kulturpolitikwissenschaft kann nicht vernachlässigt werden, denn es ist eine Art der Brücke zwischen humaniora und Sozialwissenschaften. Im deutschen Sprachraum gibt es schon Versuche, in einer komplexen Weise diesen Bereich zu untersuchen.
Kultur und Verantwortung
was es unmöglich macht, diesen Konstrukt zu operationalisieren. Vogts Meinung nach ist es unentbehrlich, den Staat als eine Struktur zu betrachten, die Kultur und ihre praktischen Umsetzungen bildet und beeinflusst. Dies bedeutet entsprechende Rahmenbedingungen und einen Normenkatalog für die Regelung künstlerischen Schaffens und kultureller Leistungen zu gestalten, wie auch eine indirekte Funktion des Kreierens den Künstlern zu überlassen. Anhand der Finanzanalyse von deutschen Unternehmen deutet Vogt auf die Kunst als ein erheblicher Wirtschaftssektor und auf die wachsende Bedeutung dieses Sektors aus der Sicht der Weltwirtschaft. Ferner erinnert er uns an das Stichwort kulturelle Bildung, die die populärste Voraussetzung der Durchführung von Kulturpolitik ist, und macht uns aufmerksam darauf, dass Geisteswissenschaften in den Kultur und Kulturpolitik betreffenden Statistiken ungerecht von der Europäischen Union übersehen werden. Der Autor erläutert die Geschichte von Kulturpolitikwissenschaft in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und bemerkt, dass nicht die Praxis, aber der deutsche Terminus „Kulturpolitik“ jung ist, und ein bewusster theoretischer Gedanke immer noch unterentwickelt bleibt. Die Kultur, die traditionell als eine Summe von Wertentscheidungen verstanden ist, kann nicht von ihrem wirtschaftlich-ökonomischen Hintergrund abgetrennt werden. Unter den führenden Methoden, sie zu erforschen, befinden sich statistische Daten und finanzielle Aufstellungen. Die Anführung von Analysen kann jedoch zu einer ganzheitlichen Methode der Kulturpolitikbeschreibung nicht werden. Der theoretische Hintergrund von Kulturpolitikwissenschaft kann nicht vernachlässigt werden, denn es ist eine Art der Brücke zwischen humaniora und Sozialwissenschaften. Im deutschen Sprachraum gibt es schon Versuche, in einer komplexen Weise diesen Bereich zu untersuchen.
In seinem Beitrag Was ist Kulturpolitik? Matthias Theodor Vogt analysiert die kulturelle Situation in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und unterstreicht grundsätzliche Regelungen eines Staates im Bereich Kulturpolitik. Der Autor weist darauf hin, dass die Kulturpolitik in der Praxis zum Element des Budgetplans eines Staates wird. Er basiert auf den Erfahrungen Deutschlands und vergleicht zahlreiche statistische Quellen, die kulturelle Aufwendungen im öffentlichen sowie privaten Sektor zeigen. Der Wissenschaftler beweist außerdem, dass der Kulturbegriff, der durch die internationale Staatengemeinschaft verbreitet wird, diffus bleibt. Der Kulturtermin ist auch von einem unmessbaren Charakter gekennzeichnet,
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Tadeusz Gadacz
304
Resümees
305
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
WeiSSrussland. Kulturpolitik
Natassia Chmiel in ihrem Artikel Weiß russland. Kulturpolitik charakterisiert die Kultursphäre Weißrusslands in den letzten 20 Jahren. Sie basiert auf einer dreigliedrigen Typologie, d.h. offizielle, inoffizielle und kommerzielle Kultur. Diese Gliederung und ihre Analyse im Kontext von Kulturindustrie ist ein Beweis für die Politisierung von derartigen Aktivitäten und Abhängigkeit von der staatlichen Kontrolle. Am Beispiel von der Dokumentenanalyse sowie von tatsächlichen Tätigkeiten weißrussischer Behörde deutet die Autorin auf einen legislativen Aspekt im Funktionieren des Staatsapparats und auf verschiedenartige Aktionen, die für die Kulturentfaltung ein Hindernis sind. Des Weiteren berührt die Autorin das Thema, das mit der Darlegung und Formung von dem Kulturerbe und der nationalen Kultur Weißrusslands verbunden ist. Sie setzt die Analyse im Kontext von historischen Erfahrungen des Staates und seinen permanenten Abhängigkeit von Einflüssen Russlands. Die oben genannten Aspekte werden dem Kulturmilieu, den Schöpfern und Bürgern Weißrusslands gewidmet, die über ein enormes Entwicklungspotenzial verfügen, befinden sich aber erst am Anfang des Weges, der zur Entwicklung einer außerstaatlichen Kultur führt. Anda Laķe
Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik
Im Beitrag von Anda Laķe wird das Problem von Politikplanung, -entwicklung und -führung im Lettland im Kontext der Finanzkrise analysiert. Die Autorin deutet auf die in diesen Gebieten begangenen Fehler, sowie ihre Lösungsmethoden. Am Beispiel eines baltischen Staates übt sie eine konstruktive Kritik von Kommunikation zwischen Politikern und Gesellschaft und zeigt, dass es von großer Bedeutung ist, rationale Argumentation von politischen Entscheidungen gemäß dem Modell der Entscheidungsfindung von H. Simon zu erfassen. Ein effektives Instrument der Analyse, Rationalisierung und Qualitätsverbesserung einer Strategie ist die Evaluierungsuntersuchung. Laķe betont, dass diese Methode in Lettland viel seltener als in anderen Ländern genutzt wird, obwohl bisherige Schätzungen des Einflusses der Politik keine messbaren Gewinne zu Folge
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
hatten. Die Autorin definiert die Evaluation als interdisziplinäre Untersuchung, die Effekte angenommener Strategie und ihre Zielerfüllung mit den Standards vergleicht. Außerdem stellt sie die Struktur der Evaluierungsmethodologie dar, in der zuerst die Projektbeschreibung, Datenerhebung und letztendlich Analyse und Datendistribution zu unterscheiden sind. Die lettische Staatsverwaltung basiert nicht auf den im Rahmen von sozialen Untersuchungen gewonnenen Daten, formuliert keine Langzeitziele und verfügt über keine damit verbundene Strategie. Der Grund dafür ist es, dass Lettland bisher keinen vollständigen System der Politikbeurteilung gebildet hat. Anhand des Beispiels vom Lettischen Kulturkanon deutet die Autorin auf die Bedeutung einer adäquaten Definition des Programmzieles für seine Beurteilung, denn die Kultursphäre verbindet Interessen verschiedener Sozialgruppen und ihr Hauptstreben ist die Aufrechterhaltung des immateriellen Erbes. Laķe zeigt die Fehler im Durchführen von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen in Lettland, d.h. Unbestimmtheit und Uneinheitlichkeit, sowie Mangel einer kommunikativen Funktion. Am Beispiel des Kulturkanons betont sie auch eine wichtige Rolle der Bearbeitung von Programmzielen, wenn man Evaluierungsanalysen im Kontext einer beginnenden Wirtschaftskrise durchführt.
Birgit-Katherine Seeman
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie Anhand des Beispiels vom städtischen Kulturmanagement untersucht Birgit-Katherine Seeman die Änderungen in der Vorgehensweise zur Disziplin Kulturmanagement. Mit der Analyse des Buches von Richard Florida Die Entstehung der kreativen Klasse beginnend, weist die Autorin auf den dualistischen, akademischen und managerischen Charakter von Kulturmanagement hin. Sie zitiert Floridas Denkweise in Hinblick auf Kulturmanagement als ökonomische Kraftquelle und wagt Prognosen zur kulturellen Stadtentwicklung. Seeman erörtert grundsätzliche Ziele und Effekte, die während der Planung von Kulturstrategien für Städte unersetzlich sind. Des Weiteren beschreibt sie das Phänomen der sozialen Aktivierung sowie aktiven Einbeziehung von Bürgern in den Prozess vom Bilden kultureller Stadtatmosphäre. Abschließend betont sie die Macht des kreativen Denkens und die
Resümees
Im Beitrag von Anda Laķe wird das Problem von Politikplanung, -entwicklung und -führung im Lettland im Kontext der Finanzkrise analysiert. Die Autorin deutet auf die in diesen Gebieten begangenen Fehler, sowie ihre Lösungsmethoden. Am Beispiel eines baltischen Staates übt sie eine konstruktive Kritik von Kommunikation zwischen Politikern und Gesellschaft und zeigt, dass es von großer Bedeutung ist, rationale Argumentation von politischen Entscheidungen gemäß dem Modell der Entscheidungsfindung von H. Simon zu erfassen. Ein effektives Instrument der Analyse, Rationalisierung und Qualitätsverbesserung einer Strategie ist die Evaluierungsuntersuchung. Laķe betont, dass diese Methode in Lettland viel seltener als in anderen Ländern genutzt wird, obwohl bisherige Schätzungen des Einflusses der Politik keine messbaren Gewinne zu Folge
Die Notwendigkeit einer Bewertung der Kulturpolitik Anda Laķe
Natassia Chmiel in ihrem Artikel Weiß russland. Kulturpolitik charakterisiert die Kultursphäre Weißrusslands in den letzten 20 Jahren. Sie basiert auf einer dreigliedrigen Typologie, d.h. offizielle, inoffizielle und kommerzielle Kultur. Diese Gliederung und ihre Analyse im Kontext von Kulturindustrie ist ein Beweis für die Politisierung von derartigen Aktivitäten und Abhängigkeit von der staatlichen Kontrolle. Am Beispiel von der Dokumentenanalyse sowie von tatsächlichen Tätigkeiten weißrussischer Behörde deutet die Autorin auf einen legislativen Aspekt im Funktionieren des Staatsapparats und auf verschiedenartige Aktionen, die für die Kulturentfaltung ein Hindernis sind. Des Weiteren berührt die Autorin das Thema, das mit der Darlegung und Formung von dem Kulturerbe und der nationalen Kultur Weißrusslands verbunden ist. Sie setzt die Analyse im Kontext von historischen Erfahrungen des Staates und seinen permanenten Abhängigkeit von Einflüssen Russlands. Die oben genannten Aspekte werden dem Kulturmilieu, den Schöpfern und Bürgern Weißrusslands gewidmet, die über ein enormes Entwicklungspotenzial verfügen, befinden sich aber erst am Anfang des Weges, der zur Entwicklung einer außerstaatlichen Kultur führt.
WeiSSrussland. Kulturpolitik Natassia Chmiel
Anhand des Beispiels vom städtischen Kulturmanagement untersucht Birgit-Katherine Seeman die Änderungen in der Vorgehensweise zur Disziplin Kulturmanagement. Mit der Analyse des Buches von Richard Florida Die Entstehung der kreativen Klasse beginnend, weist die Autorin auf den dualistischen, akademischen und managerischen Charakter von Kulturmanagement hin. Sie zitiert Floridas Denkweise in Hinblick auf Kulturmanagement als ökonomische Kraftquelle und wagt Prognosen zur kulturellen Stadtentwicklung. Seeman erörtert grundsätzliche Ziele und Effekte, die während der Planung von Kulturstrategien für Städte unersetzlich sind. Des Weiteren beschreibt sie das Phänomen der sozialen Aktivierung sowie aktiven Einbeziehung von Bürgern in den Prozess vom Bilden kultureller Stadtatmosphäre. Abschließend betont sie die Macht des kreativen Denkens und die
Resümees
Natassia Chmiel
305
Kulturmanagement als städtische Strategie Birgit-Katherine Seeman hatten. Die Autorin definiert die Evaluation als interdisziplinäre Untersuchung, die Effekte angenommener Strategie und ihre Zielerfüllung mit den Standards vergleicht. Außerdem stellt sie die Struktur der Evaluierungsmethodologie dar, in der zuerst die Projektbeschreibung, Datenerhebung und letztendlich Analyse und Datendistribution zu unterscheiden sind. Die lettische Staatsverwaltung basiert nicht auf den im Rahmen von sozialen Untersuchungen gewonnenen Daten, formuliert keine Langzeitziele und verfügt über keine damit verbundene Strategie. Der Grund dafür ist es, dass Lettland bisher keinen vollständigen System der Politikbeurteilung gebildet hat. Anhand des Beispiels vom Lettischen Kulturkanon deutet die Autorin auf die Bedeutung einer adäquaten Definition des Programmzieles für seine Beurteilung, denn die Kultursphäre verbindet Interessen verschiedener Sozialgruppen und ihr Hauptstreben ist die Aufrechterhaltung des immateriellen Erbes. Laķe zeigt die Fehler im Durchführen von Evaluierungsuntersuchungen in Lettland, d.h. Unbestimmtheit und Uneinheitlichkeit, sowie Mangel einer kommunikativen Funktion. Am Beispiel des Kulturkanons betont sie auch eine wichtige Rolle der Bearbeitung von Programmzielen, wenn man Evaluierungsanalysen im Kontext einer beginnenden Wirtschaftskrise durchführt.
306
Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management Małgorzata Ćwikła bedeutsame Rolle, die bewusste Teilnehmer am Prozess der Humanisierung von Städten spielen.
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs Józef Kargul chronologischen und geographischen Grenzen sowie nach Zielbesuchern.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Der Autor betrachtet die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs auf zwei Ebenen, d.h. der praktischen Wirklichkeit und theoretischen Reflexion. Er erläutert den Terminus Autorität (Soziologen untersuchen den Begriff anhand von Einfluss- und Machttheorien, Pädagogen dagegen berufen sich auf Philosophie) und zeigt Ebenen, innerhalb von denen spezifische Eigenschaften gekennzeichnet werden können, die über die Handelsbedeutung eines Kulturanimateurs entscheiden. Auf der sozialen Ebene (wo soziale Bindungen gebaut werden), öffentlichen Ebene (auf der man sich eine dominierende Position und Kontrolle über Güter und öffentliche Ressourcen gewinnt) und institutionellen Ebene (auf der die Vorgehensweise gefestigt werden) spielen Animateurs verschiedene, sehr häufig komplementäre soziale Rollen.
306
Der Beitrag von Ivars Bērziņš berührt die Problematik des Mangels von Experten im Bereich Kulturmanagement, die über systematisiertes Wissen verfügen. Die Gründe dafür sind laut dem Autor das Fehlen von einem konkreten Berufsbild, wie auch adäquaten Bildungssystem. Bērziņš postuliert demzufolge, neue Bildungslösungen zu forschen, die moderne Technologien einbeziehen würden. Als Antwort auf den Marktbedarf hängt der Kulturmanagerberuf mit Business zusammen, was also von einem Manager interdisziplinäres Wissen erfordert. Der Autor ist der Meinung, dass Musikmanagement den Erwartungen von Hochkultur und Massenkultur gerecht werden soll. Es soll auch sozial-wirtschaftliche Bedürfnisse nicht außer Acht lassen. Ein Manager von heute soll auf einer lokalen Ebene handeln und Finanzierungsfragen aus einer regionalen Perspektive betrachten. Die Fähigkeit, Bedürfnisse von Konsumenten zu befriedigen, im Zusammenhang mit dem Wissen im Bereich Musik, Wirtschaft,
Ivars BērziņŠ
Jānis Garjāns klassifiziert Museen Lettlands anhand des Registers, der im Auftrag von der Lettischen Staatlichen Museenverwaltung angefertigt wurde. Dank dem war es möglich, das Wesen eines Museums und seine Funktionen präsentieren. Das lettische Gesetz über die Museen ist für den Autor ein Ausgangspunkt seiner Überlegungen über die Kriterien (wie u.a. die Klarheit von legislativen Fragen, Inventarliste von Sammlungsobjekten, ihre Sicherheit) und Mechanismen der Akkreditierung von Museen. Garjāns definiert das Ziel eines lettischen Museums um die drei Hauptfragen, d.h. nach dem Themenbereich und Museumsziel, nach seinen
Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung
Hauptaspekte der Entwicklung von Musikmanagementausbildung
Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung
Ivars BērziņŠ
Małgorzata Ćwikła in ihrem Artikel erläutert und bespricht die Faktoren, die die Entwicklung von Kultureinrichtungen stimulieren, die in postindustriellen Räumen agieren. Sie kennzeichnet den Adaptationsprozess solcher Räume und den Schutz des postindustriellen Erbes. Die Autorin erwägt die Einbeziehung dieser Objekte in die Kulturtätigkeit, wie auch das Profil von Künstlern und Zuschauern, die in derartigem Räumen funktionieren, den Typ von Veranstaltungen, Marketingstrategien, Finanzierungsmöglichkeiten. Die Initiativen, die im postindustriellen Raum umgesetzt werden, sind anders als traditionelle Kulturveranstaltungen z.B. wenn es um Promotionsmethoden, internationale Zusammenarbeit, Engagement für interdisziplinäre Projekte geht. Solche Diskrepanzen bedürfen einer differenten Herangehensweise an Organisationsmanagement, das das Verstehen sozialen Wandels der letzten Zeit im Bereich Wirtschaft verlangt.
Jānis Garjāns
Der Autor betrachtet die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs auf zwei Ebenen, d.h. der praktischen Wirklichkeit und theoretischen Reflexion. Er erläutert den Terminus Autorität (Soziologen untersuchen den Begriff anhand von Einfluss- und Machttheorien, Pädagogen dagegen berufen sich auf Philosophie) und zeigt Ebenen, innerhalb von denen spezifische Eigenschaften gekennzeichnet werden können, die über die Handelsbedeutung eines Kulturanimateurs entscheiden. Auf der sozialen Ebene (wo soziale Bindungen gebaut werden), öffentlichen Ebene (auf der man sich eine dominierende Position und Kontrolle über Güter und öffentliche Ressourcen gewinnt) und institutionellen Ebene (auf der die Vorgehensweise gefestigt werden) spielen Animateurs verschiedene, sehr häufig komplementäre soziale Rollen.
Jānis Garjāns
Małgorzata Ćwikła in ihrem Artikel erläutert und bespricht die Faktoren, die die Entwicklung von Kultureinrichtungen stimulieren, die in postindustriellen Räumen agieren. Sie kennzeichnet den Adaptationsprozess solcher Räume und den Schutz des postindustriellen Erbes. Die Autorin erwägt die Einbeziehung dieser Objekte in die Kulturtätigkeit, wie auch das Profil von Künstlern und Zuschauern, die in derartigem Räumen funktionieren, den Typ von Veranstaltungen, Marketingstrategien, Finanzierungsmöglichkeiten. Die Initiativen, die im postindustriellen Raum umgesetzt werden, sind anders als traditionelle Kulturveranstaltungen z.B. wenn es um Promotionsmethoden, internationale Zusammenarbeit, Engagement für interdisziplinäre Projekte geht. Solche Diskrepanzen bedürfen einer differenten Herangehensweise an Organisationsmanagement, das das Verstehen sozialen Wandels der letzten Zeit im Bereich Wirtschaft verlangt.
Die Autorität des Kulturanimateurs
Die Grenzen der Museen: die lettische Erfahrung
Eine Fabrik der Initiativen, eine Grube der Ideen – die Nutzung von postindustriellen Produktionsstätten in der Kulturarbeit als Impuls zu kreativem Management
Józef Kargul
Der Beitrag von Ivars Bērziņš berührt die Problematik des Mangels von Experten im Bereich Kulturmanagement, die über systematisiertes Wissen verfügen. Die Gründe dafür sind laut dem Autor das Fehlen von einem konkreten Berufsbild, wie auch adäquaten Bildungssystem. Bērziņš postuliert demzufolge, neue Bildungslösungen zu forschen, die moderne Technologien einbeziehen würden. Als Antwort auf den Marktbedarf hängt der Kulturmanagerberuf mit Business zusammen, was also von einem Manager interdisziplinäres Wissen erfordert. Der Autor ist der Meinung, dass Musikmanagement den Erwartungen von Hochkultur und Massenkultur gerecht werden soll. Es soll auch sozial-wirtschaftliche Bedürfnisse nicht außer Acht lassen. Ein Manager von heute soll auf einer lokalen Ebene handeln und Finanzierungsfragen aus einer regionalen Perspektive betrachten. Die Fähigkeit, Bedürfnisse von Konsumenten zu befriedigen, im Zusammenhang mit dem Wissen im Bereich Musik, Wirtschaft,
Małgorzata Ćwikła
chronologischen und geographischen Grenzen sowie nach Zielbesuchern.
Jānis Garjāns klassifiziert Museen Lettlands anhand des Registers, der im Auftrag von der Lettischen Staatlichen Museenverwaltung angefertigt wurde. Dank dem war es möglich, das Wesen eines Museums und seine Funktionen präsentieren. Das lettische Gesetz über die Museen ist für den Autor ein Ausgangspunkt seiner Überlegungen über die Kriterien (wie u.a. die Klarheit von legislativen Fragen, Inventarliste von Sammlungsobjekten, ihre Sicherheit) und Mechanismen der Akkreditierung von Museen. Garjāns definiert das Ziel eines lettischen Museums um die drei Hauptfragen, d.h. nach dem Themenbereich und Museumsziel, nach seinen
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
bedeutsame Rolle, die bewusste Teilnehmer am Prozess der Humanisierung von Städten spielen.
307
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Recht und mit der künstlerischen Erfahrung sind nach Auffassung von Bērziņš die bedeutungsvollen Eigenschaften eines hochqualifizierten Kulturmanagers. Bogusław Nierenberg
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell Bogusław Nierenberg basiert in seinem Artikel auf dem Systemmodell. Er macht Vorschläge zur Bestimmung vom Bereich und Gegenstand des Medienmanagements, und seinen Regeln. Im darauffolgenden Teil erörtert der Autor die Probleme, auf die Management stößt und konstruiert ihre Lösungsmöglichkeiten. Mit der Annahme, dass das mediale Gut zu spezifischen Marktgütern gehört, beschreibt Nierenberg fundamentale Medienfunktionen, zitiert die Theorie von Mediendualismus (Güter und Dienstleistungen) von R. Picard und modifiziert sie, indem er die Dreigliederung des Medienmarkts vorschlägt. Nierenberg skizziert auch die Geschichte von Managementwissenschaft und Medienwissenschaft, und konstruiert das Bildungsmodell in dem Bereich (Aufbaustudium wie auch Studium der 2. Stufe Medienmanagement als Spezialfach im Rahmen der Studienrichtung Kulturwissenschaften, die am Kulturinstitut des Fachbereichs Management und Soziale Kommunikation an der Jagiellonen Universität geführt wird). Im Artikel nennt er die Felder, die von Wissenschaftlern, die sich in diesem Bereich spezialisieren, untersucht werden sollen, sowie legt die Richtung für Medien fest. Der Autor bezeichnet Medienmanagement als Informationsmanagement und macht Vorschläge zur folgenden Gliederung: Management von kommerziellen und öffentlichen Medieneinrichtungen. Er bespricht die Ziele von jeden dieser Typen und zeigt Eigenschaften, die über ihre Besonderheiten entscheiden. Jan Sowa
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik Jan Sowas Beitrag ist ein Versuch, seine eigene Meinung zum so genannten Hausner-Rapport und –Plan zu erörtern, der eine von Beamten und Kulturexperten formulierte Diagnose der gegenwärtigen Kultursituation und Empfehlungen zu ihrer Verbesserung enthielt. Der Rapport wurde während des Kulturkongresses 2009 vom
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Kultusminister Bogdan Zdrojewski verkündet ( Januar 2010). Der Autor beschreibt einige Thesen, die direkt nicht ausgedrückt wurden, ergeben sich aber offensichtlich aus dem Rapport, d.h. Überzeugung über die absolute Superiorität des privaten Eigentums über das staatliche Eigentum, Antagonismus von Staat und Wirtschaft, Volksrepublikpolen als das exemplifizierte Böse in jeder Form, Managerismus. Der einzige Punkt des Rapports, mit dem der Autor einverstanden ist und der auch unentbehrlich für Kultur ist, ist der Vorschlag von Veränderungen bei der Art und Weise der Bestellung der Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen, d.h. die Einführung der jeweilig offenen Ausschreibungen und begrenzter Amtszeiten für alle leitenden Posten. Das Konzentration auf die Kulturfinanzierung und –promotion wie auch der Bedarf der Entwicklung von Kunstbildung, die im Exposé des Ministers formuliert wurden, sind mitsamt Postulaten Hausners ein Ausgangspunkt für das Manifest, das erforderliche Veränderungen in Kulturmanagement wie Liquidierung des zentralisierten Modells des Kulturmanagements, Einrichtung von Gesellschaftsräten für Kunst und Kultur, rechtliche Gleichstellung unterschiedlicher Formen des intellektuellen Eigentums, verstärkte Finanzierung von Aktivitäten mit experimentellem Charakter aus öffentlichen Mitteln, Lösung des Problems der sozialen Sicherheit der Kulturschaffenden, Elementarbildung im Bereich der aktuellen Kultur ausdrückt. Levan Khetaguri
Die dritte Wirklichkeit
Der Text strebt danach, Kategorien zu bestimmen, in denen ein Mensch sich selber betrachtet und fragt nach einer Dimension menschlichen Lebens. Der Autor konstruiert eine These, die sagt, dass die Welt aus drei Dimensionen besteht: wirklichem Leben, Träumen und Religion. Ihre Koexistenz verursacht, dass die Welterforschung mittels bisherig erreichbaren Instrumenten wie Postmodernismus oder Neointelektualismus nicht möglich ist. Die Übertragung der Existenz auf die virtuelle Ebene trägt zur Bildung einer Cyber-Welt bei, in der andere Gesetze als in der bisherigen Wirklichkeit herrschen und die in einer nicht unbedeutenden Weise die Gestalt der Künste beeinflusst. Khetaguri entdeckt die Widerspieglung des Lebens im Theater, dessen Derealisierung die Weltdigitalisierung und sein tiefer Mystizismus ausdrückt.
307
Jan Sowas Beitrag ist ein Versuch, seine eigene Meinung zum so genannten Hausner-Rapport und –Plan zu erörtern, der eine von Beamten und Kulturexperten formulierte Diagnose der gegenwärtigen Kultursituation und Empfehlungen zu ihrer Verbesserung enthielt. Der Rapport wurde während des Kulturkongresses 2009 vom
Kulturrevolution – ja, aber was für eine? Über die möglichen Richtungen der polnischen Kulturpolitik Jan Sowa Bogusław Nierenberg basiert in seinem Artikel auf dem Systemmodell. Er macht Vorschläge zur Bestimmung vom Bereich und Gegenstand des Medienmanagements, und seinen Regeln. Im darauffolgenden Teil erörtert der Autor die Probleme, auf die Management stößt und konstruiert ihre Lösungsmöglichkeiten. Mit der Annahme, dass das mediale Gut zu spezifischen Marktgütern gehört, beschreibt Nierenberg fundamentale Medienfunktionen, zitiert die Theorie von Mediendualismus (Güter und Dienstleistungen) von R. Picard und modifiziert sie, indem er die Dreigliederung des Medienmarkts vorschlägt. Nierenberg skizziert auch die Geschichte von Managementwissenschaft und Medienwissenschaft, und konstruiert das Bildungsmodell in dem Bereich (Aufbaustudium wie auch Studium der 2. Stufe Medienmanagement als Spezialfach im Rahmen der Studienrichtung Kulturwissenschaften, die am Kulturinstitut des Fachbereichs Management und Soziale Kommunikation an der Jagiellonen Universität geführt wird). Im Artikel nennt er die Felder, die von Wissenschaftlern, die sich in diesem Bereich spezialisieren, untersucht werden sollen, sowie legt die Richtung für Medien fest. Der Autor bezeichnet Medienmanagement als Informationsmanagement und macht Vorschläge zur folgenden Gliederung: Management von kommerziellen und öffentlichen Medieneinrichtungen. Er bespricht die Ziele von jeden dieser Typen und zeigt Eigenschaften, die über ihre Besonderheiten entscheiden.
Medienmanagement im Systemmodell Recht und mit der künstlerischen Erfahrung sind nach Auffassung von Bērziņš die bedeutungsvollen Eigenschaften eines hochqualifizierten Kulturmanagers. Bogusław Nierenberg
Der Text strebt danach, Kategorien zu bestimmen, in denen ein Mensch sich selber betrachtet und fragt nach einer Dimension menschlichen Lebens. Der Autor konstruiert eine These, die sagt, dass die Welt aus drei Dimensionen besteht: wirklichem Leben, Träumen und Religion. Ihre Koexistenz verursacht, dass die Welterforschung mittels bisherig erreichbaren Instrumenten wie Postmodernismus oder Neointelektualismus nicht möglich ist. Die Übertragung der Existenz auf die virtuelle Ebene trägt zur Bildung einer Cyber-Welt bei, in der andere Gesetze als in der bisherigen Wirklichkeit herrschen und die in einer nicht unbedeutenden Weise die Gestalt der Künste beeinflusst. Khetaguri entdeckt die Widerspieglung des Lebens im Theater, dessen Derealisierung die Weltdigitalisierung und sein tiefer Mystizismus ausdrückt.
Die dritte Wirklichkeit Levan Khetaguri
Kultusminister Bogdan Zdrojewski verkündet ( Januar 2010). Der Autor beschreibt einige Thesen, die direkt nicht ausgedrückt wurden, ergeben sich aber offensichtlich aus dem Rapport, d.h. Überzeugung über die absolute Superiorität des privaten Eigentums über das staatliche Eigentum, Antagonismus von Staat und Wirtschaft, Volksrepublikpolen als das exemplifizierte Böse in jeder Form, Managerismus. Der einzige Punkt des Rapports, mit dem der Autor einverstanden ist und der auch unentbehrlich für Kultur ist, ist der Vorschlag von Veränderungen bei der Art und Weise der Bestellung der Direktoren von Kulturinstitutionen, d.h. die Einführung der jeweilig offenen Ausschreibungen und begrenzter Amtszeiten für alle leitenden Posten. Das Konzentration auf die Kulturfinanzierung und –promotion wie auch der Bedarf der Entwicklung von Kunstbildung, die im Exposé des Ministers formuliert wurden, sind mitsamt Postulaten Hausners ein Ausgangspunkt für das Manifest, das erforderliche Veränderungen in Kulturmanagement wie Liquidierung des zentralisierten Modells des Kulturmanagements, Einrichtung von Gesellschaftsräten für Kunst und Kultur, rechtliche Gleichstellung unterschiedlicher Formen des intellektuellen Eigentums, verstärkte Finanzierung von Aktivitäten mit experimentellem Charakter aus öffentlichen Mitteln, Lösung des Problems der sozialen Sicherheit der Kulturschaffenden, Elementarbildung im Bereich der aktuellen Kultur ausdrückt.
308
Kultura i odpowiedzialność Tadeusz Gadacz
nej, kultury nieoficjalnej oraz kultury komercyjnej oraz analizowanie ich w ujęciu przemysłów kultury, dowodzi siły upolitycznienia działalności tego typu oraz uzależnienia od państwowej kontroli. Ponadto autorka podejmuje tematykę związaną z procesami definiowania i kształtowania dziedzictwa kulturowego i narodowej kultury białoruskiej, osadzając analizę w kontekście historycznych doświadczeń państwa i jego ciągłego uzależnienia od wpływów rosyjskich. Aspekty te opisywane są z myślą o środowiskach kulturalnych, twórcach i mieszkańcach Białorusi, mających olbrzymi potencjał rozwoju, lecz będących na początku drogi rozwoju kultury nie-państwowej.
Birgit-Katherine Seeman
Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska
Birgit-Katherine Seeman na przykładzie zarządzania kulturową przestrzenią miejską rozpatruje
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Streszczenia
308
Anda Laķe
Natassia Chmiel prezentuje charakterystykę sfery kultury Republiki Białorusi na przestrzeni ostatnich dwudziestu lat, wprowadzając trójelementową typologię. Wyróżnienie kultury oficjal-
Kultura zbudowana jest na opozycjach, które decydują o jej charakterze: przeszłość – przyszłość, elitaryzm – umasowienie, duchowość – wymiar obiektywny, i które stawiają przed pytaniami: żyć kulturą czy żyć z kultury? Jakie jest jej miejsce i rola we współczesnym świecie? Jaka jest jej odpowiedzialność? Wiek XX jest postrzegany jako czas kryzysu, wynikającego przede wszystkim z przedmiotowego postrzegania świata, który przysłania wartości duchowe. Dlatego dziś tak istotna wydaje się kultura, która decyduje o tożsamości i nie jest dobrem dostępnym dla wąskiego kręgu, ale koniecznością dla wszystkich.
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna
Matthias Theodor Vogt
Natassia Chmiel
Autorka rozważa problem planowania, rozwoju oraz prowadzenia polityki na Łotwie w obliczu kryzysu gospodarczego państwa. Wskazuje błędy dokonywane w tych obszarach i sposoby ich naprawy, dokonując konstruktywnej krytyki komunikacji między politykami oraz społeczeństwem. Autorka wykazuje konieczność racjonalizacji tworzenia polityki, według modelu podejmowania decyzji H. Simona. Skutecznym narzędziem do analizy, racjonalizacji i poprawy jakości jest badanie ewaluacyjne. Definiując ewaluację jako interdyscyplinarne badanie porównujące efekty przyjętej strategii i stopień realizacji jej celów ze standardami, autor przedstawia strukturę metodologii oceny.
Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach: konieczność oceny polityki kulturalnej
Matthias Theodor Vogt dokonuje analizy sytuacji, w jakiej znajduje się kultura w Republice Federalnej Niemiec oraz opisuje ogólne reguły, którym podlega polityka kulturalna państwa. Autor wskazuje na konieczność postrzegania państwa, jako struktury kształtującej kulturę. Dokonując analizy finansowej przedsiębiorstw w Niemczech, Vogt wykazuje, że sztuka jest znaczącym sektorem gospodarki. Autor przywołuje hasło edukacji kulturowej, będącej najbardziej popularnym postulatem realizacji polityki kulturalnej, zwracając jednocześnie uwagę na niesłuszne pomijanie przez Unię Europejską nauk humanistycznych podczas tworzenia statystyk dotyczących kultury oraz polityki kulturalnej.
Czym jest polityka kulturalna?
Czym jest polityka kulturalna?
Aspekty rozwoju polityki kulturalnej w gospodarczo krytycznych warunkach: konieczność oceny polityki kulturalnej
Autorka rozważa problem planowania, rozwoju oraz prowadzenia polityki na Łotwie w obliczu kryzysu gospodarczego państwa. Wskazuje błędy dokonywane w tych obszarach i sposoby ich naprawy, dokonując konstruktywnej krytyki komunikacji między politykami oraz społeczeństwem. Autorka wykazuje konieczność racjonalizacji tworzenia polityki, według modelu podejmowania decyzji H. Simona. Skutecznym narzędziem do analizy, racjonalizacji i poprawy jakości jest badanie ewaluacyjne. Definiując ewaluację jako interdyscyplinarne badanie porównujące efekty przyjętej strategii i stopień realizacji jej celów ze standardami, autor przedstawia strukturę metodologii oceny.
Matthias Theodor Vogt
Anda Laķe
Matthias Theodor Vogt dokonuje analizy sytuacji, w jakiej znajduje się kultura w Republice Federalnej Niemiec oraz opisuje ogólne reguły, którym podlega polityka kulturalna państwa. Autor wskazuje na konieczność postrzegania państwa, jako struktury kształtującej kulturę. Dokonując analizy finansowej przedsiębiorstw w Niemczech, Vogt wykazuje, że sztuka jest znaczącym sektorem gospodarki. Autor przywołuje hasło edukacji kulturowej, będącej najbardziej popularnym postulatem realizacji polityki kulturalnej, zwracając jednocześnie uwagę na niesłuszne pomijanie przez Unię Europejską nauk humanistycznych podczas tworzenia statystyk dotyczących kultury oraz polityki kulturalnej.
Birgit-Katherine Seeman Kultura zbudowana jest na opozycjach, które decydują o jej charakterze: przeszłość – przyszłość, elitaryzm – umasowienie, duchowość – wymiar obiektywny, i które stawiają przed pytaniami: żyć kulturą czy żyć z kultury? Jakie jest jej miejsce i rola we współczesnym świecie? Jaka jest jej odpowiedzialność? Wiek XX jest postrzegany jako czas kryzysu, wynikającego przede wszystkim z przedmiotowego postrzegania świata, który przysłania wartości duchowe. Dlatego dziś tak istotna wydaje się kultura, która decyduje o tożsamości i nie jest dobrem dostępnym dla wąskiego kręgu, ale koniecznością dla wszystkich.
Natassia Chmiel
Zarządzanie kulturą jako strategia miejska
Kultura i odpowiedzialność
nej, kultury nieoficjalnej oraz kultury komercyjnej oraz analizowanie ich w ujęciu przemysłów kultury, dowodzi siły upolitycznienia działalności tego typu oraz uzależnienia od państwowej kontroli. Ponadto autorka podejmuje tematykę związaną z procesami definiowania i kształtowania dziedzictwa kulturowego i narodowej kultury białoruskiej, osadzając analizę w kontekście historycznych doświadczeń państwa i jego ciągłego uzależnienia od wpływów rosyjskich. Aspekty te opisywane są z myślą o środowiskach kulturalnych, twórcach i mieszkańcach Białorusi, mających olbrzymi potencjał rozwoju, lecz będących na początku drogi rozwoju kultury nie-państwowej.
Białoruś. Polityka kulturalna
Birgit-Katherine Seeman na przykładzie zarządzania kulturową przestrzenią miejską rozpatruje
Tadeusz Gadacz
Natassia Chmiel prezentuje charakterystykę sfery kultury Republiki Białorusi na przestrzeni ostatnich dwudziestu lat, wprowadzając trójelementową typologię. Wyróżnienie kultury oficjal-
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Streszczenia
309
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
zmiany, jakie zaszły w podejściu do dyscypliny zarządzania kulturą. Wychodząc od analizy książki Richarda Floridy Powstanie klasy twórczej, autorka zwraca uwagę na dualistyczny, akademicki i menedżerski, charakter zarządzania kulturą. Seeman określa podstawowe cele i efekty niezbędne podczas planowania strategii kulturalnej miasta oraz opisuje zjawisko aktywizacji społecznej i chęć czynnego uczestnictwa mieszkańców w tworzeniu atmosfery kulturalnej miast, dostrzega potęgę twórczego myślenia oraz znaczącą rolę świadomych użytkowników procesu humanizacji miast. Małgorzata Ćwikła
Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania
Autorka przedstawia i omawia czynniki mające wpływ na rozwój organizacji kulturalnych, działających w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych, charakteryzuje proces adaptacji obiektów i ochrony dziedzictwa postindustrialnego. Rozważa wykorzystywanie takich obiektów w działalności kulturalnej, typy twórców i odbiorców funkcjonujących w tego rodzaju przestrzeni, rodzaje przedsięwzięć, strategie marketingowe, sposoby pozyskiwania funduszy. Wykazuje, że inicjatywy realizowane w przestrzeni postindustrialnej mają wiele cech odmiennych od tradycyjnych przedsięwzięć kulturalnych. Rozbieżności tego typu implikują odmienny typ zarządzania placówką, wymagający zrozumienia zmian społecznych zachodzących w ostatnich latach. Jānis Garjāns
Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie
Autor dokonał klasyfikacji łotewskich muzeów na podstawie rejestru, wykonanego na zlecenie Łotewskich Państwowych Władz Muzealnych, co pozwoliło określić istotę muzeum oraz wskazać jego funkcje. Łotewska Ustawa o Muzeach stała się punktem wyjścia do rozważań nad kryteriami (m.in. klarowność kwestii prawnych, spis inwentaryzacyjny zbiorów, ich bezpieczeństwo) i mechanizmami akredytowania muzeów. Wedle trzech głównych pytań (tematyka i cele muzeum, jego chronologiczne i geograficzne granice, docelowa publiczność), Garjāns tworzy definicję misji muzeum łotewskiego.
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Józef Kargul
Autorytet animatora kultury
Autor rozpatruje zagadnienie autorytetu animatora kultury na dwóch płaszczyznach: rzeczywistości praktycznej i refleksji teoretycznej. Wychodząc od samego pojęcia autorytetu (wedle socjologów w teoriach wpływu i teoriach władzy, pedagogów), Kargul wskazuje kilka płaszczyzn, w których można wyodrębnić specyficzne cechy decydujące o doniosłości działalności animatora kultury. W przestrzeni społecznej (gdzie tworzone są więzi społeczne), publicznej (w której zdobywa się dominującą pozycję oraz kontrolę nad dobrami i zasobami publicznymi) oraz instytucjonalnej (w której dokonuje się utrwalanie reguł działania) animatorzy spełniają różne, choć bardzo często komplementarne, role społeczne. Ivars BērziņŠ
Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką
Tekst porusza zagadnienie braku specjalistów w dziedzinie zarządzania kulturą, legitymujących się usystematyzowaną wiedzą. Za przyczyny takiego stanu rzeczy autor uznał brak konkretnego profilu zawodowego, a co za tym idzie brak odpowiedniego systemu kształcenia menedżerów kultury. Berzins postuluje poszukiwanie nowych rozwiązań edukacyjnych z wykorzystaniem możliwości, jakie dają nowoczesne technologie. Bogusław Nierenberg
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym
Posługując się ujęciem systemowym, autor przedstawia propozycję ustalenia zakresu i przedmiotu zarządzania mediami, reguł nim rządzących, nakreśla problemy, jakie zarządzanie napotyka i konstruuje możliwe ich rozwiązania. Wychodząc z założenia, że dobro medialne jest specyficznym typem dobra rynkowego, autor przedstawia podstawowe funkcje mediów, sięga do teorii dualizmu mediów (dóbr i usług) R. Picarda i modyfikuje ją proponując trójpodział rynku medialnego. Nierenberg przedstawia również historię nauki o zarządzaniu oraz o zarządzaniu mediami, konstruuje model kształcenia w tej dziedzinie, zakreśla pola, jakie powinny być eksplorowane przez badaczy zajmujących się tą tematyką oraz wyznacza kurs, który muszą obrać same media.
309
Autor dokonał klasyfikacji łotewskich muzeów na podstawie rejestru, wykonanego na zlecenie Łotewskich Państwowych Władz Muzealnych, co pozwoliło określić istotę muzeum oraz wskazać jego funkcje. Łotewska Ustawa o Muzeach stała się punktem wyjścia do rozważań nad kryteriami (m.in. klarowność kwestii prawnych, spis inwentaryzacyjny zbiorów, ich bezpieczeństwo) i mechanizmami akredytowania muzeów. Wedle trzech głównych pytań (tematyka i cele muzeum, jego chronologiczne i geograficzne granice, docelowa publiczność), Garjāns tworzy definicję misji muzeum łotewskiego.
Granice muzeów: doświadczenie łotewskie Jānis Garjāns
Autorka przedstawia i omawia czynniki mające wpływ na rozwój organizacji kulturalnych, działających w przestrzeniach postindustrialnych, charakteryzuje proces adaptacji obiektów i ochrony dziedzictwa postindustrialnego. Rozważa wykorzystywanie takich obiektów w działalności kulturalnej, typy twórców i odbiorców funkcjonujących w tego rodzaju przestrzeni, rodzaje przedsięwzięć, strategie marketingowe, sposoby pozyskiwania funduszy. Wykazuje, że inicjatywy realizowane w przestrzeni postindustrialnej mają wiele cech odmiennych od tradycyjnych przedsięwzięć kulturalnych. Rozbieżności tego typu implikują odmienny typ zarządzania placówką, wymagający zrozumienia zmian społecznych zachodzących w ostatnich latach.
Fabryka inicjatyw, kopalnia pomysłów – wykorzystywanie obiektów postindustrialnych w działalności kulturalnej jako impuls do twórczego zarządzania Małgorzata Ćwikła
zmiany, jakie zaszły w podejściu do dyscypliny zarządzania kulturą. Wychodząc od analizy książki Richarda Floridy Powstanie klasy twórczej, autorka zwraca uwagę na dualistyczny, akademicki i menedżerski, charakter zarządzania kulturą. Seeman określa podstawowe cele i efekty niezbędne podczas planowania strategii kulturalnej miasta oraz opisuje zjawisko aktywizacji społecznej i chęć czynnego uczestnictwa mieszkańców w tworzeniu atmosfery kulturalnej miast, dostrzega potęgę twórczego myślenia oraz znaczącą rolę świadomych użytkowników procesu humanizacji miast.
Posługując się ujęciem systemowym, autor przedstawia propozycję ustalenia zakresu i przedmiotu zarządzania mediami, reguł nim rządzących, nakreśla problemy, jakie zarządzanie napotyka i konstruuje możliwe ich rozwiązania. Wychodząc z założenia, że dobro medialne jest specyficznym typem dobra rynkowego, autor przedstawia podstawowe funkcje mediów, sięga do teorii dualizmu mediów (dóbr i usług) R. Picarda i modyfikuje ją proponując trójpodział rynku medialnego. Nierenberg przedstawia również historię nauki o zarządzaniu oraz o zarządzaniu mediami, konstruuje model kształcenia w tej dziedzinie, zakreśla pola, jakie powinny być eksplorowane przez badaczy zajmujących się tą tematyką oraz wyznacza kurs, który muszą obrać same media.
Zarządzanie mediami w ujęciu systemowym Bogusław Nierenberg
Tekst porusza zagadnienie braku specjalistów w dziedzinie zarządzania kulturą, legitymujących się usystematyzowaną wiedzą. Za przyczyny takiego stanu rzeczy autor uznał brak konkretnego profilu zawodowego, a co za tym idzie brak odpowiedniego systemu kształcenia menedżerów kultury. Berzins postuluje poszukiwanie nowych rozwiązań edukacyjnych z wykorzystaniem możliwości, jakie dają nowoczesne technologie.
Główne aspekty kształcenia w zakresie zarządzania muzyką Ivars BērziņŠ
Autor rozpatruje zagadnienie autorytetu animatora kultury na dwóch płaszczyznach: rzeczywistości praktycznej i refleksji teoretycznej. Wychodząc od samego pojęcia autorytetu (wedle socjologów w teoriach wpływu i teoriach władzy, pedagogów), Kargul wskazuje kilka płaszczyzn, w których można wyodrębnić specyficzne cechy decydujące o doniosłości działalności animatora kultury. W przestrzeni społecznej (gdzie tworzone są więzi społeczne), publicznej (w której zdobywa się dominującą pozycję oraz kontrolę nad dobrami i zasobami publicznymi) oraz instytucjonalnej (w której dokonuje się utrwalanie reguł działania) animatorzy spełniają różne, choć bardzo często komplementarne, role społeczne.
Autorytet animatora kultury Józef Kargul
310
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Levan Khetaguri
Trzeci wymiar
Tekst jest próbą ustalenia kategorii, wedle których człowiek postrzega samego siebie oraz jest pytaniem o wymiar ludzkiego istnienia. Autor konstruuje tezę, która mówi o tym, że świat złożony jest z trzech wymiarów: życia realnego, marzeń sennych oraz religii, a ich współistnienie powoduje, że nie jest możliwe zbadanie świata za pomocą dotychczasowych narzędzi, takich jak postmodernizm czy neointelektualizm. Przeniesienie istnienia na płaszczyznę wirtualną spowodowało powstanie cyberświata, który rządzi się odmiennymi prawami niż dotychczasowa rzeczywistość i posiada niebagatelny wpływ na kształt sztuki. Khetaguri odnajduje odzwierciedlenie życia w tej dziedzinie sztuki, jaką jest teatr, którego odrealnienie wyraża cyfryzację świata i jego głęboki mistycyzm.
Tekst jest próbą ustalenia kategorii, wedle których człowiek postrzega samego siebie oraz jest pytaniem o wymiar ludzkiego istnienia. Autor konstruuje tezę, która mówi o tym, że świat złożony jest z trzech wymiarów: życia realnego, marzeń sennych oraz religii, a ich współistnienie powoduje, że nie jest możliwe zbadanie świata za pomocą dotychczasowych narzędzi, takich jak postmodernizm czy neointelektualizm. Przeniesienie istnienia na płaszczyznę wirtualną spowodowało powstanie cyberświata, który rządzi się odmiennymi prawami niż dotychczasowa rzeczywistość i posiada niebagatelny wpływ na kształt sztuki. Khetaguri odnajduje odzwierciedlenie życia w tej dziedzinie sztuki, jaką jest teatr, którego odrealnienie wyraża cyfryzację świata i jego głęboki mistycyzm.
Trzeci wymiar
Levan Khetaguri rozwiązanie problemu socjalnego bezpieczeństwa twórców kultury, elementarną edukację w dziedzinie kultury aktualnej. 310
Zarządzanie Kulturą 2010, nr 3 (3)
Jan Sowa
Artykuł jest próbą ustosunkowania się do tzw. raportu i planu Hausnera, przygotowanych przez urzędników i specjalistów z okazji Kongresu Kultury w 2009 roku oraz sejmowego wystąpienia ministra kultury i sztuki Bohdana Zdrojewskiego (styczeń 2010). Autor odsłania i poddaje krytyce kilka tez, które niewyrażone bezpośrednio, wynikają z raportu. Koncentrowanie się na finansowaniu i promocji kultury oraz potrzeba rozwoju edukacji artystycznej, zawarte w exposé ministra, wraz z postulatami sformułowanymi przez Hausnera, stanowią dla Sowy punkt wyjścia do stworzenia manifestu, będącego spisem niezbędnych zmian w zarządzaniu kulturą, takich jak likwidacja centralnego modelu zarządzania kulturą, utworzenie społecznych rad do spraw kultury i sztuki, równouprawnienie pod względem prawnym różnych form własności intelektualnej, zwiększenie finansowania ze środków publicznych działalności o charakterze eksperymentalnym,
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej
Rewolucja kulturalna – tak, ale jaka? O możliwych kierunkach polskiej polityki kulturalnej
rozwiązanie problemu socjalnego bezpieczeństwa twórców kultury, elementarną edukację w dziedzinie kultury aktualnej.
Artykuł jest próbą ustosunkowania się do tzw. raportu i planu Hausnera, przygotowanych przez urzędników i specjalistów z okazji Kongresu Kultury w 2009 roku oraz sejmowego wystąpienia ministra kultury i sztuki Bohdana Zdrojewskiego (styczeń 2010). Autor odsłania i poddaje krytyce kilka tez, które niewyrażone bezpośrednio, wynikają z raportu. Koncentrowanie się na finansowaniu i promocji kultury oraz potrzeba rozwoju edukacji artystycznej, zawarte w exposé ministra, wraz z postulatami sformułowanymi przez Hausnera, stanowią dla Sowy punkt wyjścia do stworzenia manifestu, będącego spisem niezbędnych zmian w zarządzaniu kulturą, takich jak likwidacja centralnego modelu zarządzania kulturą, utworzenie społecznych rad do spraw kultury i sztuki, równouprawnienie pod względem prawnym różnych form własności intelektualnej, zwiększenie finansowania ze środków publicznych działalności o charakterze eksperymentalnym,
Jan Sowa
Zapraszamy do naszej księgarni internetowej: www.attyka.net.pl W NUMERZE 1:
CONTENTS:
INHALT:
SPIS TREŚCI:
3HWHU %HQGL[HQ Pragmatics of culture management. Guidelines for shaping professional curricula
3HWHU %HQGL[HQ Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme
3HWHU %HQGL[HQ Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Plan budowy profesjonalnych programów studiów
%RJXVĄDZ 1LHUHQEHUJ Economic premises of culture management
.DWDU]\QD .RSHÉ Knowledge management in non-profit organizations: case study of Villa Decius Association
)UDQFLV]HN =LHMND To save national mementoes for future generations... On the social movement of monument renovation in Kraków in the 19th century 'RURWD ,OF]XN Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities -DQ 6DGNLHZLF] The historical policy in Poland. Theory – practice – a public discussion
W NUMERZE 2:
/HYDQ .KHWDJXUL Cultural policy and Georgia 2OJD ăXNRZVND Art in the context of the Ukrainian cultural space in the second half of the 20th century
%RJXVĄDZ 1LHUHQEHUJ Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung
.DWDU]\QD .RSHÉ Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie
)UDQFLV]HN =LHMND Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh. 'RURWD ,OF]XN Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden
-DQ 6DGNLHZLF] Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs /HYDQ .KHWDJXUL Kulturelle Politik und Georgien
%RJXVĄDZ 1LHUHQEHUJ Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą
.DWDU]\QD .RSHÉ Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – Studium przypadku
)UDQFLV]HN =LHMND Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku 'RURWD ,OF]XN Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych -DQ 6DGNLHZLF] Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny /HYDQ .KHWDJXUL Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja 2OJD ăXNRZVND Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku
Numer 1 – format 204 x 264 mm, 320 ss.
BELGRADE / GOERLITZ / KRAKOW / TBILISI / RĪGA / WIEN
Peter Bendixen Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Plan budowy profesjonalnych programów studiów l Bogusław Nierenberg Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą l Katarzyna Kopeć Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – Studium przypadku l Franciszek Ziejka Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku l Dorota Ilczuk Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych l Jan Sadkiewicz Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny l Levan Khetaguri Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja l Olga Łukowska Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku l Marta Materska-Samek Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii) l Olga Łukowska Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki l Michał Zawadzki O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu 0DUWD 0DWHUVND 6DPHN The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway
2OJD ăXNRZVND Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts 0LFKDĄ =DZDG]NL A need for auto-criticism in management sciences
2OJD ăXNRZVND Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jhs. 0DUWD 0DWHUVND 6DPHN Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens
2OJD ăXNRZVND Hauptrichtungen und Wesen von Tätigkeiten des Lemberger Kunstpalastes 0LFKDĄ =DZDG]NL Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Managementlehre
ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6
0DUWD 0DWHUVND 6DPHN Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii) 2OJD ăXNRZVND Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki
0LFKDĄ =DZDG]NL O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu
6(0, $118$/ 0$*$=,1( <($5 ,, 92/ dz +$/%-$+5(66&+5,)7 -* +()7 dz 3 ă52&=1,. 52. ,, =(6=<7
Bendixen O filozoficznych fundamentach teorii zarządzania kulturą l Bērziņš Transformacja instytucjonalna oraz decentralizacja jako nowe ujęcie i ustrukturyzowanie relacji na płaszczyznach decyzyjnych l Boytsova Dziedzictwo Obwodu Kaliningradzkiego – szanse i problemy l Buß Wizerunek i reputacja. Podstawy komunikacji przedsiębiorstwa l Cvetkovic Reforma serbskich muzeów poprzez projekty związane ze sztuką l Dragojevic Definicje polityki kulturalnej l Jankovic Festiwale jako inwestycja w przyszłość społeczeństwa serbskiego l Kreck Czy teatry powinny być opodatkowane? l Lück Sprawozdanie z sympozjum „Kultura miejska. Strategie polityki kulturalnej w Europie Środkowej“ l Mandel Wykształcenie w zakresie zarządzania kulturą w szkołach wyższych – między wymogami teorii a potrzebami praktyki l Medvedchuk Modele polityki kulturalnej a rodzaje uczestnictwa państwa w polityce kulturalnej: propozycje klasyfikacji l Nölling Dobro kultury czy kultura jako dobro – rozważania w ujęciu ekonomicznym l Osmolowska Podstawowe problemy rozwoju trzeciego sektora w sferze kultury w Republice Białorusi
CULTURE MANAGEMENT KULTURMANAGEMENT ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ
Peter Bendixen Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Plan budowy profesjonalnych programów studiów l Bogusław Nierenberg Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą l Katarzyna Kopeć Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – Studium przypadku l Franciszek Ziejka Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku l Dorota Ilczuk Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych l Jan Sadkiewicz Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny l Levan Khetaguri Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja l Olga Łukowska Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku l Marta Materska-Samek Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii) l Olga Łukowska Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki l Michał Zawadzki O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu ISBN 978-83-62139-02-6
0LFKDĄ =DZDG]NL A need for auto-criticism in management sciences
2OJD ăXNRZVND Main directions and character of activity of the Lvov Palace of Arts 0DUWD 0DWHUVND 6DPHN The conditions influencing the development of local cinemas on the example of Poland and Norway
W NUMERZE 2:
2OJD ăXNRZVND Art in the context of the Ukrainian cultural space in the second half of the 20th century /HYDQ .KHWDJXUL Cultural policy and Georgia -DQ 6DGNLHZLF] The historical policy in Poland. Theory – practice – a public discussion 'RURWD ,OF]XN Festivals in Europe. The policy of public authorities
0LFKDĄ =DZDG]NL Über die Notwendigkeit der Selbstkritik in der Managementlehre
2OJD ăXNRZVND Hauptrichtungen und Wesen von Tätigkeiten des Lemberger Kunstpalastes 0DUWD 0DWHUVND 6DPHN Bedingtheiten der Entwicklung von lokalen Kinos am Beispiel Polens und Norwegens
2OJD ăXNRZVND Kunst im Kontext des kulturellen Raumes der Ukraine in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jhs. /HYDQ .KHWDJXUL Kulturelle Politik und Georgien
-DQ 6DGNLHZLF] Historische Politik in Polen. Theorie – Praxis – Öffentlicher Diskurs 'RURWD ,OF]XN Festivals in Europa. Politik der öffentlichen Behörden )UDQFLV]HN =LHMND Nationale Andenken für die Nachkommen bewahren... Über die soziale Bewegung für der Erneuerung der Denkmäler in Kraków im 19. Jh.
0LFKDĄ =DZDG]NL O potrzebie autokrytyki w naukach o zarządzaniu 2OJD ăXNRZVND Główne kierunki i charakter działalności Lwowskiego Pałacu Sztuki
0DUWD 0DWHUVND 6DPHN Uwarunkowania rozwoju kin lokalnych (na przykładzie Polski i Norwegii) 2OJD ăXNRZVND Sztuka w kontekście kulturalnej przestrzeni Ukrainy w drugiej połowie XX wieku /HYDQ .KHWDJXUL Polityka kulturalna i Gruzja -DQ 6DGNLHZLF] Polityka historyczna w Polsce. Teoria – praktyka – dyskurs publiczny 'RURWD ,OF]XN Festiwale w Europie. Polityka władz publicznych
Bendixen O filozoficznych fundamentach teorii zarządzania kulturą l Bērziņš Transformacja instytucjonalna oraz decentralizacja jako nowe ujęcie i ustrukturyzowanie relacji na płaszczyznach decyzyjnych l Boytsova Dziedzictwo Obwodu Kaliningradzkiego – szanse i problemy l Buß Wizerunek i reputacja. Podstawy komunikacji przedsiębiorstwa l Cvetkovic Reforma serbskich muzeów poprzez projekty związane ze sztuką l Dragojevic Definicje polityki kulturalnej l Jankovic Festiwale jako inwestycja w przyszłość społeczeństwa serbskiego l Kreck Czy teatry powinny być opodatkowane? l Lück Sprawozdanie z sympozjum „Kultura miejska. Strategie polityki kulturalnej w Europie Środkowej“ l Mandel Wykształcenie w zakresie zarządzania kulturą w szkołach wyższych – między wymogami teorii a potrzebami praktyki l Medvedchuk Modele polityki kulturalnej a rodzaje uczestnictwa państwa w polityce kulturalnej: propozycje klasyfikacji l Nölling Dobro kultury czy kultura jako dobro – rozważania w ujęciu ekonomicznym l Osmolowska Podstawowe problemy rozwoju trzeciego sektora w sferze kultury w Republice Białorusi )UDQFLV]HN =LHMND To save national mementoes for future generations... On the social movement of monument renovation in Kraków in the 19th century .DWDU]\QD .RSHÉ Knowledge management in non-profit organizations: case study of Villa Decius Association %RJXVĄDZ 1LHUHQEHUJ Economic premises of culture management
.DWDU]\QD .RSHÉ Wissensmanagement in den Non-Profit-Organisationen am Beispiel des Vereins Villa Decius (Stowarzyszenie Willa Decjusza) – Die Fallstudie %RJXVĄDZ 1LHUHQEHUJ Ökonomische Prämissen der Kulturverwaltung
)UDQFLV]HN =LHMND Ocalić dla potomnych narodowe pamiątki... O społecznym ruchu odnowy zabytków w Krakowie w XIX wieku .DWDU]\QD .RSHÉ Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacjach non-profit na przykładzie Stowarzyszenia Willa Decjusza – Studium przypadku %RJXVĄDZ 1LHUHQEHUJ Ekonomiczne przesłanki zarządzania kulturą
3HWHU %HQGL[HQ Pragmatyka zarządzania kulturą. Plan budowy profesjonalnych programów studiów
3HWHU %HQGL[HQ Pragmatik des Kulturmanagements. Ein Bauplan für professionelle Studienprogramme
3HWHU %HQGL[HQ Pragmatics of culture management. Guidelines for shaping professional curricula
SPIS TREŚCI:
INHALT:
CONTENTS:
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CULTURE MANAGEMENT KULTURMANAGEMENT ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ
Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz Wydawnictwo Attyka przedstawiają pierwsze w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej pismo poświęcone szeroko pojętym zagadnieniom zarządzania w kulturze. Wydawany w Krakowie półrocznik „Culture Management/Kulturmanagement/Zarządzanie Kulturą” to periodyk trójjęzyczny – każdy artykuł publikowany jest w pełnej wersji w języku angielskim, niemieckim oraz polskim. Projekt realizowany na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim wspólnie z: l Akademią Sztuk Pięknych w Belgradzie l Saksońskim Instytutem Infrastruktury Kulturalnej w Görlitz l Łotewską Akademią Kultury w Rydze l Uniwersytetem Yeditepe w Stambule l Państwowym Uniwersytetem Sztuki Teatralnej i Filmowej im. Szoty Rustawelego w Tbilisi l Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte“ w Wiedniu
CULTURE MANAGEMENT KULTURMANAGEMENT ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ 6(0, $118$/ 0$*$=,1( <($5 ,, 92/ dz +$/%-$+5(66&+5,)7 -* +()7 dz 3 ă52&=1,. 52. ,, =(6=<7
Numer 2 – format 204 x 264 mm, 328 ss.
Zapraszamy do naszej księgarni internetowej: www.attyka.net.pl
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CULTURE MANAGEMENT KULTURMANAGEMENT ZARZĄDZANIE KULTURĄ BELGRADE / GOERLITZ / KRAKOW / TBILISI / RĪGA / WIEN
Numer 1 – format 204 x 264 mm, 320 ss.
W NUMERZE 1:
Katedra Zarządzania Kulturą Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego oraz Wydawnictwo Attyka przedstawiają pierwsze w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej pismo poświęcone szeroko pojętym zagadnieniom zarządzania w kulturze. Wydawany w Krakowie półrocznik „Culture Management/Kulturmanagement/Zarządzanie Kulturą” to periodyk trójjęzyczny – każdy artykuł publikowany jest w pełnej wersji w języku angielskim, niemieckim oraz polskim. Projekt realizowany na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim wspólnie z: l Akademią Sztuk Pięknych w Belgradzie l Saksońskim Instytutem Infrastruktury Kulturalnej w Görlitz l Łotewską Akademią Kultury w Rydze l Uniwersytetem Yeditepe w Stambule l Państwowym Uniwersytetem Sztuki Teatralnej i Filmowej im. Szoty Rustawelego w Tbilisi Centrum Studiów „Hohe Warte“ w Wiedniu l
Wydawnictwo Attyka l Kraków l tel. 12 623 10 18 l e-mail: biuro@attyka.net.pl HELENA
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Zbiór tekstów jednego z najwybitniejszych specjalistów w dziedzinie zarządzania kulturą w Polsce, twórcy Szkoły Zarządzania Kulturą UJ oraz Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ (obecnie prof. dr hab. Emil Orzechowski kieruje Katedrą Zarządzania Kulturą w Instytucie Kultury UJ). Zebrane w tomie artykuły obejmują nie tylko przykłady rozwiązań i dobrych praktyk w poszczególnych obszarach, ale prezentują katalog działań, których podjęcie jest nieodzowne dla stworzenia systemowych rozwiązań w dziedzinie efektywnego zarządzania kulturą oraz szkolnictwem wyższym.
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REFERATY
format 164x236 mm l stron 236 l oprawa twarda l ISBN 978-83-62139-03-3
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Zbiór tekstów jednego z najwybitniejszych specjalistów w dziedzinie zarządzania kulturą w Polsce, twórcy Szkoły Zarządzania Kulturą UJ oraz Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ (obecnie prof. dr hab. Emil Orzechowski kieruje Katedrą Zarządzania Kulturą w Instytucie Kultury UJ). Zebrane w tomie artykuły obejmują nie tylko przykłady rozwiązań i dobrych praktyk w poszczególnych obszarach, ale prezentują katalog działań, których podjęcie jest nieodzowne dla stworzenia systemowych rozwiązań w dziedzinie efektywnego zarządzania kulturą oraz szkolnictwem wyższym.
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W serii BIBLIOTEKA zarządzania kulturą ukazały się następujące pozycje:
Danuta Glondys Europejska Stolica Kultury. Miejsce kultury w polityce Unii Europejskiej Publikacja jest próbą połączenia idei kultury z dyskursem politycznym i praktyką działań na platformie europejskiej, a jej przedmiotem jest prezentacja i analiza miejsca kultury w polityce Unii oraz programu Europejska Stolica Kultury. Ten wyjątkowy program, realizowany od 25 lat, stał się nie tylko manifestacją bogactwa kultury europejskiej, zbiorem festiwali, działań edukacyjnych i promocyjnych, ale ma też swoją wagę polityczną i społeczną: utrwala te wartości cywilizacji europejskiej, które odnoszą się zarówno do kulturotwórczej roli miast, jak i do idei Europy regionów. Zainteresowanie kulturą europejską i programem Europejska Stolica Kultury jest ogromne w całej Europie. Jednak zarówno zdobycie tytułu, jak i dostęp do materiałów źródłowych i dokumentów związanych z kolejnymi edycjami programu są – z różnych powodów – bardzo trudne. Bezpośredni udział Autorki w przygotowaniu i realizacji projektu Kraków 2000 – Europejskie Miasto Kultury oraz trwająca od 2007 roku jej współpraca z Komisją Europejską, gdzie jako ekspert z ramienia Parlamentu Europejskiego ocenia aplikacje i monitoruje przygotowania do obchodów Europejskich Stolic Kultury lat 2009–2017, umożliwiły stworzenie unikatowej na rynku europejskim i pierwszej w Polsce naukowej pracy poświęconej programowi Europejska Stolica Kultury.
format 160x228 mm l stron 224 l ISBN 978-83-62139-06-4
Danuta Glondys Kraków 2000 Europejskie Miasto Kultury. Summa Factorum Książka jest próbą historycznego zapisu wydarzeń, opartego na europejskich regulacjach prawnych, kopiach urzędowych dokumentów oraz obserwacji uczestniczącej w przygotowaniu aplikacji o tytuł Europejskiego Miasta Kultury, a następnie realizacji programu Kraków 2000, zarówno na platformie europejskiej, jak i naszej lokalnej, krakowskiej…
format 160x228 mm l stron 178 l ISBN 978-83-62139-11-8
Joanna Szulborska-Łukaszewicz Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie Lektura obowiązkowa dla wszystkich pracowników administracji sektora publicznego, mających jakikolwiek związek z funkcjonowaniem, planowaniem działalności, finansowaniem, stymulowaniem rozwoju samorządowych instytucji kultury. Autorka – wieloletni pracownik administracji samorządowej – zebrała imponujący zbiór danych i informacji, pozwalających prześledzić kierunki zmian oraz wyzwania stojące przed nowocześnie pojętą sferą administracji publicznej format 160x228 mm l stron 412 l ISBN 978-83-926248-9-9
Polskie życie teatralne w Rosji w latach 1882–1905 Polskie życie teatralne w Rosji, a zwłaszcza jego początki, to temat w badaniach historyczno-kulturowych poruszany niezmiernie rzadko. A przecież dzieje teatralnego życia Polaków w Rosji stanowią nie tylko znaczny fragment artystycznych poczynań naszych rodaków, ale są również cząstką historii Polonii i historii teatru polskiego w ogóle, mówią o sposobie pojmowania patriotyzmu w czasach zaborów, dają świadectwo walki o zachowanie polskości, zdają relację ze stosunków polsko-rosyjskich, nastawienia władz carskich, prasy i publiczności względem Polaków. Występy w Rosji to ponadto bardzo często początki wspaniałych karier aktorskich i reżyserskich. To również świadomość krzewienia kultury i tradycji polskiej. )3".
format 160x228 mm l stron 284 l ISBN 978-83-926248-3-7
Zapraszamy do naszej księgarni internetowej: www.attyka.net.pl
Polskie Zycie teatralne w Rosji w latach 1882–1905
Alicja Kędziora
Alicja Kędziora – doktor nauk humanistycznych, absolwentka polonistyki i teatrologii UJ, asystent w Instytucie Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Tytuł doktora uzyskała w 2007 roku w oparciu o rozprawę dotyczącą polskiego życia teatralnego w Rosji w latach 1882 – 1905. Autorka kilku publikacji poświęconych temu tematowi (Teatr Polski w Petersburgu w 1882 – 1893 wieku, Środowisko teatralne polskiej kolonii w Petersburgu w drugiej połowie XIX wieku, Dyrektor teatru w XIX wieku. Modele zarządzania teatrem na przykładzie występów gościnnych Teatru Łódzkiego w Petersburgu). Współautorka skryptu do nauczania języka polskiego jako obcego (Materiały do nauczania języka polskiego dla studentów zagranicznych CM UJ). Obecnie, na podstawie kilkumiesięcznej kwerendy przeprowadzonej w Stanach Zjednoczonych, zajmuje się opracowywaniem niepublikowanych materiałów dotyczących Heleny Modrzejewskiej i przygotowaniem archiwum dokumentującym życie i twórczość aktorki.
Alicja KEdziora
Polskie Zycie teatralne w Rosji w latach 1882–1905 ")",)/4%+! ZARZ DZANIA KULTUR
Zapraszamy do naszej księgarni internetowej: www.attyka.net.pl format 160x228 mm l stron 284 l ISBN 978-83-926248-3-7
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Polskie życie teatralne w Rosji, a zwłaszcza jego początki, to temat w badaniach historyczno-kulturowych poruszany niezmiernie rzadko. A przecież dzieje teatralnego życia Polaków w Rosji stanowią nie tylko znaczny fragment artystycznych poczynań naszych rodaków, ale są również cząstką historii Polonii i historii teatru polskiego w ogóle, mówią o sposobie pojmowania patriotyzmu w czasach zaborów, dają świadectwo walki o zachowanie polskości, zdają relację ze stosunków polsko-rosyjskich, nastawienia władz carskich, prasy i publiczności względem Polaków. Występy w Rosji to ponadto bardzo często początki wspaniałych karier aktorskich i reżyserskich. To również świadomość krzewienia kultury i tradycji polskiej. Alicja Kędziora – doktor nauk humanistycznych, absolwentka polonistyki i teatrologii UJ, asystent w Instytucie Kultury Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej UJ. Tytuł doktora uzyskała w 2007 roku w oparciu o rozprawę dotyczącą polskiego życia teatralnego w Rosji w latach 1882 – 1905. Autorka kilku publikacji poświęconych temu tematowi (Teatr Polski w Petersburgu w 1882 – 1893 wieku, Środowisko teatralne polskiej kolonii w Petersburgu w drugiej połowie XIX wieku, Dyrektor teatru w XIX wieku. Modele zarządzania teatrem na przykładzie występów gościnnych Teatru Łódzkiego w Petersburgu). Współautorka skryptu do nauczania języka polskiego jako obcego (Materiały do nauczania języka polskiego dla studentów zagranicznych CM UJ). Obecnie, na podstawie kilkumiesięcznej kwerendy przeprowadzonej w Stanach Zjednoczonych, zajmuje się opracowywaniem niepublikowanych materiałów dotyczących Heleny Modrzejewskiej i przygotowaniem archiwum dokumentującym życie i twórczość aktorki.
Polskie życie teatralne w Rosji w latach 1882–1905 Alicja Kędziora
format 160x228 mm l stron 412 l ISBN 978-83-926248-9-9 Lektura obowiązkowa dla wszystkich pracowników administracji sektora publicznego, mających jakikolwiek związek z funkcjonowaniem, planowaniem działalności, finansowaniem, stymulowaniem rozwoju samorządowych instytucji kultury. Autorka – wieloletni pracownik administracji samorządowej – zebrała imponujący zbiór danych i informacji, pozwalających prześledzić kierunki zmian oraz wyzwania stojące przed nowocześnie pojętą sferą administracji publicznej
Polityka kulturalna w Krakowie Joanna Szulborska-Łukaszewicz format 160x228 mm l stron 178 l ISBN 978-83-62139-11-8 Książka jest próbą historycznego zapisu wydarzeń, opartego na europejskich regulacjach prawnych, kopiach urzędowych dokumentów oraz obserwacji uczestniczącej w przygotowaniu aplikacji o tytuł Europejskiego Miasta Kultury, a następnie realizacji programu Kraków 2000, zarówno na platformie europejskiej, jak i naszej lokalnej, krakowskiej…
Danuta Glondys Kraków 2000 Europejskie Miasto Kultury. Summa Factorum format 160x228 mm l stron 224 l ISBN 978-83-62139-06-4 Publikacja jest próbą połączenia idei kultury z dyskursem politycznym i praktyką działań na platformie europejskiej, a jej przedmiotem jest prezentacja i analiza miejsca kultury w polityce Unii oraz programu Europejska Stolica Kultury. Ten wyjątkowy program, realizowany od 25 lat, stał się nie tylko manifestacją bogactwa kultury europejskiej, zbiorem festiwali, działań edukacyjnych i promocyjnych, ale ma też swoją wagę polityczną i społeczną: utrwala te wartości cywilizacji europejskiej, które odnoszą się zarówno do kulturotwórczej roli miast, jak i do idei Europy regionów. Zainteresowanie kulturą europejską i programem Europejska Stolica Kultury jest ogromne w całej Europie. Jednak zarówno zdobycie tytułu, jak i dostęp do materiałów źródłowych i dokumentów związanych z kolejnymi edycjami programu są – z różnych powodów – bardzo trudne. Bezpośredni udział Autorki w przygotowaniu i realizacji projektu Kraków 2000 – Europejskie Miasto Kultury oraz trwająca od 2007 roku jej współpraca z Komisją Europejską, gdzie jako ekspert z ramienia Parlamentu Europejskiego ocenia aplikacje i monitoruje przygotowania do obchodów Europejskich Stolic Kultury lat 2009–2017, umożliwiły stworzenie unikatowej na rynku europejskim i pierwszej w Polsce naukowej pracy poświęconej programowi Europejska Stolica Kultury.
Danuta Glondys Europejska Stolica Kultury. Miejsce kultury w polityce Unii Europejskiej BIBLIOTEKA zarządzania kulturą
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Polskie Zycie teatralne w Rosji w latach 1882–1905
BIBLIOTEKA zarządzania kulturą
w latach 1882–1905
Polskie Zycie teatralne w Rosji Alicja KEdziora